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"Sporting practices and their associated subcultures have to be conceptualised as possessing a unique nature that allows them to function independently of the societal context within which they exist , if it is to be argued that they bear no relation whatsoever to the social construction of masculine ideals . This is because masculine ideals are created and shaped by the society in which they are located , yet they also affect the natures of the institutions and cultural forces that influence them . This essay is concerned with tracing the historical construction of sport , and with assessing the relationship ( if any ) in contemporary society between sporting practices , masculine ideals , and the dominant cultural and institutional forces of modern society in order to evaluate whether or not sporting practices are related to the social construction of masculine ideals . This essay will argue that sporting practices are intimately bound up with the social construction of masculine ideals , and that the relationship between sport and society provides crucial insights into the other societal forces that contribute to the forms these ideals take . A central concept that will be employed throughout will be the concept of hegemonic masculinity . Masculine ideals as they exist in contemporary society will be conceptualised throughout the essay as forming the analytical tool that is hegemonic masculinity . masculinity can be described as occupying the dominant position in the gender order of society ; this is very different to a conventional patriarchal view of society that argues all men are dominant over all women . Rather , the concept of hegemonic masculinity and the gender order proposes that the dominant force in gender relations is a particular kind of masculinity that has developed cultural primacy ; consequently , all alternative masculinities and all femininities are subordinated and become involved in a dynamic relationship in which the power of the hegemonic masculinity has to adapt and evolve in order to retain its dominance . Therefore , this essay will attempt to deconstruct the concept of hegemonic masculinity into some of its constituent masculine ideals through discussing the role of sporting practices in ensuring the dominance of males over females ; reinforcing the normality of heterosexuality ; marginalising black males ; and in emphasising the importance of physical prowess in order to show how sporting practices contribute to the stability of hegemonic masculinity itself . The essay begins , however , with an evaluation of perspectives that argue the development of institutionalised sporting practices was unaffected by issues of masculinity . The development of sporting practices in th has been conceptualised as reflecting the wider social transformations that have come to characterise modern society . It has been argued that modern sport shares the characteristics of modern society ; in terms , sport is bureaucratised , secular , structured by rules and regulations , and can therefore be described as rational ; in terms , sport is capitalist , specialised , quantified , defined by a distinction between work and leisure , and is consequently seen as bourgeois ( , cited in in Messner and Sabo , ; ) . Alternatively , the opposite has been argued . Although sport appears rationalised , it is essentially the institutionalisation of play , and is consequently irrational and purposeless , which means it has developed as an alternative to the forces of modernity ( even if the institutional form that it takes is modern ) . has described sport as having its "" roots in the dark soil of our instinctive lives "" but that the form it takes is "" dictated by modern society "" ( , cited in in Messner and Sabo , ; ) . Throughout these descriptions a connection between masculinity and the development of institutionalised sport has been ignored . The justification for the exclusion of issues of masculine ideals is derived from the belief that the th concept of ' manliness ' ( which can be interpreted as embodying the masculine ideals of the period , and which was of central importance to the participants of sporting practices ) was a ' confused moral concept ' that embraced such contradictions as aggression and ruthlessness alongside compassion for the defeated ; consequently manliness has been viewed as a front for nationalism and class cohesion ( cited in in and ; ; ) . However , this perspective can not explain how international competitions expanded upon already existing sporting institutions , and that class segregation was less prominent when sport was initially institutionalised ( in Messner and Sabo , ; ) . Similarly , the perspective that sport is essentially irrational can not explain how it has developed into a major social institution in an era that has witnessed increasing rationality ( ) . Therefore , although the and characterisations of sporting institutions are n't altogether inaccurate they need to be expanded to accommodate the influence of a gender ideology ( of which ' manliness ' formed a crucial part ) upon the development of institutions in modern society ( ) . endeavoured to show how the public schools were a pivotal institution in disseminating the gender ideology , and his evidence for this shall now be discussed . convincingly described the mutually reinforcing relationship between sport in public schools and the emerging gender ideology of the th . argues that the economic developments of th resulted in a shift in power away from the aristocracy in favour of the bourgeoisie , and that the spread of liberal political theories which legitimised the ascendance of the bourgeoisie also increased the power of ( bourgeois ) women ( in Messner and Sabo , ; ) . However , by th men began to displace women from the positions of power they had acquired ( for example the male medical profession appropriated healthcare and midwifery and institutionally excluded women from positions of power ) , and they were able to do this because of the development of an ideology about the ' nature ' and ' roles ' of men and women ( ) . Pseudo - scientific justifications for the dominance of men over women became accepted as the truth , as "" almost without fail , experts related a woman 's fragility and inferiority to her genital organs "" ( ) . argues that the development of sport in public schools socialised men into accepting this ideology and defining themselves as biologically superior to women ( ) . He describes how athleticism was placed in the foreground and deemed necessary for the development of manly , muscular students ( ) . The importance of athleticism was intimately connected with the popular view of the effect of sex upon the male body ; sex and masturbation were perceived to make men suffer from exhaustion ( as manly energy was believed to reside in sperm , and men were seen to possess a finite amount ) and athletics helped to regenerate the body ( ) . Those men who were "" not in control of their passions "" ( typically those who were n't involved in athletics ) were labelled "" hysterical , sensitive and nervous "" which is significant as these were appellations commonly reserved exclusively for women ( ) . Therefore , without sport men were in danger of becoming womanlike , or "" delicate and degenerate "" ( ) . This shows that the development of institutionalised sport itself was predicated upon a societal ideology ( that it served to reinforce ) that sought to justify the masculine ideal of the dominance of men over women . Although sport as an institution has evolved beyond the th public schools and women are not institutionally excluded from ( most ) sporting spheres , women are still marginal figures in contemporary sport , and this shall now be explored . The marginalisation of women in contemporary sporting spheres is made possible because of structural inequalities within sport itself , and because of the predominant societal perception that grants ' male sport ' higher social esteem . The organisational bodies that govern most sports ( even those where the majority of the athletes are female ) are typically dominated by men ( Bryson , ; ) . Similarly , institutions that are linked to sport such as sports journalism and corporations ( involved in sponsorship ) are conventionally male dominated spheres ( ) . Even when women do become professional athletes their achievements ( and ' women 's sport ' in general ) are largely ignored by the media and consequently receive very little attention or esteem ( ) . When women are given media coverage it is often in terms of their identity outside of their profession , typically with regards to their relational , marital , or familial situations ( ) . The justification for this marginalisation of women is the same stereotypes that originated in the public schools ; namely that women are weaker and inferior to men and consequently their sport is less entertaining . Due to this contention there has been much discussion as to why women should n't compete with men in sports which rely on speed and strength ( ) . However , some sports rely on stamina and in other sports it is an advantage to be lighter , yet these sports in which women excel are excluded from the debate regarding sporting prowess , which shows this justification for marginalisation has an ideological nature ( ) . Therefore , contemporary sport influences the social construction of the masculine ideal of dominating women by ensuring that women are prevented from controlling how sporting institutions and organisational bodies are governed , which successfully negates any possibility that female athletes may use these institutions to re - shape the societal perception of ' female sport ' as inferior . Whilst it has been established that women are subordinate to men in sport , the nature of men as the oppressing group needs to be discussed . The portrayal of sporting practices in the media reveals how specific types of masculinity that form the ' hegemonic masculinity ' are glamorised and prioritised whilst other masculinities ( and the men who enact them ) are dismissed as deviant . The predominant image that emerges from the media representation of the male body is that a man should be muscular , athletic , powerful and healthy ( , ; ) . This perception emerges not only because of the extensive use of visual images of male athletes ( who embody these physical ideals ) but also because the male body exists at the intersection of sport , the media , and the consumer culture of society ( ) . Within contemporary society a culture has emerged that prioritises youth and beauty , and the portrayal of sportsmen in the media is part of the multiplicity of images and practices that individuals consume ( such as yoga classes and healthy eating ) in order to achieve these ideals ( ) . Therefore , the media representation of the male body shows how sport and the consumer culture are pivotal influences on the social construction of the hegemonic masculine ideal of physical prowess ( as males who do not possess physical prowess are dismissed as inferior through the application of such labels as ' wimp ' ) ( ) . Similarly , the masculine ideal of heterosexuality as the norm is reinforced by the media representation of sport . The depiction of homosexual male athletes is conspicuous largely because of its absence , and it can be argued that this is because there are comparatively few gay sportsmen ( ) . However , the relationship between the media and the dominant sporting culture of heterosexuality is more complex than this , as the media can be understood as actually creating this culture of heterosexuality through its obsession with "" the macho exploits of 's male athletes "" ( ) . Therefore , the media representation of the athletic male body and the normality of heterosexuality shows how sport is central to the social construction of these hegemonic masculine ideals as any alternative masculinities that do not feature in sport are labelled as inferior or ignored . The media representation of sport also contributes to the construction of the hegemonic masculine ideals of dominating women and the marginalisation of black men , and this relationship shall now be examined . The mediation of sporting practices ( particularly violent sports ) involves a complex and often contradictory relationship of identification and dissociation between male spectators from higher status backgrounds and the athletes themselves . The portrayal of sporting practices can be understood as naturalising the dominance of men over women , as media images of sport suppress the similarities between men and women and emphasise the differences , and then set about "" weaving a structure of symbols and interpretations "" around these differences to make them appear natural ( Messner in Messner and Sabo , ; ) . Consequently , a sense of identification develops between male spectators and the images of sportsmen they consume which means that men identify themselves as physically superior to women ; this sense of identification develops despite the fact that the majority of the male spectators are largely as physically dissimilar to professional male athletes as non - athlete females are ( ) . Conversely , the media representation of sporting practices also provides the male spectators with an image of a ' primitive other ' embodied in the male athlete against whom he can define himself as modern and civilised ( ) . This sense of dissociation develops because the media representations portray images of sportsmen as predominantly black ( and black men are historically associated with a notion of ' otherness ' ) . It can be argued that the overrepresentation of ethnic minorities in sporting spheres is the result of a rational decision made by nascent black athletes to pursue a sports career , as it offered the best possibility of developing a career that would provide economic security because young black men are institutionally excluded from educational and occupational opportunities ( ) . Therefore , media images of sporting practices serve to reinforce the hegemonic masculine ideals of dominating women and marginalising black men through portraying ' natural ' differences between men and women , and through depicting the black male body as an animalistic force . However , black men are not merely passive recipients of a racist social order , and their agency in relation to masculinity and sport shall now be elaborated . Through sporting practices black men have attempted to counteract the social invisibility imposed on them by an institutionally racist society , yet it is their acceptance of the ideals that compose hegemonic masculinity which ultimately ensures they do not affect the social order . Due to their exclusion from the educational and occupational institutions that confer social esteem on the individuals who have access to them , many black men channel their creative energies into constructing "" unique , expressive and conspicuous styles of speech , demeanour and walk etc "" ( a phenomenon that Majors calls the ' cool pose ' ) which offsets the invisibility they suffer due to their exclusion from the aforementioned institutions ( Majors in Messner and Sabo , ; ) . Consequently , many black men pursue sporting careers because they can express themselves through the "" virtuosity of a performance "" and this offers the most realistic route to achieving the goals of hegemonic masculinity ( such as being the breadwinner , having strength and dominating women ) ( ) . Therefore , the response of black males through their concentration on sport represents an adaptation to , not a submission to , the hegemonic masculinity . However , in spite of their adaptation , their actions invariably do not allow them to transcend their subordination to the hegemonic masculinity . Through accepting the ideals of hegemonic masculinity black men pursue sporting careers in a context that is constructed by the racist wider society . In focusing predominantly on sport , black men accept the educational under - representation that is fostered by educational institutions ; this is to their detriment as educational attainment is the principle route through which the ideals of hegemonic masculinity are realised and social power is attained ( ) . Even when black men do manage to become professional athletes , they are still confronted by institutionalised racism as there are remarkably few black managers or coaches in any sport , and the majority of sporting organisations are controlled by white males ( ) . Therefore , the participation of black males in sporting practices can be conceptualised as a response to the racism of the wider society , yet this response merely serves to reproduce the hegemonic masculine ideal of the marginalisation of black men , as it is predicated upon their acceptance of ideals that inevitably subordinate them . Although black athletes fulfil element of the hegemonic masculinity ( physical prowess ) , they are prevented from fulfilling other aspects ( such as becoming professionals ) ; this notion of contradiction is fundamental to the way hegemonic masculinity operates , and the role of sport in this process shall now be developed . The lives of professional sportsmen show how it is impossible to achieve all of the ideals that construct hegemonic masculinity , which therefore reveals how hegemonic masculinity operates in order to maintain its all encompassing dominance over the gender order . In his interview with ( a champion in the iron man sporting practice ) Connell asserts that is an exemplar of hegemonic masculinity , as the life he leads makes him the embodiment of the masculine ideals of "" competitiveness , toughness and physical capability "" ( Connell in Messner and Sabo , ; ) . However , 's testimony reveals that in order to maintain this status he has to sacrifice other masculine ideals that would jeopardise his physical performance , for example he ca n't "" go wild "" when he is socialising ( ) . Therefore , the representation of and other sporting heroes like him can be understood as the symbolic embodiment of the epitome of an ideal . This means that sporting heroes are the tangible symbols for some aspects of hegemonic masculinity , namely the primacy of physical prowess , the domination of women , and the marginalisation of ethnic minorities and homosexuals . However , the sportsmen are unable to fulfil other aspects of hegemonic masculinity because they are antagonistic with the ideals they symbolise . Consequently , the other masculine ideals that contribute to hegemonic masculinity have different , often directly oppositional , symbols : for every sporting hero there is a ' bad boy ' , hedonistic actor . Therefore , the existence of symbolic sporting heroes reveals that the hegemonic masculinity of which they form an integral part reproduces itself through the construction of a multiplicity of symbols that are often contradictory , yet always culturally exalted ; and this shows how sporting practices contribute to the societal perceptions of masculinity and the roles of men and women that permeate all of society . In this essay it has been shown that the views stating the development of sport was unrelated to the social construction of masculine ideals are inadequate because of the primacy awarded to ' manliness ' and athleticism in one of the major socialising institutions of the th Century . It was also argued that the institutional subordination of women in sport contributes to the hegemonic masculine ideal of the subordination of women in society . The media representation of sporting practices was depicted as disseminating a consumerist , sexist , racist and homophobic ideology in order to maintain the dominance of hegemonic masculinity . It was then shown how black men pursue sporting careers to counteract the racism of wider society , but that ultimately the pursuance of a sporting career ensures the societal marginalisation of black men . Finally it was shown that hegemonic masculinity is a multi - dimensional phenomenon and sporting heroes constitute exemplars for specific ideals that construct hegemonic masculinity . It therefore follows from the evidence presented here that sporting practices are not a unique , socially isolated sphere and consequently do bear a relation to the social construction of masculine ideals . Sporting practices interact with other major societal forces in modern society , such as the perception that scientific knowledge equates to ' the truth ' ( as displayed in the relationship between the gender ideology and the public schools in ) , or the prevalence of racism and consumerism , in order to socially construct hegemonic masculine ideals . Although sporting practices contribute to the social construction of the ideals that constitute hegemonic masculinity , it can be argued that the most important conclusion that can be drawn from an analysis of sporting practices and masculinity is that sporting heroes offer an insight into the way hegemonic masculinity structures the gender order of society in its entirety . masculinity is culturally exalted and stabilises a structure of dominance and subordination in the gender order as a whole , and in order to this it must have exemplars who are exalted as heroes . heroes as symbolic entities contribute to the vast network of images that cumulatively construct the societal perception of what a man should look like , or act like , or what the roles of men and women should be , which therefore means that sporting practices contribute to the social construction of characteristics that many individuals take for granted are part of our ' nature ' .","The model of the atom has electrons placed around the nucleus much like planets orbiting the sun in the heliocentric solar system . However , these electrons can only exist on set energy levels and not between orbits . Despite the model having many flaws , it has been considered a success and is still taught despite being proved incorrect . This essay shall show some of the flaws of the model as well as explain how it has become a success despite or because of these flaws . Prior to the Rutherford - Bohr models of the atom , came up with the idea of the plum pudding atom . This consisted of electrons and protons placed randomly within the atom much like a plum pudding , they were kept in place by the equilibrium of the magnetic repulsions and attractions , between each electron and photon . < , this was discredited by . Rutherford , along with and did an experiment , in which they fired high energy alpha particles at a sheet of gold foil . Rutherford placed a fluorescent screen around the foil that would detect the scattered alpha particles . As expected most particles simply travelled straight through the foil , however some were scattered at acute angles and a minute number even deflected straight back . This brought to the conclusion , that the atom was mainly made up of nothing , but had an area of dense mass in the middle , now known as the nucleus . He also deduced that this area must be positively charged as it deflected the positively charged alpha particles . He was therefore able to come to the conclusion that the negatively charged electrons must orbit around this nucleus , hence discrediting 's model . 's "" classical "" model of the atom , consisted of the positively charged nucleus in the middle , with the electrons placed on random orbits around the nucleus , much like in the heliocentric model of the solar system . However , the shortcomings of this model were obvious from the start , and were spotted by physicist , who was born in . realised that this classical model of an atom does not satisfy laws of quantum mechanics . If the electrons were to be spiralling around the nucleus , they would be accelerating centripetally , this would mean that the electrons would emit electro - magnetic waves , however this was not the case . More interesting , was that due to the acceleration the electrons would also lose energy and therefore velocity , this would mean the electrons would spiral in towards the centre of the atom , destroying it . came up with his own model of the atom , and it was the first which combines the quantum world of to the more classical model of the atom , as used by . 's model of the atom had electrons still orbiting the nucleus , but instead of being placed randomly , they could only exist on certain energy levels . This means that each electron has a certain set energy and therefore does n't emit radiation making it spiral into the nucleus . "" The ' stable ' orbits of the electrons correspond to certain fixed amounts of energy , each a multiple of the basic quantum , but there were no in - between orbits because they would require fractional amounts of energy "" . ( 1 ) . < figure/>In the model the electrons can be excited by the absorption of the light photon , which moves it up to a higher energy level . However , this makes the electron unstable due to a free space now in the lower level ( the ground state ) . Therefore the electron will fall back to the lower energy level , releasing energy in the form of a photon . The wavelength of this photon depends on the change in energy level which is different for each element . stated that electrons could be present in the inner orbit , with needed on the rest , if this value is not then the atom will be unstable , looking for another atom to join up with . Despite this model by having obvious flaws , it has proved to be extremely successful . reason for this is that it was the model of the atom , which linked quantum ideas to the classical ideas of the atom , and in the process answered the problems of radiating energy and spiralling electrons . The biggest success of this model came with the simple hydrogen atom , which is the most elementary of particles with just electron orbiting the nucleus . The calculated spectral lines for this hydrogen model , matched the observed spectral lines , it even went as far as to explain why these spectral lines occur . However , another success of the model was caused by a slight miscalculation . The predicted spectral line included an unknown line that had not be previously observed , this error in calculation caused scientists to look for a new element that this line could be . After vigorous observations an element was found whose spectral line was just a fraction away from that predicted by the hydrogen model . This element was and this was seen as the greatest success of the model . Using the spectral lines that would be caused by the model of other elements , scientists were able to predict the existence of numerous other elements , many of which were later found . < figure/>Further success came from 's idea that electrons can be on the ground energy level with needed on higher energy ones . This meant that if there were not electrons in the outer orbit , then the element would be unstable . The element would want to become stable and it could do this by gaining , losing or sharing its electrons on the outer energy level so that the number of electrons comes to . This process explained the chemical interaction that occurs when elements meet , with the stable elements being non reactive and unstable elements being more reactive , depending on how many electrons it either needs to gain or lose . This can be seen in water ( H2O ) , which is the chemical interaction of oxygen molecule and hydrogen . The oxygen atom has electrons in its outer shell and therefore wants to gain , whereas each hydrogen has free space . Therefore instead of stealing an electron they simple join together and share the electrons in the outer shells . This idea , predicted which elements would be the most reactive , such as potassium , because these atoms only need to lose or gain electrons to become stable , and therefore react much easier . Despite all these successes of the model they were far outweighed by its flaws . Although some of the extra spectral line that were predicted by the model were later observed , such as , many did n't , and there were far too many predicted spectral that had not been accounted for . These flaws were probably due to there being no theory behind the energy levels of each element , with using quantum numbers that simply matched observations . This meant that 's idea of energy being absorbed and emitted in the form of a proton , was only accurate for hydrogen atom , which has proton and electron with no neutrons , and did n't work for any more complicated elements . This meant that many changes were needed to the Bohr - Rutherford model ; such change was made by , who spent manipulating the model in order for it to match the observed calculations . The success of the model is partly due to and partly despite of its obvious flaws . "" His model turns out to have been wrong in almost every respect , but it provided a transition to a genuine quantum theory of the atom , and as such it was invaluable "" ( ) . This is the reason why 's model was successful because of its flaws ; it linked classical physics to quantum physics in the atom , giving scientists a new way of looking at the model of the atom ; its obvious flaws also challenged other scientists to improve them . such scientist was the physicist ; he believed that the problem with 's model might be in confining the electrons to specific orbits . He believed that the answer may lye in the electromagnetic energy sometimes behaving like a particle ( electron in orbit ) , but also sometimes behaving like a waveform . The evidence for these particles sometimes behaving like a wave came , from the emission of a photon when the electrons move down an energy level . Scientists knew that photons can sometimes behave like waves as interference ( superposition ) occurs when photons travel in the same path . These waveforms would have a set wavelength and therefore have a set frequency and energy using the equation , E = hf , where h = 's constant , this enabled scientists to predict the exact energy levels that the electrons lye on . However , as the electrons now behave as waves , scientists could not calculate exactly where they lye and therefore this is only an estimate . To solve this problem instead of having the well defined orbits of 's model Schrödinger used probability clouds ( orbitals ) , and he could predict where on the orbital the electron will be . Some areas of the cloud had a high probability of having an electron and others a low probability . < figure/>Schrödinger 's model was very useful as its electron clouds allowed it be able to solve problems that 's model was not able to do , this allowed scientists to get a better understanding of how electrons behave in chemical reactions . 's model of the atom became useful despite its flaws , because it 's classical structure is very easy to visualise at a basic level , with the electrons on set energy levels and energy either being absorbed or emitted in the form of a photon . It also introduced the idea of quantum mechanics into the model structure of an atom , which allowed future scientists to improve 's ideas . 's model , which structures the atom in a classical way with electrons orbiting the nucleus but behaving using quantum mechanics , with the electrons on set energy levels has become extremely successful partly because of and partly despite its obvious flaws . The obvious flaws in the model have challenged future scientists such as Schrödinger to adapt 's model and improve is usefulness . However , 's model does have its own important features , such as being extremely basic and therefore easy to understand at an elementary level , it also is the model which links the classical world of the atom to quantum mechanics , which has helped develop people 's understanding of how electrons work , for example in various chemical reactions .",0
"< heading > Introduction</heading > The England and precipitation record contains data going back to , and is compiled from rain gauges . In this report the seasonal totals of precipitation will be analysed from . Seasonal differences will be compared , probabilities calculated for some extreme rainfall events , and any evidence of long term trends will be analysed . < heading > Section 1</heading > Table 1 shows a summary of the data set of total annual precipitation . < table/>Figure shows a histogram of annual precipitation . It can be seen that the distribution is slightly positively skewed , with more outliers at high values than at low values . None of the outliers seem so extreme as to raise concerns about their accuracy . There is not a sharp peak in the distribution , with all bins having a similar frequency . < figure/>Figure shows a normal Q - Q plot for the precipitation . The fit is fairly good , but it can be seen that the tails of the observed distribution are too short , particularly at the lower end . < figure/>Figure shows boxplots for each of the seasonal totals . On average , the precipitation is highest in and lowest in , with and totals being similar . Each season also shows some positive skew , with more outliers at high values . The seasonal nature of the rainfall explains the slightly broader peak of the distribution seen in Figure . Each individual season has a sharper peak in its distribution , but the different means lead to the combined distribution having the shape as seen above . < figure/><heading > Section 2</heading > There are recorded years where the total rainfall was less than 700 mm . The probability that a drought year ( Pr(DY ) ) will occur can therefore be estimated as = . From theorem , the probability that a drought year will occur , given that a drought winter and spring has occurred ( probability Pr(DW ) ) can be estimated .   FORMULA   This is equal to for this example . The probability Pr(DW|DY ) can be estimated as from the data , however as there are only 8 drought years in the record , this probability is very uncertain . Rearranging the equation now gives   FORMULA   This probability equates to with total precipitation of . Figure shows the total rainfall plotted against total winter and spring rainfall . < figure/>It can be seen that a to May total of or less will result in an total of less that the time , according to the data . However , it is possible to have a to May total of that still result in . < heading > Section 3</heading > Total autumn rainfall can be modelled using a Normal distribution .   FORMULA   The total rainfall recorded in was 502.7 mm . This is the highest seasonal total on record . Using the Normal distribution as a probability model , the probability of exceeding this amount is . The Normal distribution is perhaps not the best model to use in this case . It can be seen from Figure that the fit in the tails of the distribution is quite poor . < better fit to the data can be obtained by using a gamma distribution .   FORMULA   Using the distribution as a probability model , the probability of exceeding 502.7 mm is . < heading > Section 4</heading > It can be seen from Figure that the distributions for and winter rainfall are quite similar . From this a hypothesis can be formed that the rainfall has an equal population mean to the rainfall . This hypothesis can be investigated by estimating the population mean of each set of data and comparing them . A simple point estimate of the population mean is the sample mean , i.e.   FORMULA   For ,   FORMULA   and for   . These values differ by , but a point estimate gives no information about the significance of this difference . The difference in the means could be due to the sampling uncertainty . To examine how significant this difference in the means is , it is necessary to investigate a null hypothesis , for example that that both means are the same ;   FORMULA   This will be tested to a significance level of . The alternative hypothesis is that the means are different ;   FORMULA   The hypotheses can be tested by an unpaired sample t - test . This yields a t - statistic of and a p - value of . Therefore the null hypothesis can not be rejected at the confidence level . The confidence interval for the difference in the means is -4.47 to . The likely difference in sample medians , rather than means , can be considered simply by the notches on each boxplot in Figure . The notch gives a guide to the likely range of the median . Each notch extends to / n. This gives roughly a confidence interval for the difference in the medians . < heading > Section 5</heading > Figure shows the data for plotted as time series . Fitting a simple linear regression shows evidence of a marked increase in precipitation and decrease in precipitation , and to a lesser extent an increase in spring precipitation and decrease in precipitation . A lowess filter has also been applied to each data set to give an indication of the time variance of the trend . The trends in different seasons do not appear to be changing at the same time . For example , any trend due to climate change would be expected to be visible only from about 1900 onwards . The lowess filter does not clearly pick up an effect like this , with the possible exception of in the data . It is probable that the random variations in the data are too great to allow the precise trends to be detected in this way . < figure/>Figure shows the autocorrelation function for the winter precipitation time series , calculated up to a lag of . It can be seen that there is no significant evidence of correlation between different . This result is the same for each season . < figure/>A simple way to estimate the significance of the trends in each season is to compare a smaller sample from the start of the period to a sample from . The distributions of these data sets should have significantly different means if there has been and average change in precipitation over the period . Figure shows boxplots comparing ( ) for each season to ( ) . < figure/>The significance of any difference between each pair of samples can be investigated using a similar process to that in . Using the null hypothesis that the means are the same for each pair , a t - test can then be performed . Again the significance level will be chosen as . The results are shown in . < table/>This means that the null hypothesis is rejected for data . There is strong evidence of a change in mean precipitation between these time periods for .","< abstract><heading > Abstract</heading > A platinum film resistance thermometer and a thermistor thermometer were calibrated over a range of temperature from 0 oC to oC. The resistance of the platinum film resistance thermometer was found to have an approximately linear response to temperature over the tested range , with an error in predicted resistance of or less of actual resistance . For this instrument the accuracy of the resistance meter used was found to be the limiting factor in the accuracy of the measurements taken . The resistance of the thermistor thermometer was found to approximately obey an inverse exponential relationship to temperature , with an error in predicted resistance of or less of actual resistance . This uncertainty was proved to be the limiting factor on the accuracy of the instrument . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > Air temperature is a fundamental variable in meteorology , and so accurate measurement of temperature is of paramount importance . In some situations a liquid in glass thermometer is used for this measurement , but the need for a human observer to take the reading makes them unsuitable for remote or automated sensors . Resistance thermometers are therefore necessary for many applications , for example in radiosondes , having the advantage that their output can be logged electronically . The aim of this experiment is to compare the characteristics of types of resistance thermometers , a platinum film and a thermistor . Pure metal thermometers have a resistance which increases with temperature . Platinum is the most commonly used metal , due to its stability and relatively linear response to temperature change . It has a temperature coefficient of -3 ( ) The low resistance of platinum can lead to the contact resistance in plugs and sockets becoming a factor which must be accounted for . Thermistor thermometers are semiconductors , whose resistance can either increase or decrease with temperature , depending on the materials used . The temperature coefficient of a thermistor is typically an order of magnitude larger than that of a pure metal . Thermistors are not as stable as platinum , and their temperature response is subject to a long term drift effect . Both instruments in this experiment will be calibrated , and their sensitivity over a range of atmospheric temperatures will be investigated . For the platinum film , the resistance increases with increasing temperature according to   FORMULA   where  and  are constants and R 0 is the sensor resistance at a reference temperature T 0 ( measured in , and taken as zero here ) . For atmospheric temperatures the quadratic term is very much smaller than the linear term , so Equation 1a can be approximated to   FORMULA   where b = R 0 The thermistor used in this experiment has a resistance that decreases with increase in temperature , approximated by   FORMULA   where T is the temperature ( measured in ) , A is the characteristic resistance and B is the characteristic temperature . This equation is an approximation , and over the range -20 to 50 oC the error in the predicted resistance may be of the actual resistance . To calibrate the thermistor a linear relationship between variables is the most convenient . To achieve this , Equation is rewritten by taking the logarithm of both sides , giving   FORMULA   A graph of ln(R ) plotted against / T should therefore be a straight line . < heading > Experimental method</heading > The thermometers were both placed in an insulated water bath . A precision platinum resistance thermometer was used to provide the reference measurement of temperature , with an absolute accuracy better than oC. Crushed ice was added to lower the water bath temperature to oC. The temperature was then increased in steps , up to 50 oC and at each step the reference temperature was recorded and simultaneous readings taken from the platinum film and thermistor thermometers . < heading > Results</heading > Table 1 in shows the results recorded during the experiment . A graph was plotted of resistance against temperature for the platinum film resistor ( 1 ) . For the thermistor , the logarithm of resistance was plotted against the inverse of temperature ( ) . From Graph 1 it is possible to estimate the experimental values of R 0 and b in Equation as   FORMULA   From Graph the experimental values of B and ln(A ) in Equation can be estimated as   FORMULA   therefore   FORMULA   < figure/><figure/>To compare the agreement of with the experimental results , a graph was plotted of calculated values of resistance against temperature , and then the measured values overlaid on the same axes ( see 3 ) . At all points the discrepancy is or less between measured and calculated values . < figure/>Equation 1a was also fitted to the experimental results for the platinum film resistance thermometer , to determine if there is any detectable non - linear effect in the temperature response . This gave values for the coefficients of   FORMULA   The accuracy of Equation compared to that of was investigated by examining the resistance residuals in each case . This data is shown in . Graph shows a plot of the calculated residuals . It can be seen that the quadratic fit is slightly better than the linear fit . This difference is most marked at lower temperatures , but over normal atmospheric temperatures the linear fit is a good approximation . < figure/>By rearranging and differentiating Equation it can be found that   FORMULA   Equation gives the sensitivity of the thermistor . The sensitivity of the themistor can be calculated for a range of atmospheric temperatures , and from this the resolution can be found . The resolution of the multimeter used at this range was 1 Ω. It should be noted that the values for the thermistor resistance in have only been quoted to an accuracy of Ω , due to the rapid fluctuations in the reading at the time of measurement . These fluctuations were attributed to small local changes in temperature due to turbulence in the water bath . The thermistor was able to detect these fluctuations because of its small size and rapid response time . Assuming the multimeter is the only limit on resolution gives the values shown in 3 . < table/>The resolution of the platinum film resistance thermometer can be calculated from the gradient of its calibration . In this case the resolution of the multimeter was 1 × 10 -3 Ω. Again assuming this to be the only limit on resolution gives a calculated resolution of × 10 -3 K. Given that a multimeter has a typical accuracy of on all resistance ranges , this uncertainty can be translated to an uncertainty in the temperature measurement of each instrument . For example , at , in the platinum film resistance thermometer an uncertainty of on the resistance reading gives an uncertainty of ± 0.3   oC. This is a much larger percentage error than that produced by the fitting the calibration . For the thermistor thermometer at , an uncertainty of on the resistance reading gives an uncertainty of ± 0.025   oC. This is a much smaller percentage error than uncertainty introduced by the calibration . < heading > Conclusion</heading > The instruments have both been shown to provide an accurate means of temperature measurement . In the case of the platinum film resistance thermometer the error in the measurement of its resistance is the most important factor , while for the thermistor thermometer the calibration fit introduces the largest uncertainty . The uncertainty caused by the experimental method was fairly small , resulting mainly from the different response times of the instruments , and slight fluctuations in the water bath temperature . Overall the method was satisfactory for determining the calibration of the instruments , and the experiment proved that both are sufficiently accurate for temperature measurements over the tested range . Further investigation would be required to determine how the accuracy of the calibration fits may be affected by temperatures outside the tested range .",1
"Everyone surrounding cheered loudly with more enthusiasm than she thought she 'd ever felt during her entire life . was , and her elder sister Emma who was had just won her race at the school Sports Day . She had been elected Sports ' Captain of their house at school . had voted for her too , despite being so jealous of how wonderful everyone thought her sister was . She thought Emma was wonderful too , but something inside prevented her from feeling more pleased for her . Part of her even wished someone else had won the vote . Phased by everything that was going on around her , imagined how it might feel if she were . All of her friends , and even those people who were n't her friends would cheer for her , and they 'd all know who was . All the boys would fancy her and the girls would want to be her . She imagined having a warm feeling inside her that would make the rest of her glow with confidence . She smiled at this thought , but still wished that she could be amazing at something and experience that feeling herself . Everyone - her friends and family - were all so proud of Emma , including . If only everyone could be proud of her too . had never been very good at any sport , or anything that involved coordinating different parts of her body at the same time . During lessons she often felt a cold , painful shiver that rooted from the bottom of her spine and shot right the way up to the crown of her head . It was almost as if someone had prodded her with a sharp pin . It always felt to that everyone was watching her and to their amusement , comparing her to her sister . Emma , having noticed sitting alone , ran over still panting from the m hurdle race . "" You ok Jess ? "" she sighed with exhaustion , bringing back from her fantasy world , "" why are you all on your own ? "" "" Sorry , I never noticed "" she replied , suddenly realising that the crowd she had sat amongst had rapidly dispersed elsewhere . "" I was just worried when I saw you here all on your own . "" had just about caught her breath and pulled her sister up from the dried up grass . "" You did really well Em , "" replied brushing the grass off her clothes , not making any eye contact with her sister . Feeling a little awkward , she was almost glad when boy , whose name she did n't know , ran over to collect for the prize giving . Emma ran in her black gym shorts and red polo neck t - shirt towards the stage that had been built on the edge of the school field . sometimes wished that was n't so nice . If she was horrible then people would n't like her so much . They would tell that it did n't matter how good her sister was because she was the nice one . But had always been a great sister , and they had become even closer since their parents had split up . For a moment , felt almost invisible . She stood alone in the middle of the huge school sports field seemingly unnoticed . Composing herself , she shook her head of thin , mousy blonde hair and opened her dull grey eyes as wide as she could before following to the playground . She managed to find her class and sat down next to her best friend , . The results of every race were announced , including relay race that had been made to run in . It was compulsory for everyone to participate in an event . The relay seemed a good option as it was over quickly and she was n't the only one running . Their team had come , which was good , but not good enough , she thought to herself . would have come . of the boys in 's class , , turned around saying that she ran like a chicken and could n't understand why anyone chose her to run . She knew instantly she 'd gone bright red from the way her cheeks began to burn , as if boiling water was being poured slowly down her face . She held her breath to hold her tears back and eventually replied , "" Who said I wanted to run anyway - idiot ! "" Later on she wished she could have thought of something better , but Amy had laughed and made a few comments about 's own efforts . 's house came overall . The whole school watched as Emma climbed gracefully up onto the stage to collect the winners ' cup . It had been decorated with yellow ribbons for their house , which were tied to both handles . She shook hands with the headmistress firmly . Then , glowing with pride , and smiling at everyone , she held the trophy cup high above her head . The whole house jumped to their feet cheering and clapping ecstatically , whilst all the others sat and clapped , mournfully staring at the winners and quietly chatting amongst themselves . watched in admiration as Emma descended into the crowd to be greeted by hugs and kisses . Everyone lifted her up into the air like a real champion . The sun shone around her and was reflected sharply by the trophy she held so tightly . looked up and smiled silently . Standing still , she could almost feel the ground move as everyone jumped up and down with excitement . She could feel their soft cotton t - shirts brushing against her arms . The muggy smell of fresh spring grass , mixed with the sweaty muddy odours of everyone around her , seemed strangely sweet . The noise of her friends shouting and screaming gradually became muted . felt an odd feeling in the pit of her stomach which grew upwards and settled in the back of her throat . She swallowed what seemed to be the size of a tennis ball and sighed to herself . Suddenly , she felt guilty and selfish because she could n't feel completely happy for her sister . Secretly she still wished that she could do something to make people cheer and look up to her in the same way . Clenching her teeth together and swallowing her envy , rejoined the excitement . She jumped up and down with her friends and cheered loudly for and their house team .","< heading < /heading > A simple strategy to solve the travelling salesman problem would be one which would undoubtedly be undertaken in practice by many ' travelling salesman ' . It is a less mathematically based algorithm than those to be discussed later . In summary the strategy simply starts at location the travelling salesman chooses the closest location to travel to . At the next location the salesman does the same again ensuring that he never returns to a location he has already visited and that he does not return to before visiting every other location . At the final location he simply returns to location . The best way to illustrate the strategy is in application to the given distance matrix : < table/>Step Consider the distance matrix . Look at the row relating to the starting location ( location ) . The location closest to location is location at units . Hence start by travelling from location to location . Row and column six must now be eliminated as you can not travel from location again and can not return to location . Step is now at location . Hence we must consider row . The closest location is location . Hence the salesman travels from location to location . Row and column are now eliminated . Step is now at location . Hence we must consider row . The closest location is location , however the salesman has already visited location and this column is therefore eliminated . The closest location is location1 , however the salesman can not return to location without visiting all the other locations . Hence the salesman travels from location to location as this is the rd closest location . Row and column 4 are now eliminated . Step is now at location . The only possible locations left to visit are and as every other location has been eliminated . The closest location is location . Hence row and column are eliminated . Step From row the only possible option for the Salesman is to travel to location ( note this would have been the shortest distance from row anyway ) . Step Once the Travelling Salesman is at location he has visited every location . Hence he returns to location1 . The path travelled by the salesman using this method to minimise distance is : - 6 - 3 - 4 - 2 - 5 - 1 . The total distance travelled is + 30 + 198 + 209 + 108 + = units . < heading - and - bound method</heading > See Appendix 1 for branch - and - bound calculations . Note : c ij is the distance from travelling from location i to location j. For example , in this instance c is units . Let c ii = M where M is a very large number ( this ensures that the solution does not detail the salesman to go to city i as soon as he leaves city i ) x ij = if the salesman travels from location i to location j , otherwise . This formulation is discussed in question . However , the notation is used here . < heading and : < /heading > We take the first as units from my own algorithm solution of the previous question . < picture/>We can not branch any further at sub - problems and 7 as both the distances travelled are greater than the new global upper bound of . No further branching will yield an optimal solution . At sub - problems and there are no sub - tours hence no further branching nor use of algorithm from question is required . The minimal distance for the Salesman to travel is units . He can do this in possible ways . The possible paths that yield this solution are - 6 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 2 - 1 and 1 - 2 - 5 - 4 - 3 - 6 - 1 . These are the reverse of each other . < heading > Comment on Solution:</heading > The branch and bound approach I have researched and used here ( , , and ) is an approach to finding a solution to a combinatorial optimisation problem . This means that there are many possible feasible solutions so it takes a great deal of time to find all possible solutions explicitly . The branch and bound approach takes advantage of the particular problem being considered to find the optimal solution implicitly . In this instance the elimination of certain journeys or arcs to eliminate sub - tours means that a solution can be found . The approach I have researched and used here differs to that used in lectures in that at every sub - problem is used to find the actual path that relates to the specific solution and the distance related to it rather than finding only a distance value . This means that at every sub - problem it is possible to branch to eliminate sub - tours as it is known what the sub - tours are and therefore we can quickly discover the optimal solution . The approach used in lectures eliminates only random arcs meaning that the solution found may only be approximate rather than optimal and that much branching must go on before the actual optimal solution is found . In this instance the solution is optimal as allows well chosen removal of specific arcs that yield sub - tours so narrowing down the optimal solution quickly . In addition , it is an intuitively correct solution . It can be seen that it makes sense to travel in direction between locations close to each other such as location and 6 or locations and 5 . Hence considering arcs with or without one direction or another will intuitively lead to an optimal solution . This intuitive approach is easy to see for a small number of locations ; however , for a larger number of locations this is more difficult . < heading > Integer Linear Programming</heading > Before setting up a spreadsheet model to solve as an integer linear programming problem the problem must be formulated . For i ≠ j let c ij = distance from city i to city j and let c ii = M where M is a very large number ( this ensures that the solution does not detail the salesman to go to city i as soon as he leaves city i ) . Within the spreadsheet model M is set equal to . Define x ij = if the salesman travels from location i to location j , otherwise . Then the solution to can be found by solving :   FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA      Formulation within a spreadsheet model can be seen on the following page . Solver finds an optimal solution of by the salesman travelling - 6 - 3 - 4 - 5 - 2 - 1 . This is the same as the solution obtained from the branch and bound method . Appendix 2 shows a simple example of the model showing that it is correct . < heading > Comparison of Methods . < /heading > It is evident that none of the approaches considered provide an efficient method to solving . The problem occurred in from Euler who wanted to move a knight to every position on the chess board exactly once , however the problem gained fame in a book written by in . There has been much investigation in into how to solve the problem efficiently as well as optimally . My original algorithm provides a quick and intuitively simple method to solving the problem . However , of the obvious disadvantages is that it does not yield the optimal solution in every case . This is the obvious advantage of the branch and bound as well as the integer linear programming solution using solver . For this specific example these methods yield the optimal solution . As discussed previously the branch and bound method used within this assignment differs to that used within the lecture examples as through it provides strategic elimination of sub - tours to find the optimal solution efficiently rather than random elimination of certain arcs . I believe that this method allows greater understanding of the specific problem in hand as it allows the user to consider the consequences of each action taken . However , the method is still time consuming and for cities it would become tedious . The state space would become almost unmanageable and without the explicit set up of a computer based model there is also a certain amount of room for human error . A mistake in sub - problem will also lead through to those further down which is certainly not ideal as the final solution would be incorrect . An alternative to either of these solutions would of course be the Integer Linear Programming spreadsheet method using Solver . This is a quick and easy method to use once the spreadsheet model is set up as can be seen from the adaptation in the appendices for a different distance matrix . However Solver is not always guaranteed to be able to find an optimal solution in the time limits set by network users which shows that this method is certainly not ideal . For a larger n amount of cities it would also be more time consuming with perhaps less likely chance of a solution . Perhaps then the only full proof method to optimally solving is by enumerating each possible tour and searching for the tour with smallest cost/ distance . For n cities the number of tours is n ! . However , when n becomes large it is impossible to find the cost/ distance of every tour in polynomial time . For smaller n , however , perhaps through use of a computer program this would be the best method . In solving a real life large scale Problem investigation into different methods is needed . For instance heuristic approaches could be looked at . These do not try to encompass every possibility of the problem but try to apply common sense to shrink the problem to a manageable size . The word ' heuristic ' means "" A rule of thumb , simplification or educated guess that reduces or limits the search for solutions in domains that are difficult and poorly understood . Heuristics do not guarantee optimal , or even feasible , solutions and are often used with no theoretical guarantee . "" An example of a heuristic method would be perhaps be my own algorithm . Another example would perhaps be empirical analysis which involves comparing heuristics such as my own algorithm to a number of problems where the optimal tour is already known . The application of such methods can be done in polynomial time , which is perhaps not possible for other methods and even though the complete optimal solution may not be found , a close approximation is better than no solution at all . Of course , it is important to compare heuristics with regard to computer running time for the other algorithms and ease of implementation . < heading > Suggestions for further work:</heading > Investigation into a travelling salesman problem where we have salesman . A travelling salesman problem where we have costs instead of distances of travelling from city i to city j and the cost from city j to city i is different to that of city i to city j.",0
"< quote>""Comprehension ... does not mean denying the outrageous , deducing the unprecedented from precedents , or explaining phenomena by such analogies and generalities that the impact of reality and the shock of experience are no longer felt . It means , rather , examining and bearing consciously the burden that events placed upon us- neither denying their existence or submitting weakly to their weight as though everything that in fact happened could not have happened otherwise . Comprehension , in short , means the unpremeditated , attentive facing up to , and resisting of , reality- whatever it may be or might have been "" ( Arendt:1973 : xiv)</quote > Although the horrors of the concentration camps and the holocaust may lie beyond the limits of our imagination , this do not mean that we can not , and should not try to comprehend them . However , the assertion that the concentration camps have no parallels in normal life is a contested one . For "" the was born and executed in modern rational society , at the high stage of our civilization and at the peak of human achievement , and for this reason it is a problem of that society , civilization and culture . "" ( Bauman:1989 :x ) . disagrees with this fundamentally ; as the was infact irrational , unpunishable and unforgivable by all methods available to that society , civilization and culture . "" Arendt described the as a ' rupture with civilisation ' that shattered all existing ideas of progress , all feelings of optimism , all previously engraved images of as a civilised community , all notions of the innocence of modern political thought "" ( ) . The horrors of the ' final solution ' are not beyond comprehension , they are however beyond the confines of ' modern ' political thought . To distance ourselves from the atrocities directed towards the in , is to safely , but naively , dismiss the shock and the ' reality ' of the . But to be defeated by pessimism , the pessimism created by neighbour killing neighbour , and to diagnose ' modernity ' as terminal is to allow those forces which are most abhorrent in human nature to claim victory . This antagonistic and dialectical approach to the was presented by , and her discourse on this subject is neatly surmised by in his book and the Jewish Question in which he discusses 's own re - thinking on the nature of evil ; From Radical Evil to the Banality of Evil . Are the instruments of totalitarianism extraordinary acts of evil , or are they a distortion , or a culmination of modern political institutions ? Is Eichmann a devil or a man ? < quote>""If it is true that in the final stages of totalitarianism an absolute evil appears ( absolute because it can no longer be deduced from humanly comprehensible motives ) , it is also true that without it we might never have known the truly radical nature of evil "" ( Arendt:1973 : viii ) < /quote>'Radical evil ' was a phrase not created by but by , who rationalised this "" in the concept of a ' perverted ill will ' "" ( Arendt:1973:459 ) .The motives of ' radical evil ' are decipherable through the methods of enlightenment . ' Radical evil ' fitted within an existing classification system ; the devil is still an angel , just one who has fallen from grace . For ' radical evil ' ceases comprehensible by these methods , "" therefore , we actually have nothing to fall back on in order to understand a phenomenon that nevertheless confronts us with its overpowering reality and breaks down all standards we know . "" ( Arendt:1973:459 ) . does not offer us the meaning of this evil in the Origins of Totalitarianism , but in a letter to her former tutor she tries to offer an answer : < quote>""What radical evil really is I do n't know , but it seems to me it has somehow to do with the following phenomenon : making human beings are superfluous ( not using them as a means to an end ... rather , making them superfluous as human beings ) This happens as soon as all unpredictability , which , in human beings , is the equivalent of spontaneity- is eliminated "" ( Arendt:1992:166 ) < /quote > The Holocaust was not about hate , envy revenge : these are all to reasonable within the realms of our understanding . It was about creating an environment in which to experiment on human nature , and how to extinguish spontaneity , and even complicity in the elimination of your self . This ideas of superfluousness are examine by in her chapter The Decline of the Nation State and the Ends of the Rights of Man . The creation of the modern state was built implicitly and explicitly on the will of its citizens who intrinsically had rights . "" Only with a completely organized humanity could the loss of home and political status become identical with the expulsion from humanity altogether . "" ( Arendt:1973:297 ) . People cease to have the right to have rights . Only in the death camps , in the laboratories and factories of death can the systematic deconstruction of the soul take place . And only here can people be made truly superfluous . "" This new regime of totalitarianism opens for us the abyss of radical evil , the evil that seeks to make human beings superfluous and even to eradicate the concept of humanity . What is most frightening is that this monstrous deed , this deliberate attempt to destroy and transform the human condition , does not require monstrous or "" evil motives "" . It can result from the thoughtlessness - the inability to think - of ordinary , normal people . "" ( Bernstein:1996:153 ) . Eichmann was not a devil , he was a man . < quote>""He was not stupid . It was sheer thoughtlessness - something by no means identical with stupidity- that predisposed him to become one of the greatest criminals of that period . And if this is ' banal ' and even funny , if with the best will in the world one can not extract any diabolical or demonic profundity from , that is still calling it far from common place ... That such remoteness from reality and such thoughtlessness can wreak more havoc than all the evil instincts taken together which , perhaps , are inherent in man , that was in fact , the lesson one could learn in "" ( < /quote > This passage has provoked much criticism of and resulted in exclusion from some communities . By calling this ' banal ' she is not trivialising the events of the , she is , more importantly , refusing to raise , and to ' satanic greatness ' . But at the same time refuse to allow the perpetrators to be merely ' cogs in a machine ' , and though they may have conceived of themselves are such , this was not an adequate excuse . The problem for is one of morality and "" the nature and function of human judgement . "" ( ) . How can we tell right from wrong without the moral gauge of society ? The serves to show that morality is no more than "" a set of mores , customs and manners which could be exchanged for another set with hardly any more trouble than it would take to change the table manners of individual people "" . ( Arendt:1978:5 ) . And this is perhaps the most disturbing twist to the , that it was in fact not extra - ordinary , not to those who those involved . "" In this context the term ' banality of evil ' was , I think , her way of saying the was ' human , all too human ' . "" ( Fine:2000:35 ) . This ' banality ' of the perpetrators of these ' crimes against humanity ' this realness suggests that the transition to the ' final solution ' was not something fundamentally new . The contained recognizable elements of modernity , so much so , that thoughtlessness was all that was required to enable ' production of corpses ' . The very institutions and modes of operation created and facilitated by modernity became the instruments of terror and death . < quote>""Bauman argues that the was not a novum in history but the outcome of the technological rationalism of modern society and the attendant normative socialisation of modern subjects "" ( Gorman:2000:49 ) . < /quote > Nietzsche also recognises the pathology of modernity , that technological progression seems to at the expense of culture and beauty , and values and beliefs that had previously been the moral fabric of society had lost their validity . A ' spiritless radicalism ' that sought to destroy all remnants of culture and civilization ( Fine:2001:114 ) . < quote>""Now how does the philosopher see the culture of our time ? ... When he thinks of the universal haste and the increasing speed with which things are falling , of the cessation of all contemplativeness and simplicity , it almost seems to him as if he were seeing the symptoms of a total extermination and uprooting of culture ... The sciences , without any measure and pursued in the blindest spirit of laisser faire , are breaking apart and dissolving everything which is firmly believed ... Never was the world more a world , never was it poorer with love and good ... Everything , contemporary art and science included , serves the coming barbarism . "" ( period in which was writing felt to many authors like an epoch or a turning point in history , the possibilities of science and technology seemed endless . The limits to human endeavour , in the name of progress had no boundaries . We have the impression that science and society are hurtling throughout history , out of control , without regard for the consequences . Progress and doom are truly sides of the same medal ( Arendt:1973 : vii ) . Such a view does not seem so far fetched when we consider that the utilised the very latest scientific methods , that qualified doctors considered it reasonable to strap metal plates to girls in an attempt to destroy their ovaries through radiation ( Strzlelecka:2004:89 ) . That such grotesque experiments could be justified by science and by scientists seems to justify 's diagnosis of the pathology of modernity . It is only not the ' geist ' of modernity that could allow the to happen , but far more substantively the methods of modernity : < quote>""Precision , speed , unambiguity , knowledge of the files , continuity , discretion , unity , strict subordination , reduction of friction and of material and personal costs - these are raised to the optimum point in the strictly bureaucratic administration . "" ( Bauman:1989:14 ) . < /quote > The only manifest difference between the Holocaust and ' normal life ' was that the powers of the bureaucratic administration were given the objective of exterminating the Jews . The link between modernity and the is certainly a strong one ; the creation of 's depersonalised ' legal rational ' society , combined with the principles pioneered by entrepreneurs like , create the political and social space for men to be so thoughtless , unengaged and alienated with the product of their labour , that when held accountable for the deaths of over Jews , their answers are those that any factory worker might illicit , "" I just load the trains "" , "" I just cut their hair "" , "" I just do as I 'm told "" . This alienation from the product of labour , that is a fundamental trait of modernity , allows the disengagement from reality : the end product is never realised in the minds of the perpetrators . It is a grotesque paradox that after men were yoked to the production line , that humanity should find itself on the same line progressing slowly towards the furnace at the end . not only examines the rationality of the methods deployed by , he also examines the rationality of the victims . In his essay Soliciting the Co - operation of explores how the Jews under were not only complicit in but actively aided the ' final solution ' . "" councillors and policemen were faced with a simple choice ; to die or to let others die ... Playing God was made easier by self interest "" ( Bauman:1989:144 ) . The rationality of such actions seems unquestionable , self preservation is the driving force behind man 's rationality for many of the Enlightenment thinkers and their forefathers . distinguishes between the rationality of the actor and the rationality of the action : < quote>""Reason is a good guide for individual behaviour only on such occasions as the rationalities resonate and overlap . Otherwise it turns into a suicidal weapon . It destroys its own purpose , knocking down on the way moral inhibitions- its only constraint and potential saviour . "" ( ) . < /quote > The decision to collaborate with one 's own executors is irrational , but if such collaboration may offer redemption it is rational . It is in this ghetto situation where we see another evil of the , where neighbour must , or a least can , condemn his neighbour in order to try and survive . In contrast to this view sees the impossibility of any rational behaviour under such circumstances ; "" when a man is faced with the alternative of betraying and murdering his friends or sending his wife and children ... to their death ; when even suicide would lead to the immediate murder of his own family - how is he to decide ? The alternative is no longer between good and evil , but between murder and murder . Who could solve the moral dilemma of the Greek mother , who was allowed by the to choose which of her children should be killed ? "" ( ) . For the whole idea of rationality is impossible under totalitarian regimes , it is wrong and dangerous to judge them by existing standards . < quote>""Not only are all our political concepts and definitions insufficient for understanding of totalitarian phenomena but all our categories of thought and standards of judgement seem to explode in our hands the instant we try to apply them "" ( Arendt:1994:302 ) < /quote > Even as the allied tanks closed in on the ' deportation ' of continued , < quote>""The uselessness of the camps , their cynically admitted anti - utility , is only apparent "" ( Arendt:1973:456 ) . < /quote > Indeed the resources required to maintain the death camps meant that the rest of the army was stretched beyond its limit : < quote>""Common sense trained in utilitarian thinking is helpless against this ideological supersense . "" ( Arendt:1973:458 ) . < /quote > The concentration camps are in no way the rational conclusion to anti - Semitism , the means - to - ends calculation simply ' explodes ' when we actually examine the functioning of them . < quote>""It is not only the non - utilitarian character of the camps themselves - the senselessness of ' punishing ' completely innocent , the failure to keep them in a condition so that profitable work might be extorted from them , the superfluousness of frightening a completely subdued population ... but their anti - utilitarian function , the fact that not even the supreme emergencies of military activities were allowed to interfere with these ' demographic policies ' . "" ( Arendt:1994:233 ) . < /quote > This is perhaps one of the reasons why the allies never chose to bomb the tracks that lead east . < quote>""If we assume that most of our actions are of a utilitarian nature and that our evil deeds spring from some ' exaggeration ' of self - interest , then we are forced to concede that this particular institution is beyond human comprehension "" ( Arendt:1994:233 ) . < /quote > The solution for is to not rely upon ' modern political thought ' and assumptions of instrumental and economic rationality , but rather to accept the difficulty of understanding the ' mad unreality ' of the . The struggle to understand , which is not the same as condone or forgive , is what gives power to the political act of understanding . "" Since totalitarianism suppresses the activity of understanding , the activity of understanding becomes itself a form of resistance "" ( Fine:2001:104 ) . We must resist the temptation to normalise the , but neither can we demonize the acts of men who were not "" fanatics , adventurers , sex maniacs , crackpots ... but and foremost job holders and good family men "" ( Arendt:1973:338 ) . If we decide that the death camps are the fulfilment of an unknown prophecy foretold in the beginnings of the enlightenment we not only lose our innocence we lose hope . But equally the should not merely become an evil out of time like some natural catastrophe . < quote>""The one lesson that totalitarianism should have taught us is that it is an illusion to think that radical evil is impossible . ' Everything is possible . ' All of 's thinking is directed against the ever present , real danger of the eruption of radical evil . "" ( Bernstein:1996:153).</quote > There are , and can be , no parallels to the concentration camps in life , though elements of modern life may be found in their mechanisms . is correct in his assessment of the means of the , and I do not believe that could happen in anything but a modern society , but the objective of the was something completely irrational , and this makes it irreconcilable with modernity . < quote>""It was as though the were convinced that it was of greater importance to run the extermination factories than to win the war . "" ( Arendt:1994:233 ) , < /quote > this implosion of ideology defies all ' modern ' methods of explanation . The self - cannibalism and anti - utilitarianism that for is inherent in totalitarian regimes : came to power through democratic institutions and once in power proceeded to destroy these principles and processes from the inside , the same paradigm apparent in totalitarianism and the state and the and modernity . < quote>""For Rose the act of comprehension is an act of mourning that can and must be completed , so that educated by the experience , we may move forwards in life and history "" ( Gorman:2000:47 ) . < /quote > Mourning must be an essential part of understanding the , not only for the waste of human life and the terrible suffering caused to those who died under the policies of extermination , but also we must mourn the loss of our own ' innocence ' , for to truly understand the is to fear radical evil , and to recognise the potential for its resurgence in our own societies .","'s or , , is usually explained at the simplest level as his view to recreate the combined expressive elements of ancient drama in order to conceive the artwork of the future . Total Art would contain all those elements apparent in drama - those of dance , costume , drama and music framed in the event of a festival . 's view was that , since the , art had lost this quality and music drama had become debased . This increased his frustration . In dramatic art , the highest level of poetry had been achieved ( by ) as had music 's ultimate expression ( in Beethoven ) . It was necessary therefore , to combine these forms to create a new . However , a closer description of would be to say that it is not merely an art form combining all the arts but which combines 's many talents . < quote>'Each of his characters , each of his situations , has been created by the simultaneous functioning within him of a composers ' imagination , a dramatists ' , a conductors ' , a scenic designers ' , a mimes'.</quote><fnote > Magee , Bryan , Aspects of Wagner , . < /fnote > However , 's vision of this new , for him became a dream impossible to realise . It is difficult to imagine how frustrating it must have been for , that even after he had created the Festpielhaus at Bayreuth , a theatre supposedly containing all those elements necessary to realise the , the staging of his work failed to meet the demands of his emotional capacity . < quote > ' ... By placing his performers within a relentlessly illusionistic scenic environment where little or nothing was left to the imagination , the settings could never express the inner spiritual world suggested by the music . '</quote><fnote > Beacham , , , Artist and Visionary of The Theatre , . < /fnote > For this essay , I am discussing my favourite of 's works , . This is an opera considered by many to be the perfect medium for 's theories on synthesis- i.e. his . The relatively simple plot allows for the maximum degree of dynamic expressivities from the music . < quote>'The centre of gravity is shifted to the inner psychology and emotions of the characters and these are portrayed for all they are worth by the music . '</quote><fnote > Stein , , and , P < /fnote > I want to discuss parts of the work which I find the most interesting to listen to , both in terms of their role within the opera and how each stand alone as individual pieces of music . These are the Prelude to Act One , the Lovers ' Duet in Act and the closing . I will explore the relationship between the music and the libretto and how the pieces , despite appearing in completely different parts of the score , connect together musically . things interest me when listening to a or Overture . The is how an opening piece of music acts as an anticipation of all that is to happen throughout the score . This is usually achieved by the composing of a after the rest of the work has been completed , < quote>'When the composer has the whole of his thematic material before him he can select from it just what seems to him best suited to epitomise the contents of the whole work . '</quote><fnote > Newman , , , P227 . < /fnote > What is interesting about the to is that had not even begun to work on the remainder of the opera when he completed the opening . Discovering this makes the more interesting to listen to because it raises the questions of how composed a piece which so perfectly creates the moods of ' endless yearning , longing , the bliss and wretchedness of love ... a languishing forever renewing itself ... death , surcease , a sleep without waking ' , ( which were a few of 's own words to describe the story of ) , before the acts of the opera had been realised . It is somewhat disconcerting too , that the themes within the , which have come to be known as separate ' motives ' , were probably not thought of in the same terms by when he composed it . For example , the motives labelled by listeners as the ' Sorrow ' motive or the ' Magic ' motive , may not even have been written with a view to evoke these moods in the minds of the audience . The time I listened to the , I had already heard other parts of the opera , so a few of the motives were familiar . I would have been able to recognise the as a piece of music from . The appearance of the motives used in the opening makes it more logical to listen to in terms of its role as the ' Prelude ' . It ties the opera together before it has even begun . There are motives evident in the opening bars - the , often named the ' Sorrow ' motive , is played on cellos . The ' Desire ' motive extends from the like an echo , played quietly by the oboe . Once these motives have been named , the meanings in the music become clearer . The bars suggest that ' Desire ' or ' ' , as this motive is sometimes called , is constantly apparent beneath grief and sorrow , and can in fact help overcome grief and sorrow . Another motive , the ' Death ' motive , occasionally ' drops ' into the music and is played on the brass instruments , creating a sinister disruption of the smooth waves of strings echoed by the woodwind . Throughout the Prelude I am reminded of the sea . The waves of music become steadily stronger in anticipation of the climax and the continual echoes of the motives played on one set of instruments , then on another , not only evokes a sense of yearning , but further that of a tide edging forward more strongly every time before being drawn back . During the build to the climax , the echo of the ' Desire ' motive continues , as , with each wave of strings , steadily becoming higher and more joyful , the ' Desire ' notes become increasingly prominent in the background at the end of each wave . This culminates in the motive overcoming all when played on the brass instruments at the peak of the climax . The motive then echoes itself , played quietly on the oboes immediately afterwards . < quote>'He prescribes a slight holding back after the peak has been reached ... The Prelude - and the same is even true of the - is far more tremendous in its tension when the ascent is not hurried ... '</quote><fnote > Newman , , , P 220 . < /fnote > There are many similarities between the opening and closing parts of the opera , which I will discuss later . The ' echoing ' conflict between strings and woodwind dies away at the end of the , giving way to a foreboding mood created by cellos and basses . The mood and the wave like pattern of the rest of the , prepares us for the sea setting in which the opera opens . It is interesting to take a Prelude out of the context of the work it was written for to decide how it stands alone as an individual piece of music . The Prelude to Tristan ' works particularly well outside of the opera - perhaps because it was written beforehand . ' The music makes ' no attempt ... to epitomise the stage action and the characters of the opera ... the is the slow musical elaboration of a single bitter - sweet mood . ' < fnote , , , . < /fnote > Although the almost unbearable yearning fraught by the ever- present foreboding mood created by the opening are sufficient enough as they are to listen to , recaptured the very essence of all the emotions experienced in , in his Overture . After hearing it we are left with desire to experience more of the same . As the closes and the voice of a Young Sailor opens Scene One , I become frustrated . After being aroused so much simply by the instrumental Overture , I dislike the interruption of the voice . However , on listening to the whole work , 's belief that the highest level of poetry and music 's ultimate expression should be combined to create a new is made clear , and indeed the music does become more powerful when combined with the voice and vice versa . Act ; Scene of Tristan sees the beginning of the Lover 's Duet , seen by many as ' the most difficult section of the whole work for both the listener in the theatre and the reader of the poem . "" The main difficulty I think , lies in the understanding of what the characters are saying . It may seem that without this , it is impossible to understand what the opera is really about . I am not an experienced student of the opera however , and when I listen to it , it is the music which helps me to understand what is happening in the minds of the characters . However , Act reflects on 's opinion , perhaps more than at any other in the opera , that the voice and musical expression play equal roles . I found that , when listening to , the orchestra appears to hold back somewhat - particularly during many of the climaxes . It seldom threatens to drown out the poetic verse . < fnote , , , P262 . < /fnote > It is Act in which the very essence of the characters inner and spiritual conflict is to be conveyed . This can not be achieved using verse only ; neither can it be achieved using verse only . Following the translated libretto is useful only to the point of knowing what a character is saying - but it takes all enjoyment out of listening to the music . The Lovers ' Duet can be divided into sections in which the mood of the music changes . The section is obviously passionate , excited and chaotic . It would be impossible to imagine this mood by looking at the libretto only , < quote > TRISTAN : Isolde Beloved ! ISOLDE : Tristan Beloved ! TRISTAN : Are you mine ? ISOLDE : Do I hold you again ? TRISTAN : Dare I embrace you ? ISOLDE : Can I believe it ? TRISTAN : At last , At Last!</quote > It is the overwhelming climax as rushes in and the tempo becomes more frenzied , that truly communicates the unbelievable joy as the lovers meet . There is a fine example of the music and the verse complimenting each other at the beginning of this section . The sustained higher notes of the soprano take the music step further , drawing attention to the chaotically cheerful background . When the voices remain on the same note , allowing the orchestra to ' leave them behind ' as it were , one can fully appreciate the role each of them plays in conveying the bliss of the characters . Throughout the earlier section of the duet , we are reminded of the ' Desire ' motive , particularly in 's verse beginning ' O we were now dedicated to night . ' This is particularly useful in denoting the meaning of the libretto at this point . is speaking in anger of the ' spiteful day ' that separates him from Isolde , < quote>'Amid 's empty fancies single longing remains , the longing for holy night , where everlasting , solely true , lovers ' delight laughs at him!'</quote > The appearance of the ' Desire ' motive communicates 's frustration with more clearly . A new motive - that of ' Day ' is used here , ( although it appears at the start of the Prelude to Act ) . While we usually associate with fresh and joyful feelings , 's motive completely conveys the misery it means to the lovers and their defiance of ' Its idle pomp , its boastful glare . ' The motives take our minds back to the emotions and moods we felt at previous points in the opera . I see them as landmarks or safety nets - something to lean on to prevent one from becoming completely lost in the music . When they reappear , the musical mood becomes at once more recognisable . In contrast to this , often anticipates a musical mood that will appear later in the score . The motive of ' 's Happiness ' , for example , is anticipation in ' ' da erdämmerte mild ' when prepares us for the gradual change in the music as the doves lie together on the flowery bank . The music has lost its sense of urgency at this point and peacefulness descends as the lovers rejoice in the onset of darkness ; ' holy twilight 's glorious presentment obliterates the horror of delusion , setting us free from the world . ' The feeling of yearning remains however . With the smoothness and calmness of the libretto there is a sense of nervousness throughout this passage I feel . This could be the cause of many things . In a way it sounds as though they can not quite believe they are together . Further , the sense of yearning builds more successfully to the climax towards the end of the passage ( which fittingly culminates with another repletion of the ' Desire ' motive reinforcing the constant presence of this mood ) . Further still , it prepares us for the voice of . This is a phrase in which the music and the soprano achieve a sense of urgency and fear without becoming frantic or changing the peaceful mood already established . This clarifies the fact that and 's overwhelming love for each other contains the seeds of its own destruction - no matter what warning they are given , their union will end in tragedy . < quote>'Alone I watch in the night : you to whom love 's dream laughs , heed the cry of one who foresees ill for the sleepers and anxiously bids them awake . '</quote > The mood continues in the same way throughout the penultimate section of the Lover 's Duet , in which and Isolde ' resume their fond dialogue upon to part lovers such as they . ' < fnote , , , P274 . < /fnote><quote>'What could death destroy but what impedes us , that hinders from loving forever , and forever living but for her ? ' < /quote > The music here allows for the libretto to take the leading role . For once this does not frustrate me . The tenderness felt by the lovers is conveyed perfectly clearly through their voices , allowing for a brief respite before the final section begins . ' So starben Wir ... der nur zu leben ! ' sees the introduction of the idea of in Love . Much of the melody here anticipates the at the close of the opera . The melody of the is sung by both and , interrupted again by 's voice . The tune itself suggests the building of a climax and 's warning is the result in a series of unbearable anticlimaxes throughout this last section of Act Two . The next anticlimaxes follow 's lines , ' Shall we then defy 's threats ? ' and ' So that it 's dawning light will never daunt us ? ' Here the strings become faster and faster but each time are held in check . 's , ' last for us forever ! ' gives way to a tremendous surge of the orchestra . However loud the music , the power of the voices together just manages to rise above it . The recurrence of the melody is almost exhausting to listen to - it is hard to believe the music can maintain such power . I think a lot of effort has been made in trying to decipher exactly what is meant by , ' You Tristan , I Isolde , no more ... ' - and vice versa . I feel that , by the time this is sung , the music has built to such an ecstatic climax that the exact meaning is insignificant . To know that they have fond a solution in their idea of is sufficient . During the final build , the orchestra becomes more powerful- it reminds me again of a tidal motion . With each anticlimax and restart of the melody , it gains a little more strength until the music completely overrules the words and only snatches of the voices are heard over it . At this point , to understand word for word what the characters are saying is unnecessary . The music is powerful enough alone - although the voices become an extension of it , rather than instruments used to perform the libretto . In this role , they enable the final climax of Act to rise to an even greater peak than the orchestra alone would let it . < quote>'But the voice , or voices , become further instruments at many of 's most ecstatic moments , and since voices are the most exciting instruments of all , the fact that they are singing words is not the most important thing ... '</quote><fnote > Williamson , , , . < /fnote > It has been said , that the acts of and come close to resembling orgasm . When takes into account the feelings of the characters as described in the poetic verse , this remark may seem perfectly legitimate . However , I think to regard the love the characters feel for each other as purely romantic or sexual is viewing the opera on level only and this evades its deeper meanings . It is true that many of the passages are incredibly erotic - but this only takes us so far . expresses the feelings of and in such a way that they transcend anything that is usually thought of or labelled as ' love ' . The closing ' ' illustrates this . At this point in the opera the deepest feelings of grief and torment have been expressed by the characters . is dead . is dead . Kurvenal is dead . are in despair , < quote > MARKE : ' Are all dead then ? All dead ! Why Isolde ? Why this to me ? ' BRANGAENE : ' Do you not hear us ? Isolde ! Dearest ! Do you not perceive your faithful servant?'</quote > And yet this is the point at which the most blissful passage is sung with great euphoria by , gazing down on her dead beloved . It has to be admitted that the supreme joy of believing in the power of death in love and 's escape to ' Unconscious - supreme bliss ! ' goes slightly beyond the conventional expression of love . Liebestod is my favourite passage of . It was the piece from the opera I heard and , stands equally well on its own as an individual piece of music as the does . It is not necessary to know the story of in order to understand the feelings expressed in the . I have been concerned during this essay to come to terms with the changing roles of music and libretto . I think the is the resulting climax of the struggle between voice and orchestra which builds throughout the opera . After the appearance of the melody in Act Two , we recognise its opening here , ' How gently and quietly he smiles , how fondly he opens his eyes ! ' After the culmination of this opening melody in the climax of Act Two , we are again prepared for a gradual musical build and are indeed ready for a musical resolution which has previously been cut short , The begins quietly - the music serving more as a background allowing the soprano to carry the melody forward . The key change on ' soaring on high ' sees the build to the climax progressing . As 's verse becomes more excited , ' How softly and gently from his lips sweet breath flutters- see friends ! ' the music gradually begins to catch up with and soar beyond the libretto , conveying her increasing rapture . is careful to hold back slightly rather than rushing headlong into the climax . There is a brief pause at this point and on ' Do I alone hear this melody ? ' the begins afresh . This technique reinforces the feeling of absolute desire communicated from the start of the opera and ensures that the audience crave for this desire to be fulfilled - the climax to be resolved . At the point of ' in its blissful lament ' , the orchestra and the voice cease conflict and merge so that 's voice is carried by the melody . This continues until they take up their individual roles once more with the onset of the climax , ' Resounding yet more clearly , wafting about me ... ' . Thus the final build begins : the tremendous surge of the orchestra perfectly complimenting the libretto , ' Are they billows of heavenly fragrance ? As they swell and roar around me ... "" . The orchestra and voice reach such a point on the verge of climax , that they appear to slow slightly before the music peaks on ' of the world 's breath ' . This is a point where 's opinion of music reaching the pinnacle of it 's expression leaving no other choice but to add words , is completely understandable . Without the highest ( sung ) note I fear the climax would be vaguely disappointing . The utmost relief that the climax which has built so gradually has finally happened enables us to fully appreciate the beautiful ' coming back to earth ' as it were , suggested in the music by the key change on ' to sink ' . Again the libretto is complimented by the dying down of the music , ' to drown , to sink unconscious - supreme bliss ! ' The music has exhausted all tension and emotion and ends with peaceful and warming chords . The contains all those elements which make up 's theories of synthesis . The libretto ' grasps the inner psychology and emotions of the characters and these are portrayed for all they are worth by the music . ' < fnote > Stein , , and , P < /fnote > Tristan and truly combines the highest level of poetry with music 's ultimate expression . To experience it is to experience the utmost in , which was 's greatest ambition . -------------------------------------",0
"A claim for judicial review is defined as "" a claim to review the lawfulness of a decision , action or failure to act in relation to the exercise of a public function "" . For a claim to be considered it must meet the procedural requirements . X , Y and Z must all bring their claims within of the incident occurring . The applicants must have sufficient interest in the subject matter ; this can be affirmed since all pupils are adversely affected by the outcome of the 's decision . The institution must also be sufficiently public , which can be satisfied in the case of a local state secondary school . Additionally , the pupils require leave to apply for judicial review which will be obtained if the court considers that the claimant has a prospect of succeeding . < fnote > Civil Procedure Rules Part ( 2)(a ) < /fnote><fnote > Order 53 Civil Procedure Rules RSC rule ) < /fnote><fnote > ibid . rule 3(7 ) < /fnote > The case identified the grounds upon which judicial review will take place : illegality , irrationality and procedural impropriety . The relevant heads of review will be considered in relation to each pupil 's dispute . < fnote v. Minister for [ ] 3 All E.R. ; [ ] A.C. 374 at per Lord Diplock < /fnote><heading > X1 : That it was unfair to exclude the report from consideration</heading > The school 's policy provides for automatic permanent exclusion upon a positive test . Policy does not predetermine every outcome , but should be used as guidance . "" Policy should be the most important factor that will be applied in the absence of good reason shown by applicant ( a ) either to change the policy or ( b ) not to apply it in the particular case "" . In Gangadeen , it was held that the Secretary of 's policy should be viewed as an extra statutory concession and a wide discretion was conferred for its application . This is analogous to the school policy ; thus it was open for the school to depart from the policy . The issue turns on whether the school panel erred in strictly applying the policy to the exclusion of the medical report . < fnote > Helen Toner , , ' v Secretary of for Ex p. Gangadeen [ 1998 ] C.O.D. 216 < /fnote > The factual basis of the decision may be incorrect ; by refusing to consider the medical report , the court failed to ascertain whether X had in fact taken drugs a time . In ex p. A , failure of the police to release the doctor 's report to was deemed to amount to a material error of fact . Nevertheless the decision was rendered ultra vires on the ground of natural justice . In ex p. E , Carnwath LJJ affirmed that an appeal may be made based on a separate heading of unfairness due to "" misunderstanding or ignorance of an established and relevant fact "" where the mistake played a material role in the decision . < fnote > R v. ex p. A [ 1999 ] 2 A.C. 330 < /fnote><fnote > E v. Secretary of for [ 2004 ] Q.B. 1044 < /fnote><fnote > ibid . [ 2004 ] Q.B. 1044 at < /fnote > Natural justice and fairness demand the procedural right to have the opportunity to state one 's side of the case , audi alteram partem . In v. declared decision void for dismissal of an employee without hearing , thereby breaching the rules of natural justice . Opportunity to have the medical report heard would have cast doubt on X 's culpability . X 's case is contrary to the general principle asserted by Lord that , "" a man is not to be dismissed for misconduct without being heard "" . I would thus advise X to challenge the decision upon the new ground of unfairness based on error of fact . < fnote > , ' Understanding Public Law ' , p. < /fnote><fnote>[1964 ] A.C. 40 < /fnote><fnote > ibid . per Lord at < /fnote > In Re Racal Lord Diplock expressed his view that the distinction between errors of law and fact was blurred . In X 's case , the decision could be categorised as either . An error of law can be established by unreasonableness . In , Lord created a test of whether a decision is "" so unreasonable that no reasonable authority could ever have come to it "" . He stated that failing to regard the matters which he is bound to consider is sufficient to satisfy the test of unreasonableness . Hence , the panel 's decision could be rendered ultra vires for ignoring the medical report ; this can be seen as a matter the panel was bound to consider because it contested the reliability of the evidential basis of the decision . < fnote Racal Communications Ltd. [ ] A.C. 374 at < /fnote><fnote > Associated Provincial Picture houses Ltd v. [ ] 1 K.B. 223 < /fnote><fnote > ibid . at < /fnote><fnote > ibid . per Lord Greene at < /fnote > Alternatively X could challenge the decision for illegality . Prior to Anisminic , only an error of law on the face of the record could render the decision ultra vires . Since the school panel had the authority to make the decision , it would have been immune from judicial review . Anisminic abolished the distinction between jurisdictional and non - jurisdictional errors , making both susceptible to judicial review . Lord identified a number of errors of law that went to the jurisdiction notwithstanding that the tribunal had the right to enter on the inquiry . of these errors was refusing to take into account something that it was required to take into account . The effect of this would be to render the decision a nullity . < fnote > Anisminic Ltd v. [ ] 2 A.C. 147 < /fnote><fnote > ibid . per Lord at < /fnote > It therefore appears that the panel 's refusal to consider the medical report could be rendered ultra vires based on any of the grounds of procedural impropriety , irrationality or illegality . < heading > X2 : That the policy of automatic expulsion is irrational/ disproportionate</heading > In Venables it was held that "" the policy must not be so rigid that it does not allow for the exceptional case which requires a departure from the policy "" . The blanket policy of automatic expulsion is rigid and fetters any discretion by preventing the opportunity for X to state his case . The case laid down the test for irrationality ( developed from ) defined as whether the decision "" is so outrageous in its defiance of logic or of accepted moral standards that no sensible person who had applied his mind to the question to be decided could have arrived at it "" . < fnote > R v. Secretary of for , Ex parte [ ] 3 All ER 97 < /fnote><fnote > ibid . per Lord at < /fnote><fnote>[1985 ] A.C. 374 per Diplock at < /fnote > X has a right to receive education at the unless he acts in breach of the school 's behaviour policy . Failure to allow a hearing prevents the school from legitimately establishing that X breached the drugs policy . This may constitute a violation of X 's rights to a fair trial . In Lord considered the need to adopt a different intensity of review for the test in light of . Where Convention rights are in play , the court is required to follow the proportionality approach which subjects the policy to greater scrutiny . I would therefore advise X to pursue his challenge under the head of proportionality . Proportionality goes further than reasonableness and considers the relative weight to be accorded to interests and considerations , ascertaining whether the harm created is disproportionate to any benefits which accrue . laid down a test to determine whether a rule is excessive : < fnote > R ( on the application of ) v Secretary of for [ 2001 ] 2 AC 532 < /fnote><fnote > Established in R ( on the application of ) v Secretary of for [ 2001 ] 2 AC 532 and R v. [ ] WLR ; cited in , ' Sovereignty 's needs a concept of , p. < /fnote><fnote>[2001 ] 2 AC 532 per Lord at < /fnote><quote>""Whether : ( i ) the legislative objective is sufficiently important to justify limiting a fundamental right ; ( ii ) the measures designed to meet the legislative objective are rationally connected to it ; and ( iii ) the means used to impair the right or freedom are no more than is necessary to accomplish the objective . "" < /quote><fnote > Elloy de Freitas v. Permanent Secretary of , Lands and Housing and Others [ 1999 ] 1 A.C. 69 at < /fnote > The policy 's objective is to remove pupils who have repeatedly used drugs . The fundamental right at issue can be identified as X 's right to a fair trial . The measure of automatically excluding pupils testing positively a time is rationally connected to the objective . However , it is difficult to see how allowing a hearing to go ahead following a positive test would hinder this policy objective ; hence the measure goes further than the objective requires . Its blanket nature excluding all considerations shows it to be disproportionate . < heading > Y1 and 2 : Allegations of Bias</heading > Y 's allegations invoke the rule against bias , another tenet of natural justice . rights to impartiality and independence also come into play . However , in it was held that judicial review was sufficient to cure any incompatibility and therefore I would advise Y to pursue the claim based on natural justice . < fnote > R. ( on the application of ) v Secretary of for the Environment , Transport and the Regions [ 2001 ] 2 All E.R. 929 < /fnote > The Pinochet case extended the notion of bias beyond pecuniary interest to include any personal interest in the decision . overruled itself because of Lord 's connection with , a key petitioner for Pinochet 's extradition . This rendered him "" a judge in his own cause "" contrary to the maxim nemo iudex in sua causa , operating to automatically disqualify him from hearing the appeal . Lord Hope identified other factors which could automatically disqualify a judge : < fnote > R v. Ex p. Pinochet Ugarte ( No . ) [ ] 1 A.C. 1119 < /fnote><quote > "" I am of opinion that there could be cases where the interest of the judge in the subject matter of the proceedings arising from his strong commitment to some cause or belief or his association with a person or body involved in the proceedings could shake public confidence in the administration of at < /fnote > The teacher involved with the anti - drugs campaign could be regarded as having some "" strong commitment "" to his anti - drugs campaign . This would automatically exclude him from the hearing without need to regard whether there was any "" likelihood or suspicion of bias "" since he would also be considered to be a judge in his own cause . < fnote > ibid . per Lord at < /fnote > Lord 's analysis could also encompass the teacher who Y complained about . "" Association "" includes some direct or indirect relationship , experience or contact with a party to the proceedings . If the complaint had led to hostile relations between Y and the teacher , this could bring about his automatic disqualification from sitting as judge . < fnote > Deane J. in Webb v. The Queen , C.L.R. at endorsed by Lord Hope [ 2000 ] 1 A.C. 119 at < /fnote > It is contentious whether the teachers would merit automatic exclusion ; thus I will consider the application of the rule against bias articulated by Lord . This applies where there is no financial or personal connection to either party , but "" in some other way his conduct or behaviour may give rise to a suspicion that he is not impartial "" . In R v Gough the test inquired as to whether there was a real danger the defendant had not had a fair trial . However the leading case of   amended the test to : < fnote>[2000 ] 1 A.C. 119 at < /fnote><fnote > ibid . at < /fnote><fnote>[1993 ] A.C. 646 per Lord Goff of Chieveley at < /fnote><fnote>[2002 ] 2 A.C. < /fnote><quote > "" Whether ... the circumstances would lead a fair - minded and informed observer reasonably to apprehend that there was a real possibility that the tribunal would unfairly consider the case of party with favour or disfavour "" < /quote><fnote > ibid . per at < /fnote > Walker LJ distinguished between possibility and probability of bias , preferring the lower threshold test . However , in asserted that only a properly arguable objection would suffice . Under this test it would be more difficult to demonstrate an arguable objection or any real possibility of bias bearing in mind that the complaint was subsequently dismissed . The arguments appear stronger for the anti - drugs campaigner who has an interest in the decision for striking down on drug abuse ; however , the outcome will have little impact on the teacher . It could be argued that the teacher would want to secure Y 's exclusion to prevent further complaints but this is unlikely bearing in mind that the complaint was subsequently dismissed . < fnote > ibid . at < /fnote><fnote > AMEC Capital Projects Ltd v Whitefriars City Estates Lt , cited in   URL   < /fnote><heading > Y3 : Legitimate Expectation</heading > The teacher falling asleep and not listening to Y 's defence raises further issues of procedural impropriety . As well as the requirement that one has the opportunity to state his case , a legitimate expectation arises that the case will be heard , thus invoking the rules of natural justice . A legitimate expectation arises from the policy 's provisions that pupils will have the procedural protection of a hearing before teachers with the assumption that they will be awake in order to actually hear the case . Coughlan established a classification of legitimate expectations with a variable intensity of review . In Y 's case a legitimate expectation arises from "" promise or practice "" and must be adhered to , "" unless there is an overriding reason to resile from it "" . In , there arose a legitimate expectation for trade union members to be consulted on the decision to ban membership ; however , national security concerns superseded the requirements of natural justice . It is difficult to envisage any overriding public interest to justify departure from the duty to provide vigilant judges . < fnote > R v. North and East Devon Health Authority , ex parte . Coughlan [ ] QB 213 < /fnote><fnote > ibid . per Lord MR at < /fnote > Y can successfully claim that his hearing breached the principles of natural justice by virtue of teacher 's bias and another 's breach of his legitimate expectation . The likely result of this is that the case will be remitted to the panel , replacing the anti - drugs campaigner with an impartial teacher and wide awake colleagues . < heading > Z : Extraneous Considerations</heading > Z 's argument is that the panel wrongly considered his grades in deciding to expel him . A certain amount of discretion is conferred by the policy ; however the matters to be taken into account relate to the class of drug and the surrounding circumstances . In , Lord categorised consideration of irrelevant matters as meeting the unreasonableness test . He cited the example of a teacher dismissed for having red hair as "" so absurd that no sensible person could ever dream that it lay within the powers of the authority "" . Z 's intellectual ability has no relevance to his use of the drugs , thus it would fulfil this high threshold of unreasonableness . Alternatively , Lord Greene envisaged that extraneous considerations could also come under the ground of illegality . In , the 's decision was rendered a nullity because it was based on misinterpreted statutory considerations which it had no right to take into account . This is analogous to Z 's case ; it can be said that the policy did not authorise the consideration of grades and the decision would therefore be ultra vires . < fnote>[1948 ] 1 K.B. 223 per Lord Greene at < /fnote><fnote>[1969 ] 2 A.C. 147 per Lord at < /fnote > The issue of terminating the specialist course to save money is more contentious . In the case of , it was held by a majority of that the availability of resources was a relevant factor in assessing the needs of disabled people . The eligibility criteria varied according to financial position . The justification advanced was that 's intention could not have been to ignore the issue of cost . Similarly in International Traders ' , the police protection of live animal exporters from protestors was considered to be a discretionary decision which could take into account the availability of resources . Conversely , in the court struck down decision based on the availability of resources to reduce of education for a child . It was held that the local education authority had a statutory duty to consider educational needs ; considering additional criteria would downgrade this statutory duty to a discretionary power . < fnote > R v. and the Secretary of for Health . Ex parte [ ] A.C. 584 < /fnote><fnote>[1997 ] per Lord Nicholls of Birkenhead and Lord Clyde at and < /fnote><fnote > R v Chief Constable of Sussex , ex parte [ 1999 ] 1 All ER < /fnote><fnote > R v. , Ex parte [ ] AC 714 < /fnote><fnote > ibid . per Mummery LJ at > The distinction between these approaches appears to rest on whether the source of authority conferred an absolute duty or a power of discretion on the decision - maker . Where there is a strict duty , illustrates that cost / benefit analysis can not be taken into account . The issue therefore turns on the nature of the school policy . Although it permits flexibility as to the circumstances , this does not extend beyond regard to the use of drugs . The decision to expel a pupil should not raise issues of cost , and the policy - makers could not have intended this interpretation . Therefore , the decision is likely to be decided in line with as ultra vires for considering irrelevant factors . < heading > If there was an appeal to Judicial review must be sought only as a last resort where alternative remedies are exhausted . Therefore if there was an appeals procedure which was not employed , leave for an application for judicial review would be refused . < fnote > v Secretary of for Ex p. [ ] 1 W.L.R. 477 < /fnote > If the appeals procedure was used successfully X , Y and Z would have no need to resort to judicial review . On the other hand , if the appeals were dismissed , much depends on the nature of the appeal as to whether judicial review can be sought . v. addressed the question of whether an appeal could cure an initial decision . concluded that , "" Since the committee had given P 's case a full and fair consideration at the appeal stage , a failure of natural justice at the inquiry stage was irrelevant "" . Although some cases require a fair hearing at the initial and the appeal stage , an appeal which consists of a full rehearing as to the merits of the case is sufficient to cure any initial defect . < fnote>[1980 ] A.C. 574 < /fnote><fnote > ibid . at < /fnote > For a reassessment of the merits in relation to X , the appeal will need to take into account the medical report . For Y , board should comprise of independent and impartial awake judges for assessment of the length of suspension appropriate . Finally , Z 's appeal would have to exclude extraneous matters from consideration . If the appeals adhered to these requirements in conducting a rehearing , judicial review would not be available since the initial defects would be cured .","< heading > Introduction</heading > Euthanasia encompasses a wide range of acts and omissions between which I will differentiate . Voluntary euthanasia requires a competent patient 's explicit request for death to be brought about . This includes active voluntary euthanasia , which involves a party bringing about death of the patient himself or assisting in the final act of death ( ' physician - assisted suicide ' in the context of the medical profession ) . Passive voluntary euthanasia entails the withdrawal of life - sustaining treatment at the request of a competent patient . Involuntary euthanasia , on the other hand , is absent of any request . The decision is made on the patient 's behalf regarding his best interests . Involuntary active euthanasia can be distinguished from involuntary passive euthanasia in that the moment of death is caused by an action and can not be attributed to natural causes . Currently the law in and prohibits assisted suicide under . Omissions , however , do not fall within the scope of this legislation . illustrates the legal distinction between acts and omissions . held that it was lawful to withhold artificial nutrition and hydration as well as antibiotics by categorising the cessation of such treatment as an omission . Mercy killing by omissions is considered lawful on the basis of the patient 's life no longer being worthwhile . < fnote > Airedale NHS Trust v. [ ] 1 All ER < /fnote > This essay will focus on the arguments surrounding physician assisted suicide ( PAS ) . < heading > Sanctity of Life</heading > The principal argument against euthanasia rests on the sanctity of life principle . This can be linked to religion ; many see human life as God - given and therefore sacrosanct . It follows that to intentionally bring an end to life is an affront to God 's intention . However , the decline in religion over reduces its significance . Alternatively , proposes that the foundation of the principle derives from the intrinsic human dignity , inherent because of the radical capacities possessed by humans such as understanding and rational choice . < fnote > Keown , J , ' Restoring moral and intellectual shape to the law after ' , ( ) ; from , with , ' Sourcebook on Medical Law ' , p. < /fnote > If the sanctity principle is given theological substance , human life is absolute and can not be derogated from . However the law on abortion and self defence demonstrates that the sanctity principle alone does not carry sufficient weight to prohibit all intentional acts of death . If the sanctity principle is given its secular interpretation according to , justification for upholding the value of life rests on human capacity . Therefore it can not be absolute , since human life will not always have such intrinsic value . Lord asserted in : < quote > "" [ Courts ] do not pursue the principle to the point at which it has become almost empty of any real content and when it involves the sacrifice of other important values such as human dignity and freedom of choice""</quote > This ' qualified ' sanctity doctrine takes into account quality of life considerations , ascertaining what is in the patient 's best interest . This has been consistently applied to numerous cases involving passive euthanasia . It therefore appears anomalous that courts are reluctant to erode the sanctity principle for cases of active euthanasia , leaving the law in a "" morally and intellectually misshapen state "" . Justification for such reluctance rests on the act / omissions distinction . < fnote > , with , ' Sourcebook on Medical Law ' , p.669 < /fnote><fnote > Re B ( A Minor ) ( Wardship : Medical Treatment ) [ ] 1 WLR 1421 ; Re C ( A Minor ) ( Wardship : Medical Treatment ) [ ] 2 All ER ; Re J ( A Minor ) ( Wardship : Medical Treatment ) [ ] ALL ER ; Re R ( Adult : Medical Treatment ) [ ] 2 FLR 99 ; v. [ ] 1 All ER ; ) [ ] FCR 46 < /fnote><fnote>[1993 ] AC 789 at per Lord ; from , ' Euthanasia in England : Courts , Committees and Consistency ' Med Law 16 ( ): p. < /fnote><heading > The Distinction between Acts and Omissions</heading > The legal justification for distinguishing between acts and omissions is that the author of an act has a causative input on the outcome , whereas "" the agent who fails , through omission , to prevent death is allowing the completion of a pre - existing causal set for that outcome "" . It is perhaps more difficult to perceive a moral distinction in cases of euthanasia . criticises as problematic the judgment that it is morally preferable to withhold treatment causing a protracted death rather than killing quickly and painlessly . < fnote > Staunch , M , ' and the Equality Principle : a Defence of the Act / Omissions Distinction in ' ( ) JME ; from , with , ' Sourcebook on Medical Law ' , p.674 < /fnote><fnote , J , ' The Value of Life ' , ( ) , p. - 39 ; from , with , ' Sourcebook on Medical Law ' , p.670 < /fnote > Those in favour of active euthanasia contend that the act / omissions distinction is untenable and should be abolished . Support for this is merited by the dubious classification as ' omissions ' of acts such as the switching off of ventilation machines , and removal of feeding and hydration tubes . asserts that classification of life - support machines as omissions is correct : if the life - saving apparatus was required to be restarted , deliberate failure to restart it would be an omission . Thus ; < quote>""It can make no moral difference that the respirator is constructed to run continuously and has to be stopped . Stopping the respirator is not a positive act of killing , but a decision not to strive any longer to save him . ""</quote><fnote , ' , ed . , p. - 149 ; from and , ' Medical Law ' , p. < /fnote > Conversely , the scenarios can be seen as the very distinction between acts and omissions . Rachels demonstrates the absence of any moral distinction between acts and omissions in his scenario of the child drowning by itself and with the assistance of an adult , both with the same culpable intention . Yet this does not deny the causative value of the author 's input . Neither should it in ' scenario : the case where the respirator ceases by itself is causally distinct from the case that requires a positive act of turning off the respirator and can not be used to generalise acceptance of switching off a ventilator as an omission . The positions of the doctors are more analogous to the adults ; merely watching , the other taking active steps to ensure that the child drowns . < fnote > Rachels , J , ' The End of Life ' ( ) , p. ; from , with , ' Sourcebook on Medical Law ' , p.673 < /fnote > In Bland it was accepted that even though the medics were placed under a duty to act by providing artificial nutrition and hydration , this duty terminated when it became within the patient 's best interest to die . The duty to act in certain situations is comparable to the duty not to interfere . "" The act / omission distinction ceases to be of legal significance where there is a duty to act "" . It logically follows that if the quality of life approach is applicable for passive euthanasia , it should be extended to active euthanasia ; despite this , courts have upheld the distinction . This has led to the judicial invention of the principle of ' double effect ' to exonerate perpetrators of active euthanasia who would otherwise fall within the scope of . < fnote and , ' Medical Law ' , p. < /fnote > In R v. , the judiciary directed the jury to acquit a doctor for increasing dosage of medication which resulted in the death of an elderly stroke patient . Lord distinguished between acting with the primary intention of causing death and acting with the primary purpose of relieving pain and suffering , with death as a side effect . The latter was regarded as exculpable since "" no act is murder which does not cause death "" . < fnote > R v. [ ] Crim . < /fnote > This approach has elicited much criticism and does not rest easily with the judgment of that a defendant will be regarded as obliquely intending a consequence and thus be liable if he knows it to be a virtually certain outcome of his actions . The flaw in the double effect approach is exposed by applying it to a case where the patient is not terminally ill but suffers from a recoverable condition . Administering lethal doses with the intent of ' relieving pain ' is unlikely to be a persuasive line of defence . The double effect doctrine subverts the true issue of whether it is in the patient 's best interests . However , if the courts were to abolish the act / omissions distinction altogether and relied on this approach , it would provide a defence not just for physicians , but for all authors of mercy killings . < fnote > R v. [ ] 4 All ER < /fnote><fnote and , ' Medical Law ' p. 2113 < /fnote><fnote > David Oliver and , ' L egalising and , ( ) , p. < /fnote><fnote > ibid . , p. < /fnote><heading > Discrepancies between Legislation and Practice</heading > Cases of acquittals remove the deterrent effect created by the legal prohibition of assisted suicide . The case of Moor involved a allegedly administering a lethal injection to a terminally ill patient causing death ( again invoking the doctrine of double effect ) . The judge nevertheless directed the jury to acquit him . This sympathetic approach was reiterated in where the jury was directed to find the defendant not guilty of aiding and abetting suicide by supplying paracetamol at the deceased 's request . held that this had merely provided the deceased with an option of taking her own life and did not constitute assistance . < fnote>(BMJ ; : ) Cited in JK Mason , and , ' Law and Medical Ethics ' , p.530 < /fnote><fnote > R v. ( ) , ; cited in and , ' Medical Law ' , p. < /fnote > Research from other jurisdictions confirms that physicians are participating in active euthanasia despite its illegality : a survey recorded of physicians being involved in active euthanasia . A comparable of nurses questioned in a survey had taken active steps which had brought about the death of a patient . Furthermore , of of nurses who had received requests from patients for active euthanasia but refused to comply , stated illegality as a reason for that refusal , whereas for it was not a factor in the decision - making process . < fnote > I and , ' Death - Whose Decision ? Euthanasia and , 26 ( 2000 ) p. < /fnote><fnote > Christine A and , ' Nurses and , Medicine and the Law 13 ( ) at < /fnote><fnote > ibid . at < /fnote > Although it is not a convincing argument that behaviour should be legalised because it occurs anyway ( since this could be argued for almost any crime ) , its justification for prohibition lacks reason when it can be seen that the judiciary are devising grounds to subvert such legislation . Discrepancies occur between legal theory and practice evinced by the acquittals of defendants in cases of clear - cut statutory defined murder . It could be argued that legalising will subject such practice to the regulation and scrutiny of a professional body . < fnote and , ' Medical Law ' , ed . , , p. < /fnote><heading > Personal Autonomy</heading > The Human Rights Act , incorporating , has strengthened arguments in favour of euthanasia , particularly conferring a right to ' respect for private and family life ' . The case of Ms B emphasised the importance of individual autonomy by making a declaration of unlawful trespass and awarding nominal damages to a patient for failure to comply with her request to be disconnected from a ventilation machine . < fnote 8 ECHR < /fnote><fnote > Ms B v. An Trust[2002 ] EWHC < /fnote > The case of triggered debate about the implications of . accepted that encompassed the act of dying itself and that the Suicide Act 1968 infringed this right , but nevertheless held that it was justified under ) as ' necessary in a democratic society ' . A margin of appreciation is granted to , and policy reasons outweighed the right of the individual to end her life without interference by the . < fnote > Pretty v. ( Application 2346/02 ) [ ] FCR 97 ; [ ] 2 FLR 45 and R ( on ) v. DPP[2001 ] UKHL 61 < /fnote><heading > Policy Reasons</heading > A major contention against active euthanasia was that it would fail to protect vulnerable people such as the elderly or disabled . The UK Government submitted that legislation proscribing suicide was necessary for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others : "" Law must be stated for the generality of cases "" . The interests of the individual can not be extrapolated from the interests of society . It was of the opinion that to allow euthanasia would send a message to society encouraging the vulnerable to seek death by pressurising them into relieving others of their burden . < fnote > ibid . per Lord at para . < /fnote > Pretty 's case epitomises the immense suffering endured by those wishing to end their lives . Dworkin criticised the above perspective for failing to recognise that other people could be harmed by a refusal to permit the practice . This is supported by figures revealing that of deaths in the are attributed to PAS . Furthermore , of patients requesting assisted suicide are refused by their doctor , which suggests that safeguards against abuse are effective . This challenges the state 's need to protect the vulnerable members of society , since safeguards would allow a compromise to be reached between the groups . < fnote , HL Paper 21 ( ) < /fnote><fnote > Pran Manga , ' Euthanasia and Medically Assisted Suicide - , Med Law 20 ( 2001 ): p. < /fnote><fnote > ibid . p. < /fnote > Another policy concern is that legalisation of euthanasia would hamper the development of palliative care by exhausting resources and offering an alternative to enduring suffering . Improving palliative care would diminish fears of unbearable pain and undignified deterioration , reasons cited as central to the decision to request PAS for of patients . A counter - argument is that euthanasia is supplementary to palliative care and not an alternative . However , evidence has revealed the problem of patients changing their minds and withdrawing their request once their depression and pain were treated , portraying palliative care as a substitute for euthanasia . Conversely , it is submitted that active euthanasia could prevent premature suicide ; patients would have control over the time and manner of their death and could therefore delay the event of death until life becomes completely unbearable . < fnote > Ezekiel J Emanuel , ' Euthanasia : Where the Netherlands Leads Will the World Follow ? ' , , ( ) < /fnote><fnote > Goff , ' , ( ) Med L Rev ; from , with , ' Sourcebook on Medical Law ' , p.725 < /fnote><fnote > Cited para . ( Application 2346/02 ) [ ] FCR 97 ; [ ] 2 FLR 45 < /fnote><fnote > Sharon I and , ' Death - Whose Decision ? Euthanasia and , 26 ( 2000 ) p. < /fnote > To prevent unnecessary suicide , safeguards could target against such practice by refusing euthanasia to patients with psychiatric conditions or where there are other remedies available . The confronts this problem , legislating conditions to be fulfilled . These include that the doctor is satisfied that the suffering is unbearable with no prospect of improvement ; and that there is "" no reasonable alternative in light of the patient 's situation "" . Research has shown practice to be consistent with this , showing that patients whose requests were refused were more likely to have depression as a predominant complaint , were less likely to be suffering "" hopelessly and unbearably "" and were more likely to have access to alternatives for treatment . < fnote > The Termination of Life on Request and ) formalised existing practice < /fnote><fnote > i bid . section ) < /fnote><fnote > ibid . section 2(1)(d ) < /fnote><fnote > BMJ ( ) ; at ( ) < /fnote > Another aspect of controversy arises from conferring upon doctors the role of God by placing them in control of other 's mortality . There is concern that will undermine confidence in patients because it conflicts with the doctor 's role in healing . It is a doctor 's duty to adhere to : < quote>""I will neither give a deadly drug to anybody if asked for it , nor will I make a suggestion to this effect"".</quote><fnote and , ' Medical Law ' , ed . , , p. < /fnote > However , the roles can be reconciled if doctors are permitted to assist in suicide only to alleviate unbearable suffering , consistent with the patient 's best interests . defends the position of doctors in assisting suicide , since they are skilled in carrying out diagnosis , prognosis and assessing alternative treatments which are important procedural safeguards . However , research in revealed that doctors ' decisions are subjective , shaped by their own cultural upbringing and life experiences . The responded to this concern by introducing the requirement of an approval by a independent physician to impose an empirical standard . < fnote > Pran Manga , ' Euthanasia and Medically Assisted Suicide - , Med Law 20 ( 2001 ): p. < /fnote><fnote > P Barroso , E Osuna and A Luna , ' Doctors ' Death Experience and Attitudes towards Death , Euthanasia and , Med Law 11 ( ): p. < /fnote><fnote > section 2(1)(e ) ) Act < /fnote > Because ethical considerations are involved , there is doubt whether doctors are any more qualified in making decisions of life and death than anyone else . This could lead to the acceptance of active voluntary euthanasia as a defence to the public at large . This is linked to the ' slippery slope ' argument that once form of euthanasia is legislated it will open up the way for further abuse . The case of illustrates the possibility of individuals seeking to control the mortality of their patients , and their potential to do so would be fostered by a regime such as the ' . However the current system is not impervious to abuse as the case of illustrates . Legalising PAS may even improve the system by introducing a regulatory body to control and detect abuses . Despite the safeguards implemented by the and the institution of to scrutinise every case , research reveals that these precautions are not strictly adhered to but there is "" widespread disregard among doctors ... of the formal requirements "" . cases of euthanasia went unreported to the local medical examiner , thus avoiding the inquiry of the reviewing body . Contrary to section 1(a ) , doctors have failed to satisfy themselves that the patients ' request is "" voluntary and carefully considered "" , of cases obtained request , where had an interval of for the and last requests . Research also indicates that euthanasia has been practised without the consent of some patients , fuelling the ' slippery slope ' argument . < fnote > JK Mason , and , ' Law and Medical Ethics ' , p.533 < /fnote><fnote > Henk Jochemsen and , ' under ? Further Empirical Evidence from the ' ( ) JME ; from and , ' Medical Law ' , p. < /fnote><fnote > Marc Staunch , with , ' Sourcebook on Medical Law ' , p.725 < /fnote><fnote > L Pijnenborg , , and Looman , ' Life - terminating Acts without Explicit Request of patient ' ( ) 1196 ; from JK Mason , and , ' Law and Medical Ethics ' p.533 < /fnote><heading > Conclusion</heading > Despite the artificiality resulting from the upholding of the act / omissions distinction , it is unlikely that changes will be effected to apply the ' best interests test ' to active euthanasia even as a limited defence for . Although the rise of human rights attaches great weight to the personal autonomy argument , policy reasons remain compelling , particularly in light of the ' futile attempts to combat the contingency of abuse .",1
"A good example of a portrayal of femininity comes from the short story "" , "" written by . 's character is a member of the generation of a family who immigrated to from during . Her mother is a particularly prominent character in the story , despite the fact that she passed away before the present time the story is set in . The strength of her character is contrasted with several aspects of the short story ; firstly it is contrasted with the terrible conditions of the inhabitants and refugees of , which describes as "" a city of leftovers . "" , 's mother 's strength of character can be contrasted with the lack of a convincingly powerful male presence . 's mother 's authority is dominant throughout the story and there are few references to any patriarchal values ; only when the text is examined between the lines can notice a couple of stereotypes of male and female roles within society and within the household . her strength of character is contrasted with irresolute aspects of 's own character . The time this story was written , in , also has some significance on the views that are expressed in the book : One can draw comparisons between 's writing and that of 's such as , whose detective fiction novels bear great emphasis on strong female characters . There are several other examples of female authors rising to success through their depiction of strong female characters during this time period and one may even claim that is an author who may fall into this category . < fnote > The Granata book of the Short Story : Page . < /fnote > An important focal point for the development of 's mother 's femininity and indeed , 's identity , is the origin of the origin of . The story begins in the person with telling us that her mother has been dead for and that her father has asked her to "" be the corner at . "" This begins an instant curiosity in the reader 's mind as to what the Joy Luck Club actually - as it is also the title of the story . Compared with "" , "" the words are used to end the story instead of begin it . We soon learn that was the creation of 's mother during her awful experience of during the invasion of by the in . Normally in , the people regard as a place of great natural beauty . 's mother describes this in : < fnote > The Granata book of the Short Story : Page . < /fnote><quote>""In , everyone dreamed about . And when I arrived , I realized how shabby my dreams were , how poor my thoughts . ""</quote><fnote > The Granata book of the Short Story : Page . < /fnote > 's mother describes very poetically , as if it is a fairly tale land , describing the hills as "" like giant fried fish heads trying to jump out of a vat of oil . "" At this may seem to the or reader as a rather strange image to use to describe hills . However , mothers , like their or counterparts , often prepare meals for the family more frequently when compared to the father or male figure in the family . explanation of this peculiar image is : generally , dishes containing fried fish are more common among families than among . Yet is to contrast the beauty of with the harsh conditions that is to experience there . As a mother of twins she has to live amongst the "" of people "" pouring into the city . People from all different backgrounds come into the city and expresses strong views about them through her story to . Her strength of character is shown by her attempts to separate herself and her children off from the nasty reality of life in during the invasion of the . At she tries to ignore the "" screaming sounds "" coming from the streets where peasants are being beaten by air force officers for "" lying in his way on the sidewalk "" Yet after a while , her feminine resolve forces her to realize that "" I needed something to do to help me move . "" With her husband ( not 's father ) being away in Chungking due to his duties as an officer in the , was left to fend for herself and her children . This was when she came up with the idea for : < fnote > Granata book of the Short Story : Page . < /fnote><quote>""My idea was to have a gathering of women , for each corner of my mah jong table . "" Each week one of us would host a party to raise money and to raise our spirits . ""</quote><fnote > Granata book of the Short Story : Page . < /fnote > Suyuan organized similar minded women , "" all young like me , with wishful faces "" into this small group that managed to enjoy a feast compared with the trash that others were eating off the street . "" We did n't notice that the dumplings were stuffed mostly with stringy squash and that the oranges were spotted with wormy holes , "" has her exclaim . 's strength of will allows this all to take place . 's provides a stark contrast to the conditions of life in and the perfect escape for her and her friends . This feminine strength also allows her to leave on her own with her children during the invasion of the city . Yet she is not physically strong enough to carry all her belongings and soon beings to drop things in her desperation to escape . is shocked by the fact that she did n't have the strength continue carrying everything , including the babies : "" What happened to the babies ? "" exclaims in a stunned and horrified tone . may argue that she did n't have the strength of character to care for the life of her children when she left them there on her escape from . Yet some would argue that she does have a different strength , interested in her own personal survival , realizing that neither she nor her children would have survived if she had continued carrying them . Another place to look for the portrayal of femininity is that of 's character . 's life runs almost in complete contrast to that of her mothers . She does n't have the resolve her mother does as she "" started a degree in biology , then a degree in art , and then finishing neither . "" Compared to her mother , who not only escaped the terrors of in , then managed to move her life over to , she also managed to set up another club in with similar immigrants that she meets in church . "" All of the mothers came to to escape the horrors of war . They hoped for the prosperity and ease that living in would afford them . "" seems to show as a weaker character than her mother . She manages to do this despite her 's mother 's name is only mentioned once in the story when the remaining members of the club are saying their short remembrances to her upon 's experience of a club meeting . Again a reader may read this as being disrespectful to ; on a closer reading of the text , linking the traditions of the club such as to "" forget past wrongs done "" and telling "" stories about good times in the past and good times to come . "" To focus of 's death would be against the traditions of the club and what Suyuan set it up for . While Suyuan is a dominant female character in 's story , is a slightly more reserved and more Americanized female . It is difficult to tell why has a slightly more stereotypically female characteristics compared with her mother . It may because has been more assimilated by society than her mother or other reasons such as her mother 's more dominating personality that cause her to be a slightly more subdued character . Yet they is described as having "" the same girlish laugh and sideways look , "" as her mother . Yet they share few similarities . 's mother is by far the more passionate female character as has Suyuan exclaim at point "" You do n't even know little percent of me ! How can you be me ? "" Suyuan 's confidence in her own abilities and the lack of those of her own daughter 's seems to be a more male attribute than that of a mother . The relationship and her mother seems to be autobiographical of 's own life as when and her mother moved to after her father and brother had both died of brain tumors ( similar to what dies of in ) . "" By this time mother and daughter were in constant conflict . Mother and daughter did not speak for and further defied her mother by abandoning the pre - med course her mother had urged to pursue the study of and linguistics . "" explains that "" My mother and I never really understood one another . "" < fnote > Granata book of the Short Story : Page . < /fnote><fnote > URL   < /fnote><fnote > Granata book of the Short Story : Page 603 . < /fnote><fnote > Granata book of the Short Story : Page . < /fnote><fnote > Granata book of the Short Story : Page < /fnote><fnote > URL   < /fnote > The conflicting personalities of and her mother starkly contrast to the huge vacuum that the lack of a dominant male presence presents in the story . 's father is pushed to the background in the story and there is mention of other man by name . He appears in to her place on the mah jong table , appearing later in the story at the meeting of the club with as a member . Although may see this concentration on female characters as a slightly feminist novel , there are still sexual stereotypes presents , particularly regarding domestic roles . For example , has to pack the bag for both her and her husband when the leave for ; however , all she packs are her silk dresses leaving out his cotton shirts and wool pants . This shows that she is more worried about bringing her own luxury items than the bare essentials for her husband , claiming "" there was no time to pack anything else . "" Another example of domestic stereotyping in the story is that of club meetings . The men leave the table "" almost as quickly as they started , "" whereas the women are left to clear the table and probably to wash up afterwards . The women also prepared the meal in the place . does n't so much as challenge sexual stereotypes and patriarchy as other prominent women authors do ; she just sets it aside , neglecting the inclusion of men in her story because it would n't have been beneficial for her to focus on them . Unlike , who 's hard hitting detective is just as potent as any other famous male private eyes and usually far more dominant than any of 's male characters , 's main female characters do not shake off the stereotypical roles that women have filled for in society . This is even despite their moving away from communist to begin a new life in the land of opportunity . shares and expresses the opinion that in this land of opportunity that their daughters have to work hard at making an opportunity into a better life than that of their parents or grandparents : "" If she does n't try , she can lose her chance forever . "" This is the powerful feeling of most immigrant mothers driving their children to excel in their studies and pursuits . < fnote > Granata book of the Short Story : Page . < /fnote><fnote > URL   < /fnote > There are only a few significant female characters that uses in her short story . All of their significance is slightly offset by the presence of . Suyuan 's friend The only woman in the story who comes close to being her equal is . She is her best friend , yet also "" arch enemies "" at the same time . They compared their children when Suyuan was alive and this was one of the only places where 's character is slightly reduced . She is slightly wounded by the lack of direction of her daughter which she decided was due to having too much of the natural element of water . The fact that 's character manages to set up a club that celebrated during the horrors that she experienced during her time in . The fact that she was able to begin a new club in and allow it to adapt to include buying stock market shares and continues telling good luck stories in her name is a testament to her character . The problems has with her "" broken "" and her traditions are made to seem petty compared to the life that lives being thrown out of her flat and not finishing university degrees . This is all despite is the person narrator in the story . By is asked by her "" aunties "" to go and see her step - sisters in and tell them about "" her kindness , her smartness , and her dutiful nature to family . "" This , in a way is continuing her mother 's great feminine personality as she is looked upon to develop the personality her mother ' club .","From preceding , the colonies of were becoming more and more independent from their mother country , . This would have several effects on the attitude to her colonies both from the leadership in and her public and parliament back home . Yet the relationship between the and "" seemed very close , both culturally and politically - and it is remarkable how this rosy picture changed so quickly . "" Even though there was still a great demand for exports from the colonies , each colony was individually was becoming more self sufficient on its own agriculture and produce . Some of the colonies also had a fairly self sustaining economy , , and relied mainly on intense levels of production of crops such as , grains and cotton ( which later became a huge export from , fueling the economy considerably ) . The fact that was such a great distance to travel in those times , taking to travel by sailing ship , meant that contacting in times of crisis would be delayed by a significant amount of time . This distance would also mean that during any conflict it would take time to reinforce troops if heavy losses were to be suffered . In many respects , the should have won the revolutionary war . Some reasons for this include : the strength of and her empire at the time , the seemingly superior combat experience of the troops compared with the forces , ( much of which comprised of farmers and young inexperienced men looking for adventure ) and the better - quality weapons that the army carried . However , by the time the fighting actually started , there was great patriotic support for the Revolution from all leagues of society . The also made some rather unfortunate blunders , loosing support from well needed allies and further alienating remaining loyalist support among the colonists . < fnote > Richard Holmes . and the ,   URL   ( ) < /fnote > One of the factors one should consider when examining the causes of the defeat in the war of independence is that of the popular support of the colonists for the patriotic movement that was taking the colonies of by storm . "" On the assembled in . "" This was to later organize the Declaration of Independence based on the widely published pamphlet , "" common sense . "" The strength of feeling and confidence in their own ability to survive should not be underestimated among the colonists . tends to forget that by , the older colonies such as and were into their of generation of peoples , who now saw themselves not as subjects of but as . What agitated them even further was that the issued taxes after suffering a doubling in their national debt after : This huge debt lay at "" £ in "" and "" the carrying charge of absorbed of the annual budget . "" Reforms of taxes included of th , of which prevented the printing of the dollar in all and which forced colonists , particularly in to allow soldiers to stay within their homes or inns . This lead to disasters for - Anglo relations such as where were killed and turned into martyrs and the tea party where chests of tea was destroyed by patriotic activists . These events lead the to retaliate with force , the leading to the huge growth of the patriotic movement among the colonists . < fnote > , ' Empire and independence : , Inc. ) p. < /fnote > After examining the evidence , one has to wonder how the loosely organized army beat the might of the "" greatest army in the world . "" The army had the greater experience and at the greater number of regulars than the "" poorly supplied , inexperienced army . "" However , the still managed to win the war of independence . On the one hand , it may be seen as due to a lot of luck and bad decisions by generals that the were to lose the war against the . For example , the attack on , the escaped with most of their supplies in that area intact and also managed to inflict a fair amount of damage on the troops as "" every and farm "" rebels sniped from behind walls , trees barns and houses . The were able to inflict casualties on the before they were able to return to the protection of their fleet at . This initial meeting of the sides demonstrates an integral part of the force : The significance of guerilla warfare which was to amount to a large proportion of skirmishes upon which the often suffered defeat but in the words of Nathaneal Greene : "" we fight , get beat , rise and fight again . "" This form of warfare was to become fairly significant for the war effort and would be a good method of splitting forces and preventing the kind of field warfare that the commanders desired ; where armies would line up against each other and take and return shots , the type of warfare soldiers were best at . Thus , the ' rarely played to strengths . ' This may be seen as lucky because in some respects it was n't really planned this way as the who came to fight quickly dispersed after many of the battles , returning home to tend to children and house chores . Another factor that caused problems for the was the lost art of winning a war largely by the presence of a strong cavalry . The terrain of many of the battles of the war was completely unsuitable for horsemen , removing the traditional advantage that the army had previously prided herself with . "" The days when cavalry achieved victory by their efforts alone had long passed and particularly in the the terrain - woods and swamps and all manner of broken ground . "" was dismayed at the lack of regular troops to form a strong militia claiming they often "" leave you at last at a critical moment . "" Yet this ragged band of untrained hunters and farmers was to form the main force that brought down the most powerful army in the world at that time and it was due to several more reasons . < fnote > George Brown Tindal and . E. Shi . ' . A narrative history ' ( , , , ) p. . < /fnote><fnote > and , ' The Fall of the British Empire - Origins of ( and , ) p. < /fnote><fnote > . ' . anniversary ' ( Invasion publishing Ltd , ) p. < /fnote > Another point one may have to make when examining the question of why the lost is that of weapons and supplies . The colonists did have access to similar weapons as those used in the army as they were needed for the colonists own protection when they arrived in and were greeted by a great number of hostile locals . During the war the traded with the a great deal , supplying them with many guns and munitions . Despite the illegality of the early continental congress among the authorities , it was still able to organize the building of a supplies factory and a limited chain with which to distribute guns and ammunition to troops . The big problem for congress was that of feeding the hungry regulars which they solved by allowing soldiers to march into farms and take livestock and grains in return for a paper claiming the victim would be reimbursed by the state at later date . This showed that although there was a great lack of organization , the were still able to fumble their way through providing for its small regular army . The on the other hand did run into problems with supplies later in the war after their shipping was continuously attacked by privateers where in "" there were approximately privateers roving the seas and attacking shipping . "" The intervention of the , who caused "" general alarm throughout "" worried that and threatened her naval superiority throughout the world . Later the war between the and the became a world war as in the and the entered on the 's side . This caused dismay among the at home and the large majority of the fleet returned to back home to protect from an invasion by combined , and troops . The roundly defeated this fleet , mainly comprised of ships , on the th . Although once again regained control of the seas , the attacks of the privateers and the intervention of the fleet came at a crucial time . The army in was neglected as supply lines were drastically reduced during the presence of ships in the waters . This came at a crucial time before the siege of upon which the fate in was almost definitely set . < fnote > . ' . anniversary ' ( Invasion publishing Ltd , ) p. < /fnote > One may also attribute this great triumph of will to the skill and innovative methods of the commanders and in particular . The innovation of the commanders provided some impressive victories for the colonists . of the most prominent examples of this is 's crossing of the . When he initially crossed in the autumn of he was fleeing with his tattered army which was reduced from men to because of the harsh conditions of . He decided that for the moral of the troops he needed to win a quick skirmish with the . This led to his unconventional crossing back across the on with as many troops as he could muster including artillery and horses . He defeated the taking prisoners and a large amount of military equipment . This was a crucial victory for the as was his return across the to defeat the on rd . Although the won the majority of battles such as those of , and , she also generally suffered the heaviest losses . Another example is the victory at courthouse : "" But like so many victories it was won at disproportionate cost , "" just like that at bunker hill which cost the 1,054 men compared to around colonial casualties . The lack of a decisive blow that could have been taken at several opportunities was another downfall of the war effort . In relation to this point , the entering the war was one of the main turning points for the cause . When the fleet and army failed to attack the vulnerable when the landed at on , they gave the army a great advantage . infantryman said "" we owed our safety to his ( the commander ) irresolution alone . "" Earlier in the war when the were n't directly involved militarily , they donated valuable supplies to the . At point congress was able to negotiate "" brass cannon , arms , tents and accoutrements for men , ammunition in proportion , and to brass mortars . "" Another important factor that contributed to defeat was that of the weakness of allies within the colonists themselves . Part of this weakness and lack of allies was the result of looting and pillaging of villages and towns that they came across on their marches across . Another factor that alienated colonial support for the was their policy that any slave who fought on the side would be freed . All these problems added up to cause the great grief during of the war and ultimately led to the loss of command of the colonies in . < fnote > Richard Holmes . and the ,   URL   ( ) < /fnote><fnote > , and Independence : The International History of , Inc , ) p. < /fnote > When assessing the reasons for the defeat , one has to concern oneself with the causes of disquiet with rule in the place . of the most important factors in the 's victory over the was that of support for the cause of independence . This had flourished after the publication of the pamphlet "" common sense "" upon which the declaration of independence was based . The taxes and levied issued by the government on the colonists caused severe discomfort . Yet not even the taxes and law which were put upon the people were enough to force people to support the cause . When an interview of a veteran of the war was held , one may see the fuller picture of why people decided to join and fight . When asked about he replied "" I never paid for of them , "" the Tea tax : "" I never drank a drop of the stuff . "" When directly asked why he fought the "" redcoats "" he replied "" we always had governed ourselves and we always meant to . They did n't mean we should . "" So the main reason for the support of so many came from the determination of self government . Even after their defeat at , the had a chance of destroying or paralyzing the army as they still remained in control of the seas and therefore had the ability of constant reinforcement . Yet they chose not to . The were defeated by the resolve of many people who would fight for the cause in many different ways , whether fighting in the regular army , whether you were a simple farmer , only taking part in guerilla warfare or supplying the troops with food or shelter . It may also be said that the would have been at a loss if it had n't been for the intervention of the and other powers to check the power of on a worldwide scale . By the end of the war , the troops had become fairly adept to fighting in the terrain of the continent , yet the guerilla tactics and sharp actions of commanders such as 's crossings of the meant that the were to be caught off guard and loose crucial battles . Despite wining the majority of skirmishes , the not only failed to deliver a decisive blow equivalent to the victory at , they also suffered the heaviest casualties of the war . With a sporadically attended and ragged army , was able to deliver the biggest blow to the greatest empire of the times . < fnote > . ' . anniversary ' ( Invasion publishing Ltd , ) p. < /fnote >",1
"< heading > Introduction</heading > This paper looks at the aspects of diplomatic methods of foreign policy in the time period following the end of . The question has parts and this essay rather than answering it in parts will address highlight the patterns in the diplomatic methods and try to look at the ways in which they reflect the domestic interests . The part illuminates the concept of diplomatic method which is followed by an examination of diplomatic methods and of their motivation , especially in relation to domestic interests . I look at the role of coercion , both as a verbal threat and backed by economic tools , bilateralism in and diversification of diplomatic relations , role of personal diplomacy , cooperation with and and economic relations with a group of key countries . The paper argues that leadership does in a number of areas take the domestic political and economic interests into account or at least the policies are inspired by domestic context , however there are a number of other important factors and interests reflected in the diplomatic activity of which come top on the agenda . < heading > The concept of ' Diplomatic methods'</heading > By ' the diplomatic methods ' this paper understand the way in which a countries decides to use the tools it has , exerts its influence and implements the foreign policy goals . Diplomatic methods are varied and reflect much of countries available resources , its international environment as well as general style . An examination of the methods a country uses in its would look at how the country deals with other states and specific issues which confront it . Essentially an analysis of diplomatic methods looks at the ' how ? ' of foreign policy . To reflect on whether diplomatic methods are drawn from the consideration of domestic interests , it is necessary to looks at whether the main motivation to use a specific method is based on consideration of domestic context and interests and whether the consequences of using a particular method are directed at a particular domestic actor or to deal with a domestic issue . < heading > Russian diplomatic methods and motivation</heading > Use of economic diplomacy is one of the major patterns in . The administrative has used the economic tools available in a number of ways and with various motivations . Relying both on positive and negative effects of the diplomatic method . has been engaged in active economic cooperation with the , and particularly its members . It has used a number of economic diplomatic methods to facilitate a greater level of cooperation with the . ( ) argues that tries to improve its position in the affairs in ways . It tries to developing strong economic ties in the energy industry , particularly the gas exports and increasing the trade volume with . The gas pipeline project ' is set to bypass the whole block illustrates both efforts to increase its share in energy market of and undermine the position of the countries in relations with . The move with increase the reliance of on energy resources strengthen the latter 's position in negotiations with . Increased importance of Partnership and Cooperation Agreement in also demonstrates the significance of economic dimension of - relations . Here the motivation for using economic tools to facilitate greater level of cooperation with is pragmatic and power interested . Economic cooperation with provides benefits for the economy , namely market access which leads to higher levels of trade and attracts , and thus helps to increase the living standards in . is 's major business partner in energy commodities trade . "" Energy exports , together with 's other extensive resource deposits , would be the foundation of its national revival . They would provide funds to renew its infrastructure , diversify its economy and develop technologies . "" ( quoted by FT , ) As becomes a major economic player in , especially as a major energy supplier , its gains more influence over the individual states and their economies and consequently a greater role in as a whole . Another aspect of diplomatic methods are the economic ties with countries like , , , , and . Barston ( ) has been a major supplier of arms and nuclear technology to these countries , where its activity in is particularly interesting . established commercial relations with and previously , where it supplied the rogue regimes with weapons and nuclear technology in spite of criticism and negative reactions from its allies . However , the commercial relations have their limits , mostly set by tolerance levels . ( Bobo , ) By establishing commercial relations , has also improved its diplomatic ties with these countries in general . The motivation for the economic relations reflects both domestic interests as well as a general interest in increasing its influence on affairs or at least stop its current decline . "" By posing as the sole major power to take seriously ( at least in public ) 's protestations that its nuclear programme is innocent , has gained both commercially and diplomatically . "" ( ; ) has been able to sell arms and nuclear technology and thereby financing related domestic industries which would otherwise have it hard to find customers . ( ) argues that commercial interests assume primacy in the economic relations and consequently has tried to depoliticize this issue by following money rather than political interests . Moreover , commercial success in these countries is likely to attract more potential buyers . Moreover , 's economic relations in have enabled to increase its diplomatic influence in the region . "" As for and , Mr 's policies have a logic , up to a point . With under new management , is 's only real foothold to hoist itself into a seat at future negotiations . offers the chance to do what does over : play up its own diplomatic influence by offering to broker a deal . "" ( Economist ; ) Trade with and technology transfer from create a level of dependence on which gives the latter more diplomatic influence . The increased importance of as a consequence of its relations with has been noted by ; ) following the vote in favour of a resolution to sanction . "" would like to think that the recent slight softening of 's public tone and the rising domestic criticism of its president , , may owe something to fears of losing its only legitimate outside source of nuclear technology . "" ( ; ) Another general feature of diplomacy is the reliance on coercion . Here we can distinguish between verbal statements and speeches , like 's speech in , use of force or a direct threat of its use and use of economic tools . While is well aware of the limits on its military force capabilities , as illustrated by a number of statements on state of army , still considers at least use of force a tool of the . In the conflict with , where its territory has been used as a safe haven by the rebels , has threatened to use force in order to convince the government does not deal with the rebels . In addition , reactions to decision to develop the system in and establish military bases in and republic have been marked by a an aggressive and even threatening tone . "" In a speech that stunned most of the audience at an security conference held in , Mr also railed against plans to build anti - missile defences in , the expansion of to include countries that were formerly part of , and a host of other western policies . "" ( , ) and representatives talked of "" blackmail . "" Coercion using economic tools is a persistent method of diplomacy when dealing with countries from the former sphere of influence , namely the countries in ( CIS ) and and Eastern European Countries ( CEECs ) . Using economic tools like trade and energy prices , it tries to incur significant economic costs and thereby muscle compliance in the target country . relations with , and illustrate well this diplomatic method . "" Last autumn [ 2006 ] , the imposed postal and aviation blockades , alongside the existing embargoes on 's water , wine and fruit . Then , with winter approaching , they doubled the price for gas -- in theory for commercial reasons , but with the real aim of taming Mr Saakashvili . "" ( Economist ; ) By isolating a country economically and affecting its oil supplies , hopes to force the president to listen more closely to . In the case , in has dramatically increased the energy prices and even resorted to a complete stop of supplies following the ' Orange revolution ' which lead to a turn in orientation including the call for and membership . In the conflict with , has introduced a ban on imports of meat , as way to have a negative impact on economy . has in a number of cases used its energy resources , particularly 's dependence on gas , and trade embargoes and their threat to influence countries . Extensive use of coercive methods by diplomacy reflects both a lack of alternatives and a continuation of the style . lacks a ' soft power ' infrastructure to support its diplomatic efforts and thus can not rely on appeal of its ideas and ideology in general . Moreover , with economic weakness , the country is unlikely to be able to offer significant economic benefits to affect others ' . While lower gas prices are useful bargaining tools , countries like and show that economic interests do not always come top on the agenda . As the military capability and utility of use of force declined , has tried to rely on economic tools to back coercive diplomacy . is a major energy supplier to much of the empire and increasingly also , which provides it with more power to influence states economy by affecting supply and prices of gas and oil . Coercive methods are also partly a continuation of diplomatic style where 's diplomats draw a considerable part of their experience and expertise from . diplomacy also heavily relies on personal diplomacy . The past events clearly demonstrated the importance of the head of the state in policy making and diplomatic negotiations . While 's were more chaotic and a number of actors have been engaged in foreign policy making at the cost of its coherence and unity , recently it seems more appropriate to talk of 's foreign policy rather than a one . The president takes an active role in major diplomatic events , like the EU- meetings and negotiations , and his statements , particularly the recent speech from in , highlights his importance in shaping the tone and direction of . ( ) also mentions the increased importance of special presidential envoys . This development demonstrates the importance of the Foreign policy in 's agenda and affairs . Personal diplomacy is a persistent feature of with president 's statements and visits as an important method to communicate intentions . The role of the in diplomatic activity reflects the importance of agenda in domestic affairs . It could be argued the managed democracy regime existing in on the one hand gives him almost complete power over the , but on the other hand makes him personally responsible for the successes and failures . In this sense , personal diplomacy reflects more the importance of in domestic politics rather than the other way around . has in the period developed bilateral diplomatic relations with a number of countries . Barston ( ) identifies key group of countries , , , and , where diplomacy relied on bilateralism to improve the existing relation . High - profile visits by key officials and were an important part in building up the relationships which were later institutionalized in treaties or other agreements . "" relations were upgrade to a strategic level , with the Russian - Chinese Treaty of Cooperation and Joint Statement and similar arrangements concluded with . "" state energy - giant Gazprom and major companies ( E - ON and ) have been working on an important joint energy project , namely ' , which links the states more closely together . Barston ( ) has highlighted the role of cultural diplomacy in developing the bilateral relations , particularly the cultural programme . efforts to establish a broader and deeper set of bilateral relations with key countries reflects both the pragmatic interests grounded in domestic economy as well as the significance of its diplomatic position . "" Though it makes sense for a country with as many neighbours as has to be on good terms with as many as possible , included , Mr knows that , if is to grow strong again , it needs to link its future with the world 's rich democracies -- the folk around the G8 table -- not the world 's few surviving dictators . "" ( Economist ; ) Diversification of relations and allies can also reflect interest in improving its diplomatic power by limiting its reliance on the . "" officials warn westerners , with varying degrees of bad temper , that they have plenty of other friends -- , , , , former -- if and again overlook 's interests in places like and . "" ( Economist ; ) The role of soft power , or public diplomacy , in diplomatic methods has been limited but the recent shifts signal the growing importance of this area . Soft power has been defined by as the "" ability to get what you want through attraction rather than through coercion "" and which can "" be cultivated through relations with allies , economic assistance , and cultural exchanges . "" ( , ) has provided economic assistance to its closest allies in the in exchange for their support of . In particular this has mainly taken form of low energy imports prices , at least in comparison to the consumer sin the West . By providing economic benefits , was able to maintain the pro - Kremlin orientation and general compliance with its policies in these countries . The ' carrots ' have been withdrawn once the countries changed their political orientation , e.g. the case of and after the ' Colour revolutions ' . "" As a result of the ' colour revolutions ' in and , 's leaders learned that crude manipulation might not be enough to remain in power , that ideas matter and that NGOs can make revolutions . "" ( , 2006:2 ) This negative experience has led ( ) to argue that has recognized the importance of soft power dimension in diplomacy and the methods associated . "" - friendly and - financed NGOs and think - tanks have emerged in many states and even in the secessionist entities . "" ( , ) so far have a clear deficit in appeal of its ideas and 's doctrine of ' managed ' or ' sovereign ' democracy attracted a considerable critique . However , there is a clear perception and the need to address this in the administrative . In words , the major objective of the policy   "" is to develop an efficient infrastructure of ideas , institutions , networks and media outlets that can use the predictable crisis of the current orange - type regimes to regain influence not simply at the level of government but at the level of society as well . "" ( in , 2006:2 ) As already mentioned above , also engaged in cultural exchange programs with ( , ) to facilitate a change in its image . as a part of interests abroad has been trying to influence the political process in the countries in a number of ways . Personal statements regarding the preferred candidate and visits to the country preceding elections have market 's involvement in the elections campaigns and politics in the countries . "" It may now be called ( CIS ) , but their independence goes only so far . The sends advisers to help its preferred candidates with election campaigns . "" ( Economist ; ) Particular example are the Ukrainian 2004 elections where has made statements clearly supporting - friendly Viktor Yanukovych . by interfering in the elections has tried to shape domestic politics of the countries in order to create more oriented governments and increase its influence over the countrie 's . of the major patterns in foreign policy is cooperation with the following the attacks . 's diplomatic efforts to bring closer to have relied on assistance in issues related to terrorism and diplomatic support or at least non - opposition on issues vital to . "" declared that will assist the anti - terrorism campaign in the following way : by providing information about terrorist bases , allowing use of airspace for humanitarian flights in areas of anti - terrorist operations , accepting use of airfields for antiterrorist operations , and by supporting in . "" ( , ) has avoided major conflicts on issues which are vital to . ( 2006:42 ) This was particularly visible in the run up to , did not want to state its position on future actions and let other members lead the anti - war campaign . Yet the partnership has its limits as competes with on issues which are vital to it but considers less important . 's recent speech in seems to be reconsidering the success of the ' war on terror ' and support for unilateralism in general . conception of world order is an important motivation for the diplomatic efforts . While tried to balance the influence of and its allies , has put in a closer relationship with the and has cooperated with in areas vital to the latter 's interest . As a consequence of amiability , has supported membership of the G8 which improves 's international standing . As for the domestic interests , ( ) notes that cooperation with attracted major opposition at home , especially in the legislative and military . While certain are domestic groups that oppose alignment and cooperation with West , has acted this way in the context of 's military , economic and diplomatic decline . economy has shrunk to of its size following the break up of the empire . ( Bobo ) The decline makes opposition to and competition with too costly and unlikely too succeed . Moreover , "" 's orientation to the West satisfies a deep longing among and liberals , but it also serves the practical purpose of deflecting Western criticism of 's campaign in . ( , 2003:22 ) USA has in the aftermath of and cooperation minimized criticism of campaign in the rebel province . The Chechen war is a domestically a highly salient as it has been one of the most important issues was elected on in . < heading > Conclusion : < /heading > This paper has examined various aspects of diplomacy and discussed the motivation behind its diplomatic methods . Both domestic context and associated interests , and external environment affect methods . On the one hand , domestic limits what methods are available , as lacks of soft power dimension and had limited success with carrot approach when trying to influence countries ' . On the other hand , the utility of energy resources increases as becomes a major exporter of gas to . Relationship with follows both domestic economic interest and effort to increase its influence . Economic ties with other countries , particularly the axis - of - evil members , follow profit interests as well as it serves to increase influence in the region . The importance of coercion with and CEECs countries can be explained by lack of viable alternatives and large level of dependence on the for energy imports . has tried to influence the domestic political process in some of the countries , as tries to keep its neighbours in line with Foreign policy preferences . has been able to secure virtual autonomy in decision making process which puts him in a better position to get away with ignoring the domestic interest . This has been also reflected by the role of personal diplomacy . reliance on bilateralism to extend and deepen its relations with key players and emerging powers in relations reflects interest in developing its diplomatic influence . Having a more diverse set of relations can also make it less reliant on particular countries and improve its bargaining position . The relationship with again reflects domestic weakness , but is also motivated by the benefits has to offer . On top of that it makes the less critical about record in and human rights record . It seems that 's main objective is to enhance diplomatic influence and power or at least stop the rapid decline . Domestic interests are reflected in the fact that has recognized that can only be a major player if it has a strong economy . Moreover , economic growth and rising living standards have an important influence on domestic stability and people 's support for policies at home and abroad . ( Bobo ) In this sense , economic pragmatism in FP reflects both domestic economic interests and interest to increase international diplomatic role . Moreover , there are good reasons for to develop a soft power infrastructure which serve its ' public diplomacy in future activities .","Using the appropriate CASP guidelines for qualitative research the following paper will be critically appraised : et al ( ) . Management of Childhood Constipation : Parents ' Experiences . Journal of Advanced Nursing . The aim of qualitative research studies should be consistent with the identified statement of the problem ( Haber et al , ) . clearly stated his aim to : "" Explore parents ' experiences of consulting health professionals about management of their children 's constipation "" . The study title clearly reflects 's intended aim ; the title conveys the study will explore parents ' experiences of their children 's constipation , and in comparison the aim integrates the title and develops it further to explain the area of healthcare the parents ' experienced . Nieswiadomy ( ) describes qualitative research as research that questions human experiences conducted in natural settings , and uses data that are words or text rather than numeracy in order to describe the experiences that are being studied . The paper studied used in depth interviews surrounding families ' real life experiences of childhood constipation . A literary approach was taken thus fulfilling all the criteria for a qualitative research study and making a qualitative approach appropriate for the study . The research paper discusses that the design of the study was underpinned using the approach to phenomenology . A phenomenological method uses a process of learning and constructing the meaning of human experience through intensive dialogue with persons who are living the experience ( ) . The main focus of the study uses parents real life experiences of their children 's constipation , this is why a phenomenological approach was taken , as the researcher seeked to give voice and an understanding to human experiences . Diversity within a sample is essential to understand and develop further knowledge derived from people from different backgrounds and who have had different experiences in life ( , ) . Subsequently children of all ages from who had received treatment for constipation in diverse clinical settings were targeted for the study sample . A sampling matrix was used in the study to identify the required characteristics of the sample they were looking to gain ( and Huberman , ) . A sampling matrix was important to use as the researcher was looking to capture the diversity of parents ' experiences when they accessed health services by different routes for their children 's constipation episodes . Hospital records were reviewed and children who had received care in and fitted the required criteria were contacted in writing . Reply slips and pre - paid envelopes were included with an invitation to participate . parents ' replies were positive to take part , the other either did not reply or their responses were negative . The researcher did not appear to state what the reasons for negative responses were or whether parents just did not reply . Interviews are a method of data collection where a data collector questions a subject verbally ( , ) . The interviews were conducted face - to - face and included discussion and prompt questions to help parents discuss and share their experiences from past encounters with health professionals . As there appeared to be no clear guidelines for the interviewer to follow during interviews , an unstructured method must have been conducted . Unstructured interviews do not reflect preconceived ideas about content or flow , and are done with little or no organisation ( Morse , ) . An unstructured method is not completely accurate ; consequently variation between interviews would be more likely to occur . The success of an interview is dependent on the type of physical and phychologic setting the interviewer constructs . The place of interview should allow as much privacy as possible , with minimal distractions ( , ) . Choice was given to parents on the most convenient and comfortable setting to conduct their interview . All but parent chose to be interviewed at home ; the other parent chose a hospital environment . Home environments may not always be the most appropriate settings to conduct interviews , it was not stated but there could have been several distractions within the home such as their family , in particular their children , telephones or televisions which may have delayed or altered the data collected from the interview . All interviews were audio - recorded , with the researcher making additional notes . Audio - recording of data is an appropriate way to collect data as it can prevent systemic bias that could occur during data collection or interpretation ( Morse , ) . The researcher did not appear to consider how his own potential bias could occur in the study . Sampling bias occurs when samples are not carefully selected ( Nieswiadomy , ) . It has not appeared to have been considered that members of the research team invited parents from their own caseloads to take part in the study , thus could lead to sampling bias . When collecting data , during the interview process the parents who were known to the researchers may have been more willing to share experiences as they may have felt more comfortable talking with interviewers they were familiar with . The other participants may have been more hesitant to share their experiences , subsequently could have lead to shorter interviews leading to more variance between the data collected . The researcher has considered ethics by seeking local academic and ethical approval as well as obtaining consent from each participant . Informed consent is the legal principle that 's a persons ability to accept or refuse treatment ( ) , or in the case of this study whether they are willing to participate in the study . Each participant was anonymised throughout the study . Every participant has the right to anonymity and confidentiality according to ( ANA ) guidelines , confidentiality means that individual identities of subjects will not be linked to the information they provide and will not be publicly divulged ( , ) . An analysis leads the researcher to ask other questions about the data in order to build a strong theory ( , ) . Within the study has included a brief description of the analysis process . Collected data from the interviews were fully transcribed , interpreted and then checked several times before significant statements were taken from the transcripts . Thematic analysis appears to have been used in the study as the statements were clustered together to support a theme which expressed of the feelings described such as ' asserting the need for action ' . The findings appeared to show that there were key themes identified ; ' enduring and extreme constipation ' , dismissed and fobbed off ' , ' asserting the need for action ' , ' validation and acknowledgement ' , ' being vigilant ' , positive responses from health professionals ' . The findings conveyed within these themes supported fears that poorly managed health consultations for problems of childhood constipation can have a very negative effect on parents . The researcher discussed that there have been concerns surrounding the reliability and validity of qualitative research in the past ( , ) . used additional strategies to allow the study to be more credible . Strategies included coding checks , whereby interview transcripts were analysed and coded by the lead investigator ( qualitative researcher ) and member checking , where participants were invited back to provide feedback about the trustworthiness of their findings . parents attended the event and another questionnaires , providing feedback were returned . of the participant 's feedback was accounted for , as a result the feedback provided was only representative of of the participants . of participants who did not provide feedback may have had very different views , and if their opinions were accounted for the study may not have appeared so credible . The researcher identified from his findings that there is a need for policy change , as reported in the plan ( , ) . Services and responses need to be geared so that patients and their families experience positive health care encounters , and effective communication skills are needed to achieve a positive health consultation . ( ) highlighted that there are deficiencies in paediatric health care settings , and it is evident that there needs to be improvements so that children can experience health care services that are appropriate and tailor made to them . The researcher recognized that the sample size was very small , and the experiences and findings that were collected from the sample can not be considered representative of a larger population . However the findings from the study can be used to work towards more community - based nurse - led services for the management of childhood constipation , and work to provide better education and support for the children and their families . So that hopefully in the future patients and their families experiences ' of childhood constipation , in particular can be more positive and lead to better management of care .",0
"The conquest of the empire in saw the creation of a nascent model of colonial government , beginning a period in which would endeavour to establish control over its new territory . Owing to its erstwhile conquering successes , had an established tradition of assimilation , bringing conquered peoples under the crown 's jurisdiction through conversion and allegiance to . The notion of a ' spiritual conquest ' pertained to the degree to which , following initial military and political subjugation , the colonists were able to proselytize the various indigenous inhabitants of its newly acquired regions . By the time of the conquest of however , enthusiasm for evangelization had declined markedly within the and governmental authorities , with circumstances in itself further constraining the enactment of a theological conquest . Internecine feuding , sustained insurgency , and an inauspicious set of geographical facets meant that indigenous groups largely retained their traditional spiritual tenets in . However , even during of greater royal colonial control and organization of the under 's , full evangelization became effectively marginalized by the priority of establishing control over a part of the crown 's empire that had strayed unpalatably far into private hands . As such , whilst a varying degree of "" syncretism "" occurred in indigenous communities , the colonists were to prove ultimately uncommitted to altering parochial traditions deemed unthreatening to power . Congruently then , from the outset of 's presence in conversions were sought as a means of acculturating and assimilating distinguished local caciques of the former order under a new religious framework , coinciding with the extirpation of that of the old . Using religious conversion as part of the integration of eminent native contingents , the were from the beginning able to insert themselves as overlords of an existing hierarchical structure in place of their predecessors . Evangelization became utilized as a political expedient , a noble - orientated policy of Christianization being adopted without an extensive aspiration to radically subvert the spiritual worlds of the politically - negligible masses of the lower strata . Whilst sixteenth century did not then witness a widespread and absolute alteration of the spiritual world , evangelization served as an efficacious instrument of requisite assimilation , propagation of the paradigm aiding the creation of a pervasive imperial structure . < fnote > , of . ( , ) P.101 < /fnote > The conquest of , like its precursor , provided the authorities with access to a highly populated area of . however was not to witness a pervasive conversion of the pagan masses , as for the crown and its conquistadores , motivation for conquest was more firmly rooted in secular , material aspirations . Thus , the superimposing of onto existing indigenous religious sites , such as those located around and , served more as means to acquire wealth than as exercises in the destruction of temples of heathen worship . Belief in the efficacy of evangelization , formerly promoted as the justification and focus for presence in the , had eroded substantially as a result of practical experience . Colonial authorities became somewhat less concerned with achieving the widespread , unequivocal conversion that had theoretically provided the impetus for previous conquests . Tellingly , there was no grandiose promotion equivalent to the conquest 's symbolic deployment of friars at in . Indeed in Peru the established itself as being far more orientated towards the resident than to their indigenous subjects . Whilst the institution had priests by , its clergy had principally tended to the spiritual welfare of their countrymen , with missionary endeavour confined to the small - scale activity of the secular clergy . Aside from the general disinclination , 's cultural and geographical facets provided further obstacles to any latent program . The regions housed a variety of native peoples , many of whom were dispersed in the remote and formidable physical terrains outside of the empire 's main cities . These assorted groups spoke numerous , often markedly different languages and many had traditionally maintained little contact with their lords in preceding the invasion , making them more resistant to intervention in their communities than had previously been encountered . Consequently , circumstances peculiar to the new territory and its conquest 's falling late in 's invasion meant that by 's post - conquest evangelizing aspirations had receded behind the more pragmatic emphasis on what was materially obtainable . then witnessed a relative apathy for the extensive spread of the faith , alteration of indigenous spiritual tenets having subsided markedly from the agenda . < fnote > and , , A Cultural History . ( , ) P.84 < /fnote><fnote > Edwin Williamson , of . ( , ) P.98 < /fnote><fnote > Henry F. Dobyns and , , A Cultural History . ( , ) P.83 < /fnote><fnote > and , . ( , ) < /fnote > The were nevertheless from the outset ardent and successful in speedily extirpating the nobility 's official religion , destroying religious ties and beliefs that conflicted with the new state paradigm upon which their authority rested . Simultaneously removing non - compliant nobles and suppressing the 's elite religion became paramount to subverting the sovereignty , both political and spiritual , of the former order . Aside from the early revolts , the most significant of which was rebellion , the achieved marked success in pacifying regions and consolidating their position . The colonists were fully aware that the replacement of the existing aristocracy with members of the conquering contingent would provide the principal avenue towards bolstering a tenuous hold on the state . Nevertheless , the rudimentary structure continued with evangelization , combined with political and economic incentive , serving as the central component in the incorporation of compliant members of the and rural nobility after their military and political subjugation . Evangelization enabled then the creation of formal religious and cultural connections with distinguished figures , facilitating the creation of a superstructure . Such an approach patently fulfilled a political need , appeasing latent resistance and enabling the conquerors to insert themselves at the apex of a pre - established , stratified imperial structure . Accordingly , the colonists favoured the continuation of existing provincial rule , maintaining through local caciques a system of indirect governance based on hereditary figures in a similar way that the had done . Forcing compliance with , if not necessarily belief in the new state 's faith , proved then politically advantageous , with important regional links being established in order absorb dominant local figures . < fnote > and , , A Cultural History . ( , ) P.64 < /fnote><fnote > Henry F. Dobyns and , , A Cultural History . ( , ) P.78 < /fnote > Whilst the colonists achieved success in stabilizing their position , the initial post - conquest were not to witness any sustained extension of such ' spiritual conquest ' . Whilst they could hardly be deemed to be self - governing , the immediate post - conquest period afforded the colonists a degree of autonomy , the it seems being more focused on activities elsewhere in its empire . As such , despite the appointment of a in , the conquerors were largely unrestrained by royal controls . Initially dividing into factions loyal to the leading conquistadores of and , the fierce competition for the untapped resources of the land and its dormant labour force incited a period of civil and political turbulence . Consequently , internal instability would retard efforts to pacify conquered territories , manifest in the widespread revolts , meaning that evangelization gained no strong footing or impetus . Whilst the encomienda system became established early , commonly the only contact maintained between overlord and subject became the exchange of tribute granted to the encomendero , with culture and its religion being concentrated within the cities . Much the population did not then endure an absolute alteration of their spiritual worlds and persisted in their worship of traditional provincial huacas , the continuance of which at times inspired native militant resistance . Even by when had established a more substantial presence in , native uprisings would continue to occur , their impetus principally deriving from a spiritual perspective . A salient example of such response was that of the ' Taki Onqoy ' movement of , which saw disaffected , exploited indigenous groups revive their traditional beliefs to generate animosity towards those imposed upon them . As such , the disease epidemics that had ravaged many regions were appropriated in a spiritual context ; neglect of original deities being interpreted as the reason for and solution to the contemporary crisis of political subjugation . Such resultant native insurgency exemplified that spiritual tenets could be crucially intertwined with compliance , insufficient indigenous spiritual integration under the paradigm at times jeopardizing the new state 's authority . < fnote > ( In , ( , ) < /fnote><fnote > Henry F. Dobyns and , , A Cultural History . ( , ) P.84 < /fnote><fnote > , , , . ( , ) P.206 < /fnote><fnote > Edwin Williamson , of . ( , ) P.86 < /fnote > The proceeding years of however saw fuller control and extension of . The encomienda system of apportioning varying amounts of labour to individual become subject to more control , coinciding with the use of the "" reducciones "" policy . Under this program , native peoples became forcibly resettled away from their traditional lands into areas around the main cities , enduring a greater attempt to inculcate them in the state principles . Whilst the program represented a more concerted effort to redirect native lives , its practical results served to reinforce existing trends . Specifically , that success in evangelization materialized as highly varied , native proximity and interaction with the epicentres of culture acting as the fundamental determinant of acculturation . The efforts towards conversion often lead to the syncretism of and beliefs , the levels of which naturally differed between regions . 's chief aim was however to use as part of a more rigid organization of peoples , propagating the official monotheistic religion at the centre of the labour system while phasing out the privately operated encomiendas . From the perspective of colonial government then , manipulation of parochial spiritual tenets did not aspire to a spiritual overhaul , it being more concerned with a desire to extend control . Though the certainly benefited from the natives ' adoption of religion and customs where achieved , as long as fulfilled the requisites of tribute they were largely left to their own devices . < fnote > , of . ( , ) P.101 < /fnote><fnote > Sabine MacCormack , ' "" "" : Predicaments of Missionary Christianity in Early Colonial Peru ' , , ( ) , pp . - 466 . P.453 < /fnote><fnote > , , , . ( , ) P.206 < /fnote > In conclusion , the success of the ' spiritual conquest ' of proved varied in , the degree to which it was sought pertaining to its perceived utility . Whilst it would be spurious to regard the as completely apathetic towards a more widespread evangelization , conversions were principally pursued selectively to establish imperative political ties and bolster its position . Even after of the immediate post - conquest period , and the resultant greater control over groups , the authorities proved ultimately unsuccessful in eradicating many traditional spiritual tenets with infiltration into this sphere resulting in varying levels of ' syncretism ' . The extent of acculturation , and the conversion to Catholicism within it , seemingly correlated directly with the proximity of groups to culture in the cities . Whilst a total destruction of indigenous beliefs had not then occurred by , the crown had wrested control of from private hands and shepherded the multitudinous native groups into a structure where it occupied a key position and figured prominently in the sharing of the empire 's profits . Thus , whilst absolute penetration of the spiritual core did palpably not occur , the superimposing of the model achieved an organizational framework . in culminated in a scenario that was palatable if not ideal to the authorities , where consolidating the and its 's authority created a productive economic and political structure despite varying success in religious subjugation .","< abstract><heading > Summary</heading > This report outlines the design for a system that measures the surface texture of a given material sample . A stylus type device is used to run tip across the surface and record the variations in vertical displacement in order to map out a profile of the surface features . A laser interferometer was chosen to measure the displacement , due to its extreme sensitivity . Specifications required the device to be able to record variations a small as , and other displacement sensors do not have the sensitivity to be considered suitable . The laser interferometer uses the phenomenon of interference to cause patterns of dark and light fringes . The number of these fringes determines the displacement of the stylus tip . An optical reader is used to transfer the data via an analogue to digital converter to a computer which displays a profile of the surface and a calculation for the surface roughness . < /abstract><heading > Analysis of the Mechanical System</heading > The stylus pick up system is shown in figure . It is made up of a sharp pointed stylus tip situated at the end of a pivoting rod . The stylus is usually a diamond that has been rounded or flattened at the tip . The radius of the tip is usually less than 10μm , a typical value being just 2μm . At the other end there is a sensor that measures the vertical displacement of the stylus . The stylus is moved over the surface being tested and the varying heights of the surface features are recorded . < picture/>The ability of the stylus to remain in contact with the surface is the key to accurate measurement and is dependant on : < list > The inertia of the pivoting systemThe static stylus force on the surfaceThe horizontal speed of the stylus over the surfaceThe amplitude and wavelength of the features on the surface</list > Figure shows a simple diagram of the pivoting stylus . < picture/>Considering the inertia :   FORMULA   ( A ) Where I is the moment of inertia of the system , z is the vertical position of the tip of the stylus , l is the length if the stylus form the tip to the pivot , T s is the net sum of the static torques acting about the stylus due to its own mass and any externally applied forces , and T r is the torque due to the reaction of the stylus on the surface . It is obvious to see that when T r becomes equal to , the tip of the stylus will have lost contact with the surface . If we now consider the stylus moving over a surface that varies in height sinusoidally , we can express the position of the tip by the following equation :   FORMULA   ( B ) < fnote > Equations for the motion of the system taken from E . "" and its Surface Measurement "" . , < /fnote > Where A is the amplitude of the sinusoidal surface and ω is the frequency of oscillation of the tip as it is moved across the surface . The frequency is dependant on the spatial wavelength ( λ ) of the sinusoidal surface and the horizontal speed ( ν ):   FORMULA   ( C ) Combining equations B and C into equation A gives us an expression for the conditions that result in the tip lifting of the ground :   FORMULA   ( D ) This equation shows that there is a maximum speed at which the stylus can be traversed across the surface while keeping the tip in contact with the surface . To combat the problem we do things . we keep the horizontal movement at a sensible speed and we use a spring to provide a static torque to the stylus . A typical value for the stiffness of the spring is Nm -1 . We would want to keep the stiffness to a minimum so as to avoid damaging the surface that we are measuring . The rod that holds the stylus tip at end and the displacement sensor at the other has the pivot at its centre . This means that the displacement measured at the sensor end will be the same as the vertical displacement of the tip . < heading > Selection Criterion</heading > The selection of the sensing device depends on the minimum change in displacement that it must be able to detect . We must be careful to find a reasonable resonant frequency for the pick - mechanism . We are given that the displacement sensor must be able to sense a change in height of or less . The radius of the stylus tip is . The smallest measurable sinusoidal surface can be taken as 0.01μm ( although this is not actually the smallest measurable change ) . In order to work out the wavelength and hence the corresponding frequency let us consider figure , which shows the tip on a sinusoidal surface with the same radius of curvature . < figure/>We can use ' theorem and the numbers shown in the diagram to calculate of the wavelength and therefore whole wavelength :   FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA   We can work out the frequency using equation C and taking the horizontal speed as 0.0005ms -1 ( which is a typical speed for this kind of instrument ):   FORMULA    FORMULA      A suitable resonant frequency for the system is therefore about 7900 rads -1 . < heading > Selection of the Sensing Device</heading > The key feature of the sensing device we are looking for is its sensitivity . The device must be able to measure a change in displacement of . Inductive and capacitive devices are not suitable because neither if these have the sensitivity required . A typical range for these displacement sensors is to ±25 cm , which is several orders of magnitude away from what is needed . Another drawback from the inductive sensors such as 's are their inertia . The magnetic core has too much momentum to allow quick changes of direction in response to the minute changes in displacement that need to be measured . Optical encoders are binary type devices . The output is in digital form and expressed as either "" on "" or "" off "" . Ideally we are looking for a sensor that will give a continuous reading as the stylus moves horizontally across the surface . A digital device is not really suitable for this purpose . We would prefer a device that gives a continuous output that can be transferred to a computer via an analogue to digital converter for data presentation . The obvious choice for the displacement sensor is a laser interferometer because it is the most accurate of the devices available . < heading > Laser Interferometers</heading > These are very precise measuring devices that rely on the phenomenon of interference to provide a measure of displacement . Figure shows the layout of an interferometer whose operation is described below . < picture/>A beam of monochromatic light from a laser , of single frequency ω and corresponding wavelength λ , are passed through a beam splitter to give beams of equal amplitude a. beam travels along a path of length x to a fixed mirror . The other travels a distance of x to a moveable mirror . Both beams are reflected back off their respective mirrors to a detector . On reaching the detector the beams can be described by the following wave equations :   FORMULA      < fnote > Equation taken from . Lecture Notes "" . < /fnote > The resultant light beam incident on the detector is given by :   FORMULA    FORMULA    . This describes a wave with amplitude a R :   FORMULA   where   FORMULA   ( which is the optical path difference ) The intensity I R is given by :   FORMULA . The intensity is therefore a function of the optical path difference . The distance that the movable mirror moves though is related to the number of fringes that are detected . occur when x = , λ , , etc . In these cases the beams are interfering constructively because they are in phase . A bright fringe is therefore observed . occur when x= λ/2 , , etc . Here they interfere destructively because they are ° ( or π radians ) out of phase . A dark fringe is therefore observed . The number of light - dark fringe cycles on the detector can be used to calculate the distanced moved by the mirror :   FORMULA   < fnote > From   URL   accessed 26/04/05 . < /fnote > Where d is the distance the mirror had travelled , m is the number of light - dark fringe cycles and λ is the wavelength . Figure shows that there is a piece of glass between the beam splitter and the fixed mirror . This is called a compensation plate . It is made of the same material and thickness as the fixed mirror and is there so that the beams on both arms pass through the same thickness of glass . The beam splitter is a silvered mirror that allows of the light though and reflects the other half . The interferometer will be placed into the stylus system in such a way so that the moveable mirror sits at the opposite end to the tip and facing upwards . The detector will have an optical reader so that the output in the form of light and dark fringes can be processed and transferred to a computer . The data will be displayed in the form of a graph of vertical displacement from a starting datum against the horizontal distance travelled by the stylus . The output will be not need to be amplified in the way that it would if an inductance sensor had been used for example , since the optical reader can distinguish the fringes that are produced by the interferometer and transmit them to the computer to be processed . The signal will be amplified after it has been read by by the optical reader . < heading > Block Diagram of the System</heading > Below is a block diagram of the stylus measuring system . < figure/>The stylus is the lever arm that is in contact with the surface . The tip runs along the surface and moves up and down . The arm is pivoted , so that the other end also moves up and down . The displacement is measured at the opposite and to the tip . The laser interferometer is the measuring device that measures the displacement of the stylus . Its function is described in the section above ( ) . It can measure minute changes in displacement , as small as . The data processing comes in sections . The optical reader can record the fringe pattern and allows it to be transferred via and analogue to digital ( A / D ) converter to the computer for display . The signal will be amplified at this point . A dynamic range of is required therefore the A / D converter will require bits ( the th power of is the whole number that satisfies the bit equation , where is the number of bits ) . The computer provides the data display . It is represented graphically . The signal that it receives tells it how many light - dark fringe cycles are detected at any given horizontal displacement . The computer converts this information into a displacement using the equation :   FORMULA . The computer will have a sample rate ( ) . This allows a graph of vertical displacement against horizontal displacement to be plotted . As well as displaying a profile of the surface the computer can also calculate the surface roughness . This is defined as the centre - line average R a and can be calculated by the following equation :   FORMULA   < fnote > Equation taken from . Lecture Notes "" . < /fnote > where y(x ) is the surface profile relative to the mean value , sampled by a set of N points over the length The primary function of the computer is to store and display the data but it could also be used to control the movement of the stylus . The stylus would be automatically controlled anyway but using the computer would make the system more integrated . The computer would have control of both the position of the stylus and the sampling rate . This would be a very accurate way to keep the speed and applied pressure of the stylus on the surface constant . < heading > Measurement Limitations</heading > The stylus system has several limitations . The tip can only cover depressions where the radius of curvature is greater than that of the tip . In places where there is a depression in the surface which has a radius of curvature smaller than that of the tip , the tip will not be able to reach the bottom of the depression . This means that the correct depth will not be measured . This is a major limitation and for this reason , the tip is made to be as small as possible ( just a couple of microns in radius ) . There are also limitations to the horizontal motion of the stylus . It must not move above a critical speed . If it travels across the surface too fast the tip may come of the surface immediately after it as reached a peak . This will result in an inaccurate recording of the surface features . As mentioned already , a spring is used to provide a static torque so that the tip is pushed into the surface . If the tip moves too fast over the surface there is also the possibility of it causing damage to the surface features . This must be avoided at all costs . There is little point in using measurements from a sample that has been damaged in the process . < heading > Design Improvements</heading > Using a laser interferometer as the displacement sensor has many advantages in that it is very accurate . However , this accuracy is subject to the ambient conditions being carefully controlled . The wavelength of a laser beam in air is affected by the air pressure , temperature and humidity . These factors need to be kept constant . The sampling rate that the computer uses to display the data could be increased thus giving a more continuous representation of the data . Similarly the frequency of the beam from the laser could be increased thus causing more interference patterns that can be detected . This is effectively increasing the resolution of the system . More light - dark cycles means that there is more raw data that can be processed . A further improvement but much more complicated would be to use interferometer and double pass the beams to compensate for misalignment . Making the mirror and prism system as small as possible would also help to compensate for misalignment . It was mentioned earlier that the radius of the stylus tip is a limitation on the vertical measurement . The tip should be made as small as is possible to give it every chance of measuring even the narrowest of depressions . A more radical step would be to do away with the stylus tip altogether and use a laser beam directed at the surface . The beam would have to be very narrow to compensate for the roughness that would cause a scattering of the light . It would be a similar system to that used to measure the ocean floor but obviously on a much smaller scale . The translational speed of the stylus is another area that could be improved upon . A faster translation across the surface would allow the measurements to be taken more quickly . However a higher data sampling rate would be required if the spatial resolution is to be maintained . It is therefore important that the displacement sensor is able to cope with the increased rate of data acquisition . < heading > Conclusion</heading > The stylus system that has been designed uses a laser interferometer as the displacement sensor . This device is able to measure the smallest of changes in displacement and was therefore deemed to be the most suitable of the available sensors . The system allows for the optical output of the interferometer to be amplified and converted into digital output via an optical reader and an A / D converter . The data is processed to give an output on a computer in the form of a surface profile . This profile can be used to provide a calculation for surface roughness . The interferometer is a very precise piece of equipment that requires careful control of the ambient conditions . There are limitations to both the accuracy of the vertical displacement reading due to the size of stylus tip and the frequency of the laser beam . The speed of measurement is limited due to the need for care when traversing across the surface so as not to damage the sample or cause the stylus tip to leave the surface . Improvements to the system are based on increasing the resolution to give a greater sampling rate and increasing the accuracy of the interferometer by taking steps to correct misalignment .",0
"< abstract><heading > Abstract</heading > The aim of this essay is to introduce a general understanding of phylogenetic systematics . It concentrated on demonstrating the principles of constructing a consensus phylogeny tree at a molecular level . The procedures have been discussed including assembling a dataset , aligning sequences , constructing a phylogeny tree and presenting data , as well as how to read a phylogeny tree . It also covered evaluation of some methods and the computational implements involved . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > Since pioneered the concept of systematic hierarchy representing an approximation of evolutionary history , there are more and more attentions have been paid on phylogenetic systematics , a term for identifying and understanding the evolutionary relationships normally due to a gradual populational phenomenon , among all kinds of living things on earth , both extant and extinct . In the evolutionary hierarchy , an evolutionary diversity is regarded at many levels from genes , species , to genera and higher taxon . Unsurprisingly , phylogenetic systematics involves tremendous amount of biological information , ( , ) which challenges the determination of phylogenetic relationships . Phylogenetics is responsible for seeking minimum evolution and inferring evolutionary history by phylogenetic analysis . Thanks to the development of computer technologies , it enables biologists to build up electronic databases with enormous storage capacity , share and transmit information through Internet global network , as well as processing and modeling data . The computational efforts have being rapidly extended in biological science , especially in genomics and sequence analysis , and derived an independent scientific discipline called bioinformatics . ( Ouzounis and Valencia , ) It benefits taxonomic databases for combining taxonomic information systems with computed - assisted quantitative taxonomic analyses clasdistic analysis ( et el . , ) so that achieve transmission , storage and retrieval of phylogenetic information . A phylogeny tree is a representation of the evolutionary relationship among a group of genes or organisms . Since genetic resources only accumulate bit by bit and limiting abilities and knowledge heretofore , phylogenetic analysis is always say to reconstruct instead of accomplish a phylogeny tree . The attempt of this essay is to demonstrate the principles of phylogenetic analysis with a variety of different both numerical and computational approaches to construct genealogies at a molecular level rather than species . < heading > Reading a phylogeny tree</heading > On a phylogeny tree , the distinct unit termed taxon that can be any of separate genes sequences , species , phylogeny trees or individuals . ( ) Phylogeny trees can be molecularly composed of either or both multi - gene families and a singe gene from many taxa . Branched and nodes represent the connections and divergences between the taxa . Nodes can be either internal or external by considering the hypothetical last common ancestor ( LCA ) and operational taxonomic unit ( OTU ) . The branching pattern of the tree is called the topology . defines the relationship between the taxa in terms of descent and ancestry with either scaled or unscaled . The scaled branch lengths are illustrated proportionally especially in molecular trees , correspond to the level of evolution between the nodes they connect , as figure shown . ( , ) The lengths of branched shown in the middle part of figure only indicated the order of the taxa in history . The common ancestor of all taxa in the tree is called root of this phylogeny tree . It 's not necessary to be rooted because of unknown common ancestor , often when constructing a number of data sets . < figure/>The gene sequences shares a common ancestry , are referred to being homologous . It is classified into orthologues and paraloues by the origins of genes . A group of or more taxa contains both common ancestor and descendents is called clade . ( , ) < heading > Processes of phylogenetic analysis</heading><heading>1 . Assembling a database</heading > To assemble a dataset , the most efficient way is to search the sequences via a number of free databases online . The most commonly used are a few official databases such as , ( EBI ) and DNA Database of Japan ( DDJB ) . Most databases provide information both for nucleotide and protein sequences . The convention regarding representation of data sequence is left to right illustrating 5'-3 ' single - stranded DNA and N - terminus to C- terminus of polypeptide . The standard - letter codes are collocated into each position of sequences for both amino acids and nucleotides . However , in primary databases , there are always a number of ambiguities in the sequence . ( ) has produced standard codes for the nucleotide and amino acid ambiguity codes . Due to different programming techniques , databases are found in a few different file formats . Fortunately , most of them are interconvertible by employing software , such as READSEQ . The most widely in use formats are , , and . The databases of protein sequences are more complicated because of not only larger data , but also their multi - modular structure and motifs , which constituted secondary databases other than primary protein databases . ( Brinkman , ) The Basic Local Alignment Search Tool ( BLAST ) is considered as a mainly used method to assemble a dataset of related sequences where and similarity are basic kinds of search strategy . The main search engines for searching are ( ) and . For similarity search is , BLAST is considered as a main search engine , which also allows selecting sequences from searching results in its list of hits . ( Brinkman , ) At this stage , potential non - homologs can be detected and removed to extract preferable dataset and save some works for latter processes . < heading>2 . Aligning sequences</heading > Alignment is constructed by inserting or deleting characters representing gaps into the index . In other words , by learning the distances between the gaps that present mutational changes in sequences , sequence alignments reflect the evolutionary relationship between homologous sequences . A global sequence alignment , also called alignment , attempts to align sequences along their entire length , whereas a local alignment is also called alignment , focuses on local regions of similarity or subsequences . ( Miranker et al , ) < heading > Pair - wise sequence alignment</heading > The programs designed for pair - wise alignments of protein or nucleotide sequence are mostly capable of producing both globally and locally . Dot plot is one of simplest and widely used graphic matrix analysis methods for scoring similarity between pairs of sequences . ( , ) It produces grid - dimensional array with sequence along the X - axis and the other along the Y - axis . By comparing each residues from the same position in sequences , a dot is put in the grid when they are same in turn . As figure shown , the line in the middle of the array indicated the most homologous parts of sequences . If the sequences were identical , the line would be unbroken . The subsequences , can also detected by lines parallel to the main diagonal , such as box A and box B annotated in figure . They indicate less similarity and potential evolutionary relationship . In other words , it provides optimal alignment between sequences without transposing regions in the sequences . < figure/><figure/>A remarkable methods used in pair - wise sequence alignment is dot matrix analysis which responsible for seeking direct or inverted repeats in protein and nucleotide sequences . It tells the region in that self - complementary where has potential forming secondary structure . For example , compare sequence and its reversed version , the complemented sequence reveals self - complementary regions . to figure , region in horizontal line shown self - complementary potential property . According to the assumption that the best information on gap placement will be found among the most similar sequence , once - a - gap rule is considered as a ' golden rule ' for sequence alignment . However , there are often found useful information in the whole alignment on where the gaps belong . ( , ) There are possible approached in sequence alignments : reduce the number of mismatches ; reduce the number of gaps ; reduce neither and reduce neither but one gap moved . ( ) In this case , it is essential to score to account of conservative and non - conservative of gap penalties , gap extension penalties and substitution . PAM and matrix are models formulated as log - odds matrices , which often used to give scores of the measurements . ( Miranker et al , ) Notably , contributes to score silent mutations . < heading > Multiple sequence alignment</heading > Multiple sequence alignment bases on pair - wise alignment and is extended by dynamic programming and modified heuristic algorithms . There are major approaches have been developed : optimal global sequence alignment , progressive global alignment , block - based global alignment and motif - based local alignment . ( and , ) Progressive sequence alignment is most commonly used method in multiple sequence alignment . It consists a series of steps for multiplying pair - wise sequence alignments . , it estimates alignment scores between all possible pair - wise combinations of sequences in the set to determine the most similar sequences . Then sequentially adds more distantly related sequences or sets of sequences to this initial alignment and produces a ' guide tree ' with clustering algorithms , as shown in figure ( a ) below . At next stage , refer to figure ( b ) , the sequences are progressively added to determine the alignment in a certain order due to the confidence . and are software tools that efficiently contribute to progressive sequence alignment . ( Mount , 2001 ) Optimal global sequence alignment attempts to align sequence along their entire lengths . It is computationally intensive , so comparatively not very useful . - based global alignment divides the sequences into a number of blocks and aligns them respectively . It is efficient of dealing with the sequences sharing conserved modules in a consistent order . Motif - based local alignment employs efficient heuristics to solve optimisation calculations for local alignments via computer implements . To find blocks in programs , the iterative sampling approach is introduced such as . ( and , ) < figure/><figure/>To choose a most suitable method mainly depends on the property of dataset like whether the sequences are homologous over their entire length and whether they share conserved modules in a consistent order . Figure was devised for systemising the procedures of both pair - wise and multiple sequence alignments . Multiple sequence alignment is responsible for identifying motifs or conserved residues of protein sequences . As figure suggested , multiple sequence alignment also involves analysis of promoters , introns and exons for protein sequence alignment which required more sequence information and scoring models . Multiple sequence alignment appears broader extent of analysis and better inference of phylogeny tree . < heading>3 . Constructing a phylogeny tree</heading > Generally saying , a phylogeny tree is constructed by connecting the least evolutionary distant pair of taxa , followed by successively more distance taxa . However , since molecular phylogenetic tree is built from protein - coding regions either nucleotide or protein level , it leads to the slightly different situations when constructing a tree . Referring to the alignment results , there is found more information in closely concerned nucleotide sequences while protein sequences carry more information when they are more distantly related . The series of distance matrix methods used in multiple sequence alignment evolves the cluster methods for building up the phylogeny tree . ( , ) The clustering methods are regarded either distance - based or character - based . Distance - matrix method , also named clustering or algorithmic method . ( , ) Neighbour joining and UPGMA are most common methods used here . Neighbour joining method stats with a star phylogeny tree , then minimise the total distance when each pair is dragged out . UPGMA selects the best matched alignment from all OTUs , and then join them together by creating a new node . Then progressives assess next closer distance OTUs by considering the earlier one as a single OTU . ( Mount , ) On the other hand , it does not assume molecular clock . maximum likelihood is an approach that chooses between different tree topologies by identifying the one that involves the shortest evolutionary pathway with least nucleotide changes . These changes are compared to the ancestral sequence at the root of the tree to all other sequences have been compared . It 's so - called tree searching methods as well . Because parsimony method attempt to fit all possible trees to the data , the method is only suitable for very small number of sequences . Otherwise the consensus tree might contain conserved features of the different trees . ( Mount , ) Maximum likelihood calculates the likelihood for each tree using an explicit model of evolution where parsimony just looks for the fewest evolutionary changes . As annotated in figure , considering each position in the alignments , all possible trees are evaluated and given a score which based on the number of evolutionary changes needed to produce the assumed sequence changes . The likelihood value for each aligned position is then multiplied to provide likelihood for each tree . The most probable tree can be selected by the highest likelihood value which has the fewest evolutionary changes to derive from a common ancestor . ( , ) statistical methods are often applied in maximum likelihood to approach the evolutionary distance estimation . ( and , ) It enhanced a longer time - consuming than the distance methods . In addition , likelihood methods of phylogeny tree are regardless of the root location . < figure/>Which method to choose is mostly depends on the feature of the obtained multiple sequence alignment . The flowchart in figure pointed out a general orientation of selecting a better method . < figure/>Some models are developed in order to approach to estimate the true difference between sequences base on the present capability . and are examples of substitution matrices . Depends on the computational tributes , there are a number of phylogeny analysis kits available on the cuff , such as and PAUP * can be found on Internet . ( , ) After all , to give a best result , it is more often used methods to construct a phylogeny tree . < heading>4 . Bootstrapping</heading > It is essential to determine the confidence level of estimation of reconstructed phylogeny tree . This is normally achieved by bootstrapping and parametric tests . Bootstrapping is a method used to resample the data by randomly choosing vertical columns from the aligned sequences to produce a new sequence alignment of the same length . < figure/>Since the reliability of a phylogeny tree completely based on the alignment is composed of , the bootstrapping starts with the alignments of dataset . The whole process is repeated to create of resampled datasets . Each column of data may be used more than once or not at all in reconstructed alignment . As shown in figure , the resampled datasets build up resampled trees , with the same number of pseudo - datasets and the number of repeating times . In the final step , all bootstrap values forms tabulate results , which determine the strict consensus tree . Tree topology accuracy also influences by molecular clock , where the estimation is optimised when taxa diverge at a constant rate from a common ancestor . Each subsample is repeated sampling of sites with the same size as the primary alignment . To test the phylogeny tree branches and nodes rather than the whole tree greatly credits the reliability . For branches in the predicted tree topology to be significant , the resampled data sets should frequently , commonly > , predict the same branches . ( , ) Generally bootstrap analysis is always supported by common phylogenetic prediction software . Because there are probably multiple sequence alignment have been used , bootstrapping is often combined with different alignment methods in order to avoid any systematic biases of particular methods of multiple sequence alignment . There are some program packages can make the work simpler . contains a variety of the phylogenetic packages for multiple - bootstrapping purpose . What 's more , resampled inference of orthologs and orthostrapper are developed to incorporate bootstrap analysis and compare of phylogenetic trees to differentiate orthologues and paralogues . ( , ) < heading>5 . Presenting a phylogeny tree</heading > The main points of presenting a phylogeny tree focus on easy to read and to compare with other trees . In molecular phylogeny trees , branch lengths always give good general impressions of evolutionary relationship across a net - like tree . ( , ) Thus , try to draw the phylogeny tree in scale is very meaningful although it 's far from straightforward for expressing any single genes . Most commonly agreed convention to present phylogeny tree is to only report when the bootstrapping value is . To produce a strict consensus tree , all disagreements are treated equally even if only alternative tree is not consistent with of others that are in agreement regarding a particular branching point . ( and , ) Bootstrapping value should be always presented as percentage . ( , ) < heading > Discussions</heading > Although phylogenetic analysis is widely accepted as a powerful tool for identifying and interpreting molecular data for evolutionary relationship , there are still exist a series of theoretical problems with evolutionary changes between sequences . The recognition has been growing that homology - based methods of functional classification were likely result in systematic errors . The predictions of molecular functions also stayed at relatively low confidence level . It is believed that a number of errors were caused by functional multiplicity of proteins through gene duplication , speciation and other processes . Similarly , the poorly identified mutations in nucleotide sequences were also responsible for arising errors . Here a feigned case as an example of analyzing homologous nucleotide sequences is illustrated in figure . Recalling the mutations in nucleotides , substitutions may be caused by transitions , transversions , deletions , insertion and inversion . Thereby , the differences can be determined at nucleotide sites that are marked in figure , within the region contain mutations . Thus , it indicated that there could be many more mutations than the ones can be detected . It is not yet be solved by current capability of phylogenetic models . < figure/><heading > Conclusions</heading > As quoted , ' Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution . ' ( Dobzhansky , ) Phylogenetic systematics is regard as a natural and meaningful way to order molecular data . From learning the principles of constructing a phylogeny tree , it enables one have general understanding of phylogenetic systematics , but also the theory of evolution . Phylogeny trees carry an enormous amount of evolutionary information within their branches . In fact , it infers the evolutionary relationship not only between living things , but also genes and genomes . Furthermore , many disparate fields are found relevant to the methods and theories of molecular phylogenetics , too . Correspondingly , some disparate sciences also greatly contribute to the development of phylogenetics , where computer sciences and statistics are the best examples . At present , difficulties of phylogenetic analysis are mainly come from the reliability of the inference of phylogeny tree due to the resource and the methods , and the limited biological information that phylogenetics is starving for . The prospective developments of genomics and bioinformatics are considered to directly ameliorate phylogenetics .","< abstract><heading > Abstract</heading > This experiment was developed to approach understanding population dynamic systems by practicing stochastic population model simulation via MatLab . Specifically , the mean of the population sizes over time was concentrated on by introducing metapopulation dynamics i.e. dispersion , into the given simulation model with only birth and death processes . According to the graphic investigations of control run and experimental runs with variable dispersal rates , this simulation experiment predicted that the mean of the population sizes would mainly steady in relation to long run time . However , dispersal process was estimated to be responsible for increasing the mean of population sizes , but also acts as a population density - limiting factor . Additionally , biases of the model assumptions were discussed at metapopulation level . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > For better understanding and control of ecological system , demography plays an essential role in ecology study . Spatially and temporally , population is defined as a closed group of individuals of same species . In a very true ecological sense , population dynamics always occurs in every organism due to species - specific behaviors and environmental fluctuations . Population size is regarded as changing in direct ways where birth and immigration increase the population size while death and emigration vice verse . Instead of taking place within the same population , referred as migration , dispersion takes place between populations and enhanced a network within or more populations . The collection of these interconnected single populations depends on tempo - spatial habitat distribution and dispersion , is called metapopulation . Since the development of mathematical models and computational applications in modern ecological studies , stochastic simulation models are increasingly used to approximate the probability of certain outcomes by running multiple trial runs . ( , ) simulation is a remarkable stochastic population simulation model for problem solving , which requires computer simulations . It enables ecologists to test various strategies and analyse the simulation results in the long run relying on the known theories . simulation can also be described as a collection of processes that assumes independence between different processes . By introducing , computer software designed for enormous statistical processes , simulation experiment was carried out and aimed on the means of population size in relation to long run time . In addition , contributes the simulation with visual aids to see how would the outcome of interest work out . Model results were generated at the level of metapopulation , while the details in dispersal probabilities , such as dispersal probability in relation to dispersal distance and the probability of each individual to disperse , were ignored . MatLab files were provided : script and function program . Most parameters involved in this simulation were initialised , however , appropriate experimental variables of dispersal rate were demanded as an essential complication to metapopulation . Thus , further modification of the program files was required in order to fulfill the simulation model . < heading > Methods</heading > In function file ' fsim05 ' , function D was annotated as a multidimensional array that produced metapopulation simulations . ' Fsim05 ' represented the relationship between the stochastic population processes . ' Dosims05 ' was a script file that commanded fsim05 to generate the simulations , but also was responsible for the layout of diagrams . These two files were provided only with birth and death processes . Based on metapopulation dynamics theories , however , dispersal rate has to be taken into account . Therefore , ' dispersal rate ' was added into the MatLab files as of the processes in simulation . Before entering dispersal event into the files , a control run without dispersion was produced by running ' dosims05 ' via MatLab software . There popped up graphs , which only the graph of each series graphs was interested because of the targeting outcome . iterations sub - plotted in the diagram addressed by repeating function ( Figure ) For a better visualization , there designed another graph for summarising repetitions into ' dosims05 ' . ( Appendix III ) It illustrated the mean of means of population size over time without dispersion . ( Figure ) The model was initailised with population growth rate i.e. birth rate and death rate , initial population size ( IC ) , number of populations ( Npops ) , number of repetitions ( ) and maximum time period ( MaxTime ) . In ' fsim05 ' , ' DspR = pops . * Dispersal Rates ' was coded following same equations for birth and death rate that indicated they were all calculated at population level . Dispersal rate was also added as part of total rate of events by inserting code ' sum(DspR ) ' . ( Appendix II ) Since once a dispersal event takes place in subpopulation , there is always another subpopulation has the opposite influence in population size , dispersal rate was subtitled as leave rate and arrive rate . By ignoring the speed of dispersion , it was considered that leave rate and arrive rate happened in subpopulation were always at the same time point . Therefore , leave rate and arrive rate were programmed into ' fsim05 ' within case , noted as case . ( ) The random numbers were produced to determine time to next event , which event to occur and which population to occur . Since leave event and arrive event were discussed separately in case , totally random numbers were required . To change the code of random numbers in ' fsim05 ' ' randnums = rand ( 1 , 3 ) ' , modify ' 3 ' , the number in bracket into , while the number meant the value of random numbers were within to one . ( Appendix II ) The random number represented time interval to next whatever event would happen . The random number was responsible for choosing process to take place from birth , death and dispersion . It also determined which case it would be switched on . The number decided which population that the selected event would occur . If dispersal event was picked , the and the random numbers were used to find random populations to which leaving and arriving would occur , respectively . In case , when leaving event occurs , the population size decreases by one accordingly , meanwhile arriving is vice verse . To enable the computer recognize the change in population size , for example , ' pops ( index ( ) ) = pops ( index ( ) ) - 1 ' was coded for losing individual in that population . This can also be learned from the codes standed for the occurrences of birth and death . ( ) The accomplished MatLab files were ready to illustrate experimental variables as the codes in ' dosims05 ' requested . As dispersal rate ranged between 0 and 1 , in this simulation experiment , , , were chosen to test the situations when more or population size dispersed , as well as when exact population size dispersed . Dispersal variables were added into ' dosims05 ' in the same form as birth rate and death rate set as . ( Appendix I ) By running , each certain dispersal rate produced a series of graphs . Same as done for summarizing the repetitions in control run , the mean of means of population sizes was generated for each dispersal rate variable . < heading > Results</heading><heading > Control run : without dispersion i.e. they were not metapopulation . < /heading rate and death rate were both initialized as , which means the population size were supposed to be roughly constant over time because birth and death occurred at equal statistical probability . This can be tested from a control run by graphic investigation . Based on figure below , without dispersion , the means of population sizes all emerged attached to x - axis . The difference could not be found distinctly , while few populations showed relatively greater fluctuation . Figure represented a zoomed - in version of figure . It gathered all means of population sizes over time from separate graphs in figure into one . The black crosses in figure illustrated the trend of the means of population sizes . It is easier to identify from figure each movement of the means of population sizes . All population sizes started from as initialized and produced random wavy lines through time . The average of the means of population size without dispersion stayed slightly under the initial population size over time . < figure/><figure/><heading > Experimental runs : variable dispersal rates as , , , respectively . < /heading><figure/>After introducing the dispersal process ( figure , figure , figure ) , the average lines of means of population sizes were plotted out in the same procedure done for the control run . Comparing figure with figure , the means of average population sizes with no dispersion and with dispersal rate , their trendlines were observed not much different . But in figure , the majority of the means of population size were about the main trendline , rather than beneath it shown in figure . In figure below , as dispersal rate was , the trend line maintained slightly higher than horizontal line through time , where in figure and figure the ones mainly stayed below it . The means of population sizes became tidier in figure when dispersal rate was . The means of population sizes were getting closer to the average trendline , meanwhile , the trendline of mean population sizes still remained only slightly above their initial size through time . As found in every case that few population sizes were relatively conspicuous , the minorities were fewer and more distinctive when dispersal rate increased . < figure/><figure/><heading > Discussions and Conclusions</heading > In this simulation model , all processes were formed as density independent and took place independently . Birth rate and death rate were determined as and enhanced a stagnant population growth rate . It is notable that in reality most populations are combined with density dependent and density independent processes . Relies on dispersal processes , they can swap spatially and temporally in metapopulation . Dispersal process is a process , scaled either by time between events or number of events in a time interval . It means variance of dispersion equals to its mean . The occurrence of dispersal event was identified with aspects : leave rate and arrive rate . This extra term gained amount of stochasticity experienced for such stochastic simulation model . ( Keeling , ) The same concept was used in deterministic formulation of birth rate and death rate rather than population growth rate . It is notable here , leaving and arriving processes were chosen from event rate of dispersion , and the subdivision only explained the network between subpopulations with no affect on population size . According to the simulation results , under the deterministic conditions , the mean of population sizes was shown mainly constant over time no matter if dispersion occurs or not . Even so , variance of the means of population sizes suggested ' walk ' property of population size , from an alternative view of stochastic simulation . The randomcity event rates might result in a conspicuous mean of population sizes in long run , but with a comparatively low frequency . The control run was only involved birth and death processes , which was not metapopulation . The trendline was found declining within limited extent . It predicted that the population with no dispersion is likely shrinking in population size in long run . The ones with and dispersal rate maintained slightly above the initial population size , however this could not be recognized strikingly when dispersal rate was . Thus , dispersion is assumed can increase the mean of population size in relatively small amount . The majority of the lines in the graphs that indicated the means of population sizes were getting smoother , as well as the mean of the means , while dispersal rate getting higher . Meanwhile , the means of population sizes were found getting closer to the mean of the means . In other words , the range of fluctuate population sizes gets narrower when dispersal rate rises . In sense of population dynamics , the population density would never remain equilibrium , but rather to be controlled within a range . The model results confirmed that dispersion is very likely to be one of the processes influences this range , termed density - limiting factor . The confidence in the model would be improved substantially if field studies were completed that produced unbiased estimates . ( , ) In modeling studies , it is crucial to bear bias in mind all the time . In this simulation , random number might equal to random number , which means same population was chosen for both leaving and arriving events . This would lead to no dispersion where the individuals dispersed and returned to the same population at that time point . Consequently , the result stated with dispersion would contain data collected without dispersion . This can be considered as a bias of this stochastic simulation although the probability is very low and for long run stimulation effect will be trace . Furthermore , distinguishing metapopulation from single population implies another bias of this simulation . When dispersions happen between populations with each population size , then subpopulations are significantly mixed and become single population . The number of populations in metapopulation should be reduced by one accordingly , where in the MatLab files that only will be considered when population size turns to . In nature , the case is found not rare within the populations closely localized , can be referred to neighbourhood theory . It is reported that dispersal process is involved in genetically controlled , phenotypic dimorphism , gender differences and social ordering . ( Keeling , ) It again supports that the network within metapopulation benefits long - term population size stability . After all , metapopulation dynamics can also reflect human population dynamics . Thus , successful stochastic population models can approach long - term prediction and awareness via demography stochasticity and environmental stochasticity in order to avoid or reduce ecological damage .",1
"< abstract > FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA < /abstract><heading>1 . Theory</heading><heading>1.1 > Gamma ray photons are uncharged and create no ionisation or excitation of any material they pass through and hence the methods of determining their energies are somewhat limited . Therefore the detection of such gamma - rays is dependant on them transferring all or part of their energies to an electron in the absorbing material . From the excitation of such electrons , the energies of the incident gamma - rays can be determined . When a gamma ray interacts with another particle there are significant ways in which that interaction may occur : photoelectric absorption , scattering and pair production . It is from these possible situations that the photon energies can be quantified . < heading>1.1.1 Photoelectric Absorption</heading > Photoelectric absorption is where a gamma ray interacts with a particle and disappears . Its energy is transmitted to the absorber atom and is converted into a photoelectron produced from of the atom 's outer shells . This photoelectron has kinetic energy given by :   FORMULA   Equation 1 where   FORMULA   is the kinetic energy of the photoelectron   FORMULA   is the binding energy of the electron in its original shell This binding energy is only a few keV for low - Z materials , increasing to of keV for materials with higher atomic number . < picture/>Conservation of momentum dictates that the atom must recoil , however this recoil energy is nominal and hence usually can be neglected . The vacancy that arises from the ejection of the photoelectron from an outer shell is then quickly filled via a rearrangement of the electron configuration . This yields a change in the binding energy of the atom which manifests itself as an emitted X - ray . These X - rays travel some distance before being reabsorbed by less tightly bound electron shells of neighbouring atoms . By this form of interaction , the energy of the gamma - ray is transferred in its entirety and so the photoelectron energy is always representative of the photon energy . Hence if the kinetic energies of electrons entering a detector are measured , the resultant distribution will take the form of a delta function at the point   , known as the photopeak . < figure/>It is not possible to observe such a distinct delta function from experimental data due to the limitations of the resolution of the detector that is used . As a result , the single peak will look ' blurry ' - more like a convolution - and have a finite width that is reduced as the resolution is increased . < heading>1.1.2 Compton scattering</heading > Compton scattering occurs when only part of the photon energy is transferred to a recoil electron and as a result the photon still has some energy and is scattered . Hence the energy of the incident photon is equivalent to the sum of the kinetic energies of the recoil electron and the scattered photon . The division of this energy between the electron and the scattered photon is dependant upon the scattering angle , θ . < figure/>The energy of the scattered gamma ray is given by   FORMULA   Equation 2 where   FORMULA   is the rest mass energy of the electron ( 0.511MeV ) . Therefore the kinetic energy of the recoil electron can be expressed as :   FORMULA   Equation 3 There are extreme cases : An extremely low scattering angle ( ):     from equation and   FORMULA   from equation . The incident photon barely grazes the electron , retaining almost all of its energy and so transferring minimal energy to the recoil electron . A head - on collision ( ) . The incident photon is scattered directly backwards and transfers the maximum amount of energy to the recoil electron , which then continues along the incidental path . For this scenario equations and become :   FORMULA   Equation 4   FORMULA   Equation 5 Scattering occurs across a range of angles between the extreme situations mentioned above . Hence a continuum of electron energies would be received by the detector , ranging from   FORMULA   to a maximum defined by equation above . The electron energy distribution takes the following form : < figure/>There is a noticeable gap between the maximum energy and the photon energy   . This energy gap is given by   FORMULA   Equation 6 This analysis is based upon the notion that the electrons are free . In detectors where the electrons are bound , the binding energy of the material may alter the shape of the resultant continuum . < heading>1.1.3 Pair production</heading > This process involves the creation of an electron - positron pair from the incident photon in the intense electric field near the protons in the nuclei of the absorbing material . The photon disappears entirely and , provided that an energy of at least   FORMULA   is carried by the photon , the pair is generated with any excess energy contributing to the kinetic energies of both the positron and electron . This energy distribution can be modelled as follows :   FORMULA   Equation 7 The contribution of pair production is only significant for energies greater than the threshold and so this interaction mechanism will have less of an effect on the emission spectrum than photoelectric absorption and scattering . For this reason this form of interaction is not particularly significant in this experiment . < heading > i ) Calculation</heading > Values calculated from repeat integral readings ( discounting result number as an outlier ):   FORMULA   therefore   FORMULA    FORMULA   < heading > ii ) Error</heading > Error in integral ,   ( ) Error in mean integral ,   FORMULA      ( )   FORMULA   Error in   FORMULA ,   FORMULA   ( )   FORMULA   < heading > iii ) Comparing values     FORMULA < /heading > The experimental value for the standard deviation is in agreement with the theoretical value . There is a discrepancy of which is encompassed by the error bounds of the experimental value , however there will always be a difference in the values due to the statistical nature of the problem . The values will converge as more readings are taken but they will only be equal when   FORMULA . As   FORMULA   ( time ) , then t - and hence n - would have to be increased by a factor double in size to the factor by which the error must be reduced . This is due to the fact that the error in measurement =   . For example to half the magnitude of the error readings would have to be taken . < heading>1.2 Scintillator crystal</heading > A scintillator crystal is a means by which to linearly convert the kinetic energy of a particle into detectable light such that by measuring the light from the crystal , the kinetic energy of the particle may be ascertained . With a refractive index close to that of glass ( ~1.5 ) , the crystal can be connected to a photomultiplier tube in order to magnify the light signal for clearer analysis . A Sodium Iodide Thallium - doped ( ) ) scintillator crystal is used in this experiment because the relatively high atomic number of the iodine constituent ( ) ensures that the photoelectric effect is the most prominent form of interaction between the gamma - rays and the electrons in the detector . Therefore it has high intrinsic detection efficiency . It has a high light output which maximises the quality of the output signal . They also have a smaller decay time - the lower the decay time , the more frequently the light pulses can be sent and so measurements can be taken at a greater rate . < heading>1.3 ( PMT)</heading > A device is required to convert the relatively weak light output of a scintillation pulse into a strong electrical signal that can be analysed more easily . The photomultiplier tube is particularly adept at achieving this , converting light signals of photons into a usable current pulse without adding large amounts of noise to the signal . < picture/>The entire system is sealed within a glass envelope which maintains the vacuum conditions required for optimal acceleration of the low - energy electrons by the internal electric fields . A photocathode converts the majority of photons that enter the into low - energy photoelectrons . When such a photon pulse is received from the scintillator crystal , a pulse of equal duration of photoelectrons is transmitted . However the charge of the electrical signal of such a few low - level electrons ( perhaps in a single pulse ) is not sufficient and so they are passed on to the electron multiplier . The electron multiplier has suitable geometry to efficiently collect and amplify the number of electrons in the pulse to a level where the signal is considerable enough to be useable ( ~10 electrons from a single signal ) . This charge is collected at the anode of the multiplier structure where it is then transmitted on to the for analysis . < heading>2 . Experimental Detail</heading > A configuration comprising a sodium iodide scintillator crystal and photomultiplier tube was set up to receive gamma - ray emissions from a sample chamber and send the resultant electrical signal to a Multi - channel ( ) . < picture/>The displayed the distribution of energy levels , separating them differentially into discreet channels in order to create a visual representation of the response function which was then outputted to the monitor . Aside Throughout this experiment references are made to flux or counts measured by the detector . This refers to the actual reading minus the background reading ( measured with no radioactive source present ) . < heading>2.1 Calibration of the Spectrometer</heading > In order to correct for any shifting in the spectrometer ( see § # ) , the emission spectra of known sample were analysed :   FORMULA   Caesium-137 - main photopeak at   FORMULA    FORMULA   Americium-241 - main photopeak at   FORMULA      Radium-226 - many peaks ( refer to tables [ ] ) Both of the sources with specific photopeak energy levels were each in turn placed into the source chamber and the program was run for a period of . The emission spectra for both sources were displayed on the same axes , clearly showing prominent photopeaks - one for each source . By highlighting the main photopeak relevant to each of the sources and telling the program the type of sources that they corresponded to , the was able to adjust its axis labels such that the point on the scale corresponded to the centre of the photopeak and the point coincided with the centre of the Americium-241 photopeak . The program then used these reference points to plot a linear relationship and hence calibrate the in order to measure the energy peaks of the Radium-226 source . The Radium-226 source was then used for an exposure time of and the peak energy values , along with those of the other sources , were plotted against the theoretical values [ ] . The linear relationship exhibited by the data demonstrates that the was correctly calibrated and hence ready to use for analysis of unknown sources . < figure/><heading>2.2 Poisson Statistics</heading > Radioactivity is in essence a process of random emission and is therefore governed by 's distribution law . The probability P(Y ) of observing Y counts in a given channel is given by   FORMULA   Equation 8 where   FORMULA   is the average number of counts which accumulate in the channel under consideration . < figure/>Due to the nature of the distribution peaks , the standard deviation is equivalent to of the full width at maximum ( ) .   FORMULA   By taking repeat measurements of the integrated intensity under the full energy peak of the Caesium-137 on the display , a mean value for the integral ( ) , and the standard deviation ( ) was calculated for the number of counts accumulated at this point . The integral and count values were found using the tabular output from ( ROI ) function in the program . < heading>2.3 Analysing Energy Spectra</heading > A Caesium-137 spectrum was accumulated for with significant counts ( > 10 4 ) under the full energy peak . The energy levels for the key features of the spectrum were found and the theoretical energy at which the edge should appear was calculated . The relative efficiency is defined as the ratio of the photopeak flux to the total flux recorded [ ] . This was calculated for the detector , along with the energy resolution   FORMULA   of the detector at , where   FORMULA   at E. The dead time of the detector was the calculated using the relationship Dead time = Real time - Live time . In other words , this is the time for which the detector was activated less the time that the detector was actually receiving pulses . These time intervals were taken from the display . < heading>2.4 Estimating the Thickness of the Crystal</heading > The attenuation of a collimated beam of radiation of flux   FORMULA   passing through a medium of thickness t and emerging with flux   FORMULA   is governed by the equation   FORMULA   Equation 9 where   , the attenuation coefficient , is characteristic of the absorber and the photon energy . In this case the detector is positioned behind the material as shown below < picture/>However , another arrangement is possible whereby the detector is within the material . The equation then becomes   FORMULA   Equation 10 t is defined at the right - hand side of the material , increasing towards the source . Equation can be applied to different peaks such that   FORMULA   &   FORMULA    FORMULA   is the attenuation coefficient at peak and   FORMULA   is the flux for peak ( analogous for peak ) These equations can be combined to form a single equation involving t     Equation 11   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   are normalising coefficients specific to energy peaks with flux   FORMULA   and   . The   -values were found by fitting a quartic equation to the   FORMULA   values given in the lab script [ ] . These were then inserted into equation such that only t remained unknown . By rearranging and setting the exponential component of the equation as ) and then plotting ) against t , a simplified exponential equation containing only one t was found , which could be solved .   FORMULA   Equation 12 Hence by taking the flux at specific energy peaks and finding their normalising coefficients , a value for the thickness of the material can be found . It is therefore possible to find the thickness of the scintillator crystal . The Radium-226 source was used for an exposure time of to create a detailed spectrum . ROI 's were set up around high energy lines ( > 1MeV ) and low energy lines ( < 1MeV ) . high - energy and low - energy peak ROI were then chosen and the ratio of their integral flux values was used to calculate the thickness of the crystal , t as described above . < heading>2.5 Emission Spectroscopy</heading > Spectrums were obtained for unknown sources - "" "" and "" Sample B "" . Each was exposed for to ensure that the resulting spectrums were highly defined . By identifying the main energy peaks of each sample and comparing these energy values to known materials , the samples were identified . < heading>2.6 Absorption Spectroscopy - Gamma - ray Attenuation Coefficients</heading > By rearranging equation ( § ) , a new equation can be obtained involving a linear relationship between the flux and the thickness of the absorbing material :   FORMULA   Equation 12 Therefore by varying the thickness of the material and measuring the emerging flux and the flux for t=0 , the attenuation coefficient for a material can be calculated from the gradient of a graph of equation . The attenuation coefficient for lead ( Pb ) could therefore be found using this relationship . A ROI was set up around the main photopeak for sample A and a exposure time was set . the flux   FORMULA   was measured using the . Then a sheet of lead with known thickness t1 was placed inbetween the source and the detector and the new flux reaching the detector , , was noted . Another lead sheet with known thickness t2 was then placed behind the sheet and the new flux value was recorded . This process continued until lead sheets were in place , with the combined thickness of the plates at any one time defined as t. This was then repeated for sample B and the   FORMULA   values were compared . < picture/>Compton scattering is the main interaction method due to the abundance of lead atoms with which to scatter the incoming gamma - rays , as well as the atoms in the scintillator crystal . < heading>3 . Results</heading><heading>3.1 of the figure is magnified , the X - ray peaks become more noticeable : < figure/>From figures 11 and , and by consulting the , the main features of the spectrum occurred at the following energy levels : < table/>The error in determining the exact position of each feature was taken to be around   FORMULA   channels , depending upon the gradation of the peak ( if the peak is steeper , the centre is more defined and hence the range of channels in which it lies is less ) . This equates to an error range of   FORMULA . i ) Full Energy Photopeak   FORMULA   ii ) The continuum can be seen in both figures and 12 as the counts distributed across the energy range   . This is as a result of scattering of photons through a range of angles   FORMULA . iii ) FORMULA   The edge represents the energy of a scattering event occurring at   FORMULA   ( see § 1.1.2 ) . This edge is more like a slope due to the restricted energy resolution of the detector limiting the image quality , causing the image to be convoluted . Equation 6 was used to find the energy gap   FORMULA   between the photopeak and the edge   FORMULA    ,   FORMULA   From this the theoretical energy of the edge was calculated   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   iv )   FORMULA   This backscatter peak occurs as a result of gamma - rays undergoing scattering in of the materials surrounding the detector . If the angle at which they interact is   , the scattered photons have almost identical energies . This gives rise to many scattered gamma - rays with energies near to this minimum value , and hence a peak appears in the recorded spectrum at   FORMULA . v ) X - ray Peaks   FORMULA   &   . The location of these X - ray peaks correspond to the energy lost by the atoms in the detector because the X - rays - emitted as a result of the change in binding energy - have not been reabsorbed ( see § 1.1.1 ) . Instead they have escaped and so do not contribute any energy to the atoms in the detector . The resultant loss in photon energy manifests itself as these smaller peaks towards the left - hand side of the energy spectrum . < heading>3.2.2 Relative efficiency</heading > i ) Calculation Relative efficiency ,   FORMULA   ii ) Error Error in flux =   FORMULA   due to nature of gamma - ray emission   FORMULA    FORMULA      < heading>3.2.3 Energy resolution</heading > i ) Calculation Energy resolution ,   FORMULA   where   FORMULA    FORMULA   ii ) Error Error in photopeak energy level =   FORMULA   ( small error due to highly defined peak )   FORMULA   < figure/ > FORMULA    FORMULA      The resolution of the detector is dependant upon the amplification of the signal - as the quality of the amplifier is increased ; the peaks become more well - defined and so   FORMULA   ( and hence   ) decreases . As   FORMULA   the peak tends to a delta function ( see figure , § ) . < heading>3.2.4 Dead time</heading><heading > i ) Calculation</heading > The dead time was calculated to be Dead time = Real time - Live time   FORMULA   This value corresponds to counts taken for a period of . < heading > ii ) Error</heading > The error in the time values given by the display was taken to be around   FORMULA   and hence considered to be negligible . Dead time = < heading>3.3 Estimating the Thickness of the Crystal</heading><heading>3.3.1 Spectrum Analysis</heading><figure/><heading > i)</heading > The ROI 's were set up around energy peaks in the Radium-226 energy spectrum . < table/><heading > ii ) Errors</heading > Error in Energy value =   FORMULA . < heading>3.3.2 ROI > i)</heading > ROI 's and 5 used for analysis :   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA    [ ]   FORMULA [ ] , hence   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   Plot of   FORMULA   yields exponential equation :   FORMULA      Rearrange and solve to yield   FORMULA   < heading > ii ) Error</heading > Let   FORMULA   Error in t ,   FORMULA    FORMULA   < heading>3.4 Emission Spectroscopy</heading><heading>3.4.1 Source A</heading><figure/>There are distinct peaks in the above spectrum :   FORMULA   FORMULA   ( for error analysis see § 3.3.1ii ) These energy values are comparable to those of Sodium-22 : < table/>The values are in agreement as the theoretical values lie within the error bounds . Hence Source A is Sodium-22 < heading>3.4.2 Source B</heading><figure/>Again there are distinct peaks in the above spectrum : Peak 1 at   FORMULA   Peak 2 at   FORMULA   at   FORMULA   X - ray Peak at   FORMULA   ( for error analysis see § 3.3.1ii ) These energy values are comparable to those of Cobalt-60 : < table/>The values are of the correct order of magnitude and in agreement with the theoretical values ; however the error bounds are not sufficient enough to encompass them . Hence Source B is Cobalt-60 < heading>3.5 Absorption Spectroscopy - Gamma - ray Attenuation Coefficients</heading><heading>3.5.1 Source A</heading > The primary photopeak was found at   FORMULA   Flux , I , within ROI   FORMULA      Error in t ,   FORMULA   Equation 12 plotted with   FORMULA   against   FORMULA   ( figure ) . Gradient yields   FORMULA   [ Error given by Origin ] . This value leads to   FORMULA   ( error ~10 -6 hence negligible )   FORMULA   =   FORMULA   statistical error < figure/>The measured value is in agreement with the theoretical value as it is of the correct order of magnitude with a small statistical error . < heading>3.5.2 Source B</heading > The primary photopeak was found at   FORMULA   Flux , I , within ROI =   FORMULA   Error in t ,   ( see § for method ) Equation plotted with   FORMULA   against   FORMULA   ( figure ) . Gradient yields   FORMULA   [ Error given by Origin ] . This value leads to   FORMULA   ( error ~10 -9 hence negligible )   FORMULA   =   FORMULA   statistical error The measured value is of the correct order of magnitude ; however there is a significant statistical error . This leads me to believe that the quartic relationship used to predict the attenuation coefficient at a given energy level does not hold for higher energy levels and hence this result is skewed whilst the source A result is more accurate . < heading>4 . Discussion</heading><heading>4.1 Calibration</heading > The calibration peaks were easily identifiable and when the peak energy values were plotted against the theoretical values a clear linear relationship was evident . The error in this peak location was minimised by the program locating the maximum of the peak rather than using the naked eye . By recalibrating the equipment each time the laboratory was revisited this prevented the energy scale from shifting and hence avoided any systematic error appearing in the results . < heading>4.2 Poisson Statistics</heading > The mean   FORMULA   and the values for   FORMULA   were found :   FORMULA ,   ,   . These 2   FORMULA   values are in agreement to within - they are of the same order of magnitude and hence 's distribution is obeyed . As mentioned in § 3.1iii , these values will only be equal for an infinite number of readings and so deviation for a exposure time is acceptable . < heading>4.3 Analysing Energy Spectra</heading > The spectral data plot for ( figure ) clearly shows all of the expected features at energy levels that are of the correct order of magnitude and whose error bounds encompass the theoretical values . The clarity of the spectrum could be improved by increasing the exposure time in order to make the key features more defined . An example of where this would have been useful is around the X - ray peaks - a considerable amount of each peak is identified with point and so led to ambiguity regarding the exact location of the centre . The following information was calculated concerning the detector : < list > Relative efficiency =   resolution =   FORMULA Dead time =   FORMULA < /list > These are all acceptable values with realistic error bounds associated with them . < heading>4.4 Estimating the Thickness of the Crystal   FORMULA < /heading > This value is of the correct order of magnitude ; however the error bounds are small . Although this is partly due to the long exposure time , there is a considerable difference between the upper error bound and the true value ( [ 1 ] ) . These should overlap , however this may be as a result of using incorrect μ - values . The μ - values were taken from a quartic equation that was constructed from known values in order to ascertain values in - between . However , in approximating a fit to the data there may be a discrepancy ( as found later when finding μ for lead ) and hence the theoretical values taken as exact may have some error associated with them . < heading>4.5 Emission Spectroscopy</heading > Source A was identified as Sodium-22 . The photopeaks matched up well within the error bounds of the display peaks and hence it was possible to easily identify the source . The edges are clearly visible and because of the large gap between photopeaks there is no superposition of features . Source B was identified as Cobalt-60 . Again the photopeaks matched the theoretical energy levels given , making identification simple . However , the close proximity of the main photopeaks led to superposition of the first edge with the photopeak , making the edge difficult to identify . As a result , the continuum raised the photopeak to a greater counts plateau and hence gave a higher value for the integral under the curve than was caused solely by photoelectric absorption . To counter this , the continuum should be treated as further background radiation and removed from the total integral , leaving the true counts for the photopeak alone . < heading>4.6 Absorption Spectroscopy - Gamma - ray Attenuation Coefficients</heading > values for the attenuation coefficient of lead ( Pb ) were found :   FORMULA   &   FORMULA   Both values are in agreement with the theoretical values given in the lab script[2 ] , however the error bounds for source B do not encompass the theoretical value . This is due to the use of an approximation fit to calculate the theoretical μ - values and hence provide incorrect values as the approximation breaks down for higher energy levels . Due to the statistical error in the source A value being considerably smaller than that of source B , it is logical to suggest that this value is more accurate , however this is solely dependant upon the theoretical values used for comparison . There is considerable error in the method for this section of the experiment , mainly due to the irregular shape of the lead plates . The plates were not uniform and so the thickness measurement was not necessarily true for the point at which the gamma - rays were passing through . There was no apparatus to ensure that they were all aligned perpendicular to the gamma - ray beam and hence the thickness of lead the beam actually passed through would have an angular component no longer equal to t. These effects could be reduced by minimising the distance from the source to the plates and also from the plates to the detector . This would curtail any angular deviation that may occur over larger distances . < heading>5 . Conclusion</heading > Key features of the gamma - ray energy spectra were identified as well as the energy levels at which they appeared . The nature of radioactive emission was proven via calculating   FORMULA   statistically and experimentally : The mean   FORMULA   and the values for   FORMULA   were found :   FORMULA ,   ,   FORMULA   These 2   FORMULA   values are in agreement to within Features of the detector were calculated that affect the shape of the spectrum : < list > Relative efficiency =   resolution =   FORMULA Dead time =   FORMULA   Thickness of scintillator crystal   < /list > The errors associated with these results are small as a result of a long exposure time and hence count values are large . By comparison of the energy levels of the key features , Source A was identified as Sodium-22 and Source B was found to be Cobalt-60 . In each case the photopeaks were easily matched up with the theoretical energies , making identification straight - forward . The values for the attenuation coefficient of lead ( Pb ) found using these sources were :   FORMULA   &   FORMULA   Although these values seem to be of the correct order of magnitude it is difficult to compare due to the different energy levels . The problems with the lead plate orientation and ambiguity in the theoretical values that arose from the quartic equation fit have limited the accuracy of these results .","< quote>'The human body , ( ... ) resembles the steam - engine in respects . It calls for a constant supply of fuel , and as a result of doing work , it suffers wear and tear . The body must burn fuel in order that the heat it is always giving off may be continuously replaced ; and it must burn still more fuel whenever it does work . From this necessity there is no escape ... it is , of course the food eaten which provides these fundamental needs of the body ; and if we are to understand properly the nutrition of mankind , we must bear in mind the distinct functions of food- its function as fuel and its function of a repair material . ' ( Wood cited in and , 2004:105)</quote > This quote , written in , highlights the nature in which societal attitudes regarding food and diet were undergoing a period of transition . Food was increasingly being viewed as a nutritional source , with associated health consequences . It was during this period that produced a systematic study detailing a minimum requirement for subsistence or what is known as the ' poverty line ' . Using the emergent ideas about nutritional requirement , his aim was to distinguish , between those who were unable to purchase basic necessities for economic reasons and those who 's income was ' sufficient to buy basic necessities , but who were unable to do so for other reasons . ' ( , cited in , : ) His work highlighted that malnutrition and poor dietary habits were not necessarily an exclusive product of insufficient income , but that nutritional choices were also shaped by sociological and/or political factors . By analysing the dietary behaviours and choices made throughout history and the contextual variation which dictated the shaping of these behaviours , it is possible to identify such influencing factors and indicate the way in which they have contributed to the shaping of dietary patterns in poor households . Technological innovation and scientific advance , together with incremental political change and the significant affects of have provided the contexts of social structure I which dietary behaviours are dictated , nutritional attitudes shaped and food choices informed . Research into the dietary patterns of indicates that diets were not merely influenced , but shaped by the predominant social structure . The dramatic difference between the dietary composition of the most affluent classes and the poorest classes was particularly astonishing , in that the poor existed barely at subsistence level . ( , : ) The diet of the poorest class typically lacked adequate calorific , fat and protein intake , as well as severe essential vitamin and mineral deficiency , in particular , , and calcium . Consumption of fruit was particularly uncommon , especially in urban areas where fruit eaten consisted of a ' few currants ' . Meat was particularly scarce due to its expense , and what there was of it was predominantly eaten by the male of the household . ( , : - 103 ) "" The women and children suffer from underfeeding to a much greater extent than the men . It is tacitly agreed that the man must have a certain minimum of food in order that he may be able to perform the muscular work demanded of him "" therefore , this usually involved "" underfeeding of the women and children greater than is shown by the average figures . "" ( Rowntree , cited in , : - 103 ) As the breadwinner of the family it was therefore imperative that the male be provided with sufficient intake of energy . If he lost his job- none of the family would be able to eat . Bread became the main source of provision for most poor families , a rudimentary but nonetheless popular and widespread staple . It could be eaten cold and therefore not only saved money on expensive fuel costs of cooking , but was quick and easy to prepare- an important quality for busy mothers . Furthermore , when bread went stale , it could be toasted , it was a readily available and a relatively cheap foodstuff , it could be served at any meal and most importantly , the family liked it . ( Reeves , M , P. , , p.103 ) This last point was , and still is , a particular concern for housewives . Under economic scarcity , there tends to be little experimentation with food . Variety is not only more expensive , but carries significant risk . It is likely that the family members will not favour the introduction of a new food , and hence the waste associated with their refusal to eat is significant for a household under extreme economic pressure . Clearly this last point indicates that when it comes to consumption , humans are influenced by more than calorific maximization , they are not necessarily the ' eating machines ' attributed by , cited at the beginning of this essay . Physiological and sociological factors , such as taste and preconceived ideas / societal norms associated with particular foodstuffs are indeed some of these other influencing factors . In her book "" a week "" , makes explicit reference to these issues , using the example of porridge . ( , ) In terms of its supreme nutritional value , one would expect it to have been a predominant foodstuff for the lower social classes . However , in actual fact , it rarely documented as a staple of the poor household diet . The women complained that despite the calorific benefits of porridge , it was rejected by family members on account of its tastelessness and nausea caused through consumption . Without the addition of expensive foodstuffs such as milk or sugar , it was unsavoury and un - palatable . It was the food associated with the work - house and hence held negative societal connotations . Furthermore , it required cooking , which was unfavourable for the time , effort and expense , to the poor working mother . According to the literature , milk was particularly scarce for the poorer households , especially for those living in urban areas . It was such a problem in fact , that women are documented as having breastfed of infancy ; ' in many cases where a better off mother would recognize that she is unable to satisfy her child 's hunger and wean it at once , the poor mother goes hopelessly on because it is simply cheaper to nurse . '(Reeves , : ) For women , the everyday grind was particularly harsh . Not only did they experience frequent under nourishment , to satisfy the needs of their families , but the constant grind of what to feed the family was particularly stressful . Many poorer households lacked adequate storage facilities , and hence , shopping trips had to be taken . ( , : ) This helped avoid food spoilage by rodents , insects , and fungus , but furthermore , prevented the eating of food by family members , that may have been bought in advance for the preparation of meals throughout . It is clear that the poor family throughout lived a pretty miserable existence in terms of food choice , variety , quality and quantity , especially in larger families ; ' The diet where there are several children is obviously chosen for its cheapness and is of the filling , stodgy kind . There is not enough of anything but bread . There is no variety . Nothing is considered but price . ' ( , ) At this time , there was little interest in the nature of and dietary habits of individuals . The provision of food was considered very much a component of the domestic sphere and therefore , poor families were left exposed , vulnerable to the mercy of the unpredictable ruthlessness of the economic climate . th witnessed a number of small changes , both in the sociological and technological environments , which had a positive impact on the experiences of food for poorer households . The industrial revolution yielded a number of positive changes for the poorer families during this period . The use of more machinery and factory processes to produce food led to reductions in prices . In the , the introduction of ' steel roller milling ' , a new process which made the availability of white bread much cheaper had significant impact on the diets of the poor households . ( , : ) Before this time , poorer households made do with cheaper , unrefined , brown breads . The new cost - effective process of milling meant that white bread was affordable , and hence soon replaced the wholesome and nutritionally beneficial , but less palatable brown bread . As noted by , this brown bread reduction led to a drop in the consumption of iron and fibre , key elements of a nutritional healthy diet . Other technological changes included the introduction of freezing , or cooling methods , and tinning of foods , which enabled the importation of meats , usually in the form of carcasses . These methods helped lower the price of meats , making it more available to the working classes . Technology has also helped shape socio - cultural aspects of the household diet . The introduction of the steam trawler , and the use of ice for preservation leading to an increase in the consumption of fish in poor households , is a prime example of this process . Until this time , the latter stages of the th , fish was rarely documented as part of a working class diet . However , the introduction of cooling techniques allowed trawlers to utilize ' untapped ' fish sources in for example , and hence sell them at affordable prices , even for the working class who were developing a taste for fish covered with breadcrumbs and fried . ( , ) Shifting societal attitudes in , associated with developmental research into nutrition and diet perhaps provided of the most socially and politically poignant transformations . Increasing technological and scientific advance allowed researchers to convert data into practicable findings . The controversial conception of a ' minimum dietary requirement ' which was provided by , in , carried politically significant implications for the government pursuing an economically productive work force . Society moved away from the prevalent tradition of placing male dietary satisfaction over and above the needs of others , towards meeting the needs of those now deemed the most ' needy ' , such as expectant mothers and young children . The Government ' milk in schools ' scheme which was implemented in , provided free milk to children in pre schools and exemplifies the way in which the government intervened ion light of attitudinal change . ( , ) ' Governments started to realize the need for nutritional policy as an essential part of constructive health services . ' ( , ) Surprisingly enough however , the onset of , had the most prominent and unexpectedly positive impact on the dietary habits of the poorest classes . The strict governmental food management policies and rationing actually led to an increase in meat and some fat consumption for the poor households , than ever experienced previously . ( , ) Furthermore , according to , vegetable consumption ( other than potatoes ) peaked in all social classes , helping to raise vitamin and mineral intakes . After the war , the inequality of dietary habits between social classes were the lowest they had ever been , facilitated mainly by the implementation of social democratic policies . ( , T. , Heasman , M , 2004:95 ) These clearly political factors led to almost a ' reversal ' of eating patterns . During the aftermath of , foods which had been heavily restricted , and hence were heavily craved , became more readily available and affordable in high street shops . As the quantity of goods brought in increased , so did the variation of foodstuffs imported . For the time , the lowest social classes were eating the same foods that characterised the diet of the most affluent . Consumption of foods such as fish eggs , fats and sugar were the highest they had ever been . ( , ) the concern for the diet of the working class poor family has shifted away from emphasis on deficiency in calorific and fat intakes , to quite the opposite . Although a number of characteristics which typified the dietary habits and behaviours of the lowest social classes in still exist amongst those of 's equivalent sociological status , the context in which food decisions are made have changed dramatically , creating a whole new set of concerns for nutritional health . There appears to have been a near role reversal . The evolution of food production techniques has revolutionised food culture . Large quantities are now produced at such low costs , that it is rare in a working household , or even unemployed household , but receiving state benefits , to go hungry ; ' for whole week I eat nothing but pasta with pesto . For another , baked potato with cheese or tuna . I do n't go hungry though . I find I can get chocolate bars for . ' ( ) This account of an experimentation investigating life on the minimum wage highlights the inexpense of certain foodstuffs in society today . However , similarly to the th diet , the foods available to the weak socio - economic classes , lack sufficient vitamin and mineral composition . Furthermkore , monotony and tedium is common in poor diets . Radical developments in food production , the process of using additives , flavourings and high levels of salt , sugars and fats to enhance the palatability of packaged goods , and the ability to produce high levels of these goods at very low cost to firms , has led to the emergence of a ' junk food ' culture among the poorest classes . These foods , such as ready meals , tinned and frozen goods , are extremely popular for a number of reasons besides the simple low cost of them . , often , they require little cooking or preparation , usually they are microwaveable and ready within a matter or . Similarly to the th housewife , this is of particular importance to a working mother who does n't have the time to cook from scratch , or simply does n't possess the skills . Furthermore , the mechanic and chemical processes used in food manufacture ensures standardisation and consistency of the product , which is favourable to those households where meals can not afford to be wasted if they do not meet the preferred taste of a family member . ( , , , ) Cooking from scratch requires time , energy costs and the purchase of fresh produce which tends to be more expensive . Furthermore , the ability to cook in this manner assumes a certain level of knowledge and culinary education . The media has been criticised for its role in the reinforcement of these socially constructed stereotypes . According to Crotty , the media can be blamed for reinforcing lower social class dietary habits through the barrage of advertisements aimed directly at these groups , in which often feature strong stereotypical working class icons alongside the lower quality ' fast food ' that is being advertised . ( Crotty , ) This acts to reinforce the socially constructed association of these food types with classes of lower sociological status in ways . , internally by direct address to the working class through the manipulation of emotive social icons which appeal to them , and externally , to the ' other ' social classes who define themselves through their avoidance of these foods . However , even with the widespread availability and affordability of food , studies show that vitamin and mineral deficiency is still a problem of particular concern . ' it does appear that the nutritional and physical condition of families is closely related with financial status ' ( M'Gonigle . , . cited in , , ) Similarly to the historical case , ' money for food can be used as a reserve to iron out fluctuations in income and to meet emergencies ; hence people on low incomes often go without food . ' Studies have even shown that out of the lowest social classes , ½ of mothers admitted to sometimes going without food to meet the needs of their children . ( , , Fimister , Veit - Wilson , ) Ironically , the new availability of cheap foods , the economic attributes associated with bulk buying and the advantages of low costs of supermarket shopping are often unavailable to those who would benefit most from them . In 's society , the majority of cost - efficient supermarkets are situated in ' out - of - town ' locations , rendering them often inaccessible to those from the most deprived areas where the accessibility of both private and public transport is rare . ( , ) Furthermore , research has shown that in these areas , the provision of food shops is rare . These classes tend to shop little and often , purchasing small quantities of the cheapest food . It is simply not cost - efficient for commercial business to remain in these areas . However , where these small ' corner shops ' and mini - marts do exist , the prices are higher than average , thus causing an even stronger financial burden on those already in economic dire straits . In fact , the lowest income families are forced to spend of their income on food if forced to purchase their goods in these corner - shops . Evidence has shown that a difference of in food expenditure in the lowest income families can cause the difference between eating and not eating in , or at least , the avoidance of purchasing fruit and vegetables . ( , ) ' when economizing , qualitative studies have shown that people economize on food either by buying cheaper or different items ( omitting fresh fruit or vegetables ) cooking out of their store cupboards , or omitting meals altogether , by eating cereals and sandwiches . ' ( Leather ; Dowler et al , cited in , ) Shopping behaviours of the poorest households are affected by the quality of storage facilities at home , whether there is access to a working refrigeration system etc . Furthermore , in the same way that historically the poorest families shopped little and often , this is the case also for the modern economically deficient household . Food is likely to be bought little and often so to avoid consumption by other family members , and hence lead to deficiency or hunger . However , this also means that often the advantages of ' cost - effective ' bulk - buying can not be enjoyed- even if access to these offers is available . ( ) It is clear from the historical data and numerous research articles that sociological and political factors do , and have , exerted some influence on the shape dietary patterns . The government is more involved now than it ever has been with the introduction of regulated nutritional guidelines , and has been proactive in the provision of welfare foods , such as the provision of free school meals for underprivileged children . However , the positive results of these measures are ambiguous . State provision or ' welfare food ' is often socially stigmatised , and therefore carries the possibility of significant negative social and psychological implications for the recipients of these benefits . Furthermore , the need for cost efficiency has , particularly of late , led to a degree of national concern for the nutritional standards of state - funded meals . The sociology and politics which shape dietary experience of the lowest socio - economic classes however is undeniably underpinned by economic circumstance . The context in which dietary decisions are made and carried out in terms of food behaviour has changed dramatically , with a much more varied availability and affordability . However , as noted whether households can gain physical access to these outlets is a point of contention . Furthermore , the worries associated with an economically underprivileged household , such as the ' risks ' associated with the introduction of ' new ' foods , and individual taste , remain as present as they ever have been . Despite the disappearance of a large number of dietary trends , significant behavioural similarities have remained prevalent throughout history ; or rather have re - emerged in the more recent , post era . The causes of deficiency may have changed due to contextual nature in which they are shaped , but the general affects and consequences of economic scarcity remain the same : ' In general , whatever the methodology , however general , the results have been similar : those living on low wages or state benefits could not afford to purchase sufficient , appropriate food to meet healthy dietary guidelines or nutrient requirements laid down by the government committee of experts . They have insufficient money however well they budget , shop and prepare food . "" ( , )",0
"< heading > Introduction</heading > The aim of this essay is to explore the roles these stratifications play within the women 's movement , and would argue that it is possible for women 's movement to work with these intersections , if identified , to fight women 's subordination and promote women 's empowerment . To do this , the essay will discuss the global women 's movement , and explore women 's movements in a national context . It will then discuss the differences within the women 's movements , applying global arguments to . The essay will examine the key concepts of ethnicity and class , and analyse their roles within women 's movements using case studies from . Furthermore , it will attempt to identify the factors that led to successful mobilization and draw lessons from relevant strategies adopted . Finally , it will recommend strategies for future engagements leading to successful mobilization towards women 's empowerment . < heading > Definition of key concepts</heading > To answer the question effectively , it is important to define the key concepts , which are , class , ethnicity , women 's movement and social change . Although these concepts have been widely used by scholars , their definition is always contested and problematic . This essay will however not address these issues in detail , due to constraints on number of words . Class : Early socialist defined class as a relationship that happens when people in group claim an identity with each other and assert their opposition to those outside ( , cited in , ) . On the other hand socialist see class divisions as grounded in the different relations of groups to the means of production , which provides a group 's class determination ( , ) . For Philip(1992 ) classifying women , proved a difficult task , as ' middle ' and ' working ' came into focus , because of roles allotted to women ; gender roles therefore play a significant role in determining class allocation for women . 's definition seems relevant for discussions on women 's movement as it affirms that class defines people of the same social and economic level , this is in line with definition ( ) . Ethnicity : In theorising ethnic phenomenon ( ) suggested that ethnic phenomenon have various forms of ideological construct which divide people into different communities . Where group membership is natural although there may be other ways of joining , for instance ethnicity can be constructed outside the group by material condition and social representation by other groups . Fenton ( ) however , argues that ethnicity is a social process that involves moving boundaries and identities , which people , collectively or individually draw around themselves in their social lives . Central to this process is the production and reproduction of culture . Both definitions are relevant to discussions in this essay as group membership can be natural or socially constructed . Women 's movement : recognises that women 's movements have never spoken with voice and so suggest that women 's movement can be defined as a network of conscious and unconscious individuals , groups or organisations concerned with eliminating gender subordination , which is understood as intersecting with ethnicity , race and class oppressions ( , ) . This definition implies that women 's movement is multifaceted . ( ) argues that while women 's movements share certain commonalities , they differ along many dimensions . They have always been arguments among feminist scholars of what really constitutes a women 's movement and what criteria to use to judge if a certain movement is successful or not . This essay will however not address the various debates , but will acknowledge that women 's movements exist in most countries mentioned in the essay , though their forms and issues may differ depending on the context within which they operate . Social change : Within equal - rights feminism , social change refers to a narrow agenda , which promotes the recruitment of women , over a period , into areas of power from which they had been previously excluded ; for example , by increasing political representation ( Humm , ) . Hernes ( 2001:14,223 ) , however defines social change under sets of assumptions that change can consist of either the actors changing ( cognitive or attitudinal change ) or the structures changing ( change of states , their relationship or distributional aspects ) . Both definitions are relevant to the essay as they both address issues of change in women 's interaction with power and the state . < heading > Women 's Movements</heading > In discussing women 's movements , this essay will draw on literature from across the globe in order to understand the trend in various women 's movements , but will focus on women 's movements in . The choice of is because historically , the country has been intensely politicised along ethnic and religious divide , learning from the past , women 's movements sought to build bridges across ethnic , religious and class divide ( 2000b ) , thus these differences have not deterred women in from organizing collectively to promote women 's rights issues . < heading : Global context</heading > The concept of sisterhood has drawn various arguments in contemporary women 's movements . in her book ' is ' acknowledges that women all over the world suffer from form of discrimination or the other , and that virtually all countries of the world are structured by patriarchal mentality ( Morgan 1984:1 ) . Many feminists , who claim that the idea of global sisterhood is not feasible , as women are divided by nationality , race , class , religion , language and sexual orientation ( , ; , 1997:21 ) , have contested this position . These divisions are evident in many women 's movements globally . There are vast disjunctions between western feminist discourses of differences and how the idea has been articulated in women 's movements in countries where difference has mattered ' too much ' . In countries like , and , where the politicization of difference has resulted in civil war or violent conflict based on ethnic , racial and religious differences , the challenge for women 's movements has been to find ways to focus on commonalities among women to minimise differences . argues that western feminist discussion of difference need to be contextualised and situated in a broader comparative and historical perspective ( , ) Internationally , a good example of these differences could be illustrated with conflict of interest between ' Western women ' and ' Third World women ' at the women 's in ; during the meeting , there were arguments about what should be part of women 's agenda , this led to divisions between women from the ' North ' and ' ' ( , : ) . A follow up meeting in showed a recognition and acceptance that women 's issues and priorities were diverse , the realization of these differences helped to resolve the conflict ( , et al , ) . The idea of adopting women 's concept of feminism and strategy for mobilizing women in Third World is not feasible , as the realities of women 's lives in the worlds are different ( , ) . have been accused for assuming a homogenous notion of the oppression of women as a group , which in turn produces the image of "" an average world woman "" , and portrays the "" world women "" as powerless and helpless , and the "" western women "" as educated , modern and in control of their sexuality ( Mohanty , ) . ( ) argues that for women 's movements to adopt a global perspective there is need to integrate sensitivity to global issues with awareness that women around the world have different priorities . As rightly identified , various women 's movements across countries may share common concerns such as economic independence , labour exploitation and inequality , childbirth , childcare , violence in the home , globalisation and so on . These similarities do not diminish the importance of political , economic and cultural difference between women all over the world . The position of wave feminists is that women share basic experiences of oppression , but are differentiated based on race , class , ethnicity and nation ( Rupp , : 5471 - 2 ) . Women 's movements around the world have developed within different historical and political context . At the global level , while it is true that the oppression of impoverished and marginalised women is linked to gender and class relations , that of Third World women is linked also to race relations and imperialism , these added dimensions produce a different context in which Third World women 's struggle must be understood ( , ) . < heading>2.2 Women 's Movement : National Context</heading > Women 's movements in different countries follow a distinctive course , developing structures and agendas in response to local circumstances . Chafetz and Dworkin(1986:65 - 66 , cited in , ) studied women 's revolts globally , focusing especially on the self - conscious collective form they classify as a movement , to develop a set of generalizations about factors that affect the size and ideology of women 's movements . They hypothesised that urbanization and industrialisation led to increased education for women as well as role expansion in the public sphere , which in turn helped to enhance the formation and spread of gender consciousness and the amassing of personal and collective resources necessary to mount a movement ( Chafetz and Dworkin , cited in : ) . Chaftez and Dworkin ( 1986:65 - 66 cited in : ) also postulated that the economic structure of a nation can be used to explain both the size and ideological scope of women 's movements . and ( ) identified factors that can help explain differences among women 's movements , . the degree of overall feminist consciousness . the opportunity to influence policy through existing political parties and . the nature of the state ( and Mueller,1987 cited in ) . ( ) in her comments on research , disagrees with her use of the hypothesis that "" women 's movements tend to be larger where industrialization and urbanisation lead to increased education and role expansion for women "" because did not provide data to prove the hypothesis . , she found the generalization that women 's movement are organised by educated women unacceptable , saying that literatures attest to the existence of grassroots women 's organisations led by uneducated women , and that these groups qualify as women 's movements . I would argue that the hypothesis is true for . As observed by ( ) , the expansion of women 's organisations in is attributed to the growth in educational opportunities for women , which gave rise to strong female leadership as well as exposure to conferences that provided opportunities for networking and communication with women around the world . Educational opportunities for women in have resulted in the creation of educated elites that has both leadership and technical skills to mobilise more constructively towards achieving women 's rights ( , ) . Attributing the success of women 's movements to their education gives evidence that Margolis hypothesis is true . Similarly , to validate how the nature of the state influences women 's movement , the history of women 's movement in lays claim to the opening of political space in and the support of 's regime to have influenced the women 's movement positively . However , this positive environment did not translate to gender equality or change in gender subordination and oppression in ( , ) . As earlier discussed state support contributed significantly to the growth of women 's movement in . Colonial experience in had implications for women , as indigenous forms of women 's subordination intersected with the new colonial ideology , which further entrenched women in a domesticated , sexually subservient position . Literature shows that colonialism promoted activities that limited women to the private sphere depoliticised them passively in ways that did not challenge the status quo ( , 2002:24 ) . The women 's movement in has its roots in women 's organisations that started in the early part of and especially with the one that emerged after . Later effort by women to mobilize was influenced by the government in power at any particular time ( , 2002:23 ) . Thus , the nature of politics defined the type of women 's activism . Nationally and at the local levels , women 's movement in were pluralistic in approach and in make up ( , ) . Within these movements , there exist differences ; the next section will discuss differences within women 's movements . < heading > Differences within the women 's movement</heading><heading>3.1 Structure , ideologies and leadership < /heading > In many countries , the nature and style of activism defines the structure , style of leadership and activities carried out by women 's movements , to address perceived problems of women ( Margolis , ) . In and , women 's movements began as small sensitization groups , challenging issues of justice , patriarchy and the exclusion of women from positions of power . Many of the issues addressed by these groups were political and called for change at the governmental level ; these groups therefore used demonstrations and public actions , which brought them to national fame ( Margolis , ) . Usually a recurring pattern of coordinating and diffusion may emerge , were groups corporate on specific issues , but after a while the coalition loses momentum and internal differentiation increases , leading to the collapse of the network ( and Mazumda 1991:1 , cited in ) . Similarly in , the nature of women 's movement is diverse . At the national level groups were formed along professional lines , while some are issue based reflecting conflicting national issues , such as peace and political participation . Sometimes , networks were formed around gender - specific issues like domestic violence , rape , the common property amendment of the 1998 Land Act and the Domestic Relations Bill . In a network was formed in in preparation for the in , this network later formalised into . At the local level , women formed multi - purpose organisations mostly engaged in savings and income - generating projects ( , ) ; my view is that the nature of organising reflects their socio - economic conditions , as seen in the nature of women 's organisations at the local level , most focused on the issue of economic empowerment reflecting the level of poverty at the grassroots . The structure of networks in is either sustained or ad hoc , some networks disbanded after they achieved their goals , an example of such a network was formed to bring to justice who murdered his wife in 1997(Tripp , 2002:7 ) . After of pressure from women activist was convicted for the offence . ( UWONET ) is an example of a network of women 's groups that has addressed different women 's right issues , membership is open to all women in , though it has been successful with most of its advocacy activities , it has also had problems internally due to ideological differences between the groups . This was very evident in the disagreement between and members of the 's ( FIDA(U ) ) . FIDA(U ) disagreed with some of the recommendations made to , arguing that more research was needed to explore the legal implications of co - ownership property clause , and the practicability of enforcing the law ( and , : ) . took advantage of this difference and accused of not representing the views of all women , it can therefore be said that ideological differences has the potential of being counter productive on advocacy efforts for women 's rights issues . The development of structures of women 's movements depends on the style of activism , so also the goals and activities are structured based on the style of activism , nature of government and how a particular issue is defined by women from different national and class background ( Margolis , : ) . In terms of leadership , in for instance women 's movements are controlled by elites , thus leading to the argument that such movements are not representing the views of the poor and marginalised women ( Margolis , ) . The same thing applies to the women 's movement in where educated women usually occupy leadership positions within the women 's movement , especially at the national level . Because of the nature and style of organising , which mainly focuses on national issues , without linking with rural women , there is a gap between the educated women involved in national organisations and rural women in local groups ( , ) . My view is that the gap between local and national women 's movements has led to the inability of national advocacy efforts to incorporate the concerns of all women . As in the case of clause , the committee rightly accused feminist activist of not representing the views of majority of the women in ( and , : ) . Within the leadership of women 's movements there is conflict of interest due to political difference , this lack of corporation between leaders of women 's organisations results to women not supporting other women politically ( , ) . I would argue that the conflict between leaders of women 's organisation has a direct relationship to ethnic and religious divisions , which dominate party politics in ( , ) , thus reflecting in all aspects of mobilization . Another challenge in coordinating effort for the women 's movement in has been competition amongst organisations , some organisations take ideas from the networks meetings and implement such ideas on their own , thus weakening the network and coalition building , rather than working together to achieve better results as well as strengthening the network ( , ) . < heading>4.0 Class , ethnicity and women 's , class and ethnic divisions are interrelated as each division presents ideological and organisational principles within which the others operate , although in different historical contexts and different social arenas their roles will differ . The combination of gender and class , and ethnicity and class will operate in the relationship between gender and ethnic divisions ( ) . As noted by Hooks ( ) women are divided by class and ethnicity , sustained woman bonding can only be achieved when these divisions are confronted and the necessary steps are taken to eliminate them . The question here is , can women 's movement transcend these differences and work together as a group with common problems ? Proceeding sections will attempt to answer this question and would argue that , women 's groups can rise above all differences , because only then can they fight against discrimination and gain the much anticipated equality in all development processes . The combination of gender and class , and ethnicity and class , will operate in the relationship between gender and ethnic divisions . As noted by Hooks ( ) women are divided by class and ethnicity , sustained woman bonding can only be achieved when these divisions are confronted and the necessary steps are taken to eliminate them . The question here is , can women 's movement transcend these differences and work together as a group with common problems ? Proceeding sections will attempt to answer this question and would argue that , women 's groups can rise above all differences , because only then can they fight against discrimination and gain the much anticipated recognition in all development processes . The intersecting factors of class and ethnicity play a major role in determining the success or failure of women 's movements ( , ) . < heading>4.1 The role of class and ethnicity in women 's movements</heading > The aim of this section is to explore to what extent class and ethnicity plays a critical role within women 's movements , the analysis will draw on case studies from and other countries of the world . The section will explore the different campaigns carried out by women , and discuss the reason for its success or failure . As discussed earlier , gender , class and ethnicity play a key role in the activities of women 's movements , and it varies depending on their different ideologies ( Margolis , ) . The history of women 's movements in has shown that the relationship between middle- and upper - class white women on one hand and women of colour and working - class women on the other hand has been highly variable and complex ( Poster , ) . In , the women 's movements have been criticized for focusing too heavily on issues that concern only white middle - class women , not adequately representing the majority of women and needing to be structured beyond sexual egalitarianism ( Cagatay et al , cited in , ) . ( ) argues that the way in which gender is conceptually related to other identities such as race , ethnicity and religion differ from place to place and across time , and these constructions vary according to divergent political social and economic conditions and histories . I would argue that difference within movements has a close relationship with the social , economic and political context of their countries . Historically , has been intensely politicised along ethnic and religious divide , learning from the past , women 's movements sought to build bridges across ethnic , religious and class divide . Inter ethnic marriages helped women integrate into other ethnic groupings , forming associations that cut across ethnic , clan and kinship ties ( ) . The effort made by women 's movements in to bridge the gap across ethnic divides within the internal structure of the organisation was not successful . An example is the internal democracy within a prominent women 's movement in ( ACFODE ) . sees itself as a model for other organisations in its avoidance of sectarianism , due to its rich mix of members , which it claims , help to unite women ( , ) . Members accused leadership of being sectarian , as only a particular tribe has led the group since inception . During elections to change the leadership , members had ethnic attachments to voting for the president , as a particular faction of the group felt marginalised ( , ) . I will observe that such attitude will affect the group activities , as decisions taken will also reflect ethnic divisions , thus hampering the main objective of women 's emancipation set by the organisation . This also confirms the claim that women are divided on the bases of community , class , ethnicity and religion . Another example is the alliance between ( ULA ) and ( UWONET ) , to ensure gender equity in the Ugandan Land Law Reform , through the establishment of married women 's rights to co - own part of their husband 's land . Not withstanding its broad membership of women 's organisation , the proposal was rejected as it had much opposition , especially within the ( and , ) . Resistance could be explained from the perspective that the co - ownership proposal directly threatened the exclusive property rights of individual men . Opposition which came from policy makers , technocrats in line ministries , including members of the executive and the President , was expressed through attacks on the credibility of a research carried out by UWONET to show women 's lack of land ownership , and on their right to represent poor rural women . The proposal was ridiculed as impractical and they were accused of being elitist ( and , ) . rejected the accusation of elitism , but acknowledged that many advocates of the co - ownership clause were young educated working - women activists , and most organisations involved were urban based . The narrow social base fuelled opponents ' arguments that the women 's lobby did not represent the majority of countries women , other factors include , treating women as a homogenous group , this negates the fact that as a group , women could have conflicting interest and position based on class , clan and marital status . Some groups who felt threatened by the co - ownership clause include , propertied women , some rural women using customary land , who feared that their user rights could be threatened , wives who felt that the cause would give an advantage to the wives , and above all , women in informal unions ( and , ) . I would argue that the experiences above show lack of inclusiveness and not building advocacy around issues of concern to majority of women . In contracts , however the following examples demonstrate a more inclusive approach to mobilising for the emancipation of women . In there were efforts to empower women in agriculture . This group is an important sector of Ugandan economic growth , as agriculture accounts for of foreign exchange earnings in the country . Women produce of the countries food ( , Animal husbandry and Fisheries cited in - Beraho , 2002:92 ) . This contribution , however does not match their control over the use of resources generated from their efforts . A number of factors are responsible for women 's lack of participation in agriculture , such as , limited access to control over land , limited access to financial and agricultural extension services , constraints associated with labour , limited access to education and appropriate technology ( , ) . association working to help women overcome these limitations is in . The mission of the organisation is to promote a coordinated network of organisations , to improve the living condition of women in , through training , advocacy , research , information dissemination and extension of access to markets and credit services to its membership of over seventy women 's organisations ( , 2002:96 ) . Though with a clear mission , the activities of this network has not changed the lives of women farmers in , as they remain poor and do not have access to land . A major challenge was the inability of the organisation to focus on the needs of the invisible female farmers , whose image ironically , continued to evade those who would have put them at the centre of the women 's movement agenda ( , ) . There was also lack of recognition of gender inequalities that keep women at the vicious cycle of poverty and lack of adequate strategies to address these inequalities ( , ) . Using and 's ( ) theoretical concept of capital accumulation and reproduction , we could explain the impact of class processes on women 's subordination . Their argument is that , most development programmes being implemented in the Third World by donor agencies , through some women 's organisations ( like the one discussed above ) , is based on the premise that industrialization schemes from foreign aid , private capital and in agriculture would automatically benefit the masses through employment and lead to improved standard of living . This strategy failed in terms of women 's development , as they do not address feminist concern with gender - based inequalities . The impact being implementation of programmes that strengthened women 's roles as home keepers , invariably adding more burden on women . Thus , capital accumulation creates class divisions among women , leading to women of different class having opposing interest in social organisations and programmes for social change ( and , 1982:162 ) . The impact of capital accumulation leads to divergent interests among women ( and , ) , and explains the problem encountered by women farmers ' . It was obvious that leaders of the group mobilized poor women , using women 's source of income , but neglecting to tackle the underlying causes of their poverty , as such the programme failed to alleviate women 's poverty . < heading>4.2 Women working across class and ethnic boundaries</heading > Having highlighted some of the challenges women 's groups in are experiencing , there are some organisations in , who have been successful in empowering women , working across ethnic and class boundaries . An example of such a group is in . The group was formed by women from different ethnic and religious groups , with a wide range of occupations and wage levels . Members of the group have additional sources of income , mostly informal . The guiding principle of the group is economic survival and mutual support . These women learnt to accommodate their differences , to succeed . Strategies adopted include , catering for non - religious holidays , so no one feels marginalised and because they were of different ethnic groups , meetings were conducted in language , and translated into , ) . I will suggest that this group succeeded because their guiding principle cuts across all classes , recognising issues that affect most members , and strategising to address them will not only adhere members to achieving set objectives , but they will also feel the satisfaction that comes with belonging to the group . discourse identifies that women are not a homogenous group , but belong to diverse socio - economic groupings based on class , ethnic and racial identities and so experience subordination differently ( Nzomo , 1995:136 ) . Nzomo(195:137 ) agrees that class and other forms of identity can limit the scope of participatory action , but her position is that women have proved that when they work in unison they become a power to reckon with , solidarity among women seem to be the only viable strategy to bring about social justice . Politically , women in the Third World are faced with varying degree of governance , which presents opportunities for women to work together ; this is what had to say about women . < quote>'The experiences in shows that women , regardless of their class or ethnic background , do not need much convincing about their subordinate status and the need to seize the opportunity presented by multiparty democracy to change their status ' ( , ) . < /quote > This is because the postmodernist approach to development is not in harmony with democratic ideals and strategies guiding women in their quest for gender - sensitive democratization in . While most critiques believe this will not translate into more votes for women and will suppress the voice of women with opposing views . It seems to be the only viable strategy for women in and the whole of . For women there is need for collective action to ensure inclusiveness ( Nzomo , ) . The postmodernist critique would dismiss the current strategies used by women , whose struggle for gender - sensitive democratization hinges upon universalist feminist ideals ( , 1995:141 ) . I would argue that based on examples discussed in this essay the importance of collective action could not be over emphasised . There is need therefore for women to understand the historical , cultural and social context within which they operate in order for them to develop strategies that would translate into better living conditions for women . < heading>5.0 Conclusion</heading > From the above discussions , it is obvious that women 's movements in and will have to negotiate on issues where there is sufficient unity of interest due to gender , despite other causes of division ( , ) . As in the case of in , the group was able to work across class and ethnic divides , to improve the lives of women . What were some of the factors that enabled these groups to transcend class and ethnicity ? , the recognition that there was diversity , and taking this into consideration in the groups activities towards achieving set objectives . , the realisation of the different needs of members of the group , and interest of women of different ages and religions helped the group develop strategies that were sensitive to the needs of all . In order for women 's groups to work across class and ethnic boundaries , they need to be aware that women are not only victims of patriarchy , but they perpetuate patriarchy and subordinate other women ( Murthy , 2004:15 ) . I would say that , this is very true in most societies . Where mothers - in - law controls the activities of daughters - in - law , in case of participation in women 's movement , some young women are not involved , and so will not benefit from such programmes , either as a result of instructions by the mother - in - law to stay behind and prepare food , or due to the burden of household chores . To ensure success in mobilization groups need to deal with issues experienced by poor and non - poor women to ensure inclusiveness . To encourage poor women to participate in group activities , such as micro credit schemes , implementing organisations need to modify the rules , so as to allow women who can not save at all or who can save only small amounts to join and introduce additional savings for the better - off women ( Murthy , 2004:15 ) , as in the case of women farmers in . Examples from shows that women have sought linkages that transcend differences like class and ethnicity in order to build broad - based movements to achieve popular goals ( , ) , but these examples are few compared to many other groups that have not been able to live above these differences . The examples , however proves that it is possible for women 's groups to work across class and ethnic boundaries , in doing so , they will be building a strong movement that will work in unity to promote the rights of women and challenge patriarchy , leading to gender equality .","< heading>1.0 Introduction</heading > Debates about research relying on the experiences of women have dominated feminists ' discourses for . Feminists challenged traditional research methods that ignore women 's experiences , and argue that for any research to lead to improved lives of women it must privilege women 's voices . Thus giving rise to feminist ' epistemologies ' , indicating its diversity ; this also has raised interesting debates amongst feminist researchers . The challenge for feminist researchers has been how women 's knowledge can be produced without biases and not privileging the researcher as the ' knower of knowledge ' . The aim of this essay is to evaluate the life story research which produced a book - ' Nisa : The Life and Words of a ! Kung Woman ' by , and establish the relationship between research design , epistemology , and power and ethics in the research process . The essay is structured into parts . The section gives background information of the exotic life story of as illustrated in the book . The section will discuss the research design in relation to current feminist methods . The section will discuss epistemology , while the section will discuss power and ethics in the research process . While these sections are clearly distinguished , the essay will at every point make a link between each of the issues discussed . The last section which is the conclusion will reflect on the overall issues discussed and would argue that 's story gives the reader insight into the life of the ! Kung woman , although the authenticity of her story remains in conflict with the author , as she continuously warns that the story does not represent the whole range of experience available to women in ! Kung culture(Shostak , ) . This only reflects of the dilemmas in research methods . However , her ability to confirm 's stories gives credit to the research output . < heading>1.1 Nisa : The Life and Words of a ! Kung Woman</heading > The book is a product of field trips by , to towards the end of a large - scale specialist research , organized by and of . Their research on ! Kung people focused on their health , nutrition , demography , archaeology , infant growth and development , population genetics , ritual healing ceremonies , folklore and women 's life cycles . The author arrived just at the end of the project when earlier researchers had left the field ( , ) . ! Kung is a remote village on the border of the desert in . The major means of subsistence for generations in this community is gathering and hunting . is a member of of the last remaining traditional gather - hunter societies , a group , which prefers to be called / twasi , ' the real people ' , who currently live in isolated areas of , , and . Referred to in the past as the Sonquas , and in as the , they are also known as the ! Kung bushmen , the ! Kung San or simply the ! Kung . The ! Kung are mostly short and light skinned , with high cheek bones and oriental - looking eyes ( Shostak , ) . During the period , interviewed a broad range of women . The author attempted to meet some of her needs for friendship by getting to know a few of the women ( , 1990:17 ) . She used series of recorded interviews to conduct the research . This however , was partially successful , until she met and took immediate dislike to , the lousy ! Kung woman , who turned out to be the ' star ' in the book . 's inability to ignore 's loud voice forced her to enter into contract with her to be one of the informants in the story on the life of ! Kung women ( , 1990:39 ) . Reading through the story makes you feel you know much about , as she gives details of her exhilarating life story . tells explicitly how she felt about many aspects of her life , from her , weaning , growing up , and developing emotions to adulthood , menstruation and the rituals around it , taking lovers , trial marriages , and marriage relationships . She told stories of sexual exploits , extramarital relationships , birth control , infanticide , child birth , death of her husband and children , pains , happy times , life in the bush and stories about fighting and dancing , and how often this migrant society usually relocates from part of the desert to another in search of food and water , and finally how she felt about old age . 's expression and explicit account of very intimate and emotional issues gives the reader information about the life of the ! Kung women and also indicates the closeness that existed between her and the researcher . The chapters of the book address each of the stages in 's life , and usually start with an introduction by the author covering the wider ! Kung society and followed by 's account . Having given an account of the case study , the next section will examine the research design . < heading>2.0 Research Design</heading > According to De Vaus the function of research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained from research enables the researcher to answer the initial research questions clearly ( ) . For Punch , research design is the basic plan for a piece of research , and has main parts : the strategy , the conceptual framework , who or what will be studied , and finally the tools and procedures to be used for collecting and analysing empirical materials ( ) . < heading > Research aims</heading > In order to answer these questions effectively , it is important to start with the research aim . For the case study being analysed , the researcher 's interest in the study emanates from the fact that during the period of the research , there were concerns about traditional values pertaining to marriage and sexuality in . At that time women 's movement had just begun to gain momentum , calling for the re - examination of the traditional roles of women ( , ) . The researcher hoped that the research would help to bring to a global perspective the different lives of women in the world . The research interest leads to the development of research questions . As mentioned earlier , while all these steps are treated as separate sections , they are all interrelated . < heading > Research Question</heading > The researcher 's choice of research area is based on curiosity to satisfy her research interest and the quest to close the knowledge gap in research that has been carried out on ! Kung people by anthropologists ' from . This position helped her to develop the research questions . In conducting a qualitative research it is advisable to develop both general and specific questions ( Punch , 2005:34 ) . In the introductory chapter of the book , developed both general and specific questions , having identified a gap in existing research . The research that was conducted at that time focused on health and nutrition , demography , archaeology , infant growth and development , child rearing practices , population genetics , ritual healing ceremonies , and women 's life circle . Despite the wide range of areas covered by the research , there seems to be a misunderstanding on the way of life of ! Kung people among the researchers ( , ) . Broadly , the general research question was to explore a culture , which was outwardly different from that of the researcher 's world , and to identify any universals if any . Having asked the general questions , the researcher stated specifically that her interest was the lives of ! Kung women and what it was like being a woman in ! Kung . The following are the specific research questions : ' To explore how the ! Kung women feel about themselves , their childhood , and their parents ? What love relationship is like ; did spouses love one another ? Did they feel jealous , and did love survive marriage ? What were their dreams like and what did they make of them ? Were they afraid of growing old or afraid of death ? ' ( , ) . At the stage of specifying her interest on women in relation to the questions , has been able to trim her research to a manageable size , to enhance the output . According to Punch focusing on what will be researched helps at all stages of the research project ( ) . Basically , research questions have main functions : organize the project , sets boundaries , keep researcher focused , and provide a framework for writing up as well as selection of data for analysis ( Punch , ) . In the case study the research questions played the major roles as identified by , especially as it pertains to developing appropriate research design . < heading > Literature</heading > The literature gives information on the nature of the substantive problem and how much is known about it , how well developed the literature in a particular area is , and how closely the study wants to follow the directions established by the literature . In addition the literature enables the researcher to have considerable knowledge on the researched ( , 2005:41 ) . For the case study , the researcher had advance information on the ! Kung people . Literature from reports of research on ! Kung people gave her insight into some aspects of their life . In reading through the text it is evident that she builds into the research the literature , as clearly indicated by the notes section at the end of the book , which also gives information on the sources of data . < heading > Research hypothesis</heading > A hypothesis is a predicted answer to a research question , but Punch asked an important question of the relevance of a research hypothesis to the research ( ) . The hypothesis for the case study is stated thus : ' a study revealing what ! Kung women 's lives were like , might reflect what their lives has been like for generations , possibly even for ( , ) . The research product is expected to be a reflection of women 's lives as at the time of the research or even . The potentials of research producing the expected answer to research questions could be contested ( , 2005:38 ) . For the case study , since the research had identified a gap in an existing research , and the research questions have been developed based on this , the life story has the potential to answer the questions Going back to the main areas of research design which includes : the strategy , the conceptual framework , who or what will be studied , the tools and procedures for collecting and analysing empirical materials . Starting with the strategy , it is obvious that the researcher was set to carry out the research by living amongst the researched community , in which case the approach used is ethnographic . This is in line with and 's views of ethnographic research , where the researcher participates , overtly or covertly in people 's daily lives for an extended period of time ( ) . The conceptual framework for the case study is to reveal the life of women in ! Kung ( Shostak , ) , which helped to develop the research questions ( , 2005:53 ) . The research set to collect data from both women and men , although there is no information on how many people the researcher intended to collect data from , what is evident is that the researcher expected to get the perspectives of both women and men . While selection of participants were not objective or strictly representative , the women she chose to interview were those she felt she could establish good rapport with , and who were representative of the conditions of life of the ! Kung . Overall she interviewed women in addition to , ranging from ( , ) . The age range however shows evidence of representation of the different stages of lives of ! Kung women . < heading > Methodology</heading > The research adopted a qualitative methodology , where researchers study spoken and written representations ; it also involves recording human experiences and use of multiple methods of data collection ( Punch , : ) . Shostak used a combination of methods to collect data for the research , which includes : unstructured interviews , recordings , and observations . The multi - method adopted is typical of ethnographic research ( , ) . Feminist researchers find interviewing engaging as it offers researchers access to people 's ideas , thoughts , and memories in their own words , this is particularly important for the study of women , because it solves the problem of of ignoring women in research ( , ) . This definition suits the research being discussed , as its main objective is to reveal the life of ! Kung women . To carry out the interview effectively , the researcher had to learn the ! Kung language , to enhance the quality of the research and avoid reliance on party interpretation of recorded interview , this has the potential of distorting information collected . In addition it will enhance participants observation , according to the author ' upon arriving in the field , I did everything I could to understand the ! Kung life : I learned the language , went on gathering expeditions .......... I gained an invaluable perspective , participating and watching ' ( Shostak 1990:6 ) . These interactions create trusts between the researcher and participants . In discussing data analysis points out that researchers are faced with the challenge of representation , this is reflected in the written data , which has the potential to reflect the researchers constructed ideas ( ) . Shostak , however identified potential problems with data collected , as she was not sure if the questions she asked were clear to the women she interviewed , in her words , ' teach me what it is to be a ! Kung woman , was the way I had presented myself to and to the other women . How much this had influenced each woman 's self - representation was not clear ' ( ) . To what extent women 's experiences can be a reliable source of knowledge in any research has been a complex and debated issue among feminist researchers . In the case study whose major objective is to reveal the lives of ! Kung women , through representation of their experiences , the researcher expressed concern over the validity of the different versions of accounts of women 's lives from the women she interviewed . She explicitly stated that 's story is not a fair representation of ! Kung life , either in her experience or in her personality , and adds that her views were not shared by others ( , 1990:350 ) . But according to when experience is taken as the origin of knowledge , the vision of the subject ( the person who had the experience or the historian who recounts it ) becomes the bedrock of evidence upon which explanation is built . It is important not to ignore experience but recognise its constructed nature and the role played by language and discourse ( ) . In essence we need to be aware that experience is factual and socially constructed . Experience establishes the existence of individuals and operates within the ideological construction that makes the individual the starting point of knowledge ( , 1992:27 ) . The argument about the truth in women 's account only validates the claim by wave feminists that women are different . Feminists claim that using women 's experience , as a starting point is the only option left for feminist researchers . The discussions on research methods and its link to using women 's experience as a starting point for feminist research shows the relationship between the research process and epistemology . < heading > Epistemology</heading > Harding defined epistemology as the theory of knowledge , that seeks to answer questions of the source of knowledge , and who will be accepted as an appropriate generator of legitimate knowledge and on what grounds ? Feminists have accused traditional epistemology of ignoring the experience of women in research . They proposed feminist epistemology , which is an alternative theory of knowledge that legitimates women as ' knowers ' ( ) . Harding identifies types of epistemologies : ' feminist empiricist ' and ' feminist standpoint ' ( 1987b:182 ) . Feminist empiricism stresses the continuities between traditional justifications of scientific research and feminist ones . In contrast , feminist standpoint stresses the continuities between the radical upheavals in social understanding created by class struggles and those created by feminist inquiry . The differences that exist between them reflect the struggles in mainstream discourses between liberal and theories of human nature and politics . Both epistemologies are attempting to produce a feminist science that is complete and undistorted ( , ) Many feminists have defined feminist standpoint from different perspectives . epistemology for instance claims that to acquire knowledge of a phenomenon one must be in a position to experience the phenomenon and its effects . Many feminists have criticised this position for its gender blindness . Hartsock drawing from the ideology argues that women 's superior way of knowing derives from their position in sexual division of labour ( 1983:284 ) . This claim is similar to that made by , who acknowledged the central role of emotional involvement in the process of knowledge acquisition ( 1983:84 ) . The theory of experience has support of other feminists . For Smith what makes women 's experience valuable from an epistemic viewpoint is their dual marginal and central position in the current set of social relations , which sustains the current patriarchal systems ( 1988:81 ) . ( ) and Bar On ( ) however , argue that the claim that women have a set of experiences presupposes that women have essential features that ignore the important differences among women . This view is shared by ( ) and who propose that women are different , and that the version of standpoint theory based on shared experiences underestimates the importance of differences between women ( ) . Women 's experiences in traditional social science recognises that social science ask questions about social life that appears problematic from within the social experiences that are characterized by men ( white , Western , bourgeois ) , who ask only those questions about nature and social life which ( white , Western , bourgeois ) men want answered ( , ) . This perspective is reflected in the ! Kung research , as observed by , researchers who worked in the ! Kung community did not cover aspects of their way of life , especially from the perspective of women ( , ) . In relation to the case study , defining what is in need of scientific explanation from the perspective of men 's experiences leads to partial understanding of social life ( , ) . Obviously , researching the life of ! Kung women has proved that it is only from women that the experiences of women is expected to be revealed . Within these experiences , there are multiple realities of women 's lives , which provide an explanation for the different experiences recounted by women interviewed by , ) . Some feminist argue that standpoint should not rely only on experiences , as generalising experience has the tendency of making invisible the experiences of marginalised groups of women ( , : ) . As argued by experience is fallible and therefore questionable , hence can not be taken as a ground for all knowledge , because this would amount to ignoring its constructed nature ( ) . 's strong objectivity however sees feminist standpoint not as arising consciously from women 's experiences but rather as a politically chosen social location , thus knowledge production is deliberately partial ( ) . 's account therefore could be said to reflect how the researcher judged stories told by the other women , and how 's story is validated to produce knowledge of the life of ! Kung women . Although acknowledged that 's stories could be distorted as she had doubts over 's account of her childhood ( ) , but according to , some standpoint are less distorted than others and can therefore be a starting point for knowledge production ( ) . This implies that 's story represents a starting point for knowledge on the life of ! Kung women . Shostak choice of researching women authenticates that standpoint is political , as it begins from the position of people who have been marginalised from previous researches conducted in the community . This standpoint explains the choice of research method that was adopted . Which enabled the researcher to obtain information from the women on a wide range of issues pertaining to their life ? The range of participants selected for the study is informed by experiences of women . The above discussions suggest that defining epistemology and adopting the views of most feminist that research should start from women 's experience within a social context will influence the research design process . < heading>4.0 Power and in the research and Power</heading > Ethics concerns the morality of human conduct . In relation to social research , it refers to the moral deliberation , choice and accountability on the part of researchers throughout the research process ( and , ) . and locate their discussion on ethics within a legitimate concern with the issues of power ( 2002:14 ) . They also highlight the importance of ethical decisions through out the research process . The epistemologies of theoretical perspectives informing research have also been discussed as generating ethical questions ( ) . Power is discernable in interrelated dimensions : power difference stemming from different positions of the researcher and participants ; power exerted during the research process ; and power exerted during the post - fieldwork period ( , ) . This essay will rely on the relationship between research design , epistemology and ethics in discussing this section . < heading > Working with participants</heading > How contact is made with participants during the process of collecting data is an important aspect of the relationship between the researcher and participants . Some feminist favour interviews as a method of inquiry , as it eliminates power over the participants and helps to develop a sense of connectedness ( , ) . Ann Oakley points out that the goal of finding out about people through interviewing is best achieved when the relationship between the interviewer and interviewee is non - hierarchical , and the interviewer is prepared to invest his or her own personal identity in the relationship ( 1981:41 ) . This was effectively adopted by as illustrated in this statement , ' I presented myself to them pretty much as I saw myself at the time : a girl - woman , recently married , struggling with the issues of love , marriage , sexuality , work , and identity - basically , with what womanhood meant to me ' ( Shostak , ) . The way she presented herself helped her to build trust and friendship with the women she interviewed , as some of them confessed they never could have discussed issues raised by the researcher with a man ( , : ) . This validates the claim by some feminists , that it is easy for a woman to interview other women . Some feminists , who are of the view that interview relationship is dependent on the relative position of the researcher and the researched in social formation , have opposed this view ( , cited in , ) . They believe that simply being women discussing ' women 's issues ' in the context of a research interview is not sufficient for the establishment of rapport and the easy flow of an interview ( , ) . Shostak had challenges in establishing friendship with some of the women . For instance efforts at building friendship with Hwantla never materialized , as stated by Shostak : ' yet most of the time she seemed reluctant to invest much of herself in our work , even less in her relationship with me ' ( : ) . The researcher however acknowledged that Hwantla was preoccupied with personal problems . Further to this , the researchers account that women participated in the research because of monetary incentives and an opportunity for them to talk to someone means that the woman interviewer - woman interviewee situation does not always produce rapport through gender identification ( , ) . The power positions between the interviewer and the interviewee are not fixed dichotomies ; positions can shift over the course of the interview ( , : ) . A good example is the relationship between and Nisa . During the interview process , felt she had the knowledge , as information was sought from her ( Shostak , : ) . In interpreting and producing data , the researcher has the power to determine what is relevant or not relevant ( , ) . This is evident in the researcher 's expression of concern over the accuracy of 's accounts ( , : ) . Believing participants have been identified as a controversial aspect of feminist research . According to social interaction involves a certain amount of deception because science relies on uncertainties , this however does not imply that feminist researchers believe the women they interview all the time ( 1992:28 ) . I will suggest that 's action finds support in this position . A further example of power relations can be seen in the ability of the researcher to provide incentives for interviewees and other people in the community . This is in line with 's suggestion that fieldwork should encompass some form of reciprocity ; meaning that researchers should be able to offer services or materials in exchange for the privilege of studying and disrupting other peoples lives ( 1986:73 ) . This phenomenon did not work out well for as she complained that it was becoming impossible to sustain the villagers demands , in addition this had implications for life after the researcher leaves the community , as they live communal life , sharing resources , and occasionally working in exchange for goods ( 1990:27 ) . Although the ideas of 's are useful , they do not take into account the exploitative nature of the research process ( ) . The relationship between the researcher and participants is based on engagement and attachment , where participants are at the risk of manipulation and betrayal from the researcher . The only reward for the participant is the researcher 's undivided attention during the interview ( , , , 1991:142 ) . In the case study , developed friendship with , but in evaluating their friendship she felt detached ( ) . This action provides evidence that the researcher only developed friendship with her for the purpose of the research , but it is possible that felt genuine friendship existed between them , if that is the case then the withdrawal by the researcher was exploitative . But according to Duncombe and , all interview relationships , including women 's interview with women , are situated somewhere along a spectrum between the extremes or more genuine empathy and relationships with an element of ' faking ' ( 2002:120 ) . < heading > Representing the other</heading > The issue of whether a researcher can represent groups she / he does not belong to , especially groups with less power and influence has been debated by many feminists . Similarly , recognition of the researcher 's role in constructing ' knowledge ' about women has generated numerous debates about the ethics and politics of ' representing the other ' ( Gillies and Alldred , 2002:39 ) . Feminist researchers often emphasize commonalities between themselves and the participants of their research as a validation of their rights to represent other women . Gillies and Alldred , however argue that structural and individual differences may sometimes conflict with similarities ( ) . In the case study , 's advantage is the fact that she is a woman seeking to understand the life of the ! Kung woman , she claimed that all the women talked to her specifically as a person and as a woman ( 1990:21 ) . The commonality being advocated by feminists seems to work in this instance , but as stated by Gillies and Alldred , cultural differences could influence the outcome of the interview and the way data will be interpreted . This position finds support in this statement made by Shostak : < quote>'Despite my enthusiasm , the incident also reminded me of the cultural gulf between and me . It raised the probability that some of my questions would not find easy answers ; while others might lead to answers I might not like to hear . The differences in our backgrounds , though I sometimes tried to deny them , would always be there ' ( 1990:359).</quote > In contrast , many feminists believe that when emphasis is placed on sameness , power differences are highlighted in terms of whose version of the account is eventually told , even if the research is presented as a co - construction ( Gillies and Alldred , 2002:24 ) . In response to ethical / political concerns , some feminists have argued against speaking for others , this however has generated much debate and dispute . But as noted by , the argument that researchers should avoid representing groups who occupy less powerful positions is difficult to sustain morally . Not to speak about , or for others encourages silences and gaps , which marginalize and exclude , while cementing the privilege of those with the more powerful voices ( 2002:41 ) . If we follow this line of argument then we can say that is justified to research on the ! Kung women , because they have been previously marginalized by researchers , who in this case were more powerful ( , ) . Closely related to this is the question of how ' life - stories ' can be judged as appropriate . Gillies and Alldred suggest that notions of authenticity and ' truth ' should be problematised , so that legitimacy of particular representations can be evaluated , not in terms of accuracy , but according to what is revealed about the basis of interpretation ( 2002:41 ) . prominent ethical dilemma Shostak faced in her research on ! Kung people , was authenticating 's account . The dilemma arose because of the different accounts of the women she interviewed . She expressed concern over 's emphasis on negative experiences to the point that her narrative portrayed an extreme view of her culture . Shostak toiled with the idea of the truth about 's account , and justified publishing it as a way of balancing the sided picture that has been painted by past researchers ( ) . This action is political and is in line with feminists proposal that the researcher 's position in relation to those whom she is representing needs to be thoroughly explored , in terms of her own social , political and personal interest , and the assumptions she brings to her understanding of those she is researching ( Gillies and Alldred , 2002:42 ) . Seeking consent for publication is another aspect of the case study where ethical issues reflected . The question is , what obligation does the researcher have to the women she interviewed , particularly when it comes to publication of her findings ? drawing from Fichter and ( ) outlined the responsibilities of the researcher to entities : sponsors , funding agencies , publishers , other scientists , society , and participants . He adds a one , the researcher , as she / he could be faced with negative reactions as a result of the research ( 1982:84 ) . In the case study , experienced some negative reactions from the community she researched . Members of the community misinterpreted her research , as women she interviewed were labelled as unfaithful to their partners . A man who accused his wife of infidelity reflected this in this statement : ' if you are n't having affairs , what does ( referring to ) speak to you about all the time?'(Shostak , : ) In seeking 's consent for confidentiality and to publish , behaved responsibly to her research participants ( , ) . According to Barnes , with publication , researchers run the risk of making public what participants would prefer to keep secret , he advised that way of controlling the effect of publication is to make sure that those affected agree to what is being said about them ( ) . I find 's discussion with deceptive . Shostak stated that she would conceal identities , although it is unlikely that any repercussions from the book would reach ( ) . This gives the impression that published the book with very private details of 's life , knowing that would never know how she was represented in the book . advised that researchers in preparing their manuscripts should assume that both the identities of the location studied and the identities of the individuals will be discovered , and reflect on the consequences before publishing , and think about what people will feel when they read about themselves ( 1982:87 ) . This did not apply to as she could neither read nor have access to books ( , ) . Shostak , further displayed her sense of responsibility by promising to share the resources from the book with and with ( a foundation of the ! Kung people ) . To what extent understood this remains questionable . < heading>5.0 Conclusion</heading > Some feminists have proposed that researchers should link ethics , methods , methodologies and epistemology . For , there are ethical issues involved in research relationships , as well as in being accountable within the varied sets of relations that comprise any given research project ( ) . From the beginning of a research and after completion , a researcher and their work exist in many complex sets of relationships . In recognising these multiple contexts , which influence the research process , there are potential conflicts of interests . The researcher has the responsibility of being accountable not only to research participants but also to those who read , re - interpret and take seriously the claim that the research makes ( Doucet and , ) . Doucet and argue that reflexivity holds together methodology , epistemology and ethics . The researcher has to be transparent within the wider context of reflexivity ( ) . In the epilogue chapter of the case study under review , reflected on the dilemmas of interpreting the data she collected , and how representative and true where 's story of ! Kung life style . The other major issue was her obligation to discuss with Nisa her intention of publishing her life story ( ) . These accounts give the reader an insight into the dilemmas that took place before , during , and after the research process , and I will view this as being accountable and transparent . An analysis of the research on ! Kung women as reflected in the book - ' Nisa : The Life and Words of a ! Kung Woman ' , clearly shows evidence of the interrelationship , between research design , epistemology , and ethics and power in the research process . It is justifiable to say that the research answered the research questions . Despite difficulties in carrying out the research and some dilemmas that arose during the process , the researcher was able to problemitise and deal with problems . Her reflexivity is a confirmation of her research skills and display of professionalism . The fact remains that researching live stories will continue to present varied challenges to researchers , as human life is not static .",1
"< heading > EXERCISE 2 : ASEPTIC PIPETTING</heading><heading > Introduction</heading > A sterile item is one in which all microorganisms including spores have been destroyed using heat , radiation , chemicals or filtration . Transferring a liquid from container to another without introducing contamination is an important manipulative skill . In this exercise sterile broth was pipetted into sterile tubes which were then incubated to test individuals aseptic transfer techniques . < heading > Materials < /heading>5 sterile test tubes containing nutrient broth 10 ml pipette < heading > Method < /heading><list > Working space was cleared on bench and swabbed with disinfectant solution5 sterile test tubes were labelled and placed in a test tube rackTop of nutrient broth was loosenedSterile ml pipette was removed from can , taking care not to touch non - sterile surfaces and attached to of broth was sucked up , filled pipette was touched against the side of the container to remove excess liquid and broth was transferred to the test tubeProcedure reported for the remaining test tubes and samples were incubated at ° C for 1 week</list><heading > Results < /heading><heading > Own results < /heading><table/><heading > Bench results < /heading><table/><heading > Questions < /heading><heading > Why , after incubation , is there merit in exposing the tubes to room air and reincubating them ? < /heading > Assuming that they were not contaminated in the place , To test the possibility of infection with micro - organisms from aerial contaminants which demonstrates the need to follow the technique for aseptic pipetting closely more specifically to work quickly avoiding exposing one 's samples to air . < heading > What does this extra test signify ? < /heading > In the extra test , mould growth was observed in of the test tubes whilst turbidity was observed in test tube . test tubes remained clear . This extra test signifies that infection with pathogenic microoganisms from the air around can happen fairly easily hence the importance of taking all steps to maintain aseptic conditions initially and ensuring these conditions are maintained to prevent contamination later . It also signifies the presence of micro organism present in the air around us bacteria which cause turbidity and spores which result in mould growth . < heading > What kinds of contaminating bacteria would NOT grow in the medium under the conditions of incubation < /heading > Anaerobic bacteria - as air was present in the test tubes Bacteria that need temperatures lower than ° C to grow ( psychrophiles ) grow , or temperatures very much higher than 25 ° C ( thermophiles ) < heading > Are these organisms common in air and dust ? < /heading > No . Psychrophiles ( cold - loving microorganisms ) are found mostly in the depths of the oceans , in ice and snow and in the arctic regions most of our common spoilage whilst ( heat - loving microbes ) with an optimum above ° C are found in extreme environments such as geological hot springs . < heading > Suppose in making an aseptic transfer that aerial contaminants get access to the dispensed culture medium . What is likely to happen if : < /heading > a ) the medium is liquid : given the right growth conditions of temperature the aerial contaminants will grow and divide rapidly resulting in a very large culture of microorganisms in the culture medium . b ) the medium is an agar medium : Given the right growth conditions the aerial contaminants will multiply however if there are different kinds they will grow in isolation from each other and will not spread out over the surface of the agar , instead they will grow in clumps or colonies . < heading > DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION</heading > This experiment tested the hypothesis that all natural materials , including air , water , dust skin and soil contain microorganisms that may infect cultures or sterile solutions . It was also important to demonstrate that simple precautionary measures in aseptic techniques can be used to prevent contamination and exclude these microorganisms . The importance of working quickly , working close to the bunsen flame ( where air current flows upwards ) and holding the tubes as near horizontal as possible was clearly demonstrated after observing the test tubes which had been exposed to air for . The results from demonstrated that aseptic pipetting can be carried out successfully as no turbidity or mould growth was observed after except in sample from the bench results . Whilst the results after exposure to air indicated that contamination from the air does occur . < heading > EXERCISE 1 QUESTIONS</heading><heading > Why is it necessary to dry the surface of agar plates before they are streaked ? < /heading > If it is not dry the liquid will not be absorbed and separated colonies will not be obtained . < heading > Why are agar plates of bacterial cultures incubated inverted ? < /heading > This is because as the bacterial cells grow and multiply they produce moisture and this would fall back onto the surface of the nutrient agar if the plates were not inverted . This might contaminate the surface further and result in improper dilution / spread of the microorganism . < heading > Explain the principle of streaking a plate to obtain isolated colonies</heading > The principle of streaking a plate is to spread out a drop of bacterial culture on an agar plate such that it becomes progressively more and more dilute resulting , if carried out correctly in individual cells being deposited on the surface of the agar . These individual cells would then divide severally during their incubation and result in the formation of a bacterial colony visible to the naked eye . A colony ' in theory ' represents the off spring of a single cell hence its members ought to be genetically identical < heading > EXERCISE 3 QUESTIONS</heading><heading > Why are isolated bacterial ( i.e. those well separated from other colonies ) on the surface of agar media typically circular in plain view ? < /heading > Each bacterial colony results from a single cell . As agar is a solid medium the multiplying cells can not spread out across its surface and they instead grow where initial cell was deposited in these circular looking clumps or groups . < heading > What shape would you predict for a mould colony growing suspended in the middle of a bottle of a liquid medium ? < /heading > A spherical shape","< heading > INTRODUCTION < /heading > is a continuous process which involves rapid heating to high temperatures about 140ºC holding for a short period of time ( ) and cooling rapidly to produce a sterile product . The direct process is usually carried out above ° C and can be used for any product provided it 's pumpable e.g. custard . It consists of steps < list > Heating rapidlyHolding at the set temperature rapidly ( Flash cooling ) to remove steam used as a heating medium as described in the attached graphFilling into pre - sterilised containers in a sterile environment < /list > The product is then placed in aseptic packaging that is commercially sterile and has a shelf life of .(The aseptic packaging is sterilized using hydrogen peroxide at - 80 ° C ; this decomposes to give harmless oxygen and water afterwards ) Prior to milk treatment the tube is sterilized by pumping hot water at ° C for .Steam / water at ° C which is cooled before being released to the atmosphere . Safety of the product is key . The Z value for botulinum , of the most resistant pathogenic organisms is ° C . Typically processors aim for a spoilage rate of in . Alternative processing conditions would be ° C for sec ° C for Ideally the processor would want a product that does not cause a lot of fouling , and which has little sedimentation with no gelation of the product after processing ' Preventing fouling is a major problem because of high temperatures used often result in a great deal of fouling tables are important because they enable one to establish an equilibrium temperature - pressure where the milk is heated to the necessary temperature without it boiling since temperatures ° C are required . < heading > To develop a working understanding of the Direct Ultra high temperature treatment process . To produce a commercially sterile product with a shelf - life of monthsTo evaluate the quality of a range of heat treated milk products .</list><heading > Procedure < /heading > Please see procedure detailed in practical bookle t < heading > RESULTS : evaluation < /heading><table/><table/><heading > Calculations < /heading > FORMULA    FORMULA      Therefore residence time   FORMULA   < table/>The milk had significantly lower values of non - fat which confirmed the suspicions on tasting that the milk had been watered down during processing due to failure to condense off all the steam used to heat the milk up < heading > Freezing point depression & pH < /heading > This test is usually used to check for the molar concentration of solutes present in an aqueous liquid or if the milk has been ' watered down ' . Milk that has been watered down has a lower value . This is because presence of solutes depresses the freezing point . Since this was an indirect treatment there was little likelihood that some water had not been removed from the milk as is the case for Direct treatment where steam is used to heat the milk which is later flash cooled removing the steam . < table/><heading > Alcohol coagulator test</heading > The raw milk must satisfy very exacting demands as regards its quality . Alcohol stability is an indirect method of testing for protein stability ; since the produce is exposed to high temperatures and must be capable of being stored for a comparatively long period of time . If it is unstable it coagulates or curdles with very low concentrations of alcohol . The milk was tested to see what effect the high temperatures had on its proteins stability and hence it shelf life . < table/><heading > TURBIDITY < /heading > The turbidity test is used to estimate the whey protein denaturation . When all the whey protein has been denatured , for example in sterilised milk , negative turbidity is observed . is claimed to denature of whey proteins ( Should give a positive turbidity reading ) Below is a list of the samples in order of increasing whey protein denaturation . The approximate percentages were determined visually to give a clearer indication of what was observed < table/>Comment : Whey protein denaturation is just indicator of chemical damage in general , Comment on turbidities from the and sterilised milks < heading > MICROBIOLOGICAL TESTING < /heading><list milkCommercial milkUHT DirectPasteurised milk < /list><heading > SUMMARY & DISCUSSION < /heading><quote > "" The philosophy of processing should be based on minimising microbial spoilage by understanding and controlling the process ( 2003 ) . "" < /quote><list > Safety : F0 valuesQuality , of raw milk , whey protein denaturation , To what extent is milk damaged ? Freezing point - dilution Talk about the conditions Residence times , regime , Finally : The differences between direct and indirect processes < /list > The mean freezing point depression of milk is often quoted as -0.535 ° H , which is taken as an appropriate standard for estimation of added water . ( , ) Raw milk gave a value of 517m ° C which warrants no action according to the Code of practice for the assessment of milk quality ( committee ( ) Code of practice for the Assessment of milk quality ) milk however gave a reading of ° C which warrants a warning letter then a check of the premises if repeated . The in - container sterilised product is of lower quality because the product heats and cools relatively slowly ; furthermore the temperatures are limited by the internal pressure generated . Selection of the optimum equipment , raw materials and processing conditions is a key factor in the success of any treatment . < heading > Questions < /heading><heading>1 . Is homogenisation best between heating or best between cooling ? < /heading > Between heating , if components of the milk are well distributed the flow through the tubes is better and may result in less fouling . < heading>2 . Why does processing usually give rise to a better quality ? < /heading > Because it is a high temperature short time process which usually results in less chemical damage to important nutrients and functional ingredients ( , , class notes ) hence the natural flavour is not compromised greatly . < heading>3 . Where does the cooked flavour come from in milk products ? < /heading > The products processed at higher temperature had cooked flavour . This comes from the sulphydryl compounds in the milk < heading>4 . How are such products packaged ? < /heading > They are packaged in aseptic containers which range from tetra packs lined with sterilized foil , plastic bottles or glass bottles in cases where the milk is processed within the glass which is its final packaging , cans and flexible pouches < heading>5 . Describe the changes which may take place during storage ? < /heading > Browning , oxidation of sulphydryl groups , loss of vitamin C and lipid oxidation < heading>6 . What practical problems may occur during processing ? < /heading > Fouling , need to clean more often the higher the processing temperatures used problem faced with is that at low temperatures you are trying to attain to avoid cooked flavour , pressure goes down to compensate .A rise in temperature consequently also results in a rise in temperature . < heading>7 . List some reasons for microbiological spoilage of the product ? < /heading > This may be due to Insufficient processing i.e. necessary processing temperatures not being achieved or held or a combination of both Major cause however is post - processing contamination , where contaminants enter the product during handling before packaging i.e. In the cooling section . packaging may also lead to contamination < heading > Raw milk stability < /heading > Enzyme inactivation < heading > What is the ideal product ? < /heading > One that does n't cause a lot of fouling which necessitates stopping to clean the machine very often .",1
"< heading>1a)</heading > A protein is a polypeptide , or complex of polypeptides that has attained a stable - dimensional structure and is biologically active . A polypeptide is a sequence of amino acids linked by peptide bonds between the amino and carbonyl groups . Therefore , amino acids are sub - units that are joined into condensation polymers which make up proteins . < heading>1b)</heading > Glycine ( aminoethanoic acid ) < figure/>This normally exists as a zwitterion < condensation reaction occurs between the carboxyl group of molecule of gylcine and the amino group of the other molecule of glycine to form a peptide bond ( -CONH- ) and a molecule of water is given off . < figure/><heading>1c)i)</heading > Gylcine + Dilute Hydrochloric Acid < figure/><heading>1c ) ii)</heading > Glycine + Pure Water = Zwitterion < figure/>The hydrogen atom from the carboxylic acid group protonates the basic amine group < heading>1c ) iii)</heading > Glycine + Dilute aqueous sodium hydroxide < figure/><heading>1d ) i)</heading><list = H 2NCH 2COOH ( H ) = ( ) = ( C ) = ( ) = 2 2s 2 2p 2   ( N ) = ( 7 ) = 2 2s 2 2p 3 ( O ) = ( 8) = 1s 2 2s 2 2p 4 < /list><heading>1d ) ii ) < /heading > Using the valence - shell electron - pair repulsion ( VSEPR ) theory it can be seen that in Glycine the side groups are arranged in a tetrahedral shape . There are no lone electrons on the -carbon . There are covalent bonds , N - H , one C - C and C - H bonds , which are arranged evenly around the central -carbon . There is a separate region of high electron density corresponding to each bond . The bonds are spread out as much as possible due to the repulsion between them . This arrangement is taken up because it gives the lowest potential energy due to electrostatic repulsion and yields a bond angle of o between groups . < figure/>When Glycine is placed into a weak acid the amino group acts as a acceptor and the chloride ion attaches to the amino group . The amino group is normally arranged in a tetrahedral shape but with bond angles of o the same as the overall shape of . However with the addition of the Cl- the bond angles will be reduced to approximately o due to steric interference . This means that this group within itself will be more compacted but it will not affect the overall shape of the molecule and it does not affect the bond with the -carbon . < figure/><heading>1e)</heading > Globular proteins are dimensional structures that contain both secondary and structures . There are main types of secondary structure , the -helix and the β sheets . < heading>(-helices</heading > The -helix is a rigid formation of the polypeptide chain produced by the hydrogen bonds forming between peptide groups , C = O and N - H. The bond forms with the peptide group residues ahead leading to a helical uniform structure . The hydrogen bonds are able to form due to the permanent dipoles on the carboxyl and amine groups and the lone pair of electrons present on the nitrogen atom which acts as an electron donor . The hydrogen bonds are at their optimum length leading to strong bonds . The -helix also leads to a tightly packed core maximising the association energies of the atoms and enabling Van der Waals forces to further strengthen the structure . < figure/><heading > β pleated sheets</heading > Hydrogen bonds occur between neighbouring polypeptide chains to form β sheets , rather than between the same chain as in -helices . These can be parallel or anti - parallel . In order to obtain the optimum hydrogen bonding conformation the sheets are pleated . Parallel sheets are less common and hence rarer than anti - parallel β sheets . In globular proteins such as carbonic anhydrase β sheets exhibit a right - hand twist which is important for their function . < figure/><picture/>Carbonic Anhydrase , illustrated here contains both -helices and -pleated sheets . These are represented by a cylinder and an arrow respectively . The Dimensional folding of the secondary structure leads to its structure . There are types of intramolecular forces that can contribute to a protein 's structure . The of these is electrostatic forces . There are types of electrostatic interaction , charge to charge , dipole to charge and dipole to dipole interactions . They occur between molecules that are not permanently polar or can not form hydrogen bonds because they lack the appropriate donor or acceptor groups . They are dependant on the electric charge of the atoms . A type of electrostatic interaction , ion pairs , can exist e.g. between the carboxyl group of and the ammonium group of however these are not very strong attractive forces as the free energies of the species with or without the ion pairs are almost equal . Van der Waals forces exist between electrically neutral molecules . They are non - specific attractions and are caused by the fact that the electron density around any given molecule at particular instant may be unsymmetrical causing a temporary dipole . This then induces an opposite dipole in neighbouring atoms and an attraction will occur between them . The distance of Van der Waals forces is important as if the molecules are too close they will repulse each other and too far away and they will not attract . They are the weakest of these interactions . The peptide link has dipoles and there is an electron rich lone pair on the nitrogen atom . This leads to positive to negative attraction between different parts of the polypeptide chain . Both the carbonyl and amide groups of the peptide back bone have permanent dipole moments . These all point in the same direction therefore the -helix has a positive dipole moment towards the terminus . Dipole induced interactions then occur in neighbouring groups leading to attractive forces . bonds . < play a large role in the formation of the secondary structure , as already discussed , but they also contribute to the tertiary structure . They occur between a ' donor ' group which can be , , , and an ' acceptor ' with a lone pair of electrons . The acceptor group can be , , or an Aromatic Ring ( e.g. ) . They encourage the protein to fold in the way that allows the most H bonds to form and hence is most stable . These hydrogen bonds are able to form due to a variation in the electronegativity of atoms , which is an atom 's ability to attract electrons . Where an atom that is very electronegative is bonded to an atom that is only slightly electronegative this causes an induced dipole moment and the electron is attracted to the more electronegative atom making that atom slightly negative ( δ- ) . Atoms with a δ- are then attracted to atoms with δ+ and an electrostatic interaction is formed . Hence this causes the polarisation of covalent bonds . Lastly hydrophobic interceptions play a very important role in the formation of the tertiary structure of a protein . Non - polar groups are repelled by water and attempt to fold the protein so they are on the interior and hence out of contact with any aqueous solvent . Non - polar residues include , leu , , Met and Phe . On the other hand polar side chains and groups are attracted to the polar aqueous solvent . Charge polar residues such as Arg , His , Lys and Asp , , are found on the surface of a protein as they are able to interact with the aqueous solvent . There are also uncharged polar groups like , Thr , that can occur either on the inside or outside and can act as H - bond donors . Disulfide bonds can also be found in proteins that exist in oxidising environments between cystine residues that contain the thiol group . These are covalent bonds that form specifically between sulphur atoms by an oxidation reaction . It can be seen from the structure of anhydrase that there is ample opportunity due to its intricate folding for many bonds to form between the polypeptide chain . Carbonic anhydrase demonstrates all of these types of bonding in its structure . This conformation is the most stable with the least repulsion between atoms . Carbonic anhydrase 's unique structure allows it to be very specific in its function which is important for m many biological systems . < heading>1f)</heading > In a globular protein such as carbonic anhydrase , a human enzyme , many hydrogen bonds exist . Globular proteins are very important in biological systems and act as enzymes , hormones and transport and receptor proteins . Typically , as in carbonic anhydrase , they contain both -helices and β sheets in their secondary structures . These secondary structures are very stable as the bonds are at their optimum length and these structures are sterically favourable . Much of their tertiary structure is maintained by hydrogen bonds . However , as hydrogen bonds are relatively weak , this leads to the structure being less stable than of other molecules containing more covalent bonds such as diamond . In fact they are only 5 - 10 % the strength of covalent bonds . This means that globular proteins are susceptible to high temperatures which disrupt their structure by breaking the hydrogen bonds and causing a loss of function . The ability of these hydrogen bonds to break can , however , be advantageous . For example , proteins can be easily broken down by the digestive system when they are damaged , in excess or no longer required and the amino acids can be reused in another protein . This recycling of sub - units is very important in the human body . The fact that the bonds are weaker also allows the bonds to flew and stretch when required . This is illustrated in haemoglobin or other transport proteins . The weak hydrogen bonds enable the shape of the molecules to change . When an oxygen molecule binds to a heme group on haemoglobin the structure is changed so that the other heme groups become more easily available for bonding . A advantage is that the hydrogen bonds only require a small input of energy to form and so protein synthesis uses less energy . < heading>2a)</heading><table/>Theoretically the blood should rise from to during recovery from exercise , an overall change of of . < heading>2b)</heading > In order to counteract these changes in that could be detrimental to cellular processes a mechanism exists using a buffer solution . A buffer is a solution of weak acid or weak base that is a able to resist changes in pH. Thy do this by reacting with excess H+ or OH- ions . Protons released by the acid react with the ionized form of the buffer , A- , neutralising them whilst OH- ions react with the undissociated buffer , HA . The system used in the blood is called the carbonate buffer system . < figure/><figure/>During aerobic exercise CO2 is produced which reacts with H2O to form H2CO3 or carbonic acid . If anaerobic exercise takes place this is further increased by the by product lactic acid . Both of these substances are acidic and would lower the to as is shown in ) if the buffer mechanism was not in place to maintain a steady pH. Actually the only falls as low as 7.24 with the buffer system in place when the blood lactate level is raised from 1.6mM to 8.3mM","< heading>1 . Introduction < /heading > The latter half of last century saw some of the most significant developments in international criminal law . With the establishment of ad hoc international criminal tribunals in former ( ) and ( ) , the so - called ' internationalized - courts ' in , and and the permanent ( ICC ) , momentous steps have been taken to implement mechanisms , operating at an international level , to punish those responsible for the commission of the gravest breaches of international humanitarian and human rights law . As a result , we have witnessed the emergence of what has been heralded as a "" new culture of accountability "" , replacing the previous "" culture of impunity "" that had remained mostly unfettered throughout history . < fnote>""From in a World of States "" , edited by and , , . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . < /fnote > However , as I shall discuss , these developments are not without their limitations . The aforementioned "" culture of impunity "" had persisted throughout history for good reason ; primarily , due to the unwillingness of states to sacrifice their treasured sovereignty over the "" hallowed area of criminal law "" for fear of being subjected to international scrutiny . Such philosophy has by no means been ousted among all nations , and as we shall see , it still serves as a critical restriction on the efficacy of international criminal law , as its enforcement is so evidently dependant on the co - operation of states , on their political will and their readiness to limit their sovereignty and submit to international jurisdiction . < fnote>""Lest We Fail : International Criminal Law "" , , A.U.I.L.R , , - 394 , at < /fnote > In the following paragraphs , I will endeavour to analyse and assess these developments in international criminal law , and discuss whether they demonstrate that governments who commit the gravest breaches of international humanitarian and human rights law can no longer behave with impunity . I will focus on the operation and limitations of the ad hoc international criminal tribunals , and will consider the potential impact of the ICC on bringing individuals to justice . , however , it is important to establish an understanding into the history of international criminal law development , and the evolution of state 's political and moral ideology , which forms the foundation of this so - called ' new era of accountability ' . < heading>2 . Historical development of international criminal law & the emergence of individual accountability</heading jurisdiction over the commission of international crimes by government leaders was almost non - existent prior to . The doctrine of state sovereignty was held as sacrosanct , shielding individuals from accountability - "" virtually all governments regarded how they treated those under their control and policies they pursued as a matter exclusively within their own jurisdiction ... and not subject to any outside international standards , scrutiny , criticism or interference "" . National courts provided the only arena for punishing those responsible for the few crimes defined as ' international ' , but their judgements "" were and remain ineffective when those responsible for the crimes are still in power and their victims remain subjugated "" . < fnote > One of the very few notable exceptions to this was the trial and conviction of for violations of "" the laws of God and man "" by the , and ad hoc criminal tribunal in . < /fnote><fnote>""From Impunity to Accountability : Forces of Transformation & the Changing International Human Rights Context "" , , op cit . supra note < /fnote><fnote > as notes : "" Initially ... for a long time , only war crimes were punishable "" , , "" , , , p. < /fnote><fnote>""An Introduction to "" , , ed . , , , p. . < /fnote > By however , religious , philosophical and political thinking had evolved significantly , resulting in a much greater awareness of the concept of human rights and humanitarian law , and an increasing emphasis on the need to "" protect individuals from the horrors of war "" . The unprecedented scale of the atrocities committed during "" shocked the conscience "" of the international community leading to victors pledge that "" never again "" would anything similar occur . While attempts were made in the aftermath of to punish the leading figures responsible for the commission of war crimes , these proved to be of little value in creating a substantial system of international criminal justice . However , the subsequent atrocities committed during demanded a more decisive reaction of the international community , resulting in the establishment of , at and . < fnote , "" Note sur la création d'une institution judicaire internationale "" , , vol . . < /fnote><fnote > The Versailles Treaty , for example , had envisaged the creation of an international ' special tribunal ' to try the Emperor Kaiser . However , the ' refused his extradition , no international court was set up and trials were conducted under heavily biased jurisdiction in . In the end , out of the accused by the , minor indictees were brought to trial < /fnote><fnote > Cassese notes : "" the attempts to establish some sort of international criminal justice ended in failure "" , supra note , p. < /fnote > The tribunals provided revolutionary developments in international criminal law . They established the principle and practice that individuals at the highest levels of government and military infrastructure could be prosecuted and punished under international law , recognising accountability for the commission of war crimes and introduced new offences of crimes against peace and crimes against humanity . The ' monopoly ' over criminal jurisdiction held by and the ' act of state immunity ' that had so often protected leaders from liability in the past were removed , demonstrating that individuals could no longer hide behind the legal cover of the state . However , major criticisms were levelled against the IMTs suggesting only a ' victor 's justice ' had been served , and to a large extent these are inescapable . Only the vanquished were put on trial , regardless of the atrocities committed by the Allies and the victors undertook the duties of both prosecutor and judge , without leaving recourse to appeal . It was obvious that this mechanism of trial and punishment , immunising some whilst sentencing others , could not serve as a legitimate system of international criminal justice in the long run . It would be unable to acquire the respect and therefore the co - operation of the international community , and would only be able to come into existence "" in the aftermath of an international conflict that had been entered into , fought and won by those wishing to implement international criminal law "" . < fnote > individual defendants were indicted , of which were sentenced to death by hanging , to life imprisonment , to and imprisonment , while were released having received a verdict of ' not guilty ' . < /fnote><fnote > see Articles 7 and 8 IMT Statute < /fnote><fnote>""Criminal Trials Before International Tribunals : Legality And Legitimacy "" , , , found in "" "" edited by , , 2004 , , p. < /fnote > Nevertheless , the tribunals importantly served as a "" springboard for the development of international humanitarian and ... human rights law "" - those laws which , if breached , could now give rise to individual criminal liability . Demonstrated by the considerable efforts of the newly created , over , "" an international momentum began to build "" towards creating a comprehensive international penal code that would promote accountability and deter violations of international law . With the rapid adoption of several momentous international agreements , in particular in , and the , combined with the work undertaken by the specially appointed ILC to prepare a draft code of international crimes , it became evident that the international community now possessed , at least in theory , the will and capacity to hold governments accountable for the commission of international crimes . < fnote>""Accountability for Human Rights Atrocities in International Law ' , , 2nd ed . , , , p.7 < /fnote><fnote > see supra note , p. < /fnote><fnote > Pursuant to a request of on , ( res . / II ) , "" at in the Charter of the Nuremburg Tribunal "" . < /fnote > However , the ensuing era led the international community into a standstill . It produced a climate of political stagnation which froze foreign interference in domestic affairs and impeded the functioning of the . Any further development of international criminal law was put on hold , demonstrating a critical limitation of international criminal law - its dependence on prevailing international politics . It was not until , after the fall of the Iron Curtain and the collapse of , that the international community regained its drive towards ending impunity , the success and limitations of which I shall now discuss < fnote > its members having become "" subsumed into rival and antagonistic political blocs "" , "" , , , , p. . < /fnote><fnote > The promising work of the in establishing both a codification of international crimes and a draft statute for the creation of an international criminal court , failed to come to fruition , and "" the tensions and mistrust of stymied any possibility of creating any international mechanisms to bring [ human rights ] abusers to justice"",op cit . supra note , p. < /fnote><heading>3 . for the former ( ) and ( ICTR)</heading > The end of led to a dramatic change in geo - political power structures and attitudes . Agreement in was rekindled , as was the international community 's desire to establish "" permanent and effective bodies to dispense international justice "" . The end of also led to the removal of the forces that had been able to guarantee "" a modicum of international order "" . This allowed religious and ethnic conflicts that had been smouldering beneath the surface to erupt into instability and conflict , leading to "" gross violations of international humanitarian law , on a scale comparable to those committed during "" . The and saw tremendous blood - shed , involving genocide , ' ethnic cleansing ' and other crimes against humanity , and it was in response to these shocking atrocities that the international community 's reaction materialised with the creation of ad hoc criminal tribunals under the auspices of ( ) . < fnote > Final Report of , Doc S/1994/674 < /fnote><fnote>""On of International Humanitarian Law "" , , , , ( ) , p.4 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.4 < /fnote><fnote > Under and respectively < /fnote > Mandated to punish individuals responsible for grave violations of international law , the and have achieved some considerable successes to that end and have contributed substantially to the development of international criminal law . The establishment of the tribunals in itself , and foremost demonstrates the intention and capability of the international community at large to punish war criminals , and in this sense sends an important message to government leaders worldwide that there is now the potential for their being brought to justice . Since coming into force , accused have appeared in proceedings before the , including most importantly and for the time , an incumbent Head - of - State . The has also secured the arrest , trial and conviction of a number of high ranking officials and ministers , including a former Prime Minister , Vice - President of militia and Director of < fnote > As notes : "" No matter how many atrocities these tribunals may eventually try , their very existence sends a powerful message . Their statutes , rules of procedure and evidence , and practice stimulate the development of the law "" , "" "" , , Vol . , p.555 < /fnote><fnote > Slobodan Miloševic < /fnote><fnote > Jean Kambanda < /fnote><fnote > Georges Rutaganda < /fnote><fnote > Théoneste Bagosora < /fnote > Unlike their predecessors in and , their creation by the means the tribunals ' statutes are binding upon all member states and call upon all states to "" cooperate fully "" with it and   "" to take any measures necessary under their domestic law to implement the provisions "" of its statute . This origin , coming as it did from the full international community , immunises the tribunals from challenges of ' victor 's justice ' which had to be endured at and . It was no longer the victors emerging from the aftermath of warfare that were indicting , prosecuting and judging war criminals but a body of - appointed and elected individuals , representative of a wide range of nations . < fnote > S.C. Res . , , session , . S / RES/827 ( ) . < /fnote > The tribunals also exert primacy over national courts , meaning if it appears that the national court proceedings "" are not impartial or are designed to shield the accused from international criminal responsibility "" , then they must be deferred to the tribunal . This tackles the aforementioned shortcomings of national enforcement of international criminal law , which had been demonstrated so blatantly at . The tribunals also have at last given effect to the numerous aforementioned conventions reached , through its judgements concerning war crimes , genocide and other crimes against humanity . Both tribunals have gone further in developing substantive law , incorporating sexual crimes such as rape into the context of crimes against humanity and recognising new crimes such as the employment of poisonous weapons or others calculated to cause unnecessary suffering . Opening a new area for tribunals of this nature , of the statute enables the prosecution of persons who commit or order to be committed serious violations of common to and of Additional Protocol II during to armed conflict not of an international character , meaning , therefore , that purely internal conflicts are no longer beyond the ambit of international criminal law . < fnote > ICTY Statute , "" , , , Palgrave , p. < /fnote><fnote > see supra note . < /fnote><fnote > The delivered the convictions of an international tribunal for genocide in the case of ( ) < /fnote><fnote > ICTY Statute , . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . . see also , paras . - 186 ( definition for purposes of war crime ) ; , paras . - 497 ( rape as act of torture ) . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . ) < /fnote > However , whilst all of this demonstrates that significant strides have indeed been taken by the world community towards ending impunity , we must of course appreciate the substantial limitations of these tribunals . Both are only ad hoc , limited to specific individual conflicts with highly restricted ratione personae and ratione temporis competences , and therefore can not possibly bring all those perpetrators of international crimes to justice . Resources ( and the lack thereof ) are also key to the tribunals ' efficacy , and they have been a recurrent problem for both , "" limiting their ability to obtain needed equipment , conduct investigations and protect witnesses and even threatening the tribunal 's very survival on occasion "" . However , the most fundamental weakness of the tribunals relates to enforcement . < fnote > Only natural persons may be prosecuted , not organisations , political parties , administrative entities or other legal subjects - were limited to prosecuting "" persons responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law committed in the territory of the former since "" ( ) , and those responsible for "" serious violations of international humanitarian law committed in the territory of and citizens responsible for such violations committed in the territory of neighbouring between 1 January 1994 and "" ( ) < /fnote><fnote > supra note , p. . < /fnote > Unlike national courts , the international criminal tribunals have no law enforcement agency akin to a police judicature . They therefore rely primarily on the co - operation of national authorities to arrest and bring forward the accused , as a necessary means to begin the trial which is not permitted to take place in absentia . There is thus the existence of a ' Catch-22 ' situation : for a case to commence , the co - operation of those very states in whose name the war criminals were more - often - than - not acting is required to bring indictees forward . Obviously , in a situation such as former where the "" offenders retain some degree of power "" , it is clearly not in the state 's interest to submit these individuals to the tribunals for what could culminate in a damning legal report ; instead , states have "" protected their war criminals ... and ignored the 's warrants "" . Whilst both tribunals ' statutes require full co - operation of nation - states in the enforcement of arrests and sentences , "" these obligations have only been respected in a few cases ... revealing all too clearly that the tribunal had no real political support from the main parties concerned "" . The in particular has encountered massive problems in arresting and acquiring evidence against accused individuals . Despite having been indicted , and having even appeared in public on occasions , leaders and continue to escape arrest . Even after of the tribunal 's creation , had failed to execute any of the scores of arrest warrants addressed to it , while had not even enacted legislation to enable it to cooperate with the tribunal . Evidence collection has been notoriously difficult and investigators have even identified instances where state officials have led efforts to conceal and destroy evidence . Furthermore , 's persistent refusal to supply inculpatory evidence to the in the case was not met with any effective means of coercion , and illustrated both the ineffectiveness of the tribunal 's attempts to enforce compliance , and the propensity of states to simply and all - too - easily refuse compliance when its nationals are deeply implicated in the conflict in question . < fnote > As notes : "" They do not have the power to issue warrants for the seizure of evidence or the searching of premises , and to issue subpoenas or arrest warrants "" , "" International Law "" , ed . , , , p. . < /fnote><fnote > supra note , p. < /fnote><fnote > supra note , p. < /fnote><fnote > Article 29 and < /fnote><fnote > supra note , p.160 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . p.161 < /fnote><fnote > For example , archives containing requested evidence , relating to cases in involving members of the Croat political and military structures , were secreted out of by state authorities and concealed in , < /fnote><fnote > such example was the investigation , in which forensic specialists , conducting exhumations at mass grave sites , discovered human remains from these sites had been removed and re - buried elsewhere , having been systematically conducted by . < /fnote><fnote > following the massacre of civilians by Croat military forces under in the village of . < /fnote><fnote > In the end , held that when a state failed to comply with a binding order issued by the tribunal , the tribunal 's President could transmit a report of non - compliance to for rectification . However , the general way in which the has reacted in the past , to issue a new resolution or a presidential statement calling on the recalcitrant state to cooperate , has been largely ineffective , as noted by : "" The Council has failed to ensure such compliance"",op cit . supra note , p.160 < /fnote > Having considered these , just some of the many problems encountered by the ICTs , it is clear that the fundamental reliance placed upon state co - operation serves as a huge obstacle to ending impunity , because "" if that co - operation is not forthcoming , the tribunals are paralysed "" . Moving on now to consider the ICC , hailed as the most "" innovative and exciting development in international law "" , it becomes apparent that such an obstacle remains to be overcome . < fnote > s upra note , p. < /fnote><fnote > supra note , p. . < /fnote><heading>4 . Having fallen victim to the aforementioned institutional paralysis of , the idea of a permanent standing international criminal court regained momentum in when the GA created a to carefully study the 's draft statute for the establishment of such a court . The experiences of ad hoc tribunals , coupled with the continued violence and bloodshed occurring across the globe , demonstrated the need for a court with universal jurisdiction , which finally came into being on . < fnote > UN GA , , "" "" , Dec 1995 < /fnote > Again , the very creation of this institution illustrates , to a far greater extent than by the ad hoc tribunals , that individuals committing international crimes are no longer beyond the scope of justice . To date , nations are signatories to and have ratified it , highlighting the existence of a truly global consensus aiming to end the impunity of governments . Enshrining substantive international criminal law on a global stage , the will adjudicate over individuals accused of committing war crimes , genocide and crimes against humanity , which have been defined in greater detail and include certain innovations flowing from the judgements of the and . The has ensured all of the traditional immunities enjoyed by officials , which shield them from outside scrutiny and prosecution , are swept away , while notably enables jurisdiction over not only individuals from states party to the statute but also over crimes committed on the territory of a state party . Thus , potential war - wagers from nations seeking to escape the jurisdiction may nevertheless still be brought to trial . The permanency of the court negates the logistical drawbacks of setting up continuous ad hoc tribunals in every case and , coupled with the variety of trigger - mechanisms available to commence proceedings ( particularly the power held by the Prosecutor to initiate an investigation proprio motu ) , the expediency and efficiency of international criminal justice have been augmented . < fnote > ) of the ICC < /fnote><fnote>""One of the outstanding contributions of to international criminal law is to have specified better than ever before which behaviour amounts to war crimes and crimes against humanity "" , , "" Justice for Crimes Against Humanity "" , , , < /fnote><fnote > for example , following on from the , jurisdiction reaches to crimes committed in purely internal conflicts . Also , as notes : "" The active role played by women in the negotiations has ensured the ICC Statute and the accompanying and Rules of Procedure are gender - sensitive , "" "" , , , , p. < /fnote><fnote > , "" A Big Step Forward in International Justice "" , , . < /fnote><fnote > notes : "" It is easier to think that an independent prosecutor might pursue a case against a citizen of a powerful country than to imagine the government of another country doing it , at the risk of economic , diplomatic or perhaps military reprisal "" , "" The ICC an end to impunity ? "" , , , p.2 < /fnote > However , despite this revolutionary step in international criminal law , "" we remain a long way from a universal court that can sit in judgement over all the atrocities of the world "" . The is a - independent , treaty - based organisation , entry to which is voluntary and dependent on the political will of states . If such will is lacking , states can choose to remain outside the court 's jurisdiction and will be under no obligation to co - operate with it , thus , a severe restriction on the jurisdiction of the court exists . The choice of the to remain absent is particularly problematic . As the world 's only remaining superpower , and "" the only member of the SC able to mount and sustain transcontinental military operations ... the is highly relevant to the ICC 's future efficacy "" . It can undermine the otherwise widely recognised treaty by withholding information and refusing to extradite criminals , without fearing coercive action against it . The failure of was largely attributable to the 's absence and the has often been paralysed due to lack of co - operation . The ICC therefore bears the risk of being similarly limited . < fnote > Ibid . p.1 < /fnote><fnote>""The International Criminal Court : An American View "" , , ( ) , - 107 , p. < /fnote > In similar vein to the ICTs , the difficulties of enforcement will also no doubt severely limit the efficacy of the ICC . Analogous to the statutes of the ad hoc tribunals , the Rome Statute obligates to co - operate with the but provides no mechanisms of enforcement to see that they do . Furthermore , one of the principle features of the ICC is that it shall be "" complementary "" to national criminal jurisdictions , meaning it shall only pursue cases when authorities are "" unwilling or unable "" to do so themselves . It follows that before pronouncing on a case , the ICC must establish that the that "" in principle could deal with the matter in fact shuns justice or is utterly unable to dispense justice "" , thereby attaching a negative label to that . This may clearly act as a disincentive for the much - needed co - operation from that , and thus creates a major stumbling block with which the will have to come to grips . Again , when the gathering of evidence and the arresting of accused is so dependent on the good - will of states , the real impotence of international criminal justice can be demonstrated and impunity is likely to remain apparent . < fnote , Rome Statute of the ICC < /fnote><fnote > , of the ICC < /fnote><fnote > As Penrose notes : "" Left to their own desires and devices , nation - states will continue to pursue their own self - interests at the cost of enforcing international law"",op cit . supra note , p. < /fnote><heading>5 . Conclusion - an end to impunity ? < /heading > Considering these developments in international criminal law , it is clear that governments are no longer guaranteed to behave with impunity . The legacy of individual accountability established at has been furthered and refined by the and , and will no doubt continue with the future operation of the ICC . The tribunals have demonstrated that individuals from even the highest levels of political and military infrastructure can be brought to justice before international courts and the creation of the ICC with its more global reach serves as a formidable warning to potential belligerents , epitomising the international community 's intolerance of genocide , war crimes and crimes against humanity . However , what is also clear is that international criminal justice remains escapable . While the will of the international community to put an end to impunity exists on paper , embodied in numerous treaties and conventions , their commitment and co - operation in practice has not been so forthcoming . The experiences of the ad hoc tribunals illustrated that without state co - operation , enforcement of the law becomes exceedingly difficult , if not impossible , and "" a tribunal unable to enforce its orders and judgements becomes at best an academic exercise and at worst , a cynical setback for international law "" . There is little reason to expect that the ICC will fare much better in this regard , meaning impunity is likely to remain the rule rather than the exception in international criminal justice . Of course , as the commences its investigations , we shall see over time whether states will respect their obligations and demonstrate their commitment to the treaty they so freely entered into , but at this point in time and given the fact that the Rome Statute can not be altered until , it would appear that government impunity can not yet be brought to an end . < fnote > supra note , p. < /fnote><fnote > in , and most recently < /fnote >",0
"< heading > Introduction</heading > The aim of these laboratories is to provide an introduction to some of the features of and Spartan-3 board as well as to get familiar with codes to help write program on Spartan 3FPGA board . The codes and comments are written and programmed in 8.2i which provided the environment required to program the board . The device used in the laboratory XC3S1000 is of the family Spartan 3 . The following is the table showing the summary of the device XC3S1000 in a ball thin Array : < table/>With reference from the handouts the main objectives of lab5 and lab6 was to carry out the following : < list > To study and understand the program ANDGATE and counter using tutorials . To follow the steps given in the laboratory handouts to create the program and then simulate it . To observe whether or not the program functioned as required . Assign pins and transfer the program to the board . Observe the results when the switches are To study and understand the working of Dflipflops and 7segment LEDs Define the inputs and outputs . To create program and file with codes for the working . To get graphs demonstrating the working of the codesAssign pins responsible for each inputs and outputs . Transfer the program to the boardObserve the changes or results obtained < /list><heading > Theory</heading><heading>4 Digit- 7segment LEDS:</heading > The working of 7 segment LEDs used in the board . The Spartan-3 board has a - character , segments LED display controlled by user - I / O pins , as shown in Figure . Each digit shares common control signals to light individual LED segments . Each individual character has a separate anode control input . A detailed schematic for the display appears in The pin number for each pin connected to the LED display appears in parentheses . To light an individual signal , drive the individual segment control signal Low along with the associated anode control signal for the individual character . In Figure , for example , the left - most character displays the value ' 2 ' . The digital values driving the display in this example are shown in blue . The AN3 anode control signal is Low , enabling the control inputs for the left - most character . The segment control inputs , A through G and DP , drive the individual segments that comprise the character . A Low value lights the individual segment , a High turns off the segment . A Low on the A input signal , lights segment ' a ' of the display . The anode controls for the remaining characters , AN[2:0 ] are all High , and these characters ignore the values presented on A through G and DP . < picture/>Table lists the connections that drive the individual LEDs comprising a segment character . Table lists the connections to enable a specific character . < table/><table/><figure/>The LED control signals are time - multiplexed to display data on all characters , as shown in Figure . Present the value to be displayed on the segment control inputs and select the specified character by driving the associated anode control signal Low . Through persistence of vision , the human brain perceives that all characters appear simultaneously , similar to the way the brain perceives a TV display . < figure/>This "" scanning "" technique reduces the number of I / O pins required for the characters . If an pin were dedicated for each individual segment , then pins are required to drive 7 - segment LED characters . The scanning technique reduces the required I / O down to pins . The drawback to this approach is that the logic must continuously scan data out to the displays - a small price to save additional I / O pins . < heading > Slide switches:</heading > The switches are located along the lower edge of the board , toward the right edge . The switches are labeled SW7 through SW0 . is the left - most switch , and SW0 is the rightmost switch . The switches connect to an associated pin , as shown in . A detailed schematic appears in Figure A. < table/>When in the or , a switch connects the pin to VCCO , a logic High . When DOWN or in the OFF position , the switch connects the pin to ground , a logic Low . The switches typically exhibit ms of mechanical bounce and there is no active debouncing circuitry , although such circuitry could easily be added to the design programmed on the board . A series resistor provides nominal input protection . < heading > Push Buttons:</heading > These push buttons are located along the lower edge of the board , toward the right edge . The switches are labeled BTN3 through . button switch is the left - most switch , the right - most switch . The push button switches connect to an associated pin , as shown in . A detailed schematic appears in Figure A. < table/>Pressing a push button generates logic High on the associated pin . Again , there is no active debouncing circuitry on the push button . The left - most button , , is also the default pin . BTN3 electrically behaves identically to the other push buttons . However , when applicable , BTN3 resets the provided reference designs . < heading > LEDS:</heading > The Spartan-3 Starter Kit board has individual surface - mount LEDs located above the push button switches . The LEDs are labeled LED7 through LED0 . LED7 is the left - most LED , LED0 the right - most LED . Table shows the connections to the LEDs . A detailed schematic appears in Figure A. < table/>The cathode of each LED connects to ground via a 270Ω resistor . To light an individual LED , drive the associated control signal High , which is the opposite polarity from lighting one of the - segment LEDs . < heading > Dflipflop:</heading > The operation of is simple . It has only one input in addition to the clock input signal . The dflipflop used in the program was positive triggered . The D input is sampled during the occurrence of a clock pulse . If it is , the flip - flop is switched to the set state ( unless it was already set ) . If it is 0 , the flip - flop switches to the clear state . The shows the symbol of the and table is the truth table and figure shows the output of the . < picture/><table/><figure/><heading > Converting decimal into bit binary number : < /heading > Binary is Base unlike our counting system decimal which is ( denary ) . In other words , has different numerals ( 0 and 1 ) , unlike Decimal which has numerals ( ) . Here is an example of a binary number : is a bit representation of the decimal ' 9 ' . < table/>Bit is short for , and each numeral is classed as a bit . The bit on the far right ( in this case a ) is known as the Least significant bit ( LSB ) , and the bit on the far left ( in this case a 1 ) is known as the Most significant bit ( ) < heading > Apparatus and Method:</heading > The hardware elements featured in the laboratories were : Spartan board , Digilent JTAG Cable , XC3S1000 device , cable to power the board . I connected Spartan board to a PC and powered up board using the cable , followed by connecting the Digilent JTAG cable . Digilent JTAG cable is used to transfer data on to the board from the computer . I followed the tutorial given in the laboratory sheet for ANDGATE to study and understand the procedure and working of the software . I also followed the quick tutorial provided in the laboratory to make a bit counter . After , the completion of the program I downloaded the program on the board and observed the results , which were as expected . I tried to relate the pins associated with each buttons , switches , , and segment using the appendix A of the laboratory sheet . To make a program I , made a note of the input and outputs needed for the program as clock input , D- D input , Q- Output . As explained earlier in theory section learned about the working of . I followed the method similar to the laboratory sheet provided to create and run the program . To make a counter from 0 - 9 on one of the 7segment LED I used the method described in the theory to workout the codes and followed the instructions similar to those given in laboratory sheet to create and run the program . < heading > Codes Explanation:</heading><heading > DFLIPFLOP</heading><quote > library IEEE ; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.ALL ; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_ARITH.ALL ; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_UNSIGNED.ALL;</quote > Some of the files and logic defined in other locations are used in the program . Hence the above statements are used . < quote>---- Uncomment the following library declaration if instantiating ---- any Xilinx primitives in this code .   --library UNISIM ; --use UNISIM.VComponents.all ; entity is ---describes the design I / O of DFLIPFLOP . Port ( D : in STD_LOGIC ; ----D is an entity that goes in but not out . : in STD_LOGIC ; ----CLK is an entity that goes in but not out . is the input clock signal for the . Q : out STD_LOGIC ) ; ----Q is an entity that goes out but not in .   end DFLIPFLOP ; ----end the entity of DFLIPFLOP</quote > Here in total entities are described . and D is input signals and Q is the output signal . Every potential connection is known as port and is given a name that is unique with in the entity . Port is a signal that contains both MODE and TYPE . MODE is the input , output or bidirectional assigned to the entity and is the value the port can take like 0 , , 3state . < quote > architecture Behavioral of DFLIPFLOP is----describes the content of the design   begin --begins architectural behaviour</quote > In PROCESS statements are evaluated sequentially in terms of simulation . It becomes active when the sensitivity list changes the value . All signal assignments occur at the END PROCESS statements in terms of simulation time . The process then becomes in active . < quote > process ( ) -----process is active when there is any change in input   begin if CLK'event and CLK='1 ' then ---this statement detects rising clock edge , using the IF condition . With the condition to detect if is high i.e. ' 1 ' Q < = D ; -----the output Q equals to input D everytime clock is high i.e. ' 1 ' end if ; --end the condition if for   end process ; ---end the process for and signal assignment occurs .   end Behavioral;--end the architectural behaviour of .   7Segment LED 0 - 9 count : library IEEE ; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_1164.ALL ; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_ARITH.ALL ; use IEEE.STD_LOGIC_UNSIGNED.ALL;</quote > Some of the files and logic defined in other locations are used in the program . Hence the above statements are used . < quote>---- Uncomment the following library declaration if instantiating ---- any Xilinx primitives in this code . --library UNISIM ; --use UNISIM.VComponents.all ; entity is - describes the design I / O of LED7 Port ( ENABLE : OUT STD_LOGIC_VECTOR ( downto ) ; is an entity that goes out but not in .   LED : out STD_LOGIC_VECTOR ( downto ) ; LED is an entity that goes out but not in : in STD_LOGIC);--CLK is an entity that goes in but not out   end LED7 ; --end the entity of LED7</quote > There are in total variables assigned , LED . ENABLE is an as described in the theory section . It is used to display the number on segment LED . It can help to turn off some or turn on the four 7 segment LEDs on the board . LED stands for the segments in the segment LED and it helps to make it active low or high to display different numbers . is used for the push button . It is assigned active high if the push button is pressed . when u push the button , the associated pin is connected to the power line ( a logic "" 1 "" ) and when not pressed the associated pin is connected to logic""0 "" ) . < quote > architecture Behavioral of LED7 is - describes the design of LED7   signal count : std_logic_vector ( downto ) : = "" 0000"";</quote > Signal carries all information . Count is an array and is assigned in a descending order < quote > Begin - begin the architectural behaviour of   process(CLK ) - process is active each time input signal changes   begin - begin process   ENABLE(0 ) < = ' 0 ' ; -----enable(0 ) is assigned 0 means it is active low hence , will help display number . Meaning that the an(0 ) as described in the theory section will become low and hence , the segment LED will be active low .   ENABLE(1 ) < = ' 1 ' ; -----enable(1 ) is assigned 1 means it is active high so it will be , and will not display any number . Meaning that the an(1 ) as described in the theory section will become active high and hence , the 7segnment LED will be active low .   ENABLE(2 ) < = ' 1 ' ; -----enable(2 ) is assigned 1 means it is active high so it will be , and will not display any number . Meaning that the an(2 ) as described in the theory section will become active high and hence , the 7segnment LED will be active low .   ENABLE(3 ) < = ' 1 ' ; ------enable(3 ) is assigned 1 means it is active high so it will be , and will not display any number . Meaning that the an(3 ) as described in the theory section will become active high and hence , the 7segnment LED will be active low .   if CLK='1 ' and CLK'event then - detects everytime is rising high if count = "" "" then - checks if count is equal to ' 9 ' count < = "" 0000 "" ; --then changes the count to ' 0 ' . Hence makes a loop of 0 - 9 and it again starts from 0 each time push button is pressed more time after it has reached .   else count<= count + 1 ; --otherwise increase the value of count by ' 1 ' each time   end if ; --end of the condition for count   end if ; --end of condition for   case count is when "" 0000 "" = > LED < = "" "" ; --when count is ' 0000 ' , display ' 0 ' on LED .   when "" "" = > LED < = "" count is ' ' , display ' 1 ' on LED   when "" "" = > LED < = "" 0100100"";--when count is ' 0010 ' , display ' 2 ' on LED   when "" "" = > LED < = "" 0110000"";--when count is ' 0011 ' , display ' 3 ' on LED   when "" 0100 "" = > LED < = "" count is ' 0100 ' , display ' 4 ' on LED   when "" "" = > LED < = "" 0010010"";--when count is ' ' , display ' 5 ' on LED   when "" "" = > LED < = "" 0000010"";--when count is ' 0110 ' , display ' 6 ' on LED   when "" "" = > LED < = "" count is ' 0111 ' , display ' 7 ' on LED   when "" "" = > LED < = "" count is ' 1000 ' , display ' 8 ' on LED   when "" "" = > LED < = "" 0010000"";--when count is ' ' , display ' 9 ' on LED   when others = > LED<=""0000000"";--when count is different value , display ' 8 ' on LED</quote > Here , the count is assigned numbers 0 - 9 in the binary form as 0000 , , , , , , , , , and when it is different from those it is assigned . The way of converting decimal into binary is explained in detail in theory . < quote > end case ; --end the case for count   end process ; --end the process for   end Behavioral ; --end the architectural behaviour for LED7</quote><heading > Assigning Pins : < /heading > The following steps found in the laboratory sheet under were followed to assign pins for all the programs : < heading>3.2.4 Assigning Pin Locations < /heading>1 . Verify that Andgate is selected in the Sources window ( ) . Then tab . . Double - click process found in the process group . Editor ( PACE ) opens . . Select tab . . In window , enter a pin location for each pin in the column using the following information : Input "" a "" connected to "" J13 "" --- User button "" b "" connected to "" K14 "" --- User button BTN1 Output "" c "" connected to "" L14 "" --- Led LD0 . →Save . Select XST Default < > and click OK . < heading > For assigning pins to ANDGATE : < /heading > The table shows the pins assigned to each entity in ANDGATE program , and figure shows the print screen of the assigned pins . < table/><picture/><heading > Counter : < /heading > The table shows the pins allocated and the figure shows the pins assigned print screen . < table/><picture/><heading > DFLIPFLOP</heading > The table and figure shows the pins allocated for . Here slide switches are used for inputs as it is easier than to push buttons . And also helps observing the results . < table/><picture/><heading>7segment display from 0 - 9 : < /heading > The table shows the assigned pins and figure shows the print screen of the assigned pins : < table/><picture/><heading > Observations and results:</heading > The simulation result of the ANDGATE is shown below : < figure/>It can be observed from the graph that c is only high when both a and b are high . Hence , it shows that the logic of c<=a and b ; works . When the program was loaded on the board it showed that the LD0 was only when both a and b were pressed together . When pressed alternatively or not pressed at all showed no result on . The simulation result of the counter is shown below : < figure/>It can be observed from the above graph that Count output for a bit binary up / down counter . It can be observed that when DIRECTION input is high , the output count is incremented on the rising edge of the input . But , when DIRECTION is set low , the output count is decremented on the rising edge of the input . When the program was loaded on the board it showed all LEDs off . When SW7 was down position and each time was pressed the LEDs showed a sequence of output showing the down count . But when the SW7 was in up position and was pressed it showed sequence of output showing the up count . Hence , it worked as required . The simulation output of the is as shown below : < figure/>Every time when the input experiences a rising edge , the output Q stores the state of the input D. However , until the input goes for another rising edge , the output remains unchanged regardless of the D input . It can be noted here that the initial red line on the Q waveform represents an ambiguous condition , as the output has not been set yet . When the program was loaded on the board , was OFF . When SW0 was moved to the up position , there was still no change on was then moved to the up position . Once this happened , turned . After this , moving SW0 between the states did not affect the output . However , when SW0 was in the down position , and SW1 was moved from down to up , turned OFF . Hence , the result was as expected and showed the working of . The simulation output of segment display count 0 - 9 : < figure/>The above graph shows that when input is rising high , the output LED changes . It showed numbers from - 9 every time when input is rising high , it counted from 0 - 9 When it reached it counted again from . The ENABLE output shows the correct output , as of the signals shows a low logic level . When the program was loaded on the board the LED displayed on 7 segment LED . Now , every time was pressed it showed 0 - 9 and when it reached it started counting from . Hence , it worked as required . < heading > Conclusion:</heading > The programs showed the required output on the simulation graphs and also performed as required when loaded on the board . The worked as required as it did the following : When SW1 was high and SW0 was low the LD0 was OFF When SW1 was low SW0 was high the LD0 was OFF When SW1 was high and SW0 was high was , until once again SW1 was high but SW0 was low . The segment LED used to display count worked as required as it did the following : It displayed to start with but everytime was pressed it displayed 0 - 9 on just one 7 segment LED . And when the count reached and pressed again it counted again from 0 - 9 .","< heading > INFORMATION SECURITY ( Question > AIM : < list><heading > The aim of this section is to:</heading > Define what is information securityDescribe in details what are the information security goalsDescribe in details all possible threats to information on this system assuming that a computer is used as an information system . < /list><heading > What information security is</heading > Information security is protecting the data against unauthorized access or modification . This term applies not only to the electronically stored data but also to all aspects of safeguarding information , in whatever form or media ( ) . Computer and network security is nowadays the most important field of computer science . The main objective for all computer scientists is to ensure their systems to be secure . We do not want unauthorised people to access our private information such as e.g. bank statements . Therefore there is a strong need to deal with information security issues . Some people might think that to provide information security we need only to control the access to the data . It occurs however that this concept is just one of information security goals . < list><heading > The most important aims of information security are ( notes 2006):</heading security is an essential issue especially where electronic transactions are concerned . We want to assure that information that user supplies to the web server ( e.g. username , password , financial information ) can not be read , modified or destroyed by any party . We want the similar protection for the data that flow back from the web server to the user . < heading > Security services</heading > To understand the relevance of the information security issues , we need to understand the meanings of the terms related to the topic . Confidentiality - is ensuring that only authorized people have access to the information . To achieve confidentiality , cryptosystems need to be developed and deployed . The cryptosystems use modern cryptographic techniques for higher security level . Information is protected by transforming it into unreadable format . This is the process of encryption . To read the data we need to decrypt them . Only authorized person has the key which is needed for this process . We must remember that not all the data are confidential e.g. special offers of the companies are the data which should be available among as many people as possible . Authenticity - is verifying the digital identity of the person , computer or computer program . We need to know if somebody / something is not pretending to be someone else . We must remember that authenticity says nothing about the right to access the data , it only checks the identity . To achieve authenticity we use : digital signatures - works similar to written one . It is attached to the message . It guarantees that the individual is the one whom he claims to be . digital certificates - is also attached to the message . Its aim is to verify the identity of the sender . The sender applies for a digital certificate from CA . Integrity - is assuring that the data is changed only in a specified , authorized manner . Any unauthorized changes must be detectable to authorized users . It is difficult to prevent the data change , it is much easier however to detect it . Therefore there is a strong need to back - up data regularly and in case of error detection use the back - ups . To detect the attack on the integrity we use : Cyclic Redundancy Check CRC - it is a type of hash function to produce the checksum . The checksum is verified by the recipient to check the data integrity . Message Authentication Code - value is used to protect both integrity and authenticity . It is generated and verified using the same secret key . Therefore it does not assure non - repudiation - anybody who can verify the value can produce it for other message . Availability - is ensuring that the data and services are accessible by authorized parties . The server which is not accessible is just useless . To achieve availability of our server we must assure that attacks will be performed on our system . There is a number of software ( e.g. firewalls ) administrators can use to prevent those attacks . attack is based on flooding the server with huge traffic . There are many different ways to conduct attack : < list > SYN floodsICMP floodsUDP floodsTeardrop attackPing of Death</list - is a way to guarantee that the sender of a message can not later deny having sent the message and that the recipient can not deny having received the message . This issue is essential for contractual documents such as e.g. payments . < list><heading > To achieve non - repudiation we use e.g.:</heading > digital signatures ( explained above)confirmation service - the message travel agent creates receipt confirming sending / receiving the message < /list > After the short insight to the subject we will discuss deeply the importance of information security , different kinds of threats to the systems and ways to avoid them . < heading > Why we should protect the data</heading > We need to understand why data protection is so important . Everybody has his own secrets and does not want to reveal them to the rest of the world , we tell the secrets only to our friends whom we trust . The case of data protection is a similar one - there are some data which need to be confidential . The issue of confidentiality is essential in many areas , e.g. in business - there is a strong need to protect strategic plans , research data , product information , personnel data etc . We can not allow other companies to access our data and copy our ideas as it could lead to bankruptcy of our venture . Another important case , where confidentiality plays an important role is internet banking - allowing strangers to access our account or read our credit / debit card details can result in stealing money from our account . Now that we have proved the importance of data protection against unauthorized access we should think who is responsible for determining which data need to be confidential , what the level of protection should be and who is authorized to access and change the data . The right person for this task is just the owner of the information - he is the one to decide about the data confidentiality . There is no single mechanism which one should use to assure security of the system and data . < heading > Security attacks</heading > Normal flow of digital information ( without participation of any party ) leads from the source ( e.g. file , memory ) to the destination ( such as another file or user ) . See Figure . < figure/>Unfortunately this flow of information can be attacked in the following ways ( Stallings ): < list > InterruptionInterceptionFabricationModification</list > We can divide the attacks into categories : < list > Passive : interceptionactive : interruptionmodificationfabrication</list > Interception - it is a passive threat . It occurs when unauthorized party gains access to the data ( see Figure ) . This is an attack on confidentiality of the data . The data can be accessed in an unauthorized way by : < list > personprogramanother computer</list > This attack is a very difficult one to detect as the data is neither blocked or modified , therefore we try to prevent them rather than detect . < figure/>Interruption - this attack concerns availability of the data or system . The data becomes either inaccessible or unusable ( see Figure ) . The whole system or the part of is lost either because of physical damage to the hardware or due to software manipulation on the data . attack is an example of interruption . < figure/>Fabrication - is an attack on the authenticity of the data . It means that some data has been counterfeited . For graphical explanation see Figure . < figure/>Modification - is an attack on the integrity of the data . An unauthorized party not only gets access to the data but also alters it . < figure/><heading > WIFI NETWORKS ( : < list><heading > The aim of this section is to:</heading > Explain what stands forShow which of IEEE standard use as default encryption system major fundamental security flaws in . < /list><heading > Wireless technologies</heading > There is no doubt that nowadays wireless technologies become more and more popular . Wireless devices like laptops , 's and G mobiles are getting cheaper and cheaper therefore more frequently used . The expansion of these products resulted in the development of wireless technologies : < list > WiMax3GBluetoothWiFi</list > Each technology uses different standards , different frequencies and has different bandwidth . The implementation area is mostly dependant on the range which technology provides . ( , ) < heading > What WiFi is</heading > WiFi is the short for wireless fidelity and is the technology based on the IEEE specification . This technology is the basis for most of . It is widely used to create both hotspots at public places and by home users to create domestic network . WiFi standard allows connections in peer - to - peer mode which is widely used for gaming applications . < list><heading > Advantages of WiFi</heading > Allows to develop without cabling what reduces the costs of deployment and further expansionUsed world - wide Lots of compatible equipment</list><list><heading > Disadvantages of WiFi</heading > Can be interrupted by other devices high power consumptionWEP - rudimentary encryption standard for 802.11a , b is relatively easy to breakLimited range</list><heading > What is</heading > is the short for Webopedia 2006 ) . This is a protocol for WLANs which has been defined in IEEE standard . Its aim is to provide the same level of security as wired LANs . In case of wireless networks is not that easy as the information is broadcasted with radio waves and therefore can be easily received not only by intended recipient but is also vulnerable for eavesdropping . is a rudimentary encryption system for the following IEEE standards : < list>802.11a802.11b</list > is a symmetric encryption system . means that the same secret key is used for both encryption and decryption of the data . is intended to provide : < list > confidentiality ( by the use of RC4 - stream cipher)integrity ( by the use of checksum)authenticity ( optional , Shared Key Authenticity).</list > Standard does not specify how to establish the secret key . In practise all stations within the network and the access point has got the same key which is not the most secure solution . < list><heading > For encryption uses either</heading>40 bit key or104 bit key or</list > and with the use of RC4 is supposed to assure confidentiality . Unfortunately in most cases , wireless devices have encryption turned off as default . < heading > How WEP works</heading > To discuss the security flaws of system we need to understand the way it was supposed to work . The diagram explaining the encryption stage is shown at Figure ( Lecture notes 2006 ) . < figure/>At the stage of encryption process is calculated and appended to the message . For encrypting the system uses or bits keys and bits . Based on these numbers the cipher stream is generated . The next step is the XOR operation with the plaintext . As a result we get the encrypted message . Decryption process is easy provided that we have got the key ( as intended recipients do ) . The Figure explains this graphically . < figure/>After the decryption process the new Integrity Check Value is calculated and compared with the transmitted one . If they are equal the data integrity is achieved . < heading > Security flaws of WEP</heading > In the previous paragraph we explained how the system was intended to work . Now we will focus on the problems that were identified in operation . system occurred to give very poor protection to the data transferred through the WLANs . It fails to provide confidentiality , integrity and authenticity . The main problems with encryption system concern the following ( , Housley , Wagner , Walker ): < list > ( Check)IV ( ) or bits key < /list > The major flaw of system is the way of implementing . For this purpose has been used . is a function producing a checksum . CRC32 is a linear code and therefore the attacker can negate bits in the encrypted text and modify appropriately the encrypted checksum at the same time . It means that someone can change the data and we would not even detect the attack ! It appeared that the is insecure and does not prevent from adversarial attacks . For higher security we should use bits checksum but still it only makes it a little bit more difficult to perform the attack without preventing it . is a block of bits that is required to produce cipher stream . Its aim was to assure the uniqueness of the key . Unfortunately in the system is bits long which is definitely not long enough to fulfil these expectations . bits give us ( ) possible combinations which means that the same key stream will be used twice in a relatively short period of time ( e.g. ) . It makes the process of decoding the message much easier for the attacker . Some badly designed systems use the sequential key generation . What helps the intruders even more is the fact that IV is transmitted to the receiver in plaintext . It has been also proved that some of the keys ( ) are weaker than the rest . Last but not least - the key flaw . In system bits encryption key is selected and together with the IV creates bits cipher stream . They are combined in insecure way and it enables cryptanalytic attacks . The process of bits key generation uses the pseudo random number generator PRNG . The use of PRNG and mapping reduces the entropy and therefore instead of we have got only 2 21 unique keys . The 40 bits encryption provides no security for the network as it can be cracked within . The use of bit encryption is also a very poor , basic protection . An interesting fact is that even using ( which is trying to break into the system by checking all possible key combination ) it would take on average laptop to break the bit encryption . Using bit encryption makes the system resistible to this attack as it would take to break it . The algorithms that are used in are not insecure themselves ; they have just been badly deployed . < heading > INTERNET AND ECOMMERCE ARCHITECTURE ( Question 2)</heading > AIM : < list><heading > The aim of this section is to:</heading > Explain the term "" stateless""Discuss a mechanism or a protocol which is currently being deployed to overcome the difficulty connected with statelessness of HTTP.Explain in details the security issues posed by this mechanism or protocol . < /list><heading > HTTP < /heading > HTTP , the short for operates at application layer of model and at session layer of model . It is the protocol designed to use by www ( World Wide Web ) . HTTP became a standard defining the rules for formatting and transmitting data ( e.g. text , graphic , sound or video ) between servers and clients . Basically when you type the URL address into your web browser you sent a request using HTTP . In this case a browser is the HTTP client and a web page server is the HTTP server ( see Figure ) . HTTP enables files to contain references to other files . By selecting it another HTTP request is sent . ( , ) < figure/><figure/>Figure shows how a Web server can obtain content from another Web server . It means that a Web server plays a role of the client as he is sending its own request . HTTP is a simple protocol based on . It implements request - reply model . Connection between the client and the server is short - lived and is closed after the document has been downloaded . This protocol is stateless and sessionless . < heading>""Statelessness "" of HTTP</heading > HTTP is called a stateless protocol therefore we need to understand what "" stateless "" means . Stateless means that there are no records on previous actions . All commands are executed separately as they are treated as unrelated to any past requests . It means that each page refreshing generates new , completely independent request and there is no way to recognize the client . Solution to this problem ( cookies ) will be discussed in next sections of this document . The main advantage of this approach ( statelessness ) is the simplicity of designing the server - there is no need for dynamic allocation and nobody needs to worry about freeing it . The disadvantage is the fact that all information included in the request needs to be interpreted by the server each time . Most of modern applications are stateful . It means that they remember what you were doing when you ran the application last time . It is very helpful as they remember your personal settings , so you can customize it to your needs . < heading > HTTP cookies</heading is a message sent by a server to the client . This message is stored by the web browser in text file . If the client wants to access the same web page in the future the corresponding cookie is sent to the web server . Cookies were invented to overcome the statelessness of HTTP . They help the server to identify the users and thanks to it customize the web pages for them . We can group the cookies into categories ( ): Persistent cookie - this is a type of cookie which has specified the expiry date which means that it can survive between sessions . It is deleted automatically on the specified date . Session cookie - this is a type of cookie which is deleted when user closes the web browser . It does not contain expiry date . Cookies can contain a variety of information about the user and his connection history . Cookies are used for numerous purposes : Implementation of shopping basket - items are added / removed from the basket depending on user 's actions . Log in - to allow the user to perform operations the server needs to know if the user is authenticated . The server gets this information from cookies . Personalization - some services can be customized by the user . Thanks to cookies , the settings will be remembered for future sessions . Counters , polls - some web services count the number of guests or allow users to take part in various polls . To achieve higher accuracy users should not be allowed to increase the counters by refreshing the page or voting time in the same poll . Thanks to cookies it is easy to prevent such tricks . Monitor advertisements - cookies can tell the server which adverts have already been displayed on your screen . < heading > Security and drawbacks of cookie are only a piece of text therefore there are not a threat to your computer system . They can not be used as a virus , they do not delete any data and have no access to your hard drive . Unfortunately it does not mean that use of cookies is secure solution . Cookies have a few drawbacks and security issues ( ): Privacy concerns - even though cookies can not read any information from your hard drive they can still be a threat to your privacy . They can store your personal information ( e.g. credit card details ) that you have freely provided to a Web site . user identification - each user account has its own set of cookies . However if there are multiple users working on the same user account , the web browser can not differentiate them . Cookie theft - generally cookies are sent between the server and the client . Cookies theft means that unauthorized user overtakes the cookie . There are possible ways for stealing cookies : Packet sniffer - cookies sent on regular HTTP session can be sniffed with a use of special software ( packet sniffer ) . The theft takes place during the transmission process ( see Figure ) < figure/>To overcome this problem by setting the secure flag on the cookie . Then the cookie will be sent over a secure channel ( e.g. SSL ) . Cross - site scripting - is a different way of stealing cookie files . It means that the browser sends the cookie to the wrong server ( see Figure ) < figure/>If unauthorised party gets our cookie , s / he can log into web services using our identity . Cookie poisoning - cookies are supposed to remain unchanged but it appears that attacker can modify the cookie values before sending them back to the server ( see Figure ) . It can be used for example to alter the total cost of the transaction in an online shop . < figure/>The solution to this attack is storing the session identifier in a cookie and the rest of information on the server . Cross - site cooking - this is a type of attack where an attacker exploits browser 's bugs . It sets a cookie for a different site . < figure/>(Wikipedia 2006 , Webopedia 2006 ) < heading > Summary</heading > Cookies are a simple piece of data used to overcome the statelessness of HTTP . Even though they can not do any harm to our system themselves they can be a subject to attack and can be used by unauthorised person maliciously . It is worth knowing that most browsers allow the user to either enable or disable the cookies however we must remember that some services are not usable without cookies . < heading > CRYPTOGRAHPY ( Question 2)</heading > AIM : < list><heading > The aim of this section is to</heading > Write C++ or programme to implement the encryption and decryption using the given parameters . E = Encryption Public Key ( = A very large integer ( = Plaintext : "" The security of an encryption system is as strong because most people rather eat liver than do mathematics!""C = CiphertextD = Decryption Private Key ( that the programme works ! < /list > RSA is widely known and frequently used in public - key cryptography . It was invented in by mathematicians : , and - professors from . Cryptography is strictly associated with encryption and decryption . Encryption is the process of coding the plaintext into ciphertext , whereas decryption is the reverse process . Both of them need a key . There are types of cryptographic systems : using either secret - key ( symmetric ) or public - key ( asymmetric ) . ( , , ) When designing the system using public - key cryptography we must make sure , that computing the private - key from the public - key is infeasible . To achieve this we use sophisticated mathematics including - way functions . - way function is a very easy one to compute , but extremely difficult to invert . RSA algorithm , which uses this feature , is most frequently used in cryptography . Security of is based on difficulty in factorisation of large composite numbers . < heading > algorithm ( , > We choose large prime numbers ( p and q ) such that   FORMULA   < list > We calculate n by multiplying p and q   We calculate the totient   We choose an integer e which is coprime to   v and   We calculate d such that   < /list > Number e is called encryption exponent and together with n form the public key . We use it to encrypt the message . To send an encrypted message M we must change it into a number m so that m < n. To compute the ciphertext we use the following formula :   FORMULA   where :   FORMULA   Number d is called decryption exponent and together with n form the private key . We must n't reveal d to any unauthorised person . We use private key to decrypt the message . To decrypt the message we use the following formula :   FORMULA   While decrypting the message with private key is very easy , it is nearly impossible without it . Even though both public and private key are mathematically correlated , it is very hard to compute from another one . This is why is believed to be secure . The following programme implements the encryption and decryption .   FORMULA   The following is the output from the programme to demonstrate how it works : Before encryption : "" The security of an encryption system is as strong because most people rather eat liver than do mathematics ! "" Encrypted :   FORMULA   After Decryption : "" The security of an encryption system is as strong because most people rather eat liver than do mathematics ! "" < heading > FIREWALLS AND ( Question > AIM : < list><heading > The aim of this section is to:</heading > Define what is a ? Explain what can a protect and ca n't protectDiscuss the different types of . Describe encryption systems used in Firewalls . < /list><heading > What the is ? < /heading security is nowadays of the most emphasized topics within the computer science . It is due to arising number of successful attacks on computer systems of different institution . The best way to prevent break - in to the system is to prevent unauthorised users from access to it . This is the place for a firewall . is one of the ways to make our computer secure . It can be either hardware or software protection to prevent unauthorised access both to and from a network . Its aim is to decide which data should be permitted and which should be denied . Each packet entering and leaving the network comes through the firewall , where is analysed and decision about the future of the packet is made . < heading > How it works</heading > Firewall is designed to monitor and filter communication between networks . To stop attackers , the communication into our network should be limited . The most common configuration is allowing the internal network users to access the web pages etc and denying outside users to access the internal computers . controls the traffic between the computer and Internet basing on the defined rules ( Pike , J. , ) . Applications communicating with global network ( Internet ) usually use the specified ports . The main tasks that firewall performs are : < list > control of the outgoing trafficpermitting authorized programs to connect to Internetblocking the communication on the other portsdenying unauthorized applications access to of the incoming trafficdeny applications and outside attackers to access our computer</list > The Figure shows the idea of blocking and permitting certain traffic to protected network ( in this case server ) . < picture/>The rules needed for proper functioning of our firewall are defined by the system administrator and can concern the following issues : < list > protocol e.g. , or of the senderaddress of the receiversource portdestination porttime etc . < /list > Firewalls are configured to monitor and control the traffic . We must remember that not carefully defined rules can permit unwanted traffic to our computer station . < heading > Firewall - what protection it gives</heading > As previously stated the firewall controls the flow of traffic between internal network ( which should be a trusted zone ) and external , potentially dangerous networks . Protection and features that a firewall can provide are as follow : Attacks against vulnerable services - installation of the firewall allows us to use vulnerable applications within the network provided that there is no inside attacker . Control access into and from your site - with the use of the firewall it is very easy to monitor all traffic both entering and exiting network . Administrator is responsible to allow certain traffic into internal network and to block unwanted . Administrator can also limit the traffic from internal network . The limitations can concern either specific application or the user or both . Every application wanting to get access to the Internet must get permission , which is also the case for horses . horse asking for permission is therefore detected and can be deleted with appropriate software . Protection of network infrastructure - the firewall protects our system from port scanning , address scanning . Potential intruders usually start the attack with surveillance of the network , therefore it is crucial to make it impossible for them . Protection from specific attacks - some of the firewalls provide the antiflooding features to protect the station from flooding attacks e.g. SYN flooding or trail and statistical data - it is essential to analyse and review network usage and attack attempts to verify network security . Confidentiality , authenticity , integrity - using technology and firewall at one time it is possible to encrypt the data so that no party can read them . Encrypting data will provide the data confidentiality , authenticity and integrity . Firewalls can be used as gateway endpoint for tunnels . ( Pike , , : ) < heading > What the firewall can not do</heading > Many people think that installation of the firewall will be a sufficient protection of their computer system . Unfortunately it is not that easy and there are some threats which the firewall can not protect us from . Even properly designed network with well configured firewall can not protect us from the following : Inside attacks - a firewall controls only the traffic passing through it therefore is not able to protect internal resources from inside users e.g. co - workers . Providing security to those resources is more complicated and demands other solutions e.g. - time password authentication . Data path that bypass the firewall - the most common example of it are dialup connections made from the internal network . Any connection bypassing the firewall gives not only a way out for a user but also a way in for intruder . Email - email attachments are the common way of spreading the viruses , worms and horses , therefore we should educate the users in this field , inform them about the potential risks associated with email attachments especially coming from unknown users . The other solution is putting the Antivirus programmes into use and keeping them up to date . Before opening any attachment we should scan in with appropriate software . Social engineering - it is a technique of manipulating people ( e.g. pretending to be system administrator ) to get their logins and passwords . Having a valid login and password intruder can access the system easily . Operating system and other application flaws - we must remember that the firewall is not able to detect all the vulnerabilities of installed software . It is crucial that the system administrator is aware of this problem and that s / he installs all the latest security patches . Outgoing data - the firewall protects only inside resources of the network . The leaving information is vulnerable to attacks such as e.g. sniffing . In this case a good protection is data encryption . Fabrication - firewalls do not protect us from entering fabricated web services with similar addresses . Such www sites are designed to get users ' logins , passwords or debit / credit card numbers and then misuse them . ( Pike , , : ) We must be aware that most firewalls have many sophisticated features but to make them effective , we must configure them properly . < heading > Different types of firewalls</heading > There are various ways to group the firewalls . The , most intuitive one distinguishes the following : < list firewall Software firewall</list><list><heading > Hardware firewall</heading > work at a lower levelfilters IP packetsdecision is made by checking source port , destination port , address , destination service / protocol as well as source domain name , time to live ( ) valuespreconfigured - do not have to spend time on it and can use it right out of a box</list><list><heading > Software firewall</heading > work at a higher levelthere is a need to configure it - define the rules for permitting certain applications and users and denying the rest</list > We can group the firewalls regarding to the amount of computers they protect : Personal firewall - they are used to protect a single computer e.g. at home ( excluding the case in which other computers share Internet connection of the master one ) Network firewalls - they are used to protect the network of computers e.g. company network . Usually there is a separate device to perform this task . We can also group firewalls according to the control mechanism they use : Packet filtering - the simplest mechanism . It checks the content of individual packets . They do not allow the traffic which did not match the rules . Unfortunately the selection criteria are insufficient for some applications . What is more it can be relatively easy tricked e.g. by : Replacing the source address with a permitted one . In this case packet filtering mechanism will be helpless . Splitting a connection request into a sequence of packets which separately look innocent to the firewall . Firewalls using this mechanism are called firewalls . They work very fast and transparently for users but are not very safe . Circuit filtering - this is the mechanism used by Circuit Level Gateways . The filtering takes place at the session layer of the model . All the traffic is monitored by the firewall . If an internal computer sends a request for a service ( e.g. web ) to the external network the traffic goes through a virtual circuit to the firewall where it is intercepted and recorded and then passed on . The respond data from external network reaches the firewall and is compared with the request data to check if the addresses and ports match . Based on this comparison the data is either blocked or sent to the client through the circuit . The use of this type of the firewall hides the internal network from external world as all the information going out of the network appears to have originated from the gateway . What is more the data that has not been requested will be never let into internal network . Another advantage is the relatively low cost . The main disadvantage is the need to combine this type of firewall with some other type of filtering . If not , any type of data that has been requested will be allowed to internal network . Application gateway - the process takes place at the application layer of model . They are commonly referred to as proxies . All the traffic between internal and external network goes through the proxy so there is no direct connection . For each network service ( e.g. http , ftp , smtp , telnet ) there is a separate proxy . This type of firewall filters the actual content of data , not just its source and destination . Thanks to it administrator can control not only access to web pages in general , but also can specify which pages can be viewed and which are restricted . This type of firewall is considered to be very secure but has also some drawbacks - is slower than other types and requires more complicated configuration . There are used to protect large business networks . Another way to categorise the types of firewalls regards tracking : Stateful - this is a type of firewall which keeps records of the state of connections and based on this information it allows only the packets matching known connection state . The rest of the packets will be rejected . Stateful firewalls hold records containing attributes of the connection ( e.g. addresses , ports etc ) . This type of firewall depends on - way handshake of the TCP protocol . The connection needs to be established and after that incoming packets will be allowed only if they are part of this connection . Stateless - this is a type of network which treats each packet separately therefore they do not distinguish if the packet is trying to set up a new connection or is a part of existing one . Stateless firewalls offer less security than stateful ones . ( ) < heading > Encryption systems used in firewalls</heading > Although a firewall itself is supposed to control the traffic to provide protection to a single computer system or network , some firewalls also enable the encryption process for greater security of the outgoing data . This feature is used to implement . is a way to securely connect networks over the Internet which is insecure media . The following types of encryption are being used in firewalls : DES - ( the short for ) is a widely used symmetric - key encryption algorithm . DES is a block cipher which means that it operates on plaintext blocks of a given size ( - bits ) and returns cipher text blocks of the same size . The key in fact consists of bits but of them are used for parity check , therefore the effective key size is . DES is based on scheme . The structure contains initial and final permutation and rounds . RC-4 - is the most widely used stream cipher . It is a symmetric - key encryption algorithm . It is based on the use of a random permutation . It generates the keystream which , in encryption process , is with the plaintext . It is currently used to secure a lot of the wireless protocols . It is used in and , as well as . MD5 - ( the short for Message Digest algorithm 5 ) is an algorithm used to create digital signatures . MD5 is a - way hash function . MD5 process the message of any size into the output of bits . SHA-1 - ( the short for ) SHA-1 is used to hash objects . - ( the short ) is a set of protocols developed to support secure exchange of packets at the layer . It has been invented due to lack of security capabilities of protocol . It has been widely deployed to implement ( VPNs ) . There are modes of operation : Transport and . Transport mode encrypts only the data portion of each packet leaving the header untouched . The more secure Tunnel mode encrypts both the header and the data portion . < heading > Summary</heading > It is very important to remember that a firewall does not provide much security itself . The level of security it provides depends on configuration which is set by system administrator .",0
"way to determine the wholesomeness of the population is the dietary survey which reflects their energy and nutrients intake . The recent survey on the students at   ( students aged : males and females ) during term of , using ( FFQ ) method , revealed the following data . Despite their normal total energy intake , the saturated fatty acid intake of both men and women ( of the total energy , respectively ) is higher than the guided value whereas the polyunsaturated fatty acid intake was more or less reached . Females rather than males seemed to have eaten enough carbohydrate ( ~48 % of total energy intake ) while protein intake in most of the students was more than enough to keep them from deficiency . All minerals intake statuses were fine in males except sodium and selenium . Excessive sodium intake was nearly double the amount they should have eaten ( ~1,300 mg more ) while there were some that did not get enough selenium . The problem seemed to lie in female intake since only sodium , calcium , phosphorus , zinc and iodine were adequately eaten . None of the female subjects reached the guidelines for potassium and most of them did not get enough magnesium and copper from their diet . Some might get the amount of selenium they should be receiving while the iron intake too was not adequately eaten ( compare to mg / d ) . < table/>Vitamin A deficiency is unlikely to occur since the high carotene intake could provide a substantial amount of vitamin A by converting to retinol in the bodies , compensating the low retinol intake ( and mg / d for male and female , respectively ) . Little risk of vitamin E deficiency is expected since the intake amount exceeded the amount that would prevent such condition . , riboflavin , niacin , vitamin B6 and B12 , vitamin C and folate were consumed in the amount more than enough to prevent from any risk of deficiency . For pantothenic acid and biotin , the intake of both nutrients lied within the safe ranges of 3 - 7 and μg / d , respectively . Alcohol consumption in both men ( g / d ) and women ( g / d ) were higher than the average intake ( and g / d , respectively ) . But the actual consumption of university 's students is likely to be higher . From table , phosphorus is the maximum minerals eaten by both men and women . The high amount of intake probably due to the fact that phosphorus exists in virtually all foods especially in dairy products , cereals and vegetables , and meats ( , , of phosphorus intake , respectively ) . High phosphate food , i.e. processed foods and the carbonated soft drinks consumed by teenagers could significantly increase their phosphorus intake . of dietary phosphorus intake is efficiently absorbed at the small intestine . of phosphorus in our bodies exists in the bone where it forms a complex with calcium , giving bone rigidity and strength . The remaining is in the soft tissues and blood as phospholipids , phosphoproteins , nucleic acid and as part of the energy - rich compounds associated in our metabolism . Deficiency is rare since phosphorus occurs in most food and body can increase the absorption and decrease the excretion rate accordingly . But excessive level of phosphorus in plasma could contributes to the reduction in bone mass by increasing the parathyroid hormone level which in turn promotes the resorption of calcium from the bone . However , this is likely to occur only when calcium intakes are low which apparently not the case in this survey . After all , most of the students had enough nutrients to keep their body healthy and away from diseases . No nutrients appeared to be over consumption to cause the adverse effect . Even though the results were not accurate and tended to be overestimated as they rely on the individuals ' report of their food but FFQ is considered an appropriate method for dietary assessment for such a large number of respondents and in a short period of time .","< abstract><heading > Abstract</heading > A series of average wind speed measurements for various heights were used to produce a vertical wind profile close to the surface . A logarithmic wind profile was found to be a good approximation to the observed data . Calculated values of roughness length and friction velocity were found to vary significantly between readings . This was mainly attributed to changes in wind conditions and interference of surrounding terrain rather than atmospheric stability . < /abstract><heading > Analysis</heading > sets of average readings ( A B and C ) were taken from the pulse counter . The logpro spreadsheet was used to convert the counter readings to wind speed , then produce plots of the vertical wind profile and wind speed against the logarithm of height . These plots are shown in Figure for readings A , B and C. A linear trend was fitted to the log plots , and from the coefficients of these straight line equations , values were found for u * and z using the log wind profile equation . These values for each set of measurements are shown in . It can be seen that the log wind profile is a good fit to the measurements . Weather conditions were quite changeable while the measurements were being taken . Initially there were about . This cloud became more broken during the course of the measurements , reducing to oktas during . There was direct sunlight on the observing site shortly before the measurements were started , briefly measurement B and for most of measurement temperature was < figure/><table/>initially 15 oC , fell to oC at the start of B , rose to oC at the start of C and peaked at , before falling back to oC. Wind speed , measured with a hand anemometer , was mostly in the range to 3 ms -1 , with occasional gusts up to 5ms -1 . The wind direction was mostly westerly , occasionally veering south westerly . To the west of the observing site there was a distance of m of short grass , which was bounded by a number of trees . Roughness length for cut grass would be expected to be -3 m ( Stull ) . This is fairly consistent with the results obtained , with the roughness length calculated for A and B being slightly larger , and for C slightly smaller . The fetch of m would only allow reliable measurements of the wind up to approximately 1.5 m above the surface . In this experiment the wind was measured up to m above the surface , which may have caused the values for A and B to be larger . It can also be seen that each set of readings appears to have one slightly anomalous result which does not fit the logarithmic curve . In each case it is the measurement taken by the anemometer at m height . This could indicate that this instrument is not functioning properly , but an alternative explanation could be that the wind above this height is being affected by the trees surrounding the observing site . This effect was tested by recalculating the log plot using just the data up to m , then just the data from m upwards . This gave new values each for u * and z , one for the lower wind and for the upper wind . Data set C was used , and gave the values in . < table/>There is an increase in z 0 for the upper wind which would be expected if the trees are causing extra turbulence at that level . The height at which this effect is seen is within a reasonable range of what would be expected . Repeating the experiment with a different anemometer at m would confirm whether this effect is genuine . It can be seen from that the friction velocity of measurement A was larger than B and C , which were quite similar . The value of u * is dependant on wind speed , so this would be expected to be largest for A , were the average wind was stronger , and similar for B and C. The roughness length is largest for A and smallest for C. The log wind profile is only strictly valid in neutral conditions , so the most obvious explanation of these changes is that conditions were unstable for measurement A then became increasingly less unstable for B and , this explanation is only partly supported by observation . There was direct sunlight on the observation site until shortly before the observations took place , so conditions may have been quite unstable initially . There was , however , much more direct sunlight during C than B , which should have led to more instability . There are also other factors which could have affected the amount of turbulence and hence the values of u * and z. A slight change in wind direction could have had an effect , by altering the fetch , or by causing the wind to blow over some of the other apparatus in the observing site . A roughness length of less than a centimeter would be easily affected in such circumstances . The teachpro spreadsheet was used to simulate vertical wind speed and temperature profiles , and investigate how these are affected by varying u * and T * . A larger value of u * gives a more rapidly increasing and larger wind speed . As wind speed increases , there is greater wind shear , and therefore more shear production of turbulence , and corresponding greater vertical momentum flux ( u * ) . The overall stability of the profile is determined by T * . When T * is negative , sensible heat flux H is positive and temperature is highest at the surface , leading to unstable conditions . The wind speed tends towards a constant value as z increases ( Figure ) . When T * is very small , temperature is almost constant with height , meaning conditions are neutral , and H is very small . The wind profile is logarithmic ( Figure ) . As T * increases , H becomes negative and the temperature is reduced at the surface , giving stable conditions and a wind profile that becomes linear as z increases ( Figure ) . Data from the mast were used to calculate the average surface sensible heat flux during the sets of measurements that were taken . The length L was then calculated . Due to the changing conditions during the experiment these values vary considerably , as can be seen from the results in 3 . < figure/><table/>These calculations show that conditions were unstable during measurements A and C , and stable during B. The stability clearly does not have a large effect on the wind profile this close to the ground , as then a larger roughness length would be expected from C than B. Small variation in other conditions , such as the wind direction , must have had a larger effect on the observed value of z 0 . < heading > Conclusion</heading > The experiment shows that the log profile is a good approximation of the vertical wind profile close to the surface . The values of u * and z 0 obtained were quite variable and dependent on local conditions of wind and terrain . Stability of the boundary layer was not found to have a large effect at the heights measured . This variability was much larger than any uncertainty in the measurements . The variability in the calculated values could be reduced by using a more open observing site with a longer fetch .",0
"discovery of penicillin followed an improbable sequence of events that was one of the most important medical advances in history , eventually changing the way disease was treated . "" We unconsciously learned a great deal from nature "" , said Fleming of his family , whose childhood was spent on his family 's farm in , from the nearest house . Fleming inherited £ when his uncle died , and his brother , who already owned an established medical practice , encouraged to put the money towards the study of medicine . Fleming studied at , . < enote . URL   URL   < /enote><picture/>Fleming was one of the people to administer the chemical treatment for syphilis , developed by in . After seeing the wounds of soldiers in contemplated that there must be a chemical treatment like that would help fight microbe infection . He discovered the enzyme lysozyme by accidentally sneezing into a bacterium - laced dish . Lysozyme had natural antibacterial properties , but not against strong infectious agents , so continued his search . In Fleming left a culture plate smeared with aureus bacteria , known for turning wounds septic , open ; by his next observation , a spore of notatum had drifted in from the microbiology laboratory on the floor below and the bacteria cells were lysing . He "" correctly deduced that the mould must have released a substance that inhibited the growth of the bacteria "" . < enote magazine . URL   URL   < /enote><picture/>A report was published about this in , in which wrote , "" [ Penicillin ] may be an efficient antiseptic for application to , or injection into , areas infected with penicillin - sensitive microbes . "" His discovery raised little interest , and discontinued his research . a team of scientists at lead by directed further research , and in demonstrated its chemotherapeutic properties and added lots of information . Finally penicillin was recognised as a vital drug , much better than those prescribed at the time < enote > Introduction . Professor Sir , ed . ( ) . Penicillin : ( edition ) . Butterworth . < /enote > such as the sulphonamides , and it was used in the treatment of septic wounds and venereal disease . By vast batches of synthetic penicillin were in production that could defeat some of the most common and lethal diseases of the time , such as gangrene and tuberculosis . In Fleming shared with and Chain for its discovery . Although was not the to describe the antibacterial properties of , he was the to recognise the significance of his findings . Fleming modestly admitted this : "" My only merit is that I did not neglect the observation and that I pursued the subject as a bacteriologist "" . Although his major discoveries were coincidental , those singular contributions have changed the practice of medicine . The establishment of penicillin as a fundamental drug inspired the search for other antibiotics and in after its launch a number of new antibiotics were discovered , greatly widening the scale of antibiotic therapy . < enote magazine . URL   URL   < /enote >","< heading > Introduction and Objectives</heading > I used Jaeger 's method to determine the surface tension of distilled water . During Jaeger 's method , water is slowly passed into a large container , displacing the air in the container . A bubble of air is formed in the liquid at the end of the capillary tube , and as air pressure increases it grows in size . The pressure in the manometer reaches a maximum , and immediately after this point the bubble breaks away . The maximum pressure head is read , and so is the depth of the capillary tube in the distilled water . The radius at the end of the capillary tube was measured using a travelling microscope , and in this particular experiment the radius was found to be 0.25 mm , or m. The density of the liquid and the density of the manometer were both found to be kgm -3 . I took readings of the maximum manometer pressure head when the capillary tubing was at different depths . I found the surface tension of the liquid at each depth , and used the values to calculate the average surface tension . < heading > Results</heading><table/ > FORMULA   < heading > Calculations</heading > To calculate the surface tension I used the following equation :   FORMULA   Where : is the surface tension of the liquid ( ) h is the depth of immersion of the capillary tubing ( m ) h is the maximum manometer pressure head ( m ) p 1 is the density of liquid ( kgm -3 ) p 2 is the density of the manometer fluid ( kgm -3 ) r is the radius of the capillary tubing ( m ) For example : < table/ > FORMULA   < heading > Discussion</heading><heading > Comparison to Literature Values</heading > The surface tension of water is , according to , rd edition ( ) .   FORMULA   My value = 0.1299 Nm -1 My value was 0.05715 Nm -1 , or mNm -1 , larger than the literature value . I do not believe that such a large difference was entirely due to my errors . 's method is never entirely accurate because the bubble does not break away under ideal static conditions . < heading > Introduction and Objectives</heading > I used the tension balance to find the surface tension of the following substances : < list > GlycerolCMCMilkAlcohol ( oil</list > I then used the tension balance to decide whether the following components are surface active : < list > Sodium ChlorideSugarDetergent</list > The tension balance consists of a linked torson wire and suspended platinum loop . A tensioning device is situated at each end of the torson wire , of which is attached to a calibrated scale . The force required to tear the ring from the liquid surface is determined . This is calibrated directly in terms of surface tension ( dynes cm -1 ) and is read from the scale . This process uses method . < heading > Results</heading><table/><table/><heading > Calculations</heading > I used the conversion factor -1 = to determine the surface tension in units . For example :   FORMULA   < heading > Discussion</heading > We took readings for each substance , and used the as it was more accurate . < heading > Comparison to literature values</heading><table/>I could not find a literature value for C.M.C. I could not find a literature value for corn oil , but I did find cotton seed oil ( mNm -1 ) c and olive oil ( mNm -1 ) . c I can see that my values were lower than the literature values . From this general pattern , and taking the literature values for cotton seed oil and olive oil into consideration , I will predict that my value for corn oil was also lower . < heading > Source of Literature Values</heading > All of the literature values are from Lewis ' ' Physical Properties of Foods and Food Processing Systems ' , which uses the following sources : < list > a = , R.C. ( Ed . ) , . Handbook of Physics and Chemistry , rd edition . , , Ohio.b = , and ( Eds . ) , Fundamentals of Dairy Chemistry . AVI , , Connecticut.c = ( . ) . Principles of Food Science , Part I , , Marcel Dekker , New York.</list><heading > Conclusion</heading > Despite literature values differing to my results , I do think that my part in this experiment was successful . There was a general trend that the literature values were lower than mine , which is probably because of the apparatus used . In surface - active components , a tension is produced at the interface because of an imbalance in the intermolecular forces . Sodium chloride is inactive in water because the surface tension of water is not changed with the addition of sodium chloride . is inactive in water because there is only a small change in the surface tension of water with the addition of sugar . Detergent is active in water because the surface tension changed significantly with the addition of the detergent .",1
"Digitising is the term used for converting maps from analogue ( real world maps ) into digital so that they can be put onto a computer . The digital information can be stored in different ways ; raster and vector . Raster uses a grid to show the information whereby each grid cell is map unit , all areas of the map are represented by cells even if they are ' empty ' and each cell has value . Vector uses coordinate pairs as in a graph . point is a single coordinate pair and a line is a series of coordinate pairs . Both of these methods have positive and negatives ; however , there are several things that determine how useful the raster and vector maps are , for example the accuracy and precision of the data . Raster digitising is the term given to describe heads up digitising on a computer screen using a mouse . of the issues of this type of digitising is the threshold of detection of light . To overcome the detection of blotches , the threshold has to be set so that only the darkest pixels are detected . There is also the problem that all objects look the same , for example a lake and a forest . This is overcome by scanning the different objects in separately in layers which are then reassembled on the computer . This method is much cheaper than vector digitising and does not take much skill to perform ; however , there is also a lot of redundant data . Vector digitising is where a tablet and puck are used to plot the points straight from the analogue map . How accurate the finished map is depends very much on the person doing the digitising and how close together the electromagnetic wires on the puck are . This method is very precise if it is done well and there is little post - processing work needed . However , it is a lengthy process and the operator needs training which is expensive . The accuracy of the person or computer performing the digitising determines how reliable the map will be . For example , if an object is out on the computer screen by a few millimetres , this may translate ( depending on the scale of the map ) to on the ground as explained in ( ) where he states that on a map drawn to a scale of = of all points must lie within of their true position . This is not so much of an issue if the computer auto - completes lines or polygons , as there is only the error of the computer . However , with manual heads up digitising it is harder to be accurate and even more so with tablet digitising as there is both human error and the accuracy of the computer involved . With both heads up and tablet digitising I found that I had to go back and redo some of the points as I had not been accurate enough the time . It was even harder when using the stream - mode on the tablet , as if I made a mistake , I would have had to start the entire polygon again . There is also human error when copying land uses or building types , for instance , mistaking a school for a hospital , thus making the map useless . When performing tablet digitising , it is much more about the accuracy and precision of the person undertaking the digitising as the most amount of error is incurred when trying to match the crosshair on the puck with the point you are digitising on the tablet . It is also important to make sure that the analogue map is firmly fixed down before starting otherwise you would have to start again if it moved whilst you were digitising . Whilst I was using heads up digitising for the road network , I came across the problem of trying to get the lines to snap correctly on the screen How precise the human and computer are also has an impact on the reliability of the map . It is virtually impossible to copy the analogue map perfectly but there are things that can be done to try and make it as good as possible , such as zooming in on the screen when digitising . When plotting the points for a line on the computer using heads up digitising , the precision of the finished line depends very much on the person performing the digitising . For instance , if someone plots points on a line and is zoomed out a long way , there is more chance of the line being incorrect than if they were to zoom in and plot maybe points or more . Zooming in will give a better resolution and therefore it will be more precise as I found out when I was tablet digitising the factory . I was fairly confident that I had been accurate with the puck in plotting the corners of the rectangle , but when I looked at the screen to check my work , I found that the rectangle was not the correct shape . In order to combat this , one could try to look at the screen whilst digitising to check that it is accurate . With regards to zooming in , it is also important to check that there are no errors involving lines joining up incorrectly . For example when I went back to check that I had digitised the road network correctly , I found that there were several points which had either overshot or had not snapped properly . However , zooming in can cause problems , if the map is not in great detail the image will become distorted and fuzzy making digitising even harder . Therefore , the resolution of the analogue map plays a big part in how exact the digital map will be . With the raster data , the cell size determines the resolution , so the smaller the cell size the higher the resolution . With the vector data , the resolution is determined by the smallest possible distance between points before they become one point . To get a better map , the resolution needs to be higher , but this also presents the problem that the size of the file will be bigger and so will take longer to load and may be difficult to transfer to other devices . There are many steps that can be taken to make sure that the best possible map is achieved from digitising . It is important for the operator to be personally accurate with their digitising especially if they are using Vector digitising . Another method which I found useful as stated above was the simple tool of zooming in to make the objects larger so that I could be more accurate .","Spatial analysis refers to the relationship between facts and locations . There are various types of spatial analysis , all of which are useful in their own way . These range from the simplest form of analysis ; a query or selection analysis , to more complicated spatial analysis . This analysis helps geographers to answer questions like "" how many people in live within of a nuclear power station ? "" . Spatial analysis can also be used to prove or disprove hypotheses such as the cause of certain diseases by finding areas of influence , common areas between maps or distance from map features . of the easiest and least complex types of spatial analysis is a query . This uses algebra to select areas of the map that meet the criteria given to it . The algebra can combine queries using the format , condition A = true ( and , or , not , xor ) condition B = true . Put into practice this could be used to find out which countries in the world have a percentage population over . In this case , the percentage population of males would be condition A and ' over would be condition I used this type of analysis to find out if there was a relationship between the number of hospital beds per people and the number of deaths per in the counties of . This type of spatial analysis is useful for finding out where something is and seeing if there are any spatial patterns such as clustering , dispersion or random . After doing this , it is possible to compare neighbouring polygons . When the similarities and dissimilarities are summarized for the spatial patterns , spatial autocorrelation is deduced . However , if only one map is queried , the pattern would only represent a snapshot in time and so would have to be compared to another map or we would have to look at spatial processes . Another form of spatial analysis is calculation based . Within this type of analysis there are various methods of finding and representing the calculations . The and simplest calculation is measuring or counting features such as the length of certain lines or areas of polygons . This can be done automatically by the computer . Another is calculating new attributes from old ones . This involves adding a new attribute which then works out a given value from or more existing attributes . For example , if existing attributes are population and area , another attribute could be added to find out population density ( population divided by area ) . A slightly more complex calculation based analysis is the statistical analysis of feature attributes . This is done by breaking up the data into sets , which can be done through natural breaks , quantiles , equal intervals , or averages . This makes the data much easier to interpret for analysis . After the data has been divided up , it is possible to summarize the data into lists , reports , counts and graphs or charts . Another calculation based analysis is the calculation of density in a space . When a single point ' phenomena ' occurs , the density of these points in a space can be calculated using . This can be represented in either a choropleth or isopleth map . In a choropleth map , the densities are shown by how many points occur within a certain area through the use of colour . However , the problem with this type of map is that it disguises the true spread of the data . Isopleth maps are a more revealing of the densities on the ground than a choropleth map . An isopleth map produces a continuous density surface which can be put into 3D to visualize spatial trends . Distance based analysis can be very useful and has a practical element to it . A zone of influence is a type of distance based analysis which shows distance bands . These can be superimposed onto a distance map to see what distance certain features are from others . Proximity areas are another form of this analysis whereby areas of influence are drawn around each point . Equidistant boundaries are drawn up around each point so that where ever you are on the map , which ever boundary you are inside , you will be the closest to that boundary 's point . A ' buffer zone ' is the zone of influence around a feature such as a point , line or polygon . This can be used in the real world to find out the area likely to be affected by the noise of a new motorway and which residents will be compensated for double - glazing . This process of buffering can be multiplied so that several factors can be introduced ( as in the area around the factory in ) . Another analysis is spatial coincidence and exclusion . In essence this is how different maps overlay and common areas between them . There are ways of getting the maps to interact . The is merging the maps , which joins them side by side . Dissolving the maps joins them together but only joins together factors that are common to both . Union combines the features of layer with the polygons from another layer to form a single layer that has the graphics and attributes of both . Intersecting layers involves cutting an input layer with a to produce an output layer that has the features of both . Clipping takes layer and cuts it to the extent of another and erasing is the reverse of clipping where only what is outside the clipped area is kept . After this , sieve mapping can be performed , of which there are types ; inclusive and exclusive . This can be used to narrow down possible locations for certain uses . It can also be used to monitor changes in location for example , hurricanes changes in land use . These changes can be identified as either before and after , a trend or a cycle . It is possible to union maps together so that change can be calculated between the . Spatial modelling is a much more complex form of analysis . terrain models are made using point data which has to be sampled regularly in order for it to be accurate . Inverse Distance Weighting works out the height of the point as a weighted average of the height of the points around it . Another method is the spline method which fits a polynomial function based on the coordinates of the sample points around it . For an irregular sample of points , triangulation is used whereby if a circle is circumscribed to any triangle , no points other than the vertices of that triangle should fall within the circle ( see below ) , thus creating ( TINs ) . This type of analysis increases the realism of the map as you have an accurate model of what the topography looks like . Terrain analysis can be performed from the by mapping the contours , slopes , aspect and shading . A more practical use for a is hydrological modelling to see where water will flow when it rains . Another real world use is visibility analysis , for example will people living in a certain town be able to see a radio mast tall ? It can also be used to see what landscapes would look like with different features on ( trees , houses ) . < figure/>The final type of spatial analysis is network analysis . It is one of 's most widely used applications and is about modelling links between areas and points . It can be used to see how well areas are connected together and can be measured in various ways , either by distance , travel time , monetary cost or friction . On top of this , other issues have to be considered such as constraints which may slow down progress or restrict movement . This sort of analysis is applied in transport planning , civil engineering and navigation ( GPS ) . In conclusion , spatial analysis using is applicable to various everyday things that we take for granted . It is very important to various industries such as for flood plans and even to salesmen who need to find the shortest possible journey to take in order to save money as shown in .",1
"Tort is a civil wrong which sanctions any party that has suffered damage from that wrong to claim for compensation . The law of tort basically deals with providing justice to any person who has been harmed by the act of others . Law of tort basically protects both the buying and no - buying consumers . Below are situations of negligence which falls under the law of tort In the situation , if were to sue , he would be appealing to based on the grounds of negligent misstatement which cause financial losses . Upon advising regarding this matter , we must see what constitutes the duty of care for negligent misstatement . In v. , , Lord limited claims in negligence to only few cases since negligent words may have a greater impact than negligent acts .   < fnote>""A reasonable man , knowing that he was being trusted or that his skill or judgement was being relied on , would I think , have courses open to him . He could keep silent or decline to give the information ; or he could give an answer with clear qualification that he accepted no responsibility for it ; or he could simply answer without any such qualification . "" < /fnote > First , the circumstances in which the advice was given must be in a professional manner . However , the advice was given to during a lunch break at a conference , which indicates that it was just a social event . Advises should not be given ' off the cuff ' but must be on business occasion and accompanied with proper checks on relevant data , none of which has done . , there must be proof that the claimant knows that the advice is reliable . The decisions made in suggest that defendant holds no liability unless he was in the business of giving advice . may be a director of , but he is not a professional person to receive advice from . should have sought advises from professionals who acquire specialist knowledge and rightful qualifications on the matter . < fnote > The majority held that ; duty applied to defendants who were in the business of giving advice or information or who claimed that they had the requisite expertise . < /fnote > Finally , the speaker knows that the advice is reliable and so he undertakes the responsibility to ensure that it is accurate . may argue on this circumstance but , there is a possibility that is financially stable at the period when the conversation takes place . Again , should have consulted a professional to find out the financial position of On these accounts , it is therefore not reasonably foreseeable for to rely on the statement . Besides that , the theory stressed that in order for the defendant to owe a duty of care , a ' special relationship ' must exist . Clearly , there is no ' special relationship ' for instance , stating that would undertake any responsibility for his statement . Therefore , it is advisable for to have prove that owed a duty of care in order to claim compensation . < fnote > Where the claimant could reasonably rely on the skill and care of the defendant in making statement and resulted in the defendant undertaking responsibility for the accuracy of the statement made . < /fnote > The case is yet another case of negligent misstatement . Like any other cases , it is important to ascertain whether owes a duty of care . , it may be regarded that is not a proper place to give a valid legal advice . It is more of a place to study and get information on law ideas . Even if it is rather in a business - like environment , it is not sensible for to rely on without him giving proper facts and figures on the issue . Similar to the situation , , being a lecturer is not the right person for to seek legal advice on the matter ( ) . Mrs. should have consulted a professional who is well informed on the issue and who would have realised any changes in the law . These points proves to say that no duty of care is owed by . Arguably , the minority view in was that , the person giving advice owed a duty of care . This is because , Mrs. made it clear that she needed legal advice on her insurance policy and had acted upon it by giving his advice . Based on the proceeding of , it is foreseen that Mrs. would sufficiently rely on 's advice and that owes Mrs. a duty of care . < fnote > In their 's opinion the duty could arise when an enquirer consulted a businessman in the course of his business and made it plain that he was seeking considered advice and intended to act on that advice . < /fnote><fnote > In , although the defendant were not in the business of giving advice , it was significant that they were experienced and had special knowledge and skill in estimating the petrol throughput at a filling station , whereas the plaintiff did not . < /fnote > Moreover , a ' special relationship ' may said to exist in this situation because the information given by is knowingly communicated to Mrs. for a specific purpose , that is , regarding her insurance policy ( . , ) . Hence , there is some extent of duty owed by but it may not be a wise idea for Mrs. to incur money on the legal cost considering that chances of winning are not remarkably high . < fnote > Lord said that , "" the adviser must know that his statement is to be communicated to the plaintiff and the plaintiff would be likely to rely on it . "" < /fnote > In the situation however , is an argument of financial and economic loss suffered by arising from 's negligent act . , we must not assume that had been driving negligently . The fact that he veered across the road may be as a result of a damaged road with potholes or even a malfunctioned brake . Chances of George driving negligently may be high but there could well be other possibilities that cause the accident . Hence , it is important that have proper evidence to prove that was driving negligently before filing for a case against . If considering that was in negligence , prior to advising with this matter , it is important to establish , as a matter of law , that owed him duty of care . The ' neighbourhood principle ' laid by Lord 's in the Donoghue v. ( ) suggests that is directly affected by 's act by flooding 's field with petrol and the harm suffered was reasonably foreseeable because it is expected to happen if drives in a reckless manner . Thus , given the fact that committed the negligent act , according to the Donoghue v. ( ) , does owe a duty of care . < fnote > Lord said "" you must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions which u can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour . Who the in law is my neighbour ? The answer seems to be those persons who are so closely affected by my act that I ought reasonably to have them in my contemplation as being so affected when I am directing my mind to the acts or omissions which are called into question . "" < /fnote > In this situation , it is recognised that both financial and economic loss are involved . Therefore , any claim against expected future profits that unable to be made because of the state of the land is purely an economic loss ( V. co. ) . However , it is noted that the loss on future profits were consequence of the damage done and hence recoverable . But then again , the inability to make future profits could be caused by the changes in weather , natural disaster or even negligence by himself . For these reasons , it is likely that would consider that the damage is too remote for to claim compensation . Furthermore , it may be too remote because of the ' floodgate arguments ' which may open the door to a host of similar claims ( mouth disease research institute ) . As far as could go is , to claim compensation on his financial loss , that is , the damaged crops that were ready for harvesting at the time of the accident . Percy may seek other alternative in claiming compensation . Since may be working with a company and unlikely to be a sole - trader , it is arguable that , referring to , 's employer could be vicariously liable on the negligent act of . < fnote > liability is a system whereby an employer is liable for the torts of employees committed in the course of employment . < /fnote > In conclusion , in any tort , be it negligent act or misstatement , a duty of care must be established . However it is not worth the time and money to file for a legal dispute in courts . Lord said , "" The costs of resolving a dispute often being far in excess of the amount issue . Hence , only the very rich and the very poor ( thanks to ) could afford to litigate . The great majority of the public could not afford to do so . "" Other alternatives should be taken and settled out of court .","As of anthropology as a subject has developed a healthy reputation for self - criticism and reflection . Stemming largely from the desire to avoid the harsh glare of the ethnocentric critical light , traditional categories including colonialism , politics , society and even styles of ethnographic writing have undergone deconstructions that were much needed if not openly welcomed . The categorical manifestation of the dualist paradigm is represented in the form of the nature - culture and nature - society dichotomies which , as it is now universally agreed , represent little more than stumbling blocks in our attempts to understand the particular intricacies of human societies . Until , recently this dualistic interpretation has proved surprisingly resilient to criticism . The sustained survival of which may owe its existence in part to a paradox within which nature has been much more than the basic term of a series of antithetical notions , an oppositional prop for culture , the supernatural or society . As states , "" What is distinguished from nature receives its determination from it ... Suppress the idea of nature and the whole philosophical edifice of western achievement will crumble "" ( Descola/1996 / p98 ) . Whether or not this will be the outcome of such inward criticism , it is clear that the nature - culture division represents a serious problem for anthropological investigation . Subsequently a spurge of recent literature and thought has emerged attempting to critically deconstruct the dichotomy via a multitude of theoretical approaches . However , is it really possible to dissolve a dichotomy that as Descola contends represents a key foundation stone of modernist epistemology , not just another analytical category belonging to the intellectual toolkit of the social sciences ? ( Descola/1996 / p12 ) Human evolutionary ecology has its roots in cultural ecology and evolutionary anthropology . It represents an attempt to deconstruct the dichotomy between nature and culture based upon an ecological perspective , analysing human behaviour in terms of natural selection and microeconomics . argues that , "" An approach that is genuinely ecological in my view is one that would ground human intention and action within the context of an ongoing and mutually constitutive engagement between people and their environments "" ( Ingold/1996 / p26 ) . He contends that through their use of the ' optimal forager theory ' evolutionary ecologists merely consolidate the existing nature - culture dichotomy . The theory endows what Ingold calls ' economic man ' with reason in the sphere of social interaction allowing him to advance culturally against the backdrop of nature . Conversely the rationality of the optimal forager is installed at the every heart of nature , while the specifically human domain of society and culture is seen as a source of negative influence , causing the behaviour of the forager to deviate from the theoretical optimum . His point is how they can claim that reason is a universal attribute of humanity , yet simultaneous maintain that the natural rationality of human hunter gatherers is compromised by social and cultural constraints ( Ingold/1996 ) . Evolutionary ecologists attribute behavioural patterns to the influence of natural selection over time , asserting that choices are made within a pre - developed framework . Which in turn owes its existence to its ' proven ' ability as the most successful strategy in terms of reproductive fitness . This neo - approach is heavily criticised , it is claimed for instance that it does not stand under even the most casual survey of our knowledge of development and natural history ( Descola/1996 / p5 ) . Indeed , as Ingold states , behaviour must not only have consequences for reproduction it must also be a consequence of reproduction ( Ingold/1996 ) . Thus since the fallacy of genetically distinct racial groups is thankfully eradicated from anthropological theory , it is proposed by Winterhalder that , "" the instructions underwriting human foraging behaviour are culturally rather than genetic , encoded in words and other symbolic media rather than in the language of DNA "" ( Winterhalder : in Ingold/1996 / p30 ) . According to Ingold the argument still relies upon enculturation via a process analogous to that of genetic transmission . Through and examination of ethnography on the Cree of Muskrat Dam , Northern Ontario Ingold conversely concludes that the novice hunter learns by accompanying more experienced hands in the woods , and that via direct instruction he is led to develop a sophisticated perceptual awareness of the properties of his surroundings and of the possibilities for action they afford . He contends that , "" Observation is no more a matter of having information copied into ones head , than is imitation a matter of mechanically executing received instructions . "" ( Ingold/1996 / p40 ) For Ingold the actions of the novice are intrinsically intertwined with those of his environment , thus he sees the evolutionary ecologists as culturally generating a false dualism between nature - optimal forager and culture - economic man . In conclusion he maintains that hunter gatherers and the scientist in the guise of ' economic man ' both develop their capacities and aspirations , within a continuing history of involvement with the human and non - human components of their environment ( Ibid ) . agrees with Ingold insofar as he also emphasises , that in order to deconstruct the dualism the importance of environmental interaction can not be understated . He argues that modes of identification and interaction with the environment combined with modes of classification of the environment allow him to create very general patterns in the way people construct representations of their social and physical environment . However , as he states , "" This is not to say that the organic and inorganic environment of humans is a symbolic artefact which would only exist , because it is perceived thought the prism of cultural codes "" ( Descola/1996 / p86 ) . Rejecting this old dualism he believes that the mental models which organise the social objectification of non humans can be treated as a finite set of cultural invariants , which he is careful to illustrate are not reducible to cognitive universals . Such social objectification takes shape in the form of totemism , animalism and our own mode of identification and interaction , naturalism . Naturalism , he maintains is so ingrained within our culture that it has resulted in us treating other modes of identification as ' intellectually interesting but false representations ' and mere symbolic manipulations of ' nature . ' However , as he demonstrates , viewed from an unprejudiced perspective . "" ... the very existence of nature as an autonomous domain is no more a raw given of experience than are talking animals or kinship ties between men and kangaroos "" ( Descola/1996 / p98 ) . Furthermore , each of these particular modes of identification is further strengthened and characterised by their modes of interaction or relation to the environment . For totemism , animalism and naturalism these translate as respectively as predation , reciprocity and protection . The linkage of predation with naturalism is significant as it reflects an interconnected strand of criticism which flows amongst those attempting to deconstruct the present dualism . This theme is the role of conservationists in fallaciously strengthening the dichotomy between nature and culture , a theme which will be discussed later . In his writing Descola , attempts to transcend both dualism and relativism in order that societies , cultures as well as human faculties combined with physical nature are not treated as autonomous substances in opposition to one another . Rather he advocates a process of ' structural phenomenology ' whereby the interaction between a finite set of cultural invariants and physical elements ( both human and non - human ) encompass the variant modes of categorisation and systems of mediation which , when geared to specific environments generate the particular conceptualization of the world that emerges ( Descola/1996 ) . This solution to the dualistic problem does indeed appear a least , to be a neat all encompassing structural tool . It is an approach with which agrees at least to an extent . He argues for instance that identifiable within particular paradigms are , "" ... a minimum number of underlying assumptions upon which pragmatic schemata and symbolic representations are built and which ultimately constrain human conceptual permutations "" ( Ellen/1996 / p104 ) . Characteristic of his approach is the idea of separate cognitive axes or dimensions which when combined in different ways generate particular representations , "" all recognisably transformations of some ur- or proto - nature "" ( Ibid ) These axis he labels as : the inductive construction of nature , in terms of ' things ' , the spatial recognition of a realm outside the human domain and the metaphoric compulsion to understand phenomena by their essence ( Descola/1996 ) . He argues that it is the extent of the respective role that each of these axes plays in the contextualisation process combined with specific environments which is indicative of the particular definition of ' nature ' that emerges . In terms of ' things ' he means that the human environment consists of neutral objects waiting to be ordered , indeed he contends that , "" ... the fact that all human populations engage in such activity is hardly in doubt "" ( Ellen/1996 / p106 ) . However , he shares the concern of that both ethno - botanic and traditional classificatory systems are inappropriate for such a task . Indeed , to him and other researchers such systems are purely ethnographic examples of the way in which humans classify their surroundings , and which subsequently should not be viewed as more ' accurate ' or ' truthful ' in comparison to other systems ( Howell/1996 ) . However , on the point of cultural relativism appears to be fundamentally opposed to Descola . He claims for instance that "" nature itself - or at least , ' the biological world ' - is the product of human cognitive evolution "" ( Ellen/1996 / p106 ) . Surely this is not an insinuation that the biological world does not exist ? Rather such a world , a ' nature , ' has always existed physically and chemically , yet it is only with the relatively recent appearance of highly conscious philosophical beings that it has existed socially and culturally ( if taken literally such a cultural relativism would ultimately lead to nihilism and the rejection all reality except that of a culturally created one ) . Nevertheless , he maintains that within societies the natural world exists as a result of the following equation ; whereby ( n3 ... ) = N + ( n1 + n2 ... ) = N + ( ... ) = N. The bracketed n 's represent culturally agreed natural such as animal , plant or rock . Thus it is the combinations of such classification that results in p107 ) . Through such a process he seems to be reinforcing the dichotomy between nature and culture . Indeed , he maintains rather paradoxically as he admits , whilst we must not "" impose our own nature - culture dualism upon the data , "" ( Ellen/1996 / p120 ) by situating people 's perception within their actions on the world a culturally created dualism between the categories is apparent , but it is a dichotomy of their own creation in their categorical terminology . He presents as evidence an example correlating to his axis , that of nature as inner essence in relation to the gender practices of from the controlled of . For instance he states , "" As it happens , the data fit well with the ' male is to female as culture is to nature ' motif "" ( Ellen/1996 / p112 ) . Problematically he states that although no Nuaulu word exists for either nature or culture such examples of gender division and ideas of ' , ' or primary forest , come closest to representing such terms , "" from which the existence of an abstract covert notion of ' nature ' can be reasonably inferred "" ( Ellen/1996 / p116 ) . Further ' interpretive ' leaps are taken with the description of hunting practices . He states for example , that all killing takes place outside the village in the natural ' other ' and thus represents ' the domination of culture over nature in nature ' as opposed to animal sacrifice within the village which he ' interprets ' as the ' domination of nature in culture ' ( Ellen/1996 / p118 ) . Similarly , although not in complete concurrence with , too advocates a position of some relativism . He proposes for instance that , "" in the domain of human affairs culture should be taken as prior , nature as emergent "" ( Dwyer/1996 / p157 ) . The difference lies inherently with the proposition that although the dichotomy between nature and culture is in fact a culturally created one , for a great proportion of societies there has only ever existed the ' cultural ' world , though he does not pertain that ' nature ' as a category is a purely cognitive entity , rather he emphasises , like others , a process of environmental interaction ( Ingold/1996 ) ( Descola/1996 ) . His approach is one of ' human geography , ' asserting that anthropological perspectives has focused too specifically upon the social and he expounds that , "" The geographies ( he employs ) are those of the visible and invisible worlds , experienced by the people concerned , in order to gain alternative perspective on nature and culture "" ( Dwyer/1996 / p158 ) . Through examination of separate groups , the , Etolo , Siane , he contends that the difference in gradients and intensification in land use between the ultimately results in a difference in people 's perceptions of the visible and invisible worlds and that this accounts for the emergence of varying contextual perceptions . He proposes for instance that , "" At the outset a landscape in which use values are generalised , extensive and un - graded and in which invisible beings are all pervading must be understood in totality as a landscape of human action and interaction . Hence , it is ' cultural , ' there is no nature and no contrast "" ( Dwyer/1996 / p0178 ) . Therefore , conversely a graded and particularly intensive landscape such as our own excludes invisible beings , and through a process of cultural formation the potential to invent nature occurs . Indeed as he so eloquently elucidates "" Culture is internalised ; it implodes . The created periphery of the visible world , increasingly divorced from human contact and understanding , emerges as ' nature ' "" ( Dwyer/1996 / p178 ) . In his attempts to understand the , a small aboriginal group of the rainforest , appears to arrive at rather a similar theoretical position . Indeed , he states that the constitute an empirical counter example to such Dualistic models of nature and culture . Such categories he proposes hold no meaning for these people . Although they categorise their environment he argues that for them , "" The forest , including the numerous invisible worlds within and above it , is cultural space "" ( / p141 ) . He contends that whereas has suggested a phenomenon indicative of the existence of ' nature ' as a category found in its spatial definition as a realm outside the cultural world no such special delineation is used by the Chewong ( Desccola/1996 ) . Through his work with the Mbuti people of basin , appears to be in concurrence with the view that not all societies have a concept of ' nature . ' It appears that through a process of ' dwelling within ' the forest environment and of low intensification and gradients in land usage the forest for the is indeed a cultural space ( Ingold/1996 ) . Moreover , it is an environment that has been constantly linked to a process of interaction and evolutionary adaptation with in its inhabitants , including both the and the agriculturists with whom they share an economic relationship , for an absolute minimum of ( Ichikawa/1996 ) . Quite simply the environment , the ' natural world ' of the forest is the product to a certain extent of cultural processes . This leads him to infer as Howells and more specifically in this instance confer , that the nature - culture dichotomy is a false dualism created through a process of isolation with peripheries as a result of intensification . He illustrates for example , that "" ... those people ( agriculturalists living outside the forest ) are rapidly loosing contact with the forest wilderness , the meat ( which they trade for with the ) is also valued as a source of ' wild power ' which can not be obtained from fish or domestic animals "" ( Ichikawa/1996 / p479 ) . At present the face pressure from modern conservationists who although allowing for the continued patterns of self subsistence fails to appreciate the real situation of environmental interactions in process . The implication of such reliance upon fallacious ethnocentric notions of nature and culture held by conservationists is thus a contemporary example of the need to dissolve such perceptions . It is argued that the dichotomy results for example in , "" A small enclave , where guilt is alleviated and domination euphemistically transmuted into patronising preservation and aesthetic entertainment "" ( Descola/1996 / p91 ) . It is the duty of anthropologists to at the very least attempt an examination of attitudes towards nature which until recently have treated it as an external object to be controlled either through exploitation or protection ( Ichikawa/1996 ) . It is apparent from the work presented here that such attempts are being made . However , a continuation of such an effort would help to prevent further erroneous blunders being made upon other people 's cultures , of which the example of the conservationists is merely one . We need as states , "" ... a model which does not reinforce the simple dichotomy of man and nature , and in this regard hunter - gatherer societies may provide us with some important choices "" ( ) . It is worth considering as stated at the beginning of this essay whether such a position is really attainable considering the implications in perceptual reorganization and perhaps social calamity it entails .",0
"< heading > Introduction</heading > The technique of flash photolysis was developed in by in order to study the kinetics of reactions that proceed at a very rapid rate . Initially a "" flash "" is emitted , which triggers the start of the reaction by breaking bonds to form radicals , removing a protective group from a reactant , producing a precursor to the rapid reaction or generating an excited electronic state , as in this experiment . Another probe beam is used to monitor the progress of the reaction . In this experiment , the flash produces and excited electronic "" triplet "" state from the sample of anthracene . The probe beam is absorbed by ground state anthracene only , so a trace of the decay of the excited state can be obtained . From this trace it is possible to determine the intensity of the light transmitted and thus the absorbance of the ground state anthracene at a fixed time interval from when the flash is emitted . The aims of this experiment are : < list > To obtain a decay trace for anthraceneTo calculate the transmitted light intensity ( I ) , the absorbance ( A ) at regular time intervals for the decay , and thus confirm that the decay is st order using a plot of lnA vs t. Calculate the lifetime ( ) for the decay of the triplet species.</list><heading > Experimental</heading > The sample of anthracene , impregnated into a Perspex cylinder was placed into the sample compartment of the flash photolysis unit . The filter was aligned to allow only light of wavelength nm to probe the sample and the computer was set up to record a trace between 0 and 5 volts , ms , in relation to the flash . The trigger delay was set to - 10 % . The was set to "" mode auto "" and a sheet of black card was used too block off light from the sample . The back off unit was altered so that the voltage was volts . The black card was then removed and the iris diapragm was altered so that the voltage level was set as volts . The trigger was then changed to "" mode single "" and the threshold set to . The photoflash was then charged up to volts , and then trigger button was pressed after a seconds delay . < heading > Results . < /heading > Figure shows the decay trace obtained for anthracene . < table/ > FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA < heading > Discussion</heading > Application of the Beer - Lambert Law allows the lifetime ( ) to be calculated without finding the extinction co - efficient ( ) or the concentration of anthracene in the excited state ( c ) because the absorption of anthracene ( A ) is known :   FORMULA   Application of the integrated rate law for order reactions shows that a plot of lnA against t will give a straight line of gradient - k if this decay is order , because A is effectively the change in concentration of anthracene :   FORMULA   < table/>Table 2 and Figure show the values obtained for k and by the different methods and their associated errors . These values are in very good agreement with each other , which indicates that the difference between these values and the literature value of 0.035   is due to the data obtained during the experiment , not the calculations . < fnote > et al , J. Chem < /fnote > The discrepancy is most likely to result from inaccuracies incurred when extrapolating values of I from the decay trace . This was made particularly difficult because the initial absorbance of the sample was just over volts , making the decay curve quite shallow , so the values for I were all fairly close together , and difficult to determine accurately using the scale . Another reason for this disagreement maybe that the apparatus is old , and had failed to produce decay traces in previous attempts . Repetition of the experiment would clarify whether the flash and probe beam had functioned properly on this occasion . The method of filtering the probe beam could have been more accurate , especially as the required wavelength was quite specific . It is possible that the filter had been moved slightly , which would have affected the results . Also as the voltage of the flash began to decline quite rapidly once it had been charged up it was difficult to trigger the flash as it was at the correct voltage . If the voltage of the flash had been unsteady or not at the level expected the decay trace may have been inaccurate . More modern equipment would have eliminated both of these possible sources of error as these factors could be automated . It is also possible that the sample used had deteriorated , as the age of the sample was unknown and this may have effected the lifetime of the triplet state . There is also a possibility that the temperature of the lab was not exactly as quoted for the literature value , but it is unlikely that the temperature was far off this , and this difference is unlikely to have a great effect on the results . It would n't be possible to measure lifetimes shorter than using this apparatus because this is the shortest time interval the probe can monitor . < heading > Conclusion</heading > It was proven that the decay of the triplet state of anthracene is order and the lifetime for anthracene in was found to be /- ; however , it would be necessary to repeat the experiment to be confident of this value due to the unreliable nature of the apparatus .","< heading > Introduction</heading > Iron thiocyanate complexes are deep red in colour . Many different species of the complex may be formed when solutions containing Fe and SCN- ions are mixed , depending on the concentrations of the different ions . These complexes generally have the formula :   FORMULA   In general , the wavelength of light absorbed increases as the thiocyanate concentration increases . The aims of this experiment are : < list > To determine the formula of the simplest iron thiocyanate complex . To determine the value of the reaction quotient ( Q ) for the formation of this ion . FORMULA To determine the concentration of the complex formed ( c or [ X]).</list><heading > Experimental</heading > Initially standard solutions were prepared : < list>100 cm of Fe(NO 3)3.9H 2O , including of concentrated HNO to suppress the hydrolysis of the Fe of of M KSCN.</list > The absorbance of the complex was measured at different concentrations of , while the concentration of Fe3 + was kept constant . This was done by producing reaction mixtures containing : < list>25.0 cm of stock solution S ( 2 M HNO 3 and cm of Fe(NO 3)32 drops of benzyl alcohol</list 0.50 cm 3 and at increments of the M KSCN solution were added to of these mixtures , and they were all made up to with distilled water . The Jenway spectrophotometer was set up to emit light of wavelength of nm , which is close to the flat maximum of the absorption spectrum for the complex ion . The spectrophotometer was calibrated using a cuvette containing the prepared solution containing no SCN- . The absorbance of each of the solutions was then measured using the same cuvette , which was rinsed out between the different solutions . To measure the effect of different concentrations of Fe 3 + on the absorbance on the complex solutions were made up as follows : < list>25.0 cm of stock solution S ( 2 M HNO 3 and of M KSCN2 drops of benzyl alcohol</list > The following volumes of were then added to of these solutions : , , , , , , and . Each of these solutions were then made up to with distilled water and the absorbance of these solutions was then measured as before , after calibrating the spectrophotometer with the solution containing no Fe(NO 3)3 . < heading > Results</heading><table/>From the equation for the equilibrium concentration quotient ( Q ) for the formation of iron thiocyanate complexes ( equation ( ) in the introduction ) the following formula may be derived :   FORMULA   In order to calculate Q the concentrations of the ions are defined in terms of their stoichiometric concentrations as follows :   FORMULA   Where a , b and c are the stoichiometric concentrations of Fe 3 + , and X respectively . Substitution of these expressions into equation ( ) gives :   FORMULA   This expression may be simplified because this experiment was conducted at low thiocyanate concentrations , in an excess of Fe 3 + ions so a>>c while b and c are comparable . This gives the expression :   FORMULA   The conditions of the procedure also ensure that only the simplest of the complex ions were formed , which means that n = . This means that equation may be further simplified :   FORMULA   or   FORMULA   From equation it can be seen that a plot of logb against logA ( see Figure ) will produce a straight line graph , where the intercept is [ log{(1 / Qa)+1 } - log l ] where is the molar absorption coefficient and l is the length of the sample in meters . The gradient of this graph was found to be proving that n=1 and therefore the absorbing species is the simplest iron thiocyanate complex ion : FeSCN 2 + . < table/>Using the formula for the thermodynamic equilibrium constant ( K ) for this reaction :   FORMULA   where Q is the equilibrium concentration quotient and f is the activity coefficient factor . The solution S used in this experiment helps to ensure the value of f is independent of the concentrations of the reacting ions as the [ NO 3- ] ions do n't complex with the Fe 3 + ions and the H+ ions suppress its hydrolysis . Assuming that this keeps f constants then Q will be constant for the swamping medium used ( solution s in this case ) . Taking this into consideration and substituting a , b and c for [ Fe3 + ] [ SCN- ] and [ FeSCN2 + ] respectively gives the expression :   FORMULA   Assuming that c is very small compared with a but not b , this can be simplified to :   FORMULA   From the Beer - Lambert Law for light of a single wavelength   FORMULA   Substituting for c in ( ) gives :   FORMULA   Thus a plot of / A against / a where b is kept constant produces a straight line where the gradient and intercept are as follows : < figure/><heading > Discussion</heading > The results obtained show clear trends , although in the part of the experiment an anomalous value was obtained as shown on figure . This is most likely to be because the complex had deteriorated more than in the other samples . The reason for this may be that a longer period of time had elapsed between the addition of the solution and the absorbance being measured , or possibly because slightly less benzyl alcohol had been added to this particular solution . The rapid deterioration of the complex due to oxidation is likely to be the greatest source of error in this experiment , although steps were taken to reduce this effect such as the addition of the benzyl alcohol and measuring the absorbance of the solutions as quickly as possible after making then up . This degree of uncertainty is added to by the difficulties in reading values from the graphs accurately to significant figures in some cases , this may have had an effect on the precision of the values obtained for and Q. In order to calculate f , the activity coefficient , I would use the following formula :   FORMULA   Where z is the charge on the ion , so in this case +2 , and I is the ionic strength . < heading > Conclusion</heading > It was found that the complex formed was the simplest form of the iron thiocyanate complex , with the formula : [ FeSCN]2 + . The reaction quotient ( Q ) for the formation of this complex was found to be mol -1 dm . From this the molar absorption coefficient ( ) was found to be molm for this substance .",1
"The landscape and environment as it is recognised has undergone great change since the times when the was predominantly temperate woodland . A key player in this modification has been agriculture , and the need of man to produce food both from crops in arable farming and animal produce from livestock production . From once nomadic subsistence wanderers , agriculture in the has seen increasing production demands , which in turn has led to the intensive farming systems whereby production is maximised through greater inputs - mainly at the expense of the environmental modification . < heading > Impacts of livestock farming</heading > The total grassland area of the , comprising of , , and equals m ha . ( Source : The Agricultural Notebook . p132 . ) Much of the utilisation of this land area for human activity is performed by livestock production and the basic types of this production are summed up in table . Upland areas ( hill farming ) and health lands . Livestock production occurs as land is unsuitable for arable production . Grazing hill sides exploits this otherwise wasted land to agriculture . Lowland areas Livestock production occurs on specialist or mixed farms because the production system is profitable , or the farmer has a personal interest . On a mixed farm livestock production can compliment arable cereal production through grassland rotation and manure . Equally cereals can be home grown and fed to stock . Table : main areas outlined for livestock production and the reasoning for this . < heading > Impacts on landscape < /heading > Aesthetically livestock production segregates the landscape . Within the , livestock is mainly held within an area by a fence line or more natural barrier such as a hedgerow and this has created the ' patchwork quilt ' countryside that is known . From a bio - diversity viewpoint , grazing causes modification to ecosystems from a loss of diversity through intensive or selective grazing or by mixed farming practice whereby land is used for hay or silage crops and continuous cutting wipes out natural species . Geologically , grazing causes soil erosion through compaction and trampling and the churning up of soil around gateways , feed racks , water troughs and cow tracks . Environmentally pollution caused from inputs from chemicals in intensive systems , waste and methane gas given off from cows can leach into water courses and cause eutrophication or problems to field ponds . < heading > , Purleigh , Essex . < /heading > Case study of a mixed family farm . Mixed arable and beef production , dairy unit at another site rented out . < table/><picture/><heading > Biodiversity loss</heading > Livestock production , even on a mixed farm such as , has altered the local landscape , especially in due to mechanisation within the system and this has impacted the landscape . The production of beef cattle , and up until , a head dairy herd all took place on hill sides of bushy hill and the surrounding flatter areas , this factor relating to the demand for grass for grazing or related produce , silage and hay , and the fact that some of this land was largely unsuitable for cropping . The push for greater intensification saw hedgerow removal and field boundary change , impacting the biodiversity through loss of habitats within the wild ecosystems . This also loosens soil structure on hillsides due to less root structure to hold soil together . Similarly negative to the environment , areas of woodland on hill have been removed since in order to create cow tracks and routeways for machinery feeding the stock . This removal of hedgerows on agricultural land around Purleigh links into national trends as shown by table relates to a quote from one website source stating that : < quote>""More than half of 's hedgerows have been removed since ... "" ( URL ) < enlargement has been just threat to the environment . More recently the problems caused by of selective grazing have become ever apparent from the increase in patches of weeds across the fields and a great increase in weed species . This has a cost not only to H.Turner to deal with the thistle problem but also to from the problem of monoculture being created . Just like monocultures on of wheat , on a smaller scale , hill has seen native vegetation wiped out as cattle have grazed , trampled on and left that vegetation which is less favoured by these ruminant animals to become common place . A major weed problem from selected grazing has been the increase in ragwort in the area - a great threat to horses if eaten . Linked to cattle grazing , another major influence on the environment is silage and hay for cattle feed . The continuous cutting of a grass crop sometimes times a year has contributed to a loss of diversity within the area , mainly because of a loss of habitat to wild animals such as butterflies and also as cover to rabbits and field mice etc . Also constant mowing of grassland means that only the dominant species survives , and as much of the land that is hayed is that which is grazed for part , the selective grazing impacts are shown through in the hay production and the impacts of modern livestock production are maximised . < picture/>As on a farm will often pull up traditional lays to achieve greater yields of hay crop , and replant with rye grass species , hence losing biodiversity through encouraging dominant species . This also creates a greater threat of soil erosion through a loss of soil structure , a major problem on slopes such as bushy hill caused by excessive surface runoff compared to flatter areas . On the other hand , as the farm has seen a move towards arable production has seen land that was grassland being tilled and an arable crop planted . This has happened with on this farm alone , promoting the question what have been / are the country wide trends and the impacts of these ? < heading > Pollution</heading > The effects of pollution have impacted the landscape over time and continue to do . < figure/><heading > What is being done ? < /heading > This broad question relates to the recognition that impacts to the landscape from livestock production , or is this case mixed farming , have been noted and that methods are developing to lesser these impacts . Set a side was introduced to promote greater species diversity once again and provide habitats to wildlife . ( great numbers of butterflies use set a side as habitat on ) It can be suggested that set a side was introduced due to arable production but it must also play a part in helping with the impacts of extensive livestock production . Introduction of Hedgerow protection . Hedgerow regulations .   URL   Manure heap regulations . These include : < quote>""Permanent manure stores must have an impermeable base ... ""</quote><quote>""Temporary field heaps must be sited where there is no risk of run - off polluting watercourses . They should be from a watercourse ... ""   URL < /quote > NVZ ( nitrate vulnerable zone ) dictates the times of the year muck can be spread , the rate per hectare and the distance from field boundaries . < heading > Conclusion</heading > In conclusion livestock farming has greatly impacted the landscape , aesthetically creating the countryside that we view from the dry stone walls of the national parks such as to the hedgerow lattice of the west country . The landscape has been heavily modified from the time when the was predominantly temperate woodland and no doubt the landscape will look different again in times in the future . It is a dynamic system , which is influenced by human activity but also by natural processes . It can be suggested that great loss has occurred in relation diversity and habitats to livestock farming . This is evident from 's ha alone , and that this case study mirrors national trends but the problem is no being recognised and although can not be reversed , efforts can be made to sustainably manage many of the impacts .","< heading > FACTS:</heading > Mr. Mrs. purchased their matrimonial home in , registered in their joint names and holding it as tenants in common under a constructive trust . They both signed the document , which recorded that a survivor could give a good receipt of moneys on purchase . No express declaration was made as regards the share of each person . The money for the purchase came partly from the sale of the old property jointly held by them , contribution from Mrs. 's father and a mortgage in the name of Mr. Mrs. , secured on the property . A question that arose was whether the money given by Mrs. 's father was intended only for Mrs. or to both of them . But the registrar , on evidence found that it was intended only for Mrs. . Mr. , a solicitor was made bankrupt . He had provided information to his former partners that he had a share in the property . And later , in a letter to his solicitor he claimed that he had erred and that he held a part of of his share on trust for his wife . In Mrs. made a written statement , i.e. , an Individual Voluntary Agreement ( IVA ) stating that Mr. Mrs. shared the property on a basis beneficially . But the failed . Mr. , trustee in bankruptcy of Mr. brought proceedings for the possession and sale of property on an equal basis . However , now Mr. argues that he is entitled to only a share whereas Mrs. is entitled to an beneficial share . They claimed under a resulting trust . The issue before the court is to quantify their respective shares . < heading > DECISION:</heading > Dismissing the appeal , the court Held- Mr. Mrs. was entitled to a share . In identifying the share recourse is to be had to the actual or assumed common intention at the time of purchase rather than at any later date . But recourse may be had to a conduct at , which may be treated as showing what the intention at the date of purchase had been . An additional relevant question that lies between the conclusion that the parties had an actual or presumed intention to share the beneficial ownership and the quantification of the respective shares is whether they should have imputed to them an intention to own as beneficial joint tenants as opposed to tenants in common . But the issue of quantification of shares arises only under a tenancy in common because joint tenants can not hold in unequal shares ; if the tenancy were severed they would share equally . The too ready assumption of tenancy in common in cases of matrimonial homes begs an important prior question since joint tenancy is neither unjust nor inappropriate in cases of this nature . The statements in the did not give rise to a trust ; they were mere statements made to the husband 's creditors of the wife 's willingness to co - operate for the sale of property and realisation of the husband 's interest for the creditor 's benefit . In the absence of any actual or presumed intention , the court looks into the parties conduct both at the time of purchase of the property and subsequent to it and determines a share , which is fair and reasonable according to the situation . It is wrong to infer an intention , which the parties never intended . It would be unreal to suppose that both the spouses had the same intention at the date of purchase without any discussion to that effect . The learned registrar in his decision used the as a compelling factor in determining a fair share . It would be wrong for Mrs. to claim a share since she had stated in the agreement to the creditors that her husband and she had equal beneficial interest . The underlying legal principle in deciding the case was the application of the fairness test whereby the parties ' conduct have to be taken to decide the outcome in a way not to cause any detriment to the party claiming from the property . The parties ' intention at the time of , or subsequent to the purchase has to be taken into account to determine the size of the beneficial interest . < heading > COMMENT:</heading > This case mainly deals with the doctrine of constructive trusts . Although the wife 's contribution was more than the husband 's , the registrar reached the conclusion that they intended to share the beneficial interest equally under constructive trust instead of unequal shares under a resulting trust . The case is set out to determine the shares of the parties and bring about an outcome desirable on the novel concept of fairness . In a resulting trust , no such thing can be used because the one and only factor that determines the shares is contribution to the purchase price . But under a constructive trust the court gives due consideration to the parties ' intentions . < heading > CONSTRUCTIVE TRUST</heading > Under constructive trusts the parties ' intention is given importance . The statute requires a written statement expressing the parties ' intention for a constructive trust . As per the learned registrar the written statement in the may satisfy this requirement . < fnote > Section 53(1)(b ) , Law of Property Act < /fnote > In plc v Cooke , Waite LJ held that the intention could be inferred from the financial contributions of the parties , but the significance of the case lies in that it was held , - the intention can be justified from the parties ' conduct . The court ' constructs ' an intention , which the parties would have had by looking at the parties ' conduct . < fnote>[1995 ] 4 All ER @ 574 - 576 < /fnote > Both constructive and resulting trust requires some financial contribution but the difference arises during the quantification of the beneficial shares in the property . In a resulting trust the shares are calculated according to the proportionate contribution to the purchase price , there being no evidence of any other intention . But under a constructive trust the court gives effect to the parties ' actual or presumed intention , which need not necessarily be proportionate to their contribution . On a reading of this case we can see that the parties did not intend holding beneficial interest proportionate to their contribution because on various occasions we find of the spouse saying they have a interest in the property . And , now when the case has come before the court it is wrong for the wife to claim a greater share under a resulting trust . It is only right that the deputy judge rejected the claim , if the was any indication to this effect . A constructive trust is inferred when , the parties have : - < list > Any oral or written agreement at the time or subsequent to the purchase</list><list > Common intention to be inferred at the time or any time subsequent to the purchase of property</list><list > What the court thinks to be fair according to the dealings between the parties</list><fnote > Chadwick LJ in Oxley v Hiscock [ 2004 ] EWCA Civ 546 < /fnote><heading > BENEFICIAL INTEREST AND QUANTIFICATION OF SHARES</heading > The issue is whether the parties intended to share the beneficial interest in the property . Lord in plc v Rosset lays down tests to infer intention to share beneficial interest . , where there is evidence of any discussion between the parties at the time of purchase , and the is where contribution of money provides evidence of the same . The deputy judge in this case says that the case falls within Lord 's category . I do not completely agree with that because the statements made in the IVA in showed the intention of the parties at that time , this does not follow that their intention was the same at the time of purchase . There was no such discussion between the parties at the time of the purchase . I think the case falls under the category of cases mentioned by Lord , i.e. , the inference of intention from the financial contribution . This is because , apart from the contribution of moneys to the purchase price , there is no evidence of any other discussion . < fnote>[1991 ] 1 AC 107 < /fnote><fnote > Hurst v Supperstone [ ] EWHC 1309 Para 7 ( under the heading Summary of Oxley v Hiscock ) < /fnote><fnote>'Property Law Update - What 's a fair share ? : Supperstone v Hurst ) NLJ No . @ pg < /fnote > Then comes the most important issue of quantification of the shares in the property . There is a difference between the declaration of trust and the determination of the amount of beneficial interest . If the parties owned as joint tenants then there is no question of determination of shares , since if there were a division then the parties would hold equally . It is only in cases of tenancies in common does the issue of quantification arise . That the parties in the present case were tenants in common was never disputed . The size of the parties ' shares can be determined by following the authorities in plc v Cooke and Oxley v Hiscock which lays down that while determining the shares , the court has to take into account "" the whole course of dealing between the parties relevant to their ownership and occupation of the property "" . In the court said it could take into account post - acquisition dealings to determine shares under a constructive trust . This would include any statement expressing the parties ' intention to share the property in a particular manner . In the present case the made by the parties is very persuasive because when Mrs. signed the agreement , it gives rise to an intention that , she understood the nature of the agreement and was willing to perform the same . Hence the parties ' claim that since the was unsuccessful the court should completely ignore it is not too convincing . Nevertheless it has to be noted that this is not the only evidence that the court took into consideration . But it would be wrong and an unnecessary fiction to impute to the parties an intention they never had . A statement made , in does not give rise to an intention that parties intended the same at the time of purchase . < fnote>[1995 ] 4 All ER < /fnote><fnote>[2004 ] EWCA Civ < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . < /fnote><fnote>'The Ebb and Flow of Trusts and ' 15(Dec ) KCLJ 2004 , Issue @ pg . . < /fnote><fnote in Oxley v Hiscock [ 2004 ] EWCA Civ < /fnote > I am under the impression that Mr. Mrs. was not sure what exactly they wanted . If they indeed wanted to share the property in the ratio of , why then did Mr. give evidence that the money given by his father - in - law was intended for the couple and not to Mrs. alone ? Should that be the case , the contribution of Mr. Mrs. would be more or less equal and their claim for an share would fail . This seems somewhat contradictory . I think these statements may also be reflective of their intention to share property equally . Also Mr. had written to his former partners that his assets included a share in the net equity of the property . Denying this , he later wrote to his solicitor saying the letter was written in haste . As the registrar said Mr. was "" a man who was willing to say what best suited his case at that time "" .   < fnote > Hurst v Supperstone [ ] EWHC 1309 Para < /fnote > While it was common ground that the couple were tenants in common , during the transfer of the property in their joint names they signed a deed , which gave the survivor a good receipt of capital monies on purchase . This is the principle of beneficial joint tenancy . But this issue was never addressed . If it was indeed a joint tenancy then their share would have been equal and there would be no issue of quantification . < heading > The deputy judge came to the conclusion that the parties held beneficial interest in equal shares after analysing all the evidence of what would be fair and reasonable to the parties . The judge , at the end of the decision says had it not been the trustee who had brought the claim he might have thought that a share would have been unjust to the wife . There is , in a way a detrimental reliance on the part of the creditors , which may also give rise to a presumption of constructive trust . The wife made a written declaration in the form of the , drawn for the benefit of the creditors . Now when the issue is before the court she is claiming a greater share than that claimed under the , its failure coming as an excuse to avoid her obligation to the creditors . So the court applied the principle of fairness , i.e. , what would be fair to the claimant under the circumstances . Under Section 335A of the Insolvency Act , the court has to make an order in the best interest of the bankrupt 's creditors , especially when the property has been the former residence of the bankrupt and consider the conduct of bankrupt 's spouse . The fairness principle was drawn from the case of , where reversed the judgement that the couple held an equal share under a constructive trust because it was unfair to the person who contributed more to the purchase price and attributed a resulting trust . < fnote>[2004 ] EWCA Civ < /fnote > In , Re , it was held , had the trustee in bankruptcy not been involved in the proceedings the wife would have had a share in the property , rather than the share . < fnote>[1975 ] 1 WLR 1519 , extracted from ' Constructive trusts , and , M.P , Conv 496 , UK . < /fnote > This is the main principle of the case and the whole outcome was decided on what was fair according to the facts of the case , taking into account the whole course of dealings between the parties . The court can not rely upon only the financial contribution to determine the shares . < heading > CONCLUSION:</heading > In conclusion I would like to say that I agree with the outcome of the case . It was only fair that the creditors did not lose out their interest because of Mrs. 's greed in claiming a greater share than she intended to and was willing to give . The , though not a conclusive proof of their intention to share the beneficial interest equally , was nevertheless a persuasive document . And the parties ' conduct in general was proof of this . The case , in effect is similar to the cases decided previously on the issue of constructive trusts and the deputy judge , for the most part relied on the Court of Appeal decision in in reaching the decision . The ' fairness principle ' was applied very aptly in deciding the case . The deputy judge complemented the legal doctrines of constructive trusts and tenancies in common with the equitable principle of ' Fairness ' , which in my view is very important . On a consideration of the facts , this case is different since almost all the cases that have come before the court till now have been cases of matrimonial home where the cohabitees claim interest on the breakdown of the relationship . In that sense the case may set a precedent if decides a similar issue in the future . The deputy judge applied the same law applied in the other cases of determining the interest although the legal title is owned jointly , saying there is no real difference in the underlying legal analysis due to this . On the whole the case has brought about a desired result . And has been fair to the claimant , who would have otherwise been the weaker party .",0
"Classical Greek theatre played an essential role in the cultural life of democratic . The drama at the festival of was much more than just a piece of competitive performance theatre , it was one of the few institutions in a polis that intertwined religion , democracy and empire , creating a cultural spectacle that everyone was encouraged to attend . Amongst the sacrifices , parades , tributes and decrees , the plays of famous tragedians such as Aeschylus , Sophocles , and were witnessed and admired by almost a whole community , becoming ' the great democratic art form'1 . This made theatre an ideal platform to spread messages about Greek culture ( defined by factors such as politics , society , war , role of women etc ) through the citizens of the polis . Although conclusive evidence from the period is severely limited , it is clear from surviving scripts that the plays themselves were mostly based on mythological stories . This should not be seen as restrictive , as ' despite the heroic plots and characters the situations enacted in the plays were related to the contemporary issues of in the century'2 . The skills of the playwrights lay not only in keeping these myths original and fascinating for , but in using renowned plots involving figures such as Oedipus or even the Goddess Athena to cleverly convey their own outlook on cultural issues to the masses . It is indisputable that in this way the great tragedians were able to comment in a way that would have been quite radical for the time , pushing for cultural change in certain areas . However , it is also important to remember that the plays of could have both pushed at cultural boundaries while also being socially affirming and praising the state of and the polis in particular . Aeschylus ( - 456BC ) is the earliest world dramatist whose work survives , and was the of the great acknowledged tragedians to use his plays as a social comment . While dominating the stage for of , plays such as and commented on cultural , and political themes in particular : ' tragedy both presupposed and fostered a popular concern with political issues in the broadest sense , encouraging critical scrutiny of both individual and community actions'3 . ( ) , encourages this critical scrutiny by entering into a political debate about the role of , an ancient legal institution , existing long before democratic government . The play was written ' shortly after the voted to reduce the extra - judicial powers of the Areopagus Council'4 , and features giving the council the important power to decide over the fate of , prince of , telling them ( and the audience ): < quote > ' shalt do no unjust thing , So long as law stands as it stood of old Unmarred by civic change'5.</quote > In this way is able to criticise the changes made by democratic to the long - established law system , and communicate his message to the men of the polis . Aeschylus , like all great dramatists , did not just focus on political culture , but encompassed most aspects in the civic society . ( ) is ' ( and the worlds ) earliest surviving tragedy , and brought to life for the public the terrible consequences of defeat , the evils of war were denounced to a culture that embraced conflict in everyday life . historian states : ' Greek victory is seen as a tragedy , and the play is an attempt to understand the situation by translating it into Greek terms'6 . Aeschylus appeals to the audience 's sympathy for the in the aftermath of victory in : < quote > ' How many dames , wedded in vain , of their noble husbands widow'd?'7</quote > Written after victory at , the plot would have been performed to many who had fought in the war , and at a time when it was still prominent in Greek culture . Aeschylus , perhaps inspired by his own experience of the wars as a soldier at , encourages citizens to see war from a different , more critical perspective . Sympathising with the enemy rather than celebrating a famous victory , however , would have been almost unheard of in Greek culture , so this is a clear example of how plays pushed at cultural norms in . An important feature of the way in which cultural messages are transmitted to in many tragedies is using the setting of foreign lands rather than Athens itself . historian explains : ' It can be no accident that the great majority of tragedies put on at the Dionysia dealt with conflicts situated in other cities , and not at itself , playing out political issues obliquely rather than directly'8 . This is a feature of Sophocles ' Oedipus the King ( around ) , and also ( - 442 ) , the latter of which is a sinister depiction of political conflict in the polis , as finds herself battling between traditional religious practises and the demands of political authority . Significantly , the play is set in Thebes rather than Athens , as this convention allows a more critical approach by the playwright due to it arousing less controversy - criticism is not directly aimed at politics but still arouses enough interest to debate the cultural issue in question . In this instance , the audience is warned ' a city so desperately divided against itself was ultimately doomed'9 . Euripides is credited with aiming to separate the meaning from the narrative of his plays more than any other of the great tragedians . comments ' by keeping to the traditional themes , but giving them a fresh and often ironic interpretation , he was able to achieve an arresting mixture of modes which made a challenge to established ways of thinking and feeling'10 . Ion ( - 412BC ) is an example of a play that both pushes at social boundaries while affirming the supremacy of the state over others . The cultural messages being conveyed in this play are focused on the issues of citizenship . The audience is made to consider their prejudiced views on other cultures - since citizenship depended on having double descent , thereby creating a society of ' pure ' . This is debated through Ion when he laments over the welcome he would get in , thinking at this moment of the play that he is a : < quote > ' Proud of their high race Are your , natives of the land , Not drawn from foreign lineage : I to them Shall come unwelcome'11.</quote > The audience is encouraged to evaluate their own narrow - mindedness , especially as the audience knows ( through dramatic irony ) that Ion is in fact unknowingly the Prince of Athens . This is an important cultural message given to democratic through theatre . Euripides , as well as questioning the audience , confirms some parts of culture through his positive interpretation of imperial ideology . 's speech foretells that : < quote > ' Wide his renown shall spread ; for from his root sons , that to the land , the tribes , The dwellers on my rock , shall give their names ... , from the honour'd Ion call'd'12.</quote > By telling the audience that , future King of Athens , founded the race , allows to claim ancestral authority over all , a powerful and convenient cultural message as dialect made up a large percentage of Athens ' imperial subjects . This will have justified to the citizens of , and created a sense of superiority over other races . It is important to acknowledge the tragedians were not only trying to create social unrest , often very positive cultural messages would be conveyed . When analysing how the tragedians entered into cultural debates , to increase our understanding it is also valuable to assess how these messages were received . As with all studies , the sources are extremely limited , but it is possible to gain some information about the power a play could have . The renowned historian Herodotus tells us that ' when Phrynichus wrote a play entitled and produced it , the whole theatre fell to weeping ; they fined Phrynichus a thousand drachmas for bringing to mind a calamity that affected them so personally , and forbade the performance of that play forever'13 . Although the books of survived due to his ability to dramatise reality , and it is unlikely that the whole theatre wept , the basis in truth does still prove that cultural messages within a play could have a profound effect on an audience . In conclusion the scripts of that have survived show clearly how dramatists can push at the cultural norms of democratic through issues such as law , politics , bloodshed , and citizenship to name but a few . While these themes and inspirations were certainly inherent for tragedies in , it is crucial to remember that the tragedians were not always judgmental . Indeed , they will have had great respect and admiration for the cultural capital of the world in this period , the foundation of drama , and of few places which would have allowed them to write and perform their culturally progressive plays .","'s history has been frequently disrupted by the influence of famine , on average twice a century regions would be severely hit by an extreme shortage of food , resulting in mass casualties . However , from ( which saw the conquer Bengal ) to , there were approximately major famines , a dramatic increase that was conflicting with the modernisation process associated with the period . Government policies were certainly significant in the development of these famines , but the roles of factors such as climate , over - population and social reaction should not be ignored . Once assessed against these reasons , the importance of the role a government plays can be accurately determined . Climate is perhaps the most appropriate place to start as it is undoubtedly at the origin of all shortages of food . The weather dictates the success of the harvest , which in turn determines how much food is available to distribute in . highlights the role which climate plays : ' The history of famine in , too , seems to substantiate the importance , if not the primacy , of climate . Every major famine of was preceded by the partial , sometimes the complete , failure of the monsoon rains on which agriculture has traditionally been so heavily dependent'1 . Although climate begins the process by making a shortage of food it does not determine whether this becomes a famine . There have been many droughts , particularly in , which have not been followed by anything close to a famine . Climate does also not explain why some societies remain largely unaffected by droughts and why in others it can easily turn into a famine that costs of lives . Therefore climate should not be classified as the 'cause ' of famine , or as important as government policies , but rather as a precipitating factor , too insufficient and common to explain the emergence of a major famine . Another factor that has been historically seen as important enough to be classified as the 'cause ' of famine is over - population . The most radical theories around this subject were those argued by , who wrote ' in . He asserted that famine , war and pestilence were positive ways of checking the growth in population , sweeping away excess peoples , and then maintaining a rough equilibrium between people and necessities . ' The common people ' , he wrote , ' must regard themselves as being themselves the principal cause of their misfortunes'2 . The most damaging effects of these theories were brought about by civil servants , who were taught this school of thought and then had no hesitation in letting famines continue , having the horrifying belief of it being ' healthy ' . These theories are of course seen as nonsensical in modern terms , states ' the increase in food supply has been comparable to , or faster than , the expansion of population'3 . The population rise was estimated at in , way below global rates in this period . The formation of and its sympathisers can also be seen as a result of racial divides - the west being unable to understand the ways of existence in another culture , or even a Western fear of a Third World revolution and a disruption of the existing power structure . In any case , the reaction of civil servants to theories of over - population were in fact more dangerous than the amount of people itself , it can not be classed as a cause or explanation for a famine . Just as influential as the weathers dictation of crops , is the social reaction to a shortage of food . In a culture where famine was the greatest threat to human existence , it is easy for hysteria to develop and double the severity of a situation , stimulated from the struggle for ones survival dictated by human nature . Patterns in societies response to a shortage of food have been created with mistakes being repeated before times of a major famine : ' a partial failure of the rains , a deficient crop yield , rumours of price rises ... triggering alarm , sending prices soaring , and encouraging hoarding and speculation'5 . Traders begin to hoard grain , and as food prices rise they send it to more profitable areas ( cities and abroad ) where the richer classes can pay more for what is available . The unequal distribution of food between classes at times of a food shortage can help turn it into a famine . The theories of about a free market economy being the answer to famine fails at these moments - the market seeks to make more profit rather than channel it into the most needy areas , and so famine only creates further polarisation in society when the exact opposite is needed . markets must therefore be held accountable for exacerbating the plight of the majority , and being a large contributing factor in creating a crisis . If the development of a famine was plotted along points in a process , it would show that social panic triggered by a shortage of food from abnormal climate creates a food crisis , but most important in this process would be whether government policies are able to prevent an outbreak of famine . Therefore it is reasonable to say that it is the reaction of the government that is the deciding factor between crisis and famine , and so can be classified as the 'cause ' . The government 's distribution of food is often the most important responsibility when the possibility of famine becomes apparent , if people have access to grain famines can be avoided . makes an important differentiation when stating starvation "" is the characteristic of some people not having enough to eat . It is not the characteristic of there not being enough to eat'6 , and ' no matter how a famine is   caused , methods of breaking it call for a large supply of food in the public distribution system'7 . Famines in are always confined to an area of the country , and getting food to this area is the of the most pressing importance . In a study of poverty P.Sainath discovered : "" , children ... died of starvation . Not far from where the deaths occurred , were godowns stocked to the roof with food grain . The families of the victims just could not access or afford that grain""8 . The governments preparation , or lack of it , before times of famine is also crucial . This is shown by 's description of the famine of . Here the government were at fault for their exportation system and not having a reserve supply of food readily available to the area in crisis . There were ' severely deficient rice harvest following of heavy grain exports to other parts of . This left peasants without reserve food stocks to tide them over the crisis months'9 . The Bengal is an instance of ' bureaucratic cowardice'10 - government hesitation or refusal to act can allow a famine to take place , in this case costing 2 - 4 million lives . Bengal was the only major famine to occur in , and happened due to the government being reluctant to accept the magnitude of the problem , it ' was never officially ' declared ' as a famine , which would have brought in an obligation to organize work programmes and relief operations specified by the famine code , dating from . From the beginning of rule in to the revolt in there were famines altogether , proving that political responsibility worsened the governments course of action rather than improving it . Arnold states that ' wartime policies fuelled inflation and created a ' speculative spiral ' of price rises , and no doubt this was a significant contributory factor'12 . Taxes would often strip the poor of their livelihood , if after a bad harvest they did not have the money to pay their lands would be confiscated , leaving them with no means to support themselves . Despite this , attempts were made by officials to prevent famine in . The series of canals and railways built across by the were intended to solve distribution problems , but argues they worsened existing problems : ' slid into deeper poverty partly as a result of its modernisation and especially its railways'13 - a reasonable argument as they were used to export grain quickly rather than distribute it . Transport improvements also , he argues , carried disease ( the major killer in a famine ) across the country to become the pandemics of . The ' , drawn up in ( but only effective after ) , proved more beneficial . These made loans available during a famine to the poor , a form of social security , which averted a major famine in in . argues that social security is hugely important to successfully avoid a famine , and even states that ' With the proportion of unemployment as high it is , say , in or , but for the social security arrangements there would be widespread starvation and possibly a famine'14 To summarise , a food crisis , created by climate and social panic , is either turned into a famine or mainly avoided by a governments course of action . The success of this is dependent on whether food from the harvest is distributed to the areas who need it most , if a reserve supply of food has been prepared , if food prices are kept under strict control , and ( particularly from ) whether loans are made available . is no longer seen as a result of temporary climatic aberrations , but of a weakness in society . For this reason a famine is man - made , caused primarily by government policies , only when thorough preparation and organisation is lacking will a famine occur . Endnotes ( 1 ) Arnold , Famine : Social Crisis and Historical Change ' ( , ) - p30 . ( ) Cited in Droz , Europe Between Revolutions ( , ) - p45 - 46 ( ) , , ' Poverty and ' ( , ) - p7 ( 4 ) Figures from , , A History of ( Oxford,1998 ) - p263 ( ) Arnold , Famine : Social Crisis and Historical Change ' ( , ) - P45 ( ) , , ' Poverty and ' ( , ) - p1 ( 7 ) , , ' Poverty and ' ( , ) - p79 ( 8) Sainath , P - ' Everybody Loves a Good Drought : Stories from 's Poorest Districts ' ( , ) - p336 ( ) Arnold , Famine : Social Crisis and Historical Change ' ( , ) - p45 ( ) , , A History of ( Oxford,1998 ) - p260 ( ) , , ' Poverty and ' ( , ) - p79 ( ) Arnold , Famine : Social Crisis and Historical Change ' ( , ) - p45 ( ) , , A History of ( Oxford,1998 ) - p263 ( ) , , ' Poverty and ' ( , ) - p7",1
"< heading > Question . What aspects of client ( customer ) behaviour must an organisation such as understand in order to demonstrate a marketing orientation ? < /heading > The task that any organisation needs to understand before demonstrating a marketing orientation is to understand who their target customers are . Consumers who purchase goods for their own personal use go through a different process to customers who are purchasing on behalf of a company . There are types of consumer buying behaviour ; customers purchasing frequently bought items buy the goods with very little search and decision effort . For occasionally bought goods , consumers engage in a limited decision making process . For unfamiliar or expensive purchases , consumers engage in an extensive decision making process . Finally , impulse buying involves no conscious planning , just a desire to purchase something immediately . Business buyers are usually made up of person , purchasing expensive items through a negotiation process . Therefore business buyers demand a lot of information about the product they are about to purchase . Dibb et al ( Dibb et al 2006 ) define the consumer buying decision process as a stage process . The stage is to recognise that there is a difference between an actual state and a desired state . The stage is where the buyer searches for information about products that will resolve the problem . The stage is where the buyer establishes criteria for comparing the products . The stage is when the consumer chooses which product or brand to buy and the final stage is the post purchase evaluation . There are sets of factors that influence the buying decision process . These are personal factors that are unique to an individual , psychological factors that influence consumer behaviour and social factors that other people force on buying behaviour . Dibb et al ( Dibb et al 2006 ) define the organisational buying decision model as a stage process . The task for the purchasing business is to recognise that a problem exists within its current operation . The next stages are to establish a product specification to solve the problem , to search for products and suppliers and to evaluate products relative to specification . The final stages are to select the most appropriate product and to evaluate the product and supplier performance . The organisational buying decision model has major categories of factors that influence business buying decisions . These are environmental factors that are uncontrollable such as laws and regulations , organisational factors that the buying centre must adhere to , relationships of the people in the buying centre and the personal characteristics of the individuals in the buying centre . Regardless of whether the company sells to other companies or to consumers , marketers need to answer the same questions . buying pro forma ( Dibb et al 2006 ) recognise that marketers need to be able to profile the targeted customer / consumer . Marketers need to understand the composition of the buying centre , identify their key customer values , determine their buying process and understand the influences on this process . It goes on to say that they need to ask the following questions : What needs to be satisfied and for whom ? Where should marketers be active in the customer / consumer buying process ? Which influencing factors can they in turn influence ? The buying pro forma forces managers to think about their customers and what their company must provide . It also reveals the influences that the company must strive to influence and provides a framework against which to compare competitor moves and marketing programmes . Marketers need to understand their customer 's buying behaviour and the influences on their buying process . This enables them to target their marketing material around the buying decision process , which can influence the decision making process of the customer . An understanding of the buying behaviour allows companies to put the right information to the correct people at the right stage in the process . All this should enable the marketers to satisfy their customer more effectively . As consumer expectations rise and businesses become more competitive , it is becoming increasingly important that companies understand their consumer 's decision process so they can offer them greater satisfaction in the buying process . By getting involved with the customers at the right time , they can establish a relationship with them that will improve the chances of getting business with them in the future . Customer buying behaviour is an area that my own company has had problems with in the past . The company had become so obsessed with price cuts that they failed to identify that they had dropped short of some qualifying factors that customers expected in the stores in the place . After conducting market research into why the customers were shopping with competitors , they established that whilst the price of products was important , the cleanliness of the toilets and the café were more important factors , and the business was failing to meet these requirements . By spending the time to understand their customers , the marketers can get a better picture of their customer needs and identify the influences that the marketing team can target . < heading > Question . How has an updated appreciation of the buying behaviour of its customers fed into 's strategising and client engagement ? < /heading > The business had a product - led approach to developing systems ; they attempted to deliver ground - breaking systems regardless of the client 's problem . Referring back to the organisational decision model , their marketing focussed on the stage , which is where the customers start looking for products to meet their organisational needs . has changed its marketing to a client led approach , which is targeted at company directors and focuses on the goals that organisations will look to achieve . This approach would prompt the directors to look at their current processes to identify problems . As a result of being the cause of the prompt the directors would contact fujitsu when they established that problem does exist in their company . The directors would be believe that fujitsu understood their business environment , and would be keen to do business with them rather than a competitor who would be selling a product . The directors are likely to be the major stakeholders of any project in their business , so would be in a position to steer the proposed solution towards the fujitsu one . achieved this approach by identifying personnel in their company and external industry experts to identify the business problems facing their potential clients . This analysis enabled them to work with potential clients on verify the nature of these problems and explored how it could be used to solve them . was not always a possible solution in solving these problems , so fujitsu 's strategising process continued to explore possible solutions to these problems . identified that it did not have the experience to develop the complete solution for these companies , so rather than develop the skills in - house ; they developed joint ventures with companies who had this experience . The joint venture solution was then offered to the companies under the fujitsu banner . By getting involved with customers at an earlier stage , fujitsu is able to offer their expertise at this earlier stage , which enables them to shape the solution that the company is looking at towards their products . This also allows fujitsu to maintain a better relationship with the customer as they get involved with a broader range of stakeholders within the company .","< heading > Referral information Source of referral and a summary of key information</heading > Admitted via GP on   with shortness of breath ( ) and leg pain . < heading > History All relevant information gathered from the patient about the presenting illness , co - existing problems , and current treatment , significant past medical history and the social and family background . The patient 's view of the nature of the problem and their expectations for treatment . < /heading > On admission ,   stated she always found it had to ' catch her breath ' due to her ( ) , but over preceding admission her breathlessness was becoming progressively worse since suffering from a chest infection . Mrs   said she had a productive cough for , and was expectorating millilitres of brown / green phlegm a day . She was coughing up increasing amounts of phlegm prior to admission , and there was no diurnal variation in amount . 's exercise tolerance had decreased , as she could formerly walk ' over a 100 yards ' with her frame but now could only manage ' . Mrs   said she always suffered from a wheeze , but it was currently worse than normal . She was also suffering from a fever on admission , and described herself as being ' rather delirious ' . She had also noticed an increasing hoarseness of voice over , but could not elaborate further . Mrs   is a former smoker of pack - years who quit . She had not complained of haemoptysis , chest pain or sweats . Regarding her leg pain ,   said it had followed a similar time course to her . She indicated the pain was at its worst on her right leg below her patella . She described it as being ' stinging ' in nature , and graded the pain as being 10/10 . It was aggravated by standing and weight bearing , and relieved by topical cream . It had no timing associations , or was associated with anything else . Mrs   felt sure she was suffering from phlebitis as she had a similar bout . 's was diagnosed and progressed from her toes proximally to eventually involve her metatarsophalangeal joints , ankles , knees , elbows , shoulders and cervical spine ( c - spine ) . Her most recent bout involved her c - spine where she described pain , stiffness , and fatigue , loss of flexion / extension / lateral movements and weakness that required a cervical collar for support . At the time of the exacerbation , she had no rash , fever , constipation , ulcers or fatigue . She did not complain of neck pain or a change in sensation down her arms . Mrs   said the changes in her hands due to resulted in her finding it very difficult to grip objects with either hand . This causes her difficulty in all areas of her life . Mrs   stated she could no longer hold a cup with one hand , use a chopping board to cut vegetables or prepare food , and had to put her bra on back to front as she could not reach around her back and perform the necessary movements . She has also had to give her main hobby of knitting , which was also an incidental source of income . Mrs 's other past medical history includes : < list > RESP- bouts of pneumonia ORTHO- osteoporosis of the lower back , date of diagnosis uncertain . , date of diagnosis uncertain.</list > Her prescriptions on admission were : < list - codamol prn , acid mg , Ergocalciferol micrograms od , mg od , ( penicillamine ) mg od , mg tds , Perindopril 4 mg od , mg od , micrograms inhalation prn , Beclamethasone mg tds.</list > There was no significant family history . Mrs   lives with her son in a semi - detached bungalow with no stairs . She has a strong family support network of her daughter , sister in law , and neighbours . She does not drink alcohol . A systems review revealed nothing of note . < heading > Analysis of history The most likely single cause of the presentation and other possible causes . < /heading><heading > Likely/ potentially dangerous</heading > The most likely diagnosis at this stage would be ( LRTI ) on a background of lung fibrosis to . Important , less likely causes requiring exclusion includes a pulmonary embolus ( ) , pneumothorax , failure , and valvular disease . Malignant causes are less likely , but must also be considered . < heading > Less likely/ dangerous</heading > presentation of adult onset asthma , anaemia , COPD , physical deconditioning . < heading > Physical examination Highlight the findings most relevant to your clinical problem solving by underlining them</heading><list><heading > General : RR-18 , HR- , regular . , O 2 Sats- on / min O 2 . Temp . c. Lymphadenopathy.</heading > Tachypnoeic , with obvious wheeze . Patient flushed and warm.</list><list><heading > Respiratory</heading > Fine inspiratory crackles bilaterally at both bases , with a soft biphasic wheeze . breath sounds at right base . < /list><list><heading > CVS</heading > Heart sounds I + II , none added . No murmurs or carotid bruits.</list><list><heading > Abdomen</heading > Abdomen soft + non - tender . No hepatomegaly / splenomegaly.</list><list><heading > Legs</heading > Tender erythematous area over right anterior medial leg below patella . No calf tenderness.</list><heading > Analysis of history and examination Reasons for your choice of the cause of the patient 's problem(s ) and any other cause that still needs to be considered at this stage</heading > The strong , typical history of chest infection coupled with the examination findings of tachypnoea , bilateral basal crackles , and bronchial breath sounds at the right base all further support the diagnosis of chest infection superimposed on lung fibrosis to . The wheeze may have previously been present , or a new finding . The only unexpected finding was the patient being afebrile . < heading > Management Use the framework of RAPRIOP to structure your proposed management . to the guidelines to the writing of portfolio cases for the details of the issues to be addressed under each heading.</heading><heading > Investigations</heading><list > Bloods- FBC , U+Es , flow measurement , ECG.</list><heading > Reassurance and explanation</heading > Mrs   was well- orientated in her illness , and asked questions when she felt unsure . < heading > Prescription / medical intervention</heading><list mg po , + 1.2 g stat i.v . Increase prednisolone to . Regular nebulisers . Regular PEFR . Repeat ECG.</list><heading > Observation < /heading > Observed on ward for . < heading > Referral and team working</heading > Mrs 's care involved her GP , and the on - call team at the Hospital of , . < heading > Advice and Prevention</heading > Avoid people with respiratory infections . Have Influenza inoculation . < heading > Outcome A description of the progress of the patient as far as possible . This should include consideration of further issues to be resolved . Where appropriate you should contact by telephone patients who have been discharged home.</heading > Patient became febrile during ( T= 38c ) . was elevated . The showed reticular shadowing bilaterally . The was unremarkable . Peak flow was / s. uneventfully after . < heading > Evidence based care and issues for research A brief consideration of the evidence base required for the diagnosis and management of the patient 's problem(s)</heading > There is a reasonable amount of recent clinical evidence on . The most relevant summaries are presented below . < heading > Disease - modifying anti - rheumatic drugs ( DMARD)</heading > systematic review and additional found that introducing disease modifying antirheumatic drugs early ( oral gold , intramuscular gold , hydroxychloroquine , methotrexate , minocycline ) significantly improved radiological progression , swollen joint counts , and quality of life scores at compared with delayed treatment . < heading > Antimalarials</heading > systematic review has found that hydroxychloroquine versus placebo reduces disease activity and joint inflammation in people with rheumatoid arthritis . We found insufficient evidence about effects on functional status . systematic review found no consistent difference in effectiveness between antimalarials and other disease modifying antirheumatic drugs . < heading > Methotrexate</heading > systematic review has found that methotrexate is more effective than placebo in reducing joint inflammation and radiological progression , and in improving functional status in people with rheumatoid arthritis . systematic review and subsequent RCTs have found no consistent differences in efficacy between methotrexate versus leflunomide , parenteral gold , or etanercept . < heading > Commentary A commentary on issues of epidemiology , psycho - social , health care delivery , ethical issues or disability relevant to the patient and/or problem</heading arthritis may be defined as a "" Chronic autoimmune inflammatory disease resulting in joint destruction . Immune complexes are formed in joints and excite an inflammatory response , termed complex mediated hypersensitivity . "" Rheumatoid arthritis affects of the population ; the commonest age of onset is between . The ratio of females : males is . Clinical manifestations may be classified as articular and extra - articular : < heading > Extra - articular</heading > RA commonly manifests itself in the respiratory , haematological , neurological , lymphoreticular , ocular , and cardiovascular systems . Common respiratory symptoms include pleurisy , pleural effusion , and pleural fibrosis . Haematologically , may present with marrow depression due to folate deficiency , anaemia of chronic disease or hyperviscosity . Lymphadenopathy occurs in of patients , along with 's syndrome ( splenomegaly with neutropaenia , anaemia and thrombocytopenia ) . Common ocular presentations include keratoconjunctivitis sicca , episcleritis , and iritis . The sequalae of on the cardiovascular system may include pericarditis , pericardial effusion , and myocarditis . Cardiac nodules may form causing valvular heart disease , and conduction defects . Finally , there are also many systemic presentations of . These include oedema , vasculitis , osteoporosis and AA amyloidosis . < heading > Articular < /heading > Joints usually become involved later in the disease progression . Monoarticular , oligoarticular , and symmetrical polyarticular presentation may occur . Often the disease begins in the proximal finger joints and wrists and later spreads to the elbows , shoulders , knees , ankles and feet . Characteristic deformities occur and include : < heading > Hands</heading > Ulnar deviation of the fingers due to subluxation at the metacarpophalangeal joints . A ' swan neck deformity ' is loss of finger function due to hyperextension of the joints with fixed flexion of the joints . A ' boutonniere ' deformity is fixed flexion of the joints with hyperextension of the joints . A ' Z - shaped ' deformity of the thumb often also accompanies the above . ' Dropped finger ' is chronic inflammation of the extensor tendon sheaths leads to damage to , and severance of the extensor tendon(s ) commonly at the wrist . This results in a finger that which can not be actively extended . Common symptoms of include pain , swelling and stiffness of affected joints which is often worse in the mornings and lasts for , and joint deformity . Systemic symptoms include fever , fatigue , generalised malaise , and depression . is less common in rural populations , and more common in populations . The reasons for this are currently unclear . The aetiology of rheumatoid arthritis is multifactorial , however of a population 's predisposition to is genetically determined , with the region of Ch . implicated . The environmental contribution is not clear although various infective agents have been proposed . Pathogenically , is an autoimmune disease which is probably initiated by T lymphocytes . of the histological signs of is the infiltration of the synovium with T cells . The T cells then become organised into aggregates , causing microvascular disorganisation and damage to the synovial membrane . Locally stimulated T cells secrete the cytokines TNF - alpha and , which in turn cause synovium to become locally invasive ( pannus ) , angiogenesis , and the formation of high endothelial venules ( HEVs ) . HEVs accelerate cell infiltration secretion of inflammatory mediators and metalloproteinases by synoviocytes . Management of may be subdivided into medical , physiotherapy , and surgical : < heading > Medical</heading > The mainstay of medical management consists of early introduction of a disease - modifying anti - rheumatic drug ( ) . The most commonly prescribed - line is low - dose methotrexate . It has proven efficacy in slowing disease progression , is well tolerated , and has few complications when combined with folate . Analgesics , and steroids may be used for symptomatic relief while the is acting . Combination DMARD therapy is required when monotherapy with methotrexate or sulfasalazine is not effective . < heading > Physiotherapy</heading > Inflamed joints must be rested . This is best achieved by splintage . Night - time splints can be used at any stage of the disease when required . Inflamed joints should also be put through a range of passive movements each day , and as inflammation subsides active exercise should be encouraged . < heading > Surgical</heading > There are now a range of surgical interventions in when conservative and medical management is no longer successful . Common interventions include : ) repair or transfer to prevent progressive deformity secondary to tendon rupture and joint instability . ) Reconstructive surgery for advanced joint destruction , instability and deformity . ) Synovectomy . Arthrodesis , osteotomy , joint replacement and excision arthroplasty are also used . The prognosis of is variable as most patients have relapses and remissions . After period of patients have complete remission . of patients have moderate impairment . The remainder of patients will have either severe impairment ( ) or will be crippled by their disease ( ) . Overall , life expectancy is shortened , with a increase in mortality over that expected for comparable cohorts . Some of the increased mortality is caused by gastrointestinal bleeding related to long - term use of aspirin , by infections potentiated through chronic use of steroids , and by the development of reactive amyloidosis , particularly in those with protracted severe disease . < heading > Impact on your learning Describe what you have learnt from this case</heading > The bio psychosocial burden of chronic illness , common presentations of , common comorbidities associated with .",0
"The description in the title of this essay of the capitalist social order as being antagonistic and crisis prone is not a sufficient summary of 's conception . His conception does not simply consist of a description of the capitalist social order , but of the notion that it is in fact antagonisms and the tendency towards crisis which constitute the very essence or actuality of capitalism . This dialectical account of the capitalist social order is what distinguishes from other IPE theorists , who arguably have devoted their lives and work to reconciling the antagonisms and crises of the capitalist social order without addressing their causes . Through the use of immanent criticism and historical dialecticism , aimed to expose the actuality of capital , "" not as a totality ossified into a thing , but a living , mobile social relation "" . The words social and relation are key to understanding this conception . For as the essay title suggests , his conception identifies at its foundation , the social basis of the capitalist order . In other words , capitalism can not be removed from its human source of production and reproduction , and as with all social relations , their essence and being constitutes and relies upon antagonisms and contradictions . < fnote > Desai , M. ( ) : , p. < /fnote><fnote > Bensaïd , ( ) for our times : , p. < /fnote > Here , the importance of 's dialectical method must be highlighted . This essay aims to evaluate 's conception through an assessment of its empirical or existing applicability , therefore the method of his conception must be accepted . argues that "" the widespread criticisms of 's theory ... are erroneous because these criticisms presume a logical method ... that is fundamentally different to 's own logical method . "" To evaluate 's conception on a theoretical basis would therefore require an analysis of dialectical method . Yet , for the purposes of this essay , an empirical evaluation will prove more useful to an understanding of . < fnote > Moseley , F. ( 1993 ) 's method in Capital : a re - examination , p. < /fnote > The starting point should be an identification of what the capitalist order means or how it appears to an student for this is where started . In a similar way to the way Smith , Ricardo and other political economists observed a tendencial fall in the rate of profit - an idea that became central to classical political economy , current IPE theorists observe and study the ' globalisation of capital ' . What did was to expose how the profit rate was determined , and by extension of his conception of antagonism , this essay will evaluate the applicability of this conception to the observable phenomenon of the ' globalisation of capital ' . The argument will progress as follows : < fnote > Desai , M. ( ) : , p. < /fnote > An explanation of the foundation of 's argument as based on the necessity of class conflict and the interdependent relationship between the capitalist and the worker . An examination of examples of the contradictions which result from this antagonistic relationship , which show themselves or appear to us in the form of tendencies such as the fall in the rate of profit . The application of 's conception of the capitalist social order to the ' globalisation of capital ' , particularly , the internationalisation of production . As points out , "" the essence of 's theory is that cycles arise from a basic antagonism between labour and capital , while at the same time , they are mutually interdependent "" . demonstrates that this is the result of the commodification of labour , making the distinction between necessary labour time - the time it takes for a worker to reproduce his or her wages , and surplus labour time - the remaining time that he or she works in a day , which as argues , is the source of profit . Therefore , without the surplus labour time provided by a human worker , a capitalist can make no profit and yet as the ' bearer ' of the economic law of capital , the goal and motivation of a capitalist is profit . This dependence is reciprocated by the worker who finds him / herself in a capitalist social order and requires employment in order to sustain subsistence . < fnote > Desai , M. ( ) : , p. < /fnote><fnote > Booth , ( ) "" Examining Capitalism : The method of 's political economy "" Political Studies Vol . , no . , p. < /fnote > The afore mentioned economic law of capital which requires the accumulation of capital through profit , and which originates from primitive , private accumulation , can therefore be seen to be subject to "" counteracting influences , ( for example , the dependence on the worker) ... checking and cancelling the effect of the general law and giving it simply the character of a tendency "" . Tendencies , such as the tendency of the fall in the rate of profit are the observable economic or political consequences which form the appearance of capitalism . These tendencies to use 's words , provide the form within which the contradictions of labour / capital antagonism , ( or class conflict ) , have room to move . < added . ) , ( ) for our times : , p. < /fnote><fnote , . as quoted in , ( ) for our times : , p. < /fnote > An example of a contradiction which has found ' room to move ' in the tendencial fall in the rate of profit is that between a move to develop the productive forces without limit and the need to confine the development of the productive forces within the limits of capitalist social relations of production . The need to compete compels the capitalist to discover and use more efficient means of production . This inevitably results in the employment of less workers due to an introduction of efficient machinery and technology , and/or a reduction of wages in order to reduce the cost of necessary labour time . Evidently , both consequences run counter to the interdependent relationship of the worker and capitalist described above . Capital therefore is in danger of losing the surplus labour time on which it relies . In 's own words : "" the higher the development of capital , the more it appears as a barrier to production , and therefore also to consumption ... "" And yet , the compulsion toward the higher development of capital is ever - increasingly evident . < fnote > Clarke , S. in ( eds . Albritton . , Itoh , M. , , , amd ) ( ) Phases of capitalist development : booms , crises and globalizations Palgrave : , p. < /fnote><fnote > Marx , ( 1939 ) Grundrisse the Rise and Downfall of Capital in , ( ) , , p. < /fnote > Another example is "" the inherent contradiction in capitalism between its capacity to produce goods and the capacity of consumers to purchase those goods "" . When the consumer and producer is one and the same person , the capitalist is faced with the problem of creating a profit where the worker / consumer requires high enough wages to purchase the products he / she produces . This puts extreme limits on the proportion of surplus labour time that a capitalist can obtain from a worker . This contradiction has found its ' room to move ' in the tendency to geographically separate the producer from the consumer , which will be discussed below . < fnote , ( ) The political economy of international relations : , p. < /fnote > We now turn to the observable phenomenon of the ' globalisation of capital ' which has been linked to tendencies such as the fall in the rate of profit and the geographical separation of the consumer from the producer . For example , the decline of the automobile industries in developed countries such as and is arguably indicative of a need to prevent further decline of the rate of profit . With the introduction of efficient technology and machinery , the owners of the means of production have faced a crisis stage in fall in the rate of profit . This results from the fact that labour power becomes redundant as soon as it is no longer necessary to employ it for enough hours in the day to produce surplus capital . However , as evident within the automobile industry , an alternative source of labour can and has been found in the developing world thereby globalising or internationalising the production and reproduction of capital . A prime example , is the growth of foreign direct investment in places like , where "" the minimum wage ... is the lowest possible price at which the government can sell their workers ' labour in international markets ... "" . This is supported by who points out that "" the tendency to develop the productive forces without limit , and the need to confine the development of the productive forces within the limits of profitability unfolds on a world scale ... ""   < fnote > Marx , K. ( 1939 ) Grundrisse the Rise and Downfall of Capital in , ( ) , , p. < /fnote><fnote > Chan , A. ( 2001 ) 's Workers under : The exploitation of labour in a globalising economy : , p. < /fnote><fnote > Clarke , S. in ( eds . Albritton . , Itoh , M. , , , amd ) ( ) Phases of capitalist development : booms , crises and globalizations Palgrave : , p. < /fnote > Similarly , the tendency to separate geographically the producer from the consumer can explain the movement of the productive forces to the developing world . This is the consequence of an approaching crisis whereby the demographics of the developed world have changed to such an extent that the majority now consists of consumers . These consumers may still play a role in the production of the commodities which they consume , but in a distanced or alienated form . This is contrary to the developing world where the average consumer purchasing power is extremely low and where workers are increasingly responsible for the surplus capital of the commodities sold by the international capitalist . < fnote > Shutt , H. ( 1998 ) The trouble with capitalism : an enquiry into the causes of global economic failure books : , p. < /fnote > To conclude , through an evaluation of the applicability of 's conception at different stages of the development of the capitalist social order , it has been shown , as argued , that Capital is indeed simply the observable element of an inherently antagonistic and crisis prone order . The true strength of his conception is that it can explain capitalism as it appears to us and the changes in its direction . For when the inherent contradictions of capitalism manifest themselves in such a stark form that decreasing returns set in and competitive pressures intensify , the stage is set for the change of phase in capitalist expansion and it is this change which averts crisis . By applying 's conception of the capitalist social order to the observable phenomenon of , we are led to identify causative tendencies of capital , followed by the causative contradictions of these tendencies and finally the antagonistic basis of the fundamental social relations on which capitalism relies . One can take from this what they will , but there is no doubt that this conception exposes and goes a long way towards explaining the political and economic inequalities of international political economy .","Effectiveness is usually measured by the ability to produce a desired or intended result . It is therefore necessary to understand and identify the intentions and aims of the . However , this task is perhaps impossible . , because the aims of the as set out in its charter can be and have been interpreted in different ways . , because the role of the changes . As argues : "" the work of these institutions and their role in international society have altered since "" , and even now , talk of reform suggests a change in role . This essay will therefore , identify a number of events or issues which have drawn criticism towards the , and will attempt to analyse whether these prove ineffectiveness and if so , why ? The following aspects of the will be analysed : < fnote > Taylor , P ( ) "" and international order "" , ( eds , J and Smith , S ) , p.331 < /fnote><list > The structure of the security council . The failure to stop an invasion of by the and its allies . The 's lack of influence in the world economy , with particular emphasis on decision to form partnerships with transnational corporations.</list > I will argue that the very fact that its effectiveness is so difficult to gauge indicates inherent problems of ineffectiveness and that the cause of this debate can be seen to stem from a conflict of fundamental theories which the is torn between . When different states and people expect different things from an institution , its effectiveness must surely be limited . Whilst this essay will concentrate on the ideological differences which can be said to lead to ineffectiveness within the , the practical difficulties which it faces must be highlighted : "" ... is charged with responsibilities for virtually every facet of the human and planetary condition . To do all this it is provided with less funds per year than Western children spend at , and fewer staff than the civil service of a medium - size city . "" These kinds of difficulties clearly pose enormous problems to the . However , I would argue that more fundamentally problematic is the conflict of purpose and expectation which the struggles to fulfil . The following quotations from the Charter demonstrate how the role of the is often interpreted differently : < fnote > Urquhart , B and Childers , E "" Towards a more effective "" , Development Dialogue - 2 , p.5 < /fnote><quote>""to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights , in the dignity and worth of the human person , in the equal rights of men and women ... ""   and < /quote><fnote > URL   The Charter of , preamble , Accessed < /fnote><quote>""The Organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its Members . "" < /quote><fnote > URL   The Charter of , chapter , , Accessed < /fnote > Clearly a charter will always be open to interpretation . However , it could be argued that there is a more significant conflict which runs through the and its members . These statements could be said to have their origins in different theories or ideologies of world politics . The originating in a liberal - socialistic view of the world , where the aims among others are for people to unite across ( or despite of ) state borders , to defend human rights and to promote justice . The latter is more representative of a realist view of the world based on state sovereignty ( as applied during and immediately after the world war , when the was founded ) and the pursuit of power by all states . These underlying theories are evident in many debates which the faces and arguably , in the following examples of supposed failure of effectiveness . < quote>""It might well be better if , , , or even were on , and if more countries , or no countries at all , had a veto . ""   Many critics have called for reform within the security council which , due to the power of veto , allows the permanent members control over most decisions in the . To adopt the theoretical view mentioned above , the argument of whether this leads to ineffectiveness in the would differ according to one 's expectations of its aims . Clearly , to a liberal - socialist , the unequal power that the permanent members can exercise is undemocratic and un - representative . It could be argued that the permanent members no longer reflect the most important or significant world powers , that large geographical parts of the world are unrepresented and that the whole concept of allowing certain members more power than others undermines the principles of the as identified by : "" International relations would become a realm of law and not a realm of power"".</quote><fnote > Ransom , D Upside Down : at , New Internationalist Vol . : p.9 - 12 < /fnote><fnote > Brown , C ( 2001 ) Understanding International Relations Palgrave p.141 < /fnote > While , this inherent problem may produce ineffectiveness , for example in the use of abstention over occupation of , there are more significant problems which the faces , which I will address later in the essay . The invasion of led to criticism of the throughout the world : "" The 's credibility was down in the because it did not support on the war , and in other countries because it did not prevent the war . "" Whilst it has been argued that some of these countries pursued their own self - interests in refusing to back , here I will argue that this event must be put into the context of an ideological struggle . ( former ambassador to ) , describes the approach has adopted towards the : "" they started acting as if the were a burden and denigrated it "" . It must be asked , why is the a burden to the ? Ideologically , they can be seen to differ enormously . 's reasons or rather justifications for invading are arguably based on realist principles : the threat of weapons of mass destruction seemingly provoked to attack before could attack and the argument for humanitarian intervention was not based on liberal principles but again related to self - interest : it can be said that the utilised the - accepted principle of humanitarian intervention in order to increase its chances of winning a resolution . However , it is clear that despite the will of the to promote and defend human rights , its ideology does not stretch to intervention without just cause ( i.e. threat to another state ) , or without evaluating the relative advantages of intervention to citizens in comparison to non - intervention . Again , this has its foundation in the socialist idea that the welfare of people should supersede that of the state . This ideological conflict was also evident in the crisis and can be seen to cause ineffectiveness in the : "" domination has led to a true crisis in the and within the world community . I refer to "" . It is accepted that we live at present in a uni - lateral world , but the implications for the do not and should not mean subordination to the power of . For as asks : "" Should we accept that the administration has found a realistic approach to establishing peace and maintaining security in the world ? Hardly , if only for the reason that it eschews collective efforts and strengthens the cult of individual , solitary action by the . "" To return to the question of effectiveness then , it could be argued that over the invasion of , the according to liberal - socialist principles and in the context of a uni - lateral world , worked as effectively as it could : "" ... the refusal by a majority of members of to support the attack was in its own way an important victory . ""   < fnote > Tharoor , S "" Saving Humanity from Hell "" New Internationalist Vol . pp . - 16 < /fnote><fnote , M "" Quarterly Vol . : < /fnote><fnote , as quoted by , Y , M. "" Rather Than Unilateralism "" New Perspectives Quarterly , : pp.49 - 59 < /fnote><fnote > Primakov , Y , M. "" Rather Than Unilateralism "" New Perspectives Quarterly , : pp.49 - 59 < /fnote><fnote > Williams , I "" rewards "" New Internationalist Vol . pp.22 - 23 < /fnote > The effectiveness of the to counter the power of the is therefore arguably greater than commonly thought and since the war in , potentially increasing . However , where the seems to lack effectiveness , is among the most powerful institutions in the world ( arguably more powerful than ): transnational corporations . Perhaps was following socialist principles of cooperation and discussion when he proposed the ' Global Compact ' : a corporate partnership programme , aiming to encourage companies to promote and facilitate development in the countries in which they operate . argues that the role of the is global management : "" The will be compelled sooner or later to manage globalisation ... "" However , this partnership arguably had the opposite effect to its intent : "" The world 's most damaging companies signed up to the cause of sustainable development ... Since then their consistent message has been that they understand the issues and will provide solutions - as long as they are left alone to do so . "" Again , conflict of ideology can be identified at the heart of this ineffectiveness . The fails due to main fundamental problems . , despite its success in evolution towards more liberal policies , ( see and Smith and and for an appraisal of the success of agencies and NGOs in humanitarian intervention ) , its structure is still based on nation - states . Clearly , this organisational method fails to represent other bodies of importance in world politics . , the ideology which transnational corporations operate according to , that of neo - liberalist economics , discords with those in the who believe in the aim : to better the lives of people . Once ideologies are practised , and become norms , they can be used to justify the actions of the organisations which follow them , which is why "" the philosophy of the ICC ( International Chamber of Commerce ) - that open markets are the key to sustainable development - was not to be challenged , and became the philosophy of the . "" Where the real problem of ineffectiveness lies , is in the lack of opposition from the 's members to such a philosophy . For as realist based bodies , nation - states need and rely on transnational corporations . So while , the realist versus liberal - socialist ideology conflict is again demonstrated , the triumphant and reigning ideology is neo - liberalism , as implemented by the most powerful institutions in the world . < fnote > Ghali , "" is Not Security , But "" New Perspectives Quarterly , : pp . - 25 < /fnote><fnote > Bruno , K "" Bluewash "" New Internationalist Vol . pp.26 - 27 < /fnote><fnote > Taylor , P Taylor , P ( ) "" and international order "" , ( eds , J and Smith , S ) , p.343 < /fnote><fnote > Roberts , and , ( ) , p.2 < /fnote><fnote > Bruno , K "" Bluewash "" New Internationalist Vol . pp.26 - 27 < /fnote > In conclusion , it has often be said that the is the sum of its parts . This would indicate that the conflict of theories and ideologies described throughout this essay are representative of the differing aims of its members . The example of 's more realist view of the world as evident in its defiance of the over the invasion of demonstrates this . However , as many who believe in the 's effectiveness have argued , it is much more than the sum of its parts . and compare the to a "" theatre for standard - setting and myth - making - for appealing to higher standards than those which commonly prevail in international relations , and for holding out the promise of a better - ordered world . "" Perhaps , this is where the true effectiveness of the lies . It must hold on to its members : for they are its parts , and to do this it must reflect its members differing needs . However , its existence does not simply depend on membership of all the countries in the world : the point of its existence must surely be to better the world according to the needs of its people . It is in this sense indispensable and I would argue that it is as effective as it can be within the constraints of this balance . The decision not to pass a resolution to allow the invasion of is perhaps indicative of an increase in effectiveness in the future . Where the real challenge lies for the , is in its struggle to become the sum of what increasingly matters in world politics : those institutions which guide the world economy . In order to better the world , it must be representative of the world and without this vital influence in the economy which is prevented by the neo - liberalist principle of free markets , it will forever be reacting to human and environmental problems in the world , not preventing them . < fnote > Roberts , and , ( ) , : < /fnote >",1
"In a student protest at in quickly escalated into a joint workers ' demonstration , with important consequences for . Although the basis of the protest was to do with class and social status , the events of had an important impact on women . In fact , a new type of feminism emerged in following the events in and heralded the emergence of women writers on a much larger scale than ever before . mots pour le dire was published in and is a striking example of writing that was influenced by this new feminism . Although there had been women writers before , writing on topics not deemed suitable for female authors , such as , women started to explore themes not discussed before . Cardinal makes a reference to in the very last chapter of her book . Therefore , it is evident that did feel that her work was influenced by the events that went on in at that time . In students at held sit - ins and manifestations to complain about the role they perceived universities playing in perpetuating class differences . They argued that the universities were deliberately widening class divisions and that with this system , there was no hope of lower classes ever being able to rise above their hereditary social status . The police were ordered to storm the , which led to riots in and more occupations of universities . Soon factory workers had joined in across the country , going on strike and taking part in riots . This combined action of workers and students was revolutionary as different social groups were working together to bring a change to the social system . This movement also provided the opportunity for women to get involved , as they too could take part in the riots and demonstrations . This was of the times that they were actively involved in politics , as despite being given the vote in , they were still very underrepresented . women only made up of deputies . Their activity in the events of meant that they were working alongside men , just as in , and similarly the discourse spoke of equality for all . Yet in reality , the women realised that their words did not match their beliefs , as the men were still extremely traditional and conservative in their view of gender equality . The main decision - making was still left to the men , while the women were expected to deal with the domestic tasks . The phrase , ' hommes discourent , les femmes nettoient ! ' is a perfect summary of the view most of the men held on how things should be . The women realised that if they ever wanted to achieve social equality they would have to set up their own organisation . So they did . The Mouvement de libération des femmes embraced a large number of different women 's groups , all rejecting the oppression of women and feeling the injustice that designated women to a subordinate role . They believed that the patriarchal society of needed to be changed , as that was the root of society 's problems and inequalities . 's mots pour le dire is influenced by the outbreak of feminism in resulting from . Her book was published in , right in the middle of the most feminist period . Although her book is partly autobiographical , there is a deeper motive than just to relate her personal story . Cardinal wished to raise awareness both to men and to women . By telling of her experiences , she conveyed to women that they were not isolated individuals but that many others were in the same position . ' Pour le leur faire comprendre et pour aider ceux qui vivaient dans où j'avais vécu , je me promettais d'écrire un jour l'histoire de mon analyse ' . She was also highlighting that her problems stemmed from a patriarchal society . Although the issue of psychoanalysis is very important in this book , equally important is the feminist critique of a male - dominated society . Through her psychoanalysis , the narrator discovers the root of most of her problems come from her mother . Yet her mother in turn was moulded by the patriarchal society and she was simply relaying these conventions and forcing them on to her own daughter , the narrator . The role of both the narrator 's father and husband are also extremely important . At , the narrator blames her husband for her bleeding problems , as they started after she married him . Although this is not strictly true , is going against the traditional view that marriage was the cure to all women 's problems . Traditional views held that women were only complete when they were married and especially once they had children , and any mental problems would be cured by marriage . Cardinal is showing that this is not the case ; in fact her physical symptoms only started after she was married . Thus the impact of is shown in this theme , as women were starting to discover that their sole purpose in life was not just to get married and have children . < fnote > Marie Cardinal , mots pour le dire , ( , , ) p. < /fnote > During her psychoanalysis , the narrator discovers her role in society and the problems with forcing women into this traditional stereotype . ' Plus mon traitement se déroulait , plus je me méfiais du rôle traditionnel de la mere . "" She saw how the patriarchal society forced her mother into a marriage she did not want , with a man she did not love and who was much older than her . Once they got divorced , it was up to her mother to raise her and the issue of child maintenance comes up . The narrator remembers is as being something humiliating that she had to endure each time she saw her father , asking him for the money and watching him go through the same ritual of searching his pockets for it . He always finished with the same phrase , ' ça coûte cher les enfants ! "" Yet the amount was not enough for her mother to provide her daughter with what she needed , ' Ce n'est pas avec ce que vous me donnez que je peux l'habiller . "" Already , the narrator sees the injustice women suffer . The narrator herself continues to live the stereotype once she is married , and even after she separates from her husband , it is she who looks after her children and she even accepts that her husband has an affair . When she starts to write down her experiences , she shows her writing to him , but she is still seeking her husband 's approval . She realises that the reason she was ill was because she did not conform to the role she was supposed to fulfil , but now that she has escaped that mould , she can build her own future , ' j'avais trouvé toute seule le chemin qui m'éloignait de ma famille , de mon milieu , me permettant ainsi de construire un univers qui métait propre . "" is criticising a society that forces women into a stereotype and then condemns them if they do not conform . She underlines the injustices in the patriarchal society , showing women that this is often the root of their unhappiness . < fnote > Marie Cardinal , mots pour le dire , ( , , ) p. < /fnote><fnote > As above p. < /fnote><fnote > As above p. < /fnote><fnote > As above p. < /fnote > Cardinal also raises the issue of class , which triggered off the riots , and shows how the bourgeois values perpetuate oppression of women and widen gender inequality . From a young age , the narrator was told that she could not play alone with the boys , nor invite the children of her servants into the house . ' savais très bien qu'il y avait une différence entre les enfants du peuple et moi ' . Not only was she being forced in a specific gender role , she was also being forced into a specific role based on her class . Her mother indoctrinated her with the belief that , ' valuers bourgeoises étaient les seules qui étaient bonnes , belles , intelligentes , elles étaient les meilleures . "" The narrator 's mother was very aware of what society would say , and forced her daughter into living out these conventions . The lack of affection for her daughter stemmed from the fact that the narrator was born in the middle of her parents divorce . She was not planned and her mother made it clear that she was not wanted . As abortion was illegal , not to mention extremely dangerous at that time , her mother had tried to abort the baby herself , but nothing had worked . ' Après plus de six mois de ce traitement j'ai été bien obligée d'admettre que j'étais enceinte ' . The relating of this story affected the narrator for the rest of her life , instilling in her a sense of unworthiness , of not being loved . Had society 's expectations been different , her mother may never have been in that situation , nor felt the need to tell her daughter this harrowing story . < fnote > As above p. < /fnote><fnote > As above p. < /fnote > At the end of the book , the narrator accepts that if she wants to play her part in society , she must care for her family , ' si je voulais jouer un rôle dans la société , il fallait que je commence par ce qui était à ma portée ... et les enfants ' . Yet the difference is that the narrator has chosen this role for herself . She is not forced into it , and she promises that she will not impose her upbringing onto her children , but leave them free to discover their own place in society . Possibly because these events took part before , there were not as many options open to women , and so the narrator chose this as the best of those options available . After , many more possibilities opened up to women . Cardinal highlights it is not necessary to have a husband and children to be a woman , despite that being what society dictates . The narrator suffered because ' je n'avais aucun rôle à jouer dans cette société ' . What she comes to realise is that the patriarchal view of women as the servant of men , the mother and carer of children is false . ' C'était faux ! , je savais ce que c'était une femme . J'en étais une . "" 's message is that if you are a woman , that is what being a woman is . There are no roles to fill or moulds to conform to . Cardinal wishes to liberate women from the stereotype and allow them to live as they please . She also wants men to understand that forcing women to act in a certain way will only even be destructive . < fnote > Marie Cardinal , mots pour le dire , ( , , ) p. < /fnote><fnote > As above p. < /fnote><fnote > As above p. < /fnote > is significant as it helped to trigger the feminist movement in . Cardinal owes a lot to that movement in terms of the impact it had on her writing and the liberty it gave her to express herself . Although her book was controversial , and often not taken seriously by male critics , she did have a big impact on feminism in . By mentioning at the end of her book , she shows that the narrator 's personal breakthrough came before the riots and formation of , but all other women can benefit from the events of and should take the opportunity presented by it to escape from the conventions of traditional society and develop their own way of living .","< heading into Italian</heading > In , in new titles is translated from a foreign language ( see table below ) . The proportion has been slightly declining , but the country is still above average in its openness to books coming from abroad . < enote > The book market , report published by the ( publishers ' association ) , downloaded from   URL , 2005 < /enote > Some genres , de facto , depend on the works of foreign authors . In part , this is due to the readers being used to , and trusting , products which come from specific countries : manga from , textbooks from , thrillers from the States . It 's a demand driven bias . There 's also the case of academic publishing : the need to use a lingua franca , among researchers of international level , has led all relevant , and credible , journals to be in . A supply driven bias , in this case . In some cases , it can be more convenient to have a book translated than written . According to , a science and nature publishing house , "" a typical professor will sign the contract to write on a topic he 's an expert in , and show up , exhausted , producing pages . We need more than that to get the book out "" : therefore , usually buys the rights for books that are ready , wordy , and of a quality they can check before making an agreement . < enote > Interview with , Editor in chief of , < /enote > Being able to assess the potential of a book in depth , in advance , is vital for small niche publishers : it allows them more certainty in their forecast title costing . In fact in , not only are translated titles quite numerous , compared to other countries : on average they also have higher print - runs , possibly because rights are bought only for those titles for which sales are expected to cover costs , including the translator 's fee . Unfortunately , this does n't effect translators directly : unlike your colleagues , you wo n't be entitled to royalties . Never mind that your translation might have some influence on the sales of the book . Nevertheless , you should be aware that the size of the market is a crucial factor influencing the decisions of publishers buying translation rights . Sales volumes depend on the type and quality of the book , on the marketing investment , but also on the number of people who can read the language . Although is far from being an endangered language(""In ecological terms , what is important is not the size of the species but the safety of its habitat "" ) , the publishing industry certainly suffers from the small size of the market , and the book publishing business grows at rates of yearly . < enote > Francesc , What are the chances of survival for a literature written in a language without a state ? , article from website ( URL ) < /enote><heading > The status of the language</heading > Italy has a population of , and is spoken by scattered around the world . The literacy rate is , and of read book every year . Say that backwards , and you will understand the common complain about lack of "" reading habit "" in : of the population reads book every year . On top of that , according to a recent survey published by , as a foreign language ranks in : it is spoken by of as a foreign language ( see chart below ) . < enote and , survey conducted by Eurobarometer for , published in , downloaded from   URL   < /enote > is the most spoken foreign language in . Population : slightly under . In cut from its budget - weighed down by the enlargement to countries - the translations of its meetings ( except those on , when the most important provisions are announced ) . Although , after the representative 's formal protest , returned among the languages in which all meetings are translated , according to some "" is losing political importance because and culture are losing political importance . Culture determines how far languages spread . [ ... ] Instead of asking institutions for privileges , should think about becoming 's beacon again , perhaps spending more in culture abroad , through the institutes of culture "" . < enote > , parli , ? , article from "" Caffè Europa "" ( URL ) , < /enote > At a lower level than that of a beacon , according to of ( AIE ) , there actually is a new trend favouring culture in the world , particularly strong in the . college students , apparently , pick up after having studied as a foreign language , attracted by the language of fashion , food , , and sometimes of their forefathers . < enote > Interview with , , , < /enote > Ironically , the language is threatened in - by effect of the enlargement to the same countries that have strong immigration towards , and are an opportunity for the publishing industry - while it appeals to readers in a market which is difficult to enter by exporting or selling rights ( see "" To country "" chart on export titles from ) . < heading from Italian</heading > If you know a foreign language well enough that you can translate into it , from , competition is likely to be milder . Hopefully , that foreign language is not : in , translations account for - 5 % of books . According to translator , of the Université Paris X - Nanterre , this is partly due to the lack of habit of reading a book to get to know a different culture , with translations being systematically downplayed by marketing . The few translations are mostly from and . Accessing the markets is difficult for publishing houses : in , titles were sold to , but to the ( see chart below ) . < enote > Indagine sull'import - export dei diritti d'autore in , report published in by the ( foreign trade institute ) , downloaded from   URL   < /enote > Apart from the size of the market , and the readership 's culture , there 's also the fact that publishing follows the paths beaten by the general economic relations between countries . While the and have little interest in investing in , has a strong commercial bond with and , and it shows in the export of translation rights as well . < enote > Gli editori italiani incontrano l'Ungheria : il e gennaio per la prima volta una pattuglia di editori a in un workshop di incontri bilaterali . Conferenza stampa a il gennaio di presentazione del mercato italo - ungherese , press release from 's website ( URL ) , < /enote > Though publishers remain net importers of translation rights , the number of titles sold abroad increased from . < heading > Grants and funds</heading > In the government distributed euros in contributions for the publishing industry . of that sum went to publishing houses for a coverage of paper costs . The rest was geared towards language newspapers and magazines owned by political parties , coops , "" moral institutions "" , publications for the visually impaired , but also - with the aim of divulging the culture abroad - towards periodical publications sold prevalently in foreign countries ( the complete list of receivers is available on   URL , with the detail of how much went to each recipient ) . < enote > Editoria : distribuiti dal governo milioni di euro , press release from profit online ( URL ) , < /enote > With the same aim , and some lobbying by the to make procedures swifter , the government has set aside quite substantial funds for foreign publishers . At , a seminar was dedicated to "" Getting grants for book translations "" . The speaker , of , opened his presentation stating that its goal was to "" help foreign publishers get money for translating books "" ; there were people in the room . More worrisome is the lack of awareness in about public funding for translations : with the typical mistrust of everything public , opportunities to make the cost of translating foreign titles more bearable are often overlooked . According to the , to confront export difficulties and low growth rates in the study of literature and language abroad , "" the key point , perhaps more critical than finding necessary resources , is to coordinate initiatives the effectiveness of which is directly proportional to the capacity of building critical mass and therefore involving more subjects , public ( Government and Regions ) and private . ""   < enote > The book market , report published by the ( publishers ' association ) , downloaded from   URL , 2005 < /enote > The Italian Ministry of Foreign Affaires assigns 500 thousand euros per year , in grants usually covering of translation costs , to encourage projects "" which show significant historical and cultural relationships or pertain to sectors of culture of particular interest abroad "" . In fact , when contacting the local to start the procedure , a foreign publisher might well find that the organisation itself will subsidise the project directly . < enote > How can I get grants for translations in ? , guide published by , 2005 < /enote > In , titles of all genres ( see pie chart on slide ) , were financed through this programme . Notably , of these grants went to publishers , while the strongest beneficiaries were new countries ( ) , ( ) , and countries in the ( ) . < enote > , aree di interesse , article from "" della libreria "" , < /enote > There are also national translation awards worth euros , assigned by , to foreign and publishers and translators . , also translations from and into dialects are eligible . Finally , the suggests contacting local authorities as well , for - off funding of publications that are of special regional interest . Other governments promote their culture granting translation awards and incentives as well : 's document , putting together information about such programmes , amounts to pages of opportunities . < enote e incentivi per la traduzione , report by the 's , 2003 < /enote > For STM publishing , there 's ( ): a non - profit association with consultative status with , promoting the circulation of scientific culture by awarding contributions destined to cover translation costs . < enote > Storia and , pages from 's website ( URL ) < /enote > The initiatives supporting translations are many also on the international level . However , they usually give the priority to endangered or minority languages ( e.g. , the 's Culture 2000 programme , now due for an update ) . The same can be said of private companies and foundations . In a recent press release , company announced its pledge to "" underwrite in publishing costs over . The programme will make available primers for school children , dictionaries and local stories - one book will be published in each of endangered languages . ' When a native language dies out , we 've lost forever our chance to learn cultural truths , ' says CEO . ' Philosophy , lifestyle , science , healing - all the nuances are tied up in the grammar , vocabulary and way of speaking . It is a tragedy if a language that encapsulates of years of a group 's culture is lost forever . It 's like standing by watching the destruction of the ancient library at Alexandria , without trying to put out the fire . ""   < enote > Publisher pledges for endangered languages , press release from website ( URL ) , < /enote><heading > Genre of books in translation</heading > Giving for granted that has already been assigned to a very well - established translator , and recognising that literary fiction , high quality and/or best selling , is the realm of few affirmed professionals , these are the average chances a translator into or from the language currently has , in terms of working ion books belonging to a certain genre . < enote > Indagine sull'import - export dei diritti d'autore in , report published in by the ( foreign trade institute ) , downloaded from   URL   < /enote > As you can see , publishers are mostly importers of adult fiction , children 's books and non - fiction , and exporters of children 's , illustrated , and religious books . Note that the data of the charts is in percentages , and remember the number of exported titles is still much lower than that of the imported . < heading > Translators ' association</heading > Although little - known and scarcely influential , an association of translators ( and interpreters ) exists . AITI ( Associazione Italiana Traduttori e ) organises seminars and workshops , and has an online searchable database of its members , who are either translators or interpreters or both , and have had to pass an entry test to attest their skills . However , it does n't seem to have many connections within the . < enote > Interview with , , , < /enote > Beatrice Verri , a part - time freelance translator for , sums up its flaws : "" to many restrictions ( minimum tariffs , etc . ) compared to the guarantees it gives . I do n't know anyone who belongs to it . "" < enote > E - mail interview with , freelance translator , < /enote > What some professional translators are campaigning for in , is the creation of an "" albo "" - similar to those existing for doctors and engineers - which would mean that only people who passed an exam and belonged to the category could work as translators . It would also mean the category as a whole could establish minimum fees , and contrast the negative effect that non - professional competition and the internet have had on translators ' finances in . < enote > Various posts on < /enote > Because of the underpayment ( a common complain of translators in most countries ) , it seems advisable to become a professional translator only if you are fluent in a rare language or knowledgeable in a specific subject which have a market . < quote>""Being a translator - in an agency , freelancing , technical or general , Pashto or - is being part of a community of creative minds , who share an amazing ability to transcend borders and make the implicit understood , everywhere . "" ( professional translator , So You Want to be a Translator , from , st 2005)</quote><quote>""Translators are ghastly : poor devils who get nothing for a translation , only the lowliest fee - shamefully low , as they are wo nt to say - and they accomplish a ghastly job . In other words : the balance is restored . If a person does something that is worth nothing , then they should get nothing for it . Why does anyone translate ? Why do n't they write their own stuff instead ? "" ( writer , quoted in Why does anyone translate ? by , on   URL ) < /quote >",0
"< abstract><heading > Abstract</heading > The aim of this experiment was to examine the induction of β - galactosidase in E. coli at different temperatures . This was done by assaying for enzyme activity by addition of toluene and oNPG to samples of E. coli . The results show that induction does not occur at ° C due to decreased enzyme activity . Induction occurs fully at ° C and ° C , as this is the optimum range for the enzyme , and translation and transcription occur . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > The lac operon encodes enzymes required for lactose degradation : β - galactosidase , lactose permease and thiogalactoside transacetylase . These genes are adjacent to each other in the operon . Before these genes there is a region which regulates the lactose metabolic genes : this region contains the regulator , promoter and operator . The regulator gene encodes a repressor protein which can bind to the operator site . This repressor is a tetrameric protein . The promoter contains a binding site for polymerase , and directs the polymerase towards the correct transcription initiation site . In addition to this promoter in the operon , a promoter is present in front of the regulator gene , which drives the synthesis of the regulator . The primary carbon source of E. coli is glucose , but other carbon sources , such as lactose ( a sugar present in milk ) can be metabolised using the genes of the lac operon . In the absence of lactose , the transcription of the lac structural genes is blocked by the repressor . The lac repressor binds DNA by inserting an α - helix into the major groove of DNA . The edges of the base pairs and the phosphodiester backbone also make contact with the repressor . Very little , if any , β - galactosidase , permease or transacetylase is produced . When lactose is present it is converted to allolactose , a combination of galactose and glucose with an linkage , which is the correct inducer of the operon . Allolactose binds in the centre of the large domain in each monomer in the lac operon and the repressor 's affinity for operator DNA is reduced . This is done by a conformational change being induced in the interface with the DNA - binding domains . The domains can not easily contact DNA now , which leads to the DNA - binding affinity being reduced dramatically . The proteins encoded by the structural gene are transcribed , and lactose is utilised . DNA - binding proteins can stimulate transcription . An example is the catabolite activator protein ( ) , or the cAMP response protein ( CRP ) . When is bound to cAMP , the transcription of lactose and arabinose catabolising genes is stimulated . The - cAMP complex stimulates the initiation of transcription by a factor of . Within the laboratory , induction can be achieved by adding iso - propylthiogalactoside ( IPTG ) , as is not catabolised by the cell and does not act as a carbon source , so it is described as a ' gratuitous ' inducer . This is because , within the laboratory , the cells can be grown in a defined medium with glycerol as the carbon source : the expression of the lac operon is neither induced nor repressed . The aim of this experiment was : To examine the induction of β - galactosidase in E. coli at different temperatures < heading > Materials and Methods</heading > Refer to manual , pg , and reference for materials and methods < heading > Results</heading><heading>30.2 : Assay for β - galactosidase</heading><figure/>Figure shows that for all temperatures , the amount of o - nitrophenol ( oNP ) released in increases from . For ° C , the amount of oNP released increases from 0nM to 155.9nM over , and then the amount released plateaus and remains constant at For 30 ° C , the amount of oNP released increases from 0nM to , and then remains constant for . At ° C , the amount of oNP released increases from 0nM to at , and then remains constant at . At ° C , the amount of oNP released was 0nM for , until the amount released increased to at , an increase of . < heading > Discussion</heading > At ° C leaky repression occurs . No induction occurs at this temperature , so translation and transcription also do not occur . At this temperature a little oNP is released , although there is a slight increase ( see Figure ) , indicating that the induction of β - galactosidase does not occur . This is due to the decreased enzyme activity as the enzyme and substrate has little kinetic energy . The release of a little oNP must therefore be due to leaky repression of the genes . At ° C , little oNP is released ( see Figure ) , indicating that the β - galactosidase gene is not fully induced at this temperature . Due to the low temperature , translation and transcription occur at a low rate due to the low temperature , which allows product inhibition to occur very rapidly . The rate of β - galactosidase synthesis equals the rate of destruction , so the activity remains at a constant rate . The plateau at this temperature , and also for ° C and ° C , is caused by product inhibition of β - galactosidase , which creates the constant level . The results from ° C and ° C are very similar : at these temperatures , induction of β - galactosidase occurs , and this is the optimum temperature for the enzyme . The increase in the release of oNP ( see Figure ) indicates the translation and transcription are occurring at a high rate , and that β - galactosidase synthesis is greater than the rate of destruction . The turnover number is high at these temperatures . The plateau , as explained above , is due to product inhibition . The amount of oNP released at ° C is less at and onwards , than at ° C . This is because at ° C , the enzyme starts to thermally denature and becomes unstable . Therefore , fewer enzymes ( β - galactosidase ) will be available , and transcription and translation will slow down . The reason for the plateau at different levels of oNP may be due to a ratio between the amount of β - galactosidase and product . When the amount of product reaches a certain level in relation to the enzyme , the product inhibits the enzyme and production plateaus . There is a more rapid rate of induction for ° C , due to the high temperature , which causes a rapid build up and a lower plateau . Therefore , product inhibition occurs more quickly .","< abstract><heading > Abstract</heading > The aim of this experiment was to determine the HA titre of a virus stock and the HI titre of an antibody stock . This was done by setting up HA and HI assays using an unknown virus . The results show that the HA titre of the virus was per ml , which gives virions . Also , the HI titre of antibody was per ml , and the virus was identified to be Influenza A subtype H1 . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > In order to replicate and produce progeny , a virus needs to gain entry into a host cell . This is because they can not generate on their own and need to acquire from the host cell for reproduction . In the early events of the replication cycle , the virus particle ( virion ) adsorbs onto the host cell and attaches to receptors on the cell surface . This is known as attachment . Commonly , the receptors on the host cell surface are glycoproteins or glycolipids , and the virus has evolved to bind to these molecules . The virus does not bind to the whole molecule , but rather domains within the molecule . Some viruses have a property called haemagglutination , where cell surface binding structures on the virion can bind to the surface of red blood cells due to the viral protein called haemagglutinin ( HA ) . This is a laboratory phenomenon , where the red blood cells create a lattice . Usually , only viruses which bind to simple carbohydrate motifs on the cell surface have this property . This phenomenon can be used to determine the HA titre . The HA of the virus can be a primary target of the immune system , so specific antibodies can be raised against it . This property can be used in the haemagglutination inhibition ( HI ) assay , where an unknown virus can be identified and the HI titre can be defined . The aims of this experiment were : < list > To determine the HA titre of a stock of virusTo identify that virus on the basis of reactivity with known antiseraTo determine the HI titre of the specificity reactive serum using HA and HI assays</list><heading > Materials and Methods</heading > Refer to manual , pg and , and reference sections and for materials and methods . < heading > Results</heading><heading > Virus Haemagglutination Assay</heading > The HA titre of virus was found to be per ml , as the dilution at which the end point was seen was at . From this , the number of virus particles could be calculated , which was virions . < heading > Haemagglutination Inhibition Assay</heading > The end point was seen at a dilution of , which gives a HI titre of antibody at per ml . Only the X antibody affected the agglutination property of the virus . The X antibody binds to Influenza A subtype H1 . < heading > Discussion</heading><heading > Virus Haemagglutination Assay</heading > For the controls , no agglutination was expected to be seen , as there was no virus added to the and red blood cells solution . Therefore , as there was no virus to agglutinate the blood cells , the cells create a pellet at the bottom of the well . For the dilutions of the assay ( refer to Appendix 1 , table ) , there was sufficient virus to create a lattice of red blood cells , and of the red blood cells were agglutinated . In Well , which was a dilution , end point was reached , which gave the last positive haemagglutination : this is where of the red blood cells have virus particles attached to the cell surface , and of the red blood cells do not have red blood cells attached to the cell surface . This was because the virus was not in sufficient quantity to bind to all of the red blood cells due to the dilution . < heading > Haemagglutination Inhibition Assay</heading > For the controls , no agglutination was expected to be seen in samples , as no virus was added to the solution ( refer to Appendix 1 , table for the materials added ) , so agglutination could not occur . Agglutination was expected in samples , as virus was added to the sample , so the virus could bind to specific receptors on the red blood cell surface and create a lattice of red blood cells . Referring to Appendix 1 , , it can be seen that in samples for the X antibody that the red blood cells did not agglutinate and formed a pellet . This was because the antibody was at a sufficient high concentration to bind to the virus particles . This prevented the virus binding to the surface of the red blood cells , and so the cells formed a pellet . In samples to , the antibody was not in a sufficient quantity to bind to all of the virus particles , so the virions bound to the red blood cells , causing agglutination . This was because the antibody had been diluted . For antibody Y , agglutination occurred in all of the samples , as the antibody is not specific for the virus , so the antibody did not bind to the virus . Therefore , the virus attached to the receptors on the red blood cell surface , causing agglutination .",1
"< heading > Introduction</heading > Previous research has shown that boys of primary school age are involved in a greater number of road traffic accidents than girls . It is possible that the reason for this is due to a difference in the development of attention skills between boys and girls of this age range . In this experiment we want to investigate differences in the attention skills between boys and girls between and , and observe how these attention skills are affected by a background distraction . We predict that boys will perform worse than the girls at an attention task when being distracted by a background event . As attention skills are known increase with age , it is also predicted that performance by both girls and boys in both the distraction and no - distraction conditions will increase with age . < heading > Method</heading><heading > Participants < /heading > The participants in this experiment were children from a local primary school . The children were divided into groups based on age , , and . There were equal numbers of male and female participants in each group . < heading > Stimuli</heading > The stimulus used in the experiment was the ' Opposite Worlds ' attention test , a sub - test in "" ( TEA - ch ) . The TEA - ch was developed by , , , , and ( ) for the purpose of measuring various types of attention skills in children . The test was specifically developed to be a pure way of measuring attention , and this was achieved by ensuring that the tasks within it placed minimal load on cognitive functions other than attention , as well as using structural equation modelling to control the variables being measured . As such , it can be said to have a satisfactory level of validity ( Manly et al . , ) . In addition , test scores were analysed in development to ensure a high level of validity , and reliability has been established using test - retest procedures ( Manly et al . , ) . Thus , we can be confident that the TEA - ch is both a valid and reliable test of attention . The ' Opposite Worlds ' sub - test that we are using was designed to measure attention at a verbal inhibition task . < heading > Procedure</heading > Children of all age groups were required to complete the baseline test , as is normal for the test . In the baseline test , children are asked to read out a list of one 's and two 's in a path . Children were then required to complete the ' Opposite Worlds ' test a time with no distraction . In this part of the test , children must say "" "" when they see a one and vice versa , and hence are required to inhibit the natural verbal response to the presented digit . All children were then required to complete the test a time , and were told that on completion of the test they would be allowed to watch an interesting cartoon on the television . However , during this run of the test , the television was switched on remotely halfway through the test . This provided the background distraction event . The scores for the conditions ( distraction and no distraction ) were calculated by subtracting the average time taken to complete the baseline task from the average time taken to complete the task in each condition . A higher score denotes a poorer performance . < heading > Design</heading > The independent variables for this test were the age and sex of the children taking part . The levels for age were as described in the participants section . As sex and age were the independent variable , this actually deems this experiment a quasi - experiment . The dependent variable was the amount of time taken to complete the tasks in the distraction condition and the no - distraction condition . < heading > Results</heading > We wanted to know whether the age or sex of primary school children had any affect on their test - scores for the ' Opposite Worlds ' subtest in the test of everyday attention for children ( TEA - ch ) . Prior to analysis , the data was screened for outliers , missing data and coherence with the basic assumptions of the statistical test used . outliers were identified , in - 7 boys group of the no - distraction condition and the other in the - 9 girls group of the distraction condition . As there is no reason to doubt the validity of these results , they will be retained for the analysis . However , the residuals from the ANOVA on the untransformed dataset were found to be non - normally distributed , and so the data was square - rooted for analysis . No other breaches of test assumptions were found . < fnote > Statistical tests were carried out on datasets both including and excluding these outliers . No differences in the significance findings were observed . < /fnote > Our prediction was that boys would perform worse than girls on the ' Opposite Worlds ' task when being distracted by a background event , and hence our null hypothesis was that sex would have no effect on performance in the distraction condition . Table one suggests that boys took longer than girls to complete the task in the distraction condition in all age groups . A - way ANOVA carried out on the independent variables age(3 ) and sex(2 ) confirmed that there was a significant main effect of sex on performance , p<.01 . This supports our hypothesis . Table suggests that boys were affected to a greater negative extent than girls by the distraction , and a - way performed on the difference scores confirmed this F(1,90)=4.56 , p<.05 . In addition , a main effect for sex in the no distraction condition was also found by a - way , , p<.05 . Table suggests that this interaction could mean that boys ' attention skills develop at a slower rate than girls . < fnote > When this ANOVA was performed on transformed data , the finding became insignificant . However , as the untransformed difference scores did not violate any test assumptions , there were favoured for the analysis . < /fnote><table/><table/>Our hypothesis was that , as it is known that attention skills increase with age , so performance at the Opposite World task should improve with age in both conditions . Hence our null hypothesis was that there would be no main effect of age . Table one suggests that there was a steady decrease in time taken , and hence increase in performance , as the children increased in age in the distraction condition , and table suggests the same trend in the no - distraction condition . A - way was carried out for both conditions on the independent variables age(3 ) and sex(2 ) . The results confirmed that there was a significant main effect of age on the performance at the tasks in both the distraction condition F(2,90)=9.53 p<.01 and the no - distraction condition F(2,90)=16.04 , p<.01 . These findings support our hypothesis . < table/>The - way 's conducted above also found a significant interaction between age and sex in the distraction condition F(2,90)=3.62 , p<.05 , whilst finding that there was no significant interaction in the no - distraction condition F(2,90)=.13 , . Table one suggests that this interaction means that boys do not improve at the ' Opposite Worlds ' task between the higher age ranges , i.e. and . Residuals from both 's were screened for normal distribution and systematic variation with other variables . Correlation with original baseline scores was found to be significant for residuals from both distraction r(95)=0.21 , p<.05 and no - distraction r(95)=.46 , p<.01 conditions . This is expected to a certain extent , and so the findings were maintained . < heading > Discussion</heading > We predicted that , as boys are observed to be involved in a greater number of traffic accidents than girls , and as this finding was probably due to poorer attention skills of boys than girls , boys should perform worse at an attention task . Our results support this prediction , showing that boys do indeed perform more worse girls at the attentions tasks , both in the distraction and no - distraction conditions . Our findings also revealed that a distraction had a greater negative impact on the boys than the girls , something that should be taken into account when considering road safety . For example , whilst a distracting billboard and a conversation with a friend might impede girl 's abilities to concentrate on the safety of the road , the same distractions would cause a more serious problem for boys . As a result , and coupled with the fact that our findings suggest that boys already have poorer attention skills than girls , boys are even more likely to make a mistake in judging the safest time to cross the road under distracting conditions . Our hypothesis was that performance on the attention tasks would increase with age , as attention skills are known to improve with age . Our findings showed this trend , however they also showed something that was not expected , that there was an interaction between age and sex in the distraction condition . The direction of the results suggested that boys and did not progress in the development of their attention skills . We could interpret this as meaning that , not only are boys already behind girls in the attention skills at , they may also be slower at developing these skills . However , the girls - 9 group on this condition was found to contain an outlier , and this should be considered before accepting this finding , as it would have increased the mean girls score for this group . Nevertheless , an interesting experiment to follow on from this would be to see if boys eventually accelerate in the development of their attention skills to match those of girls . Assuming that adult males and females have equal attention skills , we would expect this acceleration to occur somewhere during later childhood . Such a finding might be important for general education of the different sexes . The other finding from our analysis was that the residuals from both conditions correlated with the original baseline task score . We can interpret this as meaning that the baseline task score is a useful predictor of the score obtained in the actual ' Opposite ' tasks . However , this is not unexpected , as it would follow that someone who performed poorly in the baseline task would perform proportionally poorly in the actual ' Opposite ' task . We now consider the methodology of the experiment . , sub - test was used from the test of everyday attention for children ( TEA - ch ) , the ' Opposite Worlds ' task . As noted earlier , the TEA - ch was designed with different tasks to test different types of attention . In using only the task , we have essentially tested only type of attention , which in this case is attention at a verbal inhibition task . Whilst the idea of inhibition in general is appropriate to the domain of investigating traffic accidents , the "" walk do n't walk "" subtest of the TEA - ch was developed for the more specific type of attention that is important in considering whether it is safe to cross a road . Hence , to a certain extent , using only the ' Opposite Worlds ' sub - test has reduced the validity of the experiment , and future investigation into the same area might consider using different sub - tests . Another potential methodological problem was the fact that in the distraction condition , participants were distracted for the time , as the TV showing cartoons was switched on - way through the task . Had the distraction been present for the whole of the test under this condition , we might have observed even more impediment of attention skills , reflected in higher scores for this condition . However , this should not affect the significance of the outcome of the experiment , it should merely be noted that the findings from the distraction condition are probably not as high as they should otherwise be . Finally we discuss the generalisability of the findings . It should be noted that there is a very different motivation for completing the attention task as there is for crossing a road . Whilst children were told that they would be rewarded for completed the task ( with a cartoon ) , this does not compare with the possible consequences of failing to exercise due attention when crossing the road , which could lead to a serious accident . The immediate sensory information from a road crossing context may lead to greater focus of attention on the task at hand . In the attention task presented here , there was no motivation to complete the task successfully , merely to complete it . In contrast , there was no motivation for not finishing the test correctly , as this would not result is finishing the test any faster . So we could assume that the findings are , at least , an indication of the trend of attention between the sexes , even if in real situations involving crossing a road immediate attention might be higher . In conclusion , we have seen that boys do perform worse than girls at an attention task , and this could be part of the reason that boys are observed to be involved in a greater number of traffic accidents .","< heading > Introduction</heading > On the st of , will have passed since was returned to . A good evaluation of its implication is not possible without answering the question , "" To what extent do the people feel that they belong to ? "" Among the various social institutions , education is assigned the prominent role of transmitting the national identity to our next generation . Have the schools been doing the job successfully ? This research aims to answer this question by looking into local secondary schools , to evaluate the changes of the schools ' perceptions and practices over nationalistic education in , and the effectiveness of the various strategies in the implementation of nationalistic education . The government realized the importance of nationalistic education before the handover took place . In , published a new guideline which introduced nationalistic education into the new curriculum ; in , gave explicit prominence to the education of national identity , by putting it as of the priority values to be conveyed through citizenship education . However , the policies have not been as promising as initially envisaged . Students are continuously under criticism about being apathetic towards their motherland ; even the local educators remain skeptical towards the notion of nationalistic education , worrying that it will lead to "" blind patriotism "" and undermine the critical thinking of students . < fnote was combined with the Education and in due to the departmental restructuring . < /fnote > The above "" tension "" between the policy makers and the schools illustrates the complexity in the implementation of nationalistic education . The construction of national identity is not a - way process but a negotiable one between the policy makers and the schools . A true understanding of the process can not be achieved without going into the school to understand its mechanism . In the light of this argument , the research will provide an in - depth exploration of the schools , detailing the intricate mechanisms of the teaching of nationalism . The research will cover both the operational level of the schools and the personal level of the teachers . The research problems can in turn translate into research questions . What are the schools ' general understandings about nationalistic education ? How has it been changed over ? How is the nationalistic education implemented inside the schools ? How do the teachers perceive their role in disseminating nationalistic education ? Are there differences in understanding of nationalistic education between schools with different backgrounds , i.e. the schools , the Government schools and "" schools ? < fnote > Schools with other religions exist in but is the majority ( out of secondary schools in total ) , so I choose to focus on schools . < /fnote><fnote > There are 6 so called "" "" secondary schools in . The schools were marginalized before and they returned to the mainstream after the handover . ( , ) < /fnote > The research aims to study secondary schools instead of primary schools because it is believed that authority inception takes place from birth to ( Wilson ) . Students in the secondary level are more likely to question authority . Since the research would like to examine the "" contested "" nature of nationalistic education , secondary schools are preferred . < heading > The Research Context</heading>""Belonging to a country "" is natural and is taken for granted for most of the people in the world ; but people in are an exception . Before the handover , the colonial government refrained from mobilizing any nationalistic sentiments in order to ensure stability in the territory ; as a result , the education curriculum was more or less "" depoliticalized "" ( Fairbrother 2003 , , Lam , Ma 2004 ) . However , after the handover , government assigned a new mission to the schools by advocating that the promotion of national identity should be incorporated into the local civic education curriculum . The apolitical youth produced by the colonial education is undesirable ; but the new "" political mission "" assigned to the educators after the handover is no less problematic . The situation has been thoroughly discussed by substantial researches , both before and after . In general , the civic education was criticized as "" apolitical "" both before and after the handover ; the democratic value was neglected ( Tse ) and students were continuously taught to be "" economic animals "" ( Lam ) . More importantly , the related post - colonial researches revealed the skeptical ( or even repulsive ) attitude of local politicians and educators towards the new "" political role "" of the schools . Arguments were raised whether "" loving "" equals "" loving the communist party "" ( Fairbrother 2005 ) , and whether the image of should remain homogenous and positive in the nationalistic education ( , ) . A survey which was conducted after the handover showed that the majority of local secondary schools rejected the notion of "" totalitarian nationalism "" , which demanded uncritical devotion to the state and the leadership of the ruling party ( ) . The schools expressed worries about turning the nationalistic education into an irrational patriotic education . < fnote > people 's repulsive attitude towards the political situation in can be explained in a number of historical and social factors ; however its discussion would be beyond the scope of the present research . For reference please refer to on "" Top - down Patriotism and Bottom - up Nationalization in "" ( ) ; and on "" ) . < /fnote > People are generally bound to their homelands either by political or cultural will ( Barnard , Wiborg 2000 ) . If we take them as the "" approaches "" in constructing the national identity among people , the above research findings have already proven that the former ( political ) is not feasible in . On the other hand , the construction of national identity through cultural recognition is by no means easy . The literature and history curriculum in the local secondary schools have been under severe attack as being rigid and irrelevant to youngsters nowadays , the number of schools that provide these two subjects is continuously dropping ( ) . How can we cultivate the sense of belonging from the culture which students find detached and boring ? My discussion seems to imply a dead - end to the path of nationalistic education . However my personal experience told me quite the opposite ; and it gives new significance to the present research . When I was a reporter in the education section of , I was invited to join the schools to visit . To my surprise , it was arranged for students to visit manufacturing plant or giant enterprise everyday during the visit . The trip itself was more like a business tour which explored the investment opportunities in the mainland , rather than a tour that served an educational purpose . Based on the above peculiar but not uncommon observation , the present research would like to investigate on the possible "" way "" in nationalistic education - the way which is not based on political or cultural attachment , but purely based on market economy . < fnote > Mingpao is a newspaper in , which runs a education page . < /fnote > The above presumption is supported by . In his ethnographic research ( ) , he argued that a "" bottom - up "" nationalization process has been taking place effectively on a day - to - basis , with the increasing economic exchanges between and . Is his argument still effective when applied to education ? This is the new realm that the present research is going to explore . The past researches tended to base their investigations on the guidelines provided by ( Fairbrother 2003 , , Lam , , ) , or the textbooks and curriculum available in the schools ( Wilson ) . These approaches kept the studies on the institutional level . However , school by itself should be an organic and open institution where teachers have the autonomy to influence the process and to make a difference ( , Young ) . Given that proposed that nationalistic education would be developed as a school based programme ( ) , teachers are the key players in the development of nationalistic education . It justifies a research approach which is different from most of the previous researches - instead of an institutional level of analysis , the present research will investigate schools by observing and talking to teachers , in order to capture the delicate mechanism of the implementation of nationalistic education , as perceived by the teachers , and inside the schools . < heading > Aims and objectives < /heading > The aim of the present study is to investigate the perception and implementation of nationalistic education since among secondary schools , in the hope of suggesting the direction of nationalistic education in the future . The objectives of the research are : To present the changes of nationalistic education in schools since . To locate the effective means of cultivating the sense of national belonging among students . To understand teachers ' experiences in carrying out the task of nationalistic education . To evaluate factors that influence the implementation of nationalistic education in schools . < heading and Methodology</heading > A combined application of quantitative and qualitative methodology will be adopted in the research . The advantages of a multi - strategy research design in this case are as follows , To answer the research question on different levels ( Bryman 2004 ) -- Quantitative methodology will be used to understand the overall picture of implementation of nationalistic education in ( the macro level ) ; while qualitative methodology allows an in - depth account on the individual school 's mechanism ( the micro level ) . A holistic approach to the research problem ( ) - The qualitative data can be contextualized by the quantitative data and it allows the materials to be discussed in a larger social framework . Both of the cross - sectional and the case study designs will be employed in the study ( Bryman 2004 ) . The overall design incorporates a variety of methods for data collection to deal with different research questions , which will be explained in a table on the next page . Please note that the relationship between the methodologies and research questions is not mutually exclusive ; instead , there are many overlaps . < table/><heading > Self - completion questionnaires</heading will be delivered to all of the secondary schools in ( in total ) ; the schools ' contact details can be sought from which is available online . A fax number and a prepaid envelop will be attached in the mail to encourage a higher response rate . The questionnaire will contain both open - ended and close - ended questions regarding , 's background : Religious background , sponsoring body , funding mode , commencement year . 's perception of nationalistic education : What is your understanding of nationalistic education ? School 's practice of nationalistic education : Is national flag rising and national anthem singing practiced in the school ? What nationalistic education related learning experiences are available ? < heading > Multiple case studies</heading>6 secondary schools from different backgrounds will be chosen for case studies ( schools , Government schools and "" Pro - China "" schools ) . A maximum variation sampling ( Punch 2000 ) strategy will be adopted to ensure the inclusion of schools with characteristics that seem important in the context of study ( ) . My previous work experience in the education news helps to facilitate the process of school selection and negotiation with the "" gatekeepers "" , who are generally , the school principals . After entry is gained , data will be collected in ways , observation . This will take place around the national day of China ( st of ) . My previous visits to schools show that they usually organize activities after ; this will guarantee or visits to each school during this period , despite the possible time clash of these activities . Semi - structured interviews . From each school , the principal and teachers who are responsible for nationalistic education will be invited for an in - depth interview . Questions for the principals mainly focus on the school management level . For example , the history of nationalistic education in the school ; the school 's overall year plan on the matter and how it is related to the school 's understandings about nationalistic education ; and the principal 's general evaluation on the implementation of nationalistic education in . Questions for the teachers will be related to their personal teaching experiences . They include the difficult and successful moments that teachers come across when implementing nationalistic education ; their personal affiliation with and their thoughts about - politics ; how do these personal values affect their teaching . < heading > Data Analysis</heading > For the survey data , a coding sheet will be prepared for use with the questionnaire . counts will be produced with variables , such as the number of schools that practice national ceremonies ; and the number of schools that includes nationalistic education into the regular curriculum . frameworks will be employed to guide the analysis of the schools ' perceptions and actual practices of nationalistic education . The schools ' perceptions of nationalistic education will be categorized into the stages of   "" cognition , emotion and action "" ; while the schools ' implementation of nationalistic education will be classified into the "" political , cultural and economical "" approaches . < fnote > This concept is put forward by . In general , "" cognition "" refers to understanding your country ; "" emotion "" refers to loving your country ; and "" action "" refers to contributing to your country . < /fnote > Lastly , cross - tabulation will be employed to examine the correlations between the backgrounds of the schools against the above variables . The process will be aided by computer software if necessary . < fnote > The technical skill of managing SPSS is not yet acquired when drafting this research proposal . < /fnote > The qualitative data analysis will draw from grounded theories such as and ( ) . After the tape - recorded interviews are transcripted , the transcripts and notes taken during participant observation will be coded , in the hope of yielding general concepts on the changes of schools ' attitudes towards nationalistic education , the patterns of schools in perceiving and practicing nationalistic education , and the correlations between teachers ' personal values and their experiences of nationalistic education . Again , the frameworks of the "" cognition , emotion and action stages "" and the "" political , cultural and economical approaches "" will be adopted to examine teachers ' perceptions and implementation on nationalistic education respectively . Computer software will be used if necessary . < fnote > The same as footnote . < /fnote><heading > Ethical Issues < /heading > Despite the fact that freedom of speech is highly respected in , discussion about the politics of identity can still be sensitive , especially when the discussion is taking place inside schools , where teachers are required to follow stricter codes of ethics in the context of their profession ( Wilson ) . The research has already taken into account provided by . The following measures will be adopted to protect the subjects , An informed consent will be obtained from the interviewees . The purpose of the research will be stated and the interviewees will also be reminded about their right to withdraw from the interview at any moment . In - depth interviewees will be conducted individually . All data is guaranteed to be treated in a way that protects the confidentiality and anonymity of the interviewees . < heading > Potential Policy Implications < /heading > The government has been advocating nationalistic education and investing resources to promote it since . By understanding the teachers ' experiences in nationalistic education and recognizing the "" good practices "" from the schools , it provides valuable information to policy makers in formulating the policy and relocating the funding in future . By recognizing the schools ' "" good practices "" in nationalistic education , it helps to facilitate professional dialogue among educators , which in turn improve the quality of education as a whole . Under the challenge of globalization , there is a remarkable increase of interest in citizenship education ( Green 2006 ) . The experience of will provide implications and insights for related studies throughout the world . < heading and and researchers : The full report will be presented as conference papers and submitted to related journals such as "" Asia - Pacific Education Review "" . Policy makers : The finished report will be presented on the website of ; copies will be sent to and for future references . Schools and teachers : Workshops about the research findings can be given to school councils upon request . General public : The researcher will organize a press conference to announce the findings of the survey . < heading > Timetable</heading > The research aims to be completed in , below is the anticipated timetable . Month 1 : Literature review , preparation of research materials ( questionnaires , coding sheets , written consent forms ) . : Commencement of survey ; data input ; school cases confirmation . : Commencement of participant observation and in - depth interviews ; data analysis . Month 10 - 12 : Writing up .",0
"< heading>1 . Situation overview</heading > The case at hand deals with an internet start - up which was founded at the height of the dotcom boom and - unlike many others - has managed to grow in . Its number of employees has gone up significantly since the time of writing of the case , namely from . The firm is still classified to be in its growth stage . Its only product is a B2B software for managing expense claims accessed entirely through browsers , which may also be a microbrowser installed on a portable device . The software is not sold - instead , companies are required to pay a fee of currently per user for access to the service running on 's servers . This constitutes the unique selling point of their solution - being accessible worldwide and not necessitating a software package to be bought , installed and maintained . < fnote > Tornado Insider ,   URL , accessed 19/03/06 < /fnote><heading>2 . Market environment</heading > The company 's and foremost competition comes from the expense claim procedures already in operation in almost every company . They may be informal in a small business or very bureaucratic in a big business . Either way , they exist and procedures have to be changed in order to introduce the service marketed as . However , the inadequacy of these processes is the main point of attack . The only direct competitor is , a company which is also present in the and market . They have been in the business since and claim to be market leader . Their customer base is more diverse and the focus is on larger companies . is seeking an opportunity in the middle market , thereby attacking . < fnote > URL , accessed 19/03/06 < /fnote > In fact , there seems to be a host of expense reporting software available . For example , ExpensAble ( URL ) offers enterprise - wide solutions including a version for palmtops , which also makes filing reports possible while on the road . In spite of a stiff market , the reference list on 's website features companies from an impressive range of industries and sizes . There seems to be a perceived benefit of outsourcing expense management . < heading>3 . Benefits to the customer</heading > What are the main benefits of from the customer viewpoint ? < fnote > Based on and case studies ( URL ,   URL ) and Demo ( URL ) < /fnote><list > Visibility and control of the processPrevention of expense fraudFaster paymentsCost savingsBetter integration with other processes ( e.g. accounting)Improved forecasting due to accurate and up - to - date dataIdeal for out - of - office use ( offline version , SMS interface)</list><heading>4 . Issues facing the company</heading > Having been so successful so far , management is looking into further growth opportunities , but does n't want to jeopardise their achievements . < heading > Problem statement</heading><quote>""[Directors ] now face the dilemma of whether to concentrate on that customer base and remain a small tight team or whether to expand to grab the middle market opportunity that is presenting itself . "" - Case study</quote > The directors have to make a decision about whether to remain in their comfortable but small market niche or whether to risk entering a new market segment that is already hard - fought . Following the small business strategy process framework , this means going back to the stage ( pre - strategy ) , which involves deciding on the scale and scope of the market . < fnote > Lecture notes week 7 < /fnote><heading>5 . Further analysis</heading><heading>5.1 . PEST analysis</heading > In order to get a clear picture of the industry , various factors have to be considered . < heading > Political</heading > In every country there are different regulations regarding expense claims - whether they are tax deductible etc . Signifo does not have this know - how , but it can rely on resellers , who market the product under their own brand to produce localised versions . However , at the moment , no such contracts exist . < heading > Economic</heading > There is obviously a lot of pressure to save costs and a service like can accomplish this goal by reducing the administrative overhead , thus allowing employees to be more efficient . Another advantage of outsourcing is that the costs of the service are known beforehand , thus making planning easier . Overall , economic trends favour the adoption of in any kind of business . ( See also under technological . ) < heading > Social</heading > Working from home , from a client site or from any other place is becoming usual practice , so the number of expense claims is likely to increase . < heading > Technological</heading > Signifo is offering a highly scalable service , so the main goal has to be to maximise the number of subscribers . Acquiring large firms as customers increases the number of users dramatically , with profits going up accordingly . < heading>5.2 . forces analysis</heading > Porter 's forces analysis is very valuable in this case , as it highlights the strengths as well as the stumbling blocks of the proposed extension . As mentioned before , is already where would like to be , but then again , competitor does n't make a market crowded , so the opportunities prevail . When serving large companies , will have to face a much more significant bargaining power , meaning they will have to offer them discounts and additional services , and , as Mr ( managing director ) acknowledges , "" invest in a field - based sales team "" . Overall , the return per user will be lower in this market . Market research would help to get some figures here . Another threat comes from the systems which those companies have developed for their own use . Developing proprietary software is not a viable solution for SMEs ( they might still use instead ) , but it becomes more viable as size increases . It is hard to imagine a company with of employees doing it without IT support . It would be decisively harder to convince these customers to buy from . Large investments in marketing would be necessary . Furthermore , there are expenses modules available from most vendors , e.g. and Travel . Signifo , however , claims they are too expensive , too difficult to implement and too difficult to use . These arguments hold for small firms , but less so for larger ones , as they can afford to employ , say , an specialist . The user friendliness argues for in any case , as emphasized in the case study . This is not saying does not integrate with and other systems ( e.g. ) . In fact , customers like seem very happy with it . < fnote > URL   < /fnote><fnote > URL   < /fnote><fnote > URL   < /fnote > Lastly , we look at potential entrants . Considering has managed to get a product on the market so quickly , even as a small start - up , it is easy to imagine others start - ups could follow its successful example and do the same . Diversification could give a competitive advantage and make it harder for new entrants to catch up . The following table sums up the findings of Porter 's forces analysis . < heading > Summary</heading><table/><heading>5.3 . SWOT analysis</heading > The insight gained in the previous steps leads to the following strengths , weaknesses , opportunities and threats matrix : < table/>Having identified these , we can develop and evaluate strategies using a / TOWS matrix : < fnote > Heuristics by   URL   < /fnote><table/>The strategies range from defensive to very offensive ( aggressive ) - this should of course not be understood as a judgement . Each entails some risks - even the more conservative ones . The final strategy should consequently be a combination of the above in order to avoid those risks and exploit opportunities . < heading>6 . Central questions - and some answersThe questions every entrepreneur must answer - according to < fnote > Adapted from the lecture notes on diagnosis</fnote></heading > Before going ahead to make a judgement , a few fundamental questions need to be answered . < heading>1 . Are my goals well - defined ? < /heading><heading>1.1 . What type of enterprise do I need to build ? < /heading > We'll assume that long - term sustainability is what drives the founders of the business . < heading>1.2 . What risks and sacrifices does such a business demand ? < /heading > Again , a long - term business orientation is assumed , requiring more risk as well as delegation / licensing / outsourcing ... < heading>2 . Do I have the right strategy ? < /heading><heading>2.1 . Is the strategy well - defined ? < /heading > The SWOT analysis has resulted in several well - defined strategies . In reality , things are not as clear - cut . A possible perspective for the future is outlined in the next section . < heading>2.2 . Can the strategy generate sufficient profits and growth ? < /heading > Market analysis shows that there is a large potential for growth in the mid - market . The competition is highly profitable , but scarce . < heading>2.3 . Is the strategy sustainable ? < /heading > Nothing indicates an imminent slump in demand for corporate software . Well - integrated solutions have excellent prospects . The additional income could help extend the product range . < heading>2.4 . Are my goals for the business too aggressive or too conservative ? < /heading > Not acting would be too conservative . There is no internal funding problem and economies of scale are not exhausted . Think of the scalability argument mentioned above . < heading>3 . Can I execute the strategy ? < /heading><heading>3.1 . Do I have the right resources and relationships ? < /heading > A shift in the customer base is not uncommon at this stage . At the moment , there is no replacement for them , though . Relationships to new customers and partners have to be forged . Another point is the lack of employees , so the interpersonal skills of the founders play an integral role when it comes to finding the right people ( which , at this point , will have a big impact on the company 's culture ) . < heading>3.2 . How strong is the organisation ? < /heading > Formal procedures and controls have to be introduced , maintaining efficiency and the advantages of a small firm , but keeping it manageable . Again , this depends a lot on the personalities and experience of the founders . For instance , they have to be able to delegate and relinquish control to others . < heading>7 . Conclusions and recommendations</heading > Signifo is going through a phase that is typical for companies of its size , namely making the transition from family / small team business to being a serious enterprise . Some entrepreneurs defer this step for too long as can be seen from the PCD case . The founders of , however , seem motivated and capable enough to run on a more innovative strategy . The only question is , how to do it . of all , they should try to defend the small business market as a steady source of income . There is a danger of neglecting loyal customers and thus alienating them . They should not even notice that they are becoming less significant . At this stage of development of the firm , some structural changes are necessary . My recommendation would be a staged approach in order to ease the transition and to minimize the risk . It would be a good idea work with distributors on a commission basis to begin with . This way , the company has more time to train a sales team of its own , which is unavoidable in the medium term . This concept works well in conjunction with the product licensing scheme proposed by management , because companies experienced in potential markets complement 's strengths . They also have more reliable marketing and distribution channels . Consequently , finding a good partner is of the steps to undertake . Depending on the financial capabilities of the company , the imminent steps could be financed entirely by the company 's house bank and own reserves . It is not necessary to look for venture capital at this point . That would only be necessary for the riskier alternative , as investments in sales and support can be expected to take some time until they yield returns . At the same time , they should not forget the importance to stay ahead of the pack in terms of product quality and state - of - the - art features , so there should always be sufficient resources for continuous innovation . Overall , it would be a mistake not to be proactive in the current situation , as the opportunity cost incurred would be much higher .","< heading > Introduction</heading > The beginning and the phenomenon of conglomerate mergers had occurred in in . A company made of few unrelated businesses running independently - but with supervisory board- seems to be great idea to spread the financial risk . It is an additional question what convince companies to merge in general . Above reducing risk exposure , some of them want to synergy or to increase market share , cross selling or diversify their risk . However , as the phrase of has shown , in too large conglomerates financial problems and serious difficulties with their management occur quite often . < fnote > In other words when a company was involved in jewellery market and milk cartons production ; in case of recession , the company would not potentially suffer from financial problems- foreseeable- when the amount of sold jewellery possibly decreases - the sale of milk would not change . < /fnote > How does it work in ? To evaluate the treatment of the anti- competitive effect of conglomerate mergers , it is reasonable to define the merger under law and to go trough the main regulation on this subject , to understand more complex issues . The step will be to characterize the conglomerate merger treatment under law- how does it work in general , in what circumstances such a concentration can be profitable or abusive , and moreover what possible effects it may cause . The main discussion in this essay will regard the anti- competitive effect of conglomerate mergers in reasoning and explanations of the authorities : , and especially while considering cases , to show how the treatment of conglomerate merger was evolving ; also in academic debate . < fnote > I will use in my essay the popular abbreviation- "" "" < /fnote > defines what constitute a merger and ( art . of ) describe the substantive criteria of a concentration ( art . ) . Conglomerate merger may be characterized as a fusion between entities having no current or potential competitive relationship . It is possible to distinguish conglomerate mergers between producers of complimentary , neighbouring and unrelated products . Because of the fact , that the is considering conglomerate mergers quite rarely , usually its reasoning refer to so called "" pure "" conglomerate , involving entirely independent products . Even though conglomerate mergers do not produce anti- competitive effect in a form such as an increase of market share ( like horizontal merger effect does ) or the possibility to foreclose rivals on up stream or down stream market ( vertical merger effect ) they can possibly give rise to competitive harm .   < fnote > EC Merger Regulation No.139/2004 of on the control of concentration between undertakings ( so called ) . < /fnote><fnote > However , it might be defined differently , for example in , the Enterprise Act applies to "" relevant merger situations "" ; , page and , "" Competition Law of the and "" , - th edition ; . Press < /fnote><fnote > It is well observed in a conduct of authorities that , usually , when controlled merger can not by classify as a horizontal or vertical , because such an overlaps are minimal the conglomerate theories of harm tend to be pursued . ; based on : , "" and Conglomerate Mergers on Competition "" ; ; page < /fnote><fnote > F. Dethmers , and ; "" Conglomerate mergers under merger control : an overview "" ; ; , ; page < /fnote><fnote > In fact , there is a need to possess plausible prediction of the behaviour of merged company , rivals and consumers reaction . All that assumptions are based in long term effect of a merger , thus there will never be sureness that firstly- it would occur and - that it will cause harm to competitive structure of the market . < /fnote > From the economic perspective conglomerate mergers are considered as resulting bundling or tying usually in the context of art . . From this point of view there are conglomerate theories of harm , those arising as a result of strategic behaviour such as leveraging and the latter -resulted by non- strategic behaviour . Whether it is possible to distinguish them in theory , in practice it is much more difficult , if not impossible to detect , because it is based only on future predictions of potential competitive harm . < fnote > Therefore , illegality can be use as a defense against leverage expressed in a form of bundling , tying or predatory pricing- practices infringing the art . of . < /fnote > CFI while considering the case showed that conglomerate mergers can also create so called "" structural "" effect , when arises directly from the established economic structure or latter- "" behavioural "" which occurs only if a new entity would engage in particular commercial practices i.e. price discrimination or predatory pricing . The current or potential advantage from conglomerate merger may be use to eliminate competitors from the market . As it will be shown it is very complex and difficult task for authorities to collect sufficient evidences proving the anti- competitive intention of mergering entities . In other words , it is not enough to foresee likelihood of leveraging but "" cogent "" evidence is needed . Therefore it is reasonable to familiarize with the criticism of the analyzes while prohibiting conglomerate mergers in or cases . What anti- competitive effect can the conglomerate potentially cause ? The is concerned with mainly two- the portfolio effect , discussed in complex way in the case and leveraging- using power from one market to neighbouring one- trough price discrimination , product bundling and predatory pricing- discussed broadly in case . < fnote > There can be made a conceptual distinction between the foreclosure of existing and future products in conglomerate strategy . The former is determined by the impact on rivals ' current sales , latter trough marginalization and reduction of rival 's sales . Based on : supra note , page . < /fnote><fnote>""Conglomerate mergers under merger control : an overview "" , supra note , page < /fnote><fnote > Guinness Grand Metropolitan [ 1998 ] OJ L228/24 par . - 41 ; < /fnote><fnote > Tetra Laval case was the conglomerate merger issue decided by ; v. Commission case , [ ] II- 4381 [ 2002 ] 5 CMRL 1182 , para < /fnote > The main approach of the anti- competitive effect of conglomerate merger may be divided into periods- after the prohibition in / but before case- and after it . The pre- approach was presuming that , if it is possible to find pre- merger dominance and existence of conglomerate links , which as a consequence gives the ability to "" pursue "" strategic behaviour . Thus , it was enough to state , that a company is involved in anti competitive behaviour . Owning to this , as discussed in , and publication , above concerns are only reasonable if commercial either technical link exists , otherwise there would be no place for a conglomerate theory of harm . This approach was broadly criticised , because have established the threshold intervention on very low level , moreover have left a limited number of protective remedies for entities proving inability to act anti- competitively i.e. to technically tie products together and as a consequence , can not sell them "" only "" as a bundle . < fnote > Supra note , para < /fnote><fnote > Supra note , para < /fnote><fnote > Found in : / Amersham case , 's decision of < /fnote > In fact , as stated in case "" merger control must be carried out with great care , since it does not entail the examination of past events - for which often many items of evidence are available which make it possible to understand the causes - or of current events , but rather a prediction of events which are more or less likely to occur in future "" . < fnote > It was extremely difficult for the court to find a reasonable solution , with no former precedence , moreover because no guideline on conglomerates is still available . From the debate concerning the conglomerate merger guideline is not ended , more on this subject and whole discussion which suppose to be closed at may be found on :   URL   < /fnote><fnote > Commission v. [ 2003 ] 4 CMLR 768 ( , - th ) para . < /fnote><heading>""The anti - competitive effects and the treatment "" . < /heading > So called "" Portfolio effect "" may be created if a company possesses a wide range of "" similar "" products , not exactly on this same market and because of this fact more willingly , with greater financial flexibility can set promotions and discounts . Consequently tying or threat of a refusal to supply is more likely to occur . However , it would usually depend on different factors , i.e. how many brand leaders the holder of a portfolio possesses etc . < fnote > supra note , para , ; additionally it should be mention , that the 's decision in case was criticised not because of the adoption of portfolio effect , but because it did not stated without any doubts , what was illegal in entities acquisition of a "" wider portfolio of products "" . < /fnote > Leveraging in the context of conglomerate mergers control occurs when a company with a strong pre- existing position at market , acquires an entity performing on related or neighbouring market . Additionally this practice may be described as "" by which a company extends its market power existing in market to another market where it did not have this power previously"" . Thus , it is crucial to proof , that there is some chain of cause in examined entity 's conduct . However it is highly complex and complicated to show this dependence ( because ) the chains of cause and effect are dimly discernible , uncertain , and difficult to establish . "" < fnote > Leveraging is connected to an increase of market power but not in the way of combining existing pre - merger market powers , but trough shifting the market power "" by means of a number of conceivable leveraging practices "" ; based on : Sven ; "" Leveraging as a theory of competitive harm in merger control "" , Common Market Law Review . : June 2003.Vol.40 , Iss . ; pg . , < /fnote><fnote > ibid , para < /fnote><fnote > Commission v. , supra note , para . < /fnote > The desired standard of proof of leveraging was broadly debated in case . The 's conduct was based on the problem if particular entity will be likely to create dominant position , when the reasoning in para of its judgment required the proof of dominance in "" all likelihood ... in relatively near future . "" While proceeding in , the Commission was arguing that inconsistent with "" double symmetrical obligation""- standard of proof amounts to presumption of legality . While debating about the required standard of proof the stated that , because this type of merger has a prospective effect the quality of the evidence is very important , thus the needs to show that "" if particular decision would not have been taken , the economic development envisaged by it would be plausible "" .   < fnote > Additionally it was highly unclear if the possesses competence to decide or include in its reasoning theories like leveraging , when EMCR do not contain any specific provisions . What is more , there was no clear answer if such theories can and should be used under the in general , for instance as a law and policy matter ? < /fnote><fnote > Tetra Laval v. Commission case , [ ] II- 4381 [ 2002 ] 5 CMRL 1182 , para < /fnote><fnote > Sven B Völcker and Pablo Charro;""Tetra Laval - a landmark judgment on merger control "" published in issue of Competition Law Insight < /fnote><fnote > Tetra Laval v. Commission , supra note in ; "" Leveraging as a theory of competitive harm in merger control "" , This reasoning was not supported by Attorney General 's opinion , who stated that there is no need of "" double symmetrical obligation "" but the transaction must very probably "" lead to dominance "" . 2003.Vol.40 , Iss . < /fnote><fnote > ECJ also find it reasonable and correct conduct of CFI to rely upon a test applied in case , and consequently set similar requirements to those with regard to creation of collective dominance . < /fnote><fnote > Commission v. case , supra note , para < /fnote > The Court was also debating about the standards of an economic assessment . in case claimed that conglomerate merger examination calls for "" particularly close "" and "" precise "" analyzes supported by convincing evidence , while stated that it is a shift from requirement of "" cogent and consistent evidence "" . Finally , the set decision in general supporting the judgment stating that possesses the right to require "" close examination "" of relevant circumstances because of the fact , that the quality of evidence is particularly important in leveraging cases . < fnote > Tetra Laval v. Commission , supra note , para < /fnote><fnote > Case Kali und . v. , [ ] ECR , [ 1975 ] 2 CMLR < /fnote><fnote > Thus , a mere "" possibility "" was clearly not enough , because here the standard of proof remains an elusive issue ; v. case , supra note , para < /fnote > The CFI judgment was ruled in favor of , showing that the needs to be still aware of the power of courts , that they can at any time examine its conduct and decision . The highest explanations show , how difficult it is to foresee all consequences of decision , for example that the demand of "" close examination "" of pre merger situation by the will cause the "" paralyze "" of this authority and much work overload . Additionally , how complex case was and that no without any purpose is so called a "" landmark case "" . < fnote > However , as it was shown in the judgment , the made mistakes in its decision < /fnote > Unlikely to the opinion of Attorney General who stated that it is unpersuasive reasoning , The Commission was criticizing the CFI settlement , claiming incompatibility with structural nature of , difficulties with implementation and contradiction with of the main legal principle- the presumption of innocence . As a result , appealed to from the decision ,   hoping , that rejects the reasoning presented in the decision . < fnote > The Commission was also claiming that the was in a breach of the art . which gives the the wide discretion which "" it enjoys in assessing economic matters "" ( judgment ; para ) and do not need to provide the quality of evidence to prove their line of reasoning . < /fnote > ECJ was considering grounds of appeal , pointed by the . Therefore , decided that however the has a margin of discretion due to economic matters it does not mean that the and other courts in course of judicial review are not able to examine the 's interpretation . Concluding , it does not mean that the Courts were infringing the art . of as the Commission were claiming . Furthermore , that debated issue is so complex and extremely difficult also because of its prospective effects , that such a review is necessary . Conversely to the ground of appeal which was found irrelevant , the one was accepted partially . The debated issue was related to requirement of convincing , cogent and sufficient evidence established by while assessing a proposed merger . stated that however the likelihood of leveraging must be examined comprehensively , it "" would run counter to the main purpose of ECMR- prevention to require the "" to assess in each proposed merger a number of factors . As a consequence of the statement the required high probability of the facts occurrence would force to unnecessarily too detailed examination , and shift from relying on relevant fact to more speculative reasoning .   < fnote > Additionally , important task for the as was stating , is not to examine evidence but more to analyze whether the have taken all the substantial information into account . < /fnote><fnote > What the CFI in its judgment recognized correctly < /fnote><fnote > Commission v. [ 2003 ] 4 CMLR 768 ( , - th ) para < /fnote><fnote > Incentives , factors reducing its possibility , prospective unlawfulness of conduct etc . < /fnote><fnote > ECJ decided also that CFI have erred in law , while rejecting the 's statement as to the adoption by the merged company a conduct possibly resulting in leverage . < /fnote > The comparison to the case was hardly criticized by the , mainly because it was completely different from "" "" . The main reason was that in the concentration would cause the creation of a dominant duopoly and consequently impede the structure of the market and because of this the possibility of an abuse would be foreseeable . In my opinion this reasoning is highly reasonable . Unlikely to case were the carton market construction may be "" slightly changed "" , but as a matter of fact , did not cause the effective competition on this market , but on the market of equipment .   < fnote > Case T-102/96 , , judgment [ ] II-753 in : , "" law- text , cases and materials "" ; - rd edition ; < /fnote><fnote > Thus , the should be aware of leveraging that may occur on this market , not impeding the competition directly but in a longer period of time i.e. by the abusive conduct performed on the carton market ; v. case , supra note , para < /fnote > It has to be highlighted , that the judgment does not exclude prohibition of conglomerate mergers under the but put a rigid legal and practical constraints on the Commission in case of considering its prospective effect , basing on the theory of competitive harm . Owning to this , there is a need to show chain of cause and effect of such a conduct , what is more as the stated , supported by high quality of evidence , what is extremely important while considering potential , future effect . the deep analyzes of the effectiveness of behavioural commitments have to be performed . < fnote > Because of the fact that found the grounds of appeal relevant in a part , therefore it was unreasonable to annul the whole contested decision made by CFI . < /fnote><fnote > The Commission is not allowed to simply "" miss that step "" and not to consider its possible relevance , what is more push the Commission to reassess its methods of evaluating commitments in general . < /fnote > The Commission did not take into account the proposals made by the company , deciding that they are behavioral in nature , rejecting them without testing the market . This step taken by The Commission was criticized in course of judicial review- by , Attorney General and . All stated , that "" commitments would have substantially reduced scope for leveraging "" , what is more , the did not even try to check whether they would have been effective or not , deciding that they are "" pure promises "" , in general "" mere "" stating to refrain from acting in contravention of Community law and "" as such , they are not suitable to restore conditions of effective competition on a permanent basis ... , since they do not address the permanent change in the market structure created by the notified operation that causes these concerns ' and , that "" such behavioural promises are in contrast with the 's stated policy on remedies "" , moreover conversely to the main principle of . According to this , it would be very difficult to control it effectively . < fnote > Sven B. Völcker ; "" Conglomerate Merger Control after "" , , and , , -College d'Europe 2005 ; < /fnote><fnote > i.e. not to bundle , hold - separate of for , having no joint offers of carton products and machines < /fnote><fnote > Commission v. case , supra note , para < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , < /fnote > The alternative remedy for leveraging concerns is the ex- post merger control under the art . . However it raises the question , whether the post application would be sufficient examination . The explanation of the post- merger control is much clear- waiting allows the competition authorities to observe if the leveraging practices will occur and consequently what result they will cause . The availability of the ex- post remedies was accepted by the in its judgment in case .   < fnote > Sven B Volcker ; "" Leveraging as a theory of competitive harm in merger control "" , Common Market Law Review . : June 2003.Vol.40 , Iss . ; pg . , para < /fnote><fnote > Sometimes it may be very difficult to detect and prove some infringements because they are not substantial enough to reach the "" unfair "" point covered by art.82 , even though , the price increase can cause harm to consumers . The difference with leveraging is that if it has an exclusionary effect , will certainly fall under the prohibition . Additionally , leveraging is much more likely brought to the attention of rivals or competition authorities noticing changes on the market rapidly . Based on : Sven ; "" Leveraging as a theory of competitive harm in merger control "" , Common Market Law Review . : June 2003.Vol.40 , Iss . ; pg . , < /fnote > Leveraging practice usually tends to lower rivals ' profits by affecting its business but not in a way of directly increasing their costs . In the case of was considering if a new merged entity by widening its "" flexibility and capacity "" will not try to engage in "" tying , to structure its prices , promotions and discounts "" . Similar concerns were discussed in a case / were the was relying on "" the combined financial ability of the merged entity to cross- subsidize discounts across the products composing the packaged deal "" Moreover , as it was predicted by the in case the simple tying as a part of leveraging can even cause the decrease of prices . Thus , it may be difficult to observe how it convince a sufficient number of customers to purchase the tied good and as a result to achieve expected foreclosure , unless the merged entity reduces the price of the tying and possibly tied product . < fnote > For example trough diverting demand to the combined entity- ; "" Leveraging as a theory of competitive harm in merger control "" , Common Market Law Review . : June 2003.Vol.40 , Iss . ; pg . 581,para < /fnote><fnote > Guinness Metropolitan IV / M.938 , [ ] OJ L228/24 < /fnote><fnote > So called portfolio effect ; ibid , para < /fnote><fnote > GE/ Honeywell case , < /fnote><fnote > ibid , para < /fnote><fnote > Sven B Volcker ; "" Leveraging as a theory of competitive harm in merger control "" , Common Market Law Review . : June 2003.Vol.40 , Iss . ; pg . , < /fnote><heading > Conclusion</heading > It is very interesting issue , why practices such as leveraging occur more often on the than i.e. market ? competition authorities are less worried about the effect of conglomerate mergers . it is observed that companies operating on common market are afraid of legal constraints imposed by art . . Thus it is a questionable issue for if the present approach is reasonable and creates the desired effect on the market ? Maybe the Commission needs to provide a "" time- frame "" within which the effect of conglomerate merger should be considered , like it have indicated it in horizontal cases were "" countervailing factors "" arising after entities have merged , may be recognize as too speculative ? Therefore , the Commission "" predictive "" powers would be limited by the available evidence , thus all "" harming "" speculations possibly will not be taken into account ? It is hoped that the situation will be clarified in the nearest future and that the 's approach will follow the one . There is a need for setting up a threshold against which mergering companies would be able to examine their conduct in advance in order to be aware of problematic issues , raising competition concerns in conglomerate cases . < fnote > In , the 's decision of . < /fnote><fnote > Which emphasizes the need to prove that the potential harm , basing on the fact of the case , be likely to result from the merger ; supra note , page < /fnote >",0
"Society sometimes perceives overweight people as lazy , blaming them for not having enough willpower to stick to a healthy regime . However , weight control can be an uphill struggle , not only to lose weight , but then also to maintain it . It is proposed that our genes may give us a predisposition to store fat reserves , as evolution has led us to have a natural drive to eat as much as possible when food is available . However , in 's society , where food is so plentiful , it is easy to over consume . There are many biological factors that contribute to weight regulation ; homeostasis , certain brain structures , neurochemicals and metabolism have all been found to influence our weight . However , despite our genetic predispositions , it may be possible to overcome these biological factors through willpower . To understand weight loss , it is necessary to know how the body maintains weight . The regulatory systems that keep body weight constant are very efficient . This is the reason why weight loss can be very difficult and only those with exceptional willpower may be successful . The amount of body fat carried is regulated by homeostasis , which ensures that the internal state is kept within a critical range to avoid disruption and death of cells ( , lecture , ) . Weight regulation is controlled by a negative feedback loop , which produces behaviour oscillating around the ideal ' set point ' . We therefore eat to obtain nutrients when we are hungry , and stop when we are satiated . However , we often eat before we feel hungry and stop before we feel full . Thus , there must be other factors that influence our decisions to begin and end consumption . In the short - term , it seems that there is no single signal that is used exclusively ( , , ) though plasma glucose concentration , body temperature , plasma amino acids , cholecystokinin ( ) and other hormones can all control meal patterns by feelings hunger and satiety ( , ) . As for long - term regulation , studies on obese rats imply that there is a hormone that may be involved in the negative feedback loop . Adipose ( fat ) cells produce and secrete a protein neurochemical called leptin , which travels around the body via the bloodstream . There are specific receptors for leptin on the surface of many organs such as the liver , pancreas and the brain ( particularly in the choroid plexus and hypothalamic nuclei such as the lateral hypothamulus , and the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei ) . The brain seems to monitor the leptin levels to determine and control the amount of body fat ( , et al . , ) . In the hypothalamus , leptin binds to specific receptors in the arcuate nucleus , which causes a series of events to occur . By binding with the nucleus ' receptors , leptin inhibits the production and secretion of agouti - related peptide ( AGRP ) and neuropeptide Y ( NPY ) . The arcuate nucleus is then stimulated to send excitatory signals to the paraventricular nucleus , causing the to increase the appetite , decrease metabolism and stimulate the formation of adipose tissue . The binding of leptin also induces the release of melanocyte stimluating hormone ( -MSH ) that inhibits eating . As the leptin levels decrease , hunger is induced and weight may be gained ( , et al . , ) . However , once stimulated , the paraventricular nuclei also release corticotrophin - releasing hormone ( CRH ) to the posterior pituitary . The release of induces a release of adrenocorticotrophic hormone ( ACTH ) , which in turn increases the metabolic rate , and the speed of the breakdown of fat stores . ACTH stimulated the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids and stimulates the sympathetic nervous system . This results in suppressing hunger and an increased metabolic rate ( , ; , et al . , ; , ) . This explains how leptin controls weight by causing feelings of hunger and satiety . During starvation , leptin levels decrease , eliciting a behavioural , neurochemical and metabolic response . Weight gain increases leptin levels and induces a different response , leading to a state of negative energy balance . During dieting leptin levels fall , which may account for the low success rate of dieting , as low leptin is likely to stimulate weight gain ( , ) . If the control of body weight were exclusively attributable to biological processes then we would naturally eat a completely balanced diet and have no real preferences for foods . It appears that the hypothalamus is important in the regulation of body weight . However , it is not only associated with lower level processes in the body , it also incorporates higher - level processes such as possible cognitive influences from higher brain areas , suggesting that there may be non - homeostatic influences over eating control . There is considerable evidence that a person does not purely feel hungry as a result of the body 's homeostatic function . External factors such as learned behaviour can be extremely powerful over seemingly biological drives . Investigations into learned eating behaviour in rats appear to display this influence . After of feeding at a certain time , the rats displayed behaviour of expecting food , even when they had just been fed ( , lecture , th ) . This suggests that after a relatively short period of time behaviour concerning eating can be learned and apparently override the internal drives of satiety . This evidence would strongly imply that a person has considerable control over their weight and the ability to lose weight ; if behaviour regarding eating can be learned in a matter of days , forming new eating habits or reversing old habits ought to be possible . The hypothalamus also receives important input from the amygdala , which is involved in emotional processes . We have seen in the case of learned behaviour , if pleasurable food is expected , people can experience a renewed feeling of hunger even after finishing a large meal . Similarly , if a person is given a highly monotonous diet they experience less feelings of hunger and eat less . This was supported by the fact that children eat less single coloured sweets than multicoloured ones ( Rolls , , ) . This sensory specific satiety phenomenon contradicts the theory that external factors do not have much influence over eating behaviour . Hence , the use of motivation to control what a person eats could result in weight loss . Motivation can influence what a person consumes , however overcoming cravings can be a fundamental problem for people trying to lose weight and is commonly where willpower fails . A substantial number of obese individuals have indicated that their inability to lose weight resulted from excessive snacking due to cravings for sweets ( , , , ) . A direct link between overeating and decreased serotonin levels , ( , ) has suggested that these cravings could be due to a drop in serotonin levels in the brain . is a neurotransmitter that regulates several vital mood processes in the body , including eating patterns . High levels of serotonin are associated with satiety , whereas reduced levels have been found to cause depression and also feelings of hunger . Therefore the body does its best to maintain a high level of serotonin . is produced in the body via 5 - Hydroxy Tryptophan ( - HTP ) . Its precursor , the amino acid tryptophan , can only be provided via the food we consume . As a result these foods tend to be craved by the body in order to elevate serotonin levels , and in turn improve mood . However , in order to have a significant effect on serotonin levels , the intake of these tryptophan - containing foods needs to be sufficiently high . Unfortunately , these foods tend to have a high carbohydrate and fat content . Evidence for this comes from the fact that obese individuals show low levels of serotonin and crave high carbohydrate foods to make themselves feel better ( , ) . In reference to this theory alone , if our desire to eat unhealthy foods is solely attributable to cravings , sufficient amounts of will power should be able to suppress these desires , and therefore weight may be lost . However , suppressing cravings will only have a short - term effect on body weight . If the main reason for these cravings is due to a feeling of unhappiness , caused by a lack of serotonin , methods of raising serotonin levels may be more effective in the long term . Recent research has suggested that serotonin levels can be increased through exercise ( , ) . Therefore , with a degree of will power we should be able to suppress our cravings and exercise instead , which would not only raise serotonin levels but also help towards weight loss by burning calories and possibly even increasing metabolism . Metabolism is an important factor in losing weight . If the basal metabolism increases , more energy is used up , leading to greater energy expenditure than energy intake , ultimately resulting in weight loss . Is our metabolic rate set or can it be wilfully controlled ? Basal metabolism is a biological mechanism that may be genetically predetermined by , for example , gender . Women have been found to have lower resting metabolic rates ( RMRs ) than males ( , , ) . Other factors that a person does not have wilful control over include a decreased basal metabolic rate with age ( , ) , and during menstruation , with the lowest point occurring before ovulation ( Solomon , , ) . However the lower metabolic rate that is found with old age may be less associated with age itself and more a result of reduced physical activity ( Van Pelt , , ) . Exercise is believed to help increase metabolic rate . Melby , ( ) found post exercise metabolic rate ( PEMR ) to be higher than following of strenuous resistive exercise , and remained higher than the until after exercising . This shows that strenuous resistive exercise can raise for a relatively long period of time . So the ideal time to eat is after exercise , when the metabolic rate is highest , resulting in a faster breakdown of food , with the maximum possible calorie expenditure . Thus by choosing an appropriate time to eat and by exercising , a person can increase their metabolic rate . A person can also control what they eat ; it has been found that eating fat is linked to weight gain , whereas choosing carbohydrates and proteins not only satisfies appetite better , but also increases the metabolism ( , ) . Fluids as well as food can increase metabolic rate ; drinking 500ml of water can increase metabolic rate by ( , , Adams , Sharma , , ) . So although metabolic rate is a biological mechanism , which is genetically determined , the person can wilfully influence it , by altering their lifestyle and enable weight loss to take place . The social aspect of eating behaviour which influences hunger and satiety levels is largely learned and therefore could theoretically be altered . In the same way , it seems that willpower could potentially suppress cravings and over - ride intrinsic metabolic rates . However , whilst the discussed biological factors do play an important role in weight regulation , the underlying mechanisms such as homeostasis give us an evolutionary predisposition to prevent weight loss , making it difficult to lose weight . Considering all these factors , though willpower contributes to weight loss , wilful changes on behaviour seem to have a relatively small impact and are difficult to sustain . It appears that eating behaviour is largely biologically driven and the notion that weight loss is exclusively a matter of willpower is too naïve .","< heading > A disease slowly destroys your oligodendroglia cells</heading > Oligodendroglia cells are held in the sheath of , which covers myelin and provides insulation to the neurons in the central nervous system . The axon of each neuron is protected by a myelin sheath , this ensures the transmission of signals and allows nerve impulses to be propagated to the next neuron . This mylelination has a strong impact on behaviours as it profoundly increases the velocity of nerve impulses and thereby affects the temporal order of events in the nervous system ( Biological Psychology , , p. ) . Normal transmissions are so fast and automatic that it is hard to accept a delay between a thought and a muscle contraction . The speed of nerve conduction due to the presence of the oligodendroglia cells is up to ( Psychology 5 th ed . , p.51 ) . The myelin sheath around the axon is made up from principle proteins , the myelin basic protein and the proteolipid protein . Without the oligodendroglia cells forming myelin , nerve signals would become slowed or even completely blocked , thus causing symptoms of . In MS T - cells from the immune system become sensitised to the myelin basic protein and begin to attack it , this causes the body to try and repair the situation . Therefore in the initial stages of MS the oligodendroglia cells are not destroyed , but produce more myelin to compensate for the myelin being attacked . This causes the symptoms of MS to disappear , but only until the myelin degenerates again . In later stages of MS the oligodendroglia cells are destroyed , this produces multiple demyelinated areas on the axons of the neurons and eventually a person with MS develops areas of scarring where the healthy myelin once used to be . These areas of scaring cause lesions to appear in seemingly random areas of the white matter and because the severity of MS depends on the location and extent to which these lesions occur , the type of symptoms can vary ( URL ) . Myelination slows down the speed of conduction of neural impulses and thus can cause slowness of movement and loss of sensory abilities ( , , p. ) . Also with the insulation gone , the messages being carried by the axons are no longer kept separate and this results in the sensory disorders and the loss of muscular control ( , p.29 ) . Other symptoms of multiple sclerosis include numbness , difficulty with speech , muscle spasms and coordination problems . These problems with movement occur because the loss of the oligodendroglia cells weaken the electrical impulses from the brain and sometimes fail to transmit them at all . < heading > b ) A tumour destroys the fusiform gyrus in your right temporal lobe</heading > The fusiform gyrus can be found in the medial part of the occipital lobe situated in the right temporal lobe . It is used in performing sensory discrimination of emotional stimuli and the activation of the fusiform has been reported during the perception of faces . Also several studies have demonstrated that a particular region within the fusiform gyrus , the fusiform face area , responds in a highly selective way to face stimuli . The fusiform gyrus has function , it holds the functional region responsible for colour , and is used in the identification of faces and in the recognition of facial expressions ( URL ) . Damage to the fusiform gyrus can disrupt an individual 's ability to retrieve information especially visual memories , such as the remembered face of a friend . If a tumour destroys the fusiform gyrus of the right temporal lobe then the left visual field will be affected . A lesion in the fusiform gyrus is associated with the loss of colour perception ; this is known a central achromatopsia . Patients are usually aware of the deficit and report the world as being grey or ' dirty ' and it can also affect colour more than another ( braincampus.com ) . Another consequence of damage to the fusiform gyrus is prosopagnosia ; this is a disorder where the patient is unable recognise faces . Patients can identify faces but they do not recognise whose face is present before them , they may not even recognise their own face in the mirror . involves both the temporal and parietal lobes but mainly originates from damage to the fusiform gyrus . Even though patients have difficulty in recognising faces there is a marked difference if a face is made psychologically ' stronger ' by for example , presenting faces that are linked . Patients with prosopagnosia may also have difficulty in distinguishing between particular objects of the same class , e.g. makes of cars ( , , p.187 ) . The fusiform gyrus is also related to facial expressions . A person with a damaged fusiform gyrus also has problems in recognising facial expressions of basic emotions and my find it difficult distinguishing between anger and frustration . < heading > c ) The cells in the substantia nigra degenerate</heading > The substantia nigra is a group of neurons in the region of the midbrain whose axons go to the basal ganglia . The cell bodies of the dopamine system lie within this region and are involved in motor control via the basal ganglia and in particular to the striatum cells of the substantia nigra . The nerve cells in the substantia nigra communicate with other cells on the nearby striatum by releasing the neurotransmitter dopamine at the nerve terminals , which is also synthesised there and is the area of the brain that controls movement and balance ( URL ) . The basal ganglia usually impose constraints on motor control , but the absence of these constraints yields persistent excess of movement or slowness of movement and marked changes in muscle tone ( Biological Psychology , , ) . The degeneration of the cells in the substantia nigra causes involuntary repetitive movements of the hand and arm , now known as Parkinson 's disease . The cell bodies of dopamine that originate in the substantia nigra are no longer produced if the cells in the substantia nigra degenerate , this therefore causes a pronounced decrease in the dopamine content of the basal ganglia . People with Parkinson 's disease inexplicably lose of the dopamine producing cells in the substantia nigra ( URL ) . Without dopamine the substantia nigra striatum can not send out certain messages as they are unable to travel across the nerve connection , and it is this that leads to Parkinson 's . The disease is described as a severe disorder of movement that involves tremors of the fingers , slowness of movement and problems with maintaining posture . There can also be a loss of facial muscle tone and general difficulty in all motor efforts . There are many symptoms for Parkinson 's disease but they vary substantially from person to person , making diagnosis quite difficult . L - dopa ( the precursor to dopamine ) is administered to increase levels of dopamine in the brain in order to reduce the symptoms of Parkinson 's disease . L - dopa enhances dopamine levels of the surviving cells but because the cell bodies in the brain stem degenerate , dopamine - containing terminals also disappear . Eventually too few dopamine - containing neurons remain in the substantia nigra to be influenced by the intake of L - dopa ( Biological Psychology , , p.353 ) . Therefore L - dopa only relieves the symptoms and because the degeneration of the substantia nigra is progressive , there is no cure as yet . Recent reports have suggested that a more permanent cure would be to transplant new dopamine neurons from embryonic brains ( , , ) . < heading > d ) Your mamillary bodies cease to function</heading > The mamillary bodies receive information from the hippocampus and are reciprocally connected to the anterior thalamic nucleus and the midbrain . These structures seem to play an important role in the memory process and have been described as ' a narrow funnel through which connections from the midbrain as well as the temporal lobe neo cortex and limbic system gain access to the frontal lobes . ' ( et al . , ) . 's syndrome occurs due to neuronal loss in the mamillary bodies and is associated with cell shrinkage in a particular nucleus of the thalamus and the mamillary bodies . Mairal . ( ) examined patients and found that both brains showed shrunken , diseased mamillary bodies . It is distinguished by confusion and a deficit in storing new information ( anterograde amnesia ) . This type of amnesia is usually caused by chronic alcoholism . The alcohol prevents the liver from metabolising the vitamin thiamine , which causes a thiamine deficiency , which in turn leads to the breakdown and loss of neurons , and because neurons are not replaced the damage is irreversible . Therefore 's involves a progressive degeneration of brain tissue ( , , ) . The dysfunction of the mamillary bodies causes the patient to fail to recall many items or events in the past , if the item is presented again , the patient does not feel familiar with it . They often show disorientation to time and place and may confabulate ( fill a gap in memory with a falsification that they seem to accept as true ) ( Biological Psychology , , p.541 ) . Patients with this disorder usually suffer from some retrograde amnesia as well , but their primary deficit is the inability to store any new information in long - term memory . The symptoms are similar to those of people with damage to the prefrontal cortex , including apathy , confusion and memory impairment . Like most patients with damage to the frontal - lobes , 's patients have trouble recalling the temporal order of events , for example they can not recall which of a series of world events happened the furthest in the past or which happened most recently , they also can not recall which events from their own lives happened a long time ago and which ones happened recently . Treatment with thiamine can sometimes improve the conditions , but the longer a person has remained thiamine deficient before treatment , the poorer the chances for recovery .",1
"Obesity has fast become an epidemic in the with the number of cases trebling over . of men and of women in the are overweight or obese . 2 Obesity is linked to many forms of life - threatening illnesses , the most prevalent being coronary heart disease , type diabetes , osteoarthritis , cancer and high blood pressure . The seriousness of these illnesses suggests that obesity poses a substantial burden on the economy . This is confirmed in the 's estimates in where obesity was responsible for of sickness and deaths over . Costs to the NHS were estimated at with wider costs to the economy due to the loss of labour at . These figures may not seem extortionate but it is important to bear in mind that the obese population is still young and so the effects on the economy are likely to be more profound in time . < fnote and information from lecture given by of the office on < /fnote><fnote>2 statistics ( ) title[online ] available from : URL   URL   [ Accessed 04/11/05 ] < /fnote><fnote></fnote><fnote>2 * ' Value added tax ' Available from URL :   URL   < /fnote > Introducing a value added tax on fat is one of many suggestions designed to curve obesity levels , addressing the issue by attempting to reduce the amount of fat in people 's diets through increasing the price of foods containing high levels of saturated fats . Examples of these foods include ; full fat milk , cheese , butter , biscuits , buns , pastries and ice - cream . < fnote>3 ( , ) Fat tax ' could save lives ' [ online ] Available from : URL :   URL   [ Accessed 04/11/05 ] < /fnote > VAT is a tax levied at each stage of production and distribution where value is added to the good or service . Registered firms pay VAT when buying from suppliers ( input tax ) and charge VAT when selling to customers ( output tax ) . The net VAT ( the difference between the input and output taxes ) is paid to customs and excise while the end consumer pays the full amount of the tax . * < fnote></fnote > recently claimed that such a tax could help prevent premature deaths from heart disease in the . * It is based on the theory that consumers will chose to buy the cheaper , lower fat alternatives which will improve their health , in turn reducing costs and creating a stronger labour force , with the end result of strengthening the economy . It could however , be argued that a larger percentage of people who die from obesity are approaching retirement age which means that the economy does not lose out in terms of productivity but actually gains from not having to grant pensions . < fnote>3 * ( , , ) Government unit ' urges fat tax ' Available from : URL :   URL   [ Accessed 04/11/05 ] < /fnote><fnote></fnote > Food is generally exempt from VAT because it is an essential commodity ; however , policies , particularly the ( ) have impacted on food prices . a deficiency payments policy was used to support the 's agricultural sector . Designed to increase farmers ' incomes , it involved the government setting guaranteed prices to farmers ( above world market prices ) for their goods . If the price of the good fell short of the market price then the difference would be made up to the farmer . In terms of influencing consumer choice the deficiency payments policy has the effect of pushing up food prices and therefore reducing consumer surplus . ( See fig . ) Other effects of the policy can also be seen and are later discussed . < fnote>4 The economics effects of farm policies and the history of the [ online ] Available from : URL : URL   [ Accessed 04/11/05 ] < /fnote><figure/>In the joined the which practices ) , a different system used to support farmers . uses variable import levies ( a tax on imports from outside the ) and subsidises exports from the in order to protect farmers from foreign competition by raising the domestic price above world market price . This means that consumers pay much higher prices for commodities than the rest of the world , examples include and meat products which are twice the global market price and sugar costing times as much 1 . < fnote></fnote><fnote></fnote > In the beginning , the introduced subsidies to encourage the production of specific goods in order to help secure availability of supplies . These goods included sugar , dairy products and meat . argued , in a statement published in The Telegraph in , that the systems of agricultural subsidy introduced by the ' have made fatty , sugary , chemicalised food artificially cheap . ' 5 Admittedly , healthier foods such as fresh fruit and vegetables were not given the same support from the but this actually meant that the price of these goods remained low . In contrast the prices of sugary , fatty foods were pushed up , for example butter became more expensive relative to margarine . < fnote>5 Lecture ' The and the consumer , the taxpayer and the food industries ' Professor [ 04/11/05 ] < /fnote><fnote></fnote > So from a health perspective the could be considered advantageous . It could be argued that without the , foods high in saturated fats would be cheaper and therefore encourage unhealthy eating . However , if there was no the world market price would move up to meet the falling domestic market prices resulting in a still higher than equilibrium price so this outcome is unlikely . Current amendments in the such as the reform are beginning to bring the price of goods such as butter down but it is unlikely that they will be reduced significantly enough to become cheaper relative to healthier alternatives . < fnote></fnote > Introducing a VAT on foods containing high levels of saturated fats is likely to lead to a fall in supply of these goods and a consequent reduction in the quantity demanded . In other words the size of the market for the goods will shrink . In order to determine whether the reduction in demand is significant in terms of influencing consumer choice we need to look at the elasticity of demand for high fat foods . Most fatty foods such as milk and cheese are considered necessities ( or close to ) for which it is assumed consumers would have an inelastic demand . confirms this assertion , recently stating "" ... acknowledging that people largely enjoy foods that are high in fat is vital , as few people would seriously consider avoiding these foods altogether . "" 7 < fnote>6 Anderton , A. ( ) ' Economics'2 nd edition . Lancashire : . Unit 47 ' Taxation ' pages . < /fnote><fnote>6 * ( ) , honorary clinical lecturer . ; ): - 305 . Exploring a fiscal food policy : the case of diet and ischaemic heart disease : Available from URL :   URL : [ Accessed ] 7 ( , ) Fat tax ' could save lives ' [ online ] Available from : URL :   URL   [ Accessed 04/11/05 ] < /fnote > Economists believe that when the price of a good rises , consumers will substitute towards the relatively cheaper alternatives ( the substitution effect ) . This , however , works on the assumption that consumers are initially indifferent between the goods . Consumers are clearly not indifferent between fatty foods and non - fatty foods and so the substitution effect is only present to a certain extent . < fnote>8 Perloff .J.M [ 2004 ] ' Microeconomics ' 3 rd . Applying consumer theory ' pages . < /fnote > Despite having insinuated that these particular goods are near necessities , a consumer 's response to the increase in price will still depend slightly on their individual income elasticises of demand . The tax will have a greater impact on low income families because they spend a larger proportion of their income on food than rich people so are more sensitive to price changes . * Poorer people are likely to be forced into substituting fatty foods for cheaper alternatives . From an equity point of view it is unfair that the tax bears down more heavily on low income families . Proposals have been made to compensate for this imbalance , for example diverting some of the VAT revenue generated into low - income benefits . This however , results in restoring the poor people 's spending power in which case they are likely to buy exactly the same bundles of food that they were consuming in the place . It also ignores those on low incomes but not poor enough to be claiming benefits . < fnote></fnote > At the other end of the spectrum are the high income consumers who , generally speaking , have high standards of living and are interested in maintaining their long term health in order to enjoy their status , but who equally can afford to choose not to adjust their purchases regardless of the increase in prices . * < fnote></fnote > Poor people who may be struggling to survive on a day - to - basis and may therefore be less concerned with long term health issues may well view fatty foods as a huge comfort in such a desperate environment in which case a price increase is unlikely to deter consumption . * This scenario is demonstrated in the case of cigarettes . Despite rising taxes on tobacco , smoking remains more prevalent amongst the less affluent . * < fnote></fnote><fnote>7 * , information officer : ; ): . , : VAT and fat : Will sales tax influence consumption ? Available from URL :   URL   [ Accessed ] < /fnote > The purpose of introducing a VAT on fat is to influence consumer choice . Consumer surplus will inevitably fall as a result but so too will producer surplus . Which bares the burden of the tax will depend on the elasticity of both supply and demand . The tax burden will fall on side of market that is less elastic . In this scenario both supply and demand are relatively inelastic for the same reasons therefore it is fair to assume that the impact of the tax is likely to be spread fairly equally between producers and consumers . This suggests that the tax will have to be substantially high in order to have any impact on consumer choice , which again raises the equity issue , as the poor would be the hardest hit . As in the case of and DP schemes , creating a binding price floor for a good creates a surplus of the good 10 ( see figure page ) . The price increase of goods as a result of the led to huge surpluses which became known as wine lakes and grain mountains . The responded to this problem in a variety of ways ; from selling wheat mountains to world countries at very low prices , selling it back to farmers to feed animals , offering it at reduced prices to those in need within the , destroying the produce and introducing quotas to limit the amounts of milk and dairy produce . * A VAT on fat is also likely to result in a surplus , this time of fatty foods , which may then lead to the introduction of quotas on production of these goods and perhaps government intervention to buy up the excess supply . < fnote>8 * Anderton , A. ( ) ' Economics'2 nd edition . Lancashire : . Unit 47 ' Taxation ' pages . Mankiw N.G.(2004 ) ' Principles of Economics ' : . , demand and government policies ' Pages 114 - 117 . < /fnote><fnote></fnote > Having seen the likely impact that a VAT on fat will have on food choice and diet , the tax can now be assessed in terms of whether it will effectively meet the objective of reducing obesity levels . If it were assumed that the tax would influence consumer spending , despite the contrary being more probable , substitutions between foods faced by low income families as a result of the tax might reduce a consumer 's fat intake , lowering their risk of obesity related diseases but at the same time could pose other health risks such as malnutrition . For example consumers may be forced to substitute full fat milk for skimmed milk which contains considerably less of vitamins A and They are fat soluble vitamins so are removed with the fat . None the less they are essential vitamins for healthy vision , teeth and bones . * < fnote>9 ( , ) Fat tax ' could save lives ' [ online ] Available from : URL :   URL   [ Accessed 10 * Vitamins A and and Minerals : Available from URL :   URL   [ Accessed 04/11/05 ] < /fnote > These families may also be forced to buy other unhealthier alternatives , for example Ice - creams that contain less fat often include more sugar . is stored as fat if it is not burned off by the consumer and can also lead to other health problems , so whether the will actually save on NHS costs or help to reduce obesity levels is negligible . Recent research has shown that even consumers that are likely to switch to lower fat alternatives in at least some products tend to eat higher quantities of food to compensate so that they end up taking on board the same levels of fat anyway , so again the impact of the tax on tackling the problem of obesity is questionable . < fnote></fnote > A vat on fat assumes that obesity is caused purely by the amount of fat people consume . This is not the case . Despite the recent rise in obesity levels , shows that fat consumption in the has actually fallen . Consumption of butter per week in was g but g in . Total fat consumption follows the same pattern , falling from g per person per week in to g in . 11The heart foundation also highlights the relative innocence of fat as a sole cause of obesity ; "" Individual foods that are high in fat , eaten occasionally , within the context of a balanced diet that is low in overall fat should not pose a health risk for the majority of people . ""12 < ( Published 04 ) Dr ' Fat tax : will it beat the nation 's bulge ? ' Available from : URL : URL   [ Accessed 14/11/05 ] < /fnote><fnote>12 ( , ) Fat tax ' could save lives ' [ online ] Available from : URL :   URL   [ Accessed 04/11/05 ] < /fnote > There is much debate over the causes of obesity in the , with evidence to suggest psychological , physiological , genetic , hormonal , drug - related and environmental links which together highlight the need for a multidisciplinary approach in targeting the problem . In summary , the introduction of a VAT on foods high in saturated fats is not likely to impact on consumer 's food choices and diet sufficiently to reduce obesity levels and their costs to the economy due to the 's relatively inelastic demand for fatty foods and the limitations of the policy with regard to the wider causes of the epidemic .","Currently there are crime novels in the top of the list , which demonstrates that crime novels are very successful within the general fiction market . The crime fiction in the list employ many different styles , with ' Dead Run ' by focusing on the thriller aspect , whereas by is primarily about the detective work . However , there are many titles with a degree of humour and light heartedness , such as books by . My novel , ' Straight to the Heart ' is aimed at men , 25 - 45 , and will hopefully attract a broader range of person . The title relates to the vein that runs from the wedding ring finger to the heart . This is relevant as severed ring fingers are delivered to the protagonist . However , it also relates to the common phrase "" straight from the heart "" indicating that the crimes committed are ones of passion . The style is appropriate for this target audience , as it is informal and has an edge of humour . It also addresses issues that the target audience will be concerned with . My novel has aspects of both thriller and detective novels , using a detective as a protagonist investigating the crime . This is similar to work by and . The thriller aspect is introduced into the novel through the actual murders . Therefore , men would be interested in both the thriller of the crimes , but could also relate to the life of the protagonist . The style and target audience is synonymous to that of , and therefore will offer an alternative for fans of . As a woman , I will be using my initial only , as men may be less inclined to buy a book by a female author . I have chosen Abacus , an imprint of , to publish my novel , as they have a list of impressive authors from many genres , such as and . However , more relevant is , author of ' The No . and . As my work is similar to aspects of the work of these authors , I feel that it will be suitable for their list . Abacus have published and advertised novels well , and focused heavily on the locality of his books , which I feel will be a suitable technique to apply when publishing my work . When marketing my novel , I would suggest using normal marketing strategies , such as speaking directly to bookshops , and convincing them to display my book outward facing when on the shelves . This would highlight my book within the shelf . If possible , it would be useful to persuade bookshops in my local area , , to display my novel on the counter or in the window in a ' local authors ' display . This would be suitable as my work is heavily focused on the location of . Another way in which my book could be advertised is to use promotional posters in bookshops and libraries . However , this could be costly if this strategy was employed on a national basis . Therefore , it may be more suitable to use posters in local bookshops and libraries , once again highlighting the importance of the location of my book . Interviews would also be a way of marketing my book successfully , once again making use of the local interest . Appearing on local radio shows , both in , my home , and , where I study , would create an awareness of myself and my novel , and hopefully encouraging sales . Advertisements in the newspaper would be a cheap and effective form of advertising , as students would be able to relate to my life as a student at , and this will generate interest within the student community . To coincide with this , it may be suitable to conduct an author discussion at local bookshops . This would enable potential readers to learn about the background of the book , and why it was written . It will also give readers a chance to ask questions about the novel . Although a time author , I feel this would be a popular event , as I would be a local author , and it would create the possibility for readers to explore the novel in greater depth . Book reviews in newspapers and magazines would also be a useful marketing strategy . It would be preferable if this technique was conducted on a national scale , but this may not be possible , and may be more realistic to aim for local newspapers . In either scenario book reviews are very useful , as many people trust the views of the reviewer , and if the book has been tried and tested , people will be more willing to try it . Finally , I feel that a great way to promote my novel would be to acquire celebrity endorsement . This may be an effective idea , using celebrities such as and to recommend my book , as part of a ' local talent ' campaign within and surrounding areas .",0
"The practise of ) is crucial to ensure that any business is being run to its full capacity and that the maximum revenue is being gained . can be defined as ; < quote > "" ... the process of allocating the right type of capacity to the right kind of customer at the right price so as to maximise revenue "" ( Kimes , 1989;5)</quote > Airlines were the to introduce with the development of ( Advanced Purchase Excursion ) and many customers commonly accept it , however it is not so readily accepted in the industry and in particular hotels ; "" charging different prices ... [is ] not viewed as particularly unfair in the airline industry , but may be seen as unfair in the hotel industry "" ( ; , ) . This essay will address these issues and find solutions to ensure that all types of customers are kept satisfied whilst is still being practised . This is significant for , where customer satisfaction is hugely important and integrating alongside is vital . Wirtz et al ( ) supports this view ; "" ... if a firm is to be successful with revenue management , customer loyalty must not be compromised "" . Kimes ( ) also states ; "" If customers perceive hotel revenue management practises as unfair , the increased revenue from such practises may only be short term "" . This essay will address the issues surrounding within , and provide recommendations to ensure that all types of customers perceive the practise to be both fair and reasonable . Revenue maximisation is greatly important , however customers are equally so , and getting the balance correct between and ( CRM ) is crucial . CRM can be defined as ; "" the art of using historical , personal , and experiential information to personalize a guest 's stay while generating incremental revenue opportunities "" ( ; ) . The hospitality industry is vast and a different style of is required for each area . What works for the Cruise Lines would be very different for who can rely on walk - ins and can practise over- booking . Cruise Lines can not over book , it is very hard to ' walk ' customers to another ship , and a different style of has to be used . Within hotels there are many different services , the main amount of revenue from the rooms side , but also much revenue gain from other services such as the restaurants/ conferences/ leisure activites . The main revenue source for hotels is shown in app "" ? "" . This diversity can cause difficulty when assessing a customers ' value to the hotel ' . Valuing customers is greatly important and many hotel chains have implemented reward schemes , for example Rewards or ; "" As a fundamental component of its CRM strategy , an organisation must establish a means of ranking customers to identify the most valuable and then servicing them differently "" ( Noone et al ; , ) . It is crucial that customers perceive to be treated fairly by hotels ; this can create major issues when hotels are looking at maximising revenue . Managers that focus on the maximisation of revenue without consideration for CRM can risk offending customers and have damaging effects to the hotels long term success ; "" Focussing on efficient use of resources may take managerial attention away from service , resulting in a loss of customers at considerable financial cost "" ( ; , ) . procedures significantly increases revenue , however the practises used to do this that can cause the controversy . Overbooking is such technique . Acccording to Wirtz et al ( , ) "" If a customer is involuntarily displaced the costs can be enormous , including the potential of future lost business and poor word of mouth "" . However in comparison and ( ) argue that overbooking not only helps hotels to reduce potential revenue lost due to ' no shows ' but it creates an under sale opportunity cost for the unsold room . Other techniques also include , closed to arrival controls , increasing the rack rate and selling at ' discount ' , and controls on length of stay . These encourage business over quieter periods and prevent lower paying guests staying for , displacing higher paying guests . This could be viewed as unfair by loyal , but lower paying customers displaced by a higher paying customer ; "" Customers believe that the value to the firm should equal the value to the customer "" ( ; ) . For this reason revenue managers need to ensure that this practised along with CRM . When implementing into a hotel it is important that all types of customers , perceive the practise as both fair and reasonable . Below are recommendations for the hotel ; ( ) The rate quoted to each customer is based on his or her value to the organisation , rather than being quoted different rates each time they stay which can be perceived as unfair . Assessing each customer on a individual basis customers will understand that the more they spend the more benefits they receive ; "" clear communication of hotel revenue management practises to customers can reduce the possible conflict created by the practices "" ( , , and , A ; , ) . However the hotel would need to ensure that provisions have been made to implement this strategy ; "" the challenge in using lies in the establishment of an appropriate methodology for assigning costs to customers and the estimation of customer lifetime duration "" ( Noone et al ; ) with this also comes the aspect of training up staff to use the system effectively . Offering Packages Hides the room rate and just shows the price for the entire package ; "" makes price comparisons between the bundles in its components impossible , and thereby side steps potential unfairness perceptions "" ( et al ; , ) . Customers know exactly what they are getting and it is a set price so no price discrimination will occur . Rate fences Different priced room rates depending on the flexibility of the customer ; "" The more restrictions the customer is willing to accept the deeper the discount available "" ( , ; ) . Many hotels practise this type of ( app . ? ! ! ) . Some argue that variable room rates can result in perceived unfairness , however if the hotel ensures that the customer is aware of the different rates , with differing restrictions available should reduce this ; "" providing information on the hotel 's pricing practices should enable customers to understand the reasons for differences in prices , and thus increase their judgements of fairness "" ( , S. , Mattila , A ; , ) . Customer perceptions of fairness are crucial to , which is centred on the customer and high standards of service . However along with this is the importance for . As discussed should not be conducted on it 's own but integrated in hotels alongside , ensuring that all types of customers perceive practices as fair and reasonable . The recommendations for the hotel are suited to all types of customers . The suiting customers such as business professionals , packages for families , couples , and perhaps even tour groups , and the rate fences for lower paying customers . There are different views on the practise of , and businesses must decide which is best both for profit and customer satisfaction .","< heading > Referral information Source of referral and a summary of key information</heading > Admitted as an emergency on   with acute severe abdominal pain . < heading > History All relevant information gathered from the patient about the presenting illness , co - existing problems , and current treatment , significant past medical history and the social and family background . The patient 's view of the nature of the problem and their expectations for treatment . < /heading > Miss   was diagnosed with Crohn 's Disease in . A severe generalised abdominal pain , "" sharp and stabbing "" in nature that came on in the evening , and resulted in admission was described . At its worst , she gave it a severity of , and felt it was constant . It was partially relieved by the oral morphine she was already prescribed , but on admission she required a further I.V bolus . There were no aggravating factors . Miss   had also been vomiting prior to admission , but could not describe her vomitus as she was drowsy . On of admission , Miss   felt her bowel habit had been normal at . She had not observed her stool . Miss   had no problems swallowing foods or liquids . She had recently had a decreased appetite which she described as a typical prodrome to a ' flare up ' of her Crohn 's Disease , but felt this was not as bad as normal . She felt she had been suffering from a temperature over , but had not recorded it . She had not lost any weight recently . Before admission , she stated she felt "" tired all the time "" before and during her ' flare ups ' . Describing these exacerbations , she said she suffers from - 2 minor episodes , which are usually managed by bed rest and a low dose of steroids from her GP . She has had major flare ups in , which both required admission . Miss   intermittently suffers from mouth ulcers , but does not suffer from other rashes or conjunctivitis . Referring to her original diagnosis , Miss   had attended the after losing a considerable amount of weight ; when finally admitted in she was stones , and had constant abdominal pain . Miss   pays careful attention to her diet and is aware that nuts , digestive biscuits , and uncooked vegetables exacerbate her symptoms . Miss   had a right hemicolectomy in to resect part of her diseased colon . Unfortunately , there were pot - operative complications including septicaemia and subsequent respiratory failure requiring admission . Her left knee fused as a result of septic arthritis in the joint , and that winter she fell on ice and fractured her left hip . Miss   also has osteoporosis secondary to long - term steroid use . Otherwise , she has no other medical history of note . There is no family history of inflammatory bowel disease , and no other relevant family history . Miss   is currently prescribed ( mg qds po ) Azathioprine ( mg od po ) Domperidone ( mg tds po ) , Folic acid ( 5 mg od po ) Oromorph ( mls bd po ) Co - codamol ( tablets qds prn ) Alendronate ( mg mane po ) Amytriptyline ( 75 mg nocte po ) , Fluoxitine ( mg mane po ) . Miss   lives at home with her parents . She works as a receptionist ; and has had to take a considerable amount of time off . Fortunately , her employer is understanding . She is a smoker with a pack history . She does not drink . A systems review was unremarkable . < heading > Analysis of history The most likely single cause of the presentation , other possible causes and reasons for these choices . < /heading > Miss   is a lady who has suffered many of the major sequalae of Crohn 's disease . She had a right hemicolectomy in to remove a particularly ulcerated part of her bowel , and this had serious post - operative complication , resulting in further disability . She has a serious exacerbation of her Crohn 's disease . In light of this information , this presentation of acute , severe abdominal pain which is similar in nature to previous attacks is suggestive of another symptomatic phase of Crohn 's disease . Other diagnoses that may have been considered include , , and chronic infection ( campylobacter / giardia ) . < heading > Physical examination Highlight the findings most relevant to your clinical problem solving by underlining them , highlighting them.</heading><list><heading > General Obsevations:</heading > HR 107 / min mmHg . Rate / min Temperature- ° C O2 Sats- ( room air ) GCS- > Pale , ill young lady in considerable pain . ° jaundice / cyanosis / oedema / lymphadenopathy . < list><heading > Abdominal exam</heading > Finger clubbing , palmar erythema bilaterally and clinically anaemic . Puffy face consistent with appearance 2 ° long term steroid use . ° pyoderma gangernosum / aphtous ulcers / glossitis . Midline abdominal scar with transverse incisions from previous abdominal surgery . Mild abdominal distension . Soft , tender abdomen , pain worse in left flank . ° organomegaly or masses . Bowel sounds increased . PR not performed on admission.</list > All other examinations were unremarkable . < heading > Analysis of history and examination a problem list.</heading><list><heading shocked . Clinically anaemic . May be obstructed . Other consequences of acute exacerbation of Crohn 's Disease- Pain , anorexia , fatigue.</list><heading > Management Use the framework of RAPRIOP to structure your proposed management . to the guidelines to the writing of portfolio cases for the details of the issues to be addressed under each heading . < /heading><heading > Investigations</heading><list><heading > Bloods</heading > Abnormal- FBC ( g / dL ( ↓ ) ) , ( ( ↑ ) ) CRP ( ( ) ) , ( 300 ųg / ml ( ) ) .Normal- B 12 / Folate , U+Es , Ca 2 + , LFTs , B - hCG.</list><list><heading > Imaging</heading > X - rays of abdomen and chest . Abominal X- ray showed dilated loops of small bowel in right iliac fossa . Barium follow - through showed stricture in terminal ileum . CT Abdomen . Stricture in terminal ileum visualised . < /list><heading > Reassurance and explanation</heading>""It is probably likely that you are suffering from another flare up of your Crohn 's Disease . We are going to pass a tube down your throat to help relieve the feeling of fullness you have , and we are going to give you some drugs that have been proven to help with the symptoms of your illness . You are also going to need some blood transfused , as you are very anaemic . Finally , we a going to refer you to a dietician to help you consider the options you have during your outbreaks , and how we can minimise your symptoms . "" < heading > Prescription / medical intervention</heading><list > Budesamide 9 mg od po . NG tube passed . Dietician referral.</list><heading > Observation < /heading > Currently observed on ward . < heading > Referral and team working</heading><list > GP , A+E team on - call , General surgicalteam on - call . , nurses.</list><heading > Advice and Prevention</heading > Stop smoking . < heading > Outcome A description of the progress of the patient as far as possible . This should include consideration of further issues to be resolved . Where appropriate you should contact by telephone patients who have been discharged home . < /heading > Progressing steadily on ward . The dietician advised a low residue diet , which was reluctantly accepted by Miss . Miss   is now awaiting strictureplasty . < heading > Evidence based care and issues for research A brief consideration of the evidence base required for the diagnosis and management of the patient 's problem(s).</heading><heading>1 ) Azathioprine</heading > A review found in [ 1 ] reported that ( ) used among patients with non - active Crohn 's disease may be effective for reducing the risk of disease recurrence over a period . Higher doses of azathioprine ( ) are more effective than lower doses ( mg / day ) for preventing disease recurrence . There is also evidence that azathioprine reduces the need for steroid treatment which could help reduce steroid related side effects . However , since the studies were of short duration ( ) the long - term effectiveness of azathioprine is unclear . < heading>(2 ) Budesonide</heading > Research showing [ ] that budesonide is effective in treating active 's disease has led to trials examining the effect of budesonide on reducing disease recurrence in non - active Crohn 's disease . However , the use of budesonide ( ) among patients with non - active Crohn 's disease was not effective for reducing the risk of disease recurrence over a period . Further research is needed to investigate higher doses of budesonide , the use of budesonide in combination with other drugs and flexible dosing schedules . < ) Corticosteriods and enteral nutrition</heading > Evidence continues to indicate that corticosteroids are more effective than enteral nutrition ( liquid food feedings into the small intestine ) for treating active 's disease [ ] . Comparing form of enteral nutrition to another has not shown any difference in effectiveness for treating active 's disease . Further research is required . < heading > Commentary A commentary on issues of epidemiology , psycho - social , health care delivery , ethical issues or disability relevant to the patient and/or problem . < /heading > Crohn 's Disease is a chronic inflammatory disease of the gastrointestinal tract of unknown aetiology . It can affect any part of the tract from the mouth→ anus , but most commonly affects the ileocaecal region ( ) , or terminal ileum ( ) . Incidence in and is - 6/100 . It is more common in the developed world , and in is slightly more common in compared to countries . Prevalence in is of developed countries . Incidence may have now peaked in far northern countries ( , ) [ ] . It is slightly more common in females . Most patients present between the rd-7 th of life ; the disease can occur at any age , but is exceedingly rare in the very young . Common clinical presentations include : < list > Diarrhoea ( - 90%).Anal lesions ( - 80%)Weight loss ( pain ( ( 30 - 40%)Fistula ( 8 - 10%)</list > Ileal disease is associated with pain and obstructive symptoms , commonly due to strictures . Features of malabsorbtion , and an inflammatory mass are also common . Colonic disease is associated with rectal bleeding , perianal disease and extra - articular manifestations of Crohn 's Disease . These are either related or unrelated to disease activity : < list><heading > Related:</heading > Aphthous ulceration ( nodosum ( - 10%)Acute arthritis ( complications ( conjunctivitis , episcleritis , uveitis ) ( gangrenosum ( ( 18%)Ankylosing spondylitis ( patients are HLA - B27 + ve , and may preogress following proctocolectomy)</list><list><heading > Associated liver disease:</heading > Primary sclerosing cholangitis . Gallstones . Fatty change . Amyloidosis . Granulomata.</list > The aetiology of Crohn 's Disease is incompletely understood . of sufferers have or more degree relatives with the condition . Concordance with monozygotic twins is ; higher than that for ulcerative colitis . In an affected family , there is a remarkable degree of concordance ( ) of disease type and behaviour , but offspring tend to develop the disease at a younger age than affected parents . Mutations in chromosome are implicated in the disease , and also , and . Smoking increases the risk by fold . It was thought that M. paratuberculosis and the virus had an infective role in Crohn 's but the evidence is currently tenuous . Poor diets ( high sugar , low fibre ) are more common in patients before the diagnosis of Crohn 's , although changing to this diet post diagnosis has no effect on disease progression over . There is evidence that the normal mechanisms for down regulating the mucosal immune responses are impaired in sufferers . Pathologically , ' skip lesions ' are described . These are affected segments of bowel , with normal bowel in - between . Affected bowel is usually thickened due to oedema and fibrosis . The mucosa is hyperaemic and there may be aphthous ulceration ; the ulcers are usually situated over lymph tissue . Histologically , there is transmural inflammation , although it is predominantly submucosal . Lymphoid aggregates are a common feature . Non - caseating granulomata occur in patients . Complications : Strictures . Large or small bowel . More common in small intestine . Initially asymptomatic , but can progress to obstructive symptoms . Fistulae . May develop between loops of bowel adjacent to bladder or vagina , and skin . Pneumaturia and recurrent UTI indicate a fistula into the bladder . Passage of flatus or faeculent discharge from the vagina indicate a vaginal fistula . Perianal disease . Fissures / fistulae / abscesses . Fleshy skin tags are common . . May complicate long - standing Crohn 's Disease of the colon ; the incidence may be similar to that of , with the exception of reduced incidence of sclerosing cholangitis and bile duct carcinoma . Ileocaecal disease . May involve right ureter , leading to recurrent pyelonephritis , ureteric stenosis , and hydronephrosis . Investigations include : Bloods- FBC , Iron and folate ( anaemia ) , and . Orosomucoids ( glycoproteins ) are usually raised and are useful in monitoring disease activity . levels of and albumin are often low . Stool examination - excludes known pathogens . and biopsy- Performed in all patients . of those with small bowel involvement exhibit histological evidence of rectal inflammation . May show features of Crohn 's Disease . < list><heading > Imaging-</heading > Small bowel enema-(introduction of barium directly into small intestine via nasoduodenal tube ) , and also air - contrast barium enema are the best techniques for barium imaging . CT- Often more useful than ultrasonography , and may show thickened loops of small intestine . MRI- investigation of choice for complex perianal disease . < /list > Management : Conservative- should be well - balanced with high fibre content . Low - fat , lactose - free or low - residue diet is required in those with steatorrhoea , hypolactasia or stricture . Elemental diets ( amino acids + glucose)are almost as effective as prednisilone in treating active disease , and can be useful in some patients . However they are largely unpalatable , and may induce relapse more quickly in some patients . Supplements of B , folate and other complexes are advised . should be treated with vitamin . Drug therapy is indicated in symptomatic patients . Budesonide 9 mg od po is as effective as prednisolone , but with fewer side effects . Severe disease may require IV therapy ( hydrocortisone mg qds ) Sulfasaline . g bd may be beneficial in active colonic disease , but not efficacious in maintaining remission . Mesalazine . Upto g od . Maintenace therapy following caecal or ileocaecal resection . Immunosupression . Azathioprine 2.5mg / kg or is indicated in those who continually relapse and who are dependent on low - dose steroids for remission . Immunotherapy . / kg is currently the only licenced chemeric antibody to TNF - α . Indicated in chronic acive disease resistant to corticosteroids and immunosupression . Closes of fistulae . Single IV dose provent to be efficacious . Surgery . of Crohn 's patients require surgical intervention . Main indications are strictures causing obstruction and failure to respond to medical therapy . Commonest interventions are stricureplasty or resection . Mortality is about twice that expected in age / sex matched control populations . < heading > Impact on your learning Describe what you have learnt from this case.</heading><list > Presenation , management and discriminators of inflammatory bowel diease . Psycho - social consequences of younger patients living with crohnic disease.</list>1 . , May GR , , . Azathioprine for maintenance of remission in Crohn 's disease . Reviews , Issue 4 . Art . No . : CD000067 . DOI : . . , for induction of remission in Crohn 's disease . Reviews , Issue 2 . Art . No . : CD000296 . DOI : . . , , Griffiths AM . Enteral nutritional therapy for induction of remission in Crohn 's disease . Reviews , Issue . Art . No . : . DOI : . . Jewell , Bowel Disease : Crohn 's Disease . Medicine ( Student Edition ) . Vol 31:2 ( ) ,",0
"Food security can be defined as when all people , at all times , have access to sufficient , safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life , ( , ) . 's rapid growth in population , development and industrialisation in has not just surprised many people , but the consequence of such accelerated growth has implications that dominate the country 's government and will have continued global effects . The following points will be addressed to consider 's current situation with regard to food security : < list > to General introduction concerns for food security Factors contributing to 's sustainability concernsPotential solutions for the present and the future pathways4 . Conclusion < /list><heading > Background to China</heading><heading > General introduction</heading > is a country located in , covering a land area of sq km , of which sq km is land and sq km is water . In , the land use was calculated at for arable land , for permanent crops and as other , ie ; urban or industrial land use , ( , ) . As was mentioned , is host to an extensive source of water , however as Changming ( ) commented in his work , the problem is it is not located geographically where it is required . The climate in the country is diverse ; in the , where there is roughly up to 500 mm rain , it is sub - arctic and the soil type ranges from black chernozems to chestnut brown pedocals to gray brown pedalfers , ( , ) . The south , where the inter - tropical convergence zone brings about seasonal changes to produce a tropical climate ( ) , receives mm of rain and is host to predominantly red and yellow pedalfer soils , ( , ) . Dramatic changes in population have taken place in in . Quoted figures in the literature estimate the population to be ( , and Richardson , ) . Not only has the population increased , but so has 's economy , which has seen a steady rise , when in the measure of purchasing power parity , the country was the largest in the world , although in per capita terms this was nearer the average , ( , ) . currently has problems with poverty , however this issue is being addressed through ( MDGs ) . An example of their success is seen in the substantial fall in the number of undernourished people , from m ( of population ) to m ( of population ) , ( et al . ) . However , problems are far from over as continues to develop and despite advances in food security , many more solutions need to be found . The uneven development across is benefiting some and not others . < heading > Sustainability concerns < /heading > From the above introduction to , it may be noted that the country has some underlying problems regarding the rate of growth , both in terms of population , economy and industry and whether these rates can be sustained . For the purposes of this report , however , the production of food , the problems that have occurred or are occurring at the present time and 's ability to sustain food production for its ' large population , will all be addressed . The concern is that of increased development , where as Richardson ( ) reports , is currently loosing ( approx 40,4600 ha ) of farmland to development per year . A large number of the population have and are still moving from rural to urban areas . In , people have migrated from rural areas . This therefore has resulted in of of the national force employed in agriculture , ( , ) . has prided itself in being able to produce of its ' total grain requirements , however , as the country has become more developed and people 's life styles have changed , their demand for new products such as vegetables , meat , dairy products and oilseeds has caused a change in farming practices , ( Index - China , ) . , wheat , soya and maize are by no means unwanted , but the ability for farmers to provide all the desired products from a decreasing area of land is impossible and therefore the reliance on imports looks certain to increase , ( , ) . ( ) include figures for , when was exporting $ m of vegetables , $ m aquatic and seawater products and $ m of fresh vegetables , whilst importing $ m of soyabean , $ 1649 of wheat and $ m of cereals and flour cereals , clearly demonstrating 's emphasis on higher value products , ( both exported and consumed within the country ) and as a result , their importing of products for which they would previously have been virtually self - sufficient . A concern , closely linked to the agricultural sector is the availability and use of water . As mentioned earlier , 's water resource is fairly extensive , however the location of that water in relation to the land used for cultivation is not ideal . This is due to the unfortunate topography and climate that spans causing the to be water rich , but too hilly for extensive farming and the , which has flat pains and is well suited to agricultural cultivation , to be water impoverished , ( Changming , ) . ( ) put some numbers to the situation , clearly demonstrating that with of the cultivatable land in the but of the water , the sustainable use of what water there is and the provision of more from the , still raises concerns for the future . of all agriculture is irrigated , Gairdner ( ) . has always been successful in producing rice and has seen huge increases in its ' ability to produce high yields from multiple crops throughout , however the need for water to irrigate those crops does put pressure on future production , as the amount of water required varies from of water per mou , ( , ) . Demand for water is an ever - increasing concern , as there are people who depend on or yellow river and the river for agriculture , fishing and other uses , ( , ) . A report carried out by ( ) showed these afore mentioned rivers were , in many places , huge health risks and unsuitable for human contact . The Yellow river , in particular , has suffered from over extraction for irrigation and the construction of dams has caused the flow to be reduced , so much so that it sometimes does not reach the ocean , ( , ) . Sustainability concerns regarding 's food security are important , not just on a national level but on an international level , as food supply problems could compromise the country 's rate of economic growth and political reform it is currently experiencing and an increased demand for imported food could dramatically influence global markets , especially for feed grain and the countries exporting it , ( , ) . Climate change , as for any developed country at the present time , is highly topical and this is particularly true of as Zhang ( ) reported that the country had slipped down ( CCPI ) to be th of . This not only has ramifications for the environment , further water degradation and risk of acid rain , but the global effect of climate change may affect vegetation cover , particularly with regard to the large areas of grassland which is used for livestock production . Climate change can exacerbate natural disasters such as floods and periods of drought , thereby posing an additional threat to 's food security , ( , ) . < heading > Factors contributing to 's sustainability concerns</heading > In order to understand 's present situation , it is important to consider how the country has developed and worked to achieve the agricultural system seen . has a long history of agricultural production . Although its ' achievements are impressive , such as successive cropping , intercropping and inlaid cropping ( that multiplied the cropping areas within the limited cultivatable area ) and good soil husbandry that allowed the crops to be continually grown after year , the drawbacks are intrinsically linked to these successes . agriculture has historically concentrated on increasing the yield per unit area and has not taken into consideration the advantages of increasing labour productivity . This did n't seem to matter because there were enough people to enable production , but , as population continued to increase , the pressure upon the limited amount of land to deliver intensified , ( , ) . had successfully fed of the world 's population from of the world 's cultivatable land , ( ) , and still manages to produce vast amounts of grain with which to feed its own population . 's recent agricultural history has seen many changes in land reform , such as the farmland revolution in which redistributed land from landlords to landless peasants . Following this , the next reform came in when the people 's commune was established , encouraging people to group together as to farm the land that had centrally controlled property rights , which ended in the collapse of the agricultural sector as farmers lost their freedom to farm the way they wanted , ( et al . ) . Further reform came in , when decided to introduce family based contract systems where the farmer had land use rights and the right to make decisions , therefore allowing the farmer freedom to farm , even though there was no land ownership . Not only this , but the government offered incentives that were linked to production , which as we know already from the old CAP subsidy in the , has dramatic effects on production . However , there were problems associated with this reform , which were firstly the fragmentation of cultivated land , due to each household being entitled to plots of land , and with such a large population , this meant only a very small area of land per family , ha , ( , ) . Different areas of land were also more productive than others , which meant that the land a family owned could be located at multiple locations around a village , raising concerns about labour and time efficiency and large areas of potentially cultivatable land were wasted because of paths and boundaries separating people 's land , et al . ) . The way land has been managed and cultivated in the past , which was shaped strongly by policy , is not the only factor affecting 's present problem regarding food security . As has already been mentioned , the current state of 's water supply , chiefly in of the country 's largest rivers , has been recently described as unsafe for human contact . The main cause for this sorry state of affairs is again due to the rapid industrialisation occurring in the country . Large investment in industry is not being met with the required infrastructure and services to process waste or emissions . A figure to highlight the severity of the problem comes from ( ) where of sewage and industrial water was dumped into the in , which was more than in . Organic and inorganic pollutants found in both the Yellow and includes human excreta , industrial chemicals , heavy metals , cyanide and solvents , most of which originate from paper , steel , silk and chemical factories . Agriculture is also highlighted as being a contributor to this pollution and in some places , sediment run - off due to erosion was causing problems , both in the rivers and from cultivatable land , ( , ) . This is not only a problem in itself , but an ongoing problem with regard to agriculture , as water is required for irrigation and obviously the use of contaminated water in this instance would not be allowed . < heading > Potential solutions for now and the future < /heading><heading > Stakeholders</heading > The following people are involved , would play a role or would be affected by plans to addresses the aforementioned problems of food security in : < list > Local and national governmentThe rural farming communityCountries exporting food to on the world marketThose involved in industry , if responsibility is put on them to reduce emissions There are many ways and means of instigating change to fulfil an objective , particularly one as big as the achieving a sustained level of food security . successful ' bottom - up ' project that was implemented in with help from aimed to improve the potential for agricultural production , reduce erosion and equip farmers with knowledge and a long term strategy for management of the area . The land use of the small watersheds in the area prior to the project were as follows : uncultivated wasteland ( ) , cropland ( ) , mostly on low - productivity slopeland , trees and shrubs ( ) ; gullies ( ) , and roads , villages , etc ( ) . To improve this situation the project terraced ha , afforested ha and shrubbed ha , planted ha for timber production , planted ha orchards , re - established ha of grasslands , irrigated ha and installed sediment control dams . played an important role in the project preparation and implementation and the total cost was ; the cost per hectare was . The objectives of the project were sustainable and coordinated social , economic , resource and environmental development of small watersheds and this proved successful . It was aimed at a local scale and it proved that land conservation is compatible with sustainable and productive agriculture and that they are mutually reinforcing . It achieved the creation of sustainable crop production on high - quality terraces and the protection of steep slopes with trees and shrubs . The farmer has also benefited , not just from having a more sustainable method of production , but legal protection for land - use rights and management techniques in the form of a land contract for the minimum of , ensuring that the long term benefit from the project and the initial investment lasts , ( , ) . As was mentioned earlier , poverty in is still a problem , and small scale projects such as this help relieve people from that low level of living so that they can support themselves . Other projects such as 's initiative , part of ( SPFS ) , aim to strengthen cooperation between developing countries at different stages of development to improve agricultural productivity and ensure access to food for all , ( Buerkle , ) . The recent dispatch of experts to to help and advise with water control , crop production , animal diversification , aquaculture and processing is to help achieve it 's of halving poverty in by . Change and influence can also come ' top - down ' . Policy and government decisions will also have an important role to play in the future of 's food security . In became a member of ( WRO ) Baihua ( ) , which meant another period of change for farmers , when prices for domestic cereals fell . Although this may have had negative effects at , excessive agricultural inputs and demand for water to produce the once large quantities of food have receded , meaning the land can now be used for other , more appropriate uses , such as the farming of cash crops and/or livestock , ( , ) . The is involved together with to help in this period of transition by improving agricultural infrastructure and service systems and enhancing protection of agricultural environment and resources . When considering development pathways , a holistic view of the problem and an awareness of other sectors and industries , which use of similar or the same resources , is important . ( ) commented that to focus on the continued development of growing cereals is not sustainable in the long run , when problems such as water loss and soil erosion are happening . Therefore , it is important , not to out - source blame to other sectors , but jointly communicate with each other , so that development is equal across all sectors . For example , the need for a cleaner water supply for irrigation will involve stakeholders from more than just the agricultural sector . It would be important to see continue to address problems at a local scale , with the help from and , enabling farmers to take control and be responsible for changes in agricultural production , protection of soils and contribute positively to improving water quality . Government should be responsible in maintaining reserve productive capability ( , ) as the economic strength of the country has grown , the ability for its population to eat a more diverse diet has increased . With a population as large as 's and the uneven distribution of wealth and food , the capability for producing grain should not be something lost in the hast to supply and improve the diets / lives for those how can afford it . The ability for to produce grain is deeply important , as this is important for the survival of many 1000 's of people . To provide food security for everyone , needs to retain the ability of producing grain when required , and the government will need to address this , and not be quick to rely on imports . < heading>4 . Conclusion</heading > Monitoring of progress towards achieving improvements in food security is important . Millennium Development Goals ( MDGs ) are important and should still remain , however small scale indicators of improvement could be monitored by farm surveys , covering things such as measurements of rainfall run - off , rates of erosion and also could include the health and level of food intake of people on that farm . Information from all farms could then be collated and progress monitored at this local scale . Areas not progressing as well as other areas could then be addressed accordingly . Continued monitoring of water quality and water safety would also be advised , not just for agricultural use , but for the interest of the country . Food security for any country is important and the sustainable production of food in an ever increasingly developing and urban world is even more important . For a country such as , whose huge population is exerting pressure on the environment and encroachment of urban sprawl is reducing land area for production of food , it seems impossible to propose sustainable methods of production . However , local projects to aid food production in rural areas should target issues such as soil erosion and to some degree water use , but the later is also highly dependant on sustainable industrial and domestic use of water . Government policy has its part to play , however , local scale projects will reach the isolated rural people quicker . For a sustainable future , must broaden its thinking in giving agriculture the same importance as its newly developing industry , other wise , the future of 's food security will be reliance on imports and a demise of the people who skillfully work 's productive land .","< heading > Lecture 2 - Assignment</heading><figure/><picture/><picture/><picture/><picture/><picture/><picture/><picture/><picture/><picture/><picture/><heading > Lecture - Assignment</heading><picture/><picture/><picture/><picture/>5 . Positive meanings of green and yellow < picture/>The colour green in its positive context suggests nature , naturalness and calmness . The picture above shows a very calm and peaceful location with a lot of greenery . < picture/>Yellow suggests victory , joy and happiness . The picture above shows a person with the feeling of victory in a yellow dress and a yellow background . . Negative meanings of violet and blue < picture/>Violet in its negative context means nightmares , madness and negative thoughts . The image above shows an imaginary picture that one would have when he / she is in a bad state of mind . < picture/>Blue in its negative context means depression . The picture above shows a depressing blue image of a thing behind bars and with its background also being blue . < picture/><heading > Lecture 4 - assignment</heading><heading > Principles of design</heading><picture/>I chose this picture above because it shows a photograph of perfect symmetry . < picture/>Reason for choosing this picture is because it is perfectly balanced and actual line of symmetry is partially visible . < picture/>I chose this image because it shows alternating rhythm not only on the keyboard but also on the records . < picture/>The reason for picking this picture is because it is a contrast of colour in nature . < picture/>This picture had my attention because it is a real situation and it shows perfect contrast of size and colour . < picture/>The picture above shows unity because the pen is nicely designed with the silver top part and the golden stem . Therefore I chose this picture . The picture above was chosen by me because the chair 's green and silver sections are designed in unity and the brown set of chairs at the back is in unity with the main green chair . < heading > Golden section</heading><picture/>I chose the picture above because it clearly showed the golden section using deferent colours and in different directions . < picture/>This image was chosen by me because it is ancient architecture showing golden section . The golden section used in the buildings is clearly visible . < picture/>The image above was chosen because the picture uses golden section and the stem shown in the picture uses golden section . < heading > Lecture - Assignment</heading><heading>1 . Atmospheric perspective</heading><picture/>The painting above shows atmospheric perspective and I picked this image because it shows the fading colour of the different planes well . < heading>2 . Single Point Perspective</heading><picture/>The above photograph was picked by me because it shows the single point perspective very well and the colours used on the surfaces make it look even better . < picked the image above because it shows single point perspective and it shows how the method is used for designing buildings . < heading>3 . Point Perspective</heading><picture/>The painting above had my attention because of the way the artist have used the point perspective to give the painting a view . < picture/>The above sketch shows point perspective very well and this image is a perfect picture to define point perspective , therefore I picked this sketch . < heading>4 . point Perspective</heading><picture/>The photograph above is a good picture to define point perspective in real life and it shows how the method works in architecture , therefore I picked this image . < heading > Lecture 6 - Assignment bottle</heading><picture/>The C0ca - Cola bottle is probably the most easily recognisable bottle in the world . The bottle was created by in and the bottle 's unique fluted sides and bulging middle was inspired by the shape of an kola nut . The bottle was described by the pop artist as ' the design icon of . The smooth , organically shaped bottle was first produced in 's and this was a time when the actual drink and the containers were being imitated . At this time the company came out with a brief which sounded something like : ' A bottle which a person will recognise as a bottle even if he feels it in the dark . bottle should be shaped that , even if broken , one could tell at a glance what it was . ' This bottle was called Hobble skirt because of its shape and the bottle was produced in variety of colours such as aqua , clear , ice blue , and green at that time . The bottles produced after that till all have a slight green tint except for the bottles made during . These bottles were blue due to the copper shortage during . The copper is the material which gives the green colour to the glass . This bottle symbolized the spirit during and the company pledged that the forces could count on wherever they go . The company then opened bottling plants through out the world . The bottle design was re - launched in in and the company then conducted a study which confirmed that the consumers still prefer to have in a glass bottle . This design of the bottle has been a great success because of its appeal to the consumers . The bottle is shaped as a feminine body ( hobble skirt ) and it has an easy grip because of its fluted shape and bulging middle . Even a child can hold on to the bottle because of the bottle 's narrow body , regardless of its weight and the size of his hand . The company has given the bottle a slight tint of green which also appeals to the crowd . This tint of colour is more interesting than a plane bottle and when the drink is in the bottle it looks very tempting . The colour of the drink with the slight tint of green of the glass bottle shows vivid colours at different angles when light hits on it and this effect attracts especially small children towards the drink . The company had produced bottles with aqua , clear , ice blue , and green tints and in some cases bottles even had tones of colour such as green and blue but we are only able to seen bottles with a green tone in it . Another tactic the company has used is to emboss the drink 's name on the glass bottle . Because of all the design tactics they have used bottle has been a great success and it is still sold in countries around the world . < heading > Lecture 7 - Assignment The Original Volkswagen Beetle</heading><picture/>In 's the leader of the Germany ordered to create a vehicle for the people . That was the start of . started to create prototype designs but he was given a certain criteria that he had to stick to such as a maximum speed of km / h , maximum weight of , air - cooled engine with hp , a fuel consumption of per 100 km and should also be cheap . designed several models and finally the car was presented in with all the above specifications required by . The car 's engine was located at the rear of the car and the car was of a rather weird shape , it was very round . An reporter thought that it looked like an insect and called it the . This was the reason for the car to get its popular name ' ' . GmbH was founded in and in the first stages of the company they produced military vehicles for . Soon after the war the company started producing cars and the car became popular in . The company had its great success after starting to export to in and after this the company 's production increased and the specifications of the vehicle increased in order to keep the firm ahead in the business . The had split wind screens but then these were replaced by a single curved wind screen but this was again substituted by a wide flat wind screen . All these models were accepted by the customers because of their preference towards the car . The car always had round head lamps and rear lamps to keep its unique design and to continue the meaning of ' Beetle ' . The car continued to have its round shaped body and round rear mirrors , again to represent a beetle . Since the customers kept on asking for this popular design and the sales continued to increase the firm painted the car in colours like red , white and yellow to make the look actually like a . The customers liked the feeling of driving in such a car and the company 's sales kept on increasing . The company had some unique rim designs for the and the bulky silver rim cup was a unique part of it . Most rims were light coloured with a darker body colour . These rims too gave a very unique look to the car and made it look more like a . All the had a light toned interior with a dashboard which could occupy a radio set and these options appealed to the crowd . The old had a great success in the past and because of this the firm decided to come up with the new , the one we see on the roads . The new has a similar round shape and it is more of a lady 's car . Both cars have similar properties such as round head and rear lamps and popular colours such as red , white , yellow and black . < heading > Lecture 8 - Assignment Pop Art</heading><picture/>Pop art appeared in and in and referred to the interest of many artists who were involved in mass media , comics , advertising and consumer products . In customer demand boomed since that was after and it was a time of optimism . Pop art is interpreted as a reaction to the dominant ideas of abstract expressionism and pop art used to have a popular image of an art that emphasises banal part of a culture which opposed the elitist culture in art . Pop art usually aims at a very broad audience and is regarded as academic since pop art is widely used in different teaching methods . Pop art was highly influenced by the work of in , , and artists such as . Due to this pop art merged with the youth and pop music in 's and 60 's . Artists like designed album covers for great musicians such as and great bands like . He used to have images of film stars such as in his pictures just like the artist used to do in using images of . started as a commercial illustrator and did shoe advertisements in the beginning . He first exhibited his work in and his "" 's soup cans "" was then showed . His best work was done within a time span of and he was then shot in . At this time the culture was glutted with information where most people experienced things or hand and then there was the role for affectless art . never worked it out but just embodied it due to that state of mind where celebrity and a famous name of a brand replaced the sacredness and solidity . In the other hand the artist used to be the master of the stereotype and the most sophisticated among the major pop artists . He did not have a very eventful childhood and art which was his main interest was never taught in his primary or high schools . His subjects were jazz musicians and after serving in the army during the war he gained his bachelor of fine art and eventually gained his master of fine art . His proto - pop art work was painted in but it was not that successful . Pop art has been used in different ways to approach different types of audience through out the world . Pop art appeals to the young crowd when it comes to comics and when it comes to advertising different products it appeals to the more mature audience . This method of conveying ideas is again mainly used in the academic sector since it attracts the attention of the student . Considering all these factors we could say that pop art plays a great roll in communication in general through out the world regardless of the language , culture or nationality . < heading > Lecture - Assignment 101</heading><picture/>Located in , "" 101 "" now holds the title of the world 's tallest building . Even though tower one and tower still told the title of the world 's tallest twin towers is the tallest individual building in the world . The tower exceeded the height of the towers in . The tower is the tallest building in the and 101 was the building in the world to exceed mark in height . The building is m tall and has hundred and floors . This explains the reason why the building is called "" 101 "" . This giant is one of the few skyscrapers in the world to be inspired by the architectural designs and this tower 's specifications are all based on "" "" , this number "" "" is regarded as a lucky number in ancient culture . Construction of the tower finished in but the shopping mall of the tower , ' 101 mall ' officially opened in th , this mall consist of gothic style architecture and modern architecture . The tower uses an tuned mass damping system to stabilise the building and this system is located near the top of the building and is held in an exposed spherical structure between the restaurant level and the observation level . The elevators fitted in the tower use state of the art technology and safety . Each elevator is fixed with pressurization and emergency braking systems . These elevators are designed aerodynamically , and they are the world 's first ' Triple Stage Anti - Overshooting System ' and each of these elevators costs . These elevators are the world 's fastest elevators and they travel upwards at a speed of km / h and downwards at a speed of km / h , and this building consists of double deck elevators . is the most technologically advanced super tall tower in the world and it features very high speed satellite and fibre - optic internet connections throughout the building . The observation deck is the st floor of the building and this deck is the highest observation deck in the world . The tallest observation deck is located in . The main designs and consultation of the building plans were done by a and this building is the only super tall tower made in a highly active earthquake zone in the world . The tower is panelled with a special type of glass which consists of a slight tone of green . The building 's exterior is lit up using powerful spot lights on the edges of each conical sector and each floor is separated by a stream of lights right around the building . The buildings interior is fitted with stunning arrangements of lights of deferent sorts and the floors of the mall are tiled in vivid patterns to match the walls and the other components . This building has reached of the highest pinnacles in the history of mankind with its technology and architectural designs , and it will surely remain as a legend for many more years to come . < heading > Lecture - Assignment Mary Quant</heading><picture/>Mary Quant was born in Kent on the th , and she became of the leading women in 's fashion industry . She created the famous ' mini skirts ' and ' hot pants ' which turned the 's fashion world upside down and which is still is high fashion . She created the famous Mini Skirt to liberate the 's woman . After a lot of experimenting , was introduced to the fashion world in which turned out to be one of the defining fashions of , and this made an idol in the fashion industry . is a skirt with a hemline which is usually or more above the knee . Since , her design skirts kept getting shorter . This was an improvement she made which is considered to be practical because it enables the women to run for a bus . She attended Collage where she studied ' Illustration ' , which is a kind of art where the subject is defined more than its form . She was offered a job tight after finishing her studies at a firm called ' Couture Milliner ' . She teamed up with her husband , and an accountant named in , to open a clothes boutique in called ' Bazaar ' . ' were put up on the launch of and was considered a good attempt due to its never before seen looks . But the lacked in variety of clothes , which concerned . As a result , started working on her own line of clothes . Her idea was to put out a different type of clothes which she considered to be fun and exciting and she expanded her business by employing few machinists . In addition to her historical , she is also credited for creating coloured , patterned tights , which is a leg covering garment which extends from the waist all the way to the feet and was supposed to be tight to the skin . In , reached the pinnacle in her career in fashion design . This was the time when she put out the ' Dangerously Short Micro - Mini Skirt ' , plastic raincoats and also she introduced beauty care products such as ' Paint - box ' make up . success with her unique designs brought tot the top . These achievements convinced Quant to expand her Clothing line by opening her showroom in in . She was described to be the leading fashion force outside at that era . All this fame resulted in very high demand in her clothing and to keep supplying these demands started mass production of her garments setting up . In she started exporting her clothing line to . was appointed an in for immense effort she made to improve the fashion in . In , Quant came up with her last big fashion development , "" Hot pants "" . These pants are also known as ' Short shorts ' since they were extremely short . was a woman who revitalised the fashion industry in the 's , and her work is definitely one of the main reasons for the present standard of fashion . < heading > Lecture - AssignmentMaxims</heading><heading>1 . Affordance</heading><picture/>Affordance is a property where the physical components of the product help the function of it . The picture above is a good example because the handle of the boor gives a good grip and it gives the idea of pulling the door rather than pushing it . < heading>2 . Attractiveness Bias</heading><picture/>People prefer to by the car shown above ( ) in general rather than buy the car shown below ( ) . This is because the design of the car looks very good and it appeals to the crowd . Performance wise is generally better than and is referred to as a super car but people still prefer to buy the martin for its looks . < picture/><heading>3 . mobile phone used above is one of the most user friendly phones ever made . This phone has only a little number of keys and the keys are comparatively big . Therefore it is easy to use . < picture/>The Nokia phone shown above is a phone from the N series and has a great number of options , but this phone is very hard to use since it has a lot of keys and they are small . < heading>4 . Proximity</heading><picture/>This lamp show above is a nice design but the switch for the bulb is no to be seen . This makes it hard for the user to figure out the way of switching it on . < picture/>The lamp shown above in the other had is a very simple design but it has its only switch right on top of the base of the lamp . Therefore it makes it very easy for the user to figure out the way of switch it on . < heading>5 . 's Razor</heading><picture/>The glass shown above is a very simple design but it full fills all its requirements . The glass does not have additional parts attached to it . It has a good heavy base for the stability .",0
"< abstract><heading > Summary</heading > The aim of the project was to determine whether a shape alternative to squares could provide a better quality image at low resolution . This was investigated by simulating pixel shapes using the OpenGL graphics software . In a direct comparison between square pixel and hexagon pixel images , square pixel images were preferred of the time compared with hexagon pixel images being preferred of the time . However hexagon pixel images were using less samples than the square pixel images and were therefore at a disadvantage . < /abstract><list></list><heading>1 . Introduction</heading><heading>1.1 Motivation</heading > Images have been displayed in many different formats over . They have decorated the walls of the caveman , been presented on paper and exhibited in galleries on canvases . However in recent times images have been shown on computer monitors and television screens . The properties of these pictures are different from all the other pictures on different formats . Images are normally continuous , however on a computer the image is made from discrete pixels . Presently the current standard for presenting digital images on computers is to use square pixels on a square sampling grid . While in most cases this is adequate it has been shown that a hexagonal sampling grid can improve on the sampling efficiency and data storage size provided by square sampling grids [ ] . Changing other properties of pixels may also be able to improve certain qualities of images . Square pixels on a square sampling grid produce good quality images at high resolutions . When using the World Wide Web , webpages can take some time to load , especially when displaying many images on the webpage . To improve the speed of loading the webpage one can either obtain a faster internet connection or decrease the storage size of the images . Storage size of an image can be reduced by lowering the resolution . However at lower resolutions using square pixels on a square sampling grid can produce unwanted artefacts in an image . This is particularly the case when viewing diagonal lines at low resolution . Diagonal lines may not fall correctly on the square grid giving more of a stepping effect than a natural transition of position . Images on computers may be transferred to paper by printing them . Printing low resolution images can produce an image with grey blocky areas . Printer errors can also result in lines and streaks forming on the printout . Printers transfer ink onto the paper using circular droplets of ink . It has been suggested that using a square pixel for the original pixel and then printing using circles could be causing these grey areas . This report will investigate pixel shape and its effect on images . < heading>1.2 Background</heading > Each pixel has certain properties associated with it ; the properties concerned with in this report are shape , colour and position . When producing pictures correct tessellation of pixels must be ensured otherwise there would be gaps in the image . This may be achieved by completely tiling an area with any shapes , as in a diagram . However efficient image processing is obtained by maintaining a constant pixel shape throughout particular image . The colour and position of pixels in an image are varied in a particular manner such that a useful image is formed . A useful image can be defined as an image from which some information can be taken . If an image is too blurred due to noise , or too low a resolution then it is not possible to make out the picture , hence there is no information in the picture and so the image is useless . As resolution is gradually reduced information is lost from the image . This may be achieved by subsampling an image . A fixed number of samples are taken from the pixel data - the fewer samples taken the lower the resolution . It is at these low resolutions where pixel shape can make a difference . At high resolutions the human eye can not discern individual pixels . So whether the image was displayed using square , diamond , trapezium or indeed any shape pixel would not make much difference . The image would still look the same ; the same amount of information could be obtained . However because the resolution is so high there is much more pixel data to be stored and hence the storage size of the image increases . Image compression can be applied but this has led to artefacts appearing in images and a lowering of the quality of the image . At low resolutions using a different pixel shape could result in more information being gained from an image . < figure/>Figure 1A represents a diagonal line at high resolution . We have a very smooth line . Figure represents a diagonal line at very low resolution . Here we can see the individual pixels . Figure represents a diagonal line at low resolution . Here were are just about able to see the individual pixels In figure we see a diagonal line at a high resolution . Here we can not make out the individual pixels of the line . Therefore the line looks like a smooth diagonal line . However in figure the resolution is a lot lower . This image is not pleasing to the human eye because we can see the individual pixels . The diagonal line can be seen as a series of squares in a stepping fashion . If the intention was to produce a diagonal line this image would be unsatisfactory . In figure it is only just possible to see the pixels . The image is bordering between acceptable and unacceptable . Using a different shaped pixel in this situation could result in a smoother diagonal line , meaning a more useful image would be obtained at the same low resolution . This also applies to edges of objects . The boundary between objects can be simply viewed as a line . An object may have edges at a variety of angles . Using the example of Web based images it would be useful to produce an image that had a low resolution , allowing it to load more quickly , but still contain useful information . Printers use circular droplets of ink or circular light spots to print images , or indeed anything else . At low resolutions printers sometimes print incorrectly leaving large areas with unwanted ink . This may be due to the mapping difference between the circular droplets and the square pixels of the original image . If the image was made of circular pixels then perhaps these printing errors would not occur . The primary objective of the project was to investigate pixel shape , alternative to square pixels , in order to provide a better quality image . The objective was to investigate pixel shape in order to provide a better printout . < heading>2 . Theory</heading > For the best possible approach to the project it was important to gain an understanding of the issues involved with displaying images and also the different features of different shapes . < heading>2.1 Human Eye</heading > Before deciding what pixel shape to investigate it is interesting to observe how humans perceive images . Light travels through the cornea and lens which focus the light on to the retina , located at the back of the eye . The retina is formed from types of cell - rods and cones . The rods specialise in receiving light under poor lighting conditions and are generally very sensitive to changes in light intensity while the cones specialise in receiving colour [ ] . The cones are divided into groups , those which specialise in receiving yellowish - green light , those which specialise in receiving green light and those which specialise in receiving blue light [ ] . The rods and cones pick up the light signals which are sent to the visual cortex of the brain . The brain receives the main elements of the images and then fills in the spaces . The interesting point to note from the examination of the human vision system is the organisation of the rods and cones . These sensory elements are roughly hexagonal and are arranged in the hexagonal mosaic fashion as this is the most efficient packing method . Since humans are perceiving images through hexagonal receptors it may be better to view images with hexagonal pixels instead of square pixels . To ensure correct tessellation hexagonal pixels must be sampled on a hexagonal sampling grid - the benefits of the hexagonal sampling grid have already been mentioned in the introduction . and suggest that hexagonal sampling exploit the oblique effect in human vision thereby providing a better image when viewed by humans [ ] . < picture/><heading>2.2 Computer Images</heading > An image can be described as a continuous - dimensional brightness field . An image must be sampled and those samples digitized before a computer can process the image . The continuous image is then reconstructed from the samples . The brightness fields can be converted to the plane where the spatial - frequencies can be analysed - the frequency with which the brightness varies across a space . For correct image reconstruction , from the samples , the spatial frequencies must be non - overlapping . However a real world image will have spatial frequency components throughout the image . If this image were to be sampled and then reconstructed , the resultant image would contain aliasing errors and would therefore be an inaccurate representation of the original image . To avoid this problem the original image must be bandlimited . Typically images have been limited to a circular shape because the circular shape limits equally in all directions [ ] . proved that the hexagonal packing structure was the most efficient method when using regular circles . The hexagonal arrangement provided a density of . Therefore more samples in a fixed space can be taken using a hexagonal sampling scheme . The increase in number of samples could provide a better quality image [ ] . However if image reconstruction were to be carried out using circularly bandlimited samples there would be gaps in the resultant image . On a physical display it would not be possible to overlap the samples to form a complete tiling . However the circularly bandlimited samples can be resized to fit inside other shapes which tessellate perfectly thus allowing correct reconstruction of the original image . < figure/>As mentioned in the introduction the current standard is to use squares pixels . However it can be seen that the hexagon provides a closer match for the circle than the square . The hexagonal shape therefore saves on bandwidth which is important when dealing with internet images . < heading>2.3 Hexagons</heading > The regular hexagon polygon is formed from the connection of equal sides where each of the interior angles is ○ . The figure shows the relationship between the height and the width of a hexagon . The correct width for a regular hexagon can be obtained by simply multiplying the height by   FORMULA . < figure/>An image is formed from a dimensional arrangement of pixels completely tiling a fixed area . It is therefore essential to ensure correct tessellation of hexagons to make sure there are no gaps in between the pixels . Due to the nature of the hexagon shape it would be necessary to offset the pixels by a pixel on every other line for complete tiling . < figure/>There are similarities and differences when subsampling an image on to square and hexagonal grids . < figure/>When sampling in the vertical direction there is no difference between the hexagon and square sampling grids . Although the height of the hexagon and square are not the same , the interlocking action of the hexagonal sampling grid compensates for the extra height . As can be seen from figure the hexagons will always appear slightly taller . However this height difference is constant no matter how many pixels are displayed ; there will not be much difference over an image that may be of pixels high . The figure also shows that the square and hexagonal pixels line up in the vertical direction . The red lines are always the same distance apart . The origins of both the square and the hexagon are the same distance apart vertically ; therefore the vertical subsampling will be identical for both squares on a square sampling grid and hexagons on a hexagonal sampling grid . However this is not the case for the horizontal subsampling . < figure/>The hexagon shape is wider than the equivalent square . However , unlike the vertical hexagonal sampling grid , there is no interlocking of pixels in the horizontal direction . Therefore the width of a group of hexagonal pixels will be greater than that of the square pixel . The figure shows that , even though the hexagonal pixel starts level with the square pixel , the result is that the difference between the boundaries keeps increasing . In a large image the hexagonal pixel image will result in an image that is much wider than the square pixel image . However it has already been shown that the vertical distance will be approximately the same . Therefore the hexagonal pixel image will appear distorted . For this reason the horizontal subsampling of an image must be different for square pixels on a square sampling grid and hexagons on a hexagonal sampling grid . A hexagonal sampling grid must take fewer samples in the horizontal direction to ensure that the image does not appear distorted . As mentioned earlier the correct pixels must be taken in order to ensure all the features of the original image are displayed in the reconstructed image . As mentioned earlier , research has already been carried out into the appropriate hexagonal sampling grid . It was found that every sample must be taken on a hexagonal sampling grid to match up with the square sampling grid [ 7 ] . However this number is not an integer and samples can only be taken at integer values . Therefore the closest approximation to this value is to take every pixel on a hexagonal sampling grid for every pixel taken on a square sampling grid . This may be further examined : for every pixels displayed using square pixels on a square sampling grid pixels should be displayed using hexagonal pixels on a hexagonal grid . In this manner it is possible to display images using hexagonal pixels on hexagonal sampling grid that is not distorted . < figure/>The same theory applies to hexagons rotated by o. During testing it would be important to test both types of hexagons . < figure/><heading>2.4 Image display with Circles</heading > When placing circles on a sampling grid some adjustments have to be made compared with placing squares or hexagons . Regular circles do not tessellate with each other - therefore they do not result in a complete tiling . This leaves gaps in between the circles - an image with black spaces all over it would be unsuitable for viewing . This would occur on either a square sampling grid or on a hexagonal sampling grid . < figure/>It was therefore necessary to overlap the circles to ensure a complete tiling . < figure/>For complete tiling , through overlapping , it is necessary for the outer edge of circle to pass through the origins of the adjacent circles ( horizontal and vertical ) . If there are circles overlapping each other , by a circle in both the horizontal and vertical directions , the image dimensions would be halved . Hence circles may require a diameter that is twice the width of a hexagon or square . This method of overlapping allowed circles to be placed on either a square or hexagonal sampling grid . < heading>2.5 Ink</heading > Regardless of the method of printing the result is the same . Dots of ink are printed onto a page . The composition of inks are allows them to flow easily through even a ball point pen   [ 8 ] . Hence , when ink is placed on paper it is in its nature to flow . Therefore even though the circular ink dot is a certain size when placed , it may flow and therefore grow in size . With the inks spreading over the page they may come in to contact with each other . Therefore it is possible that the inks mix with each other to form slightly different colours in the contact regions . It is therefore important to simulate this effect when changing pixel shape to circles . < heading>2.6 Colour model</heading > As mentioned before the human eye has yellowish - green , green and blue light sensitive cones . The colour green is detected by the green light sensitive cones and the colour blue is detected by the blue light sensitive cones . However the colour red is perceived when the yellowish - green light sensitive cone is stimulated more considerably than the green light sensitive cone . This reality has produced the ( Red , Green and Blue ) colour model due to the fact that the colours can separately stimulate the different cones of the human eye . displays , such as televisions and computer monitors , compliment this property of human vision by using an RGB system for displaying colour . Currently monitors can display colour using bits - 8 bits for the red element , bits for the green element and bits for the blue element of a colour . These individual elements can be set at different intensities - a different mix of intensities produces a new colour . For example , setting red to full intensity , while keeping blue and green at , would produce red . However , setting red to of maximum intensity , whilst setting green and blue at a quarter of maximum intensity , would produce pink . Each of the elements can be set between 0 and to produce a different intensity - using this system discrete colours can be produced [ ] . The RGB model can also be described using a colour cube . The vertices of the cube represent a particular colour group . Any given point within the cube would result in colour that was a combination of the colour groups , represented by the relative distance from each of the colour groups [ ] . < figure/><heading>2.7 Viewing distance</heading > The viewing distance may some effect on the resolution of an image . Less detail can be captured from an image that is far away from the eyes in comparison to an image that is nearby . Hence when viewing images from further away than normal boundaries of objects and pixels become less discernable . This can be considered equivalent to increasing the resolution of an image . However the image size would also be considered lowered . The recommended viewing distance between eyes and monitor is "" . The viewing angle should also be between 15 o and 50   o [ ] . To maintain a constant resolution when enlarging pixels then viewing distance must also be increased . With these concepts in mind it was decided to investigate hexagonal and circular pixels on various sampling grids . < heading>3 . Design</heading > The design section discussed the equipment chosen for investigating pixel shape followed by some of the design ideas for the software and experiments . < heading>3.1 software</heading > Currently there is no readily available hardware for displaying hexagonal or circular pixels . Therefore the best method to study pixel shapes is to simulate using computer graphics software . The pixels on a monitor are square therefore the simulation will not provide a completely accurate representation of a hexagon or circular shape . However the definition of the shapes increases with the number of pixels used . < figure/>By drawing the hexagons large in comparison to the square screen pixels a more accurate shape can be displayed . Many software packages are available - some are easy to use , others provide the ability to control every aspect of an image or animation . A graphics package will fall into of broad categories . The type is the graphics software which is easy to use , provides - click feature changes and does most of the work for the user . However there is no high level control of what is being displayed . The type of graphics package is fully customisable and allows full control of the screen display . However this type of package involves high level coding and takes a lot of effort to produce simple graphics in comparison to the type of package [ ] . The main aim of the project is to control pixel shape . It is unlikely that an easy - to - use graphics package would provide such a high level of control . For this reason it has been decided to investigate pixel shape using a graphics programming language . < heading>3.1.2 Graphics Programming Language</heading > very powerful graphics languages are DirectX and OpenGL . Both are industry standards for developing games and animations and are also frequently used by amateur programmers [ ] [ ] . DirectX has the limitation that it has been designed for use with Windows platform PC 's , whereas OpenGL can run on any platform . The limitation of OpenGL is that it needs to be used in conjunction with another language . It was decided that the project will be carried forward using . This is for the following reasons : The need to work in different labs , some running Windows PC 's , some running machines , will require a language which is operating system independent . DirectX has a reputation of being quite difficult to learn . In the interests of project investigation and management it will be better to spend more time experimenting with ideas than coding software unnecessarily . < heading>3.1.3 Host Language</heading > OpenGL is a set of graphics libraries , which can be used in conjunction with programming languages . OpenGL is an industry standard when dealing with and graphics . It has been available for making it reliable , stable and well documented . Using OpenGL it is possible to draw shapes with a specified location and colour . However OpenGL needs to be used in conjunction with another high level programming language . OpenGL has been designed to be used with the C programming language and is used this way by both industry and amateur programmers . In spite of this the popularity of the programming language has caused the development of some Java specific OpenGL libraries . However these libraries have not been present for as long as the OpenGL language itself . This may make them less reliable and less well documented . But the advantage of using over C is that is a very powerful language and there are readily available libraries for image processing . C does not have these features so easily accessible . However this does not mean the project can not continue when using can also be processed in packages like . The data from the image processing can be saved in a file and then passed to the C language when appropriate . The decision to be made is whether to use and possibly encounter coding errors further on in the project or to use C in conjunction with which will mean a less efficient process due to different programs . It was decided to use OpenGL in with as the overall process will be more efficient and easier to control if all processes are kept with in the same program . < heading>3.1.4 OpenGL Library</heading > The next decision to be made was which OpenGL library to use . To discover the best library to use it was decided to explore the official OpenGL website . The website yielded libraries . was ( ) and the other was GL4Java . had the advantage that it was more widely used amongst amateur programmers and therefore more help could be found if needed . But claimed that it had successfully converted all the features of OpenGL [ ] . For this reason it was decided to use the library because it was unknown which features of OpenGL would be required to further the project . < heading>3.2 Design of experiments</heading > Before designing the software it was better to design the experiment - thus a more suitable design for the software could be generated . of the aims of the project was to determine whether more information could be obtained from an image , at a fixed resolution , if the pixel shape was changed . Therefore to determine whether an image had more information than another would require a direct comparison of images - however the quality of an image is subjective to the individual viewing the image . What may be high quality to person may be less quality to another . As a result it would be important to ensure that there is less chance of bias towards shape due to a reason other than image quality . As a result the experiment took on a psychological aspect . The images must be displayed using the same techniques where possible and the change between the different types of image must be quick . It would be unreasonable for experiment participants to continually wait for new images to load . Participants could view the images and decide whether they prefer square pixel images or hexagonal pixel images . They should also have the option of choosing no preference if they felt that there were no worthy differences between images . < heading>3.3 Design of software</heading><figure/>The image would be loaded into the program , where it would be processed , sampled and temporarily saved . The shape desired for image display would then be chosen by the user while the corresponding sampling grid for the shape would then be determined by the program . The correct subsampling technique could then be applied to the sample set and the subsampled image data can be sent to the framebuffer . The graphics card would then display the image on the monitor . The software had been designed to ease the experiment procedure . The image shape was determined while the program is running ; therefore it would be possible to alter pixel shape without calling up another instance of the program . The process was also fairly automatic . The user only needed to choose the picture and the sample shape - the program could take care of the rest . This could speed up the experiment greatly because the program did not need to wait constantly for user input . This design included the basic processes of the program and the interaction between them - however it was only a design . There may be many problems when using OpenGL and the software may need to be redesigned to overcome these problems . Also the user could only alter inputs , pixel shape and test image . However , at a later point it may be desired to have a higher level of control while the program was running , for example the ability to zoom in to certain parts of the image for closer inspection . Hence while the design displayed was the desirable method for displaying images it may have needed to be changed once implementation begun . Pixel shape was to be investigated using the graphics programming language OpenGL in conjunction with the language . The experiment would involve direct image comparison from participants . < heading>4 . Implementation</heading > The implementation of the design formed a major part of the project . Techniques for displaying images were tested and integrated into the main code . The methods used for forming and displaying the polygons are discussed . < heading>4.1 OpenGL Window</heading > After successfully installing the OpenGL library the language itself was further investigated . After reading several websites it was noted that a lot of effort would be required to simply generate an empty window . Due to this problem , ready written code of an empty window was taken to move forward into the pixel manipulation rather than linger in the coding problems . The code used was a GL4Java port of an OpenGL window written for C. After further investigation it was noted that this same code had been used in many amateur websites and many people had used it as a base to further their own projects . OpenGL used a double buffering system . buffer was used for drawing graphics on to the screen while the other buffer stored the following frame for displaying . This was useful because the next frame would be instantly displayed instead of slowly wiping over the previous frame , allowing faster comparison of images whilst the program was running . < heading>4.2 Polygon Formation</heading><heading>4.2.1 Hexagon</heading > In OpenGL polygons were drawn using the coordinate system . The vertices of a polygon could be addressed as a set of coordinates and OpenGL would fill in the space in between the points . Hence the code for the hexagon polygon was written as : < quote > gl.glBegin(GL_POLYGON ) ; , , ) ; , , ) ; , , ) ; , , ) ; , , ) ; gl.glVertex3d(0.0 , -2.0 , ) ; gl.glEnd();</quote><picture/>The Z element controlled the location of the points in the Z plane . By keeping the Z element the same for each vertex would mean the shape would be kept parallel to the plane of the screen . The benefit of this was that it would be easy to simulate zooming in and out of an image by simply adjusting the z value . < picture/><quote > gl.glBegin(GL_POLYGON ) ; , , -10.0 ) ; , , -10.0 ) ; , , -10.0 ) ; , , -10.0 ) ; , , -10.0 ) ; gl.glVertex3d(0.0 , -2.0 , -10.0 ) ; gl.glEnd();</quote><quote > gl.glBegin(GL_POLYGON ) ; , , -100.0 ) ; , , -100.0 ) ; , , -100.0 ) ; , , -100.0 ) ; , , -100.0 ) ; gl.glVertex3d(0.0 , -2.0 , -100.0 ) ; gl.glEnd()</quote > The same OpenGL call , , could be used to produce other shapes but there were some specific calls for frequent shapes . The call GL_QUADS could be used to produce any sided shape including squares and rectangles . The process for the displaying shape was the same ; however , it ensured that sided shapes are produced . For the final experiment it was important for square pixel images to be displayed in the same manner as hexagon pixel images . Therefore the square was also drawn in OpenGL however swapping the command with the command GL_QUADS . < figure/><quote > gl.glBegin(GL_QUADS ) ; gl.glVertex3d(-1.5 , , -10.0 ) ; , -1.5 , -10.0 ) ; , , -10.0 ) ; gl.glVertex3d(-1.5 , , -10.0 ) ; gl.glEnd();</quote><picture/><heading>4.2.2 Circle</heading > In OpenGL there was no preset command for drawing circles . Hence , it was necessary to create circles from other shapes . After searching the World Wide Web some code was found that allowed empty circles to be drawn [ ] . However the code found was written for C and had to be converted to first . < quote > void disp(void ) { int num_lines = ; double angle ; glBegin(GL_LINE_LOOP ) ; for(int i = < num_lines;i++ ) { angle = i*2*M_PI / num_lines ; glVertex2f(cos(angle),sin(angle ) ) ; } glEnd ( ) ; } C</quote><quote > double = Math . ; double angle = ; gl.glBegin(GL_LINE_LOOP ) ; for ( int i = ; i < circle_points ; i++ ) { angle = / circle_points ; } gl.glVertex3d(1.732*Math.cos(angle),1.732*Math.sin(angle ) , size ) ; gl.glEnd ( ) ; points on the edge of the circle were defined using the mathematic sine and cosine functions . OpenGL then joined the points together with the line due to the command GL_LINE_LOOP . The circle produced was an empty circle - only the boundary was defined . However pixels in images are coloured and hence filled circles would be required . The circle found was just a single line . However it provided some useful techniques for producing a circle . The circle was formed by defining points around the circle . OpenGL would do the rest and join the line between the points . If there were only a few points set then a less defined shape was formed . With points a diamond was formed . However as the number of points increased the definition of the circle improved . At points the circle was well defined and had good shape . < picture/>The command GL_LINE_LOOP was swapped for the command . This allowed the circles to be formed from many , very thin , triangles . < figure/>The origin of the circle was set and the triangles were formed around this point in a fan - like fashion . These triangles could be filled and hence colour could be applied to the circle . < picture/><heading>4.3 Multiple Polygon Formation</heading><heading>4.3.1 Axis Translation</heading > The code to produce hexagon was inserted into a method , which allowed the code for the hexagon to be called upon at any time . However if the method was called twice one hexagon would be drawn over by another , due to the fact that the method uses the same coordinates for the hexagons . It is possible to send in different coordinates for the hexagon to stop overlapping ; however when dealing with of hexagons it would become a slow and tedious process to continually calculate new values for the hexagons . The OpenGL language can overcome this problem by using translations . By translating the origin of the axis , new hexagons can be drawn using the same values . The new hexagon would be drawn relative to the new positioning of the axis and so would not draw over the previous hexagon . < picture/><quote > hexagon ; hexagon ; hexagon { gl.glBegin(GL_POLYGON ) ; , , -15.0 ) ; , , -15.0 ) ; , , -15.0 ) ; , , -15.0 ) ; , , -15.0 ) ; gl.glVertex3d(0.0 , -2.0 , -15.0 ) ; gl.glEnd ( ) ; gl.glTranslated(3.464 , , ) ; } < /quote > The translation call was inserted into the hexagon method because in most situations another hexagon would be drawn adjacent to the previous one . It would be more efficient to perform the translation and then remove it if not necessary than to check whether a translation is necessary every time . The new method made it possible to continually call the hexagon method to display hexagons in a straight line one after the other . < quote > for ( i = , i < , i++ ) { hexagon ; } < /quote><picture/><heading>4.3.2 Multiple Line Polygon Display</heading > The problem related to the initial positioning of the drawing axis . It was simple enough to move it down to the next line using a simple translation of position in the Y direction . However to the move the drawing axis back to the start of the line was a bit more difficult because the program had to know how far the axis had moved in the place . Also the program needed to know which lines had to be offset by a a pixel . To deal with translation in the X direction the program would need to know how many hexagons had been drawn on a line to make sure it moved back the right amount . This could be achieved by recording the number of hexagons drawn . However the number of hexagons to be drawn will be fixed before any hexagons are drawn - either a number entered by a user or the pixel width of an image . Therefore this part of the problem is easily solvable . < picture/>However when dealing with the pixel offset there were a couple of methods that could have been used . The method would have been to draw every other line . Then the program would translate the drawing axis back to the top and draw the lines in between but offset by a pixel . The simple Y translation could then be employed to draw in the remaining lines . The benefit of this method is that the offset only needs to be calculated once . The difficulty is that more complicated calculations are required to make sure complete tiling is obtained . < picture/>The other option was to draw every line sequentially and continually offset every other line . The benefit of using this method is that it follows a more sequential pattern making it easier to follow the code later when more difficult problems emerged . The disadvantage with using this method is that it could be deemed inefficient to continually check whether the offset was needed . < picture/>It was decided to use the method to draw every line sequentially . This was because it would be easier to link this method with the image processing later on in the project . An algorithm was developed which ensured a correct hexagonal tiling . A check was made to detect whether the line had been offset - a return of would mean the line had been offset , 0 would mean it had not been offset . If a line needed to be offset , the program would detect that the offset check was ; the line would then be offset and the offset check set to . If the line was already offset then the program would return the line to the original position and then reset the offset check . This algorithm made sure that the pixels were offset by a pixel for every other line . < quote > double nextLine = hexDrawn * + 1.732 ; double secondline = nextLine ; if ( offset = = ) { secondline = secondline - ; offset = ; } else { secondline = nextLine ; offset = ; } < /quote><heading>4.4 Image display</heading><heading>4.4.1 Colour Model</heading > The subsequent section was the control of colour . There are a variety of colour models used in computer image applications . The difference between colour models is the method in which the system is manipulated . OpenGL provided different models for colour manipulation - the simple RGB model and the Colour - Index model . The model relied on the user inputting the specific values for each of the red , green and blue elements to produce a desired colour . The - Index mode used an index value matched against preset colours in a lookup table . < figure/>It was decided that the model would be more suitable for the project . The model provided a more direct manipulation and control of colour . Although it was possible to obtain a vast number of colours using the Colour - Index model , its inflexibility made it unsuitable for the image processing later on in the project . The OpenGL RGB model used as the maximum value for an individual RGB element and for the minimum . For example , setting each of the values to would result in the colour black . Setting all the values to would change the colour to white . The table below gives a few examples demonstrating the colour flexibility . < table/>It was now possible to apply colour to the hexagons by using the OpenGL call , gl . Color . The call took inputs , namely the values of the individual red , green and blue components . To colour a polygon in OpenGL the colour was set by using the glColor call . All polygons would then be drawn with that same colour until a new colour was set . Therefore the colour for a particular hexagon had to be set before the hexagon was drawn . < quote > gl.glColor3d(0.3 , , ) hexagon ; hexagon , , ) hexagon ; , , ) hexagon ; , , ) hexagon ; hexagon</quote><picture/>A test program was written which , by using hexagons , gradually went through the colour range for a few colours . This gave great promise for the future development of the project . < picture/><heading>4.4.2 Image Processing</heading > The next section of the project involved processing the images within the program . Since this would involve a lot of work developing , integrating and testing it was decided that it would be best to research ready written code on the web . As previously mentioned is a popular language and there is much ready written code on the web . source provided code that would load images with , and codings into the program . Another source provided code that stored images in a method desirable for the project . The images were processed and separated into the individual pixel elements . The location and colour value of this pixel was then stored in a based array . The elements of the array represented the ( i , j ) position of the pixel whilst the element identified the colour of the pixel . This colour value could be further processed to extract the individual red , green and blue elements of a pixel - the elements used in the model . < quote > int [ ] [ ] [ ] sampledImage = imageIO.getImagePixels(img);</quote > For example , below we have a x pixel image of an envelope . < picture/>By enlarging the image we can see the pixel boundaries . < picture/>The program began by identifying the pixel located in position ( ) . < picture/>The program then identified the colour value of the pixel which was then stored in the array . This value could be manipulated to provide the individual RGB components of the colour value . The colour values obtained were on a based index - level scale . For the pixel located at ( ) the components were for red , for green and for blue . These values had to be divided by to obtain a value , the colour range of the OpenGL RGB colour model . Therefore using the OpenGL colour range the components were for red , for green and for blue . For further explanation it is suitable to concentrate on a smaller number of pixels , for example , the block of pixels formed from the top left of the envelope . < picture/>By processing this block of pixels the image is stored in memory as : < table/>These colour values can be extracted with simple array calls . For example , [ 0][2][RED ] would return the red component of the pixel in location ( 0,2 ) , which in this case is . These red , green and blue elements could be mapped onto a hexagonal polygon . By obtaining the colour of each individual pixel element in an image , it would be possible to convert square based images to hexagon based images . < The conversion process had a specific mapping procedure . The program would begin by identifying the pixel of the loaded image . < quote > for ( int i = ; i < ( img.getHeight(this ) ) ; i++ ) { for ( int j = ; j < ( img.getWidth(this ) ) ; j++ ) { < /quote > The colour of that pixel would then be obtained . < quote > r = sampledImage[i][j][RED ] ; g = sampledImage[i][j][GREEN ] ; b = sampledImage[i][j][BLUE ] ; r = r / ; g = g / ; b = b / 255;</quote > The colour would then be sent to the hexagon call method which was modified to set OpenGL to that colour . < quote > hexagons(r , g , b);</quote > A hexagonal pixel would be drawn which would result in a hexagon with the same colour as the square pixel . < quote > public void hexagons(double red , double green , double blue ) { gl.glColor3d ( red , green , blue ) ; gl.glBegin(GL_POLYGON ) ; , , size ) ; , , size ) ; , , size ) ; , , size ) ; , , size ) ; gl.glVertex3d(0.0 , -2.0 , size ) ; gl.glEnd ( ) ; gl.glTranslated(3.464 , , 0.0);</quote><picture/>The program would then identify the next pixel of the image and determine its colour . Again this colour would be set and another hexagonal pixel would be drawn . < picture/>The algorithms developed earlier ensured the hexagons were being drawn in the correct places . < picture/><picture/>The same method could be used for producing OpenGL images with square based pixels , as well rectangles or circles . In the interest of fairness it was important to ensure that square based images were displayed using the same mapping procedure as the hexagonal pixel based images . < heading>4.4.4 Clipping</heading > When creating images with pixels on a hexagonal sampling grid it was possible to see an uneven edge . This was due to the nature of the sampling grid in that every other line had to be offset by a pixel . This uneven edge could bias judgements during the experiment phase . < picture/>It was therefore necessary to ensure that the window edge would clip off the uneven edges of the image . This could be achieved by enlarging the image until its edges were just cut off by the edges of the window . The window had been kept a constant size at x pixels . This produced a square window ; most images are not square and are of rectangles with varying ratios between width and height . < picture/>The window therefore had to have the same dimensions as the image that was required for viewing . The size of the window had to be set before the window was created . It was also not possible to draw any graphics until the window had been created . Hence it was necessary to alter the order in which certain processes were carried out . The image had to be loaded into the program so that the size of the window to be drawn could be determined . The window was then drawn followed by all other necessary processes . This change of processes produced a window that had the correct dimensions for an image that was to be displayed . < picture/>However the window still did not clip off the window edges . The origin of the drawing axis was in the centre of the window . For the image to fit in the window the program had to move the drawing axis to the top left corner , before displaying the image , to ensure that the image fit in the window . Finally , the enlargement of the image had to be set so that the edges were only just cut off . After investigation it was found there was a relationship between the height of the image and the zoom factor that needed to be applied . This relationship was exploited such that the edges of an image were automatically clipped when the image was displayed . < picture/><heading>4.4.5 Subsampling</heading > The final part of the displaying procedure involved subsampling the images . For subsampling a lower number of pixels had to be processed than for a normal resolution image . For square pixels every pixel was taken in the horizontal direction while for every pixel was taken for hexagonal pixels in the horizontal direction . Every pixel was taken in the vertical direction for both sampling systems . < quote > for ( int i = ; i < img.getHeight(this ) ; i = i + 6 ) { for ( int j = ; j < img.getWidth(this ) ; j = j + 7 ) Hexagonal Sampling</quote><quote > for ( int i = ; i < img.getHeight(this ) ; i = i + 6 ) { for ( int j = ; j < img.getWidth(this ) ; j = j + 6 ) The images displayed were times smaller than normal . These had to be enlarged so that better shape formation could take place . Also on such small images it would be difficult to determine any differences . Therefore the zoom factor was adjusted to compensate for these variations . < picture/>However the resultant image was not of a very high quality . Higher resolution images would be required for testing for testing purposes . < heading>4.4.6 Alpha Element</heading > The overlapping of circles introduced new problems . With only part of the circle showing a new shape was being introduced . < picture/>Apart from the circles on the outer edge every other circle would be displayed as in figure . The edge circles were also not being displayed correctly . In a real printout the ink on a page may spread and mix together . This concept provided the solution to the overlapping problem . OpenGL could add a element to the colour model to produce the RGBA model . The element was the alpha element . The alpha element controlled the transparency of polygons , or in this case , circles . With the transparency applied to the circles , the circle behind another would have more of its colour showing through . This transparency caused the colours to mix also simulating the effects on inks on a paper . < picture/><heading>4.5 Experiments</heading><heading>4.5.1 Preliminary Experiment</heading > A preliminary experiment was carried out to gain experience in performing the testing procedure . With the knowledge received from the preliminary experiment it would be possible to improve the procedure and provide a more fair and suitable final experiment . To display an image the program had to be loaded from a command line with the image file name as an argument . This made it unfeasible to change the image being displayed while the program was running , especially with different images requiring different window sizes . Therefore to change an image being displayed the current program had to be closed and a new command had to be typed into the command line with a new argument . This could take a lot of time , especially when displaying a string of images - a test participant may be unwilling to wait for such periods in between testing . Therefore a method was needed for quickly changing the image being displayed . The workstation for performing the tests was a Windows platform pc . Therefore an MS - DOS batch file was created which lined up the commands that needed to be called . All the necessary program files were compressed to a jar file which made organisation and execution of the program easier . < quote > java -jar -classpath ./ Image4.jar sakuraba.jpg java -jar -classpath ./ Image4.jar sky.jpg java -jar -classpath ./ Image4.jar house.jpg java -jar -classpath ./ Image4.jar grass.jpg</quote > As soon as image was no longer needed , the program was closed and the next image would automatically be displayed . This process greatly reduced the changeover time between images . A similar batch process could also be created using UNIX shell script to allow the same test to be run on a workstation running UNIX . The test procedure asked participants to compare an image with different shape pixels , at varying distances , and decide which displaying of the image they preferred . The images were displayed without any sub - sampling . To ensure that the height and width of the images were still correct the dimensions of the hexagon were altered . A regular hexagon is wider than the regular square and so displaying every sample with this type of hexagon would cause a distortion in the image . Therefore the width of the hexagon was adjusted to units width instead of units . This allowed images consisting of hexagons on a hexagonal sampling grid to be displayed in the same window as images consisting of squares on a square sampling grid . The images chosen for testing were images of natural scenes . The images displayed were a face , a portion of sky , a house and a field . The dimensions of the images were also relatively small in size so that the images would load up more quickly . The images were also displayed at twice their original size to allow the graphics card to display more accurate hexagons . < picture/>The participants were asked to view one of the images . The pixels would be swapped between hexagons on a hexagonal sampling grid and squares on a square sampling grid . The participants were not told which pixel shape was being used - they were simply informed of version or version . The version number applied was changed between the shapes to ensure the participant did not become attached to a version number and instead chose the image they preferred . After a participant had given their answer , whether they preferred version , version or had no preference , the image was changed so that the comparison could take place on a different image . During the test the participants were asked to stand at varying distances to simulate higher and lower resolution . participants were asked to stand at twice the normal distance , followed by the normal distance and finishing with times the normal distance . Since the images were being displayed at twice their actual size , viewing the image from a normal distance would simulate lower resolution because the pixel shapes could be seen more clearly . Viewing the image from twice the normal distance would be equivalent to a normal viewing and finally , viewing the images from times the normal distance would simulate a higher resolution as the pixel shape would be harder to make out . < heading>4.5.2 Final Experiment</heading > The final experiment ran in a similar fashion to the preliminary experiment however a few important changes were made . The images displayed had gone through the subsampling process and so were of much lower resolution . Therefore when displaying the images it was not easy to tell what was being displayed . For this reason participants were shown the original images at maximum resolution to give them some idea of what the image was supposed to display . The participants were shown all the images at the beginning of the test and then were not allowed to see the images later on during the test . Because the images were being subsampled a much higher resolution original image was required so that the subsampled image would have some quality and some features of the image could be discernable . It was fairly difficult to find or images that are of high resolution due to the large file size . However some images were found which did not contain any artefacting . Hence these images were suitable for testing and contained a variety of different features - some containing straight edges ; others providing curves and some images had subtle colour changes . Because the images were being displayed at times larger than usual the participant had to stand times the normal viewing distance away . This was the correct viewing distance for the subsampled image . There were some extra features to be tested in the final test . Images with hexagons at different rotations were also tested as there could be a difference in an image displaying with a different hexagon rotation . were also tested in the final experiment to provide an alternative to the squares and the hexagons . Because circles fit on either sampling grid it was important to test the circles with both of the sampling grids . images were chosen for the final test , again each of them displaying a natural scene . < picture/>Using these methods images could be displayed using hexagons , squares or circles on square and hexagonal sampling grids . The preliminary experiment provided improvements for the final experiment . < heading>5 . Results and Analysis</heading > The actual data from the preliminary results were not the key aspect . The experience gained from running the experiment ensured a more accurate and reliable final experiment . The final experiment compared hexagon , square and circular pixels , the results of which are discussed in the following sections . < heading>5.1 Preliminary Results</heading > The images produced may be viewed in the appendix . The images displayed using square pixels were generally better quality than the images using the hexagons . At the closer ranges square pixel images were almost always preferred to hexagon pixel images . At the greatest range there were no discernable differences between the images . At the normal viewing distance the square pixel images were preferred to the hexagon pixel images . Although the alternative pixel shape did not provide positive results the purpose of the preliminary experiment was fulfilled - running an early test to devise an improved final experiment . < heading>5.1.1 Single Window</heading > An image was loaded in a window with either square or hexagon pixel images . While the program was running it was possible to change the pixel shape , and the sampling grid it was displayed on , by the touch of a button . The other option was to display images side by side . However participants may have preferred a particular side , so this chance of bias was removed . It was possible to switch between various shapes , hexagons , squares and circles as well as various sampling grids , square and hexagon . The fact that it happened in the same window increased the speed of the test . The participant did not have to wait for extra windows to be loaded . Participants also kept asking to see the different versions again and again . The one touch button method greatly sped up this process - instead of having to continually load up new windows . < heading>5.1.2 Preference of Shape</heading > In most cases participants could not immediately decide which image they preferred . The participant had to focus on a particular part of the image or on an edge within the image . Their decision about the image was sometimes entirely based upon a single object . For example , during a test of the ' grass.jpg ' image a participant revealed that their decision was based on the clarity of the dog . While this may be a valid to do in the situation where there is only one difference between the images , in other images differences could have been overlooked . In a few test cases the resolution of the image was set very low . For example , the ' sakuraba.jpg ' was zoomed in until only the nose was visible . < picture/>The participants pointed out that the squares were better for the edges , but the hexagons were better for the detail within an image . This gave some promise for the hexagon shape at certain resolutions . < heading>5.1.3 Jpeg Image File Format</heading > The image displayed were conversion of jpegs . Jpegs are compressed image files . This compression has lead to artefacts appearing in images , due to the algorithms used . Particularly when using the ' grass.jpg ' image the artefacts were exaggerated when using hexagons compared with squares . This may have distorted the results for that particular image . It was therefore important to ensure that the test images used were not compressed , such as .TIFF or .BMP . If this was not possible then it would at least be better to obtain images where there were not artefacts present or the compression percentage was low . The ' sakuraba.jpg ' image may also have had a smoothing effect applied to it . The effects of this were again exaggerated in hexagons as the edges of the objects were stretched out . < heading>5.1.4 Subsampling</heading > The images were not sampled , i.e. every pixel was being displayed . Even though the images were being displayed at twice their size this meant that there were pixels available on the monitor for the formation of hexagons . The graphics card overcame this problem by simply changing the colour of the monitor 's pixels where it thought it was appropriate - to simulate the hexagonal sampling grid effect . This meant that a true representation of hexagons being sampling on a hexagonal grid was not being displayed . Therefore the results obtained were not of much use . However the preliminary test did give an idea of how to run the final test . It also gave pointers on how to improve the final test - choosing better images and the importance of sampling . < heading>5.2 Final Experiment Results</heading><heading>5.2.1 General results < /heading><heading>5.2.1.1 Resultant Program</heading > The original aim was to produce software that would display images using hexagonal pixels on a hexagonal sampling grid . However it was beneficial to add extra features to the program . It was possible to move the picture around and zoom in to specific parts of the picture to see exactly how the pixels were forming the image . It was also possible to change between square and hexagonal sampling grids . Another feature was the ability to change shape to hexagons , squares , circles and rectangles . The hexagons could also be drawn with a different rotation and on its appropriate sampling grid . The original image was loaded into the program where the image dimensions were obtained . An appropriate window was initiated and the image was sent for processing . The sampling grid to be used was set by the user and the appropriate subsampling technique was applied to the processed image data . The shape of the pixel to be used was then set by the user and the appropriate image displayed . Any translations , transparency alterations , zooming and pixel rotation adjustments could be applied while the program was running . The final program structure resembled the following diagram < figure/><heading>5.2.1.2 Image Qualities</heading > The program produced images using various shape pixels on various sampling grids . The formations of the shapes were better than in the preliminary experiment because of the subsampling . Less samples were being used therefore the image could be enlarged to a bigger size on the same display . The hexagons were formed from display pixels which were a lot more than the display pixels used to form hexagons in the preliminary experiment . When viewed at the correct distance there was no difference between using hexagons or rectangles on a hexagonal sampling grid . Therefore rectangles were removed from the final experiment . Images displayed using circles appeared less bright than when displayed with other pixel shapes . This was due to the transparency of the circles . All images displayed using circles were set to a transparency level of . Therefore the images displayed were as bright as images displayed with other pixels . The overlapping of the circles also introduced a new problem . The images appeared blurry and unclear . However this same blurry effect removed the distinctive pixel boundaries that appeared in images using other shapes . This gave a smoother transition of colour over the image and therefore in some aspects more closely resembled a continuous image . < heading>5.2.1.3 Printing</heading > It was not yet possible to print out images . OpenGL had not been researched deeply enough to find an effective method for printing images . Screen captures could be taken which did allow printing . However the captures did not contain enough detail to make them suitable for printing . Any captures taken would also be taken using square pixels on a square sampling grid thus defeating the purpose of printing . Therefore there was no result for the secondary objective . < heading>5.2.2 Test results</heading > The images produced may be viewed in the appendix . < heading>5.2.2.1 Pixel Comparison</heading><heading > Vertical Hexagons against Horizontal Hexagons</heading > The test to consider was the orientation of the hexagon shape . It was important to decide which hexagon shape provided the best image . The better of the orientations could then be used for comparison against squares and circles . The set of images were tested on different people . < table/>In general it was found that images displaying vertical hexagons were preferred twice as many times to the horizontal hexagons . The vertical hexagons appeared to display straight horizontal edges better than the horizontal hexagons . However the opposite was the case for vertical straight edges . However in some images there did not appear to be many straight edges at all and still the vertical hexagons were preferred . Therefore vertical hexagons were used in the remaining tests when hexagon pixels were required . < heading > Circles on Hexagonal Sampling Grid against on Square Sampling Grid</heading > The next test involved testing circles on the different sampling grids . Overlapping circles could be displayed on either square sampling grids or hexagonal sampling grids - both would give a complete tiling . However the sampling grids did affect the resultant image in different ways . Again the set of images were tested on people . < table/>It was found that circles displayed on a hexagonal sampling grid were preferred more than twice as many times as the circles displayed on a square sampling grid . The transparency of the circles introduced a problem with the images . In an area of circle there were portions where there was no overlapping and portions where there were circles overlapping each other . The result was lighter and darker sections within the single circle pixel area . This effect was present in all circles and led to a grid effect on the images . However the grid could be seen more clearly in the images using a square sampling grid . For this reason some participants preferred circles to be displayed on a hexagonal sampling grid - therefore circles would be displayed on a hexagonal grid for the remainder of the tests . < heading against Squares</heading > The hexagon pixel images , displayed on a hexagonal sampling grid , were compared with square pixel images , displayed on a square sampling grid . The set of images were tested on different people . < table/>60 % of participants preferred square pixel images compared to of participants who preferred hexagonal pixel images . of participants had no preference between the images . However it is important to note the total number of samples used in each case . The different sampling grids required a different number of samples . For the images samples were used for a square pixel image whereas samples were used for the hexagon pixel images . The image was displayed using samples for the square pixels whereas samples were used for hexagon pixels . Hexagon image pixels were displayed using less pixels than with square images . As mentioned earlier if there are fewer samples in an image then there is less information content ; the square pixel images had more than a extra information in the image than the hexagon pixel images . However with a lower number of samples and therefore lower information content , the hexagon pixel images were still preferred of the time - almost a third of all cases . Additionally in of cases there was no preference - demonstrating that squares were not deemed better than the hexagons in more cases . If the hexagons were displayed using the same number of samples the gap between the results may be closed down . However the dimensions of the images would be slightly different , although the aspect ratio would remain the same . < heading > Circles against Squares</heading > Images using circle pixels on hexagonal sampling grid were compared with square pixel images . The set of images were tested on different people . < table/>Again the square pixel images were preferred in of all cases . The circle pixels were preferred in of cases and there was no preference in of all cases . Once more because circles were displayed on a hexagonal sampling grid a fewer number of samples were used compared to the square pixel images . This must be taken into account when comparing the results . However it is interesting to note that the circles performed slightly better than the hexagons in the same situation . < heading against Circles</heading > Hexagon pixel images were compared to circle pixel images . The images were subsampled on a hexagonal sampling grid . Once again the set of images were tested on different people . < table/>The hexagonal pixel images were preferred in of all cases . The circle pixel images were preferred in of all cases . There were no instances of no preference being chosen in a test case . Therefore it was quite clear which image provided the best quality . Both images were being displayed with the same number of samples and on the same sampling grid . The smoothing effect of the circles images were outweighed by the blurry and brightness factors . < heading>5.2.2.2 Image comparison</heading > By comparing the results of each image individually trends in the results may be established . < heading > Bluehills</heading><table/>In this image there are not many straight edges - only the curves of the hill . In this situation the pixels using the hexagonal sampling grid are preferred more often than the square pixel using the square sampling grid . As stated in the introduction square pixels are more suited to straight horizontal and vertical edges . This factor may have attributed to the square pixel not performing so well in this image . A large proportion of the original image was blue . The change between the different intensities of blue was subtle . The smoothing , blurring effect of the circles helped to preserve this subtle change whereas the hexagon pixels defined the pixel boundary too clearly . < heading > Sunset</heading><table/>Although there were some straight lines in this image the hexagon pixel was preferred more than the square pixel . At such low resolutions the hexagonal pixel performed just as well as the square pixel on the horizontal straight edges . The remainder of the image consisted of curves non - regular shapes . Although there were not too many clashing colours adjacent to each other the circle proved to blur edges too much for the participants . < heading > Sky</heading><table/>Even though the resolution was low the hexagon pixel did not perform as well as square pixels on vertical straight lines . Because the tower is the main focus of the image participants based their decision on the quality of the tower . When viewing the clouds or the rest of the sky there is not much difference between the hexagon pixels and the square pixels . There was not much difference between preference of hexagon pixels and circle pixels . < heading provides many interesting features . The edges of the leaves are fairly straight and at varying angles . There any many curves in the leaves in the background and finally there are many near - vertical straight edges displayed by the stalk of the flowers . It is found that the square pixel image was most preferred . Over the range of feature present in the image the square pixel may handle them better in general whereas the hexagon may excel with some features whilst not performing so well with others . More detail in the flowers is displayed when using square pixels . The circles blur the detail in the flowers too much thus removing some of the information in the image . < heading > Autumn</heading><table/>The final image has much detail in the leaves . The leaves are fairly small and of the pixels is sometimes larger than the leaf itself . A lot of detail is lost due to the subsampling techniques . However , square pixels were still preferred over hexagons , perhaps because the square pixels covered a lower surface area and so resembled the leaves more closely . The circles blurred the leaves of the image far too much resulting in a preference percentage for this particular image . < heading>6 . Conclusion</heading > The project aim was to investigate the effects of pixel shape on images at low resolution . Changing the pixel shape had many different effects - using hexagons provided more detail but was poor for edges ; using circles applied a smoothing effect and blurred the image but the overall brightness of an image was decreased . Hexagon pixel images were preferred over circle pixel images however square pixel images were preferred over both hexagon and circle pixel images . This was mainly due to the straight edges provided by the square pixels . However images displayed using hexagonal sampling grids were using less samples than when using the square sampling grid - therefore images were being displayed with less information content . The project could still be further developed by investigating different pixel shapes when the number of samples in either square sampled or hexagonally sampled images were the same . Ultimately it would be desirable to test hexagonal images on hardware that was capable of using hexagonal pixels . This would remove the simulation effects and be a true test . The experiments could be performed by a psychologist to ensure the tests were fair . The secondary objective of the project was never achieved and hence could still be investigated further . The main project aim was achieved - the effect of pixel shape on images was investigated . However the solution to the problems discussed at the beginning of the report were not attained . The objective was not accomplished due to lack of understanding of the OpenGL graphics language .","< abstract><heading > Summary</heading > The report investigated the past performance of plc as well as the reliability of its report in . It also considered the potential future of plc 's performance . The results were plc has had increased profitability and efficiency ratios . plc has strengthened its market position and has had good results for investors . The plc Annual Report and Accounts 2003 was deemed reliable . It was recommended that shareholders increase their shares in plc . plc has a promising future due to their strategy of concentrating on core business and using infill acquisitions . The recent takeover by ( ) will have great benefit for plc in . < /abstract><heading>1 . Introduction</heading > Kidde plc is an independent fire protection business . They also have divisions providing aerospace and specialist equipment as well as some business in the residential and commercial sectors . This report will evaluate the past performance of plc by use of horizontal and ratio analysis . By considering the reliability of the plc Annual Report and Accounts 2003 alongside the past performance this report will recommend to shareholders whether to hold , sell or buy shares in plc . Finally the report will discuss the potential future of plc . All figures are taken from the - best file unless otherwise stated [ ] . < heading>2 . Evaluation of Past Performance</heading > The past performance will be considered by horizontal analysis on the profit followed by relevant profitability , efficiency , investment and liquidity ratios . < heading>2.1 Profit</heading > Kidde plc generated £ m profit ( before taxation ) in . On comparing this value to their peers it can be shown that this is far more than any of them . The closest peer was M plc who made , of what plc produced . At plc had employees and had a turnover of £ m. A company of similar size and turnover were ltd who had employees and a turnover of £ m at . However the difference in profit is large . ltd made a loss of £ m. group plc generated the most turnover of £ m but still made a loss of £ m. The aim of any business is to make money and plc has shown that it can do this better than its peers in . plc may have other problems but they still managed to outperform their peers in . ( All data in this section was taken from the - peer file [ ] . ) < heading>2.2 Gross Profit ratio</heading><figure/>The gross profit ratio is the ratio between gross profit and total sales revenue represented as a percentage [ ] . The graph shows that plc has had a fairly constant gross profit ratio of . of the turnover is profit which is good for any company . This shows that plc have managed to keep production costs down and have also built a good reputation allowing them to sell goods high above their manufacturing price . plc was formed by demerging from plc in . Data from this period may have been estimated therefore accounting for the sudden rise and fall of the gross profit ratio during . However from , where plc had been properly established , the gross profit ratio has steadily increased , representative of a growing company . In general the gross profit ratio is steadily increasing and shows no signs of drastically changing . < heading>2.3 Earnings per Share</heading><figure/>The graph above shows the adjusted earnings per share . Earnings per share relate net profit to the number of shares . However adjusted earnings per share do not include exceptional items , amortisation of goodwill or acquisition reorganisation costs and so are more useful when comparing [ ] . Using earnings per share it is possible to see exactly how much money is made for each individual share . From the earnings per share have increased from per share to per share in . As previously shown this trend shows that plc is a growing company . For an investor this is an important figure as it shows how much money the company can make for the shareholder ; it shows whether the company is making good use of the shareholders money . plc has demonstrated that it can generate good profit from the shareholders input . The drop in is again due to the demerger from plc . < heading>2.4 Return on Total Assets</heading><figure/>Return on Total Assets is the ratio between profit and total assets represented as a percentage ; the higher the percentage the better the use of the assets . The large drop from in to in can be attributed to the demerger of plc from plc . However from onwards it can be seen that plc has improved its return on total asset percentage by using the assets more efficiently . This increase has only been present for , however by looking at the rate of growth of other ratios it seems that the return on total assets may grow at least for . < heading>2.5 Stock Turnover</heading><figure/>The stock turnover ratio is an efficiency ratio which measures how much stock is left as part of the company 's assets . A lower value suggests that the company has of stock left in warehouses . A quicker stock turnover will mean that less money will be tied up in stocks . A fast stock turnover means that stock is being moved quickly , which in turn implies that sales have been improving . A faster stock turnover means faster revenue generation . Since plc have been continually been improving their stock turnover . This may be attributed to better marketing or an improved sales team as well as a more efficient stock management system . By there is worth of stock in the warehouses . < heading>2.6 Trade Debtor Collection Period</heading><figure/>Trade debtor collection period displays it takes for people who owe an entity to pay . In the period from the trade debtor period was increasing . This increase shows that plc has had poor trade debt control . plc was formed from a demerger in and so was in a weak position for calling in debts . However the trade debt collection period was still increasing in . It is possible that plc prolonged this poor debt collection period to build relations with customers . In plc have reduced their trade debt collection period showing a strengthening of market position . As long as this downward trend continues it will mean plc have improved their reputation and image amongst their customers . < heading>2.7 Dividend Cover</heading><figure/>Dividend cover is the number of times a company could pay its dividends . As a long term investor a lot of income may be gained from dividends . It is important to make sure that the company that was invested in can pay dividends when due . The graph shows that plc had no cover in . This was of the demerger and so plc was not in a good financial position . However in plc improved its dividend cover to over times the dividend . This value increases slightly in . plc has a good relationship with its investors , even paying dividends in . < heading>2.8 Return on Shareholders return on shareholders funds ratio is a profitability ratio that relates profit to the shareholders investment . If the ratio is high then a lot of profit is being generated from the shareholders input . To a shareholder this is important because it shows how effectively the company is using their money . The graph displays the trend of the return on shareholders funds ratio for plc . There seems to be a large jump in . This was of the demerger and so any shareholders funds attributed to plc would have been estimated . Therefore there should not be too much emphasis on the peak in . What is important to note is that there is downward trend in . This is worrying as it shows that the shareholders ' investments are not being used as effectively as possible . However in the return is which means plc are still making some profit on the shareholders input . < heading>2.9 Dividend Yield</heading><figure/>This investment ratio shows the dividend in relation to the market share price . A high dividend yield is useful to the investor who wishes to secure a steady income off their investment . A company which pays out dividends shows itself to be financially stable . From until Kidde have an increasing dividend yield . However in it drops slightly from . The lowering of the dividend yield is slightly worrying for the investor who relies on this income . However it has not dropped significantly below values . Also this drop may be attributed to the loss made by the change in the pound - dollar exchange rates . In the report it states that the exchange rate was down by . Divisional profits lost £ m due to this exchange rate [ ] . But if this trend continues then it will be damaging to the company 's reputation and performance for . < heading>2.10 acid test is a liquidity ratio measuring how quickly assets can be turned into cash , thereby avoiding liquidation . Ideally a company would have a ratio of , meaning the company could generate enough cash to pay all liabilities at once if necessary . If the ratio is too high it would mean the company is being over cautious and not using all its assets efficiently . The graph displays an acid test ratio in . This figure only decreases until it is in . This is worrying because the company could potentially liquidate if required to pay all liabilities at the same time . However the acid test is quite strict and does not take into account of stock . In reality plc is not close to liquidation but it could be troubling if this value were to continue to decrease . < heading>2.11 Conclusion</heading > In general plc has shown that it is a successful growing business . The graphs show a slightly distorted trend in the periods to due to the demerger from plc . However plc was fully established and separate by . Most of the figures start low in , compared to the values , but over it can be seen that plc have improved their profitability and efficiency ratios . As an investor it is interesting to note that plc paid dividends even in when funds were low . plc seems to have a good relation with investors . In conclusion plc is a business that is performing well and will continue on their success for at least a few more years . < heading>3 . Reliability of Kidde plc Annual Report and Accounts 2003</heading > The plc Annual Report and Accounts 2003 seem quite reliable . There is a lot of information provided about how the business is run . In the corporate governance statement there are details on measures taken to produce accounts which represent a true and fair view of the financial status of the company . The report is helpful in allowing the reader to make better comparisons with reports . According to the Group Finance Directors report in plc changed their number of operating divisions from [ ] . This could cause problems when trying to compare to previous years . However in this report they have included figures in the division format especially to allow for comparisons . They have also converted the old figures to a divisional format again to allow for ease of comparison . A report which provides such useful comparison methods must have something good to show otherwise if there was something to cover up the reports would not contain easy comparison . As with any set of accounts adjustments have been made . These adjustments seem quite appropriate . For example in of notes to the accounts depreciation has been applied to tangible fixed assets [ ] . The technique used was a straight line basis which is a valid depreciation method . Freehold land has not been depreciated which is also valid with normal accounting practice . The only slightly worrying figure is here is that some plant , equipment , or vehicle has a depreciation rate of which seems a bit high . Either plc should invest in longer lasting assets or someone is taking liberties with the accounts . Apart from this the depreciation adjustments are reliable . Another accounting adjustment was made to the stocks . On page of the report it states that ' stocks are valued at the lower of cost and net realisable value ' [ ] . The Inland Revenue website states ' One of the acceptable basis of stock valuation is the lower of cost and net realisable value ' [ ] . According to the report ' cost is calculated on an average or ' in , out ' basis . ' Both of these methods are valid however it may have been more useful if they stated what costs were calculated via a particular method . When making accounting adjustments plc have used well known adjustment methods for providing a true and fair view of the accounts . Inspecting the figures themselves there seems to be no discrepancies . plc has made reliable accounting adjustments . It is important to note that have audited the accounts and found that ' the financial statements give a true and fair view of the state of affairs of the Company and the at ... ' [ ] The auditors are an external independent company and plc have stringent regulations on even employing ex - employees of the auditors as stated on page of the accounts [ ] . , a separate accountancy firm , worked with plc to make better financial decisions [ ] . It is clear that the auditors were completely independent from any other interaction with plc . There is a slightly puzzling figure in of the accounts when mentioning the disposal of fixed assets . plc made a loss on disposal of fixed assets in . , an associated company of plc managed to make a profit on disposal of fixed assets [ 22][23 ] . These values match up all too conveniently and perhaps further investigation could be made . However it is noted in the exceptional items section which would suggest it is a - off and would not be happening too frequently . Apart from this the plc report and accounts can be deemed reliable , and represent and a true and fair view of the financial health of the company . < heading>4 . Recommendation to Shareholder</heading > As stated in the conclusion to the performance section plc is a successful business . The growth rate has not been too explosive suggesting there is more growth yet to come . plc has a good relationship with investors , a strengthening market position and reputation and has a promising business strategy . For these reasons and those suggested in the conclusion of I would recommend buying more shares in plc . < heading>5 . Assessment of Potential Future Performance</heading > Kidde plc is a growing business . it is implementing new strategies that help the business to thrive . The approach employed in was to concentrate on core business while still gaining extra income from acquisitions [ ] . Early in plc sold their shares in associated companies and [ ] . In the previous report and were regarded as non - core activities [ ] . plc also sold their investment in professional paint . These sales provided a small , - off income for the business at the cost of losing the steady income obtained by acquisitions . To overcome this plc made new acquisitions of , a provider of fire equipment and services [ ] , ( now named fire fighting chemicals ) , a provider of fire fighting chemicals [ ] and , a fire extinguish manufacturer [ ] . This strategy is very beneficial to the company these acquisitions relate more directly to core activities . Interaction with the acquired companies may assist in research and development and providing new services or products . In UTC ( ) , an company , made bids to buy out plc . The website stated that saw its share price rise by ... after it confirmed it had rejected a ( $ ) takeover offer [ ] . It also mentioned that plc stated that per share was materially understating the company [ ] . On the website analysts suggested that plc could have sold each share for 170p . However in the end plc was bought for per share . If this is the case then why did plc sell out so low ? Perhaps plc has some unknown difficulty that could have emerged as a real problem if they had not been bought out soon . Generally the takeover by will generate more shareholder interest in plc and also cause share price to rise . Being bought out by an company will also allow plc to get even more presence in , in which some of plc 's operations are based . The takeover will also please shareholders because there part of the deal included a per share special interim dividend [ ] . It is also possible for 's rivals and to make higher bids which would only be more beneficial for plc [ ] . If does win the bid plc will be reunited with plc who were bought out by earlier . plc and plc were together as part of plc and as shown in the ratios in the previous sections they enjoyed much success . However there were problems at that time which is what caused the demerger in . Now plc have reorganised their structure and are in a better efficiency and management situation . By rejoining plc under new terms they may be able to achieve more accomplishments than before . According to the interim report plc have been making good progress in securing important fire protection contracts on the 7E7 Dreamliner [ ] . In all divisions plc has generated higher divisional profits than in . It has been a strong first half and on reading the interim report it would suggest that the rest of will be just as strong . In general plc is a business which has a determined strategy which will help generate revenue while still allowing strong development of products and services . They have new prospects in and by concentrating on their core business they will be successful for to come .",1
"writes that the ' essence ' of structuralism ' is the belief that things can not be understood in isolation - they have to be seen in the context of the larger structures they are part of ' . The body of text surrounding the extract and its genre must , then , be considered . The monologue takes place in scene of what might be regarded as of 's most powerful tragedies . < fnote > Peter Barry Beginning Theory An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory 2nd ed ( Manchester : , ) p. < /fnote > Roland Barthes 's ' method of understanding ' involves the employment of codes . ' The symbolic code ' , ' consists of contrasts and pairings related to the most basic binary polarities ' . The selected extract is structured around a set of these binary opposites , which , when syntagmatically combined create a deep sense of emotional torment within the tragic hero . In preparing himself to kill his wife , Othello uses many images of life such as , ' rose ' ( 5.2.13 ) ; ' vital growth ' ( 5.2.14 ) ; ' Balmy breath ' ( 5.2.16 ) . These are surrounded by words and images of death : ' wither ' ( 5.2.15 ) and ' monumental alabaster ' ( 5.2.5 ) . This demonstrates conflict within the character himself . Also very poignant are the contrasting images of warmth and cold . Phrases such as ' Promethean heat ' ( 5.2.12 ) and ' flaming minister ' create a sense of heat and passion , whilst the candle suggests warmth and life . However , the use of ' alabaster ' ( 5.2.5 ) as a comparison suggests something cold and dead . There are oppositions of colour ; between dark and light which evoke issues perhaps to do with race and symbolically enhance other polarities within the monologue . This opposition within the character Othello is ' summed up ' , in the oxymoronic lines : < fnote > Peter Barry Beginning Theory An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory 2nd ed ( Manchester : , ) p. < /fnote><quote > "" ... I must weep , But they are cruel tears . This sorrow 's heavenly ; "" ( 5.2.20 - 1)</quote>'Heavenly ' is the opposite of what weeping and sorrow should be ; ' Othello believes he is acting out of love . "" Reviewing the structure of the text in such a way , unveils the inner character of the protagonist . < fnote > Rebecca Warren York Notes Advanced Othello ( , ) p. < /fnote > By looking at the extract alone there are aspects of language which can be observed and used to create meaning on a basic level . Like much of 's work , the monologue is written in iambic pentameter . This encourages a rhythm which emphasises significant words , thus evoking both mood and meaning . The syntax used within the lines also aids this . In the line , for instance , the repeated word 'cause ' is given natural emphasis from its place within the rhythmic pattern . Moreover , the caesurae within the line suggest that the speaker ( Othello ) is in some kind of confused torment ; the syntax used gives emphasis on the ' is ' in the part of the line . A structuralist reading of these lines suggests justification . However , since this 'cause ' is not identified within the monologue itself , a complete understanding can not be achieved without the context of the play . The work of on the structure of the myth recognised that although there was no ' separate and inherent meaning ' , the text [ the parole ] could ' be understood by considering its position in the whole cycle ( the langue) ... 'Othello is a tragedy in genre , and Othello the tragic hero . Thus , like the myth , the play can be understood in terms of its genre . By understanding tragedy it is possible to identify ' the cause ' without the context of the play , as of things , as identified by : revenge , ambition or de casibus . The following lines confirm that it is the that is driving Othello . The tragic hero must embody certain attributes in order to make him tragic . The most poignant of these is the tragic flaw , or folly , which takes hold of the protagonist . Othello 's folly is jealousy and by taking into account the play 's genre it is possible to grasp a basic understanding of the nature of the play . However , a structuralist reading on this level is limited and more detailed observations need to be made . < fnote > Peter Barry Beginning Theory An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory 2nd ed ( Manchester : , ) p. < /fnote > Taking into account both the surrounding text and the genre of the play , these lines can be read in different ways . Throughout of the play Othello refers to justice . The repetition of the phrase , ' It is the cause ' ( 5.2.1 ) , could be a reaffirmation of the reason behind his intentions . A structuralist reading , which takes into account the binary structure might suggest that Othello is still protesting with himself . The way in which he refuses to name the cause ( ) suggests that the tragic hero can not accept the thought of being separated from by killing her .   < fnote > Rebecca Warren York Notes Advanced Othello ( , ) p. < /fnote > Structuralism looks at texts as a ' structured set of signs which carries cultural meanings . "" 's code , ' The cultural code ' ' contains references out beyond the text ... which evokes a pre - existing image in the reader 's mind ' . Within the passage are various signs to suggest meaning . Othello addressing his soul at the end of the line is commonly found in the and in many classic literary works . In the context of the play , this might suggest that Othello regards the murder of his wife as something sacrificial and divine , not simply an act of revenge . Indeed , later in the scene he confirms this when addressing : "" ... what I intend to do / A murder , which I thought a sacrifice . "" Taking a structuralist view of the text as part of a larger cultural body reveals more about 's protagonist . < fnote > Peter Barry Beginning Theory An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory 2nd ed ( Manchester : , ) p. < /fnote><fnote > Peter Barry Beginning Theory An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory 2nd ed ( Manchester : , ) p. < /fnote><fnote > W. Shakespeare Othello / edited by 3rd ed ( Croatia : The Arden Shakespeare , ) p. < /fnote><fnote > W. Shakespeare Othello / edited by ( China : , ) p. < /fnote > 's code is ' The semic code ' , ' also called the connotative code ' , which is ' linked to theme ' and ' constitutes a character ' . This line of structuralism , taking into consideration the abundant binary polarities within the passage can generate clear meaning . However , when in line , Othello expresses a desire not to ' shed her blood ' this reading does not give one solid singular meaning , but evokes varying meanings . It is possible to read that the tragic hero is trying to avoid later guilt for his actions and thus does not want to leave behind him evidence of the murder . Some critics , however , have argued that it is a sign that he wishes her to remain as she is ; perhaps even wanting her to live . Indeed , in the following line he speaks in admiration of her skin , which is whiter than snow , and later in the monologue reinforces this love when he requests to : ' Be thus when thou art dead , and I will kill thee , / And love thee after . ' ( ) < fnote > Peter Barry Beginning Theory An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory 2nd ed ( Manchester : , ) p. < /fnote><fnote > Rebecca Warren York Notes Advanced Othello ( , ) p. < /fnote > In studying the binary opposites through the cultural code in the following lines , a structuralist analysis can reaffirm meaning . The previous lines of love , and life , precede images of death . The modal verb used in the sub - clause , ' and I will kill thee ' indicates Othello 's determination still to kill . The reference to the ' monumental alabaster ' creates an image associated with death . 's words refer to a funeral monument , which suggests would be ' where effigies often lie on their backs , heads resting on a stone ' pillow ' , hands pressed together in prayer ' . He supports this also by referring to the candle carried by Othello which also suggests the '' church ' tableau ' and sees the imagery used by as a possible hint to how the scene might be staged . Moreover , the use of ' alabaster ' , a translucent , white stone used for tombs , as a ' cultural code ' reinforces this image of death . < fnote > Rebecca Warren York Notes Advanced Othello ( , ) p. < /fnote><fnote > W. Shakespeare Othello / edited by 3rd ed ( Croatia : The Arden Shakespeare , ) p.306 < /fnote > A structuralist reading , considering the genre of the play allows us , also , to question the motives expressed by the protagonist . The monologue expresses private torment concerning the hero and his relationships , thus it is questionable that he cares about what happens to other men . This private theme in tragedy inevitably ends with death and indeed Othello remains intent on murdering . The use of the imperative verb in line demonstrates this . However , the reference to her as a ' light ' suggests that he considers her still to be fair and very much alive . Once again , the text is working on binary opposites in order to create this sense of confusion and anguish . < fnote > W. Shakespeare Othello / edited by 3rd ed ( Croatia : The Arden Shakespeare , ) p.306 < /fnote > The structuralist approach to texts will recognise that the larger body of the play works on binary opposites not only in theme , but in the language used by Othello . considers that "" ... Othello is , in sense of the word , by far the most romantic figure among 's heroes . "" In the duration of the play there is much evidence of this . The language used by Othello is rich and poetic . However , at times when he is passionately tormented , this fluid , sensitive language is lost . In this monologue in the final act of the play , his language seems to suggest that he is , in a sense , returned to his former self . This is illustrated by the insertion of phrases such as ' monumental alabaster ' ( 5.2.5 ) ; ' flaming minister ' ( 5.2.8 ) and later , ' heat ... relume ' ( ) , which ' are notable for the high content of ( and origin ) vocabulary . This ' measured formality ' is reflective of Othello 's conviction that what he is about to do is a justified sacrifice . < fnote > URL   04/02/04 < /fnote><fnote Othello / edited by ( China : , ) p.216 < /fnote > Throughout the rest of the passage , the binary polarities become more poignant and by analysing them structurally it is possible to detect a change of mood . In the lines eleven to , Othello continues to refer to as a thing of beauty . He addresses her as ' cunning'st pattern of excelling nature ' and compares her to a ' rose ' . These expressions , which suggest life , precede images of death . The metaphor of the ' rose ' which ' must wither ( ) ) is noticeably more subtle than those previous . The mood is one which is of a softer , less passionate nature and evokes in the reader a sympathy that perhaps was not so strong earlier in the monologue . This is aided by the way in which the reflexive verb phrase , ' I repent me ' , is used . This evokes a sense of regret and guilt . A structuralist reading through 's cultural and symbolic codes reveals how this opposition of life and death is reinforced by the negative use of life images . This is evident in the use of the phrase ' Promethean heat ' , on which writes : < quote > "" seems to be combining separate myths about Prometheus , one in which gave fire to human - kind and one in which he was the creator of human - kind""</quote><fnote > cited in : W. Shakespeare Othello / edited by 3rd ed ( Croatia : The Arden Shakespeare , ) p.306 < /fnote > Othello claims that he ' know[s ] not where ' this life giving source is ' That can thy light relume ' ; is using imagery of life in order to illustrate how completely dead will be . He does this again in line where Othello asserts that he ' can not give it vital growth again ' , referring to the metaphoric image of the rose . Othello 's extended use of metaphor can again be understood as him reassuring himself that he is acting out of justice . In the act of ' symbolising his wife ' he continues to ' avoid confronting his deed head on . "" A structuralist understanding of this use of metaphor in creating binary opposites gives us vital signs as to how the tragic hero should perhaps be understood . < fnote > Rebecca Warren York Notes Advanced Othello ( , ) p. < /fnote > The final lines embody the binary opposites used throughout this poignant and dramatic speech , showing fully how Othello can be understood as a tragic hero . The monologue demonstrates the private theme essential to tragedy , illustrating his inner torment . The structure of these end lines gives a sense of finality by summarising these polarities within lines : < quote > ' ... This sorrow 's heavenly . It strikes where it doth love . ' ( 5.2.21 - 2)</quote > The delicate placing of this emotional opposition solidifies our impression of how Othello is feeling and prepares us for the nature of the following scene . Analysing the text from a structuralist theoretical stance allows us to grasp a clear sense of meaning from the text on several levels . The concentration on genre , particularly since Othello is a tragedy , makes it possible to understand the passage through the various rules of tragedy . The attention given to the passage as part of a larger structural body - a play - also gives a greater sense of meaning to the lines . The most useful structural techniques in reading this text were the observation of binary opposites and the employment of 's codes . However , structuralism seems to limit , perhaps , our psychological understanding of character ; Othello is a private tragedy and the psyches of its characters are extremely poignant .","' Madness ' is a difficult concept to define or explain . definition offered by is that "" Madness is divisive and undermining "" , and "" when we imagine the so - called mad they appear before us in lurid or horrifying or fascinating or discomforting images . "" Amongst modern psychoanalysts , it has been suggested that "" we are born with varying amounts of sanity and madness inside us "" . Indeed , some of followers are "" adverse to madness , though resigned to the inevitability of our unending struggle with it because , like sin , it is assumed to be integral to our nature . "" Many of the elements we associate with madness are instinctual and irrational , those which many psychoanalysts believe to be concentrated within the unconscious , or ' I d ' . The conscious self , or ' ego ' , on the other hand "" can not exist in the individual from the start ; the ego has to be developed "" . The development of the ego can not avoid cultural or social influences ; in fact it could be argued that it is because of these influences that there is a need for it to develop . What madness reveals then is perhaps a created "" self , a stranger within , a place where all that can not for reason or another be expressed or realized in civil life takes up residence . "" The suggestion that "" Madness lies in subjugation by the state , "" and also "" in the way the state makes us subjects "" can be supported by a number of literary texts and theories . However , as this essay will argue , it also lies in how we construct ourselves within society "" by the intricate complex of subject and object relations that constitutes our symbolic realities . "" < fnote > Phillips , Adam , Going Sane ( London : Penguin Books , ) , p.33 - 5 < /fnote><fnote > Phillips , p.52 < /fnote><fnote > Phillips , p.53 < /fnote><fnote > from Freud , Sigmund , ' On Narcissism ' , cited in The Unconscious , by Easthope , ( London : Routledge , ) , p.48 < /fnote><fnote > Rivkin , and , , ' Introduction : "" Strangers to Ourselves : Psychoanalysis "" , in Literary Theory : An Anthology , ed . By Rivkin , and , , ( : , ) , p.119 < /fnote><fnote , Daniel , Literatures of Madness Module Handbook ( Headington : , Department of , 2005 ) p.4 < /fnote > novel One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest has been described as "" a product of its time , the anti - authoritarian and iconoclastic sixties , celebrating the rebellion of an individual against the system . "" One of the most prominent elements of the novel is its reflection upon contemporary reservations concerning "" established psychiatric practices and institutions -- lobotomy and electroconvulsive therapy , institutionalization and overreliance on drugs "" . Moreover , it highlights the way such medical practices were used by the state as "" instruments of social purification masquerading as science with little diagnostic or therapeutic value . "" On level , the novel is about the political subjugation by the state . However , it is perhaps more poignant when read as a narrative of the liberation of individuals from both political and cultural subjugation . < fnote > Semino , and , , ' and mind style in One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest ' , in Style , Volume Issue ) , p.43 , < /fnote><fnote and Swindlehurst ( 1996 ) < /fnote><fnote > Faggen , Robert , ' Introduction ' , in One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest , by , ( : Penguin Books , ) p. x < /fnote > Towards , psychiatry had reached a prestigious peak in . Those practicing it were regarded as "" knights of reason and order saving damsels from the proliferating dragons of the mind . "" However , by it seemed that "" the dragons had become the psychiatrists and the institutions of psychiatric care themselves . "" This is personified in Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest through the character of , or , "" who runs the psychiatric ward by means of a dehumanizing and repressive regime of terror . "" Her "" manipulative skill and ability to destroy by insinuation render her an infuriating and insidious corporate tool . "" During this period it seemed to many that "" the modern concept of madness was a cultural invention of control "" ( Foucault ) and that doctors were used "" as a way of keeping dangerous people at bay "" ( ) . The character of is considered on the surface to be a threat to society , held in custody for statutory rape of an underage girl . However , the threat he represents is far more complex . If relating the characters of the novel to Freud 's model of the ego , one might compare to the I d ; to the primary , irrational energies of the mind which Freud characterised as "" a combination of sexual libido and other instincts , such as aggression "" . His freedom of spirit and strength as an individual is a threat against a repressive state and society , and he is consequently locked away and labelled insane . < fnote > Faggen , p.ix < /fnote><fnote > Semino and Swindlehurst ( 1996 ) < /fnote><fnote > Faggen , p.xvii < /fnote><fnote > Faggen , < /fnote><fnote > Rivkin and , < /fnote > Having worked in a mental hospital , , too , had become suspicious of the "" boundaries that had been created between sane and insane . "" Furthermore , he began to question whether madness lay in "" the common practice [ of ] conforming to a mindless system or the attempt to escape from such a system altogether . "" Indeed , the pivotal paradox of Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest is that of trying to escape the inescapable . It could be argued then that 's only madness is his relentless efforts to conquer the evils of the system . Chief also suggests this in his narration : "" The thing he was fighting , you could n't whip it for good . All you could do is keep on whipping it , till you could n't come out any more and somebody else had to take your place . "" Although is ostensibly defeated when orders him a lobotomy , the release of his soul "" through the chief 's love "" essentially symbolises the "" triumph of the spirit over repression and death . "" is essentially a catalyst for the other patients to realise they have been subjugated by the state , and to reassert themselves as members of society . < fnote > Faggen p.x < /fnote><fnote > URL   14/12/05 < /fnote > On the other hand , the person narrator , is the equivalent of the ego , which "" helps to carry out the process of censorship and repression . "" It could be argued that adopts a muted persona as a mechanism "" for redirecting libido into safer channels , including repression , projection and introjection [ ... ] rationalism and sublimation . "" The extent to which can be considered ' mad ' is indeed questionable . Many have regarded him to be schizophrenic ; however , it might be more accurate to suggest that his madness is driven by state subjugation . His paranoid suspicion of the ' Combine ' could in fact be interpreted as an accurate perception of "" a collaboration of governmental and industrial groups he believes are trying to control people by way of machines "" ; this is , of course , what is happening within in the hospital . However , neither the Chief , nor even , blame this national , or in fact anything , for rendering "" some people mad and incapacitated "" whilst others seem "" to transcend their own limitations and the obstacles thrown in their way . "" It is not only who is caught in a paradox ; the "" fundamental opposition "" in the novel , as suggested by a number of critics , is "" not between madness and sanity but between being trapped and free . "" It becomes possible here to question whether the presentation of individuals in Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest suggests that madness lies wholly in subjugation by the state . Perhaps it would be more sufficient to say that , in the case of , the latter part of the statement is more accurate , but also that his ' madness ' stems from his own inability to construct himself within the present symbolic order . < fnote > Easthope , , The Unconscious ( : Routledge , ) , p.49 < /fnote><fnote > Easthope , < /fnote><fnote > URL   < /fnote><fnote > Faggen , p.xviii < /fnote > Chief 's life story provides some insight to the problems he suffers in his later life , and within the novel . Born to an chief and white mother , his hybrid character is established from his birth . Through childhood he witnesses the domination and destruction of his father by both government authorities and indeed his mother . Freud suggests that "" Identification is known to psychoanalysis as the earliest expression of an emotional tie with another person [ ... ] A little boy will exhibit a special interest in his father ; he would like to grow like him , and take his place everywhere . We say simply that he takes his father as his ideal . "" It could thus be argued that the chief is essentially without a strong male role model , which affects his own self construction ; he believes that , like his father , he too is weak , and thus becomes weak . describes the Chief to McMurphy : "" I think somebody m - m - measured him once at ; but even if he is big , he 's scared of his own sh - sh - shadow . Just a bi - big deaf . "" Furthermore , it is likely that 's experiences of fighting in would also have weakened him . The reasons behind his hospitalisation remain ambiguous , and it has been suggested amongst critics that , like , the Chief was in fact sane when he entered the institution . The arrival of on the ward initiates a process of liberation , which is driven by his natural desire to "" feel alive "" . Freud proposed that the qualities of the I d "" propel the human organism through life "" ; and it is perhaps through 's influence and encouragement that learns to "" embrace life as well "" .   < fnote > Freud , Sigmund , ' Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego ' ( ) , in Literary Theory : An Anthology , ed . By Rivkin , and , ( : , ) , p.175 < /fnote><fnote > Kesey , Ken One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest ( : Penguin Books , ) , p.22 < /fnote><fnote > URL   14/12/05 < /fnote><fnote > Rivkin and p.121 < /fnote><fnote > URL   14/12/05 < /fnote > McMurphy 's presence seems to aid in constructing an identity ; he gains the confidence to speak and take responsibility for his own actions . This of course climaxes when he has the personal strength to euthanize . The influence of emasculating and oppressive authorities indeed suggests that 's insecurities are , to an extent , consequent of subjugation by the state . However , his liberation perhaps suggests that his ' madness ' stems more from the inability to construct himself within that state . The novel ends when has found his sanity and can re - establish himself within the world . Chief 's liberation could be compared to that of in The Bell Jar . Throughout the novel struggles with the construction of her own identity . The ending of has been considered problematic , since 's liberation appears to stem from her ability to conform . However , it could also be argued that , like Chief Bromden she has freed herself from the way the state makes her a subject and her liberation is in the ability to construct herself within the world she lives in . proposes that "" Plath was assessing the plight of the young woman artist at who was attempting to overcome the values of domesticity in a uni - polar milieu . "" A key element which seems to obstruct Esther 's construction of her ' self ' is that of gender . expands this point to suggest that "" If and her colleagues in are victimized , it is partly due to the mindset prevalent in those times [ the ] : women should stay at home , cook meals , clean house , and bear children . "" Indeed , this might suggest that Esther 's ' madness ' lies in the way the state makes her subject to cultural expectations . However , this argument is problematic . It might be argued that what stimulates 's madness is in fact the frustration that she herself can not , and might never be able , to do these things . < fnote , , ' The Disabled Female Body as a Metaphor for Language in Sylvia Plath 's , Women 's Studies : , ( ) ( ) , pp.199 - 223 < /fnote > In , : "" started adding up all the things I could n't do . "" What is noticeable is the way she begins this list with particularly female gendered activities , "" I began with cooking . "" Freud proposed that the "" crucial point in gender formation is that of identification , the molding of a self from equations made between oneself and external objects through the internalization of images or models of those objects . "" Indeed , within this passage , compares herself to her mother and grandmother who "" were such good cooks I left everything to them "" , and "" , my best and only girl - friend at college "" . Throughout the novel she frequently forms identifications with other females she admires . , , who "" made me forget my worries . I felt wise and cynical as hell "" ; and a little later , decides to "" be loyal to and her innocent friends . It was I resembled at heart . "" It might be suggested that is in fact searching in others for what she herself needs to make her feel whole ; no longer "" melting into the shadows like the negative of a person I 'd never seen before in my life . "" explored such ideas about "" the origin of castration or loss "" : < fnote > Plath , Sylvia , The Bell Jar ( : Faber and , ) , p.71 < /fnote><fnote > Rivkin and , p.122 < /fnote><fnote > Plath , p.71 < /fnote><fnote > Plath , p.7 < /fnote><fnote > Plath , p.21 < /fnote><quote> ... the subject enters the symbolic order from a position of lack or castration of her pre - symbolic self that was unified with the mother . She begins her linguistic life with a fragmented , disabled conception of who she is ( Uprety , p.201 < /fnote > It could be argued then that 's ' madness ' lies less in subjugation by the state than in her own problematic self construction . Further into the chapter , sees her "" life branching out [ ... ] like the green fig - tree "" . Each fig represents something that she would like to be . It is here that Plath suggests clearly the root of Esther 's depression : < quote > I saw myself sitting in the crotch of this fig - tree , starving to death , just because I could n't make up my mind which of the figs I would choose . I wanted each and every one of them , but choosing meant losing all the rest</quote><fnote > Plath , p.73 < /fnote > For Esther , this possible loss is traumatic ; her ' madness ' lies partly in both her inability to accept this loss and make a decision , and her attempts to aspire to an impossible perfection . This is perhaps why the ending is significant . Like , is able to recognise herself , and makes the decision to re - establish herself in the world , guided by others , but "" perfectly free . "" < fnote > Plath , p.232 < /fnote > theory of ' can be employed to support this argument . He proposes that "" identity is a form of identification [ ... ] the subject 's ego is ' that which is reflected of his form in his objects ' "" . cites the moment when a child first recognises its own reflection and "" the transformation that takes place in the subject when he assumes an image "" : < fnote > Easthope , p.59 < /fnote><quote > This jubilant assumption of his specular image [ ... ] would seem to exhibit its an exemplary situation the symbolic matrix in which the I is precipitated in a primordial form , before it is objectified in the dialectic of identification with the other , and before language restores to it [ ... ] its function as subject . ""</quote><fnote , , ' ( ) , in Literary Theory : An Anthology , ed . By Rivkin , and , ( : , ) , p.179 < /fnote > Indeed , what is significant about the human reflection is the consequent awareness of the boundaries of the body and the recognition of ourselves as distinct from other people and objects . What suggests is "" complex here is the paradoxical move towards acceptance of this specular image ( seeing one 's body from the ' outside ' , as a spectator ) while still experiencing one 's body from the ' inside ' - introceptively "" . The image we see in the mirror is referred to by as the ' ideal I ' , or ' ideal ego ' which is "" defined in the way the subject projects itself onto other objects , moves out into identification with them . "" This is made distinct from the ' ego ideal ' which "" develops when external objects are taken in or introjected . "" suggests that this "" schism between of oneself and to oneself is the source of a perpetual alienation "" . This indeed can be applied to Esther . There are key moments within the novel when Esther can not recognise her reflection . As early as chapter two she describes her own reflection as "" The face in [ the mirror ] looked like the reflection in a ball of dentist 's mercury . "" Esther 's use of the person here detaches herself from the reflection . However , a more poignant instance of this follows her suicide attempt . When given a mirror , at can not "" see what the trouble was . It was n't a mirror at all , but a picture . "" The description of her reflection that follows is again in the person : "" The most startling thing about the face was its supernatural conglomeration of bright colours . "" The moment of recognition comes when she smiles and "" The mouth in the mirror cracked a grin "" . proposed that "" The body is a symbol . Its appearance and actions point beyond itself to an inner world , but also beyond itself to a total life situation . "" It might be suggested then that whilst Esther struggles to recognise herself physically , this could also be read as a metaphor for her relationship with her mental self . < fnote > , . Clinical , critical and cultural perspectives on health and illness ( Berkshire : Open University Press , ) , p.6 < /fnote><fnote > Easthope , p.62 < /fnote><fnote > MacLachlan , p.6 < /fnote><fnote > Plath , p.168 < /fnote><fnote > cited in , p.25 < /fnote > Boyer suggests that "" Plath constructs the disabling experiences which are enmeshed into the female body as metaphors for a fractured language "" ; "" writing the disabled body in The engenders a series of intimate encounters with the ineffectuality of language . "" writes that "" It is a well observed symptom of depression that language dies and that the ultimate result of life - threatening depression is total silence . "" Like , Chief Bromden in Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest could not situate himself within the symbolic order , and consequently retreats from language as a means of defending himself against "" real possibilities of unpleasure coming from the outside world "" . However , where has regressed into silence before the beginning of 's novel , begins her narrative at the time of her writing scholarship . However , further into the narrative she decides to write a novel about the expression of ' self ' , yet when she tries to write about herself it becomes clear that she is trapped to such an extent that she can only respond to what she is doing at the present moment . This is echoed further in a number of episodes within the novel . When trying to read 's Wake "" The letters [ ... ] separate , each from the other , and jiggle up and down in a silly way . Then they associated themselves in fantastic untranslatable shapes "" . Soon after she attempts to write a letter to Doreen : < fnote , pp.199 - 201 < /fnote><fnote > Watkin , , ' Melancholia , Revolution and Materiality in the Work of Julia Kristeva ' , Paragraph : A , ( ) ( ) , p. < /fnote><fnote > Easthope , p.50 < /fnote><fnote > Plath , p.120 < /fnote><quote > But when I took up my pen , my hand made big , jerky letters like those of a child , and the lines sloped down the page from left to right almost diagonally , as if they were loops of string lying on the paper , and someone had come along and blown them askew . < /quote><fnote > Plath , p.125 < /fnote > Boyer argues that "" The major depression that Esther experiences throws her body into a disabled state that affects all aspects of her being , especially her thought processes . Her thinking becomes fragmented and her writing disjointed . "" The representation of Esther 's individual ' madness ' indeed suggests that it lies largely in her struggle to construct her sense of ' self ' . Watkin suggests that "" our society [ is ] so strictly controlled by the linguistic dictates of the symbolic order "" ; "" a sense of self occurs through social interaction and relatedness "" within this society . Esther 's inability to employ language suggests that this interaction is incomplete . < fnote > Boyer , .p.214 < /fnote><fnote > Watkin , p.87 < /fnote><fnote > MacLachlan , p.24 < /fnote > The writings of have suggested that "" The intelligence of human beings , coupled with their capacity for self - reflection , and the ability to think about the future , gives them the unique capacity to contemplate the inevitability of their own death . "" It might be argued that 's ' madness ' lies in an excess of self - reflection and thought about the future ; less in how the state has made her subject , and more in her inability to construct herself within it . Similarly , the Chief 's adopted silence allows him to reflect upon his surroundings . However , his deeply internalised insecurities restrict his ability to consider a future beyond the hospital . also believed that "" humans would be rooted to inaction and abject terror if they were continually to contemplate their vulnerability and mortality "" . 's decision to remain in the institution is perhaps a sign of this . The internalisation of state subjugation has perhaps rendered him incapable of leaving . However , his insecurities stem far deeper , his liberation demonstrating that it is the inability to construct a sense of self that has perhaps been his only downfall . Esther too has to discover how to construct her sense of self within the present symbolic order . She internalises pre - conceived ideas of femininity which causes her to perceive herself as a failure . Living within a time of transition with regard to societal roles of women , , it seems , is not in fact under so much pressure to be any of the gendered things she considers . Thus , her insanity lies more in a failure to construct her own sense of self . Both novels demonstrate that ' madness ' , no matter where it stems from , can be escaped . It has been suggested that "" The resulting perception that one is a valuable member of a meaningful universe constitutes self - esteem , and self - esteem is the primary psychological mechanism by which culture serves its death - denying function . "" At the end of Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest the Chief feels valued and thus confident enough to reclaim his sanity . Esther , too , "" Although interminably abused and temporarily handicapped , [ ... ] does emerge into her own "" room "" , beyond the stifling enclosure of the bell jar . "" < fnote , p.201 < /fnote >",1
"In this opening quotation highlights a sensitive and intimate topic of . writers and poets of the genre faced personal , political and social moral dilemma on how best to portray the intensely personal yet estranged issue of slavery in the colonies . , in his book and , highlights the implications of such an impasse . Many writers , including Austen , used "" striking but careful strategies ... positive ideas of home , of a nation and its language , of proper order , good behaviour and moral values . But positive ideas of this sort do more than validate ' our ' world ; they also tend to devalue other worlds . "" Similarly , texts written by ex slaves also encountered difficulties on how to portray their experiences of slavery . Whether the purpose of a text was abolitionist propaganda or personal catharsis , an ex slave had to safeguard against offending a reader 's sensibilities , whilst also pushing the boundaries on descriptions of slavery , so readers did not become complacent and continued to argue in favour of abolition . These tensions established a fine balance between the sublimation and disruption of slavery in texts . This resulted in slavery finding expression either in abstract images or being banished to the epistemological petticoats of an authors work . I will examine the works of and for evidence of the sublimation of slavery and I will also explore slavery 's ability to disrupt , within the texts . < fnote > Said , and . : Chatto and , . < /fnote > The introductory quotation taken from book and , in which he dedicates a whole chapter to the discussion of , targets an intriguing trope of the novel . Indeed , although Austen only refers to Antigua times it creates an undercurrent of emotion that pervades the rest of the novel . The were extremely active in the in 's time , yet she seems only vaguely aware of the details of these activities . Many writers , including their readers , were probably familiar and therefore comfortable with class distinctions within a domestic sphere . However , the class distinctions within slavery were international , dislocated and as a result alien and unintelligible to the public . Therefore , Sir 's trip to has a definite function in because although it is only "" referred to in passing , is absolutely crucial to the action- what are we to make of the interpretation ... for she might have done something different to establish Sir 's wealth . ""(E. exerts are vital according to , who feels it is "" precisely because Austen is so summary in context , so provocatively rich in the other , precisely because of that imbalance we are able to move in on the novel , reveal and accentuate the interdependence scarcely mentioned on its brilliant pages . "" ( ) Director 's production of highlights this interdependence by foregrounding the issue of slavery in comparison with the novel . In contrast with 's decision to sublimate slavery , Rozema chooses to portray slavery as a silent yet disruptive force . On her journey to Price looks out onto sheltered cove on the coast to see a slave ship arriving , it is still present when Sir sends home to after refusing proposal . This imposing image is an ever - present symbol of slavery threatening to invade and disrupt values and order . Rozema also creates an extra scene , involving 's discovery of a book , belonging to the feverish , which contains charcoal sketches depicting scenes of torture , rape and murder in Sir 's plantations in . Sir walks in after her discovery and is forced to confront the collision of these worlds . The book disrupts the social and moral barrier Sir has erected to protect both himself and . Indeed this incompatibility is emphasised briefly in the novel when relates to Edmund that after enquiring about the slave trade to Sir ' there was such a dead silence , ' that , in 's opinion , this suggests "" that world could not be connected with the other since there is simply no common language for both . ""(E. ) Returning to the novel it is clear that whilst slavery in is sublimated , status as an enslaved figure at acts as a disruptive influence . Sir immediately establishes 's lowly status by making it clear among his daughters that ' they can not be equals . ' He urges the family to prepare themselves ' for gross ignorance , some meanness of opinions and very distressing vulgarity of manner , ' attributes which have been commonly associated with savages in the past . Her elder cousin often requests her ' services . ' However , Sir 's opinions of change dramatically after his return from . His appreciation of her ' improved complexion ' and ' figure ' are reminiscent of an appraisal of a slave being bought at market . Indeed , in the film , Fanny views her coming out ball as the equivalent to a slave market , attesting she does not ' want to be sold off as of my uncles slaves . ' It seems is acutely aware of her uncle 's mastery over her , depicted when her brother leaves and Sir advises Fanny to go to bed , writes "" advise "" was his word , but it was the advice of absolute power . ' Sir is often portrayed as a stern master when at home . Austen clearly states "" he was master at obtaining compliance ' from submission . ' He is opposed to the feminist liberal opinions , reminiscent of , which promotes . Instead believing a woman should ' adopt the opinions of the man she loved and respected . ' Maria and Julia are perhaps more enslaved that Fanny . They are bound by tradition to marry . teases that these marriages resemble ' sacrifices to the gods . ' Such imagery is reminiscent of fabled savage rituals . Austen highlights that for , at , marriage becomes a ' rule of moral obligation , her evident duty to marry . ' To emphasise this impasse , Austen includes an exert from A Sentimental Journey through and . was renowned for his support of the abolitionist movement . Left alone together in ' the wilderness ' of the park at , employs an abstract image from using the cries of a caged starling , ' I can not get out ' * in appeal to of her entrapment to and imprisonment at . concurs that the image is "" emblematic "" of 's own situation . Austen embellishes a sense of pathos in the reader with 's comment ' I declare when I got back to , it look like a prison - quite a dismal old prison . ' < fnote > * Consequently the incident leads directly into a passage criticising slavery and celebrating freedom . < /fnote><fnote > Austen , . . ed . . : Penguin , . < /fnote > Edmund too is portrayed as a slave to religion through his father 's wishes for him to become a clergyman . He must deny his feelings for Fanny . His position is reminiscent of the amanuensis of who , it seems , is forced to deny his blackness in favour of religion , when he is delivered from ' regions of the grossest Darkness and Ignorance ' into ' the Light of his Truth . "" In both texts religion is portrayed as enslaving . is told off by an old black man for swearing in case ' a wicked man call'd the Devil ' would ' put them in the fire , and burn them . ' ( Gronniosaw ) < fnote > Gronniosaw , J.A.U. "" A Narrative of the most remarkable particulars in the life of , , as related by himself "" in Unchained Voices : An Anthology of Black Authors in of . ed . , . ( : Penguin , ) < /fnote > The novel also demonstrates why slavery was so disruptive among the families whose existence depended on the income from their plantations . The 's own new money and therefore the tensions of balancing domestic affairs and the international slave colonies were recent encounters and perhaps more fragile to the potential disruptiveness of slavery in . Indeed the depended on the procreation of slave masters with slave women to create a new workforce . Back in blood relations no longer "" assure(d ) continuity , hierarchy , authority . "" Indeed Said feels "" Sir 's infrequent trips to as an absentee plantation owner reflect the diminishment of his class 's power . "" ( ) Similarly , is sublimated as Sir is portrayed only as absent from , but never seen as present in , suggesting in 's opinion "" the complete subordination of colony to metropolis . "" ( ) The hypocrisy is inescapable ; the wealth of Sir 's estate , which is built on the labours of a slave workforce , is entirely hidden from view and denied existence . < fnote > Said , and . : Chatto and , . < /fnote > Just as in is denied existence , so too does , in , often try to sublimate his blackness . Mutiple tropes and genres are layered on top of each other to create an impenetrable mesh of truth and fiction . "" Spiritual autobiography , captivity narrative , travel book , adventure tale , narrative of slavery , economic treatise , apologia and perhaps historical fiction "" Equiano 's Narrative combines multiple genres , which compliment the double consciousness and dual identity he establishes from the beginning . , slave , , briefly a captain and propagandist , Equiano has many identities , perhaps due to a lack of his own identity as a slave . He never presents a united identity in the text and it is this radical value of indeterminacy that adds value to the question of 's sublimation or acceptance of his black self . The ease with which Equiano creates these multiple personas , in a "" carnivalesque "" ( Baktin ) display of self - fashioning , demonstrates how easy it is to write and assume identities , showing that culture is only a veneer . There are particular periods throughout the bildungsroman , which highlight his struggle between sublimation or acceptance of his black persona . The portrait used as the front piece to the novel establishes this ambiguity between Equiano 's black self , and his assumed white identity , . He employs both names on the title page , creating immediate confusion as to his true identify . Equiano appears dressed in gentleman 's attire and reading Acts from the bible to highlight his literacy and . However , this serves to embellish his blackness , which is striking and undeniable . states , "" calling attention to one 's loyalty to was conventional in the works by almost all afro - writers "" ( V.Carretta ) evident in 's Letters of the , an when he claims ' your country , which as a resident I love . "" However , "" none of his predecessors asserts his identity as a more fully that the way Equiano represents himself in his Narrative . "" ( V.Carretta ) In relates that ' I soon grew a stranger to terror of every kind , and was in that respect , at least , almost an ' and later adds ' I now not only felt myself quite easy with these new countrymen , but relished their society and manners ... and therefore I had the stronger desire to resemble them , to imbibe their spirit , and imitate their manners ; I therefore embraced every occasion of improvement . ' Although by birth , he chooses to be by acculturation . The incident where Equiano encounters a black boy indicates "" that Equiano is not fully comfortable in his position on the border between and identities . ""(V.Carretta ) Many critics , especially Carretta , feel the black boy his ' own size ' is in effect his own mirror image , which he denies but later embraces as his persona . A similar period of tension occurs on his meeting with the Prince of the Musquito Indians . The Prince asks ' how comes it that all the white men on board , who can read and write ... and know all things , yet swear , lie and get drunk , only excepting yourself ? ' The prince 's observations place Equiano as morally superior to the whites , dislocating him from his assumed white identity . In comparison , in his is dislocated from values and relocated within . By situating himself as an outsider he can perhaps relate to being ' othered ' as the blacks were in . < fnote > Carretta , V . Unchained Voices : An Anthology of Black Authors in of . , . < /fnote><fnote > Sancho , Ignatius . "" Letters of the , an "" in Unchained Voices : An Anthology of Black Authors in of . ed . , . ( : Penguin , ) < /fnote > On the other hand , there are also a few passages in the Narrative where Equiano is not reluctant to affront his white audience . He must have been aware that his inclusion of his marriage to a white woman , , would appal racist readers . Equiano also employs when using Othello 's soliloquy ; ' of me as I am , nothing extenuate , nor set down aught in malice . "" By using Othello 's words , Equiano assumes Othello 's black identity . recently suggested , "" that the author of invented an identity rather than reclaimed one . "" His arguments contest the authenticity of 's narrative . The suggestion that the text can not be read as historical fact , disrupts the influential validity of an ex slave experiences , especially a description of the middle passage . writes that autobiography has "" a special nature as a memorial , creative act "" in fact it is "" a performance "" through which "" stories are related not in chronological order but in patterned significance . "" Equiano was in truth a writer , who perhaps invented certain aspects of his narrative to create a complete , well rounded novel . Through this literary tactic Equiano is able to portray slavery as a disruptive force , rather than a subliminal one , had certain evocative images of his childhood and the middle passage been omitted . In conclusion , I feel the West Indies subliminal and disruptive capabilities within a Romantic text are still complexly interwoven . As highlights "" the lives of ex slaves were as much possessed and used by the abolitionists as their actual lives had been by slave holders . "" Just as Equiano 's , 's , 's and 's lives had been disrupted by slavery in , so too were the texts they produced , either themselves through subscription or via amanuenses . For the authors who were removed from the realities of slavery in the colonies , like Austen , the only option was sublimation . Her text serves to relate the underlying current of emotions , fear and estrangement , experienced by her society in regard to international affairs . < fnote > Equiano , . . ed . ,Vincent Carretta . : Penguin , . < /fnote><fnote > Equiano , . . ed . ,Vincent Carretta . : Penguin , . pp.xi < /fnote><fnote > Olney , . "" I was born "" : Slave Narratives , their status as autobiography and as literature . "" In .. and : , and , , eds . , . pp150 . < /fnote><fnote > Olney , . "" I was born "" : Slave Narratives , their status as autobiography and as literature . "" In .. and : , and , , eds . , . pp150 . < /fnote >","Anthropology as a social science faced many impediments compared with its contemporaries , largely because "" information available over on the customs and beliefs of exotic tribal peoples was incomparably poorer than it is . "" The armchair anthropologists in the Victorian era and well into depended on reports from travellers , colonial officials and missionaries , these were often misleading and only conveyed a partial picture . It was from the humble ponderings of , the Victorian era 's legacy to anthropology , that anthropologists gleaned the basis for their ideas . The anthropologists of attempted a more active approach , by moving away from the genre of armchair anthropology by establishing fieldwork led by . However , although these bold attempts did signal a change in social anthropology , many theories still exhibit elements of theorists and it is these continuities I shall explore . < fnote > Lewis . I.M Visions of Culture . Penguin pg < /fnote > Evolutionism adopted a diachronic approach and aimed to concentrate on issues of society rather than culture . Its ideas were embraced by the likes of , , , Tylor and Frazer . Many were monogenist theorists who favoured the idea of unilinear evolutionism , which advocated that all societies pass through the same stages of evolution ; therefore if ' lower ' races were studied anthropologists could conclude about the early phases of their own societies . Similarly , they were interested in the idea of ' survivals ' that were the relics of former customs which linger on anachronistically out of context . It employed a comparative method of analysis and this form of comparison was used to form a macro history of civilisation and culture . There was more emphasis on the use of factual and empirical methods , instead of a speculative philosophical approach and focus was shifted from looking at societies to looking at institutions instead . A popular evolutionary scheme was the transition of societies from primitive promiscuity to matriliny or patriliny . ( Ancient Society 1907 ) the railroad tycoon and state senator was of few during to conduct serious field research . He studied the language of and through this work developed a model for kinship systems . He stated that from his knowledge of the kinship terminology , the name for father and father 's brother was identical this implied polyandry and therefore matriarchal society . His rival disagreed . His studies on the form of family led him to believe that a struggle for food led to female infanticide , leading to a shortage of women and marriage rules of polyandry . It became difficult to determine the father of a given child , so decent became matrilineal . also considered ideas of the family in his objection to 's ' . ' It was considered the cornerstone of legal thought , but as a jurist accused its content as artificial . Using his knowledge of Roman law he argued that society originates within the family and kinships are built upon that family . Sir ( Anthropology the evolution of culture through the doctrine of ' survivals ' and explored schemes of magic , religion and science , particularly the progression in societies from animism to polytheism to monotheism . Sir in his legendary breaks with the tradition of the ' primitive ' savage when he appoints science as a feature of culture attributed to primitive and as well as civilised cultures . He is also remembered for his ideas on ' the psychic unity of mankind . ' This was the presumption that there exists a single , overarching human nature that permeates all peoples in all places on the planet , regardless of the level of their cultural evolution . Another method beginning to be employed by evolutionists was the idea of functional interrelations between customs or institutions . This functionalist approach can be seen in 's work ; indeed he represents the transition from anthropology . In contrast to the evolutionists , he was against reducing things and favoured a more objective approach when studying society indeed his stance was almost relativistic . To study society empirically then some form of fact was needed to manipulate and analyse the data received . devised the notion of ' social fact ' a social constraint that could be evaluated as hard data . On the other hand his ideas on ' organic solidarity ' were enlightening . They implied that all units of society have a ' collective conscience ' that binds them together and aids transition from past views towards modern thinking . His ideas were strong but often too rigid , as can been seen in his theory on suicide in which he states that suicide is caused by states ; fatalistic , altruistic , anomic and egoistic . He leaves no room for indecision . However , the notions was criticising are themselves products and therefore not scientific studies so we begin question whether actually owns his own theory ? Despite this is renowned for his attempts to move away from evolutionism instead of continuing it . As we move further into we see fathering a new revolution . He rejected armchair anthropology and invented modern fieldwork methods using the native language in participant observation . He viewed fieldwork as a critical step to acquiring hand empirical data and a deeper knowledge of local culture essentially ' to grasp the native 's vision of his world . "" His most esteemed work was conducted among the Trobriand Islanders in Argonauts of the Western Pacific 1922 . He follows 's functionalist approach , although vague , because he asserts that culture , customs and institutions serve practical needs . However , is also remembered for his "" theory of culture and cultural universals based on assumptions "" especially in his posthumous work A scientific theory of culture . If his theories were beginning to be based on ' assumptions ' is this evidence of a slip back into the armchair anthropology of ? However , I doubt such a suggestion because was as keen to employ empirical analysis as were the evolutionists . < fnote > Notes from Lecture Chris McDonaugh < /fnote><fnote > Barnard .A. History and Theory in Anthropology Cambridge University Press 2000 < /fnote > Similarly , openly rejected evolutionism . Instead he proposed the idea of a single , unified social science , dismissing the notion of a science of culture . His attitude and theories marked a transition from functionalism into structural functionalism . He undertook a synchronic , scientific approach and wanted to see an "" improvement of the comparative method and its refinement as an instrument of analysis . "" However , he did praise his evolutionist predecessors for their comparative objectives . 's influence can clearly be seen in work in the where he studied their customs to show how they contribute to social order , consensus , co - aptation and social solidarity . theories on social dynamics were confusing , he adopted the phrase ' structural form ' to replace what was usually called social structure , and used the term ' social structure ' to define data . In suggesting that the study of individual relationships would reveal the structural form of society to another , he appeared to be creating his theory backwards , for "" one can not get at universal , general laws by counting up instances of anything . "" ( see footnote ) His interest in totemism is reminiscent of 's work and he builds on 's idea that totems have the function of expressing clan solidarity . < fnote > Excerpt from lecture pg71 < /fnote > Evans Pritchard , a student of , rejected notion of the discipline as a science , he preferred the subject to be studied as an art . Despite this , he practised his anthropology within the general theoretical framework of and . He developed the idea of anthropology as ' translation of culture . ' Already his aims differ from those of the evolutionists who preferred to focus on ideas of society rather than culture . 's influence is evident as states that thoughts and ideas combine in complex relationships ( similar to 's ideas on language ) and systems always within a social context . Indeed , he resumed 's interest in ' collective thought ' that is rooted in all social relationships and institutions . Yet his interest in the , and among the Azande ( ) and work on are reminiscent of 's work , but it lacks the evolutionist preference for an empirical approach . Also , promoted anthropology as a humanities subject instead of a science , which suggests a wider synchronic approach and a discontinuity with evolutionist opinion . work was heavily influenced by the likes of , , , etc . He continues Frazer 's work on psychic unity or as termed it ' l'esprit humain ' or ' collective unconscious ' in direct contrast to 's ' collective conscience ' and believes his structuralist approach involves social structure and structural form in the Radcliffe -Brownian senses , as well as the structure of ideas . Barnard highlights that "" his structures are built on a rational rather than an empirical foundation , "" therefore his theories do not concur with those of the evolutionists . When dubbed societies that were open to trade as ' hot cultures ' i.e. they warm quickly to the new and assimilate change and defined ' cold cultures ' as insular and expending a great deal of energy to maintain central control . This collective representation is quite philosophic , another attribute criticised by evolutionists . More importantly , contested the opinions of armchair anthropologists by advocating that mind of the so - called ' savage ' was equal to the civilized mind . < fnote > Barnard . A. History and Theory in Anthropology Cambridge University Press 2000 pg < /fnote > Clifford Geertz was a prolific writer with a radical approach , similar to ; he studied culture as ' text , ' an art form . In accordance with many of his contemporaries he studied ' meaning ' as the path to making sense of the world . , he rejected etic attempts to theorise culture . He takes the same opinion as when he eliminates the empirical , diachronic approach of the evolutionists in favour of a timeless synchronic method . However , he does not eliminate the possibility of the comparative method completely , suggesting a theorist who is open to the benefits that anthropologists provided for the anthropologists of . In conclusion , it seems the strongest threads of interpretation have survived , leaving the failures of anthropologists behind . Although their work was inspiring and revolutionary , too often it was hypothetical , based on poor facts and data often manipulated to fit theories . The main achievement of anthropologists was to loose the stereotype of the ' primitive savage ' and progress away from the philanthropic attitude and "" a narcissistic preoccupation with their own past "" promoted especially in the Victorian era and well into . < fnote > Lewis . I.M Visions of Culture . Penguin < /fnote > However , there were many bold statements made by anthropologists claiming their fresh approach to the subject , but despite their valiant attempts , a few sunk back into the methods of their predecessors . After an overall assessment it seems there are less continuities and more discontinuities anthropology . Most anthropologists from seem to base their exploration of the discipline from 's work .",1
"The author will consider the likelihood of becoming an entrepreneur drawing on her environment , traits and personal life experiences but believes the key lies within her and whether the environment can stimulate her attributes ( ) . Entrepreneurial endeavours occur around the globe ; in the entrepreneurs are seen as legends and ' economic heroes ' increasingly held in high self esteem and a ' role model to be emulated ' ( Cannon cited in p96 ) . Results from the Global Entrepreneurship Monitor UK 2005 support the ' high status ' view of entrepreneurs because although levels of total entrepreneurship activity ( ) have remained similar to 2004 of , opinions have changed . People aged18 - 24 was most positive in attitudes towards entrepreneurs with regarding it a ' good career choice ' . The author lives in a culture where entrepreneurs are seen as mavericks of society providing a perception of glamour which increases the likelihood of her becoming an entrepreneur in a society captivated by entrepreneurial spirit ( McElwee , 2003 ) . The report ( ) also indicates that of those aged expect to become their own boss within compared to for age groups . Enterprising behaviour is encouraged through education for example Brookes has introduced a ' flying start ' aimed to help students fulfil their dreams , awards are given as an incentive for best ideas   URL . National young enterprise opportunities are also available with Government intending to create wealth ( URL ) . has required universities to ' consider the scope for encouraging entrepreneurship through innovative approaches to programme design ' (   URL ) . There is progressive youth movement towards incorporating entrepreneurial activities into education . The author 's degree modules have equipped her with skills that heighten the likelihood of her becoming an entrepreneur , revenue and profit management being one . The author has to be practical as well as creative and handling finance is vital with and cash flow practised whilst handling her self - employed neighbour 's statements in his mechanic business ( ) . . 's ( ) cultural dimensions ( Appendix 1 ) of the support enterprise . In the ' individualist ' society people act according to their own interest so the author 's work will prevail over personal relationships ( ) . Where as in a ' collectivist ' society the family is paramount and non - conformism and liberalism is scarce ( McElwee , 2003 ) . The has ' low uncertainty avoidance ' meaning society are likely to stimulate innovations and have tolerance towards deviant ideas and opinions so the author is more likely to take risks compared to if she were living in a country of ' high uncertainty avoidance ' which is rule governed ( ) . The has ' low power distance ' meaning society de - emphasises the differences between citizen 's power and wealth promoting equality and opportunity for everyone , respect is given to those who achieve , motivating the author to advance with ideas ( ) . The has a ' masculine ' culture meaning that generally business people are assertive , decisive , and aggressive . Facts are sought rather than a group discussion that might occur in a ' feminine ' society meaning the author is able to act on impulse rather than gaining consensus ( ) . ' Long term orientation ' ranks the lowest indicating change in can occur more rapidly compared to other countries providing the author with the chance to change things and do things better ( URL ) . The assessment of 's cultural dimensions result in spirited surroundings enabling entrepreneurial activity . On hand the author lives in a culture that promotes enterprising behaviour but men are twice as likely to start up a business as women ( GEM 2005 ) . could be seen as an obstacle . According to ( and West 2005 ) the entrepreneur 's classic traits include ' energy , arrogance , hurriedness and obsession with work ' . If the author measures herself against these characteristics then it 's unlikely that she would be a successful entrepreneur . Having conducted the ' Am I am Entrepreneur Quiz ' ( Appendix 2 ) the author is commented on as being ' moderately energetic ' at times feeling a lack of energy resulting in unhappiness from current circumstances ( URL ) . This is true , imaging the authors ' feelings , because sometimes workloads are too much . The author is not a hurried person and does things at her own pace in an organised manner and does n't talk about work constantly . The outlook is dismal whilst considering these traits but the author has other characteristics that are believed to increase the likelihood of her becoming an entrepreneur . have developed to distinguish entrepreneurs from the remainder of the population ( , ) . These stereo - typical characteristics can be criticised for being confined and relying on personalities that are not static but evolve over time ( Fleming C 2004 ) . Ambition is a crucial requirement of an aspiring entrepreneur ( , , , , , Crainer ) . A strong desire for success has been found to have a positive impact on growth ( Lee , Tsang ) . The author is ambitious because she sets herself goals and conquers them . The author was the in her family to attend University and to obtain a place had to work hard in her . The author believes that she controls her own destiny and if she wants something has to fight for it . This is expressed in her fitness regime ; she has a vision of being slim so sticks to her routine of going to the gym every morning to turn her fantasy into a realistic goal ( ) . This links to the author displaying an ' internal locus of control ' and its expected that individuals who have confidence in their abilities to control the events in their lives will be more motivated to seek new business opportunities rather than waiting for them to come ( Brockhaus cited in ) . The results of the ' Am I an Entrepreneur Quiz ' ( Appendix 2 ) support the authors self determination by stating ' luck has nothing to do with it and she controls what happens in her life ' . The author wanted to be promoted so always went the extra mile whilst serving customers ; this was noticed by employers resulting in promotion from waitress to supervisor at the Grim 's . The entrepreneurs ambition is n't enough , it 's about wanting to change things ( and West 2005 ) . needs to see a ' gap in the landscape ' ( Wickham 2004 ) . The author demonstrates this quality because she exploited an opportunity . Bar mitzvahs were taken place locally and quality catering was in demand but not being provided so the author satisfied consumer needs whilst making a profit on her weekends . Managing and dealing with change is central to her character and central if she is to be successful ( Burns ) . The author enjoys altered circumstances and gets bored easily ; she displays her love for change by travelling in to avoid stability , demonstrating ' openness to experiences ' ( Crainer ) . travelling around on a bus and camping may have been seen as a risk of safety or financial loss but the author was cautious and prepared to respond positively to uncertainties . This experience can relate to a business context because risk to finances and reputation involves measured calculations of the risk elements ( Morrison 1999 ) . An entrepreneur ' identifies , assesses , evaluates , manages and transfers risk . The author believed she could overcome the challenge of hot weather , long drives , insects and bad conditions and she did . The author idealistically sees herself as an entrepreneur sometime in the future and it 's been proved that optimists are likely to be more successful ( Raj Mehta & Cooper 2000 ) . Entrepreneurs are more likely to see strengths versus weaknesses , opportunities versus problems and potential improvements versus deterioration ( Raj Mehta & Cooper 2000 ) . The author moved into student accommodation , she lived with others from whom was already friends . the author felt lonely and isolated and had to make great efforts to be included . The situation could have deteriorated but the author saw a strength which was to make friends at the same time ceasing an opportunity because she now has contacts . The cultural barriers could have been detrimental but she was positive . This example can relate to the entrepreneurial environment , committing energy and time , being positive persuading customers , employees and resource suppliers to commit to ventures ( and Markman ) . Social skills are also vital ( Hyatt 2004 ) . Social skills and adaptability have been demonstrated whilst the author worked as a front desk clerk in firstly in the North- and then in the South -Kentucky . She adjusted to the different situations handling customer queries and complaints in a tactful manner . She displayed outstanding interpersonal skills satisfying customer needs and winning employee of awards on numerous occasions . The author also works well with people from diverse backgrounds because she is a voluntary advocate for working with distressed clients at . She would describe herself as a social chameleon able to exhibit emotional stability ( Morrison 1999 ) . Social capital provides access to an entrepreneurial world through venture capitalists and potential customers ( ) . The author 's mother is her role model having started her own small business in the travel industry arranging trips for foreign students staying with host families . There 's strong support for the argument that self employed parents positively affect the probability to engage in a start up attempt ( 2000 ) . The author has a relative as a role model but the media also provide role models with publications such as ( Enterprise 2005 ,   URL ) . The series provides the audience with ideas and real life examples of those who have succeeded ( ,   URL ) . It appears that entrepreneurs ' whose parents had themselves owned a business have greater preference for an entrepreneurial career ( Scherer et al , ) . The author would agree with this , lending credibility to the social learning theory ( ) . Seeing her mother provide for her family through innovation has lead the author to believe that starting a business herself is attainable . It 's debatable whether the passion was pre - determined or resulted from social experience ( , , ) . The 's state ' entrepreneurs are not born , they are inspired ' ( Levin 2005 ) . This belief could become a lens for advancement through 's hierarchy of needs , the author saw her mother providing financial means to achieve basic needs but it can also provide a vehicle to obtaining self esteem and advancement towards ' self actualization ' ( Carland ) . The author is driven by the motivation of satisfying personal goals and a need for achievement ( McClelland cited in 1999 ) . Its evident the author realises her potential which increases her confidence leading to ' self efficacy ' ( Noel 2000 ) , once rewards are visible expectations increase displaying the ' self fulfilling prophecy ' ( ) . The author does have strengths but main weakness is her indecisiveness . Being decisive and able to decommit or commit quickly is a desirable behaviour ( Timmons cited in 1999 ) . The author wanted to buy a motorbike for her brother 's birthday , and could n't decide between 2 , she thought she made the best choice so put down a deposit . The author then changed her mind , losing her deposit , having to borrow money to make up for what she had lost in order to purchase the other bike . The ' Am I an entrepreneur ' ( Appendix 2 ) supports this stating ' you find it hard to reach decisions or act upon them ' ( URL ) . . The 's are successful and ' passionately believe they are efficient because they make decisions quickly ' ( Levin 2005 p11 ) . Being decisive is a quality that the author has to develop to improve her chances of becoming an entrepreneur ( Beaver ) . In conclusion the author does possess some entrepreneurial qualities such as ambition , enthusiasm and social skills which can offer a partial analysis of entrepreneurial behaviour but with support from her culture ; education and mother one day her aspirations can become reality ( Beaver ) . It 's immaterial whether she initiates change or simply responds to it ( Herbert and Link cited in ) . She feels that fulfilling her dream will flourish more once she has gained the experience to run a thriving business . Currently barriers are lack of experience , no financial means , no contacts and not enough knowledge ( case study ) . The author has already attended job interviews to gain a supervisory position in the industry to build on experience and gain access to resources because it is evident that being in the workplace helps to gain ' resources , ideas and social capital ' . ( , , ) . Once these barriers are conquered the author knows she has the potential to be entrepreneurial . Taking into consideration her indecisiveness intrapeneurship may be a more suitable option because she can work within the established dynamics of an existing organisation meaning her decisions will be more structured in terms of processes , procedures and corporate culture providing a framework for her entrepreneurial activities to grow , developing feelings of competency ( Morrison 1999 ) .","< heading > Introduction . < /heading > The term ' levels of language ' refers to semantic , phonological , lexical and pragmatic development across language acquisition and use . Typical child language acquisition maps stages at which each of these ' levels ' develop and become gradually more sophisticated , however , in atypical language development these ' levels ' often appear impaired . et al ( ) state that children with developmental disabilities exhibit cognitive , perceptual and social characteristics that result in modest to severe disruptions of the normal language learning process . These disruptions are mainly manifested through language delays which , although detrimental , offer an insight into language development of atypical individuals in a more detailed way due to each stage developing at a slower rate ( , : ) . This assignment aims to look at deficits in spoken language associated with Autism and 's syndrome . Each of the disorders will be presented separately , with a brief description of what they are before the relative strengths and weaknesses of language acquisition and use is discussed and a conclusion formed . < heading > Autism</heading > Baird et al ( : ) describe Autism as a "" behaviourally defined disorder characterised by qualitative impairments in social communication , social interaction and social imagination "" . The disorder is , generally , diagnosed on behavioural deficits as a biological cause has not been identified as of yet ( , : ) with the majority of diagnosis taking place after the age of 3;0 ( Baird et al , : ) . Due to the relatively late diagnosis there is little evidence from the pre - linguistic period or early vocal development ( Tager- Flusberg , : ) , however social deficits have been noted as early as 18months with Baron - Cohen et al ( 1996 , as in et al , : ) reporting that eye contact was only used for requests or regulation . < heading>2.1 Communication and Pragmatics</heading > Children diagnosed with Autism are found to lack joint attention skills ( , as in Kaiser,2001 : ) , whereby the child seems somewhat reclusive in their own interests demonstrating more interest for their environment than for the people they are sharing it with . This is supported by Ornitz et al ( as in , : ) who reported that autistic infants show no interest in interacting with other babies . These deficits seem to consequently lead to autistic children lacking social language but acquiring and using environmental language ( , as in Tager- : ) . Whilst much research into child language development has suggested that pre - linguistic infants favour familiar voices of their own caregivers , autistic children show no preference for their mother 's voice over a stranger 's , again supporting the notion that autistic children are disinterested in people ( Klin , as in , : ) . However , it has been suggested that children are more limited in their functional communication abilities than normal children , or other congenital disorder subgroups ( Prizant and , and , as in , : ) . This has led to the suggestion by , as in , : ) that perhaps autistic children communicate their needs differently to the majority of children . The possibility that autistic children communicate in a different way to most children , whether they are typically developing or suffer from another congenital disorder ; seems to be supported by evidence of autistic children in conversation and also their spontaneous speech . Autistic children showed evidence of requesting objects and protesting against situations but were not found to comment on situations , request information , acknowledge listeners or boast and show off ( Wetherby and Prutting , , as in , : ) . Similarly , in conversation with others autistic children introduced irrelevant topics to the conversations with their mothers , often repeating themselves but not elaborating on subjects ( , : ) . The apparent inability to elaborate on conversation and the need to change topics seems to emphasise the fact that autistic children do not identify with or acknowledge their conversational partners or the listeners . < heading>2.2 Phonology</heading > Both verbal and non - verbal aspects of language are impaired in Autism , however phonological deficits are relatively few and appear to follow similar patterns to those of a normally developing child ( , as in , : ) with similar errors appearing and some functional language appearing by middle childhood . The main phonological deficits that those with Autism tend to exhibit is unusual use of intonation and voice quality with many children , and adults alike , with Autism have difficulty varying their intonation ( Pronovost et al , as in , : ) . < heading>2.3 Lexical development</heading > Tager- Flusberg ( : ) reports that autistic children experience similar success rates as a normally developing control group on conceptualisation and organisation of words and phrases at a basic and more sophisticated , superordinate level . This is though to suggest that lexis develops systematically in those with Autism as it is thought to in the typically developing population . However , there is evidence that autistic children do suffer certain lexical deficits through their lexis often seeming immature due to their use of neologisms and errors in the production of words and phrases seeming to mirror that of younger children . In a typically developing child these deficits would not be as consistent as they appear to be in those with Autism ( Tager- Flusberg , : ) < heading>2.4 Morphological and syntactic development</heading > The morphological and syntactic development of autistic individuals seems to be an area where much more research is needed due to the massive variation that is reported within the literature and research . ( : ) states that syntax of autistic children has been found to range from no functional language at all to "" high normal range language "" . It has been reported that those with Autism demonstrate a lower mean length of utterance ( ) than typically developing children , with development happening over a longer period of time but in the same pattern acquiring simple structures before building on them to create relatively complex grammar ( , : ) . < heading > Downs Syndrome</heading > Downs Syndrome is the most common neurodevelopmental disorder ( , : ) which is typically diagnosed at birth ( , : ) . The disorder has been found to be due to an individual developing an extra chromosome before birth ( , : ) with the disorder varying greatly from relatively few deficits and a near normal IQ to severe impairments ( , : ) . Abbeduto and ( : ) suggest that those with "" see language as a vehicle for performing the same interpersonal functions as do typically developing children , albeit at a considerably later age "" with children focusing on interpersonal relationships more than their environment . < heading>3.1 Communication and Pragmatics.</heading > Pragmatics appears to be a relative strength in those with ( , : ) . Infants with tend to avoid mutual eye contact and vocalisations initially ( , : ) , however , by the end of their first year these infants have begun to catch up with typically developing infants demonstrating use of more vocalisations than other infants and fixating on peoples eyes ( and , as in , : ) . Unlike Autistic children , the centre of infants with attention is social interaction , with the suggestion that fewer object request statements parallels the pre - linguistic period where language is used as a means to engage people socially rather than to engage with the surrounding environment ( , ) . Children with have also been found to be able to maintain topics of conversation for a longer period of time than those developing typically . Coggins and , ( as in , : ) report that when a breakdown in communication occurs , a person with will not just repeat their utterance , but rephrase it from , however these breakdowns may be related to limited syntax and intelligibility ( which will be discussed further and ) which could ultimately cause difficulty in interpreting the intentions of speech acts ( , ) . < heading>3.2 Phonology</heading > Unlike Autism , is diagnosed at birth and therefore there is evidence as to the early implications that the disorder has on language development . The indication of language delay in an infant with is their delayed onset of canonical babbling . ( as in , : ) reported that infants who had been diagnosed with began babbling after the control group of typically developing children . This delay was not found to be related to any other factor or impairment , such as hearing loss , which are often associated with ( , : ) , and can affect language . However ( , as in , : ) found no significant difference between typically developing infants and those with acquisition of babbling at the pre - linguistic stage , despite evidence of delayed cognitive skills . et al ( ) suggested that delays amongst those with in the general population may be related to motor delays which were suggested to be more vulnerable in children and adults . Smith ( as in , : ) presented evidence that meaningful speech is delayed by in those with . Similarly , ( as in , : ) found word acquisition across a wide range of ages within a population , varying from to a severely delayed . This demonstrates the massive variability within the disorder which was referred to initially in . Delayed language development in does follow the same phonological pattern as typically developing children follow , however development occurs more slowly ( , : ) with children using a greater variety of substitutions , than typically developing children , before they settle of the correct phoneme ( , as in , : ) and ( ) emphasise the fact that those with often have anatomical abnormalities due to the disorder which can affect speech (: ) as the vocal tract can develop abnormally ( and , as in et al , : ) . Possible anatomical abnormalities are thought to offer reasoning as to why many with are unintelligible as the atypical formation of the vocal tract could limit a person 's capacity for communication ( , : ) . However , Crossley and Dowling ( , as in , : ) suggest unintelligibility may be due to syntactic delays relating to . < heading>3.3 Lexical development</heading > Abbeduto and ( : ) state that there is little known about lexical development in with those with the disorder being found to perform below their chronological age on both receptive and expressive vocabulary ( Madison et al , as in and , : ) but no research being presented for a possible correlation between cognitively matched pairs . et ( as in , : ) however , identifies that when children are matched according to mental age they develop their early words at a similar rate . does seem to be acquired at a relatively basic level with comprehension of subordinate and superordinates being poor ( Mervis et al , , , as in , : ) and more sophisticated vocabulary not seeming to develop , even in adolescence . < heading>3.4 Morphological and Syntactic development</heading > Those with experience difficulty with comprehension , particularly of complex sentences ( Chapman et al 1991 as in , : ) . Shorter , more basic sentence types are generally used with more sophisticated forms often failing to be acquired ( , : ) . Development does continue into adolescence allowing some to progress slightly ( Chapman et al , as in , : ) , however most with the disorder will not achieve beyond early grammatical development as most children do not start combining words until they are or . < heading > Conclusion- similarities and differences . < /heading > Whilst both disorders did demonstrate deficits in language acquisition and use across the different levels of language the deficits experienced in both differed dramatically . Impairments in the language development of children have been identified with an unusual use of language and poor non - verbal and comprehension abilities being reported ( Baird et al , : ) . Lower verbal , than non - verbal scores have been found in preschool children with Autism ( and Lord , as in et al , : ) , with Allen and Rapin ( as in et al , : ) reporting that of autistic children have expressive and receptive language delay . It is thought that language and concepts that engage what are referred to as "" theories of mind "" are impaired , whilst lexical semantics remain less impaired ( , : ) within autistic individuals , with ( : ) seeming to suggest that language deficits lead to the social deficits autistic people experience . The association between Autism and lack of interpersonal communication seems to provide reasoning for the emergence of linguistic terms that refer to and request objects and actions in the environment . It also supports the additions of irrelevant information and common initiation of subject change ( , ) as the child appears to have a relatively egocentric cognitive and linguistic capacity . Phonologically , few deficits appear in Autism with the phonological system appearing to develop typically . Similarly lexis is relatively strong with little evidence being proposed of any significant delays , and neologisms seeming to be the main cause for concern . Syntactically there is little evidence ; however there does appear to be a large range of ability across the populations studied . On the contrary , those with experience poor phonology , lexis and syntactic development ; whilst pragmatics appears to be a relative strength . Phonologically delays are rife , possibly due to anatomical deficits such as abnormally formed vocal tract or hearing loss . However , there is evidence of a significant delay which is not remedied over time despite a typical developmental pattern occurring . Lexically and syntactically language is acquired at a very basic level with progression being slow . The syntactic delay is most probably a result of the lexical deficits experienced with multiple word utterances appearing late . Pragmatically those with are relatively strong , although their other deficits can often cause confusion with identifying the intent of a speech act . Eye contact and maintaining conversation is done well , however initiating conversations is rare . Therefore , when language develops atypically patterns of deficit differ across different congental disorder . Autism is mainly found to be deficit in pragmatics and social features of language acquisition , whilst pragmatics is a relative strength in . However , those with experience greater difficulties with lexis , syntax and particularly phonology . Despite these dffernces those with Autism and have been found to acquire language via a normal pattern , although at a slower pace .",0
"< abstract><heading > Abstract</heading > Hedley Bull 's state - centric theory of international politics offers an insight into how change can occur in international relations . The tension between order and justice represented in his work marks a sophisticated interpretation of of the perennial conundrums that belies international politics . conceived of order as the best way to ensure basic justice , that is the minimal justice required to protect the core values of social existence . He chose neither the extremes of realism nor revolutionism that subordinated justice for order or vice versa and employed the criticisms of each tradition to deconstruct the excesses of the other . was his principal work and it is a paragon of state centric analysis of international relations that is not bound by rigid positivism . Bull constructed a theory that maintained that , within an international system in which anarchy pertained , order among states was vital and best served by the system of international society . It is in this way , by presenting order and justice in tension - a result of the pluralist and solidarist elements of his theory - that Bull opens the door for critical theory . Bull defended international society as the ultimate political organisation in a state system governed by anarchy and simultaneously criticised its limitations , providing a critical edge to his state centric theory . < /abstract > Hedley Bull 's state - centric theory of international politics offers an insight into how change can occur in international relations . The tension between order and justice represented in his work marks a sophisticated interpretation of of the perennial conundrums that belies international politics . conceived of order as the best way to ensure basic justice , that is the minimal justice required to protect the core values of social existence . In rejecting the order - over - justice rationale and the justice - over - order hypothesis , constructed a theory which maintained that , within an international system in which anarchy pertained , order among states was vital and best served by the system of international society . He recognised ' international order as the ultimate foundation for the protection of human values ' . That said , the realities of power politics and the states system were constantly presented in his work as limiting factors in the pursuit of ethical and moral concerns . < fnote > , ' Pluralist or Solidarist Conceptions of International Society : Bull and Vincent on Humanitarian Intervention ' , , , , ( ) p.469 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . p.488 < /fnote > With his shrewdly aware sense of the historical determinants of international politics was ' especially sensitive to alterations in the historical conditions bearing upon analysis and interpretation ' . Accordingly , he was able to side step the structural realism that dominated the scholarship of his era and develop what he considered to be a more enduring theory of the international system . He ' argued persuasively that despite anarchy , states had succeeded in forming and sustaining an "" international society "" that made life more tolerable , by far , than would result from an uncritical acceptance of the idea that where there is no government there is no law , no security and no reliable ordering instruments available ' . International society was ' beneficial for the whole of humanity , and was preferable to feasible alternatives , although admittedly deficient in serious respects ' . < fnote > , ' and : , and , in and , Innovation and Transformation in International Studies , : , , pp.40 - 1 < /fnote><fnote > Stanley Hoffman , ' Foreword ' , in , , : , , p.vii < /fnote><fnote > Falk , ' , p.42 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.42 < /fnote > Bull defended international society as the ultimate political organisation in a state system governed by anarchy and simultaneously criticised its limitations , providing a critical edge to his state centric theory . His ' outlook tends to be agnostic on structural matters , appreciating the positive and negative aspects of the state as the basis for ... participation in global politics ' . In 's formulation , international society could be made more orderly and therefore more just ( and vice versa ) by an accretion of consensus and solidarity among states . He concluded that although this was possible and desirable in theory , the conditions did not exist to make it practicable . The implication of this is that what exists is not necessarily the ideal state of things . There is much evidence to suggest that , for , the ultimate political association in the anarchical states system would be a solidarist one of consensus and community . However , the achievable , "" best "" scenario was a pluralist international society based on respect for the rule of law . Bull was ' aware that the state and the states system have emerged , evolved , are resilient , are being superseded , and will continue to evolve ' . His ' sense of the future is essentially an extension in time of his interpretation of the past and present , but further sophisticated by a sceptical view of human capacity to discern future possibilities ' . One could say that 's approach is ' self - consciously conditioned by historical circumstance , relying on an interpretive presentation of reality rather than claiming to be scientific in a positivist sense ' . By essence this kind of approach is open to change and reinterpretation and himself demanded it .   < fnote > Ibid . , p.54 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.43 < /fnote><fnote > Hedley Bull , , : , , p.vii , pp.xvi - xvii , and p.135 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.62 < /fnote><fnote > Chris Brown , ' International Theory and International Society : The Viability of the Middle Way ? ' , , ) pp.183 - 196 < /fnote><fnote > Falk , ' , p.45 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.48 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.54 < /fnote><fnote > Bull , , p.308 < /fnote > Bull 's work was rooted in what he called the classical approach to , influenced by the methodologies of philosophy , history and law . ' Its central feature is an explicit reliance on the exercise of judgement ' . In contrast to the positivist scientific approach , ' general propositions about international relations can be only tentative and inconclusive ' . Bull was concerned to enquire with a ' critical examination of moral and intellectual foundations ' and the basic concept for which he undertook his investigations remained that of international society . He argued , as realists would , that war and the balance of power are effective tools for maintaining order in the international system but he moved beyond that static assumption to assert that in doing so states were keen to provide rules and regulations to limit conflict . They acted within the societal bounds they themselves created and this relational behaviour acted to bolster order among them . Order represented the ' central concern of his theoretical efforts and the main theme of his principal work ' . < fnote > , ' Conclusion : Hedley Bull and , in T.B and R.J ( eds . ) , Order and Violence : Hedley Bull and , : , , , and , ' , , , ( 2000 ) pp.395 - 422 < /fnote><fnote > Holbraad , ' and , p.192 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.193 < /fnote><fnote > Bull , , < /fnote><fnote , ' Conclusion : Hedley Bull and , p.194 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.195 , and , A Study of Order in World Politics , p.xv < /fnote > Order , in 's construct , is ' in the common interests of all states in achieving the elementary goals of social life - the security of life against violence , the sanctity of promises , and the stability of possessions ' . International society provided for these with the acceptance of rules and laws governing behaviour . Thus , one of the essential institutions of order in 's theory is international law . Law provided the rationalisation of the principles by which states limited their actions . It helped provide order by ' identifying the constitutive principle of the society of states , setting the basic rules for coexistence , and providing a language for their formal relations ' . The expansion of these principles , codified as law , was essential to the homogeneity of international society as constituted by heterogeneous units . This was possible in the understanding of social identity , in which states would relate to the common principles governing practical association , in this context , international society , and adjust their behaviour accordingly . With this , believed that a common culture of international society could develop and that consensus required for stable interstate relations could and should be realised , but that it would be difficult . This ' progressivism ' was mitigated by other factors prevalent in the system of states , namely war , the balance of power and the management of the great powers , which often undermined notions of international law and consensus , in order to provide the fundamental requirements of order . ' Bull drew heavily on the realist tradition ' in this respect and interests of power were judged to be incommensurable with societal consensus when a readjustment of the international order was required . Therefore , Bull held a ' rationalist position qualified by realist considerations ' . < fnote , ' Conclusion : Hedley Bull and , p.195 , and , , p.4 < /fnote><fnote > Bull , , pp.124 - 39 < /fnote><fnote , ' Conclusion : Hedley Bull and , p.195 < /fnote><fnote > , ' From International System to International Society : Structural Realism and Regime Theory Meet the English School ' , , Vol.47 , ( 1993 ) pp.327 - 352 < /fnote><fnote , ' Conclusion : Hedley Bull and , and , p.37 < /fnote><fnote > Holbraad , ' Conclusion : Hedley Bull and , - 6 , and , ' Order in International Politics ' , in and R.J ( eds . ) , Order and Violence : Hedley Bull and , : , , p.54 < /fnote><fnote , ' Conclusion : Hedley Bull and , pp.195 - 6 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp.195 - 6 < /fnote > The rationalist assumption is that ' given the inevitability of relations with other units , a common desire for order is the minimum necessary condition to begin the evolution of international society ' . Common goals and values develop and this can occur absent any pre - existing shared culture and hence can ' evolve functionally from the logic of anarchy ' . A common identity and culture is not required as a prerequisite , but norms and values do govern the relationships of states in so far as minimal standards and rules enable coexistence . also developed this idea , logically moving from the concept of anarchy to society by reasoning that states conceive of the desirability to limit conflict in order to achieve goals . This is the ' raison de sytème ' . A sense of commonality emerges out of the ' logic that anarchy develops like units ' , therefore states view each other as similar entities with similar requirements . Even in a system where the units were unlike , this commonality forms via the ' acceptance of a set of rules that legitimise the differentiation of units and establish the distribution of rights and responsibilities among functionally differentiated actors ' . < fnote > Buzan , ' From International System to International Society ' , p.334 < /fnote><fnote > Buzan , pp.333 - 4 , and , , ' , and , , , , ( ) , pp.150 - 1 < /fnote><fnote > Bull , Bull , , p.13 , and Buzan , ' From International System to International Society ' , p.335 < /fnote><fnote > Buzan , ' From International System to International Society ' , p.335 , and , ' , pp.150 - 1 < /fnote><fnote > Buzan , ' From International System to International Society ' , p.336 < /fnote > In the pluralist conception of international society , only common rules and a respect for law bind atomistic states . In the solidarist conception , international society exists beyond simple respect for the rule of law . Moral and ethical consensus develops through frequent interaction and provides the basis for subsequent relations , which creates a more cohesive system . At the extremes of either approach both perspectives are very similar to , in the case of the pluralists , realism , and in the case of the solidarists , revolutionism . Therefore , ' there is ... the idea that international society is a kind of way station on the historical road away from raw and un - moderated anarchy toward a world society ' , and ' Bull hints faintly in this direction ' . However , any potential for reform in the states system is held back by realist scepticism . < fnote > , ' Introduction : International Society and , in ( ed . ) , and its , : , 2004 , < /fnote><fnote > Buzan , ' From International System to International Society ' , p.337 , and , , < /fnote><fnote > Buzan , ' From International System to International Society ' , p.338 < /fnote><fnote > Vincent , ' Order in International Politics ' , p.54 < /fnote > Consequently , 's theory reflects ' paradigms of world politics : realism , pluralism and solidarism ' and tackles the ' themes of ... power , order and justice ' . In his essay , ' The Twenty Years ' , displays a ' dissatisfaction with the normative void left by 's realism ' . It was from here that departed from realist theory , in order to ' construct an international theory which more closely reflected the practices of sovereign states ' . The common rules and standards that shape the relations of states with each other are central to 's theory of orderly international society . It is best portrayed by his treatment of international law and the fact that despite the conflict between interests and rules , states more often than not conform to legal norms . The rule of law for was evidence that common rules and values had developed in the society of states to such an extent that they became formalised as law . Thus , he ' remained detached from the paradigmatic claim that international politics is a struggle for power among atomistic states driven by the desire for self - preservation ' .   < fnote > and , ' Pluralism of the Intellect and Solidarism of the Will ' , , , ( ) , p.92 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.93 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.94 < /fnote><fnote > Bull , , p.130 and p.137 < /fnote><fnote > Wheeler and , ' Pluralism of the Intellect and Solidarism of the Will ' , p.94 < /fnote > The pluralist in recognised , in words , that "" states are able to agree on the need for order despite their competing views of justice "" . Therefore , even if a ' substantive ' agreement over shared goals and values is lacking , then at least states are ' legally and morally bound by a common code of coexistence ' . For , international society also had solidarist potential , even if this was only minimal - "" potential solidarity ... with the respect to the enforcement of the law "" for example . However , ' the traditional devices of the maintenance of interstate order ' reigned in such solidarist elements . 's early works incline more towards the pluralist and , therefore more towards the realist , in that order is regarded as the prime goal of international society . For example , the maintenance of order in the pluralist formulation ascribed a large proportion of responsibility to the great powers as the guardians of the international society , which was often at odds with the principles of international law . However , ' such an affront to interstate justice is a necessary requirement for interstate order ' . < fnote > Ibid . , pp.94 - 5 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.95 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.96 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . < /fnote > Given that ' pluralists privilege order over justice in the belief that there is not sufficient solidarity among mankind to provide for the latter ' was driven to investigate the possibility of an ' ethics of coexistence ' . Thus , in , ' set about investigating the possibilities for cosmopolitan solidarism ' . In his later work , ' making explicit what had been suggested in , turned the unit of analysis to the individual and asserted that what ' has to be reckoned in terms of ... rights and interests ... [ is ] individual persons of whom humanity is made up , not the rights and interests of the states into which these persons are now divided ' . In that sense , ' he recognised that this emerging "" awareness "" that states have responsibilities to maintain basic global welfare values was reflected only to a limited degree in foreign policy , and that it was possible to regard the humanitarian activities of governments in a "" cynical "" and "" hypocritical "" light ' . Pluralism still pervaded his approach to international politics even by this stage and he maintained that international dialogue and consensus is inherently difficult to achieve . He said that , "" the cosmopolitan society which is implied and presupposed in our talk of human rights exists only as an ideal , we court great dangers if we allow ourselves to proceed as if it were a political and social framework already in place "" . < fnote > Ibid . , p.98 , and Buzan , ' From International System to International Society ' , pp.333 - 4 < /fnote><fnote > Wheeler and , ' Pluralism of the Intellect and Solidarism of the Will ' , p.98 < /fnote><fnote > Wheeler and , ' Pluralism of the Intellect and Solidarism of the Will ' , and , , p.279 < /fnote><fnote > Wheeler and , ' Pluralism of the Intellect and Solidarism of the Will ' , < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.100 , and , , p.83 < /fnote > Therefore , those who argue that international society is the ultimate form of world political organisation champion its pluralist physiognomy , which enables "" an association of independent and diverse political communities , each devoted to its own ends and its own conception of the good "" . This pluralist perspective maintains that ' there is no reason why these diverse communities should be expected to agree on any kind of substantive common purpose , but they can be expected to agree on certain common practices which will allow them to coexist , and relate to each other peacefully , securely , and with justice ' . Bull can not be categorised entirely as such because of the tensions that exist in his work between the pluralist and the solidarist , and between concepts of order and justice . There is much to be made of the argument that the realisation of international society is "" best "" to a potential world government of some kind . Arguably , was a major proponent of this idea of "" best "" , although proffering an international - society - type thesis he remarked in his ' Definitive Articles of Perpetual Peace ' that due to the structure of the states system ' the positive idea of a world republic can not be realised ' . For those pluralists to whom international society is ultimately desirable , the belief is that ' only those who do not want to live in peace - with - justice could rationally reject the terms of practical association ... [ and ] that the institutions of international society , properly understood , can have an appeal divorced from their political and geographical point of origin ... divorced from considerations of power , culture or history ' . This idea has some affinity with formula ' championing "" justice , political not metaphysical "" . < fnote > Brown , ' International Theory and International Society ' , p.188 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp.190 - 1 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp.190 - 1 < /fnote > However , there is the idea that consensus must develop from this practical association of states so that a lasting , orderly and just society of states can emerge de facto rather than simply de jure . Bull himself was constantly torn between the pluralist perspective and the more solidarist one , his theory thus became an effective amalgamation of the that seeks to investigate the paradoxes of international politics and provide insight into the factors that motivate inevitable historical change . In his Hagey Lectures , made it explicit what he had only hinted at in , that ' justice was the precondition for a lasting order ' . Nevertheless , countless examples prevail that demonstrate a ' lack of solidarity ' in human affairs . Inconsistent and unreliable public pressure to ' alleviate chronic human suffering ' for example reveals sentiments of "" us "" and "" them "" which failed to stimulate sufficient desire to intervene in in , for example , a stark reminder of ' the paucity of cosmopolitan moral awareness ' . Such cases ' bear witness to the continuing relevance of 's judgement that the society of states is not solidarist enough to legitimise collective humanitarian intervention ' . Bull was anxious to remain cautious over the implications which demands for justice - ' in a world where there was no shared understanding of what justice entails ' - might have on international order . This concern rang true in his as it did in . The ' order / justice conundrum ' as conceptualised by led him to ' continuously search for a reconciliation of the goals ' . < fnote > Buzan , ' From International System to International Society ' , pp.333 - 4 < /fnote><fnote > Wheeler and , ' Pluralism of the Intellect and Solidarism of the Will ' , pp.100 - 1 , and , , p.91 < /fnote><fnote and , ' Pluralism of the Intellect and Solidarism of the Will ' , pp.102 - 3 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.104 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.105 < /fnote><quote>'By expecting dominant states and aspiring southern powers to act as agents of cosmopolitan solidarism , was being too utopian in the hope that state leaders would act as guardians of international justice ? ' < /quote><fnote > Ibid . , p.106 < /fnote > Too often , couched his appeals for justice in the language of preserving order - possibly an attempt to make his demands more tasteful to the great powers , certainly a result of his latent pluralism . For some , the argument that ' virtually no one actually believes in toleration at the level that would be required for a world - wide scheme of coexistence to be ethically grounded ' is all too convincing . For example , ' nothing in the recent history of human rights protection gives reason for believing that a meaningful consensus ... actually exists ' . It seems that the idea of an international society of republics , or in a similarly limited sense , the idea of international society of "" "" states is the only viable alternative . In this sense , ' the pluralism required for an international society to work is bounded ' . , ' the "" "" of the mind stretches from to Vancouver ' , and provides for the peace and international co - operation that pervades this era of globalisation ' . < fnote > Ibid . < /fnote><fnote > Brown , ' International Theory and International Society ' , p.192 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.194 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.194 , and , , p.238 < /fnote > Within the international system approach to theory , in structural realism for example , order ( manifest particularly as the balance of power ) is ' systemic in origin ' , therefore not ' the product of the intention and wishes of diplomats ' . However , this conception of order excludes ' any kind of normative component ' . Antithetical to this is the world community approach , ' normatively grounded , based on relationships which constitute a network of mutual claims , rights , duties , and obligations ... qualitatively different from the impersonal forces which create a system ... [ and ] implies a cosmopolitan belief in the oneness of humanity ' . 's approach ' emerges in contrast to both community and system ' . This does not mean that international society represents a ' halfway house ' as some suggest , mediating between the system and community approaches . Rather , theorists of international society are attempting to account for considerations of human justice within the states system that is inhospitable to notions of global community . For them , due to the machinations of the system , a global community is untenable and that this is a ' matter of regret ' , included . < fnote > Brown , ' International Theory and International Society ' , pp.185 - 6 , and , , p.4 < /fnote><fnote > Brown , ' International Theory and International Society ' , pp.185 - 6 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . < /fnote><fnote > Bull , , p.278 < /fnote><fnote > Brown , ' International Theory and International Society ' , pp.186 - 7 < /fnote><quote>'In earlier enquiries into the moral basis of international society he had started by recognising the absence of a generally accepted foundation for morality in the states system at large and by accepting the existence of conflict about basic moral ends ' . < /quote><fnote , ' Conclusion : Hedley Bull and , p.189 < /fnote > However , he later became fascinated by the status of ' Third World ' powers within the states system and often broke out of the pluralist - international - society mould to suggest that the rights of individuals were prior to the rights of states . In order to protect this fact the system of states would require a measure of consensus . He inevitably retreated back to his original position , though somewhat richer with the consideration of certain universalist principles . It was always order that prescribed the conditions necessary to secure the basic justice required by human beings in 's mind , but his inclinations were consistently reinforced by a vision of international order as the ultimate condition for securing individual justice in an anarchical world divided among states . < fnote > Ibid . , pp.190 - 1 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.192 < /fnote > The clash of order and justice in 's work is crucial to understanding how he prescribed for the possibility of change in international politics . Maintaining order via the society of states was viewed as the ultimate provision of basic justice for individuals . However , he did entertain the possibility of ' a more integrated world society ' which could better provide for human justice because it would be a system constituted of individuals ' and not largely of the states into which they were now organised ' . If states did not protect the basic rights of individuals - the basic goals of society in particular - then their rights as states would be bankrupt . In a similar sense , if the system of states as international society did not protect these values it too would be bankrupt . Bull ' introduced a more cosmopolitan angle ' to the international society because of his concern for justice that was not simply subjugated as it might be in a more ardently pluralist or realist assessment . As a consequence of his scepticism , ' stopped short of a revolutionist position ' . Despite such oscillating tendencies , it is clear that a consistent theme ran throughout 's contribution to the study of international politics : his concept of an international society in which an ' awareness of common interests and recognition of shared values , rules and institutions ' was pivotal , crucial to the maintenance of order . In this sense , while the states system prevailed in a condition of anarchy , this was the ultimate mechanism for providing both order and justice . < fnote > Bull , , pp.279 - 81 < /fnote><fnote , ' Conclusion : Hedley Bull and , < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.197 < /fnote><fnote > Bull , , pp.278 - 9 < /fnote><fnote , ' Conclusion : Hedley Bull and , p.197 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.198 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.198 < /fnote > This also led to reject universalism as utopian because of the expediency required by states and statesmen to maintain order and the foundations of minimal coexistence , which meant that ' justice and order can not always be reconciled ' . While it is correct that was sceptical about consensus and solidarity he was consistently hopeful that it could emerge via the minimal principles of coexistence that prevailed . What emphasised was ' cultural change which produces a different perception of common interests in a context of coexistence and co - operation ' . He asserted that ' anarchy is compatible with society , because the state is not the only reason for obeying rules ' . Although he did , as a result of his scepticism , ensure that he re - emphasised the fact that international society can exist without the development of a common culture or moral consensus because the nature of the system demanded co - existence . Within 's theoretical approach it is possible to detect an awareness ' of the need for change beyond the status quo ' . Although subtly implicit , the idea of solidarity and consensus can be seen as fundamental in 's conception of a thriving international society . "" The rights and benefits to which justice has to be done in the international community are not simply those of states and nations , but those of individual people throughout the world as a whole "" . Human justice helped maintain order just as order helped in the pursuit of justice . believed that the states system , as international society , was not inherently averse to such principles . If it became so , the implication is that it would have to be reformed .   < fnote > Stanley Hoffman , ' International Society ' , in and R.J ( eds . ) , Order and Violence : Hedley Bull and , : , , < /fnote><fnote , ' International Society ' , p.23 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.29 , and , , pp,249 - 52 < /fnote><fnote , ' International Society ' , p.30 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp.30 - 1 < /fnote><fnote > Bull , , pp.278 - 9 < /fnote > This tension in his work ' gave it its density ' and made it particularly ' instructive and thought provoking ' . 's methodology was in stark contrast to the scientific approach , the exponents of which he regarded as ' obsessed by the quest for a far greater degree of precision than the field of international relations allows ' . According to him , "" a scientifically imperfect procedure of perception and intuition "" were necessary . The starting point of his work was with the essence of the inquiry . The major issues of international political life could only be understood in the context in which humanity has come to interpret them . ' By reference to the works of political philosophers who have discussed and sharpened them ' ; in spatial and chronological context ; and , in the context of the rules and laws that shape social existence . This can be seen as ' a blend of intelligent social science and humanism ' that emphasises the role of meaning . For , the linchpin of orderly international society was morality rather than a more simplistic respect for the rule of law . States were not egoistic actors seeking to maximise interest gains but political entities that reflected the beliefs of a society seeking consensus and coexistence . The state , therefore , could only be a concept that reflected this subjectivity of human existence , not an objectively value - free abstraction . < fnote > Hoffman , ' International Society ' , p.13 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.16 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp.17 - < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , and , , p.39 < /fnote><fnote , ' International Society ' , p.18 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp.19 - 20 < /fnote > Bull rejected realism for it was , as he saw it , ignorant of normative principles and principles of justice , and he rejected the world community approach on the grounds that it unrealistically subordinated goals of order to goals of justice . ' The society of states is more than a convenient fiction to mask power politics ... suggested that a society of states emerges out of a consciousness among states of both enlightened self - interest and moral obligation ' . Although this served as an effective rebuttal of the realist approach , was also inclined to employ critique to deconstruct the world community approach by suggesting that ' there was not sufficient solidarity among humankind to make agreement possible on global principles of justice and human rights ' . It was from this that developed his pluralist conception of international society , whereby consensus , common values and goals , are established ' only for certain minimum purposes ... [ for example ] reciprocal recognition of sovereignty , and its logical corollary , the norm of non - intervention ' . < fnote > Wheeler , ' Pluralist or Solidarist Conceptions of International Society ' , pp.464 - 5 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.466 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp.466 - 7 , and , , pp.231 - 2 < /fnote><fnote > Wheeler , ' Pluralist or Solidarist Conceptions of International Society ' , p.467 < /fnote > Therefore , international order was maintained by respect for these rules of coexistence . In 's own words , "" the pluralist doctrine that so far from constructing a disguised form of Realpolitik ... presents a set of prescriptions more conducive to the workings of international order than those of Grotius ... It is a conception of international society founded on the observation of the actual area of agreement between states and informed by a sense of the limitations within which in this situation rules may usefully be made rules of law "" . Moreover , ' 's espousal of a pluralist approach was a moral position since he saw the provision of international order as the ultimate foundation for the protection of human values ' . That said , he did not remain entirely convinced of ' the full implications of the pluralist view ' which could lead to a position of moral relativism and preclude the possibility for consensus and solidarity to develop out of practical association . Bull , therefore , avoided asserting ' a general priority of order over justice ' . < fnote > Ibid . , p.468 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.469 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp.469 - 70 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp.470 - 1 < /fnote > This classic tension begs the question that constantly plagued : ' What value has international order if states do not provide for plural conceptions of the good life ? "" The answer lay in an intuitive judgement in which ' it is necessary to take into account the degree of injustice embodied in the existing order ' . It is such caveats with which emphasises the historically contingent and changeable nature of political organisation . ' International order had to be evaluated in terms of the goal of world order , and the protection of the core goal of social life - individual security from violence - it afforded ' . As such , ' was attracted by the liberal belief that order might best be preserved by strengthening justice ' , a notion that saw his work take on more of a solidarist flavour in his later life . International society was as much contingent on its potential to provide justice as it was on order . ' Bull suggested that the moral value of the society of states has to be judged in terms of what it contributes to individual justice ; the implication being that if the society of states fails to protect individual justice , this would place in jeopardy its normative value ' . However , such notions in 's theory were consistently limited by concerns for expediency , and ' he expressed considerable scepticism that it was possible to talk about universal human rights : different cultures had very different conceptions of what constitute human rights ' . Consequently , Bull the pluralist always maintained that ' world order is ... better served by accepting the compact of coexistence than in seeking to overthrow it in the name of some higher morality ' . Thus , of revolution , he wrote that : < fnote > Ibid . , p.473 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.473 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.474 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.474 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.475 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.476 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.477 < /fnote><quote>'In the name of just change a threat is delivered to the existing political and economic structure of the world , in the course of which order , in the sense of a pattern of activity which sustains elementary goals of social life , is disrupted . But this is followed by the establishment of a new political and economic structure in which order is restored ; the object of revolution is to replace an order that sustains the old set of values with an order that sustains a new set of values , and it is to the old values that revolutionary prescriptions are inherently hostile , not to the quality of order itself ... The revolutionary model , however , does not address itself to ... how order is maintained and strengthened among independent political communities ... To this question about order among states the revolutionary model does not provide any answer ; indeed , it does not recognise the validity of the question'.</quote><fnote > Bull , , pp.302 - 3 < /fnote > In one of rare ' flashes of moral assertiveness he emphasised that individual justice was ' more fundamental ' than international order or international justice . It was ' because its units are ultimately individuals and not any artificial construction ... the purposes of ... which should inform the activities of states and the theoreticians and practitioners of order among them ' . Bar this exception , 's seemingly nihilistic "" political quietism "" was in fact a remarkably effective ' scholarly instrument ' . ' Subverting all doctrine except the doctrine of scepticism itself ' left 's theory open to a wide range of interpretations from positive to critical , painting a picture of the states system that was at the same time a defence of its structural possibilities as well as a critique of its limitations . Hence , ' his style of argument with regard to the balance of power was more to render it as the best arrangement that states had been able to make in the circumstances then to celebrate it as a high achievement of Western civilisation ' . < fnote > , ' and , Millennium , Vol.17 , , ( ) , p.198 , and , , p.279 < /fnote><fnote > Vincent , ' and Order ' , p.200 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.203 < /fnote > In The Anarchical Society Bull examined ' arrangements that would mean change within the states system ' as alternative routes to international order but concluded that none was superior to that of international society . Moreover , he saw no possible alternative form of states system that would remedy the ' substantial difficulties ' of ' peace and justice ' because there was no reason to suggest they were the consequence of the states system itself . In fact , asserted that ' there were good reasons to think that the states played some role in ameliorating them ' . Therefore , was compelled to concluded that , as things stand , the system of states organised as international society was the best means by which to achieve order in an anarchical world . Although he argued that international society and prescriptions of order were often contradictory to ' notions of justice ' , including even the limited concept of international justice , it was not inherently ' inhospitable ' . Considerations of justice could be made within the context of international society and , essentially , within the context of order provided certain levels of consensus developed . < fnote > Ibid . , p.206 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.207 , and , , pp.226 - 46 and p.274 < /fnote><fnote > Vincent , ' and Order ' , p.207 < /fnote><fnote > Bull , , p.91 and pp.278 - 9 < /fnote><fnote > Vincent , ' and Order ' , p.209 < /fnote > These were not beyond the realm of possibility within the concept of international society . Bull never explicitly ascribed to a particular opinion on how to relieve the burden of conflict between order and justice and was limited to insincere conclusions . It is possible that weighted his analysis in favour of order because he believed that justice could not be realised without an order that protects the minimum normative standards of human existence . In his concluding remarks to , says that ' it has been contended that order in world politics conflicts with goals of justice - international , human and cosmopolitan - and that while there is a sense in which order is prior to justice , it does not follow from this that goals of order are to be given priority over goals of justice in any particular case ' . Accordingly , he chose neither the extremes of realism nor revolutionism that subordinated justice for order or vice versa and employed the criticisms of each tradition to deconstruct the excesses of the other . is a paragon of state centric analysis of international relations that is not bound by rigid positivism . ' On every page ... it is possible to find a foundation on which further work could build ' . Bull held the door open to historically aware and reflective assessments of international politics in this way . He sought to ' ask the big questions and get the big picture ; be sceptical about every generalisation including this one ; [ and ] hold every fashion up to the mirror of history ' . < fnote > Buzan , ' From International System to International Society ' , p.333 - 4 < /fnote><fnote > Vincent , ' and Order ' , p.209 , and , , p.93 < /fnote><fnote > Bull , , p.94 < /fnote><fnote > Bull , , p.308 < /fnote><fnote > Vincent , ' and Order ' , pp.210 - 11 < /fnote><fnote > Richard Little , ' , in ( ed . ) , and its , : , , , and , ' , in ( ed . ) , and its , : , , < /fnote><fnote > Vincent , ' and Order ' , p.211 < /fnote><quote>'The school has been able to draw a distinction between pluralist and solidarist conceptions of international society ... [and ] has taken on a critical theory dimension because the debate reflects a profound concern about the potential for human emancipation ' . < /quote><fnote > Little , ' , pp.411 - 14 < /fnote > Bull 's work in particular reflects such elements . The tensions in his work , between pluralism and solidarism , between realism and revolutionism and between order and justice are ultimately caused by a profound , historical and philosophical conception of international politics that comprehends the necessity to explain the present in order to conceive of change . The society of states is not taken to be the ultimate form of political organisation for humankind ; it is regarded as the ultimate form of political organisation in a world divided among states and governed by anarchy . Accordingly , the order - justice paradox , which exists in international politics , is integral to 's theory and it provides the intuitive basis for further investigation and deliberation . This dichotomy in 's work , along with an acute historical awareness , offers much in the way of critical theory and , therefore , much in the way of a blueprint for change . It is in this way , by presenting order and justice in tension - a result of the pluralist and solidarist elements of his theory - that Bull opens the door for critical theory . As such , every eventuality must be explored against the challenge of uncompromising , ahistorical positivism , for ' it is better to recognise that we are in darkness than to pretend that we can see the light ' . < fnote > Bull , , < /fnote><fnote > Brown , ' International Theory and International Society ' < /fnote><fnote > , ' , < /fnote><fnote > Little , ' , , and , , p.21 < /fnote><fnote > Bull , , p.308 , an Vincent , ' and , p.211 < /fnote >","It was in the historical context of the religious and political upheaval of the , and the subsequent breakdown of censorship ( which made fertile ground for the ferment of radical ideas ) , that first made his appearance as a pamphleteer . Considering that was only prominent as a writer , and thereafter faded into oblivion , there seems to be a disproportionate amount of literature written about him , with little consensus over how we should understand such a complex figure . The most prominent debate revolves around 's evolution as a thinker- while most agree that he started off as a religious thinker , few concur on his predilections ( secular or religious or both ) in the Law of Freedom in a ( ) . While the question above seems to be fairly straightforward , it is in this writer 's opinion that the position one takes in the fore - mentioned debate has bearings on how one would view the nature of 's religious outlook in ( ) . Therefore , while an examination of the primary sources is necessary , it is equally important to consider the interpretations of some historians on , and , as far as possible , how their biases feature in the following themes : the nature of 's millenarianism ; his conception of God ; his understanding of ; and finally his views on the institutionalized church . Before launching into the essay proper , it is perhaps necessary to consider the approach that one should take when reading the pamphlet . While 's view that used "" religious phraseology as a cloak "" has been superceded by writers more sympathetic to 's religious propensities , there appears to be a dispute between the authors of "" "" ( with their literal approach to 's works ) , and , whom they accuse of "" making allowances for 's language "" , in his bid "" to establish 's uniquely secular revolutionary ideology "" . This larger dispute about 's religious phraseology is somewhat defined by their different interpretations of what Winstanley meant by being "" in a trance "" , the former taking it literally ( a vision / message from God ) and the latter , as a seventeenth century manner of speech , to mean "" a moment of clarification in a process of deep thinking "" . Their different approaches to 's religious phraseology are perhaps most amenable to their respective evaluations of 's development as a thinker . Taking the literal approach allowed et al . to assert that remained to the end a religious thinker , just as 's emphasis on 's rationality is linked to his interpretation that Winstanley ended up a secular thinker . An understanding of the mentality is crucial if this is to be a productive study , and it should be noted that unlike the modern age , the belief in a Creator God and the belief in were not antithetical , though 's caveat on ' trances ' seem to suggest that he thought that the were . < fnote > , and , "" Winstanley : A Case for the Man as He Said He Was "" , in , Vol . , No . , p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. "" Rather than treat his Biblical language as a barrier to understanding of 's thought ... the historian might treat that language as the articulation of thought , and through it come closer to understanding what Winstanley meant to himself and his contemporaries . "" < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote><fnote > George Sabine ( ed . ) , , ( , ) , p. < /fnote><fnote > , "" "" , in Past and Present Supplement , p. < /fnote><fnote et al , "" Winstanley : A Case for the Man as He Said He Was "" , p. < /fnote><fnote > , Down : Radical Ideas during , ( , ) , p. . "" But if God is everywhere , if matter is God , then there can be no difference between the sacred and the secular : pantheism leads to secularism . "" < /fnote > Perhaps one thing that can be agreed upon is that Winstanley held millenarian beliefs , though what type of millenarian he was - radical or traditional - is a matter of dispute . While Juretic saw Winstanley 's emphasis in as primarily millenarian , and as consistent with his previous pamphlets ( as opposed to it being a watershed as most scholars have suggested ) , he dismissed the pre - Digger Winstanley as "" traditional millenarian "" and his ideas as "" common millenarian fare "" ; and failed to recognise that 's radicalism preceded his secularisation . Instead , he suggested that the Digger experiment was the key in the radicalisation and secularisation of , and in striving to prove the break ( as opposed to continuity ) between the religious and secular , neglected the uniqueness of 's brand of millenarianism . Also , in trying to set Winstanley firmly within the religiosity of his time by identifying him with his puritan contemporaries , et al . compromised on 's unconventional millenarianism , by arguing that "" he thought of the millennium in actual , not metaphorical terms . "" Perhaps Aylmer came closest to understanding when he said that "" the real interest of lies in the totality of his challenge to established beliefs and systems of value ... whatever his starting point as a religious thinker , he was not a normal kind of millenarian ... "" . Due to 's stance that 's "" communism and his theology are literally inseparable in his writings from on , even though the emphasis varies in different pamphlets "" , he was more likely to analyse 's radical theology rather than dismiss it in favour of rational materialism ; and provided a more balanced view to that offered by . A more in - depth examination of 's religious beliefs is overdue , and it is to this that we now turn our attention . < fnote , , "" ... now comes the time that the elder sons , that are born after the flesh , shall serve the younger sons , in whom the blessing lies ... "" p. ; "" He is now coming to raign , and the Isles and the Nations of the earth shall all come in unto him ... "" p. ; "" But in the time of 's restoration , now beginning , when the King of Righteousness himself shall be Governor in every man ... "" p. ( emphasis added ) < /fnote><fnote > George Juretic , "" Digger No Millenarian : "" , in ( ) , , p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote><fnote et al . , "" Winstanley : A Case for the Man as He Said He Was "" , p. "" The spirit of 's writings throughout had more in common with the apocalyptic visions of his puritan contemporaries than with modern socialist or communist ideologies . "" < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote><fnote > G. E. Aylmer , "" "" , in and ( ed . ) , in , ( , ) , p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . p. - 93 . < /fnote > A crucial part of one 's religious outlook is constituted by how one understands the nature of God , and as with most other things about , this is controversial , and is centred on main positions - God is immanent as opposed to God being immanent and transcendent . The adherents of the former include and , who were of the opinion that 's pantheism , which is manifested in the "" ... identification of God with the immanent principle of reason pervading this world "" , accounts for and precedes his transition to secularism . This view of 's "" God "" , is most agreeable to their take on as a whole , and disposes of the potential problem that the belief in a transcendental God might pose to their reading of . Whereas those who take the line that was influenced by theology throughout his writing career , assert his belief in an immanent and transcendental God . While both positions can be substantiated by a reading of , the bone of contention lies in the priority that one should accord to repetition or to a more subtle reading of the text . Although the idea that God is immanent is littered throughout the text , there are a few occasions when God as immanent and transcendent appear : "" The great world ... is no other but Christ spread forth in the ; and so upholding the Creation by his own wisdom , and power ; for he is the maker , the preserver and the restoring Spirit . "" It seems to me that if believes in a Creator God , it would necessarily imply that God as Creator of the world is able to transcend His creation ; though this does not preclude His immanence , nor the equation of Reason with God , as seems to suggest when he said "" only if we forget that the Father is and that Christ 's coming is in sons and daughters can we slip into thinking of an external God . "" It not only seems absurd to think that God must be bound by an either / or straitjacket , but it is also simplistic to think in such strict dichotomy . < fnote > 's understanding of 's path follows the progression "" mystic , pantheist , material rationalist "" . Seen in , A History of Political thought in , ( , ) , p. < /fnote><fnote>""Winstanley knew no transcendent God , only immanent reason "" , in , "" "" , p. . See footnote for 's position . < /fnote><fnote > Zagorin , A History of Political thought in , p. < /fnote><fnote>""Therefore Christ hath the honour above his brethren , to be called the spreading power , because he fills all with himself ... "" p. "" ... for he is in all and acts through all "" p. 160/ "" So that , this one Almighty power be spread in the whole creation ... "" p. in , Winstanley . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. - 165 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. "" If any man be offended here , let him know , I have obeyed my herein , and I have peace in him . "" < /fnote><fnote > Hill , "" "" , p. < /fnote > However , 's belief in a transcendent and immanent God does not make him less of a religious radical , despite what et al . seem to imply , and his views on the Fall and the Restoration are testament to that . et al . appear keen to make Winstanley out to be a traditional millenarian , and this is reinforced by their interpretation of 's understanding of , which is fairly similar to the traditional understanding of it . Unlike 's radical Winstanley who believed that the introduction of private property constituted the Original Sin , their Winstanley saw property as a symptom , rather than the cause of the Fall . Also , 's astute observation that was unorthodox in equating the Resurrection and the Second Coming stands in contrast with et al . 's conventional reading that Christ 's "" appearance would be a literal Second Coming . "" The scales seem to be tipped against Mulligan et al . as 's Winstanley saw Man 's redemption "" not in a heaven to come , and not through Christ 's vicarious sacrifice , but by the restoration of the absolute law of reason . "" Aylmer too , acknowledged 's unorthodoxy in asserting that the Original Sin was not a historical event , nor was it inherited from Adam , but rather , it was "" the defeat of good by evil , which is repeated in all of us ... "" The notion of an internal as opposed to historic and external , Resurrection and Restoration is certainly radical , not to mention also that the would be complete only when Adam ( within ) kills in us , and this inward restoration will be manifested outwardly in the abolishing of , and the re - establishment of the earth as a common treasury . In using biblical concepts as metaphors to criticise the inequality prevalent in his society , ended up creating his own brand of heresy . While the need to substantiate his social critiques and ideas with biblical references is perhaps traditional , in the sense that he acknowledged the authority of the and used it as a legitimising force for his ideas ; his use of it is far from conventional , as seen from 's unorthodox understanding of . < fnote>""Winstanley believed in a transcendent God , working through inner transformation "" p. in . "" Winstanley : A Case for the Man as He Said He was "" . This makes sound almost like an orthodox ! < /fnote><fnote > , "" : A Rejoinder "" , Past and Present , No . , ( Nov , ) , p. . < /fnote><fnote et al . , "" Winstanley : A Case for the Man as He Said He Was "" , p. < /fnote><fnote > Hill , , p. . This is substantiated with the quote from , , p. "" So that upon the rising up of Christ in sons and daughters , which is his coming ... "" < /fnote><fnote et al . , "" Winstanley : A Case for the Man as He Said He Was "" , p.68 substantiated by quotes from , , Fire in the Bush 1650 , p. and . The fact that these quotes are not from does not really matter , since they held that the theological beliefs set out in Truth Lifting Up Its Head are central to 's thought throughout his writing career . See p. of the same article . < /fnote><fnote > Zagorin , A History of Political thought in , p. < /fnote><fnote > Aylmer , "" "" , p. Can be substantiated by p. , , , , . in , Winstanley . < /fnote><fnote > Sabine , , p. < /fnote > Up till now , the writer has focused on the debates surrounding the nature of 's religious outlook as a means of conveying the difficulty in assuming a singular stance , and the avoidance of a direct answer to the question so far is an admittance of 's complexity as a religious thinker . Not forgetting what has been mentioned earlier , there is however , more to be said about 's views on the institutionalised church , that do not take the form of the above . The lack of attention and controversy concerning 's anticlericalism ( arising from his perceived hypocrisy of the clergy and their monopoly over the interpretation of Scripture , both of which result in the oppression of the people ) , his suspicion towards institutionalised , and preference for the personal religious experience , is probably due to the fact that these do not define 's uniqueness as a religious thinker , but were prevalent in other radical sects . His ambivalence towards an afterlife , belief in the perfectability of man on earth , notion of true worship manifesting itself in love , and the avowed tactic of non - violence echoes that of the Ranters , though the form that it took was different . It is interesting to note that draws out quite a few similarities between and the Ranters , and by doing so , sets the religious radicalism of within the framework of his time . What remains most distinctive about 's religious outlook in is his concept of Restoration being tied up with that of the re - establishment of the earth as a common treasury . Hence it is the communism that is embedded in 's religious outlook that stimulates the reading of , since as puts in "" it is in his religious evolution ... that we must seek the source of his political theory . "" Thus , has often been read less for itself , and more for its part in the grand scheme of 's development as a political thinker . Therefore , as mentioned earlier , the different interpretations of the nature of 's religious outlook reflects the agenda of each historian in trying to conceive of a holistic entity that is Winstanley . < fnote , , p. - 7 < /fnote><fnote > Zagorin , A History of Political thought in , p. < /fnote > In conclusion , it is not possible to take The New Law of Righteousness in isolation , and any interpretations made about the nature of 's religious outlook necessarily has repercussions on how one understands his evolution as a thinker . Such interactions make it exceedingly difficult to give a straightforward answer to the question . Also , disagreements over how the text should be read has not made it easier to decipher the nature of 's religious outlook , as the study of the text seem to support interpretation . The debates surrounding 's millenarianism , his understanding of God , his views on ; and the lack of attention given to his stance on the institutionalised all illustrate the importance of the agenda of the historian in his treatment of primary sources .",0
"< heading To create an application which gives the user the ability to open and display an image , and to change the background colour of the form . See the practical sheet for more information . < heading > Design and Development ( 25 minutes)</heading > Firstly , I created the close button , and the label containing my name . I then added the code that changed the form 's background colour to the event FormClick . I was n't sure of the syntax for this , so I attempted to turn the form 's background black on the . I firstly tried the line form1.backcolor:= 0 , but that was n't recognised . By scrolling through the properties of the form object , I found ' color ' , and using that was successful . I then wanted to alter this so that it would load a random colour , rather than always black . I decided that the best way to do this was to create a colour with random RGB values , each between 0 and . I quickly found that random(num ) gave a random number between 0 and the integer num , so I used the line :   FORMULA   I tried this ; and clicking on the form changed the form 's background to an apparently random colour . I soon realised , however , that as the user repeatedly clicks , it goes through the same list of colours every time the project ran . I added the procedure ' Randomize ' to initialise the random number generator . I then realised that a better way to do this would be for the user to choose a colour themselves , from a selection . To do this , I added a colour dialog box and replaced the code in the FormClick event to :   FORMULA   Which I then tested . The procedure to open an image was easier . I used the Open Picture Dialogue object and an image box , and added the code :   FORMULA   into the click event of the button with caption ' . I used an example in to help to supply me with the basic concept . < picture/><picture/><picture/><picture/><heading > Unit Listing ( 20 minutes)</heading > FORMULA   < heading > Problems ( 15 minutes)</heading>'Backcolor ' is not the correct property for a form 's background colour . Used ' Color ' instead . Needed to initialise the random number generator before getting truly random numbers from the ' Random ' function . Used ' Randomize ' . < heading > Testing ( 20 minutes)</heading > Here follows the list of tests that were implemented during and after the code writing process . For this reason , some of them refer code that was removed or altered for the final application . < table/><table/><heading ( 10 minutes)</heading > The requirements for the project were met . The application can open and display images and change it 's background colour . shortcoming I can identify is the fact that the project does not identify jpeg or gif files as images , due to the filter in the open picture dialogue . Perhaps if I were to start over , I might try to find a way to use a normal open dialogue with a filter to load the image . An error handler would also be a good addition , which could give a clearer error message in the event of the user trying to open a file that was not expected . Another extension to the project could be that clicking on the image object also changes the background colour of the form , as when a small image is loaded , it is difficult to see the boundary between the form and the image box .","As early as the 5 th century , the discipline of international relations was already the scene of a heated battle between contending theories of state interactions . Resting on fundamentally opposed assumptions about the nature of the international system , Realist , and world views continue to divide political thinkers . As a student of world politics , I evaluate the efficacy of these ideologies based on the validity of their assumptions and on their historic ability to predict world events . This approach reveals that Realism , and Marxism may not be mutually exclusive , but rather complementary . Furthermore , the fluctuating popularity of the world views in recent study of international relations may suggest that no single theory is superior to the others ; rather , all are historically contingent and , in the words of , provide only "" situation - bound knowledge "" . It remains to be seen which stream of thought retains greatest relevance in the new world order of . < fnote > Dunne , , and , Realism "" in , John and Smith , . : An introduction to international relations ( : , 2005 ( edition ) ) . p.162 < /fnote><fnote > Dunne , and , Realism "" . p.163 < /fnote > One can gain a basic understanding of , and Marxism by contrasting the ' essential elements ' of these ideologies . Thus , the Realist world view rests on the assumption that states are the most important actors in an international system devoid of central authority . The additional beliefs that human nature is fundamentally war - like and that all states are potentially dangerous means that states will strive to gain power relative to each - other ; this creates an unpredictable international environment that has called a ' self - help system ' . Whereas Realism therefore "" paints a rather grim picture of world politics "" , notions convey a significantly more optimistic view . The numerous strands of hold that human nature is basically good , and that the interest of the state is bound up with that of its people ; furthermore , states are capable of cooperation in a system where international institutions are essential actors . Unlike Realism which considers only relative gains in world politics , stresses the importance of interdependence as a means of achieving gains in absolute terms . Finally , the representation of the international system is one dominated not by states but by classes , where capitalist modes of production and class struggle shape political outcomes . Economics plays a crucial part in this system , as the tensions between capitalists and workers catalyse social transformation . Realism , and Marxism therefore promote highly contrasted views of international relations . < fnote > Dunne , and , Realism "" . P.172 < /fnote><fnote > Dunne , and , Realism "" . p.175 < /fnote><fnote > Mearsheimer , "" . , , ( ) . Internet . Accessed on . p.9 < /fnote><fnote > Dunne , . "" Liberalism "" in , John and Smith , . : An introduction to international relations ( : , 2005 ( edition ) ) . p.187 < /fnote><fnote > In terminology , respectively relations and means of production < /fnote><fnote > Hobden , Stephen and Jones , . "" Marxist Theories of International Relations "" . p.229 < /fnote > As a student of world politics seeking a straightforward understanding of the international system , I can begin to evaluate these rival ideologies in a purely pragmatic manner by comparing the relative parsimony of each world view . Realism offers an attractively simple conception of international relations that may explain its ongoing popularity in political analysis : it maintains that states are unitary , rational , and self - interested actors which will behave in the interests of national survival . By contrast , encompasses numerous sub - state and non - state actors into its analysis , and argues that moral and humanitarian factors also influence state behaviour , which creates a more complex and possibly more normative view of the international system . Marxism , on the other hand , facilitates one 's comprehension of international relations by relying on a concise representation of international relations dynamics : the materialistic base - superstructure model . According to this model , societal transformation originates from the tension between means and relations of production ( respectively , the proletariat and the bourgeoise ) ; this forms an economic base , which in turn determines a superstructure of legal , political and cultural institutions . However , attempts to analyse the social world as a totality by considering notions such as culture and philosophy has complicated later strands of analysis . Thus , in evaluating Realism , and Marxism simply in the interest of parsimony , I may privilege the uncomplicated Realist explanation of international relations . < fnote > Dunne , and , Realism "" . p.142 < /fnote><fnote > Hobden , Stephen and Jones , . "" Marxist Theories of International Relations "" . p.236 < /fnote><fnote > Hobden , Stephen and Jones , . "" Marxist Theories of International Relations "" . p.240 < /fnote > However , there is an evident trade - off between the a model 's simplicity and the depth of analysis that it provides . In evaluating these theories , I must therefore also consider the possibility that these ideologies rely on unviable assumptions . While its simplicity is appealing , Realism has been criticised for offering a "" one - dimensional "" interpretation of state behaviour : it rejects the influence of non - power motivations or of non - state actors in the decision - making process . Furthermore , by defining power solely in terms of resources , this world view ignores the significance of power capabilities and of ideological power , which and both see as a substantial omission . While less clearly simplistic , the assumptions of may also misrepresent the international system through a utopian belief in man 's possibilities of intellectual , moral , and social improvement . Liberal institutionalism , in particular , sees a ' natural order ' underlying human society , a notion that even the strand considers unlikely . Certain conjectures appear similarly implausible . Particularly , Marxism relies on the existence of an ongoing tension between capitalist and working classes . According to , however , the masses may no longer be capable of undertaking emancipatory revolution , as "" - dimensional man "" has been integrated into the capitalist system and is now unable to envisage an alternative to this status - quo . Due to the inaccuracy of their key assumptions , therefore , Realism , and Marxism do not provide entirely viable explanations of international relations . < fnote > Dunne , and , Realism "" . p.173 < /fnote><fnote > Dunne , and , Realism "" . p.175 < /fnote><fnote > Dunne , . "" Liberalism "" . p.192 In terminology , respectively relations and means of production < /fnote><fnote > Hobden , Stephen and Jones , . "" Marxist Theories of International Relations "" . p.240 < /fnote > Nevertheless , these world views may still offer insightful explanations of past state interactions ; an alternative approach to evaluating them is to investigate the degree to which each ideology succeeds in explaining historical occurrences . According to , numerous political episodes coincide with a Realist understanding of state behaviour . For example , Realist relative - gains considerations were central to determining foreign policy tactics . also uses the historical record to attack Liberal ideology : based on the failure of in maintaining peace after , he undermines the claim that international institutions can maintain collective security . However , I do not believe that these examples necessarily demonstrate Realism 's supremacy over the other world views : more recent developments , such as 's intervention in on a humanitarian basis , are better explained from a Liberal than a Realist perspective . The historical accuracy of theories is also open to debate . Gramsci 's theory of hegemony offers a convincing explanation of the failure of by arguing that leaders of post-1918 revolutions did not foster a sufficiently close relationship with the classes they represented . On the other hand , the fact that 's forecast of the fall of capitalism was followed by an era of does not testify to the accuracy of Marxism in predicting international relations . When judged on the basis of their historical record , Realism , Marxism and have not consistently enabled scholars to explain and predict world events . < fnote > Mearsheimer , "" . , , ( ) . Internet . Accessed on . p.23 < /fnote><fnote > Mearsheimer , "" . p.34 < /fnote><fnote > Baylis , John and Smith , . "" and the "" . Baylis and . Internet . Accessed on . Available at :   URL   < /fnote><fnote > An organization created in by socialist parties wishing to work together for international socialism ; this dissolved during , as the different constituent nations failed to maintain a unified front against the war . Source : , "" "" . Internet . Accessed at :   URL . < /fnote><fnote > Piccone , Paul . "" Gramsci 's Hegelian Marxism "" . Political Theory , , ( ) . Internet . Accessed on . < /fnote > The apparent inability of any single theory to adequately explain the workings of the international system may suggest that , rather than exploring world politics in the light of an individual ideology , we should do so by relying on a synthesis of the world views . By balancing each other 's lapses , Realism and may appear complementary . Realism effectively explains and predicts patterns of state interaction , but its simplistic assumptions concerning state motivations cause it to ignore the question of how states define their interests . , on the other hand , considers these decision - making processes in detail , focusing on the role of interest groups and domestic actors in determining foreign policy . This example leads to argue that "" Liberal theory provide[s ] a useful supplement to Realism "" . While it seems difficult to include Marxism in this synthesis , the gradual reconciling of and in their and forms illustrates the possibilities of a more dialectic , cross - theory approach to the study of international relations . < fnote > Nye , and "" . World Politics , , No.2 ( ) . Internet . Accessed on th . p. < /fnote > It may indeed be that no single theory of international relations attains analytic or predictive superiority over the others . The fact that different time periods have privileged different world views suggests that these ideologies may simply be historically contingent : the relevance of the analysis that they provide depends upon a changing historical context . Thus , explains the international system 's multiple oscillations between Liberal and Realist policy from until the end of as "" merely the latest instance of a recurring dialectic "" . This draws attention to a last question for the student attempting to evaluate these world views : if these ideologies are historically contingent , which one is most relevant ? In our rapidly - evolving world order , it may be that Realism , with its heavy emphasis on maintaining the status - quo and on continuity over change , is slightly outdated . , and particularly neo - liberal economics , certainly has more potential in this globalizing and liberalising international system . However , I personally disagree with the modern hegemony of ideology in state interactions . Rather , as I have a personal interest in development , I see certain strains of Marxism as conveying the most lucid or beneficial understanding of the current world order . In particular , Wallerstein 's world - system theory whereby the core 's exploitation of the periphery continues from colonial times in the insidious form of free trade seems an accurate reflection of the ongoing relationships between the developed and the developing worlds . Furthermore , the Gramscian notion that the hegemony maintains its supremacy by dispersing its ideologies in society until they become firmly engrained into the population 's ' common sense ' seems to me a fitting account of foreign policy . In this way , by evaluating the theories of international relations in terms of their applicability to the current international system , I demonstrate a slight preference for Marxism over Realism and . < fnote > Nye , and "" . p. < /fnote><fnote > Hobden , Stephen and Jones , . "" Marxist Theories of International Relations "" . p.236 < /fnote > In conclusion , the dominant theories of international relations can be contrasted in terms of their theoretical basis , their ability to explain the political past , and their possible relevance in the contemporary world order . However , no single ideology emerges from this analysis as dominantly efficacious for the student of world politics . While Realism appeals to me through its simplicity , the reductionism of its assumptions undermine its analytical power ; each world view has both strengths and weaknesses in terms of the historical record ; and my choice of Marxism as the most accurate portrayal of the current international system remains a largely subjective one . We may achieve a more enlightening understanding of the international system not by viewing it not in the framework of a single world view , but rather through a synthesis of these complementary and historically contingent ideologies .",0
"< abstract><heading > Summary</heading > We propose to study the signalling processes involved in the normal formation of the immunological synapse . The immunological synapse forms between a T lymphocyte and an antigen - presenting cell . This facilitates the activation of the T cell by extending the duration of contact between it and the . It has been shown that the shape of the immunological synapse is essential to correct activation of the T cell . We will compare the intracellular contents of T cells able to form an immunological synapse with those artificially prevented from doing so . These comparisons will be used to elucidate the signalling pathway and to construct a mathematical model there - of . Improved understanding of the immune system can help in many medical areas . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > The white blood cells are a primary line of defense in the human body . White blood cells travel through the bloodstream and into tissues , searching for and attaching to micro - organisms and other invaders . Some white blood cells , B lymphocytes , recognize invaders directly . Others , T lymphocytes or T cells , need help from other cells of the immune system . These cells , called antigen - presenting cells ( APCs ) , ingest an invader and break it into fragments . Antigen fragments from the invader are then presented in a way that T cells can recognize . T cells bind to APCs through an antigen specific receptor . Intracellular processes then form a complex intercellular structure , the immunological synapse , which holds the and the T cell together . After a significant period this allows the T cell to fully activate . According to a recent paper published in Science[1 ] , it was found that the shape of the IS , rather than the growing number of receptors , was critical in triggering a strong T cell activation and response . We will study how the intracellular signalling of the T cell works to stimulate appropriate formation of the IS . Furthermore we will then construct a reasonable mathematical model to simulate the corresponding network . < heading > Proposed Research</heading > It is our intention to study the signalling process governing the formation of the IS . Each T cell receptor ( TCR ) must migrate through the bilayer of the T cell to assume an appropriate position within the IS . The process by which each TCR finds this position is the area to be investigated . Initially we will compare differences between T cells able to form an IS and those that are prevented from doing so . It is possible to create an artificial antigen - presenting bilayer ( ) on a silica substrate . Further by patterning the silica with chromium barriers of suitable height prior to application of the bilayer it is possible to restrict the movement of the antigen and TCR complexes . [ 1 ] A series of grids restricting motion of the TCRs to increasing degrees will be used to degrade formation of the IS . Cells will then be lysed at regular intervals and their intracellular contents analysed . microarrays will be used to determine which genes are differentially regulated while the IS is forming and when the IS is not able to form . It is thought that if the IS is unable to form signals promoting the formation of the IS will persist . By determining which genes are upregulated in T cells which are unable to form an IS it will be possible to identify genes related to the signalling process . Statistical techniques will be used to determine the significance of this differential regulation and thus determine which genes are most likely to be involved in the signalling process . It is also possible that a signal is sent when the IS is formed , this will also be observable through this technique . A series of probes will be placed in the . By breaching the cell locally in a technique analogous to patch clamping it will be possible to collect proteins involved in the signalling process . The sequences of these proteins will then be determined . This local information will allow the refinement of the list of genes to subject to further examination . Proteins which are complexed or phosphorylated are of particular interest . This information provides insight into the mechanics of the signalling process . These experiments will produce a list of genes which are likely to be involved in the signals controlling the formation of the IS . Using this information a series of mutants will be produced which are unable to express these genes . If a particular mutant is unable to form an IS this will suggest that the inactivated gene is significant for this process . This will allow the list of genes involved in this process to be further refined . The proteins transcribed from the genes in this restricted list will be used to construct a mathematical model of the signalling process . Details of the mechanics of the signalling process derived in earlier experiments will be used here . The resulting model will provide a greater understanding of the signalling process . It may be possible to test this model by blocking specific elements of the system , prevention of phosporylation of a protein for example . < heading > Justification</heading > For many organisms T cells act as a primary line of defense against infection . They are critical in regulating the immune response that attacks virus - infected cells , foreign cells , and cancer cells . Understanding the mechanisms through which T cells become activated could provide a step to being able to control immune response . By discovering the signalling pathways through which T cells activate it could be possible to specifically deactivate those signalling pathways that result in harm to the body . This would obviate the need to deactivate the entire immune response . example for the potential of the research is that rheumatoid arthritis , where T cells attack the body 's own cartilage cells , could be treated by selectively switching off the signalling pathway that triggers this activity . < heading > Staff : postdoctoral position ( @ £ 15000pa ) and 1 student ( @ £ 12000pa ) for . Office space , equipment and access to university resources will be £ 3000pa for each student . A professor will take a supervisory role over the duration of the project , equivalent to full time ( £ ) . Biological Equipment : T cells and necessary for the experimentation will be bought from a reputable manufacturer , with estimated cost for adequate supplies of £ . Chips with restraints will also be purchased at a cost of £ . analysis , protein sequencing , gel electrophoresis and other standard biological processing will be performed in the laboratories of the . This will incur the standard fee of £ per person . Travel Plans : Staff will be expected to keep abreast of current developments within immunological research . To facilitate this the project will fund staff to attend the and similar ad hoc events / seminars . For this , £ is set aside for each member of staff ( including supervisor ) . Throughout this project , the research will be carried out with close cooperation with colleagues at . It is expected that an trip by member of staff will be needed to discuss progress in person . This will be in addition to the hosting of reciprocal visits from our colleagues to our research facility . This will total . < table/>[1 ] Mossman , et al . , Science","< abstract><heading > Abstract:</heading > This essay discussed the structure of antibody，the discovery and the importance of monoclonal antibodies . Different modern technique , such as , absorbance spectroscopy , X - ray crystallography and mass spectrometry , are used to study the structure and function of some proteins in the monoclonal antibody . < /abstract><heading > Introduction to monoclonal antibody</heading is a kind of protein that is related to immune system . It belongs to the family of immunoglobulins , whose duty is to bind a specific antigen in order to remove it from the body . Antibody are synthesised from B - lymphocytes , with a different amino acid sequence and a specific binding site for different kinds of antigen , which is called antigenic determinant or epitope . The structure of antibody is very interesting . Each antibody consists of polypeptides - heavy chains and light chains . They join together to form a "" Y "" shaped molecule . ( see figure ) . < picture/>Different kinds of antibodies have different amino acid sequence in the tips of the "" Y "" , which give the antibody its specificity to bind antigen . This variable region is composed of - 130 amino acids , including the ends of both the light and heavy chains . The variable region can be further subdivided into hypervariable and framework regions . Hypervariable regions have a high ratio of different amino acid in a given position , which is relative to the most common amino acid in that position . For framework regions , they have more stable amino acids sequences separating the hypervariable regions . The constant region , on the other hand , determines the mechanism used to destroy antigen . Antibodies are divided into major classes , , , , IgD , and IgE , depending on their constant region structure and immune functions . The antibody recognition of antigen is mainly based on the antigen - binding specificity . It is the basis for the ability of the immune system to recognize virtually a foreign antigen . The structural is illustrated in figure . V L and V H amino - terminal domain lie at each tip of the branches of the immunoglobulin . < picture/>Monoclonal antibodies are the antibodies that are identical , since they are produced by type of immune cell . All clones are from a single parent cell . Thus , monoclonal antibodies can specifically bind to a specific substance . The discovery of monoclonal antibodies can be cast back to , when the B - cell cancer myeloma was known , and understood as cancerous B - cell all producing a single type of antibody . This discovery was applied to the study of the structure of antibodies . However , it was not possible to produce the identical antibodies specific to a given antigen . It was not until that the process of producing monoclonal antibodies was invented , and given by in for the discovery . The key idea for the invention of monoclonal antibodies was the use a line of myeloma cells , which had already lost their ability to secrete antibodies . The monoclonal antibodies can be produced artificially by some genetic technique , which is one of the most important techniques of biotechnology during . The circulating B - cell would multiply to form a clone of plasma cells , secreting identical immunoglobulin molecules , when activated by an antigen . Monoclonal antibody have many applications . It can be used to detect for the presence and quantity of its corresponding substance . It can also be used to purify a substance with techniques called immunoprecipitation and affinity chromatography . This is an important tool in biochemistry , molecular biology and medicine . Monoclonal antibody is very important in biological studies and medical application . The structure and function of monoclonal antibody is researched a lot by a variety kinds of biophysical techniques , such as Nuclear Magnetic Resonance ( ) , absorbance spectroscopy , X - ray crystallography and mass spectrometry . < heading > Biophysical techniques < /heading><heading > Nuclear Magnetic Resonance</heading > Nuclear magnetic resonance ( ) spectroscopy is one of the few modern techniques that are capable of determining the structure of biological macromolecules , like protein and nuclei acids at atomic resolution . The data can be recorded either in solution , where most protein molecule perform their physiological functions , or in solid . can also be used to study protein denaturation if the solution is in nonphysiolgical condition , or dynamic features of molecular structures . Also , molecular recognition , protein folding , and thermodynamics and kinetics aspects of interactions between proteins and other solution components , such as ligands , can also be studied by . Developments in biochemical methods allow simple and fast preparation of protein samples for spectroscopy studies . Heternuclei , like 15N , 13C and , can be incorporated in proteins by uniformly or selective isotopic labelling . from these samples can be very simple but gives clear information of the protein 3D structure . Nowadays , modern developments on can determine structure of proteins with the mass 30 k Da . example is the determination of structure and epitopes of MD-2 - related lipid - recognition ( ) proteins of monoclonal antibody by ( [ 1 ] ) . The ligands and biological functions of major mite allergens Der f and p 2 are analyzed by a high - quality structure . It is found that it is more similar to the crystal structure of , a distant homologue , than to that of Der p 2 , in terms of the separation and angle between the major β - sheets . This discovery indicates that proteins undergo clamshell - like motions that change the sizes of ligand - binding spaces inside their immunoglobulin - fold β - sandwich to accommodate lipid molecules . With , conformational epitopes for monoclonal antibodies and are detected as separate surfaces patches ( see figure , 4 ) . < picture/><picture/><heading > Absorbance spectroscopy</heading > Absorbance spectroscopy can probe electronic transitions of molecules as they absorb lights in the UV and visible region of spectrum . Typically , proteins have a maximum around nm wavelengths from aromatics side chains , especially tryptophan . The aromatic absorbance is also the key in protein fluorescence and circular dichroism measurements . Larger protein has around 205 nm from amide bond . This is useful to determine total protein concentration , protein structure , and ligand binding . Since no relevant information of protein of monoclonal antibody can be found regarding absorbance spectroscopy technique for structure determination , I focus on the binding site architecture instead for absorbance spectroscopy ( [ ] ) . Monoclonal antibody binds the superpotent sweetener ligand N-(p- cyanophenyl)-N'-(diphenylmethyl ) guanidineacetic acid with high affinity . Using absorbance spectroscopy , the structure of the variable domain fragment Fv can be predicted , and the key residues in the combining site of the antibody are identified . Also , specific amino acids , which are involved in ligand recognition and complexation , are identified . These modeling predictions were made before the solution of high - resolution structures . ( see figure , ) < figure/><picture/><heading > X - ray crystallography</heading > X - ray crystallography is the experimental technique in which patterns produced by diffraction of X - ray through atoms in a crystal is recorded and analyzed to reveal the structure of substance , such as protein and DNA . , crystallography is also used in pharmaceutical area to determine specifically how drug lead compounds interact with their protein targets . In biology , X - ray crystallography contributes to most of protein structures solved . The working principle of X - ray crystallography is simple . The precise conformation and orientation of each atom in a molecule can be only determined when the molecule is formed into a perfect crystal . When X - ray hit the crystals of purified molecule , the rays are deflected by the atoms of molecules in diffraction patterns . The number of electrons in the atom determines the intensity of the scattering of X - rays . Heavier atoms scatter more effectively than light ones . A series of diffraction pattern are taken from several angles , and these patterns can provide the organization information of the components of the molecules . Computers can be used to mathematically interpret this pattern and reconstruct the positions of the atoms . example of using X - ray crystallography is the determination of the structure for an anti - tumor antibody ( [ ] ) . CH2 - domain - deleted ( HuCC49DCH2 ) is a recombinant humanized antibody that recognizes the TAG-72 antigen , which is expressed on a variety of human carcinomas . HuCC49DCH2 can be crystallized from sodium formate . X - ray diffraction data were collected on a single cryo - cooled crystal and the structure was solved by molecular replacement . The antibodies pack in the crystal around crystallographic axes as tetramers with approximate 222 symmetries . The tetramer is composed of rings , back - to - back , with a thickness of 83A. The CH3 domain is inverted with respect to the Fabs when compared to the usual orientation found in conventional antibodies . The antigen combining site of HuCC49DCH2 is similar but not identical . The combining site consists of a deep cleft , heavily lined with aromatic amino acid side - chains but bounded by numerous charged groups . ( see figure , , ) < picture/><picture/><picture/><picture/><heading > Mass spectrometry</heading > Mass spectrometer is an analytical tool used for measuring the molecular weight of a sample , with no limitation on the range of molecular mass . It uses the difference in mass - to - charge ration ( m / z ) of ionized atoms or molecules to separate them from each other . For large samples such as biomolecules , molecular weights can be measured with high accuracy , which is sufficient to allow minor mass changes to be detected . Mass spectrometry nowadays plays a central role in chemistry and in biomedical sciences . The technique is extremely sensitive and is used in many analytical applications . In soft ionization methods like electrospray ( ) and matrix assisted laser ionisation ( MALDI ) have been developed as powerful tools for the elucidation of protein structure . Mass spectrometry is useful for quantization atoms or molecules and also for determining chemical and structural information about molecules . Structural information can be generated with some certain types of mass spectrometers , achieved by fragmentation the sample and analyzing the product generated . The following example shows how mass spectrometry is used in structural characterization of the maytansinoid - monoclonal antibody ( [ 5 ] ) . The immunoconjugate , huN901 - DM1 , composed of the humanized monoclonal IgG1 antibody , huN901 , and the maytansinoid drug , , is being tested in clinical trials to treat a small cell lung carcinoma ( SCLC ) . huN901 - DM1 contains an average of to DM1 drug molecules per huN901 antibody molecule . The drug distribution profile of by electrospray time - of - flight mass spectrometry ( - TOFMS ) showed that to DM1 drug molecules were attached to an antibody molecule . With respect to digestion , modified peptides were identified by observing a mass increase corresponding to the modification . Using structural models of human IgG1 , it was found that modified lysine residues were on the surface in areas of structural flexibility and had large solvent accessibility . ( see figure , ) < figure/><picture/ >",1
"< heading > Introduction</heading > Yahoo is an internet communications and media company that offers online navigational directories . It is a market leader in generating branded advertising from traditional marketers , which contributed of total revenues in . This advertising appears on a range of its internet and mobile services , of which the major ones will be discussed in the context of the essay . The market for internet products and services is characterised by rapid change , converging technologies , and constant competition . In such a competitive environment , an understanding and continuous scanning and analysis of the macro and micro marketing environment for strengths , weaknesses , opportunities and threats ( SWOT analysis ) , and the lookout for strategic windows , are essential for the company 's survival and success . The analysis of the marketing environment should result in the formation of a marketing mix programme to implement the marketing strategy . The macro and micro marketing environment forces affecting the company and consumers will be analysed in turn , and the likeliness of their influence on the development of a suitable marketing mix will be considered . The marketing mix will be considered in terms of the influence of these environment forces on the "" 5 P 's "" of the marketing mix ( Product , , and People ) . < heading > forces</heading > The internet is a recent technology and is expanding and changing faster than the rate at which the laws governing it can be produced . Nevertheless there are several laws in the and which are likely to influence the development of a suitable marketing mix . < heading > Personal Privacy</heading > Surveys show that the vast majority of websites collect personal information . Public concerns about on - line privacy remain , and many in the industry are urging self - policing on this issue to head off potential regulation . Few laws specifically address personal privacy , but the most serious strides in this regard have come from the with the on which requires the company to explain how the information will be used and to obtain the individual 's permission to use their information . Since relies on customisation of its services ( email , instant messenger , personals , advertising ) based on user profiles ( which include personal information ) , such legislation has far reaching consequences for the level of customisation of its products / services and for the associated customised promotions that can be targeted at customers . Thus the Product ( service ) and Promotion variables in the marketing mix are very likely to be influenced by the laws and regulations surrounding personal privacy . < heading > Child Protection</heading > In the , the Children 's Online Protection Act and the Children 's Online Privacy Protection Act are intended to restrict the distribution of certain materials deemed harmful to children . This restriction on distribution is likely to influence the variable of the marketing mix . In addition , from Sexual Predators Act of requires online service providers to report evidences of violations of federal child pornography laws . Such legislation may impose significant modifications to the services , and is thus likely to influence the Product variable of the marketing mix . < heading > Intellectual Property</heading > Since many parties are actively developing search , indexing , and other Web - related technologies , may be subject to intellectual property infringement claims that are costly to defend and could limit its ability to provide certain content or use certain technologies in the future , thereby affecting the Product variable of the marketing mix . This aspect of the marketing environment is highly likely to influence the marketing mix since currently , the company 's subsidiary is engaged in a lawsuit regarding copyright issues . In addition , another subsidiary , Overture , is in litigation with several companies , each of which has claimed that allowing advertisers to bid on certain search terms constitutes trademark infringement . < heading ( Spam)</heading > Many internet users believe unsolicited email ( spam ) violates their privacy and steals their resources . Most commercial online resources , including , offer users the option of filtering out email from certain internet addresses that generate a large amount of spam . This impacts on the readiness of to use email for marketing purposes and in so doing influences the marketing mix variable of Promotion in that promotion through email campaigns is less likely . < heading > Societal / Green forces</heading > The internet is generally seen as an asset to society . It facilitates communication , provides consumer information , entertainment , and so on . It is generally "" green "" in that its effect on the natural environment is not harmful in the way that for example the oil industry is . A societal concern is in the areas of parental control of content . This influences the Product variable of the marketing mix in that several products and services will have to be modified to allow for parental control of content . < heading > Technological forces</heading > Technology has been defined as the application of knowledge and tools to solve problems and perform tasks more efficiently ( Dibbs et al ) . Often this knowledge comes from research carried out in universities , and by large businesses ( e.g. Yahoo itself , and its competitors ) . Consumers ' technological knowledge influences their desire for goods and services . To provide marketing mixes that satisfy consumers , marketers must be aware of these influences . The Product variable of the marketing mix will be influenced by the consumers ' desire for specific goods and services . Technology also affects the types of product that marketers can offer . 's products are highly technologically based and so technology influences the Product variable of the marketing mix to a large extent . Database technology together with email , internet and mobile text allow marketers to send their advertisements or sales specifications directly to selected groups of customers who want their products , thus influencing as well as the Promotion variables of the marketing mix . The cost of advertising on the internet is often dependent on the response to the advertising campaign . The response rate to an advertisement ( click - through rate ) is determined by the use of internet technology and so technology influences the variable of the marketing mix . In developing countries , where internet and mobile usage is less advanced , the Product and variables , especially , of the marketing mix , need to be adjusted . The products need to be appropriate for the level of technology available in the country ( for example , mobile and internet infrastructure ) , and the prices need to be relative to the economic status of the country . < heading > Economic and Competitive forces</heading > The general economic climate at present is one of prosperity in the , and , the largest markets for . This means that marketers can expand their marketing mixes to take advantage of high consumer buying power . However , constant scanning of the marketing environment is necessary as these conditions could change at any point in time . In times of economic prosperity , the level of discretionary income is high . 's largest advertising markets are entertainment , cars , and pharmaceuticals . Consumers spend on these markets with discretionary income , which is generally high in times of prosperity . However , should the economic climate change to a recession , the marketing mix would need to be adjusted so that the Product variable focuses on the functions buyers want and the Promotion variable focuses on the value and utility of the products . The competitive structure in which operates is closest to an . Yahoo needs to identify unique marketing mixes in order to carve out its market share . The problem with using as part of its differential marketing strategy is that competitors will often match or beat the price . Differential product features can be introduced to make the products and services distinctive , for example in the , 's broadband service includes free subscription to its music service , . Distinguishing promotional methods can be used , for example is the official internet partner of . < heading > The Business</heading > When creating marketing mix programmes , the marketing function 's recommendations must be consistent with the corporate goals and with the colleagues ' views , to ensure internal take - up . In this way the internal business itself affects the marketing mix . < heading > Suppliers</heading > These forces include anything prone to altering the business 's receipt of its required supplies . A break in supplies could affect the marketing mix variables such as distribution of the product , amongst others . 's principal suppliers are ( for music ) , Overture ( for search ) , in and SBC in ( for broadband ) and its many Advertising suppliers . These suppliers are critical to the company 's operations and so continuous scanning of the marketing environment is crucial to ensure the marketing mix variables remain competitive . < heading > Buyers</heading > Consumers and business customers should be analysed and a marketing mix developed to satisfy these customers ' requirements . "" What do customers want ? "" is central to the marketing concept and to the formation of a suitable marketing mix . < heading > Competitors</heading > Marketers must strive to satisfy their target customers in a manner that differentiates their product , brand and overall proposition from competing companies ' marketing mixes . In the case of , its main competitor across the full range of its services is . However , it is important that focuses its attention not only on like - for - like rivals , but also on erecting entry barriers to substitutes or new entrants . If it ignores these , then it may face similar problems to and who , due to their focusing their attention on each other , allowed new entrants to enter the market for soft drinks . Substitutes exist for individual services e.g. Itunes ( for music ) , and many internet service providers ( for broadband ) and new entrants are continuously coming in ( e.g. Pandora , for online music , offers a similar service to , but is currently free ) . Google appeared as a new entrant in and gained a large share of the search market , and is continuously expanding its market share and range of services . A further barrier to entry is switching costs . It is costly to switch broadband suppliers and this could be used to 's advantage in that it already has a large broadband subscriber base through BT(UK ) and ) . Lastly , backward integration is a further barrier to entry . 's merger with Overture and means that it is the supplier of its own search and music , creating an entry barrier to other companies competing in these markets . < heading > Publics</heading > A public is any group that does or could impact on a business 's ability to satisfy its target customers . Most notably in the case of is the major effect that the media has on its reputation . Both Yahoo and Google have suffered from bad publicity surrounding their activities with in regarding either the disclosure of private information ( in the case of Yahoo ) or the filtering of information ( in the case of Google ) . Publics such as the media affect the People variable of the marketing mix in that marketing programmes need to address more publics than solely customers .","< heading > Introduction</heading > Burt Lanchester of Malibu Garden Furniture Ltd has provided forecasts of costs and cash flow information for garden chairs that he intends to begin manufacturing and selling in . The data that he has provided will be analysed to produce a profit forecast as well as a cash flow forecast . The profit forecast will give an estimate of future performance at different levels of sales and at different selling prices , whilst the cash flow forecast will give an indication of the ability of the business to survive with or without additional funding or overdraft facility . Recommendations will be made on how performance can be improved . < heading > Contribution Per Chair</heading > Each chair , when sold , contributes an amount of money to the fixed costs of the company . Once the fixed costs have been covered , the remainder is profit for the business . Sales price per unit : £ Less variable costs per unit : £ + 2(£7.50 ) + Contribution per chair : the calculations for a sales price higher ( i.e. £ ): Contribution per chair : Repeating the calculations for a sales price lower ( i.e. £ ): Contribution per chair : £ < heading > Break Even Point</heading > To break even , total contribution must equal the fixed costs : Contribution x ( number of units ) = Therefore the number of units required to break even = At higher sales price and lower demand (= units ): The number of units required to break even = At lower sales price and higher demand (= units ): The number of units required to break even = < heading > Operating Profit</heading > When the total contribution exceeds fixed costs , the additional amount is profit : Profit = Total Contribution - Fixed Costs Where Total Contribution = ( Contribution per unit ) x ( number of units ) = = Hence Profit = - 45,000 = £ At higher sales price , profit = £ At lower sales price , profit = £ < heading > Margin of Safety</heading > The margin of safety indicates the volume of sales that can fall short of the forecast sales , before the company falls below the break - even point . It is hence the forecast volume of sales minus the volume to break even : = units At higher sales price , margin of safety = units At lower sales price , margin of safety = units The resulting graph for the sales prices is provided here : < figure/><table/><heading > Conclusions and Recommendations</heading > At the current forecast levels , the company is going to face bankruptcy unless it receives additional funding in the form of a loan , or a higher overdraft limit is allowed by the bank . In the closing cash is -£13,150 yet the current overdraft limit is . The problem becomes more severe in and and then slowly improves as sales increase . A further problem is that the company is not going to have enough chairs to meet demand at the forecast levels . If it manufactures per month , then in it will already have run out of chairs . The recommendation here is to alter the production schedule so that slightly more chairs are produced in , and less in . Obviously this will affect the costs of labour and purchases in the cash flow forecast , At a higher sales price , the profit is greater for any given level of sales ( as per the profit - volume graph ) . On the whole , larger amounts of cash will come into the company in the same space of time , and so the closing cash will be higher and also less overdraft ( or loan ) will be required . The margin of safety is also higher . The reverse is true if the sales price is lower . Hence the recommendation is to increase the sales price , and also to obtain funding ( or an increased overdraft limit ) if the closing cash in still exceeds the current overdraft limit .",1
"< heading > Literature Review</heading > One of the criteria used by consumers when they make food - purchasing decisions is quality . In particular , there are certain quality cues which the consumers observe before purchasing a product . Quality cues can be divided into categories : intrinsic and extrinsic . Intrinsic cues consist part of the physical product and can only be changed if the physical product itself is changed according to Ophuis and van Trijp ( ) ( e.g. colour , aroma , taste etc . ) ( and , ) . On the other hand , the extrinsic cues are related to the product without being physically part of it ( e.g. brand name , store name , price , country of origin etc . ) ( and , ) . Consumers use all of the above quality cues to make food - purchasing decisions easier for them . In the past , consumers were not very concerned about a specific store and their purchases were made from the store offering the greatest variety of the most well known brands at the lowest prices . So , the store name was not important for them . However , nowadays , consumers have started building a kind of loyalty to a certain store and they are willing to change their preferences in terms of brands when needed instead of shopping from several different stores . The strategy behind this is the effort of retailers to pull their store name as a brand and and is an example of this ( Lisanti , ) . In the case of other products , brand and country of origin are very closely related as far as consumers are concerned ( e.g. is seen as ' ' by consumers ( Cai , Cude and , ) . In general , consumers use extrinsic cues in their food purchasing decisions because they tend to relate them with certain factors . According to ( ) , price , brand and store name are positively related to quality ( Dodds , and , ) . From another perspective , price , brand and country of origin are related with authenticity ( Groves , ) . Finally , for other consumers , store name reveals a great amount of information and is connected with the physical environment , quality as well as service levels and therefore within this context is used as a useful cue ( . , and , ) . However , consumers ' purchasing behaviour has been found to be dependent upon socio - economic characteristics . ( ) found that those consumers who are aware of incidents like salmonella bacteria and antibiotics and are more concerned about health issues and animal welfare consider the country of origin of the product to a greater degree when it comes to making food purchasing decisions . Moreover , women and low - income groups rely more on the country of origin when they make such kind of decisions comparing with men and high - income groups . In another study also it was found that for low - income consumers as well as consumers from rural areas , price is an important factor ( , ) . This is due to the fact that there is the segment of consumers who receive price as a cost and they want to minimize it . Therefore they are not willing to pay high prices for brand , store name or country of origin cues . On the other hand , price is very important for other consumers because they connect it with high quality products ( Brunso , Fjord and , ) . < heading > Interviewing Strategy</heading > The survey method chosen to be used in this study is the personal interviewing and more specifically the mall intercept type of it . This method is suitable in this situation since the questionnaire does not include any kind of questions where the respondents need to refer back to records in order to provide an answer . So , obviously there is no need for them to be in home . Another important reason for the selection of the method is that since the survey focuses on consumers of fresh food products and examines attitudes and perceptions without requiring special knowledge or information on a subject , by standing outside supermarkets large numbers of the target population can be easily found . Moreover , another reason for the selection of the method is that it takes place in a public place and participants do not have any reason to be concerned about their personal safety . The survey has been decided to be self - administered ( each respondent will be given a questionnaire and asked to read and answer the questions without an interviewer ) . This will help to avoid any interviewer bias ( e.g. interviewer 's reaction , changes in voice etc . ) and will make respondents feel more comfortable and not under the pressure of giving socially acceptable answers . It has been found in a study by ( ) that face - to - face interviews generate many socially acceptable answers ( and Hair , ) . The majority of the survey would be self - administered , however , several trained interviewers would be there for reasons . of all , interviewers will be there to help respondents and explain them any unclear questions and prevent them from leaving uncompleted questions . , interviewers will be there in order to help people who are not able to carry out a self - administered survey for many reasons ( e.g. they do not see well ( elderly people ) , lack of reading and writing skills , low education level etc . ) . Obviously , the presence of the interviewer in such cases would reduce the non - response error attributed to factors like the above . Even though the method is convenient for finding a large number of the target population , not many of them would be willing to participate because they are in a hurry , they are busy , and the weather is not favourable ( e.g. rain , too cold etc . ) . So , in order to reduce the non - response error due to all these factors , a voucher to be spent in the supermarket of their preference will be given to each participant as an incentive . Also , the questionnaire has been designed not to be very long , since the longer the questionnaire the lower the response rate and this method gives a low response rate due to the factors mentioned above . Ideally , given a higher budget focus groups would have been organized prior to the survey as a means of gathering insights and ideas which could then be used in order to develop the questionnaire . Finally , the questionnaire could be pretested under real situations to check whether the questions address the objectives of the study and if not to allow for any possible changes or improvements . < heading > Sampling Method</heading > The target population of this study is defined as and 's consumers across the and it is of particular interest to target different socio - economic groups . The interviewing method that has been chosen , where interviewers will be standing outside and supermarkets is convenient for finding large numbers of the target population . In this case non - probability sampling will be used where the probability of selecting any particular consumer from the target population can not be determined . Since different socio - economic groups are of particular interest for this study , the quota sampling method fits well into the current situation . Control categories ( quotas ) will be defined for the population elements , such as sex , age and interviewers will be using their judgment to a certain extent to ensure that quotas in the sample as well as in the population are the same ( restricted judgmental sampling ) . This sampling method involves many sources of selection bias , however it has been chosen because it is quick and cheap given the time and budget constraints of the study . Since results need to be taken from and 's consumers across the , surveys will be administrated in several different places of the , the number of which will be proportionate to the population of each place and the number of places is strictly dependent upon the budget and time available . Even though larger samples yield more accurate results , the sample size also depends on the budget and time available . However , using the table with the indicative costs for different types of surveys ( Lobb , ) and assuming that the mall intercept method has similar cost with the mail survey , around respondents is a rough estimation of the sample size . It is important for the data collection to take place both on and and at different hours of the days . In the case of collecting all the data at a single time on , the results could be biased socio - economically something that would not be desirable since in the current study different socio - economic groups of the target population are of great interest . For example , if all the data are collected only on , there is a big chance that people who do not work dominate the sample or they are retired and therefore have time to go shopping on a weekday morning . < heading > Questionnaire</heading > For each of the following questions please circle response . < list><heading > SECTION A</heading>1 . What is your sex ? A. Male B. Female2 . What is your age ? < - 4950 + 3 . What is your employment status?A. EmployeeD. . What is your educational status?Elementary school3 - secondary schoolHigh - school diplomaUniversity degree5 . What is your household income ? < £ 14,000£14,000 - 21,999 £ 22,000 - 39,999 £ 40,000+</list><list><heading > SECTION B</heading>6 . What criteria do you use for making fresh food purchasing decisions ? ( You can circle response)Brand nameStore namePriceCountry of originOther ........................................................................... ( please . The brand is important for your fresh food purchasing decisions . Strongly disagreeDisagreeNeitherAgreeStrongly agree8 . The store name is important for your fresh food purchasing decisions . Strongly disagreeDisagreeNeitherAgreeStrongly agree9 . The price is important for your fresh food purchasing decisions . Strongly disagreeDisagreeNeitherAgreeStrongly agree10 . The country of origin is important for your fresh food purchasing decisions . Strongly disagreeDisagreeNeitherAgreeStrongly agree</list><list><heading > SECTION C</heading>11 . For which of the following cues would you be willing to pay higher prices for fresh food ? ( You can circle response)Brand nameStore namePriceCountry of originOther ........................................................................... . Which of the following cues do you relate with fresh food quality ? ( You can circle response)Brand nameStore namePriceCountry of originOther ............................................................................. (please state)</list >","< heading > Description of the farm</heading > The farm is not organic but integrated . The whole area is divided into sites . The farm itself is a horticultural unit , growing kohlrabi , cauliflowers , onions , spinach , , coriander . The cultivation system practiced is the bed systems . In terms of the soil , the farm is situated on a reclaimed gravel mining . The land of the farm has been gone from a gravel peat to this since . The farm supplies wholesale markets and restaurants without dealing with supermarkets . The farm also has machinery shed and a pack house available . < heading > Wildlife management and biodiversity</heading > At the end of each field there are ditches for the accumulation of drainage water . The ditches remain wet for , are kept clear and function as corridors for promoting wildlife since they get beneficials closer to the field . Particularly , the ditches provide a wet habitat for amphibians and other organisms that live in water . The sides of the ditches are used as beetle banks . Within the farm there is also a lake , which is a wildlife habitat for insects and predators . The banks of the lake also provide a wildlife habitat since they have holes where parasitic wasps nest . Being aware of the importance of the lake as a wildlife habitat the owners of the farm have put a protection all around in order to prevent enemies from destroying beneficials . Apart from the ditches and the lake there are also hedges in the farm as a biodiversity source . The hedges consist of native deciduous species ( e.g. , black thorn , hawthorn ) and operate as both wildlife habitat and windbreak . The way they manage the hedges is critical . The hedges are trimmed in A - shape allowing light to go to the bottom of the hedge . On the other hand , if the hedges were trimmed in V - shape the light could not penetrate and reach the bottom of the hedge , which may result in die back at the bottom of the hedge . Also , the time of trimming is quite crucial . So , trimming is taking place in when there are not any nests to destroy . Another policy of the farm that promotes biodiversity is the way they manage crop residues . Foe example , kohlrabi crop has been left to rot down in order to attract over wintering pests , parasites , predators and birds to the farm since they are used as a feed source for all these living organisms . Not only crop residues but also a cut flower crop ( ) is used in the farm as a feed source for increasing biodiversity . Similarly to the kohlrabi residues , constitute a feed source attracting both insects and birds . Finally , the nests that exist in several places of the farm are marked so as to avoid damaging them whenever cultivation and spraying are taking place . < heading > Soil fertility management</heading > The whole farm has been marked on areas of m using the GPS satellite system . Soil analysis is taking place individually for each m areas and so they know exactly the variation between the different areas in terms of fertilization and how much fertilizer needs to be given to each area separately . Obviously , this is a much more precise and intelligent system than the one used in the organic farm . This is due to the fact that fertility and especially the basic fertility is done according to what is needed for this m 2 area , whereas in the organic farm the fertilization program they use does not take into consideration the differences between different soil types in terms of fertility levels as well as the changes that the soil is undergone with regard to nutrient content . The tractors are linked to the GPS system and apply fertilizers after the soil has been tested . < heading > Weed control</heading > Since the farm is not organic but integrated there is a different approach towards the weed control . In particular , weeds are allowed to germinate and then are destroyed before the crop is planted . Rather than applying mechanical weeding the integrated farm uses chemicals for weed control , such as . < heading > Pest and disease control</heading > Since the farm is not organic , pests and diseases can be controlled by use of chemicals . The technique practiced by the farm towards pest and disease elimination is the application of chemical sprays . However , the whole process of spraying is done with special care since the farm is integrated and encourages wildlife . So , nesting places in the farm are marked in order to avoid being destroyed and also sprays are applied during that time of the season that nests do not yet exist in the farm . < heading > Environmental sustainability of the farm</heading > The farm addresses environmental sustainability since it promotes biodiversity as well as wildlife by elements , such as hedges , wildlife corridors ( ditches ) , the lake etc . Taking advice from nature and other conservation bodies they manage these elements in such a way so as to contribute to wide biodiversity . Special attention is paid to the protection of the lake 's beneficials and the nesting places within the farm . < heading > Social sustainability of the farm</heading > The farm could organize open within . By doing that the customers would have the opportunity to visit the farm and have a look at it , to come in contact with the owners of the farm and have a personal communication with them . Social events like open are very important for the farm in order to address social sustainability since customers are interested in the origin and quality of the products they consume . Especially , people 's awareness of food quality has increased and so it is useful to know where the products they consume are produced in case they find any trace of chemicals ( traceability ) . seems to be a good approach to that concern . < heading > Economic sustainability of the farm</heading > The economic sustainability of the farm lies in the fact that it supplies wholesale markets and restaurants but still looking for new markets in order to expand their sales . Moreover , since it is based on polyculture it does not involve the financial risk of a monoculture system meaning that a crop failure leads the whole business to fail . On the other hand , the farm is a unit growing a wide range of horticultural crops . So , if a certain crop yields or sells badly this does not necessarily mean that the farm can not be a profitable business . Additionally , despite the fact that there is a loss of every year because of the land that is managed in a way that brings biodiversity to the farm ( plantation of hedges , lake etc . ) , it is still an economically sustainable farm since the final turnover outcomes this loss .",1
"< heading > Introduction</heading > This report outlines the recommendations found by on the potential changes proposed by the Director with regards to the future of . A thorough analysis of the suggested changes , possible implementation strategies and effects on the relevant stakeholder groups has been conducted . The conclusions and recommendations are set out below . those potentially affected by the project and it 's aftermath are identified and management solutions established . The aims and objectives are listed , as are the evaluation methods throughout the project . The possible risks involved in the project ( a crucial factor in the determination of success ) are highlighted and feasible management strategies are then explored . The planning implementation strategy follows . Methods of planning and control of both progress and expenditure are then outlined . < heading > Stakeholders</heading > To facilitate the success of this project , the stakeholders involved need to be identified and , where necessary , appropriate management strategies should be sought to ensure the smooth running of the project . For transparency they shall be organised into internal and external stakeholders and the power / interest matrix will be utilised to assist with decisions regarding said management proposals . This information is summarised below in Figure Internal Stakeholders in Blue , External Stakeholders in Red ): < table/><heading > Project Aim : < /heading > To restructure the insurance department into multi - purpose teams , divided by geographical area , and create an internet link with High Street Agents to increase flexibility , enhance customer service and reduce associated costs . < heading > Objectives : < /heading > Where feasible , all objectives are < fnote > SMART- Specific , , Agreed , Realistic and Timed < /fnote><heading > Implementation Objectives : < /heading > Office space redesigned so that each of the multi - purpose teams have their own open - plan offices by start . Evaluation : If office is workable in its new layout by start . Employees to be reorganised into multi purpose teams , each covering geographical area , for all insurance policies ( except life insurance ) by end of week one . Evaluation : If new teams have all been set - up by start of . All insurance staff to be trained in all areas of insurance ( except life insurance ) by end date of project . Evaluation : Questionnaire to see if all employees would feel confident in handling any area of insurance . Possible plan to take a sample of employees and manually check staff competence with example queries from selection of insurance areas . Design and install new IT internet facilities to connect employees to High Street Agents to allow more direct contact and personalised service . Evaluation : assess by observation whether software is installed and to specifications required . Train IT staff , training staff and insurance staff on new IT internet system by end of the project term . Evaluation : Questionnaire on degree of confidence felt by employees when using the new system . < heading > Operational Objectives:</heading > Increase customer service and thus increase customer satisfaction levels to an average of . Evaluation : issue customers ( random sample from database of of customers ) with non - obligatory questionnaire in . if new satisfaction levels have increase to an average of or more . Reduce current unit costs by per unit in real terms . Evaluation : compare current unit costs with those in from project start date . Increase number of policies undertaken by each staff member by , after start of project . Evaluation : compare current average staff figures with those after project start . Increased interaction with 's through internet to increase strength of relationship . Evaluation : Questionnaire as to whether the 's believe it is an improvement and focus group to discuss improvements / problems after project end . General Note on evaluation : Evaluation is crucial throughout both for the success of this project and future activities . Therefore all relevant parties shall be informed of evaluation methods and timetable at start of project and shall keep this record throughout . The project team and steering committee will conduct both formal and informal evaluations on individual and overall performance throughout and provide feedback where applicable . This will be done through general observations and deeper discussions with supervisors . < heading > Risk and Risk Management</heading > All projects carry risk . As an area with which the board is particularly concerned , the risks associated with this project have been identified below , ( using ) . These risks were analysed , using the risk significance table , to assess the importance to the progression and results of the project of said risks . The possible management options were then discussed utilising the risk strategies table and the optimum methods of control are also detailed below . A technical risk that it is impossible to produce computer programme to specifications required . Probability of Occurrence : Low as not an intricate / complicated software package required ( probability decreased further if expert contractors utilised ) . Level of Impact : Low as CFS could still operate as before without the new technology in place ( of sales conducted via telecommunications ) . Management Strategy : Ignore / Allow the risk as , if a problem , it will be identified early on and if not the new technology is not absolutely crucial to success of project . Internal risk of employee resistance to new team set up and training due to poor communication and lack of enthusiasm . E.g. refusal of overtime , non - receptive to new training , new teams do not gel and altercations with new Director . These may all occur and lead to increased project length , and thus costs , and reduced effectiveness of changes . Thus the project objectives would not be completed on time or to the required standard . Probability of Occurrence : Medium as tight network of employees who generally have positive relations but can be resistant to change ( as witnessed in previous project ) and there is some residual hostility to Ops Manager . Level of Impact : High as employees cooperation and flexibility is crucial to the overall success of the project , therefore if they are unsatisfied and do n't perform at their peak , the aim of the project will not be achieved . Management Strategy : Mitigate by empowering the employees . This can be accomplished in several ways . For example , dedicating for new teams to spend time together and team leaders having influence in the makeup of each new team . Further workshops / meetings in a relaxed , open atmosphere with the Ops Manager would ' clear the air ' and allow for the exchange of views . Internal risk of difficulties experienced with training on the new IT software . Probability of Occurrence : Due to the fact that general training staff are not strong on IT , there is a medium - high probability of problems arising at points in the project . Level of Impact : Depending on the level and number of staff who have difficulties with the new system , the impact is recognised as potentially being medium . Management Strategy : Mitigate the problem as , the risk can be easily mitigated by having the IT staff learn the system , they then transfer their skills to the training team who can then pass on the knowledge to the general staff . Miscalculation of perceived benefit to existing and future customers . Probability of Occurrence : Medium occurrence determined as there will be upheaval during the project progress and disruptions to customer service may occur . Level of Impact : Medium impact level as customers key to business success and therefore if adversely affected could lead to decline in number of existing customers . Management Strategy : Mitigate the risk by sending out questionnaires to customers and inviting them to a focus group where they can present their opinions before commencement of the project . An external risk is that trade unions may disagree with management of project and interfere on employees behalf , causing increased costs and delays to project . This is especially true if legislation is passed favouring the increase of powers of the trade unions . Probability of Occurrence : Low as trade unions have lost power in and are therefore less involved in workplace projects . Level of Impact : Medium as although political legislation has lead to a decrease in bargaining powers , if the 's have support of the whole workforce , they still wield a degree of power . Management Strategy : Allow / Mitigate as this risk can be vastly decreased in likelihood and severity if the trade unions are informed of the project plans from the start . It is an acceptable risk as the TUs do not tend to be aggressive but do not appreciate ' surprises ' ! < heading > Project Implementation Strategy</heading > Pace of change - In some respects this project needs to have a fast pace in order to preserve the long term future of by lowering prices and increasing customer service compared with competitors and allow minimum disruption to customers , 's and staff . However , staff need to time to adjust to the new setup and absorb and assimilate the new training effectively . Therefore a balance between the business demand and the practical resources needs to be struck . Therefore a moderate to slow pace with the project lasting in total seems optimal . phase- The possibility of a pilot study to see if the technology required for the new IT system is plausible ; should be considered . Consultation with the IT department on the situation may suffice depending on their knowledge . Also the possibility of having test group to train in each area of insurance as a tester was mooted . As this seems to be the only current viable option for the company and the possible negative impact on both the staff partaking and those not ( high degree of pressure , rejection at not being in test group , office not set up in optimum layout etc ) , it seems sensible not to be burdened with a pilot study . Serial or - The serial approach of only starting an activity once the preceding one has ended is both unnecessary and highly inefficient with regards to this project . There are some activities , however , which can not be started until others are finished . Therefore a compromise has been achieved between the . ( For precise details see the chart , fig ) . Implementation pattern- In order to avoid problems which occurred with the last project between the staff and operations department , the decision to have simultaneous implementation for the ideas and timetable for change has been made . This means that all the staff will have a clear idea of where the project is going and the timeframe etc , therefore they will feel more ownership over the project compared with previous projects . The skills to be gained , for example the new IT skills , will have to be by progressive method as not everyone can be trained at once and the retention rate is significantly lowered the higher the volume of new information that is delivered . A combination of vertical and horizontal slice implementation styles will be adopted . The new IT skills will be done vertically by department as everybody will need the same , or similar , degree of training . Insurance training will be done horizontally with all the team leaders being trained so that they can assist with the training of the rest of the employees . Degree of empowerment- There have been previous problems due to the apparent autocratic and non - consulting style of management . Therefore during the commencement of the project , especially before and throughout , there will be many opportunities , both formal and informal , for employees to give their opinions and suggestions . There will be a more consulting rather than informing atmosphere and thus less suspicion and animosity and more personal involvement by staff in the project . With this increased degree of empowerment , employees will feel more directly connected to the project and therefore more invested in the potential outcome . As the project progresses , a more autocratic style should be adopted to ensure that progress is on schedule and within the budget constraints . Level of Employee Support- There will be a high level of employee support both emotionally and professionally . This will come from each other , their team leaders , the training department and the operations department . This high level of support is necessary because the whole project depends on these employees and they will be training in new areas and with new software . Therefore although it is relatively costly in both time and monetary terms , it is worth the investment as their enthusiasm , commitment and thus performance is paramount to the success of the project . Trade Union- Obviously as are both shareholders and stakeholders in their own right they need to be informed and consulted on the plans of the project and the outline of the implementation strategy . It will be useful to receive their feedback in before the full project kicks into gear as they want ' no surprises ' as much as CFS do . Therefore any negotiations that may need to occur with regards to overtime and increased wages , for example , need to be acknowledged and dealt with as soon as possible . Contractor Strategy- This project will primarily be as all necessary expertise is in - house and it is easier to manage and cheaper to operate in this way . This will only differ if the IT department can not design the new IT system . Then , a turnkey contract with an IT firm would be necessary , with the IT department liaising with them and explaining the specifications required . The IT manager would be manager of . and The project team , as discussed , will be made up of the operations development group as the core , backed by the IT manager , the training manager and representatives ( both team leaders ) from the new insurance teams . ( Other groups will be outlined in the later ' control ' section . ) The work breakdown structure will be as follows . In order to allocate responsibility to project members and also allow easier control mechanisms , who is in charge of which activity is clearly defined . The project will be broken down into sections , IT , Insurance Training and Office Reorganisation . This will then be further divided into work packages and conveyed to the employees involved and those that need to be keep informed . ( Figure below displays the work packages and who has overall responsibility for each . ) Strategic Control- The project manager will have day - to - day control over the project ( who will delegate as he sees fit ) , reporting to the operations manager who will form a steering committee with the project team , relevant CFS managers , a representative and / a few of the new Team Leaders . A shareholder and rep will be invited to all meetings if they so wish to keep abreast of developments . This steering group will have overall control and assess where , and the criteria for , gateway markers . They will have the power to decide if at these gateways the project is able to continue as before or changes need to be made . At this point it will be useful to include the preliminary chart that shall be use throughout the project . It shall be distributed to all staff and also pinned on the project notice board to offer a visual resource for how the project should progress . The resources ( in this instance the number of staff designated to work for the project ) have been outlined below but do not include the operations staff as it is assumed that they will be employed in the project throughout . The control points are then set out in Fig 3 in order to check that the project is on schedule and if not set out solutions to rectify any problems and reduce the probability for future disruptions . The schedule performance index , which shall be calculated by the deputy project manager should be equal to or above in order for the project to continue without discussion and possible changes to strategy . The key performance indicators are also located in the figure below . Throughout comments from all employees and the steering groups are welcomed and there shall be a notice board and a designated email address that shall be monitored by a member of the operations staff for any suggestions and queries . < heading > Financial planning and control : < /heading > Financial planning of this project lends itself to a complex financial system defined by work packages and time milestones , as many fall naturally at the same juncture . The activities in each work package are outline in Fig 3 above . A cost based system will be used . Cost will be the primary parameter for financial management as this allows easy comparison with the ' earned value ' of the project ( that is the ' budget cost of the work performed ' ) and thus the ability to assess whether the place the project is at is aligned with where the budget says it should be . The source of the primary costs is labour , including any applicable overtime ( to be signed off by appropriate team leader ) , that will be billed to the appropriate work package . The overhead costs need also to be recorded and assessed by the finance representative of the operations department who is an integral part of the project team . There will be budget meetings to coincide with the - way point and final point of the work packages . A budget report , compiled by the finance representative will be published . He will need the actual cost up to the end of each work package / time - span in order to compare it to the budget at that point . In conjunction to this , the earned value to that date and the budget earned value , needs to be calculated . Therefore the cost performance can be determined ( needs to be equal or above ) and any changes to keep to the budget can be proposed . It is a fixed budget to allow for stability but there is a buffer of £ from projected costs and available budget to allow for any unforeseen occurrences . The overall performance measures will be a combination of costs and progress analysis . < heading > Report Conclusion:</heading > In conclusion this project is very much people based and therefore should be conducted with an open flow of ideas from management to employees because if they do not feel involved or ownership with the project , it will fail . A generous time scale has been set out to reflect the need to train properly and also to allow a ' business as usual ' stance . Control both of progress and budget is essential and should be a constant priority to all involved . Although the project manager has overall accountability for the dissemination of tasks and information , a sense of individual responsibility should be encouraged so employees feel ownership of the project and thus vested in its success . Through scheduled meetings all stakeholders should be kept up - to - date with necessary information . This project has a high probability of success if these recommendations are adhered to . This report has been compiled with all the information that was available at the time , if there any comments or queries that need to be addressed please contact me in person or via .","In order to asses whether X , Y and Z might be successful in challenging the decisions made by the regarding their various drug offences , several factors have to be taken into account . whether they would be eligible for judicial review has to be considered before the merits of each case are examined to find the probable outcome . It is only an indication , albeit a reasonably clear , as the rules involving judicial review are evolving all the time . is where administrative action is scrutinised by , a subdivision of the 's of , to monitor the legality of the decisions the body has made or the actions it has carried out . The Civil Procedure Rules describes it as < quote>""a ) ' Claim for judicial review ' means a claim to review the lawfulness of- an enactment ; or a decision , action or failure to act in relation to the exercise of a public function""</quote><fnote > Civil Procedure Rules r54.1 ( < /fnote > It is only applicable to ' public bodies ' and will not be granted if the claimant has a private - law cause of action against the defendant , for example in contract , or has a right of appeal against a decision . Therefore in this instance the point to determine is whether the school can be classified as a ' public body ' . Previous to the landmark case of R   v Criminal Injuries Compensation Board Ex judicial review was only available against bodies with powers derived from statute . After this case the power was extended to bodies set up under prerogative powers . Then R v Panel on Take - overs and Mergers ex p. took it a stage further to include bodies which were ' governmental in nature ' regardless of whether they had direct governmental support . The shift was towards the extent and nature of the power that the body exercised rather than the direct governmental link . Therefore as the functions of the school are important and of suitably public nature the possibility of judicial review would be granted . It would be a different matter if the school had been private rather than state run , as private schools are not available for judicial review . < fnote > For example R v ex p ( ) Q.B. < /fnote><fnote > R v Criminal Injuries Compensation Board Ex Parte Lain ( 1967 ) All ER < /fnote><fnote > R v Panel on Take - overs and Mergers ex p. Datafin Ltd ( ) Q.B.815 < /fnote > Although in theory as it is a state school judicial review is possible , there are other procedural bars that that the cases must surmount regardless of the nature of the case . These are the rule of standing , exclusivity and keeping within the short time limit . To be granted judicial review , the claimant has to have ' sufficient interest ' , that is a close relationship between the claimant and all the circumstances of the case . Generally the courts take a broad definition of this and individuals who have been affected by the action or decision usually have enough to constitute sufficient interest . The courts also have the power to use their own discretion , for example in R v Secretary of for Foreign and ex p where as the matter was of public interest , the right for judicial review was granted . As all pupils are directly affected by the decisions and actions of the school panel . Therefore they each have standing . The exclusivity principle has been slightly relaxed since Lord 's comments in Trustees of v Sheffield , therefore all pupils would satisfy the procedural constraints . The other factor is the time limit imposed on bringing a case to court ; it is from when the claim arose . As the information regarding the time span in the cases is not available , it is assumed that they were all brought before the court within the limit . It is also important to note that it is only the legality of the decision not the merits of it that will be assessed within the judicial review boundaries . < fnote > Supreme Court Act s.31 ( ) < /fnote><fnote > R v Secretary of for Foreign and ex p ( ) < /fnote><fnote > Trustees of v Sheffield ( 1997 ) < /fnote><fnote > Civil Procedure Rules , rule ( ) ( b ) < /fnote > Therefore as the cases fulfil these conditions , each case will have to be assessed to see whether they satisfy the grounds for judicial review set out by Lord Diplock in the case . These grounds are ' illegality , irrationality and impropriety ' . Illegality covers cases where a body acts beyond the powers conferred on it my legislation ( that is , actions are ultra vires ) and where a decision - maker incorrectly informs himself as to the law . ` Irrationality ' covers cases of exceptional unreasonableness , in . Procedural impropriety covers failures to comply with procedures laid down in legislation and , in some circumstances , breaches of . Each of these will be discussed further , in context when they arise in each case . Each pupil must have a claim in any of these grounds in order for a successful application of . < fnote > Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for ( ) A.C.374 ; ( ) W.L.R.1174 ; ( ) All E.R.935 , HL < /fnote > In a claim for judicial review the court may grant one of the following remedies , < quote>'A quashing order ( formerly certiorari ): quashes an unlawful decision . The court has the power to remit the matter back to the decision - maker . A prohibiting order ( formerly order of prohibition ): restrains a public authority from acting outside its powers ( ultra vires ) A mandatory order : forces a public authority to carry out its judicial or public duty.</quote > The other remedies include injunctions against the public body and a declaration by the court of the legal position in the matter before the court . Finally judicial review provides a possible means to claim damages but only in conjunction with any of the other remedies . In all cases a quashing order would probably be most appropriate . has bases for his argument . is that the medical report that details the possibility that the drug test was inaccurate . This may well be seen as not taking relevant considerations into account . The concept of ' relevant consideration ' is subjective and can be variable but the fact that the medical report if included may have had a definitive effect on the hearing outcome , suggests that it would be sufficient grounds to dismiss the decision . Or it could be argued that there has been an error of fact , for example in R v Criminal Injuries Compensation Board , ex p. A. The law in this area though is still developing and it may be wise for pupil X to claim through the concept of ' natural justice . ' In the landmark case of v , it was held that the obligation to observe natural justice extends to administrative decision - making even to that of schoolteachers . X 's claim would rest upon the fact that the refusal to consider the medical report was a breach of the duty to act fairly , and the right to a fair hearing , audi alteram partem . There exists ' the right to make representations , or to submit reasoned arguments rebutting any allegations ' . It seems that pupil X has a very good case on the basis of natural justice but as Lord Denning said ' the rules of natural justice vary infinitely ' so it is not a certainty . < fnote > For example , R v Gloucestershire County Council ex p ( ) < /fnote><fnote > R v Criminal Injuries Compensation Board , ex p. A ( ) AC 330 < /fnote><fnote > Ridge v Baldwin ( ) A.C. 40 < /fnote><fnote v Bradford Corpn ( ) All ER < /fnote><fnote , . F , ' Public Law ' p.507 < /fnote><fnote > Rv Secretary of for ex p Santillo ( ) < /fnote > The other grounds that pupil X might be granted a quashing order is that the whole policy of automatic expulsion is irrational and/ or disproportionate . This case is regarding a policy of the school , and it has been held that policy decisions of public bodies can be judicially reviewed , especially where an individual 's fundamental rights are affected , which is clearly the case here as expulsion affects the student 's right to an education . In order to succeed with a claim that this policy is irrational , it would have to fulfil the criteria of being ' so unreasonable that no rational decision maker could have reached it . "" There are several reasons why this claim would surely not succeed - the policy is clearly in place to protect students , drugs are illegal and many schools indeed have stricter policies than this . Therefore , the policy is not unreasonable , and so not open to judicial review through this means . Proportionality is not currently a separate ground for review in law , although it has been suggested . It is a principle of , however . To succeed , it would have to be shown that the action if restricting a fundamental right was not disproportionate to the public purpose sought to be achieved . Here , the public purpose of disallowing drugs into a school is clear , and the intensity of the review for proportionality may be even greater than using the Wednesbury Test , so it is unlikely to succeed on either ground . Therefore pupil X 's best option would be on the grounds of natural justice where he has a solid case to get the decision reviewed . < fnote > R v Secretary of for ex p ( 2000 ) A.C.15 ; ( ) W.L.R.328 , HL < /fnote><fnote > Associated Provincial Picture Houses Ltd v Wednesbury Corp ( ) K.B. 223 < /fnote><fnote > By Lord Diplock in v Minister for ( ) A.C.374 < /fnote > Pupil Y is claiming that there was a degree of bias on the panel which meant that he did not receive a fair hearing and that member fell asleep and therefore did not hear her defence . The rule against bias , nemo judex in sua causa is another rule of natural justice . The claims of bias are that a teacher who Y had previously made a complaint about and a well - known campaigner with a local anti - drugs group were both on the panel . These would both have to be satisfied by the ' real likelihood of bias ' test set out , in which set these rules : < fnote > Porter v Magill [ 2001 ] UKHL 67 , [ ] 1 All ER < /fnote><quote>'Whether the fair - minded and informed observer , having considered the facts would conclude that there was a real possibility that the [ tribunal ] was biased'</quote > Even though the complaint was dismissed it is reasonable to assume that the teacher concerned would harbour ill feeling towards pupil Y which might influence their decision in this matter . The fact that one of the other panel members is a anti - drugs campaigner echoes the situation in Ex parte Pinochet where it was found that due to amnesty international links , of the panel ( Lord ) was believed to have had the potential to be bias . Therefore in this situation the teacher may well be harsher than another because of the feelings they obviously have against drugs . A quashing order would be appropriate with the decision being dismissed and a new hearing to be set up with non - bias teachers . < fnote > Ex parte Pinochet [ ] 1 All ER < /fnote > The fact that one of the panel slept through the explanation by pupil Y about why she should not be suspended so close to her 's suggests that she did not receive a fair hearing . The maxim audi alteram partem requires that every person should be given a fair hearing . This idea is also part of that is now incorporated in law . states that everyone is ' entitled to a fair and public hearing ' . The hearing may well fail the proportionality test . Combined with the bias claims , it is clear that pupil Y did not receive a fair hearing , as she was not able to present her case to the whole panel and those she did present it to have a possibility of bias . She was punished much more severely than the minimum punishment especially for a less serious drug offence . Therefore these factors , combined with the decision in R v Chief Constable of North Wales ex .   where no chance was given to comment on the allegations , suggests that pupil Y has a good case for judicial review . < fnote > R v Chief Constable of North Wales ex . ( ) < /fnote > Pupil Z has issues over which judicial review is possible . that the panel took into account his poor grades when making their decision and thus acted in an ultra vires manner . Since   Anisminic LTD v almost all errors of law are now subject to judicial review . The panel took into account ' irrelevant considerations ' and thus may lead to the illegality of the decision . In this hearing the issue was about drug taking and not his grades . It , again , is a subjective decision though and would be very difficult to prove that the panel had taken his grades into account unless they admit as such . Therefore pupil Z will have to rely on the other issue , that they exercised their discretionary power for a purpose other than the one they were granted . The idea of improper purpose is linked to failing to disregard irrelevant facts and has the same connotations . However , following the cases of ex p and Ex p Kahn , if it is held that the true or dominant purpose was justified , then the secondary objective that is attained is deemed not to be relevant . Due to the confusion of case law in this area , it is very difficult to assess whether this would be a reasonable ground for review and also difficult to prove . The argument that the panel was bias is also a possible avenue for pupil Z has the teachers have a monetary interest for him to be expelled . Due to the difficulty in proving either factor pupil Z does not have an exceptionally strong case . < fnote > Since Anisminic LTD v ( ) < /fnote><fnote > For example , R v Horseferry Road magistrates ' Court ex p ( ) < /fnote><fnote > Wheeler v ( ) and ( ) < /fnote > Therefore , X seems to have a very positive case , Y a little less so but still has a chance and depending on the level of proof , pupil Z might struggle . If these parties appealed to the local authority board about the decisions instead of applying for judicial review , the outcomes could be different . This is because in appeals , the board will be able to look at the merits of the cases and decide whether the decision was right or wrong . The board could even decide to substitute the decision for its own decision . This is obviously different to judicial review , which merely refers the decision back to the original decision - maker if there has been a successful review . The appeal board would have much more discretion to look at whether the decisions were fair , and could quash the expulsions or suspensions if the board saw fit , whereby a successful application for judicial review could not change the decision of the board directly . The board will not be bound to follow the procedure of a trial , and would give the parties a fair opportunity to correct any relevant statement that was prejudicial to their view . Appeals can be on a question of fact or solely on the merits of the decision . Therefore the decisions can be more subjective and tailor made to the individual cases . would still have the outcome of a high chance of success in quashing the panel 's decision . board will probably quash the decision and order a new hearing where pupil X can make his case to ensure a fair trial . They would take into account the medical report before making their decision . On the point , however , an appeal board would not be likely to find the automatic expulsion policy disproportionate or irrational for the same reasons as why it would not lead to a successful judicial review claim . < fnote > Edwards v Bairstow ( ) A.C.14 < /fnote><fnote > Board of Education v ( ) AC < /fnote > For pupil Y board need to rule as whether there is the possibility of bias , there does not have to actually have been any bias , the possibility is enough to rule the hearing void . board has the power to decide the case themselves and maybe reduce the severity of the punishment . board can actually make their decision considering the fact that her 's are close and therefore may rule in her favour . The onus of proof would be on pupil Z to prove that the reasons that he was expelled were due to external factors and not concerned with the drug offence committed . It is a good idea in theory but is still a very difficult thing to show and prove so even the board is n't able to help you . Therefore it is quite unlikely that will find in favour of pupil is still very subjective and therefore there are often no concrete answers . This compounded with the fact that the merits of the case do not ( or should not ) enter into the decision making process . All pupils have the power to use judicial review but may well have varying degrees of success .",1
"The meeting of and in in marked the starting point of a legendary friendship and cooperation of thinkers who left an enormous mark on political development in and whose influence , in the words of a critic , can only be compared to that of Jesus or Mohammed . < fnote > , ' , in ( , ) , p. . < /fnote><fnote > , ( Rotterdam , ) , p. . < /fnote > As the philosophes of the enlightenment had posed a theory of a developing and progressing world , and concerned themselves with applying this model of development to society . placed all history in terms of classes struggling through their relation to material welfare and the means of production . As atheistic followers of , and thus came to believe that ' the struggle against existing wrong and prevalent evil , is also rooted in the universal law of eternal development ' . < fnote > , ' ' in , p. . < /fnote > Marx and lived at a time in which rapid industrialisation brought about exceeding disparities between the property - owning class ( the bourgeoisie ) and the working class ( the proletariat ) . Believing capitalism to be only another step toward a society without class antagonisms , turned to studying history and economics , while in published . In this work , drew from direct experience and a wide range of sources , arguing that the working class was becoming increasingly conscious of its place and relation to the bourgeoisie , which would in the end inevitably lead to a proletarian revolution . and were deeply impressed when , in , factory workers revolted in and Bohemia . They observed unrest all over , and thus became convinced of the revolutionary potential of the proletariat ; a potential which would eventually carry humanity into the next stage of socialism . < fnote , ' ' , p. . < /fnote><fnote > Victor Kiernan , ' History ' , in ( ed . ) , : The First Hundred Years ( , ) , p. . < /fnote > From circumstance and experience , and were not so much concerned with democracy , but rather with the greater concept of freedom and creating a freer society , in which , they argued , the state would cease to be necessary . Parliamentary democracy , in the eyes of and , was nothing more than the crystallisation of the contradictory interests between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat , and could not be different . Moreover , by separating the government from civil society , ' the bourgeois state and its attendant ideas of political rights and common national interests functioned , like religion , as an opium , an illusory compensation and thus a support for the injustices of civil society ' . A radical change was needed for the advance at of the proletariat and eventually of society as a whole . In their own words ' Not criticism but revolution is the driving force of history ' . < fnote > Singer , , p. . < /fnote><fnote > David McLellan , ' Politics ' , in ( ed . ) , : The First Hundred Years ( , ) , pp . - 46 . < /fnote><fnote > Kiernan , ' History ' , p. . < /fnote > Marx and became convinced that they had discovered a scientific model of society and its inevitable future . 's drive to act upon theory soon brought him into international communist circles . After heated debate at a congress in in , and were commissioned to write a political programme for . Its result , , can be regarded as 's and ' most outspoken vision on class struggle and the predestined faith of the proletariat . ' The proletariat ' , stated confidently , ' goes through various stages of development ' . Then , the manifesto goes on to speak in deterministic terms that the proletarian ' mission is to destroy all previous securities for , and insurances of , individual property ' .   < fnote > Singer , , pp . . < /fnote><fnote > and , , cited in ( ) ,   URL   ( ) . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . < /fnote > If this scenario were to be the inevitable course of events , the logical question would be : why ? Analysing history , and had discovered a continuous struggle for power between a powerful minority and a weak majority . They noted that ' All previous historical movements were movements of minorities , or in the interest of minorities ' . However , it seemed that the proletariat would be able to break through this tendency . ' The proletarian movement is the self - conscious , independent movement of the immense majority , in the interest of the immense majority ' . In this sense , it can be argued that for and , a primitive idea of democratic , or majority , rights served to justify a complex social theory of inevitable revolutionary struggle . Convinced about the power and improvement value of the theory of class struggle , ' His [ Engels ' ] and 's historical vision was optimistic about the future , tragic when it turned to the past , as a record so dreadfully bad that any sacrifice was worth while to get away from it ' .   < fnote > Ibid . < /fnote><fnote > Kiernan , ' History ' , p. . < /fnote > When Lenin became leader of the in , a debate among had been around for concerning the best way to bring about communism . section of , under the leadership of , had come to embrace the idea of social democracy , and of participation in parliamentary politics . Where had been careful in his wording , or more abstract in his discussion of the democracy question , was more articulate in his discussion of the matter . He briefly defined the state as ' a special organization of force : it is an organization of violence for the suppression of some class ' . Therefore , he argued , a revolution was the necessary agent for the transition from capitalism to socialism . < fnote > McLellan , ' Politics ' , p. . < /fnote > In Lenin wrote Tactics , an article discussing the political direction should take after the revolution . In this article he advocated a ' revolutionary democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and peasantry ' , a term that had used only once , in a letter to a friend . What contrasted the from the anarchists , argued , was that thought it necessary to establish a transitory government to place the proletariat firm in the seat of power . However , before the revolution , in , he wrote that this would be ' a state without a standing army , without a police opposed to the people , without an officialdom placed above the people ' , based on 's example of his view of . Eventually , in ' words , the government would slowly ' wither away ' because it would become unnecessary . < fnote > Ibid , p. . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , pp . . < /fnote><fnote > V.I. Lenin , ' Letters on Tactics ' in , p. . < /fnote><fnote > McLellan , ' Politics ' , p. < /fnote > Some of 's writing , though , already revealed some of the authoritarian traces that were to characterise the ' policy and later political development . Convinced , like , of the inevitability of a proletarian revolution , he remarked : ' I said that there can be no government ( apart from a bourgeois government ) in other than a government of , , Soldiers ' and Peasants ' Deputies ' . < fnote , ' Letters on ' , pp . - 90 . < /fnote > By , observed that the key conditions were fulfilled in for a proletarian revolution to take place . An imperialist war was raging over , according to theory calling in the culmination of capitalism . Conditions in , he argued , were peculiar , as the country had already seen a revolution in . ' We have existing side by side , together , simultaneously , both the rule of the bourgeoisie [ ... ] and a revolutionary - democratic dictatorship of the proletariat and the peasantry , which is voluntarily ceding power to the bourgeoisie , voluntarily transforming itself into an appendage of the bourgeoisie ' . According to , the masses had ' been confused , led astray and deceived ' by the temporary government of and . He adopted 's idea of ' permanent revolution ' , arguing that the proletariat could not stop after overthrowing the bourgeois government . By not completing the dictatorship of the proletariat , the government itself had gone over to the side of the bourgeoisie .   < fnote > Columbia Encyclopedia , ' : and ' , ( ) ,   URL   ( ) . < /fnote><fnote , ' Letters on ' , p. . < /fnote><fnote > V.I. Lenin , ' in , p. . < /fnote > In practice , much of 's writing at the dawn of the revolution appears to excuse the ' grasp for power and subsequent policy . Eventually , rule directly after the revolution proved to be highly undemocratic . In , all political parties that did not support the were systematically suppressed ; while a temporary oligarchic , highly centralised government was formed , taking in members by co - option rather than by democratic elections . was among the prominent critics of 's post - revolution , oppressive policy . ' The negative , the tearing down , can be decreed ; the building up , the positive can not ' , she argued . According to her , was standing in the way of a democratic learning process of the proletariat . ' The broadest democracy was needed ' , otherwise ' socialism will be decreed from behind a few official desks by intellectuals ' . Although argued that such policy was needed in ' defence against counterrevolution and the actual elimination of everything that contradicted the sovereignty of the people ' , this , according to , was ' not the dictatorship of the proletariat , [ ... ] but only the dictatorship of a handful of politicians ' . < fnote > McLellan , ' Politics ' , p. . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. . < /fnote><fnote > , and Leninism or Marxism ? , cited in ( ) ,   URL   ( ) . < /fnote><fnote > V.I. Lenin , ' in in , p. . < /fnote><fnote > , . < /fnote > By , described as ' a workers ' state with bureaucratic distortion ' . actually became regretful , stating in a meeting that ' things are heading towards ruin ' . , however , asserted in that at the time , the ' did not doubt that bourgeois parliamentarism and the bourgeois - democratic republic represented a past stage of the revolution ' . < fnote > McLellan , ' Politics ' , p. . < /fnote><fnote > , ) , p. . < /fnote><fnote > Stalin , , p. . < /fnote > It is hard to place 's policy in an unmitigated light . Despite its rhetoric , of appeared to many something other than socialism . Theory was increasingly not matching policy . The state did not wither away , instead , a status quo of power was developing ; in which all lines came together in . An elite of scientifically based professional revolutionaries would ' show the way , formulating the program and policies , educating the people , and working out the strategy and tactics ' . The character of the government had changed since the revolution . 's biographer , Deutscher , wrote : ' It has assumed office as a government of the people , by the people and for the people [ ... ] [ now , ] it ceases to be government by the people ' . Indeed , it is arguable that the rapid industrialisation and agricultural reforms represented some elevated aspiration of the proletariat and peasants , however , the price of these reforms ( The Great Terror and show trials ) was disproportionate and tragic . Moreover , they revealed a highly undemocratic and unrepresentative government that stood separate from the masses . < fnote > McLellan , ' Politics ' , p.173 . < /fnote><fnote > , ' Bolshevism , Fraudulent Practice Of Democratic Centralism ' cited in ( ) ,   URL   ( ) . < /fnote><fnote > I. Deutscher , : A Political Biography ( , ) , p. . < /fnote><fnote > McLellan , ' Politics ' , p. . < /fnote > The period over which the intellectual and political activity of , , and spread has seen the emergence of an immense social and political experiment of revolution and the move toward a communist state . The concept of democracy has over this time been much debated and scrutinised in order to deprive it of its ' bourgeois ' elements . However , in the theories of and , there has been too little space left open for a pluralistic approach to state organisation . Likewise , and never achieved the ' withering away of the state ' into a ' revolutionary - democratic dictatorship of the proletariat ' upon the gap that fell after the revolution of . Communism , or some pure form of democracy within society 's organisation has never been achieved . < fnote > Singer , , p. . < /fnote >","It was in that and her daughter founded ( WSPU ) , following of organised campaign for female suffrage organisations in ( Banks ) . After of campaign , interrupted by , women were finally granted the vote in through . It remains , however , a controversial matter as to whether the militant campaigns of the WSPU actually helped to quicken the vote for women , or not . In order to get a clearer picture of the tactics of the suffragettes , it is worthwhile to take a closer look at their use of the female body in violent , unconventional and often illegal ways , to draw attention to their cause . The connection of femininity with a high morality , and the idea of gender equalities through historical argumentation were common ground arguments for the vote in . Although arguments of the ' constitutionalists ' always sought to stay within the boundaries of middle class respectability , they certainly incorporated argumentation based upon the female body ( ) . The most evident examples of this can be found in racist theories . Female authors attempted to present an image of a superior race , of which women , had , by necessity , always been part . , in her book Freewomen of , argued that women 's right to political participation originated from the ancient . ' The moral codes , sexual equality in physical height [ my italics ] ' were , in her book presented as arguments for women 's suffrage ( Holton : ) . Constitutionalist feminists increasingly began to make use of racial reasoning to support their campaign for the vote ( ) . This provided the movement with a legal means of enhancing female respectability and high morale in a way that was compatible and in harmony with society . However , after of such campaigns , the women 's vote was still nearly as far away as it had been at the outset . This realisation caused the WSPU to seek to pressurise the government , for they were responsible for the problem ( Pugh ) . From a harmony model , the dominant suffrage campaigns thence shifted to a model of conflict , bringing the movement into a new phase ( Banks , ) . The suffragettes , as the WSPU activists came to be known , sought to cut right through to the core of the problem by addressing the government directly . They sought to point out the inherent contradictions of the political system as it was : the partial inclusion of women into an essentially male - dominated environment ( ) . From insisting on politicians ' support in public meetings , the suffragettes soon radicalised ( ) . They felt that the suffrage question was not dealt with seriously , and from there the leader set out to phrase the problem more directly : ' [ i]f Mr Asquith [ PM ] would not let her vote , she was not prepared to let him talk ' ( Lawrence ) . This meant a great leap away from the feminist movement ; suffragettes sought to replace the passive , homely housewife with a campaigning activist , a political being . In the words of the prominent suffragette : ' Not the Vote only , but what the Vote means - the moral , the mental , economic , the spiritual enfranchisement of , the release of women ... ' was of vital importance to women ( : ) . A new stage of interrupting meetings started . continually disrupted parliamentary debates , by shouting out against the speaker . Increasingly coordinated , the suffragettes were sometimes able to spoil a complete speech , by disrupting the speaker in turns . In , a speech by was continually interrupted for , with women carried out ( Pugh ) . Although this obstruction of the political process was arguably playing into the hands anti - suffragists , such forceful , physical practices of politics can be said to have been part of masculine politics as it was conducted by male politicians ( ) . Indeed , when members of the audience could be forcefully removed from a public political meeting , this might be interpreted as a threat to the civil liberties ( Pugh ) . This meant a moral victory for the suffragettes , especially since gentlemanliness towards women was expected of politicians . Mass assault and arrests of women were not an uncommon sight any longer , which the particularly violent events of ' in highlighted ( ) . Hence , the suffragettes increasingly highlighted this state brutality by a number of means . Hunger striking was of them , begun on the initiative of in ( Pugh ) . Protesting against the government 's refusal to grant the suffragettes the status of political prisoners , the WSPU soon managed to place the campaign for female suffrage on a moral high ground , as the government had to face the issue of the prisoners ' treatment . The WSPU brilliantly publicised this moral strength , speaking of ' moral right triumphing over physical force ' ( Vicinus ) . Forcible feeding of hunger striking suffragettes soon received criticism from doctors ( Pugh ) and graphic representation presented a shocking picture of the treatment of women in prisons . The problem continued , and leaving even the parliament divided ( John 2001 ) . In , the and was thus passed , which dismissed the policy of forcible feeding and was aimed at avoiding the negative publicity deriving from it . To some extent , the act succeeded in doing so , as many people argued that their suffering was ' self - imposed and their martyrdom as in some sense staged ' ( Harrison : ) . This loss of sympathy and moral and intellectual high ground was however enhanced by the suffragettes increasing radicalisation and alienation from sympathisers ( Pugh ) . The suffragettes showed a radical impatience and determination that eventually led them to virtually abandon any techniques of persuasion ( Pugh ) . in the run towards resulted in the most passionate outbursts of the suffragettes attack upon male domination of the political system ( ) . A systematic window breaking campaign had been undertaken in , of which said , ' let it be the windows of the Government , not the bodies of women which shall be broken ' ( Lawrence : ) . A near concession of the parliament in , which would have resulted in a limited vote for women , could not be passed by a much divided parliament . , usually a sympathiser of the women 's suffrage cause , voted against the bill in resentment of the WSPU 's violent tactics ( Harrison ) . However , this failure so outraged the rank - and - file WSPU members , that another window breaking campaign was started by ( Vicinus ) . Popular support for the WSPU was on the decline . The violence of the suffragettes ' campaign made it possible to argue that women did not demonstrate the capability to participate in politics due to their rash and unreasonable behaviour . Criticism of the 's leaders , and Christabel Pankhurst , even enhanced this view . ' They are not calm women , ' claimed , ' but irritable , yielding to sudden tempest ' ( Harrison : ) . And whilst , ' the police , in early stages [ ... ] avoided heavy - handed treatment of the women ' ( Pugh : ) , they still insisted on continued provocation and imprisonment ( Pugh ) . In Christabel Pankhurst fled to after the police raided the WSPU headquarters in . As the movement was losing grip of its popular support , so did break with some of the high - ranking campaigners , among them whom had up until then financed the several branches of the organisation ( Pugh ) . The publication of the ' The ' , a periodical by a number of suffragettes , , ' reawakened the free love fears that had haunted the feminist movements since its beginning ' ( Banks 1981 : ) . The Pankhursts , however , had always insisted on dressing in feminine and respectable manner to disarm opponents from criticism ( Pugh ) . And despite arson , window breaking and other violent behaviour of WSPU movements , the organised anti - suffragist movement was cautiously following the skill with which the suffragettes sought publicity . As correspondence of shows , the anti - suffragist movement was well aware of the press attention that the suffragettes managed to obtain . ' [ P]ublicity in the Press ' , an executive committee member wrote , ' is our greatest need and our opponents ' chief advantage over us ' ( Harrison : ) . It was this sparked public debate , and the attitude of directness and briskness in contrast to the vagueness and eventual moral weakness of the anti - suffragists over the real debate of women 's suffrage , that eventually led the parliament to extend the vote to women over thirty . The suffragettes ' efforts can be said to be characterised by a curious mixture of respectability and morality blended with a continual and controversial insistence on their rights . An immense confidence in the female gender to the extent of superior feelings ( ) combined with a strong sisterhood and sense of sacrifice for the cause led to burst out even in against anti - suffragist : ' that foul traitor - who , while the suffragettes were hunger striking , appeared on platform , [ ... ] protesting against women having the vote ' ( Harrison : ) . Resultantly , at all times , the suffragettes used their bodies as a symbol of sovereignty and moral superiority over the established political power , and this to point out the flaws in the anti - suffrage argumentation .",1
"< heading>1 . Introduction</heading > This report summarises the weather observed during the "" Experiencing the "" field weekend . The following datasets were gathered over and shall be referenced throughout the report : < list > Measurements taken by students using hand - held instruments;Data from an automated mast at from an automated weather station at data from launches at charts and satellite imagery provided by Reynolds.</list > The weekend was held near , in southern ( see Appendix 1 for map ) , and . All times given are in UTC , so as to correspond with synoptic charts and satellite imagery . < heading>2 . Surface Observations : Walk and . < /heading > Five groups of students undertook walks within the study area , taking meteorological observations at regular intervals . On the , a group led by walked from to , via ( see map , Appendix 1 ) . The observed temperature and humidity data are plotted in figure . < figure/>The most striking feature of the temperature graph is the marked drop in the dry bulb temperature ( -0.8 ° C ) , rise in the wet bulb temperature ( +0.8 ° C ) , and the resulting increase in relative humidity ( ) that occurs between the and readings . The corresponding time series for the automatic weather station at ( fig 3.a ) and the automated mast at ( fig 3.b ) do not show such a signal . < figure/>This suggests that the fall in air temperature and the rise in relative humidity observed was not the result of any sudden atmospheric phenomena as it was not captured by either of the automated masts . The readings were taken at , and the readings at . It would seem that the different observation locations are responsible for the change displayed in the data . This would therefore suggest that the coastal site ( ) was slightly cooler and more humid than the inland site ( ) . Reconsidering figure , it would seem that experiences a smaller temperature variation throughout than . These observations may indicate the thermal ' damping ' effects of a large water body ( in this case , the English Channel ) . Water has a greater heat capacity than land , thus it gains and loses heat at a slower rate than the land . Therefore , measurements made inland can be expected to show a greater diurnal temperature variation than measurements near large water bodies . However , it should be noted that this signature within the data may result from the use of incomparable instruments at each site , or even the specific siting of each instrument . It is interesting to note that this does seem to be a general effect , with temperature data gathered by groups on coastal walks ( figure ) showing less variation than measurements ( figure ) . < figure/>Another interesting feature reflected in some of the walk data is the drop in air temperature at on Saturday 28/10/06 ( figure ) . It should be noted that the data in figure was taken at the same location from onwards , so the effect of temperature varying with elevation or location can be discounted . This drop in temperature , of approximately 1 ° C is also present in and mast data ( figure ) . It is possible that this is due to the passing of the trailing cold front belonging to the weak frontal system shown just to the south west of the in the analysis chart for ( Appendix 2b ) . This would introduce slightly cooler air into the study area , as reflected by the temperature data . This system also appears to slightly reduce the air pressure on ( figure ) . The pressure appears to rise again as the high pressure systems reassert themselves early on ( Appendix 2c ) , just prior to the end of the pressure observations . < figure/>Figure shows the data gathered by the group led by . This group took an inland route from to ( Appendix 1 ) . Although the readings cover a shorter period of time than for other groups , there is an interesting phenomenon captured by this group 's observations . < figure/>Of particular interest is the coincident drop in temperature and pressure and subsequent recovery that occurs in this data . This signal is not found in any other dataset . The route taken by this group was unique in that it crossed a large ridge ( Appendix 1 ) . Closer inspection of the data reveals that the lowest pressure and temperature readings were made at the highest elevation ( ~200 m above sea level ) , as would be expected . The subsequent rise in temperature and pressure coincides with the group 's descent from the ridge on the approach to . Although other groups experienced temperature and pressure fluctuations associated with changes in elevation , none were as marked by such a large range in altitude . It is also interesting to note that the humidity is highest at the greatest elevation , likely due to the group being closer to the low cloud base at this point < heading>3 . Vertical : . < /heading > Each group launched a radiosonde from during . An additional launch was undertaken by staff on . It is immediately obvious from all the tephigrams ( figures , and ) that the atmosphere was generally stable throughout , thus convective uplift would have been inhibited . This is reflected in the observed cloud patterns , dominated by stratus on and high - level clouds on , and with minimal occurrence of cumulus throughout . The tephigram for ( figure ) shows a reasonably constant air temperature between 900 and hPa ( approx . - 2 km ) . There is also a region of low relative humidity hPa ( m - 4 km ) . This would suggest that there is little low and mid - level cloud present during the radiosonde ascent . with radiation data from the mast ( figure and satellite imagery ( Appendix 3 ) confirm this suspicion . The inversion at ~250 hPa ( ~10 km ) in the tephigram suggests that this is the level of the tropopause . This feature is not visible on the other ascents carried out during ( figures ) . A lower tropopause on would imply higher pressure on . This is confirmed by the pressure data recorded by the mast ( figure ) . It is therefore valid to suggest that the pressure drop during of is associated with the vertical expansion of the troposphere . The frontal system that moves through the area on is forcing warm air upwards , thus raising the height of the tropopause relative to the 's surface in this region . < figure/>The tephigrams for ( figure ) show a generally moister profile . The sky was obscured by low stratus clouds throughout , as observed by all students whilst on the walks . Both tephigrams suggest a low lifting condensation level , and thus low cloud bases . This is also consistent with observations , which generally estimated the cloud bases to be ~600m-700 m. The field calculations used an approximate lapse rate ( / km ) for ease of calculation , and hence slightly overestimated the cloud base heights . The later tephigram also suggests that the cloud base rises slightly throughout , as noted by the field observations . It is interesting to note that the observations of improved visibility seem to coincide with the lifting of the cloud base . < figure/><figure/>Since the cloud is not convective , as established by the stable atmospheric conditions and field observations , it must be formed by frontal mechanisms . The synoptic chart for at 0600 ( Appendix 2b ) shows a frontal system to the south west of the . It is possible that the stratus observed throughout was associated with this system . The warm air flowing from the south west would have been forced over the surrounding cooler , denser air , thus providing the vertical lifting mechanism . The observed stratus clouds may have been caused by the associated warm fronts , whose shallow gradients would have resulted in condensation over a wide area causing complete obscuring of the sky . This scenario is consistent with the observations and the surface analyses . < figure/>It is interesting to note that no passing warm front ( indicated by a rapid temperature rise ) is detected by the automated masts ( figure ) . This would suggest that the warm fronts passed close to the study area , but did not actually pass across it . However , a small drop in temperature is recorded . As previously mentioned , this suggests that the cold front of the system did pass over the study area . Given the relatively small temperature drop , and lack of any associated rainfall , it would seem that this is a very weak front , with low temperature contrast between the air masses . The tephigram of suggests the presence of such a feature , as indicated by an inversion at ~950 mb . This may be the signature of a warm air mass being undercut by a cooler one , as occurs at fronts The tephigram for ( figure ) shows the lower atmosphere to be less humid than . Some cloud is present , in the form of cumulus ( probably formed by the passing cold front - see chart ) as well as high - level clouds ( cirrus , cirrostratus - see Appendix 3 ) . The tephigram does not suggest the presence of such clouds . This is most likely due to the vertical resolution with which it was plotted ( hPa ) . Any variation over smaller pressure scales will be overlooked at this resolution , and this effect will become more severe with increased height . The high level clouds observed are typically associated with a distant warm front . In this case , this would be the warm front to the south of at 0000 ( Appendix 2c ) . < heading>4 . Conclusions</heading > The weekend was dominated by a high pressure system , with the passing of a weak frontal system on ( ) . The weather was relatively warm throughout , mainly due to a dominant south - westerly airflow drawing warm air from lower latitudes . There was little cloud on ( ) , but almost complete cloud cover on , associated with the weak frontal system moving over the English Channel . The trailing cold front of this system appeared to pass over the study area on . ( ) was clearer than , and there was evidence of another frontal system approaching . Interestingly , the pressure appeared to rise early on ( figure ) , perhaps as the region of high pressure over began to extend north - westwards ( Appendix 2c ) .","< heading > Introduction</heading > Global mean surface temperature has increased by oC since pre - industrial times . This increase is thought to have been mostly caused by human activity , principally the release of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases . There are , however , many other factors , both anthropogenic and natural which could have an effect on climate . Attributing the observed climate change to each of these factors is a great challenge facing climate scientists . In this experiment a simple , - dimensional , - layer spreadsheet model was used to investigate the effects of different radiative forcings on global mean temperature . The model allows climate feedback parameter Y to be varied , and estimates of the most important radiative forcings can be included , plus one user - defined forcing . Each forcing can be applied with a scaling factor to modify its effect . The model calculates the combined forcing for , and from this the temperature anomaly relative to the average and also relative to the average ( In this exercise the average will be used for all comparisons ) . The equilibrium temperature change for the relevant forcing at is also calculated . The model produces plots of the combined radiative forcings , the global mean temperature anomaly relative to the stated time periods , with each plotted alongside the observed temperature anomaly , and also the model vs equilibrium temperature change for . A χ2 error value for the difference between model and observed temperature anomaly is also calculated . < heading > Part A</heading><heading > Method</heading > The effect of different radiative forcings were investigated by scaling each to ( switched on ) or ( switched off ) , in different combinations . For all these different combinations the climate feedback parameter Y was left constant at a mid - range value of . < heading > Results</heading > With only the well - mixed greenhouse gas forcing switched on the temperature anomaly rises slowly at then more rapidly from the 's onwards . The temperature change is too great over the whole period , with the anomaly being slightly too high from onwards , and substantially too low for most of the preceding time . The increase is steady , with none of the small scale fluctuations that are seen in the observed data . The rate of increase after is similar to that in the observed data . Adding all other anthropogenic forcings except the indirect aerosol effect has only a small effect . However , the fit is slightly improved , particularly from onwards . If the indirect aerosol is also included the fit worsens again , with the temperature anomaly becoming too high until , and too low in . The well mixed 's have the most effect of all anthropogenic factors ; removing them causes the temperature anomaly to fall steadily throughout the whole time period . See Figure . The natural forcings , from solar fluctuations and volcanic eruptions , provide more small - timescale effects , with no overall trend through the time period . The smaller fluctuations do not seem to fit very closely with the fluctuations in the observed data . The negative anomalies due to volcanic activity are too large in several cases . < figure/>Including all the forcings , the general pattern of increasing temperature anomaly is reproduced , although the model anomaly is above the observed value for most of the period up to . The smaller scale fluctuations are not well reproduced . See Figure . < figure/><heading > Discussion</heading > From these results it seems that the most likely major source of the increase in temperature over is the increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gases . The upward trend in the temperature over this period is captured quite well in the model when including this forcing , and not at all when the forcing is removed . The shorter timescale variations in the observations are not well represented in the model . The cooling effect of volcanic eruptions appears to be overestimated . This could be partly explained by the model 's lack of random internal variability . In the real world , random climate variability could have acted to mask some of the effects of volcanic eruptions . It still seems likely , however , that there is too much weight given to the volcanic forcing in the model . < heading > Part B</heading><heading > Method</heading > The uncertainty in the climate feedback parameter is given as to 3.3 Wm -2 K -1 . The effect of this uncertainty was investigated using some idealised radiative forcings . , the forcing was defined to increase linearly from in to 1 Wm -2 in and then remain constant . A case was examined with a step change forcing of Wm -2 , and before and after . In each case , Y was varied within the stated uncertainty range and the effects on transient model temperature and equilibrium temperature were studied . < heading > Results</heading > With the idealised forcing , different values of Y gave very different temperature responses , as shown in . < table/>The temperature change is greatest with small values of Y ( ie . large climate sensitivity ) . This effect is non - linear , with increasingly large effects as Y becomes smaller . The difference between the temperature change reached in and the equilibrium temperature change is the "" hidden "" warming in the climate system . This value also increases more and more rapidly as Y decreases . The step change forcing shows how variability in Y affects the climate 's response to a transient forcing . This forcing was chosen to act for to give an easily measurable effect . Table shows the maximum warming caused by the forcing , and also the lasting temperature change . < table/>The effect on the climate can again be seen to increase more rapidly as Y becomes smaller . There is a larger transient effect and a larger lasting effect . < heading > Discussion</heading > The uncertainty in Y is a major factor in the attribution problem . If the sensitivity of the climate to a given forcing is not known , it is difficult to predict the effect that the forcing will have . In this model Y is assumed to be equal for each forcing , which in itself makes it difficult to distinguish the effects of forcing from another . It can also be seen that as Y becomes closer to the linear approximation in the model breaks down , and the temperature change becomes very large . This means that using very small values of Y does not give sensible results . < heading > Part C</heading><heading > Method</heading > The effect of a postulated radiative forcing due to stratospheric water vapour was investigated . The magnitude of the forcing was taken to increase linearly from in to in . A mid - range value of K -1 was used for the climate feedback parameter Y , and all other forcings were included with a scaling factor of . < heading > Results</heading > The additional forcing has the effect of increasing the temperature anomaly towards the end of the time period , resulting in the model being about 0.2 oC warmer than the observations by . The χ2 error is reduced to . This is due to the average temperature being increased , and therefore the temperature anomaly earlier in the time period becoming more negative , and closer to the observed values . < heading > Discussion</heading > The inclusion of this forcing reduced the error value in the model , however the overall fit in terms of the shape was not improved . It is possible that there are other forcings or feedback mechanisms not yet included climate models , which has implications for the attribution problem . It is not possible to correctly attribute all the effects of climate change until all the forcing mechanisms are understood . < heading > Part D</heading><heading > Method</heading > The climate feedback parameter Y and the scaling factors on all radiative forcings were altered to minimise the χ2 error in the model . This was attempted adhering to the published IPCC uncertainties on all values , then using any value . No user defined forcings were included , and no other model parameters were changed . The error was minimised by analysing the size of each radiative forcing , and the time over which it has an effect , then scaling each one accordingly . The scaling factors were fine - tuned by a process of trial and error . < heading > Results</heading > The minimum error values obtained are shown in Table 3 , along with the scaling factors used . < table/><heading > Discussion</heading > It is possible to obtain a lower error by using values outside the uncertainty ranges . However , the greatest improvement was caused by reducing the scaling of the natural forcings . This suggests that one of the main sources of error in the model is in failing to match the smaller timescale variations in the climate . As previously discussed , this natural climate variability could affect or mask to some degree the effects of solar and volcanic forcings , making it impossible to match all the fluctuations with a model which has no internal variability . < heading > Conclusion</heading > The model produces useful results , despite being a fairly simple approximation . The fit of the model temperature anomaly to the observed values is good enough to provide evidence that the observed temperature change over is largely attributable to anthropogenic sources , particularly the emission of greenhouse gases . There are however several limitations to the model which could affect the reliability of the results . The Climate Feedback Parameter Y is assumed to be the same for all different radiative forcing mechanisms , which is not the case in reality . The model does not provide any information about spatial variability in temperature change .",0
"When discussing sexuality it is hard to do so without mentioning . He has influenced our understanding of sexuality within varying topics , but due to restraints only his understanding of sexuality contained within , Volume One , The Will to knowledge ( ) , and his influence within the fields of sexology and homosexuality will be looked at . contribution is his rejection of what he termed the ' repressive hypothesis ' by showing that although empirically , sex was silenced , this was merely words and that sexuality was actually central to society , being discussed through various sexual discourses ( for example science and medicine ) . Moreover , has also aided our understanding of power ( and its relation to sexual discourses ) by challenging conventional notions and showing it to be both a positive and a negative force ( allowing for the creation of reverse- discourses such as the creation of homosexual identity ) . Foucault showed us how power and discourse came together to regulate the body , and individuals , through the key strategies , and they were part of the medicalization of sex , or ' sexology ' Also , by looking at work written since 's exploration of sexuality , we can access his contribution by looking for his influence within the texts ( such as the study of erectile dysfunction ) , whilst also looking at criticisms directed at his work ( for example , the feminist criticism stating the lack of gender within his work ) . of 's major contributions towards our understanding of sexuality is his rejection , or "" attack upon [ ... ] the ' repressive hypothesis ' "" ( Dews , 1984:01 ) . To understand 's contribution to this debate , it is important to understand what the repressive hypothesis actually is . Foucault defines it at the beginning of his book , Volume I. < quote>""For a long time , the story goes we supported a regime , and we continue to be dominated by it even . Thus the image of the imperial prude is emblazoned on our restrained , mute and hypocritical sexuality "" ( > is conventionally juxtaposed with where people talked about sex openly in front of children and "" bodies ' made a display of themselves ' "" ( ) . This era was then silenced by the as bourgeoisie sexuality was confined and moved into the home ( within the married bedroom ) Sex was repressed , "" denied , and reduced to silence "" ( ) . However , eventually progress , seen for example through the work of Freud , lifted us out of this sexual repression leading to a more enlightened modernity . This repressive hypothesis presupposes "" ruptures "" ( ) ; the silencing of sex by the , and the loosening of repression mechanisms in with many taboos being lifted and some language being restored . Foucault does not reject the fact that "" new rules of propriety screened out some words "" ( 1976:18 ) ; language was restricted , and statements were policed . Instead , 's rejection is based on the steady growth of discourses interested in sex . The concept of ' discourse ' is central to 's understanding of sexuality . A discourse is a system of language , practices and objects ( Haug , ) and during discourses regarding sex grew in number , as sex was "" put into discourse "" ( and , ) . A "" discursive explosion "" ( , ) occurred , creating sexuality as a distinct domain . This incitement to speak of sex as discourse was a moral and a rational issue ; sex became an affair for judgment and administration under the jurisdiction of the state ( , - 252).The state found it necessary to regulate and organise the sexuality of the population through public discourses . The population was not simply a collection of people , but a specific phenomenon with variables such as birthrate and fertility , and at the heart of all this was sex . The future of society was tied up with sex , and the sexual behaviour of the populace was a target for intervention and analysis . Moreover , argued against the conventional view that sexuality is a static and natural concept , only ever subjected to repression and self - denial ( , ) . Instead of being eternal , he showed us that sexuality has a history , existing as discourse and changing in accordance to the social conditions it inhabits . example of a "" mechanism of ' public interest ' "" ( , ) , ( specific site that constructed sexuality ) , is the church confessional . Conventionally seen as repressing our natural sexuality through guilt and fear of God , believed it instead helped in the "" production of discourses of sexuality "" ( Haug , ) . The church decreed that sexual actions should be endlessly talked about and spoken aloud . Every act was considered in relation to sex and whether it was worthy of confession ; sex became a secret to be uncovered . Rules and boundaries created a sexuality that was meant to be detached from lust and temptation , with the confessor turning back to God ( Foucault , 1976:23 ) . Additionally , has influenced our understanding of sexuality and discourse , through its relation to ' power ' . Power is conventionally seen as a right , "" which one is able to possess like a commodity "" ( cited in , ) . Power ( and repression ) is a movement from ' the top ' downwards , exercised through the law and the state ( Foucault , , Haug , , and , ) . rejected this , believing in power 's ' omnipresence ' ( Dews , , , ) . Power is not owned by any particular source , or resulting from any decision , but is exercised and produced at every point . Power is extended throughout ( sexual ) discourses other than the state , and "" comes from below "" ( Foucault , ) . Moreover , power is not simply a negative sanction , but can be positive ; it is productive and does not simply say ' no ' but can say ' yes ' ( , ) . However , is not entirely convinced with 's notion of power , therefore questioning his input on our understanding of sexuality ( as power underpinned his history of sexuality ) ( , ) . stated that believed the old power ( discourse of rights ) was diminishing , and being taken over during the onset of modernity , by new knowledges and discourses surrounding sexuality , such as medicine and science ( discourse of normalization ) . Foucault looked at how certain discourses claim to speak the truth , therefore being able to exercise power . For example simply claiming to be a science is an exercise of power as "" other knowledges are accorded less status "" ( ) . of 's flaws is that he never compares the scientists claim to truth with the lawyer 's , which , according to , runs in parallel ( 9 ) . has its own claim to truth , systemized language and methods . It sets itself above other discourses in the same way that science does , therefore is "" doubtful that law is simply being superseded "" ( ) by science and new discourses of normalization . Instead law retains its old judicial power whilst extending its power into people 's private life , "" exercising new contrivances of power in the form of surveillance and modes of discipline "" ( ) . However , does not reject 's idea of power completely , instead stating the mechanisms of power run in parallel , "" symbiotically "" ( 8) . Therefore Foucault is still useful in aiding our understanding of sexuality ( albeit from a critical perspective ) . Moreover , as science set itself up as "" the supreme authority "" ( Foucault , ) regarding sexuality , understood this explosion of scientific and medical discourses as a "" scientia sexualis "" ( ) or ' sexology . ' Although constantly talking about sex , these discourses actually avoided any real confrontation with its truth , simply existing to obscure and disguise it , until the time of Freud at least ( , ) . Sex was incorporated into distinct orders of knowledge ; a biology of reproduction and a medicine of sex , both claiming to try and find the ' truth of sex ' , whilst in reality hiding it ( Foucault , ) . Additionally , understood there to be procedures in producing the ' truth of sex ; ' the Western ' scientia sexualis , ' and the ' ars erotica ' of the , , , , and Arab- societies ( , and , ) . Within this erotic art , truth is drawn from pleasure , "" understood as a practice and accumulated as experience "" ( Foucault , ) . Pleasure is known in relation to itself , and any knowledge gained feeds back onto itself . Our civilisation does not have this , our sexology represents discourses surrounding sex that subordinate our pleasures to the will of knowledge . < fnote > However , does argue that our ' scientia sexualis ' is a subtle form of ' ars erotica ' : we have invented a new pleasure , a "" pleasure of analysis "" ( Foucault , : ) , whereby we find pleasure in the truth of pleasure , of knowing the truth and discovering and exposing it . < /fnote><quote>""It has developed procedures to form a kind of power - knowledge which is rigorously opposed to the arts of initiations and magisterial secrecy ; the procedures of the confessional . "" ( , : 257)</quote > Foucault believed the confessional to be an important part of understanding the history of sexuality , changing how we think about it , through exploring how the confessional developed into scientific discourse ( ) . Confession is seen as producing sexual truths and the Western man became a "" confessing animal "" ( ) , with sex being the privileged theme told to doctors and psychiatrists ( such as Freud ) . Sex was transformed through confession into discourse located within power relations ; it only took place in front of professionals within the fields of medicine , psychiatry , or pedagogy , therefore becoming a specialized form ( ) . Personal history was seen as littered with decipherable symptoms , all of which were caused and related back to sex , and being that these signs were so obscure , they had to be extracted and then deciphered by a professional within a medical discourse ( ) . Therefore , showed us that although sex was talked about frequently ( in opposition to the repressive hypothesis ) it was only legitimate within particular fields or discourses , and the most emphasised by was the ' scientia sexualis . ' Moreover , argued that there was no "" single , global strategy bearing on the whole of society "" ( , ) but key strategies that formed specific mechanisms of knowledge and power centering on sex . there was the ' hysterization of women 's bodies ' : the female body was analysed with the assumption that it was saturated with sexuality and linked to fertility . Next , was the ' pedagogization of children 's sex ' : an assertion that most children engaged in sexual activity , which posed moral and physical danger . Then was the ' socialization of procreative behaviour ' : this related to the responsibility of fertile couples to procreate with regard to the entire social body . Finally was the ' psychiatrization of perverse pleasure ' : whereby the sexual instinct , and its behaviour , was assigned a role of normalization , or pathologization , and corrective treatment was used to correct any anomalies ( Foucault , - 105 ) . These strategies created figures : the hysterical woman , the masturbating child , the couple and the perverse adult . This shows how these strategies resulted in "" the very production of sexuality "" ( ) . Sexuality is a historical construct , and the deployment of sexuality resulted in the regulation and ' penetration ' of the body , mainly through the family and the power relations of "" the husband- wife axis and the parents - children axis "" ( ) . Relatives and parents became chief agents in the deployment and regulation of sexuality . Additionally , of the identities created within the anomaly of the ' perverse adult ' was the homosexual , and uses this as an example to show the complexities of power on the creation of sexualities . stated that "" it is in discourse that power and knowledge are joined together "" ( ) and that discourse can be both an ' instrument ' of power , and also a point of resistance . Therefore , although homosexuality was defined as a perversion by new sexual discourses , power relations ( being both positive and negative ) allowed movements against dominant discourse to be created not outside , but within power , with the creation of anti , or ' reverse - discourses ' ( Foucault , ) . Before , ' sodomy ' was a sin against nature , and being a "" confused category "" ( ) it was both punished severely and tolerated . The appearance of sexology , and discourses concerning sexual perversions , created the ' species ' known as the homosexual ( or inversion , pederasty and ' psychic hermaphrodism ) . Although this made possible the advancement of controls and regulations into the life of the homosexual , it also provided a self - identity which men could take up . Men who came to see themselves as homosexuals began to speak on their own behalf , demanding their own legitimacy and acknowledgement of homosexuality 's ' naturality ' ( 101 ) . Furthermore , 's influence can be seen when looking at other research on homosexuality . For example talked about how identity formation may lead to "" reverse affirmation "" ( cited in , ) which leads to the creation of a homosexual lifestyle ( ) . also looked at how sexual identities are not ' essential ' pre - given aspects , but are culturally and historically specific , with their creation due to "" the valiant efforts of the early sexologists "" ( ) . looked at how homosexuality became pathologised and came to mean a certain type of man , and not simply a vice any man could have ( Terry , ) . The body became central to scientific constructions of homosexuality , and was "" scrutinized for proof of innate constitutional deficiency "" ( , ) . Homosexuality became ' embodied , ' expressing deviant sexual desires . In addition , and looked at how modern critics have incorrectly led to the "" dehistoricization "" ( 1997:23 ) of sex as they see homosexuality and heterosexuality in binary terms ; the perverse against the norm . Finally , also acknowledged 's ideas , questioning "" the "" myth of the eternal homosexual "" ( ) . These theorists have taken 's ideas and integrated them into their own research , showing how has influenced their understanding of sexuality , and our own . However , not all theorists are so convinced of 's worth , even going so far as stating that he has obscured our understanding of sexuality . such theorist is ( ) . She argues that 's history of sexuality is a history of pleasure , and has little to do with reality . What really happens in sex is hidden and inaccessible to history . Sex includes the abuse of women and children , but "" the silence is forgotten in this noisy discourse about sexuality which then becomes its history "" ( ) . Foucault ignored the real experience of women . They are the subordinate object of sex , with sexuality being practiced against them in the name of the male pursuit of pleasure . Hierarchy is "" all about gender "" ( ) and is constantly being played out . Mackinnon does acknowledge that 's approach to sex and power may allow others to take up a more gendered analysis of sexuality , but she does not agree herself , arguing that his denial of gender is fundamental to his perspective . Foucault talks about power without not "" necessarily meaning hierarchy "" ( ) . Therefore missing how power is organized sexually , with society being structured along lines of power . To this is a "" fairly fatal "" ( ) flaw and 's contribution is severely questioned . Nevertheless , not all feminists have rejected in the way has done , example is ( ) who argued that introduces "" a degree of flexibility into [ ... ] patterns of thought "" ( ) and is still useful in studying women 's lives . 's influence can also be seen in sexological studies of heterosexuality relating to male erectile dysfunction ( ED ) ( ; and , ; , ; and , ) . and argue that although did not include human ageing in his construction of sexuality , his ideas can still be expanded into this area of research , allowing the inquiry of "" sexual technologies of embodiment to include the dynamics of bodily time "" ( ) . Ageing can then be put into discourse and knowledge - power relations explored . In addition , 's ( ) inquiry into and sexology has many of the concepts advocated , including ideas of knowledge - power within medical discourse . , similarly to looked at the rise of science and biology as the authenticating voice of what is ' normal ' and ' abnormal ' in health . The latter moves away from moral danger and towards ' dysfunction , ' which threatens penile - vaginal intercourse within marital relations , ( which is seen as ' normal ' and functional for both society and the couple themselves ) . Sexologists such as emphasised the role of successful ' marital coitus ' in the maintenance of the home , and and suggested that the greatest cause for marital and familial breakdown was an inadequate sex life ( ) . Therefore sexuality became medicalized , "" rendering it amenable to intervention and management according to a biomedical model "" ( , ) . It is here that cites , stating that medical discourses and practices "" what has called the ' clinical gaze ' "" ( ) , construct the body and truth around it , rather than simply discovering them . "" Universalised bodily norms "" ( ) are constructed which individuals are then measured against and compared . For example the sexologists and ' human sexual response cycle ( HSRC ) is the standard of ' function ' that ' dysfunction ' is measured from ( ) . HSRC asserts that there are a series of stages that define ' normal ' sexuality : ' arousal ' , ' plateau ' , ' orgasm ' and ' resolution ' ( Kaplan later added ' desire ' as a preliminary stage ) . Abnormal events that disrupt this flow ( such as ) therefore need to be treated ( as sex is dependent on a full erection ) . The individual is therefore pathologised and his becomes a simple mechanical problem , with a "" mechanical solution "" ( ) ; . To conclude , 's influence on our understanding of sexuality has been enormous . of his major contributions was to take those things conventionally believed and to challenge them . he challenged preconceived notions concerning sexuality , and the repressive hypothesis , and showed them to be false due to a discursive explosion around sex . Additionally , of 's major contributions is by showing us that sexuality is constructed and is not a natural occurrence ( the confessional being one mechanism that constructed sexuality ) . Moreover , questioned our preconceived notions of power ( as something to be owned , and a negative force exercised through the law ) explaining the new power of knowledge and ' scientia sexualis ' to be positive and negative , as well as omnipresent . Although the diminishing responsibility of state power is questioned by , she does not reject his notion of power , instead stating the types of power ( old and new ) run in parallel . Foucault also aided our understanding through the ' scientia sexualis ' ( or sexology ) , whereby knowledge and power ( and the pursuit of ' truth ) come together to regulate the bodies of individuals , through the direction of scientific authority . strategies of knowledge - power came together to construct sexuality , and also individuals who were pathologised ; the hysterical woman , the masturbating child , the couple and the perverse adult . 's concept of the homosexual ( as created within the anomaly ' perverse adult ' ) is also an example of ' reverse - discourse ' , and shows that the very creation of this identity also led to counter discourses that allowed them to forge a resistance to fight for their own rights . 's contribution to our understanding of sexuality is shown quite clearly here as he influences later pieces of work around homosexuality which contain many of his concepts . This is also seen in pieces of literature surrounding ED which contain his ideas around sexology , knowledge - power and authority . However , it must be noted that major flaw is 's failure to recognise gender hierarchy within sexuality ( and his ignorance around the hidden sex of women , such as abuse ) . Whilst rejects for ignoring it , other feminists have continued to use his ideas . Therefore 's contribution towards sexuality is lacking in this area , but his history of sexuality can be extended into a feminist analysis if , unlike , you are able to "" forgive him "" ( , ) .","< heading > Literature Review</heading > It is important , firstly , to understand exactly what I mean when I talk about the normalisation thesis . important piece of research in this area is et ( ) and their book Illegal Leisure . The normalisation thesis is concerned with the accommodation of recreational drug use into youth society . Recreational drug use "" refers only to the use of certain drugs , primarily cannabis but also nitrates , amphetamines and equivocally LSD and ecstasy "" . The normalisation thesis does not mean that it has become normal for young people to take drugs , but is concerned with "" the spread of deviant activity [ drugs ] and associated attitudes from the margins towards the centre "" . There has been a rise in drug trying since , with in Britons trying drugs by , and the reason for this increase is the increased availability of drugs "" in school , college , pub and club "" . Other theorists , such as ( who takes the normalisation thesis and extends it to youth ) also believe this to be the case , with a widespread increase in the use and experimentation of legal and illegal drugs among young people .   < fnote > Parker , H. et al ( ) , Illegal leisure : the normalization of adolescent recreational drug use , and : Routledge , p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p.153 < /fnote><fnote > Duff , C. ( ) , ' Drugs and youth cultures : Is experiencing the ' normalization ' of adolescent drug use ' in , Vol . , no . 4 , p.434 . < /fnote > However , the normalisation thesis is not just concerned with actual experiences and rises in drug use , but attitudes towards drugs . Even those who choose not to do drugs still have considerable knowledge about the recreational drug scene , and are seen as ' drugwise ' . Abstainers constantly come into contact with drugs , as by simply being social and going out for , they will be likely to be offered them , or see people ' doing ' them . They learn to draw distinctions between misuse of ' hard ' drugs ( heroin , crack cocaine ) and ' sensible ' recreational drug use , for example cannabis and ( sometimes ) pills . Drug use is seen as deviant , but it is accommodated , with the individualisation of drug use being tolerated as "" it up to them if they want to kill themselves . ""   < fnote > Parker et ( ) , Illegal leisure : the normalization of adolescent recreational drug use , and : Routledge , p. . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p.159 . < /fnote > Moreover , the normalisation of drugs thesis can be seen as an example of postmodernism and post - subcultural theory . Subcultural theory is no longer relevant in discussing drugs as it has moved from a small minority experience into a majority activity . Also , subcultural experience tends to gravitate towards a preoccupation with drugs as a central tenant in the users lives ; the heroin user of who pull are part of a distinct , criminal , lifestyle is such example . The drug use described in the normalisation thesis is quite different due to its focus on recreational drug use . In addition , drug use is seen to cross structural boundaries such as class , where the drug user may be middle - class , and gender , with women being as likely to take drugs as men .   < fnote , T. ( ) , ' Young people , illicit drug use and the question of normalization ' in , Vol . , No . , p.39 . < /fnote><fnote > Parker et ( ) , Illegal leisure : the normalization of adolescent recreational drug use , and : Routledge , p.156 . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p.153 . < /fnote > In addition , this postmodern move into the mainstream is also seen through its absorption into consumer culture . The language and imagery of drugs has become absorbed into fashion , media , and music and the boundaries between licit and illicit behaviour has become blurred , as recreational drug use and drinking alcohol link together . The decline of tradition , brought about by globalisation , has eroded many of the norms that have underpinned social identity , meaning individuals rely on their own choices , struggling to maintain a stable sense of self , which leads to the production of the self through the act of consumption . Youth identity is created through this act , and the goods we buy tell us something about ourselves , forming a sense of self . Drug use takes place as part of this consumer lifestyle , with leisure time being an opportunity to express identity through the stylistic use of drugs . For example , the expression of identity is seen through the use , and normalisation , of recreation drugs within the current youth ' rave ' scene . Recreational drug use is a vital part of this ' rave ' experience , and is what calls the "" drugs / music nexus "" . The emergence of a distinct rave community in saw the use of ecstasy rise among the youth , with its use becoming a defining characteristic of the ' raver ' identity . The consumption of drugs has become a "" distinctive cultural identity "" .   < fnote > Ibid , p.157 . < /fnote><fnote > Duff , C. ( ) , ' Drugs and youth cultures : Is experiencing the ' normalization ' of adolescent drug use ' in , Vol . , no . , p.441 . < /fnote><fnote > Duff , C. ( ) , ' Drugs and youth cultures : Is experiencing the ' normalization ' of adolescent drug use ' in , Vol . , no . , and , and , , J. ( 2002 ) ' Crossing the : youth transitions , poverty , drugs and social exclusion in , , , and , et ( ) , Illegal leisure : the normalization of adolescent recreational drug use , and : Routledge , and , , T. ( ) , ' Young people , illicit drug use and the question of normalization ' in , Vol . , No . . < /fnote><fnote > Cited in Duff , C. ( ) , ' Drugs and youth cultures : Is experiencing the ' normalization ' of adolescent drug use ' in , Vol . , no . , p. . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. . < /fnote > However , the normalisation thesis , as presented by , is not accepted by all . The normalisation of drugs focuses on the individual , which "" obscures more fundamental , structural determinants of drug use "" . focuses on growing up in late modernity and living in a "" risk society "" absorbing ideas of individual , subjective risk into his normalisation thesis . The significance of risk is associated with changes in late modernity , whereby the erosion of tradition ( due to science and globalisation ) has moved towards a society laden with uncertainty and constant risk as adolescents spend more time in a semi dependent state . has become increasingly individualised , and people strive to create their identity through consumerism , making routine "" recognisable cost - benefit assessments "" about drugs . Drugs decisions become routine and trivial . and reject this individualism , believing that structural determinant , such as changing drug markets influence drug use . They described how after a ' drought ' on other forms of drugs , when Teesside was targeted by dealers , heroin became popular within those from socially excluded backgrounds . < fnote , and , , J. ( 2002 ) ' Crossing the : youth transitions , poverty , drugs and social exclusion in , , , , H. ( 2007 ) ' In good company : Risk , security and choice in young people 's drug decisions ' in ( forthcoming ) , , H. ( 2007 ) ' Beyond Peer Pressure : Rethinking drug use and ' youth culture ' in ( forthcoming ) and , T. ( ) , ' Young people , illicit drug use and the question of normalization ' in , Vol . , No . . < /fnote><fnote , H. ( 2007 ) ' Beyond Peer Pressure : Rethinking drug use and ' youth culture ' in ( forthcoming ) , p. . < /fnote><fnote > Parker , H. et al ( ) , Illegal leisure : the normalization of adolescent recreational drug use , and : Routledge , p. . < /fnote><fnote > Green , E. et al ( 2000 ) ' Contextualising risk and danger : An analysis of young people 's perception of risk ' in , Vol . , No.2 . < /fnote><fnote > Parker , H. et al ( ) , Illegal leisure : the normalization of adolescent recreational drug use , and : Routledge , p.154 . < /fnote><fnote , and , , J. ( 2002 ) ' Crossing the : youth transitions , poverty , drugs and social exclusion in , , . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. . < /fnote > It is this very focus on individualism that rejects , who believes we should focus on the friendship group as a sight where drug decisions are made . Young people 's primary contact with drugs is their friendship group and decisions around drugs are not "" fateful decision[s ] requiring risk - assessment "" but are routine acts "" of companionship within the friendship group "" . Drugs decision centre around emotional needs , being in the ' mood ' and ' feeling states ' that revolve around group use ; the idea of using drugs outside friendship circles is unimaginable . The experience is "" peer - group derived "" and knowledge about drugs derives primarily from the peer group . The choices made about drugs are individual ones , but risk is not because youths are removed from traditional relations and structures but due to an "" absence of secure intersubjective relations "" ; risk exists in taking drugs when it is done outside the friendship group , and decisions are made from within ( not alone ) . < fnote > Pilkington , H. ( 2007 ) ' In good company : Risk , security and choice in young people 's drug decisions ' in ( forthcoming ) . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p.18 . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p.22 . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p.26 . < /fnote > Moreover , both and and believe the term drugs normalisation is too broad a term and look towards ideas of "" differential normalisation "" . believed that normalization is too rigid and expansive a concept , homogenising youth drug use instead of understanding the complex relations young people have with drugs . She identified different types of youths ; ' Ordinary ' Young People , ' Spectacular ' Youth and ' Trackers ' , each one having different views towards drugs . All groups , similarly to , generally accepted cannabis , but only ' spectacular ' youths showed the tolerance and use described in 's thesis . Also , although agreeing that middle - class youths do take drugs , there is still a "" clear relationship between socioeconomic factors and patterns of drug consumption "" with ' trackers ' ( those with problematic drug use , for example , heroin ) being from disadvantaged backgrounds . < fnote > Cited in , H. ( 2007 ) ' Beyond Peer Pressure : Rethinking drug use and ' youth culture ' in ( forthcoming ) , p.2 . < /fnote><fnote , T. ( ) , ' Young people , illicit drug use and the question of normalization ' in , Vol . , No . , p. - 47 . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p.44 . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. . < /fnote><heading > Methodology</heading > In studying whether drug use within youth culture has really become normalised , I decided to perform a qualitative , semi - structured interview , with a white , male , work colleague ( who currently goes to ) . As my study was on actual and perceived drug use , I was worried I may not get my subject to agree , especially as the respondent may want to be seen in a "" favourable light "" . However , access was relatively easy to gain and I simply approached him and asked him if he would be interested in doing an informal interview about drugs for of my modules . < fnote > Hammersley , M. and Atkinson , P. ( 2005 ) Ethnography : Principles in Practice : , p. . < /fnote > Nevertheless , this is not to say there were not problems at all in gaining access . As the subject was on drug use , he found the idea of being recorded on such a sensitive ( illegal ) topic off - putting and therefore refused . Nonetheless , I still decided to proceed , following advice that "" when faced with refusal [ of recording ] you should still go ahead "" . I decided to situate the interview in my living room ; with no - one else was at home , hoping my subject would felt more comfortable . < fnote > Bryman , A. ( ) , , . < /fnote > Moreover , the illegality of the subject matter under discussion also brings about ethical questions . As a sociologist , I am responsible for the "" social and psychological well - being of research participants "" . I must protect the interests of my participant , and guard them from harm . Therefore it is very important I maintain his anonymity , and during this research I will be referring to him through a pseudonym ; . This concern for my research participant also led me to be as truthful and open to him as possible . I made James aware of his "" right to refuse participation "" , informing him of his anonymity and also that this work would not be published . In addition , due to the overt nature of my research I avoided the "" moral qualms , anxieties , and practical difficulties "" ' covert ' research has . < fnote > Statement of Ethical Practice for ( ) , p. . < /fnote><fnote > Sin , , ( ) ' Seeking informed consent : reflections on research practice ' in Sociology , Vol . , No . . p.227 . < /fnote><fnote > Statement of Ethical Practice for ( ) , p. . < /fnote><fnote > Hammersley , M. and Atkinson , P. ( 2005 ) Ethnography : Principles in Practice : Tavistock , . < /fnote > However , I did not go into too much detail about the exact reasons for the interview . Other than informing him of the basic subject matter , and asking him to be as truthful as possible , I did not want to provide him with too much information so as not to influence his behaviour and responses . Research should not be oversimplified into ' overt ' and ' covert ' but as a continuum , with all research having aspects of secrecy , as we can "" never tell the research subjects ' everything ' "" ( , ) .   < fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote></fnote > Furthermore , it is important to remember aspects of reflexivity when partaking in research . "" Good research is that which accounts for the conditions of its own production "" . Self - awareness is important . As a researcher , I am part of the social world I am studying . Research is not neutral and is influenced by me , from the topic I chose to study , who I decided to interview , the questions I asked and how I decided to interpret and present the data . My choice of research topic is influenced by my values and interests and I chose to study the normalisation of drugs as I find the subject fascinating . My preconceived experiences and attitudes towards drugs will have influenced my findings ( although abstaining myself , I do not find others use of cannabis , if used sparingly , particularly problematic ) . I work with the knowledge I have , and can not escape the social world I live in ; therefore it is naïve to think I will not have presuppositions about the use of drugs that will , unknowingly , influence my research .   < fnote cited in , H. ( ) ' Racism , sexuality , and the process of ethnographic research ' , in , and , T. ( eds . ) Interpreting the Field : Accounts of Ethnography . : , p.209 . < /fnote><fnote > Hammersley , M. and Atkinson , P. ( 2005 ) Ethnography : Principles in Practice : Tavistock , . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p.17 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p.16 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p.18 < /fnote > Moreover , my research , and concern with reflexivity , has been influenced by the particular methodology I have decided to use ( showing a link between theory and method ) . My research is qualitative ( although there is some statistical data present in my literature review ) and concerned with subjective social meanings given by to actions and events related to his experiences of drugs . I wish to understand how has come to interpret the world ( verstehen ) and also the ' thick description ' prevalent when talked about his drug experience . In addition , the normalisation thesis is not just based around actual drug use , but attitudes held by adolescents . Therefore it is important for to tell his ' story ' and the interview process should allow room for narrative and a "" sociology of stories "" . Interview data should allow for biographical accounts that "" require of young people a coherent narrative that retells the story of the drugs career as a reflexive project of the self "" .   < fnote > Ibid , p.7 < /fnote><fnote > Geertz , C. ( 1973 ) , : Basic Books < /fnote><fnote > Plummer , K. ( 1995 ) Telling Sexual Stories , Power , Change and , , : , . < /fnote><fnote , H. ( 2007 ) ' In good company : Risk , security and choice in young people 's drug decisions ' in ( forthcoming ) , p. . < /fnote > Therefore , it is important the interview structure allows for adequate expression of subjective experience and narrative . As a piece of qualitative research , I used a semi - structured , flexible schedule that allowed to give me "" rich detailed answers "" . I had a list of open - ended discussion questions and topics that acted as a guide and although there was a degree of structure to the interview , had room to talk about subjects he found interesting . For example , with no prompting from me , started to discuss whether drugs should be legalised ; "" the government should give you information but the state should not make that decision for you "" . < fnote > Bryman , A. ( ) , , p.320 . < /fnote > However , although wanting to find out James ' opinions and narration around drugs , I also want to find out his actual experiences around drugs , not just his subjective opinions . It is important that I did not use leading questions ( ) . Moreover , I tried to make him feel as comfortable as possible throughout the interview and develop a rapport with him to "" minimize reactivity "" ( Hammersley and , ) I wanted valid , honest , reliable and truthful answers ( which may have been problematic to gain due to the illegality of discussion ) . He did seem uncomfortable at the beginning of the interview and I worried that his "" answers may be deceptive "" ( Hammersley and , : ) with him simply trying to give responses that painted himself in a particular light . However , as the interview progressed he seemed to become more and more comfortable , moving on from giving short succinct answers to more developed responses , including story of when he had been offered drugs by his friends : < quote>""We were sitting in the woods whilst sat and smoked weed . I did n't have any myself , I was n't interested . I was happy with the alcohol , but the whole thing was really funny [ laughs ] and stupid looking back . When you 're a kid you do the most random things [ laughs]"".</quote><heading > Findings</heading > James had smoked cannabis ( seen by as a recreational drug ) on occasion , therefore supporting the normalisation thesis . He has smoked it at a house party in the back garden ; "" I though it was just a complete fuss over nothing , not very exciting at all , I went back to drinking my beer ! It did n't really have that much affect . "" is more of an ' abstainer ' according to 's thesis , ( having only tried cannabis once ) , but does indeed to know about recreational drugs and is ' drugwise ' . He knew where to get cannabis from , had watched many of his friends smoking cannabis , and had been offered it on a few occasions . He sees it as ' normal ' for adolescents to take recreational drugs and his attitude towards them shows he found them to be deviant , but tolerable : < fnote > Parker et ( ) , Illegal leisure : the normalization of adolescent recreational drug use , and : Routledge , p. . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. . < /fnote><quote>""It 's not really a crime , they 're not criminals , but naughty people [ laughs ] . I do n't see smoking weed as doing anything wrong really [ ... ] I mean technically its illegal [ ... ] but it 's your body , your choice "" ( my emphasis).</quote > However , his experiences of drugs were , I believe influenced by class ( which do not seem to correlate with a postmodern , individualistic view of drugs ) . Similarly to , believed structural constraints , such as social class , were relevant in deciding whether you decided to take drugs or not believing "" poor economic background increases the likelihood "" . came from a middle - class background "" well - off , nice house , decent school "" and did not take drugs until he was at University , and even then it was into his degree , at , when he finally decided to have solitary try . Although youth is getting longer , he did not take drugs during the many opportunities he had when "" hanging out , outside on Saturdays "" . The people who did take drugs were the ones outside those he knew from his Grammar School : < fnote > Ibid , p. . < /fnote><fnote , T. ( ) , ' Young people , illicit drug use and the question of normalization ' in , Vol . , No . , p.46 . < /fnote><fnote > Green , E. et al ( 2000 ) ' Contextualising risk and danger : An analysis of young people 's perception of risk ' in , Vol . , , p. < /fnote><quote > "" I never wanted to do it myself , you just sort of respected them , but I had no burning desire to do it myself [ pause ] I do think class affected that "" . < /quote > Unfortunately , as I have only done interview as a case study , I can not really locate separate types of youths ( perhaps based on class ) as did , however , this one interview does seem to suggest that there is a differentiated normalisation of drugs based on class difference and "" complexity and diversity in young people 's experiences . "" < fnote , T. ( ) , ' Young people , illicit drug use and the question of normalization ' in , Vol . , No . , p. . < /fnote > Moreover , all of James experiences with drugs took place within the context of the peer group . had been offered drugs in a club and did find this type of behaviour normal , ( which does correspond with the normalisation thesis ' emphasis on consumption of drugs in the ' rave ' atmosphere ) . However , the time James ' actually smoked cannabis had nothing to do with the ' rave ' scene , and was at a house party , and another time ( at ) he was offered it whilst sitting in some woods watching his friends smoke . This corresponds with 's analysis of drugs within the friendship group ; he would not have taken drugs from strangers , as can be seen by his rejection of the pills offered to him at the club : "" I was n't about to take it off a stranger ! "" All his experiences happened with friends , not alone , and he eventually tried it because he was in the mood , and felt "" curious "" . < fnote > Pilkington , H. ( 2007 ) ' In good company : Risk , security and choice in young people 's drug decisions ' in ( forthcoming ) . < /fnote><fnote > Duff , C. ( ) , ' Drugs and youth cultures : Is experiencing the ' normalization ' of adolescent drug use ' in , Vol . , no . , p.442 . < /fnote><fnote , H. ( 2007 ) ' In good company : Risk , security and choice in young people 's drug decisions ' in ( forthcoming ) . < /fnote > However , in line with the normalisation thesis , he did believe that image was portrayed through consumerism and the use of drugs .",1
"< heading > Introduction</heading > The University of   library has in excess of users - students , lecturers , researchers and external visitors . In addition to providing access to printed volumes , of archives and printed periodicals , the library serves as a self - study facility accommodating study spaces and computer workstations . loans are issued and reservations made . At the heart of this sizable operation lies the main issue desk located on the floor . < heading > Objectives</heading > The summer examination season is one of the busiest for the library with users entering . This dramatic increase in activity places a huge burden on the issue desk and , consequently , the period is traditionally associated with lengthy queues and prolonged service times . < fnote > Based on statistics submitted by the library to ( SCONUL ) for . < /fnote > , new self - service machines were installed in an attempt to reduce the load on the issue desk and free up valuable human resources . The aim of this project was to assess the effect that these machines were likely to have on service times during period and to evaluate a range of possible strategies for coping with the anticipated increase in demand . Discrete event simulation techniques were employed to build a computer model of the system , which was then used to conduct the necessary experiments . < heading > Overview</heading > The main issue desk and the operations associated with it occupy a considerable amount of floor space . There are counters where customers can check out , renew and return items , collect reserved copies and settle fines . There is also a counter specialising in document supply . Customers are served by librarians , typically at present , who also handle occasional transactions over the phone . The new self - service machines are located opposite the desk and can only be used to check out , renew and return items . Customers can also return items though drop boxes located at the entrance to the library . There are separate queues - one for the desk and for the machines . At present , the queue for the machines is usually empty and there are rarely people waiting to be served at the desk . < heading > Conceptual Model</heading > The aim was to keep the model as simple and efficient as possible without compromising the validity of the results . < heading > Input</heading > experimental factors were identified : < list > The customer arrival rateThe number of librarians on dutyThe number of self - service machines availableThe willingness of customers to use the self - service machines</list > The number of counters at the issue desk was not included as an experimental factor since adding additional counters would be a comparatively expensive and disruptive exercise . < heading > Output</heading > Seven response variables were selected : < list > The maximum and average time spent by customers in the system ( to gauge performance and aid validation)The maximum and average time spent by customers in each queue ( to identify potential bottlenecks)The maximum and average length of each queue ( to aid validation)The percentage utilisation of librarians ( to gauge efficiency)</list><heading > Scope</heading > Based on the chosen inputs and outputs , a small number of core components were identified : < list > The customers and librariansThe issue desk and the associated queueThe self - service machines and the associated queue</list > Phone transactions were also initially included on the basis that they can interrupt other transactions and potentially tie up librarians . The issue desk and self - service machines associated with the short loan collection were not included since they operate independently on a distinct set of loans . Similarly , the document supply counter at the end of the issue desk was excluded because it handles a completely unrelated set of transactions and has its own , usually non - existent , queue . The drop boxes at the entrance to the library were omitted on the basis that their effect on transaction numbers would already be accounted for in the sampling of inter - arrival times . < heading > Detail</heading > The differing nature of individual transactions was deemed very important - a simple renewal or return is likely to take much less time to complete than the collection of a reserved item . Furthermore , since the self - service machines can only be used for certain transactions , the route taken by a customer through the system is determined , in part , by the nature of their transaction . The time taken to complete each transaction is unlikely to be directly proportional to the number of items involved . Therefore , instead of modelling the number of items involved in each transaction explicitly , it seemed more appropriate to incorporate the associated variability in the sampling of transaction times . Acceptance of the new machines , and , in particular , the willingness of customers to use them was identified as an important experimental factor . It was decided that the most efficient way to model this was to have distinct types of customer : the self - service adverse , who always go to the desk , and the indifferent , who join whichever queue is shortest . Although librarians regularly attend to other tasks around the library , only those based at the issue desk have a direct bearing on the modelling objectives . Furthermore , since librarians regularly step - in for each other , the number manning the desk remains essentially constant . It was therefore unnecessary to model staff breaks and shift patterns . Machine breakdowns are rare and data describing their frequency and duration is neither obtainable , nor observable . Similarly , although the return boxes placed next to the machines require regular emptying , the process is reasonably quick and usually takes place when the machines are not in use . Both types of stoppage were therefore omitted from the model . < heading > Assumptions</heading > Perhaps the riskiest assumption made was that arrivals occur randomly , independently and at a constant average rate . In reality , a surge of activity could be expected during , when students leave in large numbers to attend lectures and seminars . Given the importance attached to the arrival rate as an experimental factor , together with the potential for a large discrepancy , it was necessary to reassess the validity of this assumption following the data collection exercise ( see section 4.1 ) . It was also assumed that the time taken to complete a transaction at either the issue desk or the self - service machines is independent of the length of the corresponding queue . This is unlikely to be true in practice - librarians will often process transactions faster when they see a queue building up and customers tend to spend less time at the machines if others are waiting behind them . Nonetheless , accurately modelling this behaviour would not have been easy and omitting it was unlikely to significantly affect the performance of the system . In real life , customers may abandon a queue if their patience runs out . However , given the considerable hassle involved in returning items to the upper floors , extremely long queuing times would be required for there to be a significant number of customers choosing to do so . Since of the objectives was to minimise service times , sufficiently long queues were unlikely to build up in the chosen scenarios and so it seemed reasonable to disregard this possibility . Similarly , given the substantial amount of free space available between the desk and machines , it was assumed that there is effectively no constraint on the maximum length of either queue . < heading > Simplification</heading > Each transaction is composed from basic actions : check out , renewal , return , reserve collection and fine payment . Treating each of the possible combinations individually would have made the model somewhat unwieldy . It was therefore decided that transactions should be categorised into abstract types : type A for those that can be carried out at either the issue desk or the self - service machines , and type B for those that can only be completed by a librarian at the desk ( i.e. those involving a reserve collection or fine payment ) . < heading > Validation</heading > During the early stages of data collection , the volume of phone calls made to the issue desk was much lower than anticipated , to the extent that these calls had little or no effect on service times . It therefore seemed appropriate to simplify the model further by removing them from the system entirely . Furthermore , a significant number of customers were observed rejoining the queue for the desk after having used the self - service machines . It transpired that of the transactions attempted at the machines are unsuccessful - sometimes due to damaged barcodes and unrecognised library cards , but also because the machines can not be used to return items that have been reserved by another user . Given the relatively large proportion of transactions affected , and the considerable amount of time lost as a result , it was important to add this detail to the model . < heading > Diagrams</heading > Diagrams of the conceptual model are given in Error ! Reference source not found . . < heading > Data Collection</heading > A substantial amount of empirical data was required for the verification of assumptions , estimation of parameters , fitting of distributions and validation of output . This was collected during of the break and is included in Error ! Reference source not found . . < heading > Data Analysis</heading><heading > Verification of Assumptions</heading > As discussed in section 2.5 , there was some uncertainty as to whether or not arrivals occur independently and at a constant average rate . To help identify any trends , a histogram was produced for record of arrivals . The ( Figure ) exhibits some periodicity whereas the ( Figure ) suggests a relatively constant rate of arrival . In the absence of a consistent pattern , the assumption was maintained . < figure/><heading > Fixed Probabilities</heading><heading > Transaction Type</heading > Let A be shorthand for "" transaction was of type A "" , D for "" queued for the issue desk "" and S for "" queued for the self - service machines "" . From the data collected :   ,   ,   ,   FORMULA   Since D and S are mutually exclusive , the proportion of transactions that were of type A is given by :   FORMULA   =   FORMULA   =   FORMULA   =   FORMULA   =   FORMULA   =   FORMULA   < heading The proportion of customers with type A transactions that chose to carryout their transaction at the desk was estimated in a similar manner :   FORMULA   =   FORMULA   =   FORMULA   =   FORMULA   =   FORMULA   =   FORMULA   Since there was barely ever a queue for the machines , this was assumed to equal the proportion of customers that were self - service adverse . < heading self - service transactions observed , were unsuccessful , implying a failure rate of < heading > Sampling Distributions</heading > It was decided that parametric distributions should be used throughout the model since , unlike distributions based exclusively on empirical data , they are easy to adjust and able to produce occasional extreme values . < heading arrivals were assumed to occur randomly , independently and at a constant average rate , they could be modelled using a distribution . In other words , inter - arrival times could be sampled from a negative exponential distribution . The lists of observed arrival times were combined to produce a single sample of inter - arrival times . The sample was then imported into , a distribution fitting package , which recommended a negative exponential distribution with mean . < heading > Service Time</heading > Service times are typically sampled from a triangular , normal or lognormal distribution . In each sample there were a few values that were significantly higher than average . These extreme values represented the occasional transactions that threw up complications . Based on this observation , a lognormal distribution seemed to particularly appropriate . Estimates for the distribution mean and standard deviation were obtained using and are presented in . < table/><heading > Plots</heading > A plot of each distribution , together with a histogram of the empirical data used to fit it , can be found in Error ! Reference source not found . . < heading > Coding</heading > The computer model was developed using , a visual interactive modelling environment geared specifically towards discrete event business simulation . < heading > Named Distributions and Global Values</heading > Named distributions and global values were used to keep the simulation data separate from the logic . Structuring the model in this way ensured that distributions and constants could be adjusted quickly and easily . < heading > Labels</heading > labels were assigned to each customer : for recording the customer 's transaction type , another for their choice of queue , for the outcome of their transaction and the forth to implement the label based sampling of transaction times at the issue desk . < heading > Visual Logic</heading > Complex routing and timing rules were implemented using Visual Logic . A dummy work centre named ' Choose ' was required to implement the queue selection routine since 's work entry points do not support label based routing . Routines relating to the sampling of service times were assigned to storage bins , instead of individual work centres , in order to avoid code duplication . < heading > Documentation</heading > Simul8 's memo facility was used extensively to describe the role of each component in the model and comments were added to code where appropriate . Some of this documentation is included in Error ! Reference source not found . . < heading > Initialisation Bias</heading > Because one of the main experimental factors was the customer arrival rate , the average inter - arrival time remained constant throughout each run . The model was therefore non - terminating , essentially simulating just one period in . Appropriate initial conditions would have been very hard to determine , especially since they would have depended on the model inputs . Giving each run a warm start was therefore not an option , and so a suitable warm - up period had to be found . 's time check feature was used to record the value of key response variables at intervals . The data obtained from separate runs was then exported to and plotted . The most valuable plots were of the average time in the system and are given in Error ! Reference source not found . . In each case , steady state was reached within and so the warm - up period was set to . < heading > Verification</heading > Steps were taken to verify the model throughout the development cycle . 's step function was used to follow individual customers through the system , the utilisation of individual work centres was monitored to check that they were all receiving work items , and a number of extreme value tests were carried out . These tests are listed in . < table/><heading > Validation</heading > In addition to validating the conceptual model ( see sections and ) , it was necessary to check that the computer model simulated the real system with sufficiently accuracy . < heading > Face Validation</heading > At an informal level , the simulation was run at reduced speed with 's animation facilities enabled . The overall behaviour of the model , including the build up and clearing of queues and occasional bursts of high activity , was very similar to that observed in the real system . In particular , there was hardly ever a queue for the self - service machines , and when there was , it was cleared within . Similarly , there were rarely more that people waiting to be served at the issue desk and , as in reality , there were occasions where the entire system remained idle for minutes . < heading > Output Comparison</heading > For a more formal assessment , response variables relating to the time spent by customers in the system were compared against equivalent statistics for the empirical data collected from the real system . As shown in Error ! Reference source not found . , there was the averages were in close agreement yet there was an extremely large discrepancy between the maximums . The latter was probably due to the relatively small sample of times taken from the real system rather than a fault in the model - the empirical maximum was taken values compared to for the simulation maximum . < heading > Experimentation</heading > With up to users entering , the library is times busier during the term than it is now . Assuming that demand on the issue desk and self - service machines is roughly proportional to the number people using the library , customers could be expected to enter the system during peak times . < heading > Scenarios</heading > Given the large number of scenarios potentially worth simulating , it was necessary to concentrate on just a couple of factors , namely the number of librarians on duty and the number of machines available . The scenarios chosen are listed in 3 . < table/><heading > Replications</heading > The relationship between the number of replications per trial and the accuracy of results is illustrated in Figure . Similar plots were produced for of the scenarios . In each case , the desired level of accuracy was achieved with or less replications . < figure/><heading > Variance Reduction</heading > In order to minimise the variation between scenarios , the same random number streams were used in each trial . < heading > Results</heading > Results for each scenario are included in Error ! Reference source not found . , a summary is provided in . < table/><heading > General Discussion</heading > The and rows of suggest that the addition of both librarians and self - service machines generally has a positive effect on the performance of the system , which is quite intuitive . The reduction in the average time spent by customers in the system achieved by having librarians on duty instead of was particularly striking . This is clear to see from Figure . The comparatively long queuing times for the issue desk in scenario are consistent with idea that there were not enough librarians on duty . < figure/><heading > Detailed Comparison</heading > Although the figures given in are useful for obtaining a feel for the results , in the absence of any significance tests , the statistical validity of any comparisons made is not assured . According to the inequality , in the case of comparisons , individual confidence intervals of are required for an overall significance level of . With this principle in mind , was used to find confidence intervals for the average difference in the average time spent in the system between runs for each pair of trails . The results are given in . As expected , putting additional librarians on duty cut the average time spent by customers in the system quite considerably . Again , particularly worthy of note was the improvement between scenarios and corresponding to an increase in the number of librarians from . The difference between scenarios and was less pronounced , but nonetheless significant . The results also show that adding self - service machines had a somewhat limited effect on the time spent by customers in the system . Indeed , the improvement between scenarios and 4 , corresponding to the addition of self - service machine , was found to be statistically insignificant whereas the effect of adding self - service machines ( scenario ) was significantly less than that of adding a single librarian ( scenario ) . < table/><heading > Limitations</heading > The validity of the results was somewhat undermined by vague nature of the assumptions made during the estimation of future demand . The library 's Manager was contacted and enquiries were made concerning the existence of historical records and future projections for the number of loans issued over . Unfortunately , no such data was available . < heading > Conclusion</heading > Based on the results obtained from the computer model , scenario appeared to represent the optimal trade - off strategy between system performance ( service times ) and efficiency ( librarian utilisation ) . The results also showed that there were no significant gains to be made from the installation of additional self - service machines .","Dear Student , We live at an exciting time in the development of real analysis . Over Cauchy has done a great deal to formalise the fundamental concepts that our techniques and theories rely upon . I refer in particular to the lecture notes ( Cours d'analyse ) he prepared for , in . These notes contain definitions for limits , real functions , infinitesimals , and convergence that are more rigorous than ever before . There remains however some uncertainty around the key concept of continuity . Even Cauchy himself appears to treat continuity with inconsistency . His definition for continuity is stated on pages - 35 of Cours d'analyse , < quote>""la fonction f(x ) restera continue par rapport à x entre les limites données , si , entre ces limites , un accroissement infiniment petit de la variable produit toujours un accroissement infiniment petit de la fonction elle - même . "" < /quote><fnote > Cauchy , , Cours d'analyse de l'École , 1ère partie , ( ed . ) , , , < /fnote > In , f(x ) is continuous between the given limits , if , between these limits , an infinitesimal increase in x always produces an infinitesimal increase in f(x ) . In particular , the following function satisfies his definition for each n on any interval : f n(x ) = , for x < ; f ) = nx , for ≤x ≤ / n ; f ) = , for x > Later , on pages - 132 , he states the following theorem , < quote>""Lorsque les differens termes de la série sont des fonctions d'une même variable x , continues par rapport à cette variable dans le voisinage d'une valeur particulière pour laquelle la série est convergente , la somme s de la série est aussi , dans le voisinage de cette valuer particulière , fonction continue de x. "" < /quote > In , when the terms of a series are functions in the same variable x , each function being continuous in the neighbourhood of a particular value for which the series converges , then the sum of the series itself will be continuous in that neighbourhood . But this certainly does n't hold true for our example f ) . Indeed , for this theorem , Cauchy appears to assume a somewhat stronger definition of continuity , and hence convergence than he himself has has stated . There has also been much progress on making calculus more rigorous . has been at the forefront of this effort , and his Résumé ( ) is a highly significant work . It has , until recently , been believed that every function can be expanded as a series . Indeed 's attempt to set up a rigorous framework for calculus through his des fonctions analytique ( ) was based on the assumption that a function f could , in general , be expressed as a power series of the form ) = f(x ) + a1i + a2i2 + ... where i was an arbitrary increment . The derivatives of f could then be defined from this increment . In Résum éCauchy provides a counter example to this assumption , hence invalidating 's approach . Cauchy has instead chosen to define the derivative of a function , where it exists , as a limit . < fnote > see , , notes for History of Mathematics , page < /fnote > Due to the likes of Ampère and Cauchy , we are entering a new , far more rigorous era in real analysis . Over we are likely to find that the rules of differential calculus we have come to take for granted do not lend themselves well to some of the more unusual functions that Abel and others have begun to consider - functions that were either disregarded , or simply slipped the attention of Fourier and Lagrange .",1
"in saw an unprecedented series of increasingly violent urban riots in almost all the major inner - city areas . These were initially met with immense shock from the public and politicians as although has a long history of disorder ; from there were ' no riots on streets ' ( Benyon and [ eds ] ) . However , by , saturating media coverage and the frequency of urban riots ensured they became a normalized and accepted part of the socio - political climate . This normalisation of urban disorder in society continues with the riots of and the riots of . From a historical approach , E.P ( in Waddington ) argued that collective action was not apolitical but rooted in what he terms the moral economy of the crowd comprising of popular conceptions of justice . Thus for crowd action is determined by legitimising notions of defending traditional rights and customs . ( ) applies this perspective to the study of riots arguing that disorder occurs when the relatively powerless are denied something they feel entitled to . This essay will use this approach to understand the causes for the eighties riots including the media and government responses influenced by the crowd psychology perspective ; the police and racial tensions and the effect of heightened socio - economic deprivation and political exclusion . Therefore the short - term triggers and immediate causes of the riots will be examined alongside the structurally based root causes . 's government and the mainstream media 's response to the urban riots displayed the traditional approach attributing them to the inherent ' wickedness ' of the rioters . This perspective considers collective violence as an aberration perpetuated by the irrational ' criminal ' elements of society and simply revealing the basic flaws and ' ugly facts about human nature ' ( quoted in and [ eds ] , p. ) . This corresponds to the view that the existing structures of society are adequate thus there is no justification for agitation . Moreover , the government 's reaction clearly indicates institutional racism as the disorder was seen as an ' attack on our way of life ' ( Sir quoted in and [ eds ] , p. ) . Therefore ethnic minority and immigrant ' alien ' cultures were blamed as the media and cabinet portrayed agitation as contradistinctive to culture . However , this is a complete misnomer as history is littered with frequent crowd action and violent riot . The Conservative explanation for the urban disorders was heavily influenced by and his Crowd Psychology perspective . ( , p. ) argues that in a crowd cultivated individuals ' descend several rungs in the ladder of civilisation ' becoming barbarians . Crowd behaviour , for , lowers the level of morality and is fundamentally irrational . He believed collective phenomenon is explained by the contagion of emotion that grips crowds thus man is ' no longer himself , but has become an automaton ' ( , p. ) . This conception of contagion can be seen in the description of ' copycat ' riots in , Liverpool etc following the riot ; however as ( ) argues this is a vast oversimplification . Moreover , psychological reductionism gives primacy to individual motivations neglecting important socio - cultural influences . The fundamental problem with the Le Bon influenced Conservative perspective is that rioters are not behaving irrational they have fully rational and often even justifiable reasons for their collective agitation . The crowd behaviour in urban disorders was very selective and purposive though not formally organised ; as ( , p. ) argues riot theory demands a ' notion of spontaneity that does not devalue the rationality of individuals ' . Therefore it was not the irrationally criminal human element that caused the rioting as this does not explain why agitation only occur in deprived inner - city areas . The social context of violent collective action is , as such , a crucial explanatory factor as it was not the basic flaws in humans but the basic flaws in society that led to urban disorder . Police policy and the dominant style of policing are a reflection of the political and ideological climate of a state . Correspondingly from a perspective riots are an explicit challenge to the ' monopoly of legal violence ... held by the police as agents of the state ' ( Keith , p. ) . Therefore there is a definite link between in an increase in coercive styles of policing and the frequency of violent collective action . The riots of were almost all triggered by an encounter between the police and black youths . ( in Della Porta [ eds ] ) argues there was a shift in public order policing from a minimal force , community based style to a process of militarization in . ( in Della Porta [ eds ] 1998 , p. ) argues the police force historically developed a ' cultivation of a non - militaristic image ' with civil and unarmed officers . In contrast to colonial policing with its militaristic and oppressive stance in suppressing protest . However , the late seventies with the economic crisis and subsequent change in political climate led to a new more aggressive style of policing with new equipment , uniforms , training and organisation . This transformation of the police force led to more violent conflict on the streets as there is a ' short distance between ... coercive facet of policing and the brutal realization of violent conflict on the streets ' ( Keith , p.94 ) . In the context of urban disorder the increasingly coercive style of policing is intrinsically linked to a drastic deterioration of relations between the inner - city black community especially black youths and the police . ( ) argues there was a transformation of urban riots in the from the inter - racial clashes of to the battles between black people and the police . He focuses on the riot arguing they had a ' contrasting notion of rights ' ( Waddington , ) with conflict between black youth subcultural recreational marijuana use and police law - enforcement drug crackdowns . He also sees similar norms of behaviour in black youth and the police with both displaying machismo and solidarity ; as a cause of conflict as both groups are unwilling to negotiate or compromise . Moreover , the very real fact of police racial discrimination both individual and institutional meant the black community became ' indignant and resentful ... suspicious of everything they ( the police ) did ' ( Lord quoted in and [ eds ] ) . The ' stop and search ' operations were a major source of discontent with perceived targeting of black people and widespread accusations of police abuse . Therefore a major cause for the urban riots in was the massively heightened tensions between the police and the inner - city deprived black community . However , as ( in and [ eds ] , p. ) argues race is a substantial factor but urban disorder is not exclusively a question of race . The police and societal discrimination experienced by the black community is intrinsically interlinked with their socio - economic deprivation and alienation . Therefore in examining the urban riots of , one must explore questions of class intertwined with questions of race . For and ( , p.14 ) the central factor that causes riots is social injustice as the ' fundamental root of urban unrest appears to be unjust treatment ' . The riots were not just a result of police policies or practices but also of structural factors of racial discrimination , social deprivation , unemployment and political exclusion leading to the alienation of black people from society . The late seventies saw an economic crisis resulting in high unemployment and soaring inflation . The black population experienced economic difficulty particularly acutely as racial discrimination meant they were ' doubly disadvantaged ' ( in and [ eds ] , p. ) ; thus their deprivation was compounded by their racial identity . Moreover , the levels of unemployment were particularly high in black communities with of black youths in without work ( Waddington , p. ) . The inner - city black community also experience dire housing ; poor education and social service provision ; inadequate recreation and high crime levels . Their position was exacerbated and compounded by the political climate with the governments ' assault on collective social provision ' ( in and [ eds ] , p. ) . Under the underclass massively increased including many black people and were abandoned by the state . Added to their socio - economic deprivation , the black community also suffered from political exclusion and a sense of powerlessness . The top - down approach to local government and the few opportunities for articulating pressure meant decisions were imposed on these communities . Deprived black communities lacked a political voice thus urban disorder was the only outlet for their frustration and resentment as and ( , p. ) ' riots are the ballot boxes of the poor ' . In conclusion , the combination of police policy and practices and the socio - economic deprivation and political exclusion of the black community ; lead to their alienation from society . The rioters were not irrational driven by ' criminal ' instincts but using their only option to express their frustration and anger towards a society that abandon them . Thus they ' repudiated political authority ' ( and , p. ) as there was widespread disenchantment with political procedures , undermined confidence in society 's institutions and eroded value consensus . The central factor was , as such , a question of injustice with the rioters disregarding authority and rejecting what they consider corrupt and unfair practices . Consequently the cumulative alienation of black communities especially of black youth ; fundamental lead to the violent explosions on streets .","This essay examines the policy debate , in the and The newspapers , surrounding proposals to tackle the problem of black male educational underachievement . The newspaper series involves articles written from till including articles from the and from The . The newspaper stories reported on , the chairman of , idea that separate classes for black boys may help them achieve better results at school . This policy debate deals with the perceived failure of black boys in education and involves an examination of the intertwining relations of gender , ethnicity and class . However , it must be noted that both masculinity and race are not uniform social categories thus one must be aware of multiple masculinities and the diversity of ethnicity . To answer this question , one must examine and compare the reasons given in the articles for the underachievement of black boys . These include the attitudes and procedures of teachers and schools ; the lack of black male role models and peer group pressure . One must also consider masculinities , more specifically cultural notions of black masculinity ; the reporting of class issues ; the neglect of black girls ' achievements and the complexity of the concept of race . This debate must be seen within the context of the wider moral panic surrounding the perceived underachievement of boys in schools . when exam results are announced there is media uproar concerning the educational ' failure ' of boys in comparison with the success of girls . Feminist have critiqued this popular discourse as it sees the under - attainment of boys as unnatural and against the traditional division of labour . It is certainly questionable whether there would be such hysteria if girls were achieving lower results than boys . Archer ( : ) argues the ' crisis has been sensationalised and exaggerated ' neglecting the under - representation of working class girls in higher education . Under - attainment in education is thus divided by gender in popular debates but usually associated with class division in academic texts . Nonetheless the racial and ethnic element must also be considered ; even if it is ' mostly invisible at the level of theory ' it still remains ' hyper - visible within popular thinking ' ( Archer , : ) . Therefore this essay deals with the discussion surrounding black masculinity and education policy . Initially there will be an examination of the newspaper articles reasons for the ' failure ' of black boys in education . Both the and The specifically link black culture and community with underachievement and failure . is quoted as saying ' many black boys were suffering from a culture ... ' and that there is a ' wall of attitude ' ( Guardian 7 th March 2005 ) that surrounds them . These cultural values involve the belief that it is not cool to be clever and traditions of resistance to schooling specific to black masculinity . The newspapers agree that black boys perform badly because they have low expectations and low aspirations . Nevertheless The Times takes this further associating black culture with crime and oppositional aspirations citing ' bling - bling and gangster rap culture ' ( The , th ) as reasons for educational failure . However , the media linking black culture with underachievement and criminality is a ' racist misrecognition of the diversity of black experience ' ( an Ghaill , : ) . Arguably dominant representations of black masculinity reflect the moral panic surrounding the ' problem category of black youth ... ( as a ) threat to civil order ' ( Marriot in Mac an Ghaill , : ) . Therefore the popular discourses that define black youth as criminal and deviant can be seen to reinforce negative racist stereotypes . Cultural values are not the sole creator of low expectations ; institutional racist attitudes and negative stereotyping also play a role in creating the low aspirations and underachievement of black youth . The nonetheless places emphasis on the role of peer group culture in shaping the attitudes of black young men . As an alternative to proposals ' The interviews education consultant who argues that ' we should be fostering peer pressure among them to succeed , th ) . 's educational programme involves taking bright black boys to for a month once a year to study science and medicine . Thus The is advocating competitive individualism to create aspirations ; ensuring a number of high achievers become role models for the rest . However , this policy is not inclusive and does not tackle the problem of the boys left behind . Moreover , the over - emphasis on black masculinity and black culture overlooks the link between all masculinities , schooling and peer group pressure . Masculine cultures of resistance to schooling are present in all races and ethnic groups . Mac an Ghaill and Haywood ( in an Ghaill , 2000 ) argue that schools create masculinities through a process of negotiation , acceptance and rejection . Male peer groups police masculinity as they are ' one of the most oppressive arenas for the production and regulation of masculinity ' ( Mac an Ghaill and Haywood in Mac an Ghaill , : ) . Mental work is seen as effeminate and homosexual ( Epstein , ) thus the dominant forms of masculinity are in opposition to striving for academic success . Therefore it is not only black peer groups that castigate working hard at school as feminate and unmanly . ( in Epstein , ) study of black boys in an inner - city comprehensive found that conformists had to deal with a conflict between the culture of the peer group and the values of the school . found the boys were unable to resolve this conflict as the ' power and pressure of the peer group demands anti - school hyper masculinity ' ( , : ) . However , this is not only an attribute of black masculinities at school as ( : ) argues ' the main demand on boys from within their peer culture ... is to appear to do little or no work ' . Thus hegemonic masculinity in schools discourages the pursuit of academic achievement as it considered effeminate and uncool . Nonetheless this rejection of school values is not solely a feature of black culture . Both newspapers focus on the black community and black cultural values as the problem highlighting faulty attitudes , low aspirations and behavioural problems . As argues there is debate whether ' the problem lies in the Afro - Caribbean culture or with racial conflict in this country ' ( Head , : 44).The underachievement of working - class white boys is seen as outside their control where as black boys ' failure ' is due to their own faulty attitudes ( Archer , ) . Therefore these contemporary policy discourses ' largely dismiss the role of structural inequalities , instead focussing on problems within groups ' ( Archer , : ) . Thus both newspapers neglect the structural causes of black youth underachievement and as ( : ) argues popular discourses ' treat disadvantaged groups as the source of their own problems ' . group culture is not however the only reason given for the black male underachievement ; teacher behaviour and school procedures also feature in the articles . Both newspapers cited ' low teacher expectation ' ( The , th ) and '' low expectations by schools ' ( , ) as explanations for the lower achievement of black male youth . Mac an Ghaill and Haywood ( in an Ghaill , ) found that when schools sort students into academic hierarchies they formally identify some boys as failures ; these boys have to find ' alternative resources to validate masculinity ... ( by ) resisting school demands and expectations ' ( Mac an Ghaill and Haywood in Mac an Ghaill , : ) . If schools have low expectations of black boys , they are placed in the lower sets and are more likely to reject the values of the school . Therefore creating a self - fulfilling prophecy whereby young black boys build a culture of resistance towards the teachers and schooling system . Nonetheless in the , argues that ' it is not good enough to blame their underperformance on "" racist attitudes "" of white teachers ' ( , st ) . He contends that this is a simplistic argument as and boys succeeded and achieve good results . However , an 's ( ) study of relations between teachers and students in the schooling of black youth argues widespread racism has serious negative implications . His ethnographic study of an inner - city comprehensive found that the teachers were either overtly racist or worked implicitly in a racist framework . His work divided teachers into old disciplinarians and new realists who believed in strong hierarchy and opposed progressive development ; and liberals who believed in child - centred learning and tended to be left - leaning . The new realists and old disciplinarians could be overtly racist and supported the structures of the school that discriminated against black students . Moreover , even the liberal teachers were implicitly racist by unknowingly accepting racial stereotypes and working within the racist institutional structure . He found evidence of this in the ' teachers ' response to the black community and the system of racist stereotyping that operated within the school ' ( Mac an Ghaill , : ) . The teachers were embedded with racist stereotypes from wider society from which they would generalise the particular behaviour of some black youths to the social group as a whole . Black boys were identified as low ability with discipline problems where as boys were consider to be conformists who performed well . an ( : ) concludes that ' all teacher groups adopted the states conception , which perceives black youth rather than racism as the problem ' . Moreover , Sewell ( in Epstein , : ) argues that ' negative teacher expectation ' created a difficult social image of black students and grouped them all together . This negative image was linked to the believed phallocentric subculture of black boys and caused the ' black male presence ... ( to be ) perceived by some teachers as threatening ' ( , : ) . However , contends that this negative expectation and social image was overcome by most black students who he identifies as conformists . He also describes retreatist black students who avoid conflict with teachers and were perceived as non - threatening . Thus illustrating that there is no uniform black masculine experience in schools and we need to ' deconstruct stereotypes of black males ' ( , : ) found in schools , society and the media . The lack of black male role models was also identified by both newspapers as a problem leading to the educational underachievement of black boys . argues we need more black male teachers as there is an ' absence of black male role models in education ' ( The , th ) . Both newspapers reported ' call for ' tougher action against black fathers ' ( , th ) suggesting they be denied access to their sons if they refused to attend parent 's evenings . These proposals contain the assumption that most black men live separately from their children and are incompetent fathers . It is also assumed that black mothers have no control or authority over their sons . Therefore the articles contain cultural notions of black fatherhood , black lifestyles and black masculinities . Moreover , both newspapers specifically highlight the race of their spokespeople on these proposals suggesting only black people can speak out on ' black ' issues . The cites a black Labour peer and another prominent black figure ' ( The , th ) and the quotes another black voice ' ( , th ) . However , ' black ' is not a shared uniform culture as there is a ' bewildering diversity of subject positions , social experience and cultural identities which constitute "" blackness "" as a social category ' ( an Ghaill , 2000 : ) . ( : ) argues that ' ' and ' Black ' are problematic terms , finding that the ' interests of groups were obscured and subsumed by those of and groups ' . Marion FitzGerald in the ( st ) criticises for ignoring the complexity of the interplay between race and education . She argues is guilty of ' statistical racism ' for neglecting the failure of boys and grouping together all and pupils creating ' crude images ' ( , st ) . FitzGerald argues that the educational under - attainment of some black boys is due to a complicated inter - relationship between class , gender and ethnicity ; therefore one can not ' reduce individuals to the single division of their ethnic classification ' ( , st ) . Therefore emphasis on race is detrimental as these social groupings are interlinked and their effects are interdependent . Both newspapers highlight the race of their spokespeople and identify similar reasons for the underachievement of black boys including peer group pressure , teacher 's attitudes and lack of black male role models . However , they do differ in their reporting styles and support for ; The sensationalises the proposals and is critical of where as the is more in favour of his proposals . is alleged to be ' stirring up a hornet 's nest ... by proposing the "" shock treatment "" ... ' ( The , th ) ; this language suggests the proposals are of a radical nature and have caused a major row . In defence of the argued that the ' misleading front page splash in the ' ( ) insinuated that ' suggestions were concrete and extreme ; when in reality they were tentative ideas . The ' reports that a ' row over whether black boys should be segregated at schools erupted ( ) where as the defends proposals arguing his ' complex proposals were reduced to segregation ' ( ) . The differing approaches to the news story in the and The are a reflection of their different political perspectives . With the as a left - leaning liberal paper more in favour of and the right - wing more critical of his progressive proposals . However , The Times ' sensationalised and conflictual style of reporting also demonstrates earlier discussed theories of moral panics over ' boys in crisis ' ( Archer , : ) and the problem category of black youth ( an Ghaill , ) . The emphasis on conflict in The is a good example of the sensationalised underachieving boys debate and the fears of ungovernable young black boys that reinforcing racist stereotypes . These public debates surrounding the crisis in masculinity and underlying perceived threat of black masculinity have led to the neglect of black girls in popular discourse . This is reflected in these articles as the focus is almost totally on black boys in both newspapers thus massively overlooking the extent of academic achievement by black female pupils . The highlights that ' black girls achieved far better results than boys ' ( ) and the notes that ' nearly half these boys ' sisters make the grade , despite growing up in the same homes ' ( ) . Therefore there is an acknowledgement of the gender gap in educational achievement between black boys and girls . Nonetheless there is no explanation of why black girls are able to achieve ; the articles only ask why so many black boys fail not why black girls succeed . Black feminist academics have attempted to redress the neglect of black female experience . argues that black girls do relatively well at school but this is rarely discussed as ' the phenomenon of black female scholastic success has been consistently neglected ' ( : ) . There has been a ' marginalisation of the gender issue ' ( , : ) in research on gender and education whereby the underachievement of boys has become the overriding concern . Sewell ( in Epstein : ) argues that black girls are better able to resolve the conflict between school value and peer culture by being ' pro - education and not pro - school ' . Nonetheless to fully understand the causes of the underachievement of black boys in the education system ; popular discourses and academic research must further address the negotiation of the schooling process by black girls . Only by understanding the complex interplay between the ethnicity , class and gender can the under - attainment of black boys be fully conceived . The articles do not mention class issues , inequality or social exclusion . However , the reports ' ideas on the detrimental effects of an unequal society arguing black underachievement is ' costing the whole community ' ( ) leaving the boys unemployable and unable to participate in society . The alienation and social exclusion of black youth are alluded to ; argues the educational systems intractable failures are ' detaching the - Caribbean community from the rest of society ' ( , st ) . He also argues ' accumulating inequalities ' ( , st ) are in danger of creating a permanent underclass thus illustrating the liberal ideal of the necessity of education as a social leveller and route out of poverty . However , ' argue that ' the main cause of the performance differential is definitely not poverty ' ( , st ) as he argues more well - off blacks are still likely to fail . Therefore illustrating the changing political discourse from focussing on class issues to social exclusion ; under New Labour structural inequalities like ' issues of race and ethnicity are more likely to be subsumed within current policy concerns about social exclusion ' ( Archer , : ) . Nonetheless , Marion FitzGerald 's article ( st June 2005 ) in the asserts the class nature of the problem arguing the gender gap is greatest ; not between black boys and girls as it is a ' yawning chasm ' between poor boys and girls . FitzGerald argues focus on race is ' misleading and dangerously simplistic ' ( , st ) as it fails to contextualise the problem by prioritising race over class . She links male underachievement with deprivation arguing it is not just the black group that is disproportionally affected by the gender gap . The classic study of working class boys and underachievement in schools is by ( ) who explored why working class kids end up with working class jobs . His ethnographic study found that working class boys held a shared sense of community linked to their class that fostered an ' counter - school culture ' ( , : ) . found that school for working class boys was for strengthening peer group networks and building up a culture of resistance to authority . Defiance of schooling and working class culture are intrinsically linked thus FitzGerald emphasis on the association between class and educational underachievement is important . However , arguably arguments are somewhat outdated with the decline in the heavy industries and the correspondingly decline in traditional working class communities . Moreover , has been criticized for a ' failure to conceptualize the range of masculinities ' ( Mac an Ghaill and Haywood in Mac an Ghaill 2000 , p. ) and does not take into account other forms of resistance to schooling such as retreatism . Therefore again social relations such as class can not be analysed in isolation from other social categories . Nonetheless FitzGerald and the 's reporting of the policy debate highlights class and inequality as a factor in the underachievement of black boys ; that is neglected by the . In conclusion , articles in both newspapers associate the problems of black boys ' educational underachievement with problems inherent in black cultural values and faulty attitudes . Therefore reinforcing negative racist stereotypes and contributing to the moral panic surrounding the crisis in masculinity and the perceived deviance of black youth . Nonetheless the low teacher and school expectation is also recognised as a major cause for the ' failure ' of black boys ; thus recognising that external factors also play a role . Marion FitzGerald in the highlights structural inequalities such as class as a major contributor to the poor educational standards of young black men . The issues of social exclusion , class and inequality are neglected by the more right - wing ; it prioritises ' an individualistic solution to the problem by fostering competition between black boys . However , to fully understand the reasons for the under - attainment of black boys in the education system ; popular discourses and academic texts must analyse the complex interplay between relations of class , gender and ethnicity .",1
"This essay will analyse the extent to which current Western understandings of are informed by Orientalist assumptions . In order to address the question appropriately , it is , of course , necessary to define the term and therefore give a brief description of the expression and its origins . summarizes as ' a Western style of domination and authority , through which the is restructured ' . A noticeable change in is from where ideas have tended to generate . Initially , and were at the forefront of the movement but since , has led the way . However , perceptions are still based on assumptions . Films , television and modern media have reinforced ideas , while there are very few literary references to Orientals leading to a dehumanized perception of Orientals . Finally , the influence of culture may have even intensified Orientalism . One could even argue that the is Orientalizing itself ! The essay will , therefore , come to the conclusion that popular Western understandings of are still almost exclusively framed within the narrow parameters of the ideas of Orientalism . < fnote > William D. Hart , and ( , ) , p. . < /fnote > An Orientalist was the term designed by to describe someone with a scholarly knowledge of the . The was a invention and covered an area including and . The fact that this vast geographical mass was lumped together under broad title shows the racism inherent in the term itself . Orientalism originated in and the came from a conservative tradition spanning from . Orientalism was used by to explain the Western understanding of the East . It was ' a way of coming to terms with the that is based on the 's special place in Western experience ' . In general , according to , the Western scholars wrote about the in negative terms . He outlines the Western scholars ' perspective : ' There are , and there are Orientals . The former dominate ; the latter must be dominated , which usually means having their land occupied , their internal affairs rigidly controlled ' .   < fnote > , Orientalism ( , ) , p. . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . p. . < /fnote > There was a general feeling of intellectual authority over the within Western culture . A feature of relations was that always seemed to be in a position of strength . For , ' Western domination of the non - Western world [ was ] not some arbitrary phenomenon but a conscious and purposive process governed by the will and intention of individuals as well as by institutional imperatives . "" themselves were also portrayed in a negative light . They were seen as irrational , depraved , childlike , and ' different ' and the as rational , virtuous , mature , ' normal ' . Embedded in the understanding of Orientalism was a definite sense of the ' Self ' and the ' Other ' : ' For Orientalism was ultimately a political vision of reality whose structure promoted the difference between the familiar ( , the , "" us "" ) and the strange ( the , the , "" them "" ) . "" argues that is ' the quintessential Western representation of otherness , the constitutive other of the , that without which there would be no West ' . The was seen as undeveloped and inferior compared to the superior , rational and developed . To summarize , therefore , in 's own words , ' Orientalism is the generic term that I have been employing to describe the approach to the ; Orientalism is the discipline by which the was ( and is ) approached systematically , as a topic of learning , discovery and practice . "" However , this discipline was inherently racist and portrayed the as backward and consequently in need of civilisation whilst also justifying the West 's domination over the . < fnote > Bart Moore - Gilbert , Postcolonial Theory : Contexts , Practices , Politics ( , ) , p. < /fnote><fnote > Said , Orientalism , p. . < /fnote><fnote > William D. Hart , and ( , ) , p. . < /fnote><fnote > Said , Orientalism , p. . < /fnote > Now that the expression has been defined , it is thus possible to examine the extent to which understandings of are still informed by Orientalist assumptions . of the major changes in the 's portrayal of the is from where the assumptions are generated . Previously , Orientalism was dominated by and perceptions of the due to their sprawling global Empires . However , since , has gained in significance on the world geopolitical stage and has therefore taken the lead in developing Orientalism : ' and no longer occupy center stage in world politics ; the imperium has displaced them . "" A consequence of this has been a shift away from Orientals in and towards a greater focus on the of . Indeed , ' Since , and more noticeably after each of the - Israeli wars , has become a figure in popular culture . "" even states that the has been transformed from a faintly outlined stereotype to an accepted caricature . This is extremely relevant considering the recent cartoons depicting as suicide bombers . < fnote > Ibid , p. . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. - 5 . < /fnote > Another difference with was that the were depicted as ' ' . They were presented as having sharply hooked noses with evil leers on their faces . There was a transfer of anti - Semitism from the Jew onto the . This was done smoothly since the figure was essentially the same . The was seen as an obstacle to 's creation in . The change in focus of depiction , however , does not affect the fact that the perception of the is still based on assumptions : ' These contemporary Orientalist attitudes flood the press and the popular mind . , for example , are thought of as camel - riding , terroristic , hook - nosed , venal lechers whose undeserved wealth is an affront to real civilisation . "" This can be seen with the current issue regarding the increased oil and gas prices . ' Always there lurks the assumption that although the Western consumer belongs to a numerical minority , he is entitled to own or expend ... the majority of the world resources . Why ? Because he , unlike the , is a true human being . "" The West feels impotent in relation to the price increases that the states have implemented which it feels are completely unnecessary . In fact , in this particular case , the states are merely following Western ideology : capitalism . A shortage , or perceived shortage , of oil and gas has led to a greater demand , which in turn has led to higher prices . The West can not bear the thought of Orientals making huge profits at their expense , which they see as unjustified . The idea of the greedy milking the was born after the war where were depicted ' standing behind a gasoline pump turned up consistently . '   < fnote > Ibid , p. . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote > Generally , ' there has been a popular reinforcement of the stereotypes by which the is viewed . Television , the films and all the media 's resources have forced information into more and more standardized molds ' . Films and television present the as ' sadistic , treacherous , low . Slave trader , camel driver , moneychanger , colourful scoundrel : these are some of the traditional roles in the cinema . "" Orientals are commonly presented as more sinister in modern times rather than just helpless as was the case in the past . In newsreels or newspapers are always shown in large numbers . There is little individuality and few personal characteristics or experiences are shown . Most of the pictures depict mass rage or misery . ' Lurking behind all of these images is the menace of jihad . Consequence : a fear that ( or ) will take over the world . "" Numerous depictions of the are still informed by Orientalist assumptions . The hero is usually depicted as virtuous and wholesome , while the ' Other ' is often . In the film , despite the protagonist being , he displays many characteristics , while , his enemy , is depicted as the stereotypical despotic figure with the aforementioned hooked nose and leering face . The internet has also given rise to many prejudices . There is a general idea that the white man is at the apex of civilisation . Orientals are seen as tremendously fanatical . < fnote > Ibid , p. . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. . < /fnote > In the West 's attention to the there are also very few literary references to . Instead , ' facts ' seem to be of far greater importance keeping the region ' emasculated , reduced to "" attitudes , "" "" trends , "" statistics : in short , dehumanized ' . Indeed , argues that of is largely a ' chronology of battles , reigns , and deaths , rises and heydays , comings and passings , written for the most part in a ghastly monotone . "" Overall , there is a general popular and prejudice in the , which is reflected in . ' There are good ( the ones who do as they are told ) and bad ( who do not , and are therefore terrorists ) . "" There has also been an almost total absence of any cultural position making it impossible either to identify with or dispassionately to discuss the or . has been ' identified with politics , oil economics , and the simple - minded dichotomy of freedom - loving , democratic and evil , totalitarian , and terroristic ' .   < fnote > Ibid , p. . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. . < /fnote > Said argues that is set to continue because the tendencies of culture in are guided by and models . ' There is a vast standardization of taste in the region , symbolized not only by transistors , blue jeans , and but also by cultural images of the supplied by mass media and consumed unthinkingly by the mass television audience . "" Overall , the modern perpetuates its own Orientalizing . ' We hear much talk these days about the emergence of a new world order ... [ However , ] in large measure , global unification seems to be propelled by the dictates of the global market or world economy , a market that , in turn , is governed by the interests of leading industrial or postindustrial nations . "" That is , the so - called new world order is just another form of . The expects the to develop along similar lines to itself indicating that the West believes its economic development to be the supreme model , indicating claims to superiority on the part of Western modernity . Conversely , the West seems to fear rapid economic expansion , particularly the growth of . It expects the to develop along Western lines but at a rate dictated by the . For example , within there have been a number of high profile instances of companies seeking to buy firms . However , they have been rejected despite bidding higher amounts than the companies which ultimately bought the companies in question . This was due to opposition from politicians who have sought to prevent companies from gaining a foothold in the market . seems , therefore , to have no qualms with meddling in other countries ' international economies but when the situation is reversed , it is another matter entirely . < fnote > Ibid , p. . < /fnote><fnote > Fred Dallmayr , Beyond Orientalism : Essays on , ( , ) , p. . < /fnote > Therefore , in conclusion , Western understandings of continue to be dominated by assumptions . Despite a change in focus on the Orientals themselves , due to replacing and forms of the discourse , the ideas are still underpinned by assumptions . Television , films and modern media have all helped to reinforce Orientalism : the Orientals are depicted as dehumanized since they are presented in large numbers often in scenes of despair and misery . The influence of culture has even meant that to a certain degree the is Orientalizing itself . In summary , ' despite its failures , its lamentable jargon , its scarcely concealed racism , its paper - thin intellectual apparatus , Orientalism flourishes today ' . Even though wrote this , this sentence , and much of ' Orientalism ' in general , is still definitely applicable . < fnote > Said , Orientalism , p. . < /fnote >","This essay will assess the most common interpretations of of in trying to discover whether the were successful because they had a mass following . It will examine whether the insurrection was a coup d'état conducted by a small and purely self - interested faction , acting entirely for their own benefit - the view subscribed to by many western liberal historians , or whether the successful insurrection was due to the mass support of the people for , which was merely realizing their demands - a rigidly enforced interpretation which all authors were forced to portray . The final interpretation and the one that this essay will subscribe to is that the came to power in because they had the support of an important minority in society , namely the workers and soldiers , and that the peasants also saw them as the best potential provider of their wishes at the time , especially regarding the re - distribution of the land . Therefore , there was no real opposition to the coup but it would be wrong to describe them as having popular support . The essay will also examine other decisive factors which meant the were successful in their quest for power , including the significance of 's role in the as well as the mistakes and unpopularity of . Some historians , the vast majority of whom were living in under rule , believe that the had the support of the masses in and this was the primary reason for their success - ' In the view , the triumph was based upon its success in winning the support of nothing less than a majority of the population . "" They argue that the managed to educate the people and form a new mass consciousness . Indeed , , the membership of the party rose from to . The party even managed to attract the support of the peasants - ' Nevertheless the party succeeded in winning [ the peasants ] over to its programme ... In the words of , "" Here was objective proof , proof not in words , but in deeds , of the people coming over to the side of the . "" ' The increase in support for was largely from onwards and their proposals began to be passed in the in various cities . had proved that the had the support of the vast majority of the workers , soldiers and sailors . After , support began to grow even more rapidly as they put forward the motion of a left wing dominated government , which the passed - ' the social polarization of the summer gave the their real mass following as a party which based its main appeal on the plebian rejection of all superordinate authority . "" committee ) of now had members , of whom were thus stood at the head of the institution that was most representative of the popular movement . "" This helped to increase their popularity still further - ' During Bolshevism was growing almost throughout the entire breadth of the land . "" They were the largest party in the country after polling in elections - a massive rise of in . This trend continued as the scored a victory in the local elections receiving 52 per cent of the total vote cast ' winning an outright majority in of the districts . "" The total number of voters had doubled . < fnote > , Rethinking ( , ) , p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote><fnote , A People 's Tragedy : 1891 - 1924 ( , ) , p. < /fnote><fnote > Christopher Read , From Tsar to : the people and their revolution , ) , p. < /fnote><fnote , The History of , Vol . ( , ) , p. < /fnote><fnote > Diane Koenker , and , ) , p. < /fnote><quote>[The ] became the party of the masses because they were always there , guiding both in the great things and small the whole life of the factories and the barracks . The masses lived and breathed together with the . They were wholly in the hands of and Trotsky , Vol . II , p. < /fnote > Bolshevik support grew in the cities with the workers , on the front with the soldiers and in the countryside with the peasants , especially the closer it got to Bolshevism took possession of the country . The Bolsheviks became an unconquerable power . The people were with them . "" Early interpretations even depicted the itself as being a popular Revolution with of people participating . In his book "" Red : "" , quotes from the official history of the revolution , "" it was an uprising of of workers and peasants , the inevitable struggle of proletariat against bourgeoisie "" . Films such as 's "" "" and numerous paintings also portray this image , especially of the storming of . Under the , the < fnote > , The History of , Vol . III ( , ) , p. < /fnote><fnote > R. Daniels , Red : ( , ) , p. < /fnote > Revolution became known as "" The Great Socialist Revolution "" . However , even most historians generally agree that there were in fact only a small number of participants in the itself . argues that it was impossible for the masses to take power anyway - ' just as a blacksmith can not seize the red hot iron in his naked hand , so the proletarian can not seize the power , it has to have an organisation accommodated to this task . "" He argued that this organization was the soviet but that ' the by themselves do not settle the question ... [ However ] when headed by a revolutionary party the soviet consciously and in good season strives towards a conquest of power . "" The party he is referring to are of course the , and he uses this argument to justify their seizure of power . Thus , soviet historians maintain that despite only a small proportion of the population being involved in , the still had mass support for their actions from the masses . , in particular refutes the claim that it was a Revolution favoured only by a small minority of people - ' As a matter of fact it was the most popular mass - insurrection in all history . "" They support this claim by arguing that the support of the masses can best be seen in the quick and largely peaceful transition of power to the all over the country after . Therefore , historians generally believe that the were successful in their quest for power because they enjoyed the popular support of the masses , even though most agree that only a small fraction of society actually participated in the Revolution itself - ' the victory was thus in the truest sense democratic and popular , the political expression and culmination of explosive class struggle . ' < fnote > Trotsky , . III , p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote><fnote , p. < /fnote > In stark contrast , however , other historians offer a completely different view : that the was conducted by a very small , self - interested group of people , who only wanted power for themselves , and were not acting in favour of the masses - ' the claim that [ they ] represent the true interests of the masses [ is ] an arrogant illusion born of a fundamentally false doctrine . "" They argued that the effectively hi - jacked the mass movement in order to obtain power but then curbed and ultimately crushed it after . They stated that the were the complete antithesis of the popular and democratic movement that they supposedly stood for and instead relied on organization and ruthlessness for their success . They were also considered lucky as ' power lay in the street at the mercy of any organized group of determined men . "" This was the perfect opportunity for the scheming party to seize power . Instead of having the support of the whole of the population as the historians had argued , the liberals stated that the never had popular support - < fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote><fnote > Adam Ulam , and the ( , ) , p. < /fnote><quote > their following in the nation at large was restricted to a narrow minority among the working class , itself a small fraction of the total population . In the army their support was patchy and ephemeral . They never made any progress among the peasantry ... [ Instead ] they were able to create the illusion of mass support owed to intrigue , subterfuge and infiltration than genuine popularity.</quote><fnote , p. < /fnote > The liberals rejected the idea of mass political consciousness among the people . The were merely opportunists who wanted power and had not educated the masses . ' itself epitomized the approach ... It was an act of supreme opportunism . The could never secure power through a democratic route . "" The liberals point to the election results following as proof of a lack of support for the , where the only won of the votes - ' the evidence from elections [ showed ] that only a minority of the population wanted the in power . "" They also highlight the antipathy of the in to seize power as well as the strong opposition that they faced there . The liberal historians also draw attention to the devious ways in which the operated , by making a number of propaganda promises to the public to attract support , which they then failed to fulfil . of the slogans was "" Peace without Indemnity "" , but following the Treaty of Brest - Litovsk , which signed with , was forced to pay gold roubles . Another slogan was "" to the ! "" - but which , after the coup , other groups were forced to leave , enabling them to rule virtually unchallenged . had been promised land , but "" were not given the land as property , only permitted its use "" . This abandonment of promises by can be interpreted as a conscious decision not to take power for the public , as claimed , but purely for the benefit of the party itself . In 's book featuring an interview between and , accounts for 's success : "" Demagogy , the promised the moon , but they got civil war : land to the peasants , but food was taken away ; workers ' self - management which did n't , more liberties still , and abolished them one after the other "" . Therefore , the liberal historians believed that the never had the popular approval of the masses for their coup , which they consequently regarded as illegitimate . states that < fnote > Ibid , p.176 < /fnote><fnote > Robert Service , in ( , ) p. < /fnote><fnote , The Making of Modern ( , ) , p. < /fnote><fnote > E. Campling , How and Why : ( , ) , p. < /fnote><quote > one of the basic misconceptions of is that the were swept to power on a tide of mass support for the party itself . was a coup d'état , actively supported by a small minority of the population.</quote><fnote > Figes , p. < /fnote > However , it is far more likely that the truth lies somewhere between the and liberal interpretations regarding the level of support that the had and whether this was influential in their capturing of power . It can therefore be suggested that the reality is closest to the revisionist school of thought - that the had an important core of support among the workers , soldiers and sailors and although the peasantry were not active supporters of the party , they were willing to see a change in the leadership of the country due to their discontentment with , and the seemed a better alternative at that time . Overall , the had a sizable amount of support , particularly among the workers - ' the seizure of power on was welcomed by a big majority of workers in ... The action was seen as inaugurating a revolutionary government by the people . "" As few people took part in the itself , the best way to analyse the amount of support the actually had , is to examine events leading up to the Revolution . On , a rally for was organized and people attended the event , but according to , of the banners were . This was the real sign that they enjoyed mass support . However , they did not have active support from most of the population who were merely desperate to see the downfall of . Read states that < fnote > S.A.Smith , Red Petrograd : Revolution in the factories ( , ) , p. < /fnote><fnote > E.H. Carr , ( , ) , p. < /fnote><quote > few people now believe that the revolution was no more than a coup - its mass support among the delegates in itself shows it was widely hoped for and welcomed ... [ However ] the did not enjoy majority support ... Bolshevism was a minority movement ... [ They ] never enjoyed the active support of the majority of its citizens . < /quote><fnote > Christopher Read , The Making and Breaking of the Soviet System : an , ) , p. - 20 < /fnote > The aspirations of the masses tied in with those of the so although the masses did not actively support the , they saw them as a better alternative to the present government . Revisionists tend to stress the fact that the masses were not merely duped by the and instead had their own ambitions - ' Once the revolution had destroyed traditional authority over them , [ the masses ] acted upon their would - be leaders as much as being acted upon them . No less than their social supervisors , ordinary men and women were guided primarily by values and aspirations of their own . "" For example , the peasants were desperate to gain control of the land , the workers wanted control of the factories and the army wanted an end to the war - ' by virtue of its relatively flexible , open and democratic character , its sensitivity to mass opinion , its ability to respond to pressure from below , the party had established itself as the prime vehicle for the achievement of popular goals . "" Thus , the population believed that the were the best representatives of the mass movement - ' a growing proportion of workers and soldiers shifted their support to because it espoused the very goals towards which they strove . "" That is to say they were united temporarily because the were the party which most closely matched their aims . However , it is important to remember that ' the popular movement did not turn towards Bolshevism because they became converts to its basic philosophies ' but ' rather that this particular party best expressed the attitudes of the workers at the time . "" Liberal historians had argued that the number of participants in the overthrow of was proof that the had very little support . However , although the number of participants in the coup itself was indeed small , revisionist historians generally argue that this was because a large number was not needed and therefore this theory can not be used to determine how much support the actually had - ' the number of active participants in the insurrection was not very large - although of course it must be borne in mind that large numbers were not needed for the task . "" The won a large amount of support in a very short time , particularly from onwards , but consciously decided not to use it because the masses were volatile and dangerous and might jeopardize the coup - ' indeed throughout the leaders positively discouraged workers from taking to the streets . "" There are also many instances , which illustrate that the were acting on behalf of the masses and not just for themselves , indicating that they felt a sense of duty towards their supporters . The majority of the slogans were fulfilled , as in : "" Peace , Bread and Land "" . Peace was obtained with within and of and nobility - owned land was re - distributed among peasants , and the food produced was only taken , in order to be transported to the cities to satisfy the people 's demand for "" Bread "" . believed that he and the party were acting for the good of the masses , everywhere , although merely at a quicker pace than had suggested , because the situation was perfect for carrying out the working - class stage of . This evidence all points to the fact that the argument condemning the as a small self - interested faction must be discounted , as and the leading party members believed they were acting for the people , when they took power . Therefore , the did have a large amount of support in , mainly from the workers and soldiers and this was highly important in making their quest for power successful , because it legitimized their coup . However , it would be wrong to say they had the support of the majority of the country . Nevertheless , most people preferred the Bolsheviks to , so had little objection to the Revolution . Also many people supported the only temporarily because their aims tied in with those of the party itself . As explains < fnote > Acton , p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote><fnote > Service , p. < /fnote><fnote > Read , From to , p. < /fnote><fnote > Koenker , p. < /fnote><fnote > Figes , p. < /fnote><fnote , p. < /fnote><quote > The distinction between party membership and support for the party was a vital one . The latter category implied opposition to and a desire for more energetic implementation of the principles of the popular movement . The former suggested a deeper movement , though this would be less marked in the case of the recent arrivals . Even taking this into account the number of people deeply committed to the party 's aims was small . Most of those prepared to vote for the were doing so for tactical reasons . < /quote><fnote > Read , From to , p. < /fnote > Another important reason that explains why the were successful in their quest for power was the decisive role that played . From the very beginning of the campaign to take power , cajoled the rest of his party into following his line in terms of which direction the party should take and when the time to act was right - ' Lenin went to work , by sheer force of personality and argument , to win the party leadership over to his own way of thinking . "" He insisted that his party members be utterly devoted the cause - ' Lenin wanted it to be an organisation of well - informed active militants ... He wanted people prepared to devote their whole lives . "" He believed it was the role of the party members to spread the consciousness to the masses . The most important policy , which enforced upon the party , was that should be given no support . This was decisive because it left the as the only major party in this position when the government lost support . In effect the other parties sank with . Instead , proposed that the party should support soviet democracy . This , too , was vital because the Petrograd Soviet increasingly became more representative of the people than , and the were the party most closely associated with it . 's policies were laid out in the These s , which were of < fnote > Daniels , p. < /fnote><fnote > Read , The Making and Breaking of the Soviet System , p. < /fnote><quote > immense importance . They turned the Bolshevik party into the main opposition to from the left . to support and denunciation of the leaders of the other parties ... meant that ... should the masses become disillusioned with their parties , they would know where to go . < /quote><fnote > Read , From to , p. < /fnote > The party was initially reluctant to follow in this matter but he gradually convinced them on the grounds that was bourgeois and imperialist , and that the next stage of the revolution : the implementation of socialism , was necessary . The call of "" to the "" became increasingly popular with the masses as progressed - ' the rising fortunes of the during was essentially due to the fact that they were the only major political party which stood uncompromisingly for power . "" By , at the All - Russian Congress of , out of delegates voted in favour of this . The support of soviet power was crucial in bringing the to power . 's positivist approach was also highly significant because it helped to attract support - ' where the right was constantly warning that things could not be done , and the leadership promised that anything was possible . "" As drew nearer , began to demand that the not hesitate and instead seize power at the earliest opportunity - ' So far as the decision to stage an armed uprising is concerned , the initiative was once again 's . From , from his hiding place in , he wrote urging to place an armed uprising on the order of . He insisted that it would be fatal to delay . "" Colleagues , most notably and , were vehemently against 's proposal to seize power , as they believed that the insurrection would fail and consequently the would be crushed . However , continued to push forward the idea - ' To "" miss such a moment and wait for the of would be utter idiocy , or sheer treachery "" ' Eventually the leadership decided to act and power was indeed taken . even goes so far as to say that < fnote > Figes , p. < /fnote><fnote > Read , From to , p. < /fnote><fnote , p. < /fnote><fnote > Figes , p. < /fnote><quote > the most important decision in the history of - to launch the armed insurrection [ was ] ... in effect ... a "" coup "" within . Once again , had managed to impose his will on the rest of its leaders . Without his personal influence , it is hard to imagine the seizure of power.</quote><fnote > Figes , p. < /fnote > In terms of the insurrection itself , 's leadership was once again vital . He used the popularity of the to take power for his own party through ( ) . Clearly the insurrection was less likely to succeed had the declared that power had been taken for themselves and not in the name of the . Therefore , 's leadership was decisive in the coming to power . , he distanced the party from and instead sided with the to attract support from the masses . He often persuaded his party to follow his controversial line - ' 's leadership was decisive . By psychological pressure on his lieutenants and his manipulation of the fear of counterrevolution , he set the stage for the - party seizure of power . "" Also he pressed for insurrection from onwards , at a time when none of the other party leaders thought a successful coup was possible . Finally , with regard to the insurrection itself , he used the to take power in the name of the to give the takeover greater legitimacy and support . leadership was extremely significant in the ' successful quest for power . < fnote > Daniels , p. < /fnote > Finally , the mistakes and unpopularity of were extremely important in the coming to power . If the government had delivered on the promises it had made after , and had not made a number of costly mistakes which both undermined its own viability and helped to increase the strength of the , and his party would never have had the opportunity to come to power - ' above all , the slowness of ... to tackle the key issues for the ordinary population - the economy , the war , democratization , the land question - drove away their popular support in and other key areas . "" consistently failed to punish or even destroy the troublemaking despite having many opportunities . Even after , which had seen demonstrations turn into a dangerous uprising of the masses , the government failed to follow through on its initial punishments , and the party soon recovered , garnered support and became a threat to political stability once again . In terms of its policies , it failed to make any concessions to the peasants regarding the re - distribution of land . This immediately meant a lack of support from the largest class , by far , in at the time - ' where land policy is concerned ... its steady refusal to accede to political impatience for the immediate transfer of private land was suicidal . "" also failed to maintain the urban economy , which as a result collapsed spectacularly . A breakdown in trade caused by disruptions to the railway system ( the needs of the army were put over the rest of the country ) meant that there was a shortage of fuel and raw materials reaching the cities . This caused industrial output to decrease significantly . Consequently , there were fewer goods for the peasants to buy , who had less of an incentive to sell their grain , leading to a food shortage - ' the food situation in the cities was becoming worse and worse ... The flow of grain to the army and the towns was dangerously dwindling . "" Also the government 's massive wartime expenditure led to rapid inflation and consequently to ' immense political hardship for almost all sections of the population , and of greatest political significance , for the urban working class who became ever more bitterly critical of the government . "" Another huge mistake that made , was its failure to deliver on a promise that it had made when taking office after that of summoning . This would have provided legitimacy to the regime , which the government consequently lacked . But perhaps the biggest error of was its failure to end 's participation in . It accentuated its other problems and created obstacles in dealing with them . The army became increasingly radical over its hatred of the war and could not be used to defend the government in times of crisis . It also prevented the government from transferring land to the peasants because it would have led to a mass desertion of the soldiers to claim their share . Also ' the war 's effect on the budget and the economy , on transport , civilian production and the flow of grain , was crippling . "" also seriously undermined because it meant that the government now lacked support from both the Right and the Left . was forced to call upon for help , which demanded the release of its prisoners in return , many of whom were . were armed and the were significantly strengthened by the episode . produced a split between and the military , which significantly would not come to the former 's defence in the future . By saving from counterrevolution , support was further enhanced - ' [ ] merely accentuated the social and political polarization which had been eroding the base of since , and in this sense brought the closer to its dénouement . "" A major reason why the rebellion was successful , despite the small number of people being involved , was due to the indifference of those expected to form opposition . had lost all credibility since taking over from in , and by the majority of people in despised it . Popular discontent with the Government can be seen by the peasant revolts in the countryside and the strikes that occurred in the cities . Thus , any alternative was seen as preferable . Nobody was willing to fight for a government of bourgeois and landowners . Junkers ( military cadets ) and Cossacks ( elite cavalry ) , who normally rallied to the Government , gave up their posts with little defence . Therefore , the failure of was extremely important in the coming to power because its policies were hated by the population who wanted a change in leadership , opening the way for the . , it never crushed the party despite having numerous opportunities to do so . It failed to re - distribute the land among the peasants , could not keep the urban economy afloat and did not end the increasingly unpopular war . It lacked legitimacy because it never called and finally the Kornilov Affair meant its support decreased dramatically , whilst the benefited . By ' no one , it seems , was willing to rally to the defense of . ' < fnote > Read , From to , p. < /fnote><fnote , p. < /fnote><fnote > , The History of , Vol . I ( , ) , p. < /fnote><fnote , p. < /fnote><fnote , p. < /fnote><fnote > Figes , p. < /fnote><fnote > Figes , p. < /fnote > Therefore , in conclusion , the were successful in their quest for power for a variety of different reasons . Although it would be wrong to describe as having popular support from the majority of the people , they did have a very significant following , particularly among the working class and military , which the party had built up since . Indeed , ' the view of as the product of a truly revolutionary mass movement , and of widespread support for the both in the cities and in the army , is not so wide of the mark . "" Their support among the peasants was less widespread , but they faced very little resistance , because virtually everyone saw them as a better alternative to . Reed argues , "" If the masses all over had not been ready for insurrection it must have failed "" . Thus it could claimed that the had a degree of popular support . However , there were also a number of other important factors which meant the could carry out a coup - including the vital role of 's leadership in terms of defining the policies of the party , attracting support and deciding when the time was right to strike , as well as the decision to use the guise of the take power . Finally , the would never have had the opportunity to take power were it not for the mistakes and unpopularity of . It failed to deal with the most pressing issues which had brought down , including the collapse of the urban economy relating to the workers , the land question regarding the peasants and continuation of 's involvement in , affecting the military . It also failed to destroy the despite having numerous opportunities . Lastly , it had no credibility because it failed to convene depriving it of any legitimacy . By , had lost all support and because all the other parties were associated with it , the were the only party left with any credibility - ' the simple reason for the success in the revolution was that they were the only party left which associated itself with popular demands , especially for a takeover of governmental power by the of . "" Overall , the were successful because they had a degree of popular support but there were also other important factors such as 's leadership and the unpopularity and mistakes of . No one was willing to fight for , which by had lost all credibility , and the seized power with relative ease . < fnote > Service , p. < /fnote><fnote , That Shook The World ( , ) , p. < /fnote><fnote > Read , The Making and Breaking of the Soviet System , p. < /fnote >",1
"< heading > Introduction</heading > This study investigates the attitudes of young people towards mobile phone use , before and right after seeing an advert identifying mobile phones as a threat to traffic safety . < heading > Methods</heading > Participants . participants were recruited from High and Leamington Scruffy . The participants were randomly allocated into an intervention and a control group . The groups were divided equally by school , age ( and 17 - 18 ) and sex , producing a total of groups with participants in each group . Procedure . Each group was tested in sessions , apart . In session the participants completed a questionnaire that estimated their attitudes to mobile phone use . In session the participants in the intervention group were shown the advert and then completed questionnaire . In the control group the participants completed the questionnaire and were then shown the advert . < heading > Results</heading > cases , containing missing values and containing an error value , were removed ( in condition , and ) , leaving cases . The scores obtained at the session were subtracted from the scores obtained at the to yield difference scores . The means and standard deviations for each condition ( outliers not included ) are shown in table . < table/>ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of group F(1,109 ) = ; p<.000 . Removing outliers ( in condition and 16 ) generated additional significant effects of sex F(1,106 ) = ; p<.008 , and an interaction effect of age and group F(1,106 ) = ; p<.011 . Data screening revealed that the distributions had very different variances ( e.g. in condition and in condition ) , and that some were skewed ( condition , and ) . However , square root transformation of the difference scores did not remove the significant effect of group or sex , nor did Log10 transformation , nor did squaring the scores . Analysis of the residuals revealed no systematic patterns . < heading > Discussion</heading > The present study aimed to investigate the effect , on attitude towards mobile phones , off an advert identifying mobile phones as a cause of traffic accidents . It is surprising to find that the advert seems to have produced significantly more positive attitudes overall in almost all the control groups . These scores may be the result of an inversed effect ; the purpose of the advert can not have escaped anyone in the intervention groups , arguably to the extent that the obviousness of the attempt at psychological manipulation may have annoyed several participants . This may have caused them to give more positive answers . It also seems that female participants were more prone to such acts of protest . To exclude possible effects of protest , and allow for any generalizations outside of the experimental setting , future studies should perhaps make use of adverts and questionnaires addressing a variety of topics or in other ways try to conceal the purpose of the study . < fnote>(Not knowing what the fictional advert looked like I ca n't know , but ) it is possible that the experienced appeal of the mobile phones and mobile phone users ( perhaps even the cars ) featured in the advert had an effect worth mentioning on the attitudes of the participants . Future studies should make sure the articles and persons in the advert are as neutral as possible . < /fnote > Another weakness in this study was the absence of any equivalent treatment in the control groups , such as a neutral advert involving mobile phones and traffic safety . Showing the control groups the advert after they completed the questionnaire did not contribute to the study . As mentioned , the data did violate some of the assumptions of the model . A larger sample would have been advisable . Before these errors have been corrected and implemented in a new study , no conclusions can be drawn about the effects of the advert .","< heading > Introduction</heading > 's naturalized epistemology , if accepted , puts an end to the search for certain ( or rather "" certain "" ) knowledge . Subtleties aside , denies the possibility of our beliefs being justified , in much the same way as our actions are sometimes denied ethical value . Thus , the traditional epistemic enquiry is all but drained of content , and urges us to abandon the project altogether and turn to the empiric issue of how beliefs and theories about the outside world are generated in the human brain . In this essay I will try and outline 's project and his reasons for ' naturalizing epistemology ' . I will begin by discussing his claim that traditional epistemology is a "" lost cause "" , move on to his vision of epistemology as an empiric discipline , and lastly discuss the various philosophic implications of naturalizing epistemology . < heading > 's case against a complete ' theory of knowledge'</heading > Quine describes the traditional epistemic project as an attempt to find a dynamic logical link between sensory experience and theory . From our experience we create wide - ranging theories about the outside world , the most systematic being the laws of nature as revealed by science . The purpose of traditional epistemology since has been to provide us with intellectual and linguistic tools with the use of which we may ascertain when our theories correspond with the actual state of things and when they do not . Epistemology was to tell us when and how our beliefs and theories were justified . A proper logical system of justification would maybe bridge the gap between theory and reality , and provide us with the foundations of science ; much like mathematics would eventually be reduced to logic . Drawing on the analogy to mathematics and logic divides the epistemic program into parts : conceptual reduction and doctrinal reduction . Through conceptual reduction the philosopher tries to reduce his theories about the external world to phenomenal features of our indubitable sensory experience . refers to 's der as the most successful attempt to , by logical deduction , go from theory to experience . But , asserts , because of the complex or holistic manner in which experience generates empirical meaning , we will never be able to discover a precise logical relationship ( a "" point to point "" relationship ) between physical terms and phenomenal terms . The other part of the epistemic project , doctrinal reduction , failed according to , with Hume . By doctrinal reduction refers to the process of logically obtaining theory ( e.g. the laws of science ) from our sensory input . But Hume , argues , showed that the creation of a theory always involves an element of unsubstantiated generalization ( e.g. identity ) . < heading > Naturalized epistemology</heading > Quine concludes that logical validation of science on the basis of observation is impossible . What we are left with is a normative epistemology in which justification becomes a matter of convenience or semantics , not logic . Here urges us to abandon our traditional epistemic search for justification : since all of epistemology is a normative enterprise we will never be able to logically prove the truth of any belief on the basis of experience of the outside world . In 's opinion our best course of action if we want to understand the connection between sensory stimulation and theory is to immerse ourselves in the empiric study of how sensory input generates mental / neural representations in human beings . Quine himself talks of "" settling for psychology "" , but a more modern version of his essay "" might have emphasized the different processes by which the brain makes neural patterns in its nerve - cell circuits and manages to turn those neural patterns into mental images . The question of how consciousness arises from neural circuits in thalamus and cortex will have to be addressed . < heading > Is naturalized epistemology a subject - matter of philosophy?</heading > Quine urges us to accept that our only source of information about anything comes through our sense organs in the form of mental representations of the outside world . In a fashion he asserts that the sceptic 's challenge is but a figment of our over - analytic imagination . I am not in a position to argue for or against his attack on traditional , logical epistemology , and I wonder if anyone really is . Who can know for certain that certain knowledge is impossible ? other issues seem pressing at the moment . Does epistemology cease to be a philosophic enterprise in 's naturalized form ? And , is normative epistemology as useless or impossible as will have us believe ? The answer to the question must be no . Epistemology in 's natural form investigates how sensory input leads to mental theories and representations of the world . This enterprise has already been subdivided into parts in psychology ( e.g. psychophysics , attention , memory , or schema - theory ) and neuroscience ( i.e. how different neural structures contribute to perception and dynamic mental images ) . But nowhere in these disciplines is there any talk of the relations between "" evidence "" , "" justification "" or "" knowledge "" , and there is no such thing as researching an organism 's "" true "" or "" correct "" perception of its environment . Some thinkers have been inspired by , but also by philosophers such as and to advocate naturalistic epistemology , an epistemology which emphasizes empiric investigation rather than a priori conceptual analysis . Contrary to however , naturalistic epistemology recognises a crucial difference between knowledge and true belief , focusing on the psychological processes that produced that belief . If the process was sound we may call the resulting representation of the world "" accurate "" or "" knowledge "" . 's naturalized epistemologist on the other hand , does not assess whether or to what extent the input "" justifies "" the output . But then again , according to , this is the only reasonable route to take since the input leads to , but does n't ever "" justify "" , the output . But is this true ? Why should we abandon traditional epistemology altogether , especially if it satisfies our intellectual curiosity ? In his essay "" What is naturalized epistemology ? "" Jaegwon asserts that normative epistemology is indeed possible . He makes an analogy to ethics , saying that just like a car may be "" good "" in virtue of certain factual properties ; a belief may be "" justified "" because of certain properties such as its being coherent , rational , "" indubitable "" or logically deducible from another "" indubitable "" belief and so on . is saying that for we 've been trying to find rational and normative systems that encompass these different properties , and that we should now be ready to admit that the project is impossible . Epistemology is obviously possible , articles are published every day , but will it ever amount to anything more substantial ? Must it ? Shall I sign up for an optional course in modern epistemology or functional neuroanatomy ? Once again , ones allegiance in this matter seems to bear on personality traits rather than reason .",1
"The existence of involuntary unemployment remains a key issue of macroeconomic study . Unlike other markets , the labour market fails to clear following price mechanisms . Efficiency wage models provide an explanation for the existence of involuntary unemployment as an equilibrium phenomenon , stating it results from employers offering wages above the market - clearing wage level in order to induce higher levels of worker productivity . In this essay , we will focus on analysing efficiency wage model in particular , the shirking model produced by and in . The rationale and predictions of this model will enable us to study the relationship between unemployment and real wages , and the causes and consequences of involuntary unemployment in relation to firms ' behaviour . The model portrays involuntary unemployment as a worker - discipline device . The model is based on the assumptions that workers dislike putting effort into the job and firms can not monitor worker behaviour perfectly or without cost . Under these circumstances , the payment of a wage in excess of market - clearing represents an effective way for firms to provide workers with an incentive to work rather than shirk , promoting productivity and reducing labour costs . However , in the presence of full employment , wage incentives are not enough to prevent workers from shirking . If a worker is caught shirking and fired , with full employment , he could find a job immediately , there would be no penalty associated with losing his job and therefore no real incentive not to shirk . Only if there is a cost to being fired then the threat of being dismissed from the job if caught cheating creates an incentive not to shirk . Equilibrium then entails the existence of unemployment . < fnote > Arkelof G and Yellen J , "" Efficiency wage models of the labour market "" , , , page < /fnote><fnote > Arkelof G and Yellen J , "" Efficiency wage models of the labour market "" , , , page . < /fnote > Since workers are risk neutral and dislike effort , their utility function exhibits the following form : U(w , e)= w - e ; where w is the wage level and e is the effort level on the job . Given the opportunity they would prefer to provide minimal or no effort . When facing the decision of whether to shirk or to put effort in the job , workers select an effort level that maximises their discounted lifetime utility stream by comparing the utility they get from shirking and the utility they get from not shirking . They would choose not to shirk only if their expected lifetime utility stream from not shirking ( VNE ) is greater than the expected lifetime utility from shirking ( VSE ) . The latter represents the not shirking condition ( ) , which can be expressed algebraically in terms of the wage level ( w ) , the effort level ( e ) , the quit exogenous quit rate ( b ) , the probability of being caught shirking ( q ) , the lifetime utility stream of being unemployed ( VU ) and the interest rate level ( r ) . If the expected utility stream of being unemployed is equal to the utility of shirking ( if VU = ) , the could never be satisfied . The is therefore given by :   FORMULA   or   FORMULA    FORMULA   It pays each firm to raise its wage to eliminate shirking , paying at least the critical wage level . The wage level serves as method of increasing the penalty for workers of losing their job ; therefore , if a firm pays a sufficiently high wage , the worker will not shirk as he would derive more benefits of receiving that wage than living out of unemployment benefits . When all firms do this , average wages rise and firm 's demand for labour decreases , resulting in a fall in the level of employment . In equilibrium all firms pay the same wage above market - clearing , and unemployment , which makes job loss costly , serves as a worker discipline device . Unemployed workers can not offer to work at lower wages , as it would be in the workers benefit to shirk at such wage . Firms have knowledge of this , and therefore would not agree to hire workers in such conditions . < fnote > Weiss ( ? ) < /fnote > The aggregate non - shirking condition is given by : w ( e + w + ( e / q ) ( b / u + r ) ( ŵ The equation shows that the critical wage ( ŵ ) able to deter workers from shirking would increase along with the effort level ( e ) as workers derive disutility from effort , and the interest rate level ( r ) as it decreases the present value of future payments . Equally , a higher exogenous quit rate ( b ) and high unemployment benefits ( w ) would increase the critical wage , the latter increasing the expected utility of unemployment . The critical wage holds a negative relationship with the detection probability ( q ) and the unemployment level ( u ) ; the lower the probability of being caught cheating the more likely are workers to shirk and the lower the unemployment level the lower the penalty related with being unemployed , therefore a higher wage is demanded . In addition , the equilibrium unemployment rate must be sufficiently large that it pays workers to work rather than shirk . The following diagram shows the equilibrium conditions : < figure/>Firms ' demand for labour decreases the more costly it is to hire a worker , as the demand for labour is a decreasing function of the wage level . So , the higher the critical wage level required for a worker not to shirk , the higher the unemployment rate that would be produced in the economy as a result , and vice versa . In that sense the unemployment rate and the real wage level hold a positive relationship . In the presence of very high wage levels , employees would not only value work for the high compensation they are receiving , but because high wages correspond with low levels of employment . On the other hand , as the unemployment level increases so does the penalty associated with being unemployed for workers , as a higher unemployment rates entails longer unemployment spells . The utility of being unemployed under such circumstances would be decreased . In this case , the threat of being fired would be the main incentive for workers not to shirk , making wages play a role as incentives , therefore employers could offer lower wages without tempting workers to shirk . The effort model predicts , in fact , that during periods of high unemployment firms will cut wages , since it is easier to deter shirking when unemployment is high . The longer the expected duration of unemployment , the greater is the punishment associated with being unemployed , and hence the smaller the wage that would be required to induce non - shirking . In this sense , there is a negative relationship between unemployment and wages , the higher the unemployment level the lower the critical wage level necessary to deter workers from cheating on the job . The effect of macroeconomic changes on the non - shirking condition and hence on the wage , supervision and effort levels within the firm is less clear . As previously mentioned , a higher unemployment rate will typically decrease the probability of an unemployed worker finding a job ; therefore , an increase in the unemployment rate would increase the penalty associated with being fired and cause a fall in the non - shirking condition . However , an increase in the aggregate unemployment rate also causes workers to start believing that they are more likely to be fired in the future due to exogenous factors . Under such beliefs , it will be more difficult to deter shirking and the no - shirking condition would tend to rise . If the effect dominates then the effort inducing effect of wages would tend to diminish business cycles . If the effect dominates the opposite would happen ; wages would tend to accentuate business cycles as firms respond to business downturns by raising wages and respond to upturns by decreasing wages . < fnote > Weiss A , "" Efficiency wages : models of unemployment , layoff and wage dispersion "" , , , , page < /fnote><fnote > Weiss A , "" Efficiency wages : models of unemployment , layoff and wage dispersion "" , , , , page < /fnote > The wage level necessary to deter workers from shirking does not only depend on the unemployment level . A key variable that determines firm behaviour and workers behaviour is the level of unemployment benefits and hence the expected utility stream of being unemployed ( V U ) . The higher the unemployment benefits the higher the wage the firm should offer to deter workers from shirking . If w is high , V U is high , and the punishment associated with being unemployed is low . To induce workers not to shirk , a higher wage must be paid independent of the unemployment rate present in the economy . In the model firms are assumed not to be able to monitor the activities of their employees perfectly ( i.e. continuously and precisely ) and costlessly , there is a principal - agent information problem . Productivity can not be observed through the amount of output produced as it is difficult to identify the outcome of an individual worker when he is involved in team production . When wages are chosen to deter shirking the rigor of supervision as well as the standards imposed by the firm for a worker to keep his job are critical choice variables of the firm . In an effort model the cost of supervision affects both the wage and the equilibrium unemployment ; since firms can not afford perfect monitoring they must offer efficiency wages above market - clearing level to induce workers to exert effort on the job , this creates unemployment . The more imperfect the monitoring system , the higher is the wage necessary to deter workers from shirking . < fnote > Weiss A , "" Efficiency wages : models of unemployment , layoff and wage dispersion "" , , , , page < /fnote > Decreasing the monitoring intensity decreases workers ' incentives to be productive . If aware that the probability of detection has decreased , workers would be tempted to risk shirking due to the equivalent increase in the probability of shirking without getting caught while receiving the same salary . Therefore , a wage increase would be necessary ( at each level of employment ) to induce individuals to exert effort ; the curve would shift upwards . This leaves the demand for labour unchanged , and hence the equilibrium level of unemployment and the equilibrium wage are both increased , as observed in the following graph : < fnote > Shapiro C and , and J , "" Equilibrium unemployment as a worker discipline device "" , , < /fnote><figure/>If perfect monitoring were sufficiently cheap , firms could pay wages that were arbitrarily close to the reservation wage of their workers ( that is , the wage that makes worker indifferent between working and being unemployed ) , and still prevent them from shirking . For this to hold some level of unemployment must exist and unemployment benefits must not be attractive , making the prospect of being unemployed less appealing . In the presence of high unemployment level firms could consider lowering monitoring intensity . High unemployment levels entail long unemployment spells , therefore , as long as the utility the worker receives from being a non - shirking employee is higher than the utility of being unemployed , firms could lower monitoring expenses without risking worker productivity . However , firms must choose between lowering wage levels and lowering monitoring expenses . Both cost reducing strategies can not be implemented at the same time . A reduction in the wage level tends to make unemployment prospects more attractive , worker would be tempted to shirk and gain the utility surplus associated with the wage and effort until they were monitor and fired . How much workers would be tempted to shirk depends on the level of unemployment benefits , and the utility associated with being unemployed . Empirical evidence is not consistent in accepting or disregarding the shirking model . Several surveys showed that other efficiency models were preferred to the shirking model . A survey by in , shows , for that although employers indeed do not like cutting wages , they disagree with higher wages leading to higher effort levels . Similarly , a survey produced by and in , found that of people interviewed regarded high unemployment or intensive monitoring as efficient in deterring workers from shirking . Econometric evidence , however , is more supportive of the shirking model . An study performed by in found that there were less shirking - related discipline problems when wages were higher ; while a study by showed that firms in industries with growing unemployment also experienced higher productivity . The shirking model provides a microeconomic approach consistent with explaining the existence of involuntary unemployment . The model shows because have imperfect monitoring systems , unemployment is necessary in equilibrium to induce worker productivity . In addition , an efficiency wage must be paid above the market - clearing level in order to increase the penalty associated with being unemployed . Only anticipated future wages and termination probabilities affect the current behaviour of workers . The effect that changes in the unemployment level have on wage levels and monitoring intensity are not clear . With high unemployment , lower wage levels could be offered as the penalty of being unemployed is increased by the prospects of long unemployment spells . However , because high unemployment levels increase workers ' expectations of getting dismissed due to exogenous factors , workers might be highly tempted to shirk anyway . Monitoring expenses could only be decrease during a high unemployment period if the wage level is not decreased at the same time . Firms must make a proper decision about which one to decrease according to their own cost structure . Finally , unemployment benefits play an important role regarding the penalty associated with being unemployed . High level of unemployment benefits would require high wage levels and/or high monitoring intensity even in the presence of high unemployment . Therefore , firms ' behaviour when there is high unemployment in the economy is hard to predict as it depends on several factors , such as unemployment benefits , their own cost structure , worker - loyalty and preferences .","Should monetary authorities be guided by rules or exercise discretion in their decision - making ? The case of rules versus discretion has been a matter of debate in macroeconomics for . Those in favour of rules argue that "" tying the hands "" of policymakers will prevent the monetary authorities from implementing counter - productive attempts at short run stabilisation and will thus eliminate inflationary bias inherent in discretionary monetary policy . Opponents , conversely , stress the inability of predetermined rules to deal with unforeseen shocks or changes in the structure of the economy and sustain that should have freedom to select the best policy to follow given the current situation . Economists and gave an argument for rules in their article showing that the outcome in a rational expectations equilibrium where the government can not commit to policy in advance - that is , discretionary policymaking- results in a lower welfare that the outcome in an equilibrium where there are binding commitments . This essay will focus in analysing the author 's argument for rules as well as comparing policy rules widely followed around the world along : inflation targeting and fixing the exchange rates . < fnote > Bernanke , and , "" Inflation targeting : ? "" , , Vol . , , < /fnote > In their model , and made the key assumptions that governments choose policy in order to maximise the welfare of citizens and that private agents hold rational expectations about future policy . They proposed that "" even if there is an agreed - upon , fixed social objective function and policymakers know the timing and magnitude of the effects of their actions , discretionary policy does not result in the social objective function being maximised . Rather , by relying in some policy rules , economic performance can be improved "" . This arises due to the fundamental problem of time inconsistency of policy : if given the opportunity , governments would re - optimise and change their plans at a later date . Given the positive short run effects of surprise inflation , governments are tempted to cheat on their announce policies . If they are unable to make binding commitments regarding future policies they will face a credibility problem , and since private agents based their decisions on future policies , discretionary policy will not give the best outcomes . < fnote > Kydland , and , , "" Rules Rather than Discretion : The Inconsistency of Optimal Plans "" , , Vol.85 , Issue , p.473 < /fnote > Let 's illustrate the authors ' argument with an inflation - unemployment example , which assumes a linear relationship between inflation and unemployment in the form of the expectations - augmented Curve :   FORMULA   where u * is the natural rate of unemployment , t is the inflation rate , te is the inflation rate expected by private agents in period t-1 for period t , and α is a positive exogenous parameter . The policymaker 's objective is to maximise the function social function S(u t , t ) . Taking an adaptation of the quadratic form specified by and ( ) we have :   FORMULA   Where γ represents the weight the policymaker assigns to inflation ( relative to unemployment ) and k < 1 represents some distortion that makes the government target an unemployment rate lower than the equilibrium rate . The policymaker can use monetary policy in period - t to control t. Since there is no uncertainty in the model , rational expectations imply that te = t and therefore u t = u * . If in period t-1 the policymaker can commit to the inflation rate in period t , then he will choose t = , since u t= u * must hold . The ex ante optimal outcome becomes ( u * , 0 ) , illustrated in figure below . However , the commitment outcome is not time consistent . Ex post , when expectations have already been formed , the government finds it optimal to choose an inflation rate higher than 0 if allowed to change its plan . The optimal policy will increase the inflation rate up to the level at which the marginal gain from lower unemployment equals the marginal cost of higher inflation . This outcome produces an inflation bias , labelled C in figure . < figure/>From the previous equation we derive that the equilibrium inflation under lack of commitment is given by :   FORMULA   This result implies that inflation is higher when the difference between the policymaker 's unemployment target and the equilibrium rate is larger ( k lower , or u * higher ) , the weight it assigns to inflation is lower ( γ ) , or the responsiveness of unemployment to real wages is greater ( α higher ) . Policymakers with a strong preference for unemployment over inflation , end up without lower unemployment , but higher inflation , than do policymakers with a stronger preference for low inflation relative to low unemployment . This result arises entirely due to the lack of commitment . Under commitment , the ex post temptation to inflate is absent , and rational expectations dictate the same outcome for any preference . and 's analysis of the time consistency problem inherent in monetary policy provides an explanation as to why many countries appeared to be trapped in vicious spiral of high inflation during , despite continuous declarations from governments and central banks that inflation would be brought down . Their argument for rules favoured central bank independence as a mechanism to achieve policy credibility . Governments gain more from surprise inflation than central banks as it reduces the government 's real debt and interest payment , as well as providing an opening for new debt and more opportunity for government spending . In addition , political pressures and change in command makes government policy very susceptible to changes and highly incredible . Central bank independence could secure that stabilisation mechanism are appropriately followed . Fixing the exchange rate and inflation targeting are examples of stabilisation rules widely followed in . < fnote > , "" and The Driving Forces Behind Business Cycles "" , , , pp.1 - 33 < /fnote > In a fixed exchange rate system a government sets the price of its currency against a major world currency ( usually the dollar but it can be the euro , the yen or a basket of currencies ) . The central bank is then in charged of maintaining the predetermined rate by buying and selling its own currency on the foreign exchange market in return of the foreign currency to which it is pegged , and therefore must keep a high level of foreign reserves to execute such transactions . An important advantage of a fixed exchange rate is that the damaging volatility of a floating exchange rate disappears . Although associated costs have not been quantified rigorously , many economists believe that exchange - rate uncertainty reduces international trade , discourages investment , and compounds the problems people face in insuring their human capital in incomplete asset markets . Much of the enthusiasm for monetary unification within stems from the belief that locked exchange rates maximise the gains from a unified market and that exchange - rate induced shifts in competitiveness within the can undermine the political consensus for free intra - EU trade . Similar beliefs motivated the designers of the system to require fixed exchange rates . < fnote > Obstfeld , Maurice and Rogoff , , "" "" , , , , p.74 < /fnote><fnote > Obstfeld , Maurice and Rogoff , , "" "" , , , , p.74 < /fnote > In addition , pegging to a low - inflation currency could help restrain domestic inflation pressures , whether these originate in excessive government budget deficits or in the wage- and price - setting decisions of the private sector . The commitment of keeping the exchange rate fixed could prevent government temptations to follow excessively expansionary macroeconomic policies . However , keeping the promise of the fixed exchange rate could be very costly to maintain , especially if the government lacks credibility . And in the case where the government has to back down from this promise , economic agents will suspect this and will attack the currency , producing speculative crisis . < fnote > Obstfeld , Maurice and Rogoff , , "" "" , , , , pp.74 < /fnote > 's experience illustrates the interaction between exchange rate commitments and credibility . began tying the peso to the dollar in , however it was unable to convince investors and price setters of its long - term unconditional commitment to its exchange rate targets . Therefore , as the peso appreciated in real terms and nominal interest rates remained high , monetary authorities could not maintain the fixed rates due to its depressing effects and the currency depreciated largely . As a result , a speculative crisis took place . If 's anti - inflationary policy had been more credible in the eyes of the markets , the crisis could had been avoided . Something similar occurred in , who had fixed its currency to the dollar in to get rid of hyperinflation . However the government acquired too much debt to fund its activities , and when it was obvious that the country could not sustain the fixed exchange rate anymore a speculative crisis occurred , leading the country to high levels of depression . < fnote > Obstfeld , Maurice and Rogoff , , "" "" , , , , p.91 < /fnote > The fundamental problem with fixed exchange rates is that the government must be prepared to forgo completely the use of monetary policy for stabilisation purposes and face the difficulty of finding good substitute policy tools . Fiscal policy responds sluggishly and may entail undesirable intergenerational distributions , political side payments and dead - weight costs . Commercial policies such as tariffs imply their own efficiency costs and are often restricted by international agreements , in addition of causing trading partners to retaliate . A government that fixes its currency 's exchange rate losses control of the domestic money supply , and its domestic interest rate is determined abroad , as according to the interest rate parity condition . < fnote > Obstfeld , Maurice and Rogoff , , "" "" , , , , pp.75 < /fnote > Another mechanism for achieving monetary stability , adopted by increasing governments in , is inflation targeting . This approach is characterised by the announcement of official targets ranges for the inflation rate at or more horizons , and by explicit acknowledgement that low and stable inflation is the overriding goal of monetary policy . Following the announcement of the target policymakers have to maintain increased communication with the public about their plans and objectives , and the central bank holds in most cases increased accountability for attaining those objectives . < fnote > Bernanke , and , "" Inflation targeting : ? "" , , Vol . , , p.98 < /fnote > The major advantage of targeting inflation is the increased transparency and coherence of policy . The public can rely on the announcements of the authorities and set their expectations accordingly , there is more room for debate and discussion of the strategies to follow , so the public is more informed , it thus reduces the financial and economic uncertainty associated with other policies . In addition , inflation targeting does not only provide a ceiling for the inflation rate but also a floor . Inflation targeting accentuates the effects of negative , as well as positive , shocks to aggregate demand . < fnote > Bernanke , and , "" Inflation targeting : ? "" , , Vol . , , p.110 < /fnote > On the other hand , the relative disadvantage of targeting inflation rate is that unanticipated shocks to the price level may be treated as bygones and never offset ; as a result , forecasts of the price level at long horizons might have a large variance under inflation targeting , which presumably impedes private - sector planning . Furthermore , inflation is very difficult to predict accurately , particularly at both very short and very long horizons . This poses important problems for the inflation targeting strategy . , given the long run lags between monetary policy action and the inflation response , low predictability suggests that accurate targeting of inflation could be extremely difficult . , if inflation is largely unpredictable , and hence not finely controllable , then it will be difficult to judge whether the central bank has made it best efforts to hit the inflation targets . < fnote > Bernanke , and , "" Inflation targeting : ? "" , , Vol . , , p.113 < /fnote > The motivations to adopt the inflation targeting policy have been varied across different countries . and , for example decided to adopt this approach after the collapse of an exchange rate peg , as way to have an alternative "" nominal anchor "" for monetary policy and reassure the public that monetary policy would remain disciplined . Similarly , took a money - focused approach in after the fall of its fixed exchange rate regime . Some countries such as came to inflation targeting after unsuccessful attempts to use a money - targeting approach . In other cases , countries that by tight monetary policies had succeeded in reducing their core rate of inflation adopted inflation targeting as an institutional means of locking their inflation gains . < fnote > Bernanke , and , "" Inflation targeting : ? "" , , Vol . , , p.113 < /fnote > The choice between inflation targeting and fixing the exchange rate involves many considerations . Fixing the exchange rate is preferable when domestic political pressures are great , policy preferences between a foreign bank ( to which the currency would be pegged ) and home are similar , and shocks are world wide . Inflation targeting works well in the opposite situation , when political pressures are not major , when the foreign central bank is pursuing very different policy goals , or when shocks causing the stabilisation problem are mostly regional . In addition , inflation targeting will be easiest to implement in a situation in which inflation is already low and the basic approach has been made familiar to the public and the markets . and made a strong argument for rules by showing that discretionary policy creates an inflationary bias due to the time inconsistency of policy in an environment where private agents are rational and forecast assertively . They proved that discretionary policy would not work well in dynamic economic systems , thus opening the eyes of authorities to the importance of committing to policy objectives . An important consideration here is the preference for long term goals , as discretionary policy could in fact achieve short term goals but miss the long term objective . Nowadays , granting the central bank independence is an approach widely used as a commitment device , especially by nations . This essay analysed the merits and disadvantages of stabilisation mechanisms used by , fixed exchange rates and inflation targeting , concluding that is difficult to determine the superiority of mechanism over the other as their success highly depends on the nation 's economic state prior to its implementation . If we go back to real world examples , we 'll see that countries such as and experienced chaos while following a fixed exchange rate with the dollar , that why also the ERM was ended .... While more and more countries are following inflation targeting , like , , . and follow inflation targeting from a more indirect approach . and examples show that it has become increasingly difficult for countries to build the reputation needed to sustain a durable fixed exchange rate . Many countries have labored hard and long to makes exchange rate peg credible , only to watch their efforts crushed by market pressures in short time . and 's article proposed that They proposed that Optimal control theory in an appropriate planning device for situations in which current outcomes and the movement of the system 's state depend only upon current and past policy decisions and upon the current state . Disretionary policy would not work in dynamic economic systems , as Current decisions of economic agents depend in part upon their expectations of future policy actions . Only if these expectations were invariant to the future policy plan selected would optimal control theory be appropriate . < fnote > K+P article < /fnote > In their model The model had no uncertainty , so that private agents can have perfect foresight . Lets use a period example to illustrate the model . The government set the policy for period t in period t-1 . economic outcomes in period t depend on both the policy undertaken in the period and on private agents decisions made in period t-1 . In turn , private agents decisions in t-1 depend on their expectations about the period - t policy . Agents have perfect knowledge of the determinants of government policy and base their forecasts in that . Without commitment , the government chooses its period - t policy in period t-1 , without the ability to change this policy later on . The optimal choice of this policy must take into account its effects on private sector decisions in period t-1 . Because the equilibrium period - t policy pins down the expectations in period t-1 as to what this policy will be , it influences private sector decisions made in period t-1 that affect period - t economic outcomes . In the case of discretionary policy , i.e. without commitment , in period t-1 the government can not make binding decisions over policy in period t until period t arrives . The period - t policy choice will not take into account how private sector decisions are made in period t-1 , because when this policy choice is undertaken , private agents decisions have already been made in period t-1 and can no longer be influenced . This will generally lead to different policy choices than in the case with commitment . As a result , economic outcomes will lead to lower welfare than under commitment . This follows from the fact that with rational expectations , policy in period t is perfectly anticipated , but owing to the time sequencing of decision - making , there is no way for the government to influence these expectations . When deciding its policy in period t , the government thus solver an optimization problem that does not consider all the effects of its policy choice . For practical purposed lets refer to the inflation - unemployment example present in the article . This example assumes the following linear relationship between inflation and unemployment , in the form of the expectations - augmented curve . As Lucas ( ) has argued , since optimal decision rules vary systematically with changes in the structures of series relevant to the decision maker , any change in policy will alter the structure of these rules . Thus changes in policy induce changes in structure , which in turn necessitate reestimation and future changes in policy , and so on . For some implausible structures this iterative procedure does not converge , and , instead , stabilisation efforts have the perverse effect of contributing to economic instability . For most examples , it did converge but the resulting policy was suboptimal . It was consistent in the sense that at each point in time the policy selected was best , given the current situation . In effect the policymaker is failing to take into account the effect of this policy rule upon optimal decision rules of the economic agents . An important consideration is the preference for long - term goals , following discretionary policy might produce the desired outcome in the short run but K + P introduced the distinction between time - inconsistent and time - consistent policy . A time - inconsistent policy may make the public happy in the short run but will ultimately fail to produce the long - run policy goal . A time - consistent policy , in contrast , nails the long - run policy goal but does not make people unhappy in the short run . emphasised the importance of pondering not only the desirable policy for a given set of circumstances but also the framework likely to produce the best policy over time . They went on to argue that rules produce time - consistent outcomes because they make policy - maker - s pronouncement credible . < fnote > Nobel Prize article < /fnote > Developments in macroeconomic theory also played some role in the growing popularity of inflation targeting approach . These familiar developments included reduced confindence in activist , countercyclical moentary policy ; the widespread acceptance of the view that there is no long - run tradeoff between output ( or unemployment ) and inflation , so that monetary policy affects only prices in the long run ; theoretical arguments for the value of pre - commitment and credibility in monetary policy ( and , Calvo , and ) ; and an increasing acceptance of the proposition that low inflation promotes long - run economic growth and efficiency .",1
"< abstract><heading > ABSTRACT</heading > The interferometer was calibrated with a helium - neon laser . Interference fringes were studied with sodium , mercury and white light sources . Coherent laser light was passed through air , CO 2 , He , N 2 , and Ar gases and the refractive indices were found to be , , , , and respectively , which are in agreement with accepted values . The ' frequency gap ' between doublet frequencies in sodium lamp light was found to be 5.104x10 11 ±0.059x10 11 Hz compared to an accepted value of x10 Hz . The coherence length of white light was found to be which is in conflict with the accepted value of 1.6λ . The coherence length of mercury lamp light was found to be unobtainable with this experimental arrangement . < /abstract><heading>1 . Introduction</heading > Optical interference is the effect of the superposition of coherent light waves . This interference can be constructive , when the amplitudes of the waves add in phase , or destructive , when their amplitudes add out of phase . Interferometers allow the intensity ( related to the square of the amplitude ) of this light to be observed . This allows us to study properties of the light , as well as exploiting this behaviour to study other things . The most famous example is arguably the use of the interferometer to refute the existence of the ether ( the experiment ) . Interferometry can be put to a variety of uses , notably the accurate measurement of small lengths , and small angles . Other uses include inspection of semiconductor wafers , high resolution spectroscopy and measurement of stellar angular diameter , the cosmic microwave background spectrum , vibrations in buildings and geodetic standard baseline measurements . There are main ways in which interferometers operate : , those based on the lateral division of wave fronts using mirrors or diaphragms ; , those based on division of amplitude , which divide the waves by partial reflection , giving rise to wave fronts with the same wavelength , but having reduced amplitude . The interferometer is an example of the latter type . In the course of this investigation , the interferometer was used firstly to determine the frequencies of the sodium doublet , and the coherence lengths of white light and light from a mercury lamp . , the interferometer was used to determine the refractive indices of various gases , by altering the optical path lengths via changing the gas pressure . < heading>2 . Theory</heading><heading>2.1 The Interferometer</heading > The interferometer is an instrument used for studying optical interference . The interferometer employs partial reflection , using a beamsplitter to divide a wave into wave fronts of reduced amplitudes . These beams are sent in perpendicular directions to be reflected by perpendicular plane mirrors , which then recombine the beams to form interference fringes ( see figure ) . < picture/>In addition to this basic arrangement , of the plane mirrors can be slowly and precisely moved by a micrometer drive . A compensating plate is included to render the optical path lengths equal , since the beam travelling to the moveable mirror has to travel through the body of the beam splitter whereas the other beam is reflected from the surface of the beam splitter before figure ) . < picture/>In the case of this investigation , the mirror - controlling micrometer was attached to a low - geared motor to achieve high - precision motion of the mirror . The slow motion is important because the optical path length only needs to change by the half the light wavelength to move from interference fringe to the next . Faster movement would result in the series of fringes passing by too rapidly to be accurately detected . In this arrangement , the end of the micrometer was attached to the end of a lever , pivoted to translate the motion of the micrometer into the motion of the mirror . This arrangement meant that the micrometer reading could not be directly interpreted as the amount through which the mirror had moved ; as a result , calibration was required . < heading>2.2 Interference fringes</heading > The beams of a interferometer interfere constructively when the waves add in phase and destructively when they add out of phase , producing circular interference fringes as a result . When finding the sum of waves ,   FORMULA   ( 1 ) it can be shown ( see Feynman [ ] ) that the resultant amplitude is :   FORMULA   ( ) When the frequencies , ω , are the same , A denotes the amplitude of the waves ,   is the phase of the waves , and t is time . This term is the interference term , and can be positive or negative ( meaning constructive or destructive interference respectively ) , depending on the relative phases of the waves . The interference term is at a maximum when the phase difference is : that is , when the waves are in phase . As the movement of the micrometer - controlled mirror increases or decreases the optical path length , ( see figure ) , the phase difference of the beams alters , bringing about the interference fringes observed . Between bright fringes ( or dark fringes ) , the path difference of the waves must have changed by λ/2 . This corresponds to an actual movement of the moveable mirror of , since the beam travels to the mirror and back again . < heading>2.3 Beats</heading > The above discussion of interference assumes waves of the same frequency . For the purposes of this investigation , we require a description of the behaviour of interfering waves of different frequencies . With sources at slightly different frequencies but same amplitudes , the result is an oscillation with a slowly pulsating amplitude :   FORMULA   ( ) Equation shows that there will be a higher frequency wave , with frequency given by the average of the component frequencies   , which is modulated by a lower frequency wave that has the frequency of the difference of the components ( see figure ) . < figure/>Actual observation in this investigation resembles figure , due to the changing visibility of the interference fringes . Visibility is at a maximum at the path difference , and decreases away from this point due lack of coherent in the light over greater distances . Visibility is given by :   FORMULA   ( 4 ) < figure/>From the resultant wave beats , one can determine the slightly different frequencies of the original interfering waves . This can either be done directly or via Fourier transform . A Fourier transform of the wave beats will reveal the component frequencies . < heading>2.4 Coherence</heading > The coherence of the light used in the interferometer is important . There are kinds of coherence to consider : temporal and spatial . Temporal coherence is related to the bandwidth of the light , and is an expression of the time over which a light wave resembles a perfect sinusoidal wave . If a wavetrain is assumed to have a Gaussian envelope , then the width of that wavetrain is a measure of temporal coherence , labelled c. This wavetrain then also has an associated longitudinal spatial coherence length , ∆l c = c∆t c , ( c is the speed of light ) which is a measure of the spatial extent of the wavetrain . If points on the wavetrain are more than ∆l c apart , they are completely uncorrelated in phase . It follows that :   FORMULA   ( 5 ) Where ∆f is the frequency spread . As long as   , then :   FORMULA   ( ) Where λav is the average wavelength and fav is the average frequency . In the course of this investigation , light sources of varying coherence were employed : a helium - neon laser having the highest coherence ( the longest coherence length ) and white light the lowest ( with the shortest coherence length ) . < heading>2 . Experimental</heading > Initially , the interferometer was calibrated with the helium - neon laser . The micrometer drive was moved a certain known distance and the number of fringes of the interfered laser light were counted . As the wavelength of the laser is known to be nm the exact distance the mirror moved can be calculated by dividing the number of fringes by ( from the light going to the mirror and back , and from the fringes being λ/2 apart ) . This calibration gave 162.5 wavelengths in which means for every 1.000 mm moved according to the micrometer , the mirror actually traversed . The fixed mirror was adjusted to the correct alignment to ensure recombination of the split beams . The laser was then replaced with a sodium lamp . Because the sodium lamp is a point source , a lens between the lamp and the beam splitter was necessary to collimate the beam . The micrometer drive was set to , so that on running the motor , it would pass through the path difference position ( for maximum visibility ) . The drive was set to a slow speed , to capture all the fringes . The detector was set to a suitable gain to cover the whole range of intensities , and the detector position was adjusted to ensure the greatest different between the highest and lowest intensities : again , to maximise visibility . The micrometer was then allowed to move to a reading of 12.280 mm . Labview was used to record the intensity of the resultant fringes via the detector . < heading>2.2 Results</heading><picture/><figure/><heading>2.3 Analysis</heading > Due to the calibration factor the mirror actually moved . The intensity graph ( figure ) recorded ' beats ' for this span . Therefore , there are beat wavelengths measured , giving the wavelength of a beat to be ±0.0034 mm . The wavelength of the difference of the component wavelengths is twice this , at . This corresponds to a frequency of x10 ±0.059 x10 Hz . The wavelengths in the sodium lamp light responsible for the beating , are at 589.5923 nm and 588.9953 nm [ 4 ] . From equation , which is for the amplitude of beats , the intensity can be obtained by squaring . This gives :   FORMULA   ( 7 ) Using the corresponding frequencies from the above wavelengths , one can find the difference in frequencies , and subsequently the frequency of the beats , which is x 10 11 Hz . < heading>2.4 Discussion</heading > A Fourier transform could have been used to directly extract information about the component frequencies of the sodium light . However the data obtained was not suitable for this means . Instead , by measuring the number of beats in a given length the frequency gap was found . The value for the frequency gap obtained ( x10 ±0.059 x10 Hz ) is consistent with the accepted value of x10 Hz . < heading>3 . of White Light and Lamp Light</heading><heading>3.1 Experimental</heading > The path difference was found by slowly moving the mirror through its range until colourful fringes appeared . In the centre of the fringes was a dark line . Photographs were taken of these fringes . The mirror was moved back until fringes were no longer visible , and then driven through the path difference whilst the intensity was being recorded . Care was taken to position the detector in the place which yielded the maximum visibility . Trial experiments with lenses between the source and splitter showed that here , for maximum visibility , it was best to have none at all . < heading>3.2 Results</heading><figure/><picture/><picture/><picture/>At the path difference , the fixed mirror was adjusted in a failed attempt to obtain a uniform dark fringe over the entire field of view for mercury light . < heading>3.3 Analysis</heading > The distance over which the white light fringes were visible was not recorded , and so the coherence length of white light could not be found directly from figure . However , it can be seen that the fringes disappear after peaks from the centre and from this we can deduce that the coherence length of white light is . Hecht [ ] gives the coherence length of white light ( average wavelength nm ) to be   . The coherence length of mercury light could not be determined as fringes were visible throughout the whole of the micrometer 's range . This implies the coherence length of mercury light is larger than the apparatus can measure . < heading>3.4 Discussion</heading > The central fringe in the white light system is black , although one might expect it to be white , since the beams should be in phase with each other for any wavelength at this point . In the case of the interferometer , the beam undergoes internal reflection in the beamsplitting plate , whilst the beam undergoes external reflection - with a consequent change of phase . The beams at this ( path difference ) point are therefore not in phase , and destructive interference occurs . As a result , the central interference fringe is black . It was not possible to obtain a black field of view for the mercury light due to the imperfect flatness of the mirrors . It was also impossible to obtain the coherence length of mercury light with this apparatus . This is because the coherence length of mercury lamp light ( average wavelength nm ) is [ 5 ] . This is longer than the maximum extent of the mirror movement , which explains why fringes were visible throughout the range . The photodiode will have a sensitivity dependant on the frequency of the incident light . Therefore , it may detect red light more easily than blue light . This has implications for the intensity pattern seen in figure . Whilst working under the assumption the intensity shown is for all frequencies equally , it may in fact be showing more of a red bias . In which case the fringes will be more visible to the detector and this could be the reason for finding the coherence length to be nearly twice as large as the accepted value . < heading>4 . , , , Helium and . < /heading><heading>4.1 Theory</heading > If a thickness t of a gas with refractive index n is placed in the path of of the interferometer beams , the optical path is increased because the light will travel more slowly in the gas . The optical path through the gas segment is now nt , where before it was practically n through the thickness t of air ( ) . The change in optical path due to the addition of the gas is therefore   FORMULA . This introduces < figure/>extra waves in the path of the beam in question . If ∆m is the number of fringes by which the original fringes are displaced , then :   FORMULA   ( 8) So by varying n from ( in an evacuated tube ) to n of the gas in question and knowing how many extra fringes appear then n can be calculated . < heading>4.2 Experimental</heading > An airtight chamber was placed in the path of of the split laser beams having wavelength nm . The chamber was attached to a vacuum pump and evacuated . A rubber bladder filled with the appropriate gas was attached to a tube leading into the chamber . This gas was allowed through the joining tubes and into the chamber before the experiment . The chamber was then re - evacuated . This procedure readied the apparatus for the experiment , ensuring that the bladder , tube and chamber would contain no gas other than that under investigation . A photodiode was set to record the intensity of the recombined laser beam . The vacuum pump was turned off and the bladder valve opened . The gas inside the bladder flowed into the chamber . As a result , the pressure inside the chamber rose from that of a vacuum up to atmospheric pressure . Pressure in the chamber was recorded alongside the intensity . The change in optical thickness due to the presence of the gas caused interference fringes to be shifted and these were recorded by the photodiode as undulations in intensity . When the chamber reached atmospheric pressure the gas bladder was sealed , the vacuum pump turned on and so the chamber re - evacuated . < heading>4.3 Results</heading><list > Air : additional peaks . CO : additional peaks . He : additional peaks . N 2 : additional peaks . Ar : additional peaks.</list><figure/>Each gas was tested times and the resulting numbers of peaks were same each time . Temperature and atmospheric pressure remained reasonably constant throughout the experiment . < heading>4.4 Analysis</heading > The wavelength of laser light used was nm and the thickness of the chamber was . < list ( refractive index)Air ± x10 - 6CO 2 1.000398 ± x10 - 6He 1.000032 ± x10 - 6N 2 1.000272 ± x10 - 6Ar 1.000259 ± x10 - 6</list > The actual values given for the refractive index at atmospheric pressure and room temperature are : < list > Air : : : 1.000035N : : 1.000289</list > Therefore , the experimentally obtained values were in agreement with accepted values . < heading>4.5 Discussion</heading > The gas was supplied into the apparatus out of the rubber bladders . Due to the elasticity of the bladders they could be over - filled and so the gas would be forced out of them by the skin of the bladder trying to contract . This would mean than the pressure of the gas entering the chamber could be higher than anticipated , or at a pressure which varied from experiment to experiment : giving inconsistent results . It would be possible to calibrate the graph , as we know the pressure , and find a function of refractive index against pressure for a certain gas to avoid this problem . The measurements were taken at a different temperature and pressure to the values in the literature , so a small variation will occur therein . Nevertheless , the results obtained show a good match to the accepted values and also indicate the relative densities of the gases at atmospheric pressure . < heading>5 . Evaluation</heading > Since the proper functioning of the apparatus relies on the components being precisely aligned , it is sensitive to vibrations , and as such is disturbed by people walking past or coughing in close proximity . Perturbation of the apparatus could result in the light not falling on the detector , and hence a perceived drop in intensity where none existed . Whilst care was taken to maximise the visibility , it can not be assumed that it was achieved in all cases . The distance of the photodiode from the outside of its housing was unknown , making it difficult to focus the light onto it , so the maximum possible intensity might not fall on the detector . The gain on the photodiode was also adjusted to increase the intensity that was detected . Increasing the gain helped until the photodiode became saturated . It has been assumed throughout that the motion of the mirror was smooth . The motor and band attached to it however did slip occasionally , which would result in a lack of smooth movement of the mirror . As the software recorded intensity against time and not distance travelled by the mirror , it is possible that the fringes would appear stretched as a result . The measured intensity would also be affected by the unavoidable presence of light from sources external to the experiment , even though steps were taken to eliminate these . Ideally there would be no light sources other than those under investigation present . The laser is the ideal for calibration as the long coherence length of laser light means that fringes will be observed throughout the whole length of the mirror 's range . This means calibration of the mirrors could be performed without having to find the path difference , as sodium light , say , would only exhibit the fringes around this point . The relatively short arm lengths and distance to the detector are useful for observation of sodium light . Whilst longer arms would have little effect on laser light , the increased distance would mean more sodium light is lost through divergence and absorption as it is a point source . Because less light reaches the detector the visibility is lowered . To determine the coherence length of mercury light , the mirror would have to be able to move over a greater distance than is allowed by this apparatus . Overall the results obtained are sufficient to support the conclusions reached as the experiment is as accurate as feasibly possible .","While the regimes of are apart , disparate in provenance , nature , trajectory and , if the accusation of Perón as a fascist is even to be loosely accredited , the width of the political spectrum in between , there are familiar themes in these defining times of the most southernmost countries . Both men were elected democratically , both were ousted by illegitimate army coups , both died in office ( although in radically different circumstances ) and both were carried into rule and supported during government by the workers , as the power of the people asserted itself in against the oligarchs , the capitalists , the ' imperialist ' foreign companies and the conservative forces of politics and the military . It was the overwhelming support of the working class that defined the governments ; , beloved by their descamisados and compañeros respectively , were different animals completely , a Socialist , the other an authoritarian army , and the explanation for how that happened has to be something more satisfactory than the assumption that all working class naturally support socialism and therefore Perón , who has been simplistically categorised as a , must have fooled the immature working class with cheap promises and controlled them with repression as his supposed role model did in . For there is more to working class allegiance than ' natural ' tendencies or alternatively submission , what needs to be addressed is how these leaders gained the devotion of the working class that they undoubtedly held , but also how there is room for agency of the working classes themselves , not simply following whatever shining light is held before them or hating the capitalist phantoms that are presented to scare them but deciding for themselves what is the problem and diagnosing the solution to it . While traditionally it might be expected of the labouring classes to orientate towards parties , that unhelpful dogma is obviously proven wrong by the Peronist working class and many worker - supported non - socialist parties through time , and therefore a more analytical explanation of the strength of the working - class left is needed in order to prove and account for any ' deviance ' from the socio - political norm that the may be . Marxists are fond of dialectics and the establishment of a strong working class identity with a left - wing ideology in has the hallmarks of a dialectical development , with the ' parallel traditions of almost uninterrupted parliamentarism and of violence , repression and militant mass struggle ' the shaping forces . While on the one hand , the bitter struggle of workers against the establishment with the miners rebellion , the repression of and 's had proved time and again that no worker 's action would be tolerated by the government unless the government was controlled by the workers , on the other the admired stability and constitutionalism of the country that could be traced back all the way to Portales ' constitution and the parliamentary values that ensured that ' the National Congresses ' powers of criticism and censure were upheld ' formed a determination among the left that power could and must be gained through popular elections . < fnote > De Vilder , Allende 's Chile p.23 < /fnote><fnote > Tomic in Zammit , ( 1973 ) p.31 < /fnote > The experience then , with its parallel tradition , is the formative factor in explaining the strength and the trajectory of the working class left . The experience had not been good for the poorer people of this relatively resource - rich country , and the usual suspects in all countries reared their head : dependence , inflation and repatriation of profits overseas , a scourge that led to a typical ' enemies home and abroad ' rhetoric from their leaders such as Allende , who was not straying from the general current of opinion when he diagnosed the problems as being because ' is a capitalist country , dependent upon imperialism and dominated by sectors of the bourgeoisie allied to foreign capital ' . The material hardships and perception of inequity and exploitation of the poor fostered resentment , but the outraged determination necessary for revolutionary action was kindled by the enforced impotence of workers and labour in the face of successive demonstrations and strikes that were ' cruelly repressed ' . < fnote > Allende , Chile 's Road to Socialism ( ) p.23 < /fnote><fnote > Tomic in Tomic in Zammit , ( ) p.33 < /fnote > Taking a specific focus on the cotton mill , significant as the overthrowing of factory rule in an acceleration of revolution after Allende was elected , the evidence of factors in radicalising the labourers is apparent . As with workers all over the country , labour laws enacted by the and previous centre - left governments had not helped enough , the employer always finding a way to circumvent the protection laws to fire a ' disloyal ' employee , or control the obviously docile company union , and getting institutionalised informers to snitch on any hint of subversive activity or thought . This system of repression had been enough to tame the ' Old - timers ' who had been freshly incorporated from the countryside and were deferential , but with the arrival of the ' youngsters ' came a destabilising force of militancy , a new generation of educated , motivated workers who were most importantly urban , ' where the nature of neighbouring and social interactions transmitted , reinforced and consolidated a strong sense of working - class identity and social solidarity ' . That close - knit identity from a shared existence mirrors the experience of the whole country 's working class , where of the population by were in cities , urbanisation being a classic instigator of working class solidarity . This was an example of oligarchic capitalism 's repression coming into contact with a burgeoning working class identity that demonstrates the dialectical process in bringing about militant revolutionary activity . However the old - fashioned dialectic explained through hardship is not sufficient as a contrasting explanation with the working class ' actions in , of all because there were hardly prosperous conditions for them either and although their sporadic efforts at activity were repressed also , there was no flourishing of revolutionary rhetoric , despite having similarly urbanised labourers with shared experiences . The interpretation of urban identity compared to rural values from , in which the recently urbanised country workers with rural criollo values supported Perón in the absence of the older immigrants with continental ideas about labour , could have been proved conversely by the experience of the mill , with its deferential older rural workers being out - radicalised by the urbanised generation that perhaps had more ideas about labour activism . However , that ' hypothetical dichotomy ' has been largely discounted considering Perón had a much wider support base than just those rural workers , ' far from being divided the working class was remarkably homogenous ' and the notion that the previous working classes would have been more traditionally militant is incongruous with the experience pre - Perón . Therefore a reason for the differing methods of the people in the countries has to be sought , for although there does not need to be strict correlation for economic circumstances to be a motivation in each country , there must be analysis of how they took such diverging lines of action and support . < fnote > Winn , Weavers of Revolution ( 1986 ) p.84 < /fnote><fnote > Winn , Weavers of Revolution ( 1986)p.58 < /fnote><fnote > Tamarin , ( ) p.172 < /fnote><fnote > Little , ' in Rock ( ed . ) , in ( ) p.175 < /fnote > While in , working class activists had always been pushing to unionise the labourers and agitate for collective action , making one of the strongest trade union movements on the continent , in they had never held a grip in politics nor asserted much power in the sphere of industry . Before only of the urban labour force which are the vital constituency for any working class movement were organised , and the main organisation of the underwent a division between and that weakened its ability to confront the authorities at all . Whether the unions were therefore invitingly weak or whether Perón simply overcame them is not of the greatest importance to the question of why the only manifestation of working class politicisation lined up behind him because it was the manner in which he did come to control them that demonstrates the weaker class consciousness of the in resisting the governments attempts to co - opt the labourer 's representatives , who were so fiercely independent even from the socialists in . There is always the possibility of the deceptively ( for historians unsatisfactorily ? ) simple answer , that the material improvements offered by Perón to his descamisados : higher wages , workers rights , fringe benefits , were just too attractive , if this was a bourgeois trick then probably most working classes in the world would be happy to be fooled in such a manner . The revisionist analysis would state that this is not a case of advantage being taken of the working classes , but rather the working classes taking advantage of a good offer , pursuing the most logical course for their self - advancement with ideological purity being not too high of a price to pay , the hopes of other more radical agitators for working class support pre - empted as a ambassador noted "" [ The ] immediately tangible [ labour and social ] benefits with which Perón is identified seems to have taken the wind out of socialist sails "" . However , the benefits gained by Perón when he was minister of labour did not translate to consistent generosity in power , as his regime ' showed little more than rhetorical enthusiasm for the pursuit of strictly working - class interests ' and the emphasis was on controlling the unions rather than granting their members more perks , as Perón reassured the stock exchange in "" what I want to do is organise the workers through the state , so that the state shows them the way forward "" . < fnote > D. James , Resistance and Integration ( ) p.9 < /fnote><fnote > Sir , Ambassador to in dispatch to , in , ( ) p.203 < /fnote><fnote > Little , ' in Rock ( ed . ) , in ( ) p.162 < /fnote><fnote > Rock , ( ) p.257 < /fnote > Perón demonstrated what he meant by ' organising ' the workers with his application of the divide - and - conquer tactic of granting legal standing ( personería gremial ) only to the unions he wanted to deal with , and for each area of the economy , diminishing the ability for unions of different trades to bargain for themselves . While it may be seen as submissiveness and that ' almost all the unions cheerfully sacrificed autonomy for material self - advancement ' it was more a case of unions being absorbed by way of Perón 's tactics of assimilation through tying the union leaders ' fate to his , and "" intervention "" by means of placing loyal Peronists in the positions of power . Perón was not above old - fashioned unsubtle repression either , declaring strikes illegal and then cracking down on the outlawed railroad strikes of the transport labourers , the only area of industry that really had some independence , with the alleged outcome of dismissals , imprisonments and former officials being tortured by Police for their involvement . Because of these sticks , and the memory , or perhaps the illusion of a carrot from the benefits he claimed for them , the working classes only effective organisation was co - opted by Perón and their allegiance went with it , although their support for Peronism and their leader was not simply through or because of labour unions , it was the way he got his foot in the door with them and it was the way these unions , which were so radical and mobilising in , became ' conduits of government policy among the workers ' in . < fnote , ( 1986 ) p.284 < /fnote><fnote > Blanksten , 's ( ) p.327 < /fnote><fnote > D. James , Resistance and Integration ( 1988 ) < /fnote > While Perón had been absorbing and controlling labourers ' ambitions , in the workers were much more influenced by left - wing ideology , and Marxism in particular , the grass roots of labour being the chief radicalising force in Allende 's revolution , certainly not moderated or incorporated in the governments structure . There had long been a radical tendency among the , even in the parties had got of the vote , and had been involved in out of government cabinets from , that may have been the result of the formative struggle against oligarchy , the economic situation or the shared experiences of the urban working class , but however it came about it signified a tradition of socialism running through the workers and an activism that brought results in the political sphere . It was the with their outreach programs in the poblaciones squatter settlements and similarly deprived areas that spread the political awakening of the people to the lowest groups and in doing so , spurred on their own demise as these newly mobilised organisations of the pobladores radicalised even beyond the , who were pretty left - wing by any western standard . Any political analysis of working class allegiance in however has to temper the impression of a massive surge to the socialist left with the reminder that Allende only won with a plurality of of the vote , an incredibly narrow victory over and 's and respectively . That election shows that the majority of the country did not vote for Allende 's program , a substantial part of even the working class wary as ' the [ CDP ] government [ had ] enjoyed widespread popularity and support among workers in urban centres and in the countryside ' in the previous election and maintained some of that backing , so it is inaccurate to portray the working class ' support as being overwhelmingly behind , which in itself is a coalition of many disparate groups . < fnote > De Vilder , Allende 's Chile p.24 < /fnote><fnote > Winn , Weavers of Revolution ( ) p.70 < /fnote><fnote > J. Faúndez , Marxism and Democracy in ( ) p.174 < /fnote > Despite the exceptions and disclaimers to the idea of a universal working class allegiance however , it is clear that Allende did appeal to the workers of and there was vast support for ' Chile 's Road to Socialism ' among the unions , neighbourhood associations , peasant leagues and youth and womens groups that sprouted in the surge of working class participation . While union membership in more than doubled from in to in , quantity of unionised labourers can not alone be a explanation , demonstration or consequence of the radical tradition , for of Perón 's regime , when supposedly unions were being increasingly institutionalised and neutered , the membership rose a more impressive from . It must be accounted for with a political and social explanation , with shared urban experience , as demonstrated with the mill seizing , being a formative process , but the reason for divergence from is because the diagnosed political solutions to their socio - political repression and economic austerity , and with a considerable class consciousness applied their weight to building and supporting strong political parties that worked in their interests . < fnote > De Vilder , Allende 's Chile p.26 < /fnote><fnote>[1946 : : . ] D. James , Resistance and Integration ( 1988 ) p.10 < /fnote > The working class of may not have been instilled with left - wing tendencies from above , but they were hugely influenced by the politicians that led them along the road to socialism , and as much as any social or economic reasons they supported the because they promised brotherhood and solidarity for the working class and a society free of exploitation , because they were told that ' workers must understand that they are part of this government , that they are the government ' and this movement even more than the already left - wing was what was desired to represent the workers in politics , the rhetoric of a popular crusade for the working class ensuring that they mobilised enthusiastically in the direction of the revolution , although their ideological predilection already pointed that way . Perón 's task would seem the more difficult one , convincing the working class that they should be shown "" the way forward "" in a corporatist state , but he emphatically pulled it off , possibly made easier because of their underdeveloped class consciousness or his thorough subversion of the unions which were their only other sphere of influence , but nonetheless he captured the emotional current and reined it into his favour . < fnote > Allende , Chile 's Road to Socialism ( ) p.92 < /fnote > The great success of Perón 's method of populism was in reaching out over the heads of the unionists and other potential working class activists and communicating to the working class as a mass , because when the population is addressed as a single entity it becomes an easier object to control , a reason why his doctrine promoted class harmony . With the symbolic integration of the working class with the rest of society it created people , nation that devotedly followed its head , nationalism playing the part of unifier and fostering cultural pride in the "" New Argentina "" . Part of this success was due to the great skills of Perón himself , a skilful user of the techniques of ' propaganda , theatricality , display and charismatic authority ' who cultivated a cult of personality where , like all populists , ' charisma bestowed on the new leader the right to exercise power on behalf of the people ' , a typical function that directed the working class towards a national goal rather than to work for their own means . Allende , while appealing in his own bespectacled way to his supporters and not a bad orator himself , was arguably more ideological and less inspirational , therefore he was more divisive ( as the women of the saucepan march could attest ) and did not tap into mass nationalist feeling the same way as Perón , he relied on political mobilisation and shared ideology from his working class supporters . < fnote , ( 1986 ) p.285 < /fnote><fnote , ' Urban Populism ' in and Tulchin , Problems in Modern Latin American History ( ) p.98 < /fnote > A method which the demagogues similarly exploited was the populist appeal of a brotherhood , where the working class felt like they were sharing a common identity and the perception that they were all valued collectively by their leaders shaped their allegiance to them both . While the working class could obviously have self - improving motives for supporting appealed to the workers without the promise of a socialist redistribution of income , but with something that his liberal democratic opponents were missing : a voice for the working class . The General argued for democracy to represent the workers as a collective , not just atomised individuals in a liberal capitalist market place exploited by ' imperialists ' . That may be dismissed as simply a voice through Perón 's rhetoric , but even that was a significant positive for the descamisados , that term had been a haughty middle - class insult , but ' the Peróns ... were quick to seize the epithet and turn it against their opposition ' and they transformed it into a badge of defiance . Perón used a radical language that talked of social justice , workers rights , inhuman exploitation by capitalism that was ' appreciated by the workers because it was their own ' and despite his committed policy of corporate nationalism that actually encouraged that exploitive capitalism as long as the nation profited from it , he managed to place himself as the scourge of the oligarchy . In the same way that Allende defiantly stated ' I am not the President of the dealers and the speculators ' , Perón ran a campaign of ' political and social opposition , as a denial of the dominant elite 's power , symbols and values ' a show of solidarity with the working class and a method of negative integration that convinced them that he was their defender through shared resistance against the exploiting capitalists . With this combination of nationalism , oppositioning and solidarity with the working class against the elite , Perón 's presentation gained working class allegiance just as much as any political scheming inside the unions did . < fnote > Blanksten , 's ( ) p.317 < /fnote><fnote > M. Navarro , ' and Evita Perón ' in and Tulchin , Problems in Modern Latin American History ( ) p.105 < /fnote><fnote > Allende , Chile 's Road to Socialism ( ) p.101 < /fnote><fnote > D. James , Resistance and Integration ( ) p.39 < /fnote > That inside job came to a close when he moved on from labour to the Presidency , and as executive necessity distanced from his laboristas , his wife stepped in to further cement the family 's name in control of the , with a phenomenal work rate and political acumen that belied her previous career as a radio actress . With ' Evita ' , personality fuelled her political popularity , and she realised through the that she could make the politics of aid and support her personal domain , quickly establishing herself as the main point of contact for the organisation 's function of welfare and relief , as ' workers were quick to realise that in order to get what they wanted , it was to their advantage to channel their requests through her ' she gained the important power of patronage . It did n't hurt her personal popularity either , which was driven by her - like looks and emotionally manipulative speeches , which with ' explosions of passion and fury ' managed to rally , congratulate , or plead with the people when necessary to urge them in whatever direction and most of all the country , the patria in her own image as the mother of a nation , needed . She positioned herself as ' only one more descamisada ' and it was this humble national appeal of an obviously extraordinary , missionary benefactress that connected emotionally with the masses , a long - lasting devotion to that was supplemented at the time by her political domination of the and the influence that that lent her to aid her husband 's cause . It is another case where appealing to the populace with a discourse of national solidarity for workers , backed up by benevolent but circumscribed welfare convinces the people of their identity and loyalty , very much the 's technique but with her own emotional touch . < fnote > M. Navarro , ' and Evita Perón ' in and Tulchin , Problems in Modern Latin American History ( ) p.109 < /fnote><fnote > M. Navarro , ' and Evita Perón ' in and Tulchin , Problems in Modern Latin American History ( 1994 ) p.110 < /fnote><fnote > Eva Perón in Blanksten , 's ( ) p.324 < /fnote > Economic circumstances and political mobilisation may be the obvious forces that shape the allegiance of the working class , but cultural movements also defined the mood of the masses , with a growing appetite for culture matching the working classes ' participation in politics , and the were linked as the main consumer of the precious spare time the working class had . While some world - renowned literary figures held disdainful views of Perón such as ( ' Dictatorships foster oppression , dictatorships foster servitude , dictatorships foster cruelty ; more abominable is the fact that they foster idiocy . ' ) and ( who emigrated to in opposition to Perón in ) , Perón was an enthusiastic promoter of the as a symbol of nation pride and was known to flavour his speeches with rhetoric , a clear demonstration of his populist outreach in contrast to his constant positioning against the ' elites ' . In keeping with the more earthy drive of the working class was the ' New Song ' of the 60 's , involving protest songs , a rejection of popular commercial music ( inevitably inferior imitations of the - American pop music that dominated ) that had a folk connection and a romantic solidarity with the humble as best sang by . < fnote > Jorge Luis Borges in a statement to ( c.1946 ) from   URL   < /fnote><quote > And his conscience said at last : Sing of man in his sorrow , In his poverty , in his sweat , In his reason for being alive,</quote><fnote and , A History of , ( 1996 ) p.323 < /fnote > The working class were not just passive receivers of protest songs along with the dialogue of their parties in , nor were the taken advantage of by a leader they had blind rapturous devotion for , there was plenty of room for working class agency in the times of Perón and Allende , and history from above would be a limited perspective in not acknowledging the activism from below and the independence of the working class as a social group from their representing political parties . The view of unions as a submissive labour movement that allowed Perón to incorporate them overlooks the reasons that allowed him to dominate them , namely the infighting of the labour movement prior to Peronism and the harsh repression of any struggle against the incorporation of the unions , those were their failings , not a lack of vigour . Also , it may be questioned as to whether the labourers were taken advantage of at all , since they had gained considerable wage increases and benefits that they were in no position to demand before Perón came into power , and if one of the objects of any working class movement is to achieve concrete material gains for the people , then there is no need for them to actively resist Peronism or fight for more , because they had been given better than they could have realistically achieved without him . However , unfortunately for the reputation perhaps of the working class as a movement , unfairly or not they are judged by their determination to achieve a fairer redistribution of income and an improvement of their standing in society , and in that test undoubtedly they did not apply themselves , whether that be because of the working class ' formative process or their organisation 's experience and reaction under , its material gains were modest , and movement weak . Also pursuing material gains were the workers , but they were not shy of taking matters into their own hands even though their government ( literally , according to Allende ) was actually promising a redistribution of wealth , it just was not fast enough for them . The seizure of the mill was a move perhaps emboldened by the election of Allende but it was certainly not sanctioned by him , and it served to kick - start the revolution into a gear that was perhaps not ready for . Similarly the sprouting of cordones industriales everywhere , so that by they included of all manufacturing workers , was at an independent action by the cordón Cerrillos in protest at the governments non - intervention in a factory conflict . Although these militant industrial belts eventually rallied around the government in the face of the reactionaries , along with the activities of it demonstrates how there was no tight grip on the working class ' organisations in the same way that Perón had , they ended up radicalising far beyond the scope of the political parties they had elected and it can be doubted whether there was an allegiance to Popular Unity or simply co - operation and support while it was beneficial to them . In fact , even with the enforced docility of the working class activists , the literally correct diagnosis would be that the working class never has any allegiance except to itself , it may throw its weight behind a political force like , and once under that regime it may fall sway to the inspiring yet unrewarding populism , or it may endeavour to fulfil the ideology in spite of the regime that shares it with them , but those are all means to an end rather than a binding loyalty . < fnote > J. Faúndez , Marxism and Democracy in ( ) p.267 < /fnote > Determining the appeal of Allende 's socialist agenda to a working class is not mystifying , the only question that needs to be explained is how such a road was taken so openly and how the proletariat had such a strong class consciousness that they zealously pursued it , even to the point of taking it beyond Allende 's wishes . The unique tradition of in part answers both those questions , as it enabled ideas to be propagated , discussed and elected into office in a democratic fashion , and it also focused the worker 's ambitions on the political sphere that drove them to participate in a way that created such a strong movement . The analysis of 's working class however , has always had the feeling of a post - mortem , quandary about the cause of death being that ' it is not certain whether the apparent popularity of President is due to the satisfaction of the working masses or ... to the various techniques of psychological intimidation or coercion to which Mr. has resorted ' being a typical fault line of questioning . However a judgement on that issue is futile because in a tactic of carrot and stick , both elements are equally vital , a more pertinent factor to be analysed is the reason behind the relative weakness of the working class ' political movement , and their unions in particular , the answers being a tradition of divided but unfocused leftists in a working class that was anaemically unionised , a stark contrast to 's brimming left - wing scene . Both peoples were in need of a figurehead that inspired and connected with them , although Allende depended less on populist displays for his support ; both were the product of an exploitative society that wanted to be counted as a collective , although the wanted to take matters into their own hands more than the who were satisfied by oppositionist rhetoric , and both were hoping to improve their own lot independently if possible , although for the it was not . The differing allegiances of the descamisados and the compañeros are explained by the dual processes of the formative experience that determined the character of their movement , and the imposing forces ( ideology or personality ) that shaped that movement and determined its outcome . < fnote > Blanksten , 's ( ) p.327 < /fnote >",0
"< heading > Part AQuestion One</heading > The concept of creativity over has attracted much attention both from academia and industry . ( ) -based on his study of successful creative organisations- mentions that modern companies have realised the importance of enhancing creativity , and making it an integral part of their culture in order to gain a competitive advantage over their rivals . Moreover , Dougherty ( 1996 , p.174 ) supports the aforementioned opinion by adding that creativity is thought to be the main attribute for developing viable new products / services , improving output quality and revitalizing "" mature businesses "" . This paper focuses on the key - factors required for a creative organisation , followed by the identification of key - barriers to implementing these factors , and an analysis of the ways to overcome these barriers . Finally , mind - maps for both the key - factors and the key - barriers can be found in the appendices . < heading>1.1 Key - Factors for Creative Organizations < /heading > general key - factors were identified after completing the literature review : Organisations ' Resources , which include : < list TimeMoneyWorking Environment</list > and Organisations ' Culture , which includes the following elements : < list > Multidisciplinary TeamsKnowledgeAutonomy and FreedomCommunicationRecognition and Reward for Creative Work < /list > An in - depth analysis of all these elements is presented as follows : < heading > Organisations ' Resources</heading><heading > Human Resources < /heading > Human resources are the and probably the most important factor required for a creative organisation . ( , p.375 ) stresses that companies strive to take full advantage of their peoples ' ideas so as to "" unleash creativity within their working environments "" . However , the ways that managers and employees can foster creativity are different . Starting with the role of managers , ( , ) notes that they are responsible for appropriately matching people with tasks . This match should be based on employees ' skills and expertise and it must "" ignite intrinsic motivation "" . ( ) supports this opinion by stating that the appropriate match between projects and employees will enable people to work creatively ; at the same time , employees must not feel either bored or overwhelmed while working on the project . Achieving nevertheless this match , is not an easy task ; managers are expected to have plenty of information both for their people and the assignments , so as to make the most successful choice ( ) . ( ) appears to be of the same opinion , as he mentions that managers must identify and choose projects that will be considered interesting and will allow creative thinking . Finally , he argues that managers should build cohesive teams with employees that have diverse backgrounds . The success of these teams will heavily depend to the existent balance between diversity and cohesiveness . Employees on the other hand , according to ( , ) , should have "" varied and even offbeat "" backgrounds , which will enable them to approach tasks from different perspectives . When such people collaborate , achieving creative work stands more chances . < heading > Time and Money</heading > According to Amabile ( , p.82 ) , time and money are the most important elements of organisational resources . is a significant factor for creatively facing any task assigned , and although some times urgent deadlines enforce creative work , in general , time must be adequate since creativity can often be "" slow going "" . The same author suggests that funding also plays an important role in creative organisations . The allocated amount of money to each project must be sufficient , in order for the people to come up with creative ideas and not to spend their time trying to find additional resources . < heading > Working Environment</heading > Finally , workspace is more significant factor for enhancing creativity , but it seems that there are no certain rules for how it should be . ( , p.82 ) suggests that "" creative teams need open , comfortable offices "" , while a graphic designer interviewed by ( , p.382 ) states that his ideal working environment includes "" Music playing around , people shouting , clients being in the middle of the room ... this all help creativity "" . Thus , what is important for an organisation is to find workspaces that make employees feel comfortable enough to produce creative work . < heading > Organisations ' Culture</heading><heading > Multidisciplinary Teams</heading > Having already discussed the importance of human resources , using them in order to format appropriate multidisciplinary teams is the next step for creative organisations . ( , p.83 ) mentions that teams that are built up from people with various backgrounds -thus , different problem approaches- are most likely to be creative . In addition , team - members must "" share excitement over the team 's goals "" , must be willing to help their team - mates through difficulties , and last but definitely not least , they must recognise the individual value and unique knowledge of each team - member . ( , ) goes step further , by stating that each team - member must be recognised as capable of "" generating new ideas and appropriate solutions "" . Moreover , cooperative behaviour is essential and the ideas of team members must be clearly stated and communicated . Finally , teams should encourage people to express their opinions freely and this can be achieved when team - members feel valued . < heading > Knowledge</heading > Knowledge is the next key - factor identified . According to Dougherty ( 1996 , p.182 ) , the "" development and exploitation of knowledge "" gained from the interaction with the customers , is a crucial factor for creative work , since customer - orientated companies stand more chances to achieve product innovation . Furthermore , a more thorough understanding of companies ' technical capabilities enables organisations to apply the gained knowledge more effectively . and ( ) support the abovementioned , and suggest that creativity can derive from a better and deeper understanding of customer 's needs , of work 's nature and of work practices . Furthermore , ( , p.384 ) mentions that "" gaining new knowledge can minimise mistakes that may occur in the creative process "" , while ( graphic designer on ) points out that experiences and things learned from previous projects are invaluable , since one can base on them and "" recognise which elements about each product are appropriate to another product "" . ( Meyer 2000 , ) . Finally , Dougherty ( ) highlights that an efficient linkage between market and organisation 's operations and technologies is sine qua non for effective product innovation . < heading > Autonomy and Freedom</heading > These are the next interlinked key - factors for creativity . Amabile ( ) argues that employees should be provided with the necessary freedom , but they must also have well - specified and stable targets . Such conditions enhance organisations ' creativity . Providing people with freedom about the way they manage their tasks , should be integral part of every creative company . When employees are not expected to follow established processes on managing tasks , creativity arises since people come with new approaches and innovative ways of facing these tasks . < heading > Communication</heading > Communication is the next identified element for creative organisations . ( ) suggests that creativity is fostered when people inside an organisation exchange ideas and data and expose themselves to various approaches to problem - solving . Thus , information sharing and collaboration among employees is the basis of creative work . Dougherty ( 1996 , p.183 ) pinpoints that creative companies are characterised by communication in terms of "" consultation rather than command "" , and instead of instructions , communication is based on advice . Meyer ( ) seems to share the same opinion , by stating that creativity is enhanced when directions are given in the form of feedback and not through strict control . Finally , and Robinson ( ) specify the role of communication among leaders in creative companies by mentioning that communication among leaders can help on making and implementing changes in the organisation more effectively . < heading > Recognition and Reward for Creative Work</heading > These are the last key - factors for creative organisations . According to an employee : "" ... of the important things about being creative is to be encouraged , to be told that what you are doing is valuable ... "" ( Andriopoulos , p.380 ) . ( , p.101 ) , states that creative companies reward both success and failure , since it is "" impossible to generate a few good ideas without also generating a lot of bad ideas "" . He highlights though , that what it is important for creative organisations is not to permit their employees to be inactive ; only this attitude deserves punishment . Finally , ( ) states that acknowledgment of creative work is a vital factor , and should be made before the commercial results of a creative effort become known . < heading>1.2 Key - Barriers</heading > The key - barriers to implementing the abovementioned key - factors , as well as the ways of overcoming these key - barriers , are analysed below . < heading > Key - Barriers to Organisations ' Resources < /heading><heading > Human Resources < /heading > A key - barrier connected with organisations ' human resources is identified by ( ) , who points out that managers usually lack detailed information about their employees and the existing projects . Thus , they fail to successfully allocate the available assignments to the appropriate people . Instead , what erroneously do is simply allocating the most qualified employee to the most urgent project . Usually , such an action results in disappointing outcomes . Overcoming this barrier demands from managers to have or ( to search for ) all the available information for both employees and projects . Companies on the other hand must ensure that such data are available . < heading > Time and Money < /heading > Amabile ( , p.82 ) also suggests that organisations often ' kill ' creativity by pushing their employees to succeed in unrealistic or impossibly achieved deadlines , creating thus either "" distrust or burnout "" . Moreover , managers often keep their resources tight , making their employees search for additional funding instead of creative ideas . Strong leadership is essential here since the appropriate allocation of company 's resources is very important . Thus , managers must roughly know in advance the amounts of time and money that a project will necessitate and should try to ensure that the company would agree to them . ( , p.103 ) seems to agree with the abovementioned , but he approaches this problem from a different perspective . He states that companies usually devote more resources ( time , people and money ) on "" exploiting old ideas than to exploring new ones "" . However , what companies must do is exploit the gained knowledge and experience and successfully implement them in new ideas . < heading > Key - Barriers to Organisations ' Culture</heading><heading > Multidisciplinary Teams</heading > Instead of building multidisciplinary teams , ( , p.83 ) states that managers quite often prefer to form homogeneous teams , encouraged by the fact that these teams often reach solutions more quickly . However , as very cogently stated by the author , "" everyone comes to the table with a similar mind - set . They leave with the same "" . Managers should promote multi - background teams . Although such a team may initially face communication difficulties due to different perspectives , in the long run it has much greater chances for innovation than a homogeneous team . < heading > Knowledge</heading > According to ( ) , many organisations seem unable to learn from their previous experiences , thus undertaking each project from the scratch , although sometimes this may not be necessary . However , on the same article , ( graphic designer on ) suggests that a lot of projects have similar elements and identifying them , saves a lot of time ; time that could be spent on looking for creative ideas and approaches based on already gained knowledge . Overcoming this barrier is not an easy task . Organisations must be able to track down knowledge both internally and externally . Understanding a company 's operations and technical capabilities and connecting them with market demands ( , , ) , is an example of such an action . < heading > Autonomy and Freedom</heading > Amabile ( , p.82 ) mentions that managers often grant "" autonomy in name only "" . Employees are supposed to be free to act on their own will on finding solutions ; however the case is that the working processes are usually predefined , thus autonomy is undermined . In the same article , the author suggests that managers should give to employees the chance to act freely and creatively . Processes should not be predefined and each project must be considered individually , since different approaches to problems , might provide organizations with innovative ideas . < heading > Communication</heading > Communication among employees is often inhibited by strategies such as ' Segmentalism ' in order to handle new problems . This means that companies break down problems into smaller pieces and assign them to different people inside the company . ( , S. , ) A holistic approach to problem - solving fosters creativity , since collaboration between employees , give people the chance to experience the different approaches to the problem - solving process . Thus , companies should try to face problems in a generic frame , avoiding breaking them in smaller parts , hoping to reduce complexity , but ending losing any creative idea that can be generated from employees ' teamwork . < heading > Recognition and Reward for Creative Work</heading > Amabile ( ) argues that in many organisations , managers not only fail to recognise creative efforts , but they tend to criticise and reject innovative ideas . The idea of praising both success and failure ( see part ) seems rather utopian , since according to ( , p.101 ) , "" Few companies tolerate failure , let alone reward it ... "" . Overcoming this barrier demands that managers change their established views and start acknowledging and praising creative efforts . More importantly however , senior managers must act as role models for creativity , highlighting through their attitude the importance of creativity for their company . Finally , more significant barrier for creativity is related with the organisations ' general culture . According to and Robinson ( , ) , "" most companies are still production - oriented rather than system - oriented "" . This means that companies are more interested in sales rather than trying to understand and affect the way that their employees work and think . ( , ) makes this attitude even clearer by suggesting that creativity , although unquestionably important , is not and will never be any organisation 's number activity , since companies are focused on "" making money right now from tried - and - true products "" . Overcoming this last barrier necessitates that organisations strive to understand their employees ' way of working and thinking , and whenever necessary , to try and change these attitudes in order to foster creative work . Finishing with the examination of the key - factors required for a creative organisation and the key - barriers that must be overcome , some interesting conclusions have come up . Most companies focus on "" doing things right "" , rather than "" doing the right things "" ( , , , p.180 ) . This approach affects employees stance , since they are concentrated on simply following the established processes in fear of unpredicted ( or even worse , undesired ) results ; thus coming up with innovative ideas seems rather difficult . Nevertheless , the existence of successful creative organisations indicates that achieving creative work is not as hard as it may sound . Finally , ( President /Creative Director for Rev. Group ) opinion that "" solutions lie in looking at something familiar and then looking it again upside down and backward "" ( , , ) , points out that infusing creativity inside an organisation is not an impossible task . < heading > Part BQuestion Four</heading > The impact of efficient product development processes on successful product introductions is highlighted by ( ) , who state that efficient processes are key - factors for the prosperity and growth of manufacturing firms . Furthermore , ( , p.44 ) pinpoints that leading "" new products from idea to market faster and with fewer mistakes "" is the key for successful companies . The aforementioned statements justify the significant role of product development processes for a successful company . Under this perspective and in order to answer the assigned question , product development processes are selected and described . Furthermore , the similarities and their differences are identified , and finally , the reasons that forced industries to develop these processes are discussed . < heading>4.1 Product Development Processes</heading > The processes presented below are , and . < heading > Stage - Gate Systems</heading > According to Cooper ( , p.44 ) , "" a stage - gate system is both a conceptual and an operational model for moving a new product from idea to launch ... a blueprint for managing the new product process to improve effectiveness and efficiency "" . This system uses stages and gates to manage the product development process . It divides the process in different stages and in order to move to the next stage , the process must successfully pass from the gate of the previous stage . The following figure represents a typical : < figure/>Cooper ( , p.46 ) mentions that "" each gate is characterised by a set of deliverables or inputs , a set of exit criteria , and an output "" , while O'Connor ( 1994 , p.185 ) argues that the role of each gate is to "" assure a high quality of work performance ... during each stage "" . Cooper ( , p.46 ) also states that senior managers often act as "" gatekeepers "" , formatting multidisciplinary teams responsible for a series of actions such as : < list > Reviewing the quality of the inputsAssessing project 's qualityApproving the action plan and allocating the required resources.</list > Finally , the project team approach and involvement of senior management are important requirements for the successful implementation of . ( , ) < heading > Third - Generation Processes</heading > According to Cooper ( 1994 , p.8 ) , is the evolution of . This process however focuses on efficiency ; "" speeding up an already effective generation stage - gate process "" and allocating development resource in a more efficient way . In the following figure , a Third - Generation Process is presented : < figure/>The particular process tries to balance "" the need for thoroughness of action and complete information versus the need to move quickly "" ( , p.9 ) . Finally , according to Cooper ( 1994 , ) basic elements ( Fs ) characterize . Processes must be "" fluid and adaptable "" and overlapping stages is permitted , since speeding up the development process -providing that companies understand the involved risks- can be an essential part of a product 's success . Fuzzy gates . Gates can cause serious delays if for example information is missing . With the use of fuzzy gates , such delays are overcome , since the process can be carried out under not fully predefined conditions . Focused . "" Prioritization methods "" looking at the entire "" portfolio of the projects "" are utilized , thus companies can allot resources according to their forecasts about the results of their projects . Flexibility . Finally , passing through all the gates is not compulsory anymore , since "" each project is unique and has its own routing through the process "" . < heading > Life Cycle Engineering</heading > According to ( 1994 , p.110 ) , Life Cycle Engineering ( LCE ) is an approach to concurrent engineering which has received much attention from "" those individuals who consider various implications of product design from its inception to disposal "" , while . ( , p.307 ) state that focuses on designing and producing products with "" minimal environmental impact during their entire life - cycle "" . Wanyamaal . ( , p.307 ) view as a "" decision - making methodology that considers environmental , performance and cost requirements throughout the duration of a facility "" . Dowlatshahi ( 1994 , p.110 ) suggests that LCE tries to anticipate the "" behaviour of the product / system over its entire life "" , shifting thus the emphasis from the traditional product development to the overall life - cycle of the product . Moreover , he mentions that defines life - cycle costing and utilizes the recourses effectively . ( , pp.307 - 310 ) highlight important elements of . Design For the Environment ( DFE ) is the element and its main goals are to "" manage renewable resources efficiently , reduce the use of non - renewable resources , and minimize toxic release into the environment "" ; by implementing DFE early in the stages of design , the risk of changes with significant cost impacts later on is avoided . Environmentally Conscious Design and Manufacturing ( ECD&M ) is the element , which focuses on industrial applications ( i.e. "" reduction of hazardous substances in the process "" ) . The element is ( LCA ) and is used to "" evaluate the environmental performance of a product / process / activity over its entire life - cycle "" . End - of - life is the element of and it is used for the identification of "" ideal end - of - life strategies "" . Finally , the Materials used in the manufacturing process , is the last element . They are considered very important since they can "" improve technical efficiency and productivity , as well as reduce the environmental impact "" . < heading>4.2 < /heading > The identified similarities between the processes are mainly to do with their structure and their implementation in modern industry . are the evolution of ; thus , the philosophy that lies behind them is the same since both use stages and gates to manage the product development process . Furthermore , they both make use of multidisciplinary teams , promoting cross - functional team effort and project 's approach , and involving different company 's units in the product development process ( , , ) . The main similarity of with and is their application in industries . . ( ) highlight the use of in the automobile ( i.e. , ) and electronics and electromechanical ( i.e. HP , , ) industry , while the case study of . ( ) confirms the above , by implementing in the comparison of different automobile fenders . Similarly , . ( ) -in their comparative study- examine the Stage - Gate approaches of , and , proving the broad use of in these industries . On the other hand , there are distinct differences between these processes . Cooper ( 1994 , p.13 ) suggests that the introduction of the 4 Fs to is their main difference from . These new elements make the process more flexible and adaptable . Delays caused by lack of information are avoided and specific techniques can lead to projects prioritization . Moreover , he stresses that Third - Generation Systems are "" much more tailored to the needs and specifics of each project "" , than . But , according to the same author , this attribute makes much more complex . A last difference identified , is the increased ' power ' that project teams have in the Third - Generation Processes . Cooper ( 1994 , p.13 ) describes this phenomenon as "" a shift in authority "" , and highlights that "" given that the project team is more familiar with the details and intricacies of their project that any group of senior managers could ever hope to be , senior management must increasingly rely on the team ... "" . Finally , 's main difference from these processes is its focus on the environmental impact of the product development process , and how this impact can be minimized in order to achieve the most eco - friendly product . In addition , seems to narrow -at least for the time being- its implementation in the industries mentioned above , while and Third - Generation Processes have a much broader range of utilization such as telecommunication services and petrochemical industries . ( , ) After analyzing the similarities and the differences of these product development processes , it is considered important to discuss what prompted industries to develop these processes . Cooper ( , p.44 ) states that the main reason that forced companies to develop approach for product development processes , is the "" increased pressure to reduce the cycle time yet improve their new product hit rate "" . . ( , ) point out that an increasing number of companies use in order to "" overcome the problems of product performance , development cost increases and development time slippage "" . Moreover , the same authors ( ) state that allow companies to improve their products ' quality , remove activities that do not add value and "" reduce risk associated with the product 's development "" . Furthermore , ( , p.49 ) highlights that are highly market oriented , since "" market - related activities , such as user needs and market research "" are often included in the preliminary stages of this process . In addition , the same author suggests that a key - feature of is the parallel processing of many activities in different stages . This feature results in time compression , while keeping high levels of quality . In the same article , it is also stated that ability ' to evaluate projects in a fair and consistent way , choosing the most promising to carry on , and having a well - thought and clearly defined structure , are more features that have made these systems so popular among companies . Finally , according to Cooper ( ) , -back to the beginning of 90's- Stage - Gate Systems were considered as an efficient tool for managing , directing and controlling companies ' innovation attempts . Nevertheless , the comparative study of . ( ) suggests that this approach was still popular at , and effectively implemented by well - known firms such as , , , plc , and . In the same article it is also mentioned that although there are some differences -especially among the number of stages and gates- between the ways that the companies make use of these systems , the main idea remains the same , and Stage - Gate approach seems to handle effectively the product development process . However , an important drawback of is documented in O'Connor 's ( , p.186 ) article , based on a forum conducted by companies using . The inability to "" overlap stages of activities "" is thought to be a significant disadvantage of these systems . This and some additional weaknesses are recognised by ( 1994 ) , who suggests as the solution to the barriers raised by . According to Cooper ( 1994 ) , Third - Generation Processes were developed as an improvement of . The implementation of the 4 Fs ( see ) , eliminates many of the drawbacks of , making the product development process more tailored to companies ' different needs . is a archetypical example of a company that uses Third - Generation Processes . The company has adopted a much more fluid and adaptable process , which enables it to "" overlap the beginning and the end of succeeding phases provided that we [ the company ] understand the risks involved ... "" ( Cooper , , , p.9 ) . Moreover , the same author suggests that detailed information is not required anymore in order to continue on the next phase , thus time delays are minimised . However , the importance of balancing in - time decisions versus risk management is clearly stressed . Finally , Cooper ( 1994 ) argues that the misunderstanding of systems as a bureaucratic procedure from some organisations is revised here , since Third - Generation Processes provide a flexible road map , rather than a ' strict path ' to follow . Finally , the importance of for modern organisations and the reasons that prompted them to develop it , is discussed as follows . et ( 2003 , p.307 ) point out that has become "" a norm for global companies "" , that want to retain their competitive advantage . According to the authors , environment , economy , regulations and standards forced companies to develop a product development process capable of producing an eco - friendly product , taking into account apart from its environmental impact , factors such as performance and cost requirements . Thus , has been developed in order for the industries to successfully cope with all these requirements . Moreover , features such as "" reduced future costs for disposal , reduced environment and health risks , improved product quality at lower cost , safer and cleaner factories and better public image "" , are some of the main reasons that forced companies to apply ( et al . , , p.308 ) . The authors also state that some other factors such as reduced "" energy consumption and wastes "" and the consumers ' demands for minimization of the environmental impacts while using the product , enforced the implementation of . As mentioned before , 's main applications focus on the automobile industry and on the electronics and electromechanical industry . Recycling was the main reason that forced automobile industries to adopt , since "" automobiles are the most fully recycled manufactured products worldwide "" ( et al . , , ) . Examples of companies that use different elements or approaches of include , and the automobile industry . Moreover , in the same article it is stated that the main reason for using in the electronics and electromechanical industry is the pollution caused by these products ; thus designers must consider the environmental impacts of their products , focusing on mitigating pollution . HP , and are some of the well - known companies that use in order to produce eco - friendlier products , satisfying customers ' demands . In conclusion , was developed so as to satisfy in a profitable way the increasing customers ' demands for environmentally friendlier products and to develop products with desirable attributes in a very efficient way . It is clear that each of the aforementioned product development processes have affected the way that modern companies cope with the difficult task of developing and producing new products in a competent and profitable way , according to customers ' needs and demands . The processes described above are only a small fraction of the existing ones , but their contribution in the development of successful products is unquestionable . < heading > Part C</heading > The goal of the particular case study was the development of a new product/ service . The team 's meeting was basically focused on finding existing market gaps , selecting a proposed one and trying to find ways to satisfy this gap . Although different proposals were heard during the meeting , the team 's final choice was based on the lack of transportation inside universities and the ways that these gaps could be satisfied . In the meeting an evaluation of the various proposals was conducted , and the development of a service of renting bicycles was selected . The next meetings were focused on developing the idea , calculating the developing costs , establishing final details ( i.e. target price ) and considering future potentials of the team 's proposal . The efficient communication and cooperation among team - members was the most significant strength of the team . All the meetings were completed on time , and team - members were participating equally to the various processes . The members came up with different ideas -from rather common to very wild ones- and tried to avoid expressing their disapproval of some opinions heard . Conducting fertile conversations substituted processes such as the one proposed from , and in general , the team 's final choices and proposals were agreed upon unanimously . Finally , members ' willingness to participate and suggest solutions helped the team 's effort in completing the task in a satisfactory way . < fnote > Source : module , 2006 < /fnote > On the other hand , the team 's main weakness was the difficulty faced coming up with a truly innovative product . The team did not succeed in finding a genuinely creative idea ; however , since the time to come up with and develop a new idea was limited , and according to ( , p.82 ) "" creativity may be slow - going "" , the team can be partly excused . < fnote > References ( Part A ) < /fnote > Finally , the identification of the learning outcomes of this case study is important . , the participation on the case study made clear how difficult it is to identify a market gap and come up with a truly innovative product/ service , especially under time pressure . Participating in a multi - ethnic team and trying to make this team work efficiently , was the major challenge and significant lesson learned . Communication and cooperation between people who do not speak the same language , come from different educational and cultural backgrounds and hence different perspectives , complicates the whole effort . However , the shared excitement and the willingness to participate overcame all these barriers . Participating in the process of brainstorming was also a major learning outcome . The interaction between the team 's members and the way that idea could instigate another , was truly impressive . Finally , an important learning outcome was to avoid the ' temptation ' of criticizing other peoples ' ideas , and to step back and see problems from a different point of view without being affected by one 's prior knowledge and experiences . In conclusion , the participation in this case study proved to be an invaluable experience , providing the opportunity to experience the difficulties that the product development process entails , but at the same time giving the chance to feel the excitement of being part of an ambitious project .","< abstract > In released his initial model of the atom , as time has passed numerous flaws have arisen in this model . However , it is still hailed as a success and is found in many school and university textbooks . This paper will review what exactly the model and its flaws are , what its successes are , and are these successes despite or , because of its flaws . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > The word ' Atom ' comes from the ancient Greek word ' ' meaning not divisible . An atom is defined as ' the smallest unit of a chemical element that can exist ' . However in , it was found to be a larger structure of smaller components . These components would lead to his model of the atom . < fnote>'Atom ' MS Encarta 2004 < /fnote > In , was studying the nature of light , he imagined light to be a tiny stream of particles , or corpuscles as they were known . Around the same time a scientist called believed that light was a wave . This turned into something of a debate , until when , carried out his famous double - slit experiment , from this point the wave theory was favoured for . Back to the atom , in , , a chemist was the to attempt to quantify atoms and molecules , in terms of their proportions , for example , H 2O. < heading > Into The Atom</heading > In , a physicist named was exploring how cathode rays were affected by passing between electrically charged plates . He discovered that the rays were attracted to the positively charged plate . also indirectly calculated the charge / mass ratio and found that it was over times smaller than that of an atom ! He concluded that the cathode rays must be lots of tiny particles of matter far smaller the atoms with a negative charge . These would later become known as electrons . There was a problem ; atoms are neutral , which led to the model of the atom . Thomson imagined the atom as a positive pudding with negative plums spread evenly inside it . This would later be found to be incorrect . In , a previous associate of began research into radioactivity , this was called . found types of radiation in radioactive decay , he named these Alpha)andBeta),and then later a was found and ) . soon found Beta radiation to be electrons ; alpha radiation was something rather different , it has a mass times that of hydrogen and a charge double that of the electron but positive . In colleagues of , and carried out an experiment where a beam of alpha particles was directed at a thin metal foil . The results from this saw most of the electrons passing through the foil but they were scattered . But some of the particles were reflected back ! From this concluded that , if most of the particles were passing through the foil then the ' plum pudding ' model must be wrong . As the particles were moving with great speed they could brush past the electrons passing through . The particles that got reflected must meet a tiny concentrated positive centre , as the alpha particles are too positive they are repelled back . In , produced a new model of the atom . However there was an immediate problem with 's model . If the negative charge was on the outside why did n't it attract towards the nucleus and hence collapse , emitting light in the process . This was not the case . Even if the particles were orbiting they should still emit radiation as they change velocity . Around the same time a scientist , , was investigating the unification of electrodynamics and thermodynamics , in particular he was studying blackbody radiation , there were already known equations to explain parts of the radiation , but they were independent of each other . Plank accidentally , using a bit of mathematical trick , joined the equations , but now the equation had no physical basis . Later Plank noticed that the equation could make sense if he used 's idea that the law of thermodynamics was based on a statistical probability . However , had been brought up on and believed strongly in classical determinism , 's probability model was far from this and so he shunned the idea , around this time he also realised he had made a mistake in his working . As a result he was left with excess bits of energy that had to be explained . He interpreted this idea ; that electric oscillators in the atom could only absorb and emit discrete packets of energy of certain sizes later called ' quanta ' and was given by the equation ; < fnote > the radiation emitted by a blackbody ( which is an idealised object that perfectly absorbs and emits all radiation that strikes it 's surface ) < /fnote><fnote > That is ; the entropy or the disorder of a closed system must always increase . < /fnote > FORMULA   Where E is the energy of the quanta , v is the frequency of quanta and h is a constant , now known as the constant . In , was the person to take any big interest in the work of . He applied 's equation to electromagnetic radiation to explain the photoelectric effect ; he said the light comes in discrete packets , now called photons . Einstein worked on these ideas of a quantum theory of radiation until , when he drew his attention to relativity . Also as a result of 's idea that light behaved as particles , the debate of whether light was a wave or a particle was back to the forefront of science . It would be a young scientist who had been working alongside in that would take the next step , his name was . < fnote>""The liberation of electrons from a substance exposed to electromagnetic radiation "" , ' Photoelectric effect ' , Dictionary of Physics , . . < /fnote><heading > A New Model for the Atom</heading > Niels Bohr was born in in , and finished his doctorate in , and moved to Manchester , where he began to form his new model of the atom . was a scientist of the new age and used an unorthodox method of mix - matching ideas to suit particular behaviour of atoms in certain situations . In , 's view of light behaving like particles was still the topic of much debate . took 's quantum view of light and applied to 's model of the atom . If light could only come in certain quanta of energy , it could n't collapse in on itself . Orbits were stable because of fixed energy levels ( . ) . < figure/>Bohr released his initial model of atom in . This model was flawed ; it did n't explain why the behaviour occurred . The model also failed to explain wave - particle duality . Refinements were needed ; continued to work in his patchy fashion . then began to study the atomic structure of hydrogen , the simplest atom . When constructed his model of the atom he only used quantities mass and charge , from these no length unit can be derived . used 's constant , h , to get an idea of the length of an atom . His estimate was in the region -10 m , this value fitted with that required for the scattering experiment of , by and his colleagues . went on to explain why an atom does n't have to continuously radiate energy as it orbits the nucleus , but it can emit a whole quantum of energy , or a photon . As a result of this emission the electron would jump to a lower quantum state ( or level ) . The model allowed for more spectral lines than were observed in the spectra of atoms , and so added rules forbidding certain quantum jumps between levels , again without any real justification , this is generally seen as poor scientific practice , but for the time being it seemed to work . In Einstein introduced probability into the atom , and was added to the model to describe the real behaviour of atoms . He later dismissed these ideas stating that ' God does not play dice ' . This probability would later be found as the underpinning of quantum theory . Einstein linked radioactive decay and electron emission , using 's equations for collections of atoms . These statistical equations modified 's model to explain why some spectral lines were more probable than others , due the probability that some quantum jumps are more likely than others . But again could n't explain why this was so but Einstein hoped some underlying reason would be found in the future . Still to date no explanation has been found . This meant that everything did just happen by chance and events occurred at no particular time and more so no particular reason . The probability of an event can be quantified , but even so there is still no telling when an event will occur . This was the end of classical determinism . < fnote > This is the doctrine that state everything has cause and as a result of that cause an effect will follow . < /fnote > It was around that 's model reached its final form , where he introduced the concept of shells , the with electrons , the with etc . This later successfully predicted , but once more he did n't explain why there were specific numbers of electrons in each shell . Within of this the model would be almost abolished by physicists , but for chemists it was and still is an ideal tool to discover and explain the structure and interactions of substances . In the 's , the results an X - ray diffraction experiment could only be explained by uniting both wave and particle theories of radiation , this was the birth of wave - particle duality . A big breakthrough came when it was shown that all particles , not just photons and electrons , could be expressed as waves and vice versa . "" It is n't just 's atom with its electron ' orbits ' is a false picture ; all pictures are false , and there is no physical analogy that we can make to understand what goes on inside atoms . Atoms behave like atoms nothing else . "" < fnote > This was shown mainly by where p is the momentum of a particle , h is 's constant and  is the wavelength . < /fnote><fnote>'A Break with the Past ' , In search of 's cat , p92 < /fnote><heading > Conclusion < /heading > The Bohr model had multiple flaws , and the reason for this is because atoms ca n't be displayed as a model . Atoms are so incredibly small its no wonder the model is very rough . Also classical ideas ca n't be combined with quantum ideas to explain the behaviour of atoms because atoms are quantum objects . However , the model has clearly been a success ; it has given us the periodic table among other things . Most importantly it has provided a bridge by which a grasp of the quantum can be made , before making the leap ; and this is because of its flaws .",0
"For Descartes the intellect is simply an un - extended , thinking thing , ideas and the process of thought formation being the only thing that certified our existence . For the , the active intellect was a separate immaterial , immortal faculty necessary for the formation of concepts . While , 's theory of understanding of concepts are brought about by the continuum of past experiences perceived by the senses . In other words , for , all our ideas of knowledge are brought about through sensory perception . In order to understand 's account of sense perception , one needs comprehend the way Locke defines perception and ideas . For is the only way of being capable of acquiring ideas about objects through our senses . Through sensory perception the mind derives its ideas and these ideas are only the ideas of its own intellect . These ideas can be constructed through forms of thinking- reflections and/or abstraction . Anyone who thinks of a notion must have perceived it ( experienced ) , and anyone who lacks perception ca n't have an idea of the notion , therefore lacks the reflection or abstraction of the notion . The sensory ideas are caused by external objects as their perception is caused involuntarily and independently of our intellect ( Representative theory of perception ) . However , there are cases in which these simple ideas resemble their qualities that give rise to them and other cases when they do n't . That is to say that these ideas have qualities which make them distinct from one another which may or may not resemble the true attributes of the object but they are still ideas constructed within us without our appeal . The basic qualities are primary , secondary and "" the power that is in any body "" ( Locke , pp140 ) . final point on sensory perception is it 's interaction with judgment . Locke 's empirical account of sense perception , requires a thorough understanding of ideas , perception and qualities . In Contrast to many of its contemporaries , argued that the mind is a hollow void , that it contains no ideas , until it experiences , as he states , "" when a man begins to have any ideas ? I think , the true answer is , when he has any sensation . ( Locke , pp ) Locke 's empiricist argument is quite different than . As Descartes argued that the mind , the part of the soul that thinks is nothing unless it thinks . This is one of the explicit differences between and Locke . Locke argues that we acquire everything from experience through our senses . Through sensory perception we receive ideas of the external world . To have an idea of the external world , one needs to experience , to experience anything one needs its senses and sensory perception . Skeptically thinking , I wonder whether it is really not possible to have an idea of something without experiencing it . For example , to have an idea of the lack of gravity in space , do I need to travel to space ? However , notice that when Locke talks about experience he precisely relates experience to sense perception . Clearly it is not possible to experience every single possible thing on earth and thus acquire an idea of it . However it 's possible to experience ideas about things that we personally did not experience , by our senses . The primary concept in 's argument is sensory perception , whatever we know we get them through the channels of senses . Later on , forms of thinking we acquire an idea of the notion , as argues , "" These , I say , viz . external material things , as the objects of sensation ; and the operations of our minds within , as the objects of reflection , are to me , the only originals , from whence all our ideas take their beginnings . ""(Locke , pp110 ) Thus , through sensory perception and then through reflection we construct ideas . Locke refers to reflection as simple thinking , when anything is perceived . Accordingly , perception is the faculty of the mind in the process of receiving idea , which the simplest idea is constructed with the cooperation of reflection ( Locke , pp142 ) . Significantly , points out a difference between perception and reflection . The difference is that during perception the mind is for the most part is passive , while when the intellect is reflecting , the mind is active . Thus this gives way to our next discussion of perception which is representative theory of perception . Basically , in perception the mind is passive which means that what the mind perceives has no control of perceiving it the way it does . It just perceives it , and can not avoid perceiving . < quote>""No man can be wholly ignorant of what he does , when he thinks . These simple ideas , when offered to the mind , the understanding can no more refuse to have , nor alter , when they are imprinted , nor blot them out , and make new ones itself , than a mirror can refuse , alter , or obliterate the images or ideas , which , the objects set before it , do therein produce . As the bodies that surround us , do diversely affect our organs , the mind is forced to receive the impressions ; and can not avoid the perception of those ideas that are annexed to them "" ( Locke , p121)</quote > I agree with 's theory of perception because truly we can think and we can control our process of thinking but we intellectually do n't have much power over our perception . For example , I can decide on thinking about a principle of a triangle , that all of its sides equal to . I can decide when I should think and when not to . However , when I look at the piece of paper which has a triangle drawn on it , I ca n't help but perceive a triangle whenever I look at it . Even if I wanted to perceive a square or a circle , I would still see a triangle on that same piece of paper . Furthermore , in my mind I can think of a square or a circle but my eyes would still perceive a triangle when it looked at that piece of paper . Moreover , there is another point implied by which is that we only have the idea of what we perceive directly through our senses . There are often cases that our perception and idea of an external object might be deficient or incomplete because of the way we perceived it . For example , the idea that I have of the object might be a false or deceitful idea of the object caused by optical illusions . According to , in order to think of a notion one must have perceived ( experienced ) it , and to understand the notion one must think of it and have an idea of it . "" Whoever reflects on what passes in his own mind , can not miss it ( perception ): and if he does not reflect , all the words in the world , can not make him have any notion of it . "" ( Locke , pp142 ) Here argues that the mind can only perceive its own ideas and no matter how much it is intended to explain the notion by others ideas , the person will never get the same idea of the notion as he would when he perceived the notion and acquired the idea of the notion himself . For example , one might try to explain to a blinded person who has been blind at birth what the color red is like , but he will never have the idea of the color red as he would when he perceived by his sighted eyes . Likewise , bats have an advanced sonor system , or that dolphins have a magnetic communication system , that we are not capable of perceiving or sensing , therefore we do not have the idea of what it is like to have those kinds of systems . We can only relate to those systems by ' abstraction ' . Furthermore , emphasizes on ideas by arguing that ideas of external objects has qualities . These are mainly divided into primary qualities and qualities . Primary qualities are those which produce simple ideas in us like solidity , extension , figure , motion , or rest and number . Those qualities are considered as inseparable from the body no matter how much force is exerted to the particles of the matter , these qualities are inseparable from every particle of matter . Following Locke 's example , if a grain of wheat is taken and divided into parts , each and every part would still retain its solidity , extension , figure and mobility , divide it again , and it retains the same qualities . Furthermore , those qualities that have powers to produce sensations in us through their primary qualities , such as colors , sounds , tastes , etc . are called qualities . "" Colors and smells , may be understood also of tastes , and sounds , and other the like sensible qualities . ; which , whatever reality we by mistake , attribute to them , are in truth nothing than the objects themselves , but powers to produce various sensations in us , and depend on those primary qualities""(Locke , pp136 ) . Here , argues that qualities are those qualities that have no exact resemblance of them . Their validity are open to doubt . The bulk , number , figure , and motion of parts of a chair , or a glass are in them whether anyone perceives them or not , they according to really exist in them . However , the color , heat , or texture are not really in them . Because if you were to take away the sensations of them , let the eyes be blinded , and deprive tactile sensations , those particular ideas would vanish and would be reduced to their primary qualities , bulk , figure and motion of parts . However , there is important point that I would like to make which is that , when Locke accounts for primary and qualities it seems as if he refers to primary qualities as those ideas that can be perceived by sense , and qualities as those ideas that can be perceived by sense . So it seems as though one of the main difference between primary and qualities is there character that qualities are only perceived by single sense therefore , the absence of that organ cancels out its resemblance of the external object , as it can not rely on any other sense to be perceived . Finally , also states that there is a form of quality , which is "" the power that is in any body , by reason of the particular constitution of its primary qualities , to make such a change in the bulk , figure , texture , and motion of another body , as to make it operate on our sense , differently from what it did before . Thus the has a power to make wax white , and fire to make lead fluid . ""(Locke , page ) These qualities are usually regarded as powers by . Final discussion on sense perception of is the interrelation of sensory perception and judgment . Judgment in many ways effects the way we perceive ideas by sensation . Often , the perceptions of the ideas that we are more interested in at some moment in time subjugates other perceptions of ideas received by sensation . This is caused because of our judgment of ideas . For example , a man who reads a book with attention and care , takes little notice of the characters , or sounds around him and takes more notice in the ideas that he receives from the book . Likewise , there are some other actions in us that we take little notice of , like habits . Very rarely we realize that we cover our eyes with out eye - lids , without being aware or realizing that we are in the dark ( Locke , pp145 ) . The way I see it is that these habits happen to us so many times before in the past that we gain kind of an immunity towards them , therefore , we seem to ignore their perception unless we precisely reflect on them . We perceive them but we are not totally aware of their perception because its perception is suppressed by the other perception that are more recent to our knowledge . explains referring to 's concept of perception , "" it is an immediate connection between sensation and a pre - established judgment . The judgment must already exist , having been developed through previous experience . Then and only then can the mind arrive at the perception . This makes sense if you consider that the time you experience something it takes a period of time before you realize exactly what it is you have perceived . ""(Provost ) Here Provost means that we experience and acquire sensory perception and only then through reflection the mind arrive at the ' perception ' and thus , makes a judgment about the idea . As a whole , points out that to have an idea it is absolutely necessary to have experienced some kind of notion of it . Moreover , he argues that it is only possible to have ideas about external objects and we can not be absolutely certain of the existence of material , external objects . Therefore , we only acquire ideas and act upon ideas in our minds . More precisely , we perceive an idea , through sensations , and then reflect upon them . Moreover , Locke identifies main types of qualities of ideas , primary qualities and qualities . main difference I find between primary qualities and qualities is that primary qualities can be sensed through sense therefore , it seems as though the validity of these primary qualities are more reliable than the validity of qualities . Another theory points out is that by judgment , we give priority to some ideas that we perceive , while others are pushed to the sidelines in our ignorance .","< heading > Part 1</heading > The range of countries in this analysis is based on upper middle income and and countries . The reason why I chose these ranges of countries is because I expect upper middle income countries to have relatively high per capita but not all and countries are upper middle income countries . Thus , I expect some and countries to have lower per capita and also low life expectancies compared to the other . The set of countries are shown below ; < table/>The indicators of economic development used are per capita and Life expectancy . per capita ( formerly GNP per capita ) is the gross national income , divided by the population . is the sum of value added by all resident producers plus any product taxes ( less subsidies ) not included in the valuation of output plus net receipts of primary income ( compensation of employees and property income ) from abroad . To smooth fluctuations in prices and exchange rates , a special method of conversion is used by . < fnote national accounts data , and data files . < /fnote > Life expectancy at birth measures the number of a newborn infant would live if prevailing patterns of mortality at the time of its birth were to stay the same throughout its life . < fnote staff estimates from various sources including census reports , , country statistical offices , and from national sources and < /fnote > A histogram is used to graphically show the characteristics of the per capita distribution in this sample of countries . < table/><figure/>From Figure above the modes can be detected cause the modes corresponds to strong peaks in a histogram . Therefore , the modes appear to be in the range of $ to $ . < table/>The median is the number in the middle of a set of numbers ; that is , the numbers have values that are greater than the median , and have values that are less . The median is one of several indices of central tendency used to indicate the point on the scale of measures where the population(GNI per capita values ) is centered . Thus , this means that most of the countries in the set had of per capita . This is a reasonable number for upper , middle income countries . Numerically , of the scores in a population will have values that are equal to or larger than the median and will have values that are equal to or smaller than the median . Therefore , most probably are the upper middle income countries around the world while the other of countries are countries in and with a lower income . The mean is one of several indices of central tendency that 's used to indicate the point on the scale of measures where the per capita is centered . It is the average of per capita values in the set of countries . Numerically , it equals the sum of the values divided by the number of countries . The formula for mean is represented below ;     Standard deviation is a measure of the variability ( dispersion or spread ) of any set of numerical values about their arithmetic mean . It is specifically defined as the square root of the arithmetic mean of the squared deviations .. The formula for standard deviation is as follows :   FORMULA   Where x is the sample mean AVERAGE(number1,number2 , ... ) and n is the sample size . Table shows that the standard deviation for the set of countries and their per capita is $ . This reflects that the variables were quite dispersed from the mean . In other words , there were countries with a per capita of , but also countries with very low per capita of . This gives an idea of the range of values in the set of variables . The variance is of several indices of variability that is used to characterize the dispersion among the per capita measures of the set of countries . To calculate the variance of a given population , it is necessary to calculate the mean of the scores , then measure the amount that each score deviates from the mean and then square that deviation ( by multiplying it by itself ) . Numerically , the variance equals the average of the several squared deviations from the mean . Basically the variance is standard deviation squared . In this case the variance of the set of per capita variables of the set of countries is ( $ , therefore the variance is $ . for variance :   FORMULA   Where x is the sample mean AVERAGE(number1,number2 , ... ) and n is the sample size . Skewness characterizes the degree of asymmetry of a distribution around its mean . Positive skewness indicates a distribution with an asymmetric tail extending toward more positive values ( Negative skewness indicates a distribution with an asymmetric tail extending toward more negative values ) . Table demonstrates that the skewness for our data is . , so it has a positive value , therefore it represents a distribution with an asymmetric tail extending toward more positive values . The equation for skewness is defined as :   FORMULA   Where x is the sample mean AVERAGE(number1,number2 , ... ) and n is the sample size . The chart below shows the relation between per capita and life expectancy . < figure/>The Chart above clearly demonstrates that higher per capita values , results in higher life expectancy . This is because high per capita is one of the basic feature of high living standards . Thus , as per capita gets bigger , life expectancy increases , as people are less likely to die at early ages , either because they can support the medication and healthcare , or they live "" good "" standards of life and therefore do n't face as many risks as people living in poor countries would . < heading > Part 2Japan 's deflation problem</heading > Falling prices , and increase in output are usually seen as a good sign in an economy . However , falling prices and increase in output has reached such a point in that it is becoming more malicious for the economy than anything else . Companies make more than what can be consumed and the customer simply does not want what is on offer , however cheap it may be . There is a surplus of supply , in consequence firms set prices very low to attract more consumer demand . Usually falling prices are good for the economy but only if there is a productivity gain . As GDP grows , it 's competitiveness in the global market falls because it 's currency , , appreciates . As a result of no productivity gain there is unemployment , The , points out that bank managers need not fear unemployment because affiliated companies minimizes publicly available shares . This is to say that share prices are maintained high and there is a lot of demand for bonds , in effect of high liquidity of money . People want to buy bonds , and save instead of keeping liquid money . There is a high amount of liquid money in the economy because consumer goods are very cheap , so less income is needed to buy the basic consumer spending of an individual , let alone the culture of people saving rather than spending makes things even worse . In consequence , to encourage people to spend more is keeping interest rates as low as possible , so that the cost of borrowing and reward of saving is low . < fnote > URL   < /fnote > The sites were quite useful in providing information . Some websites , like and news , had useful links to seek further information about the issue . Other websites lacked this feature . has an exquisite feature as it allows users to view other articles written about the same issue in different intervals of time . Thus , the user can find information about the issue released in the past . There was n't significant grammatical errors and all websites were all up - to date . feature that caught my attention was that the data in website was a bit biased . In contrast , only in there was information about who 's providing the information , who was a Ph.d . scholar at . < fnote > URL   < /fnote><fnote > URL   < /fnote><fnote > URL   < /fnote > All website had search engines and help links which were very useful . There was just thing that disturbed me on one of the websites , which was the layout and the colour scheme of the website . The information was too stacked together and the page layout badly organized , also the choice of colours was not so good , cause a bright blue with black background disturbs the eye quite a lot .",1
"< heading > Objective < /heading > To develop an understanding of the principles underlying cheese making processes . < heading > Introduction</heading > Cheese is the generic name for a group of fermented milk - based food product . Various definitions are given to them , for example , the / WHO defines cheese as ' the fresh or matured solid or semi - solid product obtained by coagulating milk , skimmed milk , partly skimmed milk , cream , whey cream , or butter milk , or any combination of these materials , through the action of rennet or other suitable coagulation agents , and by partially draining the whey resulting from such coagulation ' ( Walstra et al . , ) . It is essentially a concentrated product of fat and protein in the milk varying fold depending on the variety , thus considered highly nutritious steps for the majority of cheese varieties can be divided into steps i.e. the manufacturing which is carried out within and the ripening period ; although some manufacturing steps such as salting and dehydration may continue over a long period . Soft cheese is type of cheese characterized by high ( ) moisture content ( , ) . The basic steps in soft cheese manufacturing are coagulation ( clotting ) , dehydration ( removal of the whey ) , shaping ( put into mould ) , further draining of whey and finishing . Soft cheese is different from normal cheese production in that it can be consumed fresh without ripening period . The important step in producing cheese before start clotting milk is the selection of the milk . Pasteurised milk is common due to the safety aspect of the finished cheese as some pathogens can survive the condition of production . After the milk has been pasteurised , comes the coagulation step . However , since the pasteurization killed most of the microflora in the milk , a starter culture of selected bacteria , e.g. consisting of lactis subsp lactis and/or lactis subsp cremoris and mesenteroides , are often added prior to the addition of enzyme to attain desired acid production and flavour characteristics . ( ) stated that acid production can influence : < list > 1 . Coagulant activity during coagulation . . Denaturation and retention of the coagulant in the curd during manufacture and thus the level of residual coagulant in the curd . . Curd strength which affects ' cheese yield ' . . Gel syneresis . . The extent of dissolution of colloidal calcium phosphate ( ) which in turn modifies the susceptibility of casein to proteolysis during manufacture and ultimately affects cheeses ' rheological properties . . Acidification controls the growth of unwanted bacteria including some pathogenic ones and some starter bacteria also produce probiotics thus inhibiting the growth of non - starter microorganisms.</list > Clotting of the milk for production of soft cheese is often achieved by a combined acid and rennet coagulation ( since starter culture is added prior to the addition of enzymes ) ( Walstra et al . , ) A gel is formed due to casein particles aggregating into a network entrapping fat inside , separating the milk into curd and whey serum . In enzymatic clotting , chymosin acts on the kappa - casein molecule at a specific site , i.e. between amino acid Phe 105 and Met 106 , resulting in the splitting of kappa - casein . The casein micelle will then be split into parts : the released hydrophilic caseinomacropeptide into whey serum and the paracasein ( containing the other part of kappa - casein called para - kappa casein which remains attach to the micelles ) . Because the disappearance of the hairy structure of kappa - casein which is the principal factor stabilizing the casein micelles , the casein micelles thus could not disperse in milk . Instead , they attach to each other and eventually coagulate . In addition , the decreased electronic charge on the casein molecules , brought about by the reduction of by acid producing bacteria , cause micelles to aggregate . At near isoelectric of the casein i.e. ~4.6 , the repulsion between casein micelles is reduced allowing close contact between micelles and eventually coagulation occurs . The coagulation of the casein starts when of the hairy region has been split . By van der Waals attraction , the attraction of casein occurs . However , this force alone is insufficient thus the necessary of Ca 2 + ions which reduce the electrostatic repulsion by neutralizing the negative charge on the micelles and forming bridges i.e. both negative - negative and negative - positive salt linkages between charged sites on the paracasein micelles . After the addition of enzyme and starter culture , the milk is then incubated at to 35 ° C allowing chymosin to work and bacteria to grow . The gel is formed . The removal of whey which is resulted from syneresis of the gel or the curd is enhanced by cutting the coagulum . The resulting curd makes up of the original volume of milk ( Walstra et al . , ) . All the steps promoting gel syneresis are characterized as a dehydration step . Stirring and salting after formation of the curd improves whey lose from the curd by means of osmotic pressure differences . Finally , shaping and pressing of the curd further improve whey removal . In some traditional soft cheese production , large lumps are cut from the coagulum , put into molds , where syneresis occurs resulting in high water content cheese . During these stages , a variety of cheese based on the moisture content can be made as a result of the different degree of dehydration . Because salting is an essentail step of cheese manufacturing , most cheese contains added salt of . Addition of salt into the cheese has various advantages which are < list > To control the microbial growth and their activity;Control of various enzymes activities in cheese;Syneresis of the curd resulting in whey expulsion and hence reduction in moisture which eventually influence microbial growth and enzymic activity;Physical changes in cheese protein , affecting texture , protein solubility and conformation and also flavour.(Adapted from , > The syneresis of the curd is one critical phenomenon in determining cheese 's final result ( et al . , ) . It is defined as the process of gel contraction or shrinkage after it is being formed leading to the flow of the whey through the gel networks . The process is not a persisting action of rennet since no additional caseinomacropeptide is removed from the micelles shortly after the gel has formed . For high - moisture cheese , the syneresis should be slowed down or stop after a certain time though this is far less important in low - moisture cheese . Walstraal . ( ) summarized the factors affecting syneresis as follows : < list > Firmness of the gel at cutting i.e. the need to be not too weak at cutting otherwise it tends to synerese slightly . Surface area of the curd i.e. the gel is often cut into cubes . Pressure by stirring . This causes curd grains to collide and compress one another . Stirring also prevent sedimentation of the curd which would otherwise leads to loss of surface area and eventually slow down syneresis . Acidity : the more acid production , the faster syneresis occurs . Temperature : Increased temperature leads to expulsion of moisture from paracasein gel whereas and vice versa . Composition of the milk . For example , the fat content in milk hinders the flow of whey out of the casein gel . Thus the higher the fat content , the less the curd can shrink . Other factors include , Ca 2 + activity , protein content and concentration of after syneresis.</list><heading < /heading > Refer to the methods describing in the practical handout . < heading > Results</heading><table/><table/><figure/><table/><table/><heading > Discussion</heading > Analysis of milk and whey composition revealed the differences between them . From table , the fat content in whey is reduced because the majority of fat molecules are entrapped in the casein gel during milk clotting step which is attributed to the coagulation of casein micelles . Similar reason applied to protein content i.e. in whey the protein content is lower compared to that in milk because most protein in milk ( ~80 % ) is casein which is coagulated after the addition of enzyme . The protein content in whey , , is probably whey protein plus the rest ~0.3 % from casein and other small peptides . On the other hand , lactose is slightly higher in whey . This is because other major components in milk i.e. fat and protein were removed from whey serum thus lactose is more concentrated ( higher proportion ) , though the amount should be similar in both milk and whey . TA is the measuring of buffer capacity in the solution . In whey , as > 70 % of protein is removed so the buffer capacity of the solution decreased ( since charges on protein molecules contribute to the buffering capacity ) . Consequently , the is slightly lower in whey . In acid coagulation , , the higher acid addition led to higher degree of aggregation of the micelles . The mechanism is that casein becoming insoluble at around its isoelectric pH. This facilitates the aggregation of protein due to less repulsion between individual molecules . As approaching an isoelectric point ( ~4.6 ) , higher degree of clotting was observed . Moreover , at lower , the ion activity also increases hence stimulate the clotting process . However , if is further reduced below , the texture of gel is lost i.e. more viscous and harder curdling . Temperature of 35 ° C , slightly higher than normal incubating temperature , was used in rennet coagulation in order to speed up the reaction . From Table 3 , it is clear that addition promoted gel formation best . The reason is probably due to the improved cross - linking of calcium ions between casein micelles . Gel formation in ' stirred ' and ' refrigerated ' are both very less since the stirring action disrupted the gel structure and low temperature inhibit the activity of chymosin ( a minimum temperature of ° C is required fro rennet coagulation ( , ) ) . But this effect is reversible i.e. as the temperature in the ' refrigerated ' condition was increased to ° C , gel formation eventually occurred ( table ) . Boiled milk prevents coagulation process since heat denatures the complex protein structure , exposing thiol group of kappa - casein molecules . As a result , β - lactoglobulin , a peptide in whey serum , will bind to the exposed thiol group . The steric hindrance conferred by this attachment impairs the ability of chymosin to attack at the specific site . Thus coagulation could not take place . The effect of oxalate in milk clotting resulted from its affinity to calcium ions . Oxalate strips out free calcium ions , preventing them from participating in coagulation process . From the experiment , it is clear that the important factors contributing to coagulation of milk are the temperature as to allow enzyme to work , the presence of calcium ion which participate in gel forming and the presence of other agents capable of reduces the calcium ion concentration in the milk .","< list></list><heading > ANALYSIS</heading><heading > Fresh Breath</heading > Prof. spent researching a mouthwash that can remove bad breath effectively . In , his prototype - phase aqueous - oil mouthwash was tested with , one of the biggest mouthrinse brands and was proved that its special formulated mouthwash is superior to in long - term reduction of bad breath . In , acquired the right to introduce that special mouthwash to and he set up a separate company , , to introduce this special mouthwash to the market . The resulted product , , dominates of the market and its sales will reach £ 3 m. No doubt that has a very healthy income through the sales of but now they have the ambition to enter a much bigger market- a market that has sales of m altogether . < heading > Current Campaign</heading > Dr has noticed the huge sales in toothpaste market and he patented new toothpaste that includes the powerful antibacterial agent , CPC and that is done by suspending the agent in microscopic capsules that burst on brushing . Its selling point is inclusion of CPC , which has been proved inhibits microbial activity in the mouth and increase self life of the product < heading > Toothpaste Market</heading > Toothpaste market by far is the biggest in the oral - care market and in its sale was estimated to be . There are brands dominating the market at the moment and they are , Arm&Hammer , , , , and . Out of these brands , some of them are brands of multinationals , such as , and Procter&Gamble . < heading > Market Future</heading > toothpaste market has a very promising future as in , people in the are willing to spend more on toiletries according to surveys and most of the people put quality before price nowadays . When it comes to toothpaste , consumers compare functions of different brands rather than prices . Using , the biggest toothpaste brand worldwide , as an example , they have increases in terms of unit volume grew in . In their report , their sale is reported to have grown up by in . Therefore , toothpaste market in should have a very bright future with steady grow in . < heading > Fresh Breath in Toothpaste Market</heading > Fresh breath is a company made up of members of staff and they all have other full time duties . at the moment does not have enough funding to enter the toothpaste market despite their healthy income from Dentyl pH. < heading > Team members</heading > Dr Philip Stemmer ( Director)- has been working in dentistry for and well - known in his working industry . He is also a director of a separate company , . He set up to make Dentyl pH under license and has done lots of research under the name of . Prof. Rosenberg- an oral - microbiologist . He is a professor at the and . He helped set up his by selling a very special formula to him . He is also one of the directors of and he helps in lots of research projects . He has a highly respected status in the industry ( Director)- an investor of who is also a director in a public - relations firm . Her knowledge , experience and contact could be very important . ( Director)- an investor of and an experienced chartered accountant . He is also a lawyer and auditor . Clare Spence- an office administrator who is responsible for the company 's general tasks . < heading > Rivalry companies</heading > The market is dominated by multinational companies and they have established their position in the market for . It is important to understand their marketing strategies and their financial situation . It is very hard to obtain accurate toothpaste market information but we can roughly estimate their strength by interpreting of our major competitors , 's financial report and it may be useful to look at the toothpaste market since all the multinational companies have their home market in . < heading > Colgate in toothpaste market</heading > is of the 's biggest markets away from . They maintain a healthy volume growth since . their sensitive toothpaste helped them drive record toothpaste sales in the country . They have the biggest variety of toothpaste in the market , currently having different kinds of toothpaste out in the in order to penetrate the market . Even though they have secured a unbeatable position in the market , they use their ongoing margin increases to fund advertising in support of new products as operating profits . To increase their profit , they have been employing experts to reconstruct the company 's structure every year to obtain a higher profit margin and increase its productivity . < heading > Colgate worldwide</heading > In , their profit margin climbed . achieved its of double - digit earnings per share growth in 2003(More figures can be found in appendix ) Their market value is estimated to be and still growing . Their healthy cashflow allows them to keep expanding their business worldwide . They have their own factories , teams and technology to stand strong in the market and they will be our strongest rival in the toothpaste market as they have upper hand in terms of technology , finance , independence and contacts in the market . < heading > Marketing Plan</heading > In this section , business theories will be used to forecast the future of , interpreting weakness and problems might face once entered in the market . < heading > Porter 's Forces</heading><figure/>Porter 's Forces model explains there are forces that determine industry future , attractiveness and profitability . The forces are < list of new entrantsThreat of substitutesBuyer 's 's of intensity of rivalry between competitors</list><heading > Threat of new entrants</heading > This can be determined by how easy a new entrant enters the market . This is known as barrier of entry and business speaking , an industry tends to protect firms of high level profit and inhibits entry and growth of additional new comers . Generally speaking , an industry adjusts its level of barriers with time . If an industry is growing , additional firms are expected to enter the market to take advantage of the growing profits . When an industry is declining , some of the firms are expected to leave the market to cut the loss . The level of barriers could also be affected by the following factors : < list > Governments policyCost advantages ( e.g. patented technology)AssetsEconomies of scaleAccess to distributionSwitching costs for buyers</list > How well does or will do in this area ? toothpaste industry is still growing strongly as living standard keeps rising and government adopts a free market policy . Conventional Toothpaste making is no longer a commercial secret nowadays and new patented formula might enable them to stand out from traditional toothpaste . With their old contacts in the market , , and in manufacturing industry , distribution and manufacturing would not be a very big problem . might not do very well in of scale criteria because as a small - sized company , they would not be able to afford manufacture in large scale to lower the cost . Thus other brands might be cheaper alternatives . In general , does / will do fairly well in this force of Porter 's Five Force < heading > Threat of substitutes</heading > This determines how well companies could capture their customers . Relative price and quality of other products There are a few toothpaste claiming to be ' breath - freshening ' in the market and they would be our main rivals in the market . even claims all their ' breath - freshening ' toothpastes fights against bad breath for . And their prices are very low . A toothpaste cost nowadays and this is definitely one of the criteria have to think about seriously . < heading > Buyer 's Power</heading > It determines the impact customers could make in the industry . < list > Number of buyers relative to sellersBuyers ' threat of backward integration ( Only applies to companies that buy products as a supply of their manufacturing)Sellers ' threat of forward integrationImportance of the products to buyers</list > There are a lot of toothpaste companies out there in the market , the biggest brands , small ones plus brands owned by supermarkets and pharmacies . 's power is high as do not manufacture their products themselves and have to rely on others in manufacturing and retailing . Though toothpaste is essential in everyone 's daily life , it may not weaken buyer 's power enough as has to compete against other brands for customers . Therefore , Fresh Breath do very badly in this area . < heading > Supplier 's Power</heading > It determines the impact suppliers could make in the industry . This applies to all industries that require supply in any form ( labours , materials , etc ) Suppliers could influence industries in lots of ways , e.g. raising the price of raw materials . < list > Suppliers concentrationSubstitute inputsCost to change suppliersSuppliers threat of forward integrationImportance of the industry to suppliers</list > Unfortunately , there is no suppliers ' concentration information available . And it will be very hard to find substitutes when toothpaste is formulated . It is assumed here that Fresh Breath would carry on as a ' virtual ' company once it enters the toothpaste market and thus cost of changing suppliers would not be very high as competition is fierce in the market and suppliers ' threat of forward integration would not be likely as there are great risks they have to take . Suppliers have to spend a lot of money on assets and they are specialised in making toothpaste and toothpaste companies would be their only clients . Therefore it is believed that suppliers ' power threat to Fresh breath would be medium to low . < heading > Level of Intensity of Rivalry</heading > This indicates how great the competition in the market . The following industry characteristic could change the level of intensity of rivalry . It can also be affected by advantage pursuing of companies ( More of this would be mentioned in ) < list > Number of CompetitorsIndustry growth rateFixed cost versus variable costStorage costSwitching costProduct DifferentiationStrategic StakesExit barriersIndustry stake out</list > There are already lots of competitors in the market and the industry growth rate is estimated to be . Fixed cost would be low as is assumed to not to manufacture their toothpaste themselves and storage cost could be high in this country . Switching cost and product differentiation is low as explained above . Exit barriers would not be great as the patented formula is the only asset of the company . Industry stakeout is another problem have to consider as ' No Industry keeps on growing forever ' and growth will slow down or stop one day if not declines . That would lead to fierce competition and price war . In general the toothpaste market is between moderate to intense in . < heading > SWOT Analysis</heading > A proverb says ' Understanding both strength and weakness of ourselves and our enemies , winning is ' inevitable ' . After looking at the toothpaste industry 's likely future , problems have been estimated , it is important to identify strength and weakness to encounter the problems they may have to face . SWOT Analysis can be divided into and Internal factors . External factors ( i.e. ) have already been covered by ; this part of analysis will concentrate on internal factors i.e. , < list><heading > Strength</heading > Patented Formula Old contacts in the marketing industryNo expensive assetHealthy income from Dentyl pHExperienceGood team membersEasy exit from industryInfluence in the dental community</list><list><heading > Weakness</heading > Size of the team and its simple structureWeak bargaining power with suppliersInsufficient capitalLack of commitmentLack of planDifferentiation of their own productsNo contact with the communityVery low profit margin if to fight against other brands</list><heading > RECOMMENDATION</heading > After reviewing of , we recommend the following procedure : < list fundResearch / Modify the formulaPatent the new formulaExpand the team . Employ experts in different areas ( e.g. Computer expert , marketing expert , etc)ManufacturingEnter the marketMarketing campaignFurther research ( if allowed)License the formula/ franchise Fresh BreathExit the industry</list><heading > Raise Fund</heading > Though Dentyl pH would generate a very healthy income for , a lot more money would still be needed as start - up capital . It is expected a £ would have to be raised if want to see through the tough time they might have to face in the beginning . Church&Dwight is a very good example . They had raised to start off with when they entered the market to fight off fierce competition in the market against old favourites like and . The £ raised should be divided into like Church&Dwight . It is recommended that £ 2million spent on initial research purpose , £ 2million spent on marketing , spent on paying for stocks and the rest on expenses . Taking loans from bank should not be a problem as maintains a healthy income from the sale of their mouthwash . < heading > Research / Modify the formula</heading > It has been seen that patented formulated toothpaste does not have a distinctive function . Lots of other toothpaste out in the market has claimed to be ' breath - freshening ' and some of them even claim to be able to fight off bacterial growth . Without a distinctive function , its unlikely for a new toothpaste brand becomes successful as its reputation is unknown in that area . Since does not have any reputation in this area , it has to be ' specific ' and be the no . over specific segments so customers can always remember . < quote>'In most cases , it is so much harder to remember the No . . No remembers the name of the person in space . But most remember that name of the in space , although he was the nth person in space ' quoted from , , . < /quote > Therefore , to do well in the toothpaste market , further research has to be done to make the toothpaste stand out . Toothpaste with small granules has been very successful in and still has been introduced in this country yet and that could be an additional feature of the new toothpaste . < heading > Patent the new formula</heading > Patenting the new formula would protect other companies using the new formula . It may also need to trademark a slogan that describes the new formulated toothpaste ; to describe it is the best toothpaste . A good slogan could capture customers ' memory subconsciously . Like 's beer 's slogan ' Probably the best beer in the world ' captures so many people memories . Whether is the best beer in the world is not important , they are successful and that is what they want out of their slogan . A patented distinctive formula and a stand - out trademarked slogan would put in a very good position in the market . < heading > Expanding the team</heading > To compete against companies , the number of staff of has to increase to deal with increasing business , tasks , orders , research , etc . has already had a basic structure of a company and it can be divided further . Each member of new staff could be given a more specific role in the company and that would increase the efficiency of the company and lower the work load of the old staff . People whose works are similar and related could be grouped together as a department headed by a member of our old staff who is specialised in that certain area . Advertising and marketing experts who have experience are also worth consideration as their contacts in the industry , experience and knowledge could be proved crucial . A good team creates the foundation of success . < heading > Manufacturing</heading > Fresh Breath should carry as a virtual company i.e. not manufacturing products themselves . This would provide an easier exit strategy and easier start - up . Buying manufacturing assets would be unwise as they would cause a lot of money and would be hard to resell when want to exit the market . To start off with , should order a certain amount of stocks as this is used as a test and would not waste too much money if the product is found unsuccessful . Fresh Breath bargaining power is weak according to as they are small - scaled . To encounter this problem , could order stocks from , the biggest manufacturing country , as this would provide a cheaper option and could even make a huge profit over the currency exchange as china has been refusing to raise the value of despite urges . This policy would greatly benefit as this means they could spend less money on more products . < heading > Enter the market</heading > Typical start - up problems new firms have are insufficient fund and insufficient time allowed i.e. rushing into the market . Providing sufficient fund is raised and have had enough time to predict risks , recruit a big enough team , etc , then it is time to think about enter the market . As a new comer in a highly competitive market , it is important that the brand quickly establish its presence . Using the old contacts in the industry and experience of the team , it is hoped that the new toothpaste would be able to make a breakthrough and companies would start stocking the new product . < heading > Marketing campaign</heading > This should be followed right after entering the market . Once negotiations with companies willing to stock the new toothpaste start , marketing campaign should begin . The launch strategy should focus on the new patented toothpaste 's striking point of difference and the slogan supporting the product . Most of the £ 2million budget should be spent on television advertising campaign , which is by far the most effective way to advertise products . Then the shipment of toothpaste will appear in test markets . < heading > Further research</heading > If the toothpaste is welcome in the market , will then have to increase their stocks order from their supplier . Income from the toothpaste would be ploughed right back into advertising to make the new toothpaste more well - known . Part of the income from will be used to advertise mouthwash and the rest would be used to carry on further research on toothpaste . It does not necessarily have to be researching new functions or improving the toothpaste formula . It could be testing toothpaste of other brands and find out their weakness and then publish the test results . With recognition , reputation and influence in the industry , the test report would cause serious damage on our rivalry brands . < heading > Licensing the formula/ Franchising < /heading > If the toothpaste becomes successful in the market , could be able to pay off the loan and start planning how long they are willing to stay in the market . There is no industry that keeps growing forever and big rival companies like would not just sit and give up their interest in the market . Competition could not be avoided . could think about licensing the patented formula to other brands outside the country as this would increase the cashflow without benefiting any of the rival companies . Or they could franchise the company outside . This would not only increase cashflow by selling the patented formula at a higher price to them but also expand our influence in the toothpaste market outside the country . Additional cashflow from licensing the formula / franchising could be used against rival companies in price war or etc . < heading > Exit the industry</heading > Fresh Breath as a virtual company would find it hard to compete against their big rivals . As directors remain committed to their own business interests and their rival companies market value are worth times more than , it may be the time to think about exiting the industry after making a huge profit . Like gambling , the longer you stay the biggest the chance you will lose money . There are many risks that have to be taken in toothpaste industry like making a crucial mistake . Since the directors are not willing to give up their own business interests and concentrate on the growth of , the future of at this stage is very unclear . Exiting is probably the best option and we would recommend selling off most of the shares to new buyers . Directors would receive a huge amount of - off money from the sale plus they would still be benefited from further growth of the company . Moreover , they could concentrate on their own business duties without worrying about the future of . Or they could sell of the formula of both the toothpaste and mouthwash to other brands and end the business of if there are no buyers as the price of buying off the company would be too high . This would bring the whole business to an end and directors would expect a smaller off payment from the sale of the formulas of the mouthwash and toothpaste . This move is not recommended unless business is going down sharply and any delay in exiting the market would cause a big loss of money .",0
"< heading > Introduction</heading > This portfolio provides an insight into the author 's career aspirations and how she plans to achieve them . By examining her skills , motivations , strengths and weaknesses it is determined where she stands , where she wants to go , and how to get there , and incorporated into a final which establishes her path to achieving her career goal , that of opening a bakery where gastronomies of different cultures are incorporated in product . The section focuses on general competencies needed for success . It analyses graduate attributes and compares them to managerial competencies and entrepreneurial traits . The hospitality industry and the bakery sector are examined and specific qualities required in setting - up a bakery are identified . Following is an updated and a covering letter , aimed at securing a loan for the business set - up . A past aiming at a Graduate Training Programme is also put forth , showing the changes undergone in its presentation and also in the author 's previous objectives . Finally , based on the ENGAGE model ( Jenner , ) , gaps are identified between the author 's skills and those needed to secure funding . The results are then compared to the skills in the section and areas for improvement are identified , consequently being integrated in an Action Plan , along with career aspirations . Ultimately , gaps are eliminated by transforming them into goals . < heading>1 . Graduate Competencies</heading><heading>1.1 General and Working environment changes have forced employers to need a range of different qualities thus making them increasingly demanding with graduates ( , ) . The service industry ' growth , increasing ethnic minorities and globalisation are some of the changes society has undergone , convincing ( ) that interpersonal skills overcome technical ones . New organisational cultures have emerged , focusing on people and projects , thus , interaction , teamwork , and communication are imperative . Subsequently , self - awareness , learning habits , knowledge and information , developing opportunities , making decisions , continuously improving performance and social skills are crucial in order to succeed ( , ) . Hawkins ( ) , and ( ) , have also identified general graduate attributes . Though not focusing on interpersonal skills , these still coincide with those stated by ( ) . Drive , self - belief , initiative and general knowledge are key personal skills for everyday management , whereas communication and interpersonal and leadership skills , when used holistically , maximize the full potential of every project ( Harvey et al , ) . Alternatively , Hawkins ( ) divided graduate skills into categories : , People , General and , comprising proactivity , learning attitude , dedication , flexibility , leadership and communication skills and expertise in the chosen area . These overlapping qualities are also evident in appendix . Pedler , ( ) demonstrate that adaptability , problem - solving skills , as well as stress control , motivation , imagination , self - awareness and high social skills are attributes common to successful managers . Entrepreneurs ( who need to be managers ! ) also require these traits . There are no defined attributes crucial to entrepreneurs . Rather , ( ) state entrepreneurship must be regarded as a holistic process , by which a combination of inter - changing and dynamic qualities trigger innovative ventures . ( ) claims entrepreneurship is to create and develop visions , convey them to others , encourage people to share them and believe in change , using leadership skills ( appendix ) . These definitions share the commonality that entrepreneurship entails a need for change , where opportunities are identified , resources effectively deployed and innovation developed ( Morrison et al , ) . Entrepreneurs take risks and believe they determine their own success ( , ) . Their independent nature , need to follow intuition , creativity and uniqueness , inclines them towards inimitable developments whilst their "" rebel "" nature , gives them great determination and leadership skills . Appendix shows further entrepreneurial attributes that also match those stated by Pedler et al ( 2001 ) in appendix . This synchronization of the above attributes proves employers seek graduates with characteristics needed to develop successful managers . Given that employers invest in graduates , these qualities are also fundamental for those wanting to attract investors . The move from technical to interpersonal skills is visible in literature , and though some authors have not put as clear an emphasis on these skills as ( ) , it is obvious that teamwork , communication , persuasion , adaptability , the ability to understand and relate to distinct behavioural patterns are crucial in 's environment . < heading>1.2 < /heading > The hospitality industry has grown steadily for and is likely to continue , originating another jobs until ( Prospects , 2005 ) . 's main aim is to serve customers and satisfy their needs . Therefore , service industry skills ( , ) including honesty , creativeness , character , mental agility and awareness , are fundamental . Because it is a less hierarchical industry and operates by responding to customer needs , leadership and flexibility are vital . Problem solving and decision - making skills , proactivity and a learning attitude are also imperative . Moreover , interpersonal skills are at the core of the organisational structure and every relationship . of hospitality 's greatest current problems is skills shortages , hence business expertise , continuing sensitivity to events and creativity ( Prospects , 2005 ) will differentiate candidates . < ( Bakeries)</heading > The bakery sector has increased , , valuing at ( , ) and baked goods ( bread , cakes and pastries ) account for of total value sales , at . Craft bakeries , decreased , due to lack of product innovation , industrial manufacturers ' low prices and "" on - stop - shop "" usefulness ( Mintel , ) . According to Euromonitor ( ) , of families purchase bread . The bread sector has risen , reaching in value , mainly caused by a rise in premium bread consumption ( , ) . The greatest development in bakery has been a consumer shift to specialty products as consumers are increasingly eager to try new varieties and tastes ( , ) . Specialty breads will further increase in value by , becoming the main market driver . Small cakes accounted for of the individual cake sector in , valuing at and growing ( Mintel , ) . As for pastries , the sector has risen , valuing at in ( , ) . It 's specialty and foreign products sub - sector has gown significantly , rising from to 2004 , representing of the total market and valuing at in ( , ) . Innovation and product development are essential for independent bakeries ' to compete with the major companies ' low margins . Potential lies within emerging new markets where innovative , functional and healthy products , with foreign influence , contrast the traditional high - fat - high - sugar versions ( , ) . Additionally , greater consumer disposable income , allows customers to afford higher quality products and producers to charge premiums ( ) . Unless craft bakeries exploit these trends , industrial manufacturers ' will take over and these will eventually disappear . This situation , however , does not concern the author as her fusion - inspired bakery is all about innovation , foreign tastes , and product development . The trends above seem to indicate that her aim to incorporate different gastronomies in product will guarantee a sustainable future . < heading>1.3 Self - employment Skills</heading > According to ShellLiveWIRE ( ) starting up a business attracted the interest of , people aged over , an increase of . The average age is , and female interest in entrepreneurship is rising . The trend is likely to continue growing , as conventional career options no longer offer satisfaction . Entrepreneurial enquires in the service sector lead the way at , followed by retail ( ) and manufacturing ( , ) Management skills become especially important for the self - employed ( Prospects , ) . Because , normally , capital is limited , the entrepreneur needs to manage every aspect of the business herself . Therefore , finance , technology , specialist industry skills , marketing and legal knowledge ( regulations ) are fundamental for the business to operate successfully ( Prospects , ) . Perseverance , initiative , passion , motivation and sacrifice are vital to counteract the challenging conditions of setting up a new venture . Further , ambition , dedication , confidence , steadfastness and an analytical mind - frame are imperative for the business to start ( Business Link , no date ) . To launch a bakery , apart from the attributes mentioned above , wide industry knowledge and a selection of specific bakery skills are also essential ( ) . Though market knowledge is crucial to commercially succeed , it is arguable how much expertise is needed to develop a new product . Knowing that the concept is highly based on experimentation , it seems sufficient to have basic knowledge of bakery production , to develop a new product . Further , there are no rules in entrepreneurship and individuals rely on their intuition , giving them the freedom to be highly imaginative ( , ) . This argument places creativity , innovation and authenticity as key features in new product development . Passion , flexibility and adaptability are also essential , due to and different procedures involved ( ) . Patience , excellent communication and interpersonal skills are crucial , to negotiate and communicate with employees , customers , suppliers and investors . Communication skills are even more important when considering the entrepreneur needs to foster his vision , motivations and passion in everyone around him ( , ) . These attributes automatically demand others such as cooperation , organisation and individual capability . < heading>2 . and Personal Statement</heading > A CV 's main objective is to offer the recipient a lucid but succinct perspective of the sender ( Jenner , ) . It should provide information on past achievements , but also give an insight into aspirations and goals . 's must sell the senders , generating interest in the receivers , they must be personalised and establish a connection between who the sender is and what the receiver is searching for ( Jenner , ) . Covering letters are then used to enhance the main points of the and ensure it gets to the right person . They must directly relate to the however , not repeat it . The lay - out of the updated was changed to show investors the author 's motivation , drive and achievement so far . Placing Work Experience , emphasises initiative and willingness to work in hospitality and specifically , bakery/ pastry departments ( Jenner , ) . It shows the development of basic bakery skills and consequent progression into management experience . The Education section follows , demonstrating continuous focus on career interests and a path especially devised to achieve them . Finally , the part , puts forth further personal attributes in non - career areas but also re - emphasizes the author 's commitment to a constant learning cycle , where grabbing every opportunity is decisive for personal growth and future success . Appendix 5 shows a previous and the progression to the current personalised one . The covering letter ( Jenner , ) emphasizes areas the author wants to draw attention to . It explains why she was attracted to the particular bank , why she needs the loan and why she should obtain it ( appendix 4 ) . Specific points in the have been highlighted by cross referencing them in the covering letter ( Jenner , ) . These are intended to focus on the author 's selling points and convince the bank about her motivations and capabilities . < heading>3 . Personal Career Plan and Reflective Commentary</heading><heading>3.1 and Gaps</heading > Appendices 6 , and identify aspects of my ideal job , showing which elements guarantee professional satisfaction and success . Innovation and communication represent appealing areas , whereas autonomy , personal enterprise and a sense of purpose are vital outputs I demand from a job . Independence and creativity are both highly emphasized in appendix and also represent entrepreneurial traits . ( ) states that , entrepreneurs are creative , can transmit their ideas to those around them and need to be independent to feel successful . The comparison between my test results and ( ) demonstrates my entrepreneurial traits whilst my determination reassures investors of the commitment and motivation they seek when assessing which business to invest in . The iWAM report ( appendix 9 ) demonstrates my attitudinal profile . Though only offering guidelines it shows I 'm proactive , plan my future and take initiatives . I also identify and seize opportunities as they appear , organize tasks before performing them , value facts and like to do things the right way while considering new possibilities ( appendix 9 ) . Especially , appendix shows my need to achieve set goals through determined deadlines in order to thrive . These are attributes mentioned in appendix and important to investors as they prove my drive to succeed whilst showing that I ponder all options . My profile further demonstrates many qualities sought after by employers ( investors ) , as stated by Harvey et al ( ) and ( ) including self - reliance , adaptability to different work environments and complacency . An additional test was done to solely evaluate my entrepreneurial tendencies ( appendix ) and a friend completed a questionnaire providing feed - back on my traits and attributes ( appendix ) . The test mainly reinforces the results of my iWAM report showing I am extremely motivated , easily adaptable to different circumstances and need independence . Moreover , creativity and my business as a means of expression are fundamental to me . It re - emphasizes my perseverance , risk tolerance , self - belief and my eye for business . However , because of this latter trait , I sometimes get carried away and may get into things that do not suit me . Additionally , though I am comfortable with most types of people and in most situations , I prefer to work alone ( also came through in my iWAM profiling ) . While the result of my entrepreneurial test came out very positive , I tend to partly disagree with some of the points , and believe I need to improve my decisiveness and problem - solving skills as I sometimes consider every option too much , and it takes me a while to reach a decision . However when I do , it is mine only and almost totally based on my intuition ( simply because I ca n't make up my mind in the st place ! ) . I believe that this last point , which is also shown in appendix , when improved will further enhance my self - confidence . After considering all the test results and literature information , I concluded that quicker decision - making and basic bakery skills need to be developed as well as a more analytical approach to identifying which opportunities I should grab . Further , based on appendices 1 & 3 , I believe I need to improve my skills of working with different people ( also shown in appendix 11-""Am I open to new ideas ? "" ) , and not rely so much on my own independence ( less of a "" lone wolf "" ) . Generally , I believe that all the skills identified in the tests , have not yet been developed to their full potential due to my age and lack of experience and knowledge . These however will be developed once I begin working and building my career . < heading>3.2 Action Plan</heading > My career objectives have been set so as to culminate in the achievement of my primary goal . Actions needed to achieve each one of the previous goals are defined considering the skills I need to improve . Finally , a reality check identifies the existing weaknesses in . < table/><heading>3.2.1 Improve basic bakery and managerial abilities , gain more knowledge</heading>2005 - 2006 : Work in the pastry / bakery section of an NGO , assisting in recipe costing , and managing a small team of chefs : Do a degree in My will allow me to achieve my non - career goal of doing voluntary work and by performing in a department related to my career aspirations , I can improve my existing skills but also acquire new ones . I will also gain insight into a different culture , enhance my adaptability skills , and improve my capacity of working with different people . A postgraduate degree will enable me to form a particular mind - set and build on my academic knowledge , thus acquiring further managerial skills , essential to the efficient flow of operations . < heading>3.2.2 Acquire managerial experience</heading>2007 - 2012 : Gain international experience as a manager in a well - known bakery / pastry chain ( e.g. "" , ) . During this time , I will also engage in a process of experimentation whereby I will create my label products , by integrating different cultural gastronomies in single product . My learning cycle will continue by taking and/or bakery courses , and these will also be used to further expand my network of key industry players . Working in a foreign country will further increase my interaction with various cultures . A management position will develop my skills , including quicker decision - making . < heading>3.2.3 Create a fusion - inspired bakery</heading>2012 - 2013 : I will continue perfecting the new products during this time . The premises will be arranged , vital staff recruited , suppliers will be contacted and equipment acquired . All financial projections will be monitored and the new venture will begin operating . < heading>3.3 Weaknesses</heading > Despite my feasible Action Plan , it does have areas which if not tackled may change the defined path ; however , these will not influence my main career goal . There is the possibility I may not be accepted for a job in the company stated above , or achieve the position I require , and therefore lack the management experience I plan to attain , in the defined target . This will force me to work more years so as to gain relevant knowledge . Undercapitalisation may also be a hindrance , postponing my venture opening , as any option forcing me to give up part of my venture will be considered . < heading>4 . Conclusion</heading > Although our career objectives remain the same , our choices to pursue them vary as we progress in life . I 've always wanted my own business , however , when I came to Brookes I wanted a strategic management career in an international hotel company , and then to have my own business as a hobbie . Management would provide me a more comfortable , easy - to - do job , with fewer worries , no need for start - up capital , and generally an easier lifestyle . Nevertheless , I was never able to convince myself it would make me happy . Having to comply with rules and work for someone else , never ( as much as I tried ! ! ! ) appealed to me . showed me that unless I follow my true aspirations I will never be satisfied with life . Therefore , though recognizing it is a tough and challenging path to tread , I believe I have found my way to achieving my dreams , and just that is enough to keep me motivated .","Forensic science refers to any science that is used in a court of law . There are many analytical methods used to process evidence , and one should consider the advantages and drawbacks of each method to determine its suitability for the evidence in question . X - ray powder diffraction is a commonly used analytical method for the identification of evidence being frequently used in patents , criminal cases and other areas of law enforcement . X - ray powder diffraction is a technique , which provides a high degree of accuracy in the measurement of interplanar spacings . X - rays were discovered by , being electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength of around , comparable to the size of an atom they were utilised to probe crystalline structures at the atomic level . Materials to be analysed by X - ray powder diffraction should be crystalline or at least partially . The method works with a focused X - ray beam probing the substance / evidence and this interacting with the regular repeating planes of atoms that form the crystalline lattice . The X - ray beam may be absorbed , refracted and scattered or diffracted . of all X - rays are scattered or diffracted whereas will pass straight through the sample . X - rays are diffracted by each mineral uniquely , diffraction depends upon which atoms form the crystalline lattice and their arrangement . To begin this method X - rays must be generated , this is accomplished by applying a current that heats a filament within a sealed tube under a vacuum . The higher the current , the greater the number of electrons emitted from the filament . A high voltage is applied to the tube , which accelerates the electrons emitted onto a target . When electrons hit this target X - rays are produced , they are then collimated and directed onto the powdered sample . A detector is set up to record the signal X - ray output from the sample and this is processed into a count rate . An X - ray scan of the sample is produced by altering the angle between the X - ray source , sample and detector . When an X - ray is diffracted one can apply law ( nλ = sinθ ) to determine the spacings ( d ) between atom planes . One will know the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation used , λ , and the angle of incident radiation , θ ; n is simply and integer and by use of this information , the spacings between atoms , d , may be worked . Each mineral will give a characteristic set of d - spacings providing a fingerprint reference to the compound . This is therefore the information utilised in compound identification , in fact there is an accumulation of data for reference materials represented by the "" international centre for diffraction data "" . This analytical technique is used most commonly for "" contact trace analysis "" , this focuses on exchange principle , "" with contact between items there will be an exchange "" . This principle is applied to all crime scenes and investigators work along the concept that any persons at the scene would have both taken something from the scene with them and left something of themselves at the scene . Contact traces include substances such as paint flakes , glass fragments , hair fibres , metals , soils , and building materials . Recovery of trace materials can be achieved in an infinite number of ways and it is not unusual for a Forensic scientist to improvise methods . For example cello - tape was not used until to recover debris from garments . Evidence may be collected by shaking ; therefore removing loose particulate material from garments onto a sheet . Also combing / brushing surfaces such as shoes or pocket linings where shaking has not been effective . Taping is a method used mainly to recover hairs or fibres from clothing , in addition to this vacuuming has also been used mainly to recover firearm residues from the surface of clothing . Swabbing is also used to trace firearm residues , however most commonly used for smeared material evidence such as blood . In addition material can be picked by tweezers and all evidence is stored in the relevant sealed uncontaminated containers or bagging . There are main areas of evidence types that may be analysed by X - ray powder diffraction . To begin there is soil analysis , this can be used to link persons or objects to a specific area . there is the analysis of explosives and post blast residues , also pigments and paint analysis again for linking persons or objects to a scene . Goods identification is another branch , helping to detect counterfeiting and the origin of products . On a truly investigative level there is the identification of unknown substances such as poisons and contaminants , this area is used for industrial accidents and leakages , and incidents becoming more common in and era such as white powder scares . Another area of analysis is that of degraded bones , used in degraded skeletal recovery for confirmation of composition . Finally there is the area of drug analysis , incorporating investigations into quantitative analysis , and identification of any adulterant helping to ID the supplier . The identification of any compound under these areas can lead to or help conviction or exoneration . Evidence such as combings can be compared to a sample taken from the scene , this can prove a person was present at the scene of a crime , or in the case of unknowns the X - ray diffraction data can be compared to a database of reference compounds . When analysing a substance which may be formed of many compounds , each will produce its own unique diffraction pattern , the substance will therefore produce a diffraction pattern that is the sum of all components . Such a use for X - ray diffraction shown in a case study ; is the analysis of drugs and other substances in an unknown . These are dealt with by the section of , during this particular case study an off white powder was submitted for analysis with a preliminary analysis of , glucose and sodium chloride content . A sample was subjected to to determine the form of heroin and confirmation of the substances present . Results confirmed the presence of Heroin and sodium chloride but not glucose . A strong was recorded but was unidentifiable , the d - spacings and relative intensities were kept on record . A subsequent case showed the pattern occurring together with that of glucose monohydrate . It was thought that glucose may be forming a complex with chloride . A complex was synthesised and an X - ray powder diffraction pattern run ; this was found to match the unidentifiable substance . This shows the analytical value of a technique such as X - ray powder diffraction , and its routine use in substance identification of areas such as drug seizure . Another example of the use of X - ray powder diffraction is shown in the case of a dockyard burglary committed by an employee . The employee decided to steal a - blade , brass tugboat propeller from a neighbouring repair shop . To carry out his steal , is was necessary to cut the propeller into parts ; however during his crime the gasoline fuelled cutter he was using ran out of fuel . The man was seen fleeing from the scene and his license plate recorded . Police later traced the mans dwelling and found him at home minus his overalls , from the neck upwards the suspect was covered in fine brass shavings . Samples of the brass shavings were taken and compared to controls from the scene of crime , these were analysed using X - ray powder diffraction . Although brass was evidenced in both samples the phases were not matched , however due to the heat of the cutter used this had manipulated the brass . A comparison of control sample heated in a similar way to the suspect brass shavings were found to match and the man was convicted of this crime . As with any technique X - ray powder diffraction has its advantages and drawbacks . advantage of the technique is that it does n't require the growing and mounting of a single crystal ; powders are utilized and this saves time and widens the scope of evidence this technique can be used in conjunction with . This allows the sampling of larger objects , in comparison to single crystal work , with this technique a larger object can be ground up and the sample taken . Also , X - ray powder diffraction can be used in situ , modern day demands have arisen as to identify more at the scene of the crime , aiding a faster legal process . Miniaturisation of the equipment is in working and therefore can be used more easily at the crime scene . Portable databases of the reference compounds are also easily at hand . A major advantage to X - ray powder diffraction is that it is a non - destructive method ; therefore the evidence can be preserved . This is useful during legal proceedings as may call for the specimen to be re - analysed by their own scientists . X - ray powder diffraction also saves time as there is no extensive sample preparation and therefore one can quickly analyse any unknowns . The method can be used to identify compounds as well as specific elements ; X - ray powder diffraction will identify many materials including both organic and inorganic materials . In addition the technique can identify polymorphs ; different crystalline forms of the same substance , and can distinguish between hydrated forms of the same element , this heightens the methods effectiveness at compound identification . X - ray Powder diffraction can be used to measure a compound or element quantitatively and qualitatively , therefore is a very useful technique with a wide range of applications . As with any method , X - ray Powder diffraction holds its disadvantages also ; the technique turns information of dimensions into a collapsed form of a dimensional diffractogram . Therefore some information is disregarded in the final analysis data . In addition the material must be crystalline or at least partially and this means some materials , those which are for instance amorphous can not be analysed by X - ray powder diffraction . The method is also fairly insensitive , and therefore not a method of trace analysis , for instance a compound present in a mixture of may go undetected by X - ray powder diffraction . Overall this technique has many advantages and fewer disadvantages , however one must question the use of this technique as a trace analysis tool , due to poor detection at the presence of a substance at . The general analytical approach to prove results are reliable beyond reasonable doubt is to use analytical methods , the being relatively cheap and quick , but also reliable , then a test can be used to give unequivocal proof of a compounds presence . Perhaps it can be seen that X - ray powder diffraction would be most suitable for use as a primary test method in smaller sample sizes . X - ray powder diffraction is a useful analytical tool , it can identify many types and forms of substances and is seen to be useful in many situations were unknown substances are recovered . The physics on which the method is based provides a high degree of precision and accuracy in the measurements gained . Overall X - ray holds a prominent place in forensic science and can be useful in many cases .",0
"< abstract><heading > Summary</heading > In this assignment , researches have been done on the types of engines that are usually used for racing . The types of racing engines that was of interest were the Formula , and racing engines . The specifications of these engines have been summarized in and B so that one can compare their important parameters . Appendix A shows all the racing engines , of which their individual performance will be discuss in the content of this report . Appendix B is a table which accumulates all the information obtained about the racing engine requirement and their overall comparisons are also included in the main text . In this report , we also accessed past and future developments of each of these racing engines . < picture/></abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > In , the idea of car racing was raised once a series of petrol - fuelled cars were constructed . The official race was held in , on in and racing engines were improved exponentially during . Researches on different engines which usually used in racing were performed and discussed in this report . Engine used for general automotives was internal combustion ( ) engine in which the mechanical power of vehicle was produced by combustion of fuel within the combustion chamber . Internal combustion engine could have either - strokes or - strokes and either spark ignites or compression ignites . Gasoline , diesel and natural gas could be selected as the fuel in a engine . On the other hand , major types of IC engines were identified : Rotary engine and Reciprocating engine . The major representative of rotary engines in automotive industry was the Wankel engine ( ) which was the most highly developed rotary engine since ; such engine was used due to the compactness and high power performance . < picture/>However , the development of Wankel engine was suspended in most of the companies due to the arising environmental regulations as well as the effect of the oil crisis . The most recent car operated by Wankel engine was the RX-7 which produced in . In automotive racing industry , only particular specifications were selected and employed since the efficiency could only be improved by such specifications . Different cylinder configurations such as single , in - line , v - type , w - type , u - type , opposed cylinder , opposed piston and radial could be found in engines . However , in - line and v - type were the most commonly used configurations in automotive racing engines . Further more , the common numbers of valves employed in each cylinder were ( intake , exhaust ) , ( intake , exhaust ) and ( intake , exhaust ) . Generally valves were employed in racing engine . . Compare to normal engines , limits such as peak operating cylinder pressure were pushed up in some racing engines so that a higher performance could be obtained . Besides , the horsepower and fuel economy could be increased by maximizing the cylinder pressure . Although the cylinder pressure could be increased by increasing the compression ratio , alternative technique could also be used since cylinder pressures could be altered significantly by using camshaft selection , carburetion , nitrous and supercharging . Compression pressures could be adjusted drastically by installing supercharging , turbo - charging or intercooling system . However , apart from installing extra equipment to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of racing engines , the durability and lifetime were also a significant factor to consider since racing cars might require to operation for a long time without any failures < heading > Type of Racings</heading > In the report , a series of engines used in different automotive racings including formula racing , rally racing , sports racing ( including endurance ) and motorcycle racing were presented . In fact , the features required in racing engine were totally depended on types of racing and performances of different racing engine were adjusted in order to meet the specific purpose and provide a best fit performance . However , high acceleration , high maximum speed , high power , high torque , light weight and high efficiency of engine cycles were generally the ideal for racing engines . For instance , high power output was necessary for rally engine since such racing might consist of climbing uphill or operating under poor conditions . To conclude , particular engine performance could be adjusted in accordance with racing course conditions and requirements . < heading > Formula Racing</heading > Formula racing was a type of single - seater racing which involved a variety of special designed high performance cars . The wheels of formula cars were not covered and aerofoil wings could always be found at the front and rear of the car ( Figure ) . engines should have an extremely high maximum speed , extremely high acceleration , high torque , long life span , high operational temperature and extremely light weight in order to perform effectively on a special designed racing course . < picture/><heading > Rally Racing</heading > The first ) was held in and highly modified cars were competed on normal roads as well as under poor conditions which included dirt , swamps ( water resistance ) and snowy surfaces ( Figure ) . Rally engine should have an extremely high torque , extremely high horsepower , high acceleration , long life span and high operational temperature in order to maintain the car under safety condition as well as effectively operated . < picture/><heading > Sports Racing</heading > Sports racing cars were modified cars and were normally operated on racing courses ( Figure ) . Endurance racing is part of the sports racing where races were usually carried out over a long distance and vehicles were usually driven by a team of drivers . As similar to formula engines , sports engines should have a reasonable maximum speed and torque during operation , extremely long operational time , a long life span and high operational temperature were also essential to be considered before the production process of racing engine . < picture/><heading > Motorcycle Racing</heading > Finally , motorcycle racing is a contest involving motorcycles competing with each other ( Figure ) . Design of motorcycle engines varied largely in order to meet the requirements for different type of races . Normally motorcycle engine required to have light weight , long life span , high operational temperature , extremely high acceleration and maximum speed . < picture/><heading > Technical features</heading > Additional features could be employed in different racing engines so that the performance could be improved further . Forced induction systems such as turbocharger and supercharger were explained as well as cooling systems and carburetor . . Turbocharger - An apparatus to boost the horsepower of engine without significantly increased its weight , operated by pressurizing the air flowing into the engine 's cylinders in order to get more fuel to be burnt during each stroke . Advantage of compressing the air was more air could be squeezed into a cylinder , hence more fuel could be added and more power could be obtained from each explosion in each cylinder . More overall power could be produced than the same engine without the charging ( Figure ) . < picture/>Supercharger ( Figure ) - The mechanism was nearly identical to the turbocharger , the major difference was the power supplies in order to run the air compressor . In supercharger , a belt was connected directly to the engine and power was transmitted via the belt . For turbocharger , power was obtained from exhaust stream since the exhaust run through a turbine which in turn the compressor was span . A graph was shown the variation of power with rpm with and without supercharger ( Figure ) . < picture/><figure/>3 . Cooling systems - Either liquid - cooled or air - cooled technique was generally employed in racing engines . i ) Liquid - cooling : Fluid flowed through pipes and ducts within the engine , heat was absorbed by the fluid and engine was cooled as the liquid passed through . The fluid was then passed through a heat exchanger or radiator and heat was transferred from the fluid to the air blowing through the exchanger . ii ) Air - cooling : An old - fashioned cooling technique , engine block was covered in aluminum fins rather than circulating fluid through the engine so that heat could be conducted away from the cylinder . A powerful fan was used to force air over these fins and the engine was cooled by transferring the heat to air . . Carburetor - The right amount of gasoline with air could be mixed so that the engine could run properly . < heading > Designs of racing engines</heading > In an internal combustion engine with multiple ( more than one ) cylinders , the cylinders and piston could have V- , in - line , horizontal , w type , opposed piston and radial configuration . The most common configurations used in racing engines are the V- and in - line configurations . < heading>1 . V - configuration:</heading><picture/>V - configuration engines would have their cylinders and piston arranged in such a way that they form V shapes as shown in Figure above . using this configuration are named V2 , , , V8 , , , V16 , , and . The V configurations have been widely applied in racing engines as it helps to minimise the engine length and weight as compared to the in - line configuration . The cylinders can be arranged with different V - angles . The bigger the V - angle of an engine , the more stable it is as it has lower centre of gravity . However , large v - angle also gives rise to vibration problems . Therefore , despite increasing the V - angles would lowered the centre of gravity , it also increased the vibration . On the other hand , small V - angle engines will be less stable as the centres of gravities would be higher . Examples of engines with large V - angles are V2 , , and . < heading>2 . In - line configuration:</heading><picture/>In - line configuration is another configuration that is commonly used in racing engines . The cylinders in an in - line engine were arranged in straight row parallel to each other . This can be applied for all multiple cylinders engine but is more commonly found in four- and - cylinders engines . Its simple structure makes it easier in production than V - configuration engines . Due to its simple shapes it would be relatively easy for it to be fitted into the car chassis with different positions and can run rather smoothly . The disadvantage of in - line engines is that they are longer than V engines . It will be hard to install in - line engines into small cars and the cooling of engine by air can get difficult if it had been installed in inconvenient position Examples of in - line engines are straight - twin , straight-3 , -4 , -5 , -6 , -8 , -10 , -12 and -14 . Straight-4 is the most commonly used in - line engine at the present . < heading > Sports Engine</heading > Sports racings consisted of a variety of competitions between modified cars and were normally taken place on a specific racing course . Due to the enormous area sports racings have covered , only endurance racing was mentioned in this report . < heading>1 ) GT 2005 ( 's MOD)</heading><picture/><table/>The was built in and was became the world 's best endurance racing car in . GT achieved a result with flying colors as such vehicles placed - 2 - 3 at of Le in as well as won . The was reconstructed in in order to celebrate the centennial of . A mid - mounted , all - aluminium DOHC supercharged V-8 engine that produces horsepower was used in this generation . Compression ratio was 8.4:1(in / mm ) and multi - port ) was employed in the engine with dual injectors per cylinder . The MOD V-8 featured aluminium - valve heads , forged crankshaft , H - beam forged rods and aluminium pistons fed by an screw - type supercharger , all combined and produced hp horsepower and ft - lb of torque . In a new prototype design ( GT40 MK2 ) was introduced with a c.i . ( 7000cc ) engine , produced a power at RPM and Ib - ft of torque at RPM . In the same time as GT40 MK1 was being developed , a road used version ( ) was designed and a ci . ( 4700cc ) engine was used which could produced power . , a new was introduced ( the J - Car ) . However , the final product was not very satisfied as such vehicles were mainly designed from 's styling department . During , the GT40 Mk1 was redeveloped and a stronger engine was employed . bhp of power at rpm and of torque was finally achieved in . In the power was raised further to bhp at slightly lower revolution of rpm and of torque at rpm , using a ci . engine and other improvements . The was the origin of and was firstly produced in ; the engine of prototype car ( ) used a engine , with aluminium block and heads . The engine was dry sumped with carburetor atop . The performance was BHP of power at rpm and lb - ft of torque at rpm . In current design , aluminium was used in most of the parts of engine in current due to the high strength and excellent heat transfer , so that the main objectives of endurance racing ( long life span , long operational time and safe operation ) could be fulfilled . However , some components were manufactured by forgings instead of castings ; potential hazard might exist by using such an unseasoned manufacturing process as casting was the conventional manufacturing method of automotive components . < heading The performance was improved by adding new components such as supercharger . The - valve , , - degree all - aluminum V8 engine was placed behind the driver in order to lower the centre of gravity of the vehicle . Performances of 373kW of power @ 6000rpm and of torque @ 4500rpm were generated by the engine . Forged components ( such as crankshaft , connecting rods and aluminum pistons ) were also utilized in order to deal with extra pressure of forced induction . Aluminium components were become familiar due to the light weight and extremely high levels of torsional rigidity . Forgings technique would also become common after the correspondence processes were further improved . < heading engines were required to operate effectively even under poor conditions such as in swamps ( water resistance ) , dirt and on snowy surfaces . The engine also needed to generate sufficient power in order to drive the rally car uphill . rally engines were shown below : < heading>1 ) Subaru Impreza WRC 2004 ( EJ20)</heading><picture/><table/>The first Impreza was found in and horizontally opposed , - cylinder , all - alloy engine for a displacement of L with quad camshafts , static compression , a single turbocharger and intercooler was employed in this model . The boxer engine was in accordance with a specially reinforced "" semi - closed deck "" engine block , forged aluminium alloy pistons and forged high - carbon steel which linked to rods and exhaust valves ( sodium - filled ) . The theory behind using a ' flat four ' was the engine sat lower in the car in which the car 's inertia could be benefited and hence a lower centre of gravity could be obtained . In , the output of this turbo charged engine was increased to kW ( ) , dampers with multiple phase valves were also used in order to obtain high performance and steering stability . Besides , the cooling performance was also enhanced by using a different shape of the inter - cooler water spray nozzle and the shape of the air baffle plate within the air scoop . Nevertheless , developments were still carried out during in order to remain effective and competitive in the . A wide range of performance upgrades were conducted including using a direct water injection system and increasing the size of turbocharger housing so that stable engine combustion could be obtained . Aluminium block and heads were employed in order to be operated in high temperature effectively . Area of air intake was increased and hence the cooling system including V - mount radiator could be improved . On the other hand , ( ) was also introduced and the inlet camshaft timing over a - degree range was varied in order to improve emissions , tractability and low rpm torque . The boxer engine was also modified with a twin scroll turbo , drivability was greatly enhanced by the increased torque at low speeds , while the improved acceleration was particularly significant in rally race . < heading>2 ) ( was appeared in and was equipped with the 4G63 engine . The 4G63 engine consisted of an 85.0 mm ( 3.35 "" ) bore and ( "" ) stroke , for a displacement of cc . Twin contra - rotating balance shafts were housed inside the block and injection technique was employed . The engine was mainly consisted of cast iron block and an aluminium alloy cylinder head . A new turbocharger fitted with the regulation - millimetre intake restrictor , new intake and exhaust manifolds , and new internals were used in the engine in order to obtain a higher efficiency . In , refinements were performed on intake and exhaust systems , aluminium induction piping , and weight reduction measures by using a cast - magnesium cylinder head cover and hollow camshafts . The intake , exhaust , turbocharger impeller and housing , camshafts and crankshaft were all developed in , in accordance with the technology already achieved in different over . were design to hollow so that the rotating inertia was reduced . Moreover , the "" twin - scroll "" impeller in turbocharger was modified by doubling the amount of fins . Dual chambers were used in exhaust housing , the exhaust gases were routed from cylinder and cylinder to one side of the twin - scroll turbocharger and gases from cylinder and cylinder to the other side of turbocharger . Efficiency would be increased by improving the airflow intake . However , the regulation was conflicted by this development since only a maximum of intake restrictor could be used . Although downforce was a vital factor of competitive car on rally racing , good cooling was a key prerequisite on a turbocharged rally car since the ambient temperature on rally car could usually exceed Celsius and the temperature was often the highest on racings which carried out at the lowest average speeds . In order to achieve a high efficiency and effectiveness in rally engines , airflow beneath the rally car could be used and considered . In , improvements to the rally engines would be carried out by employing a new waste gate , anti - lag valves as well as an improved engine control . On the other hand , the turbo - charger would also be investigated in order to determine the change in efficiency . The performance and tuning possibilities of such engines would also be significantly developed and become more accurate by carrying out different improvements . < heading Over , the development of rally engines was improved from only concentrated on the modification and replacement of engine components ( such as dampers , turbocharger housing , intake and exhaust systems , piping , head cover , hollow camshafts , twin scroll turbo ... etc ) to introducing new components and technique ( such as airflow beneath the rally car , new waste gate ) in order to improve further and achieve a better performance . On the other hand , exact values of some performance such as accelerations and maximum speeds were not defined since those figures could be adjusted easily by tuning . < heading > Formula Racing Engine</heading > Formula racings involve a variety of high speed and high performance cars competing against each other . At present , the most famous race is Formula-1 ( F1 ) racing . In this assignment , most research was done on Formula-1 engines . Formula-1 car engines have excellent performance as they are times more powerful than normal car engines . To ensure all races are reasonably fair , ) have put forward some limitations to the engines of the cars that were competing in the races . For instance , the engine must be strokes and consist of circular cylinders with valves on each cylinder . Supercharging is not allowed in Formula-1 cars . At present , the cylinders of the engines are usually arranged in V configuration . They often have capacities of cc capacity and can generate bhp . High torque of the engines means high power output ( i.e. high horsepower ) as the number of engine cycles per unit time is depend on the torque . Special materials ( such as alloys , ceramic etc . ) were used to manufacture the engine 's components for Formula-1 for weight reduction purpose and also to reduce the chances of overheating of the engines . The cooling of the engines was very important in racing cars especially in Endurance racing since the car was required to run for a long period of time ( typically , and ) over the runway course in order to test the engine 's durability . Formula-1 car engines are all air cooled . Less dense ceramic was used in making the internal components of the engines so that it was easier to accelerate and also reduce the engine 's fuel consumption . The overall size of the engines should be reasonable light and small , so that they could be easily fitted into the chassis . The numerical data for the engines ' torques and compression ratios ( CR ) are not available in all of the sources . This may because these data have to remain confidential . Following are some examples Formula-1 racing engines : < heading > Ferrari : < /heading><picture/><table/>Figures and above are single - seater racing car and Type 052 engine respectively . was 's th single - seater racing car entering the Formula-1 world championship . Similar to the previous generations of engines , the Ferrari ( type ) engine is load - bearing and is fitted longitudinally into the chassis . It has a V configuration and cylinders arrangement with valves per cylinder , i.e. valves . It is a ( SI ) engine with static electronic ignition . Fuel will be fed into the engine by digital electronic injection . Type 052 is an evolution of the former engine with several improvements that increase the engine 's performance and usability . and weight of the engine were reduced as new materials have been used for manufacturing it . The centre of gravity of the car is lowered and therefore improving the overall weight distribution . Maximum engine revolutions of type engine would be rpm higher than that of the type . Further development of the engine would be carried on in order to improve the horsepower and its performance . The types of engines that would develop in the future will tend to be more reliable and can integrate well with the car . < heading > Renault:</heading><picture/><table/>Renault R24 as shown in Figure was a single - seater built by to compete in the Formula-1 racing in . The engine used to drive was the RS24 engine , which was an improved evolution of the engines that had been used in the R23 ( ) . had been developing since in order to improve the overall engine performance . The engine launched in was a - degree engine . It was generally reliable except that it has major problems with vibrations . Therefore had been developed from by changing some configurations and its design is based on the engines . has a - degree V configuration with cylinders arrangements . As engine is higher , it has a centre of gravity that is higher than that of . But according to the Renault F1 team , this problem has been compensated by making changes to the engine 's casing . Therefore , the centre of gravity of the car R24 is not much higher than that of . The problems of vibrations have been improved in the development of the engine . In , launched a new engine that has been developed from . RS25 is basically the same as , but its centre of gravity has been made lower . After the - degree engines ( ) , was planning to develop a new engine . The future developments for engines will be more on weight reduction as well as improving its reliability . < heading > Formula Racing Engines - Overall Development:</heading > In , carburetor was widely used to feed fuel into the car engines . Shortly after , more effective direct fuel injection system was introduced by . then introduced turbocharged engines into F1 . But the cooling systems of engines was not well developed , many turbocharged cars went down due to overheating . During , the developments of F1 engines were mainly on increasing their torques and the horsepower . But these increase in horsepower reduced the handling of the cars . The ground - effect of the cars were improved which increase their cornering speeds . This made it even harder to control the cars . During that period of time , many deaths of driver were caused by severe accidents during races . In , turbocharged engines were banned by and were replaced by cc induction engines . In , different companies were concentrating on the development of the induction engines . The hp induction engine was built which was much better than the previous racing engines . A ' baffle ' had been introduced to enhance the cooling of the engines . F1 limited the capacity of the engines to cc in . With the capacities limited , the engines could only be developed further by improving the mass centralization and increasing the horsepower . Horsepower can be increase by increasing the piston 's bore and decreasing the size of cylinders as these will improve the volumetric efficiency of the engine . Finding the optimum cylinders configurations can improve the mass centralization ( stability ) of the car as well as the overall performance . < heading > Motorcycle Racing Engine:</heading > Motorcycle racing is a variety of sports involving motorcycles competing with each other . Some common examples of motorcycle racings are ( road racing ) , MotoGP ( circuit racing ) , ( endurance racing ) etc . Engines of motorcycles are gasoline engines and can be either strokes or strokes . They either use fuel injection or carburetors to feed the fuel - air mixture into the combustion chamber . Motorcycles used for racing are mostly - stroke engines with multiple cylinders . The power of an engine depends on the number and sizes of its cylinders . Therefore , increasing the sizes and number of cylinders in an engine would increase its power , i.e. increase the engine 's displacement . Motorcycles engines at present can have single - cylinder , - cylinder , - cylinder or - cylinder and their displacements ranges from cc to over cc . Most motorcycles nowadays often have or - cylinder engines . Engines with high displacement have higher fuel consumption and therefore generate more power . A multiple cylinder engine can have its cylinders arranged in horizontal , inline or V configurations . As mentioned beforehand , the main problems with V configuration engines were its vibrations and high centre of mass . Among the configurations , the horizontal configuration has the best weight distribution ( lower centre of gravity ) and also produced the least vibrations . The following is an example of a racing motorcycle : < heading > CBR1000RR:</heading><picture/><picture/><table/>Figure shows a picture of the CBR1000RR motorcycle and Figures and show the liquid - cooled engine that drives the motorcycle . The CBR1000RR engine has a displacement of and with in - line cylinders configuration . The piston 's bore and stroke sizes were made different from that of its predecessors so as to improve its compression ratio , i.e. higher volumetric efficiency . Its fuel tank is placed at the centre and fuel was fed into the engine through a dual stage fuel injection ( DSFI ) carburetor . CBR1000RR was developed based on the previous RC211V with improved horsepower . Therefore , CBR1000RR is as reliable as RC211V but with higher maximum speed . CBR1000RR bike inherited most of RC211V 's body structures such as the Aluminium frame , the suspensions etc . As the swing arm of CBR1000RR bike had been made longer , the size and structure of the engine had to be modified in order for it to fit into the bike chassis . The front to back dimensions of the engine was being shortened by arranging its main shaft , countershaft and the crankshaft in a triangular pattern with countershaft below the main shaft . The engine had been placed towards the front of the bike body to improve the overall weight distribution of the bike , i.e. more stable . In the past , development group has been working on the weight centralization aspects , i.e. to improve the stability of the bike . Based on the researches that had been done , the future evolutions of the racer engines would be more on increasing the engine 's horsepower and torque . < heading > Motorcycle Racing Engine - Overall Development:</heading > The ever engine used to power a motorcycle was a steam engine which was built in in the . It was a - cylinder engine that powered the bike by burning charcoal . In , the gasoline engine for motorcycle was then built which was a single - cylinder gasoline engine ( reciprocating ) . At this early stage , the fuel feeding system of this simple engine was a spray - type carburetor . Later in , a water - cooled parallel - cylinder engine was developed . The cylinders were moving to and fro simultaneously to create motion to the rear axle by transmitting through connecting rods . An elastic band was placed on each side of the cylinders for energy storing purpose and to enhance compressions in the cylinders . , a smaller strokes engine with capacity of about 138 cc was built . It generates a power of hp which was very small compare with the engines output power nowadays . Shortly afterwards , the AV - Twin with speed gearboxes was built . The motorcycle endurance race was held in on . In , a - cylinder engine with valves per cylinder was developed and was used in various races as its maximum speed was over . the development for the motorcycle racing engines had come to a halt during the World Wars . But not long after , cc bikes were built based on the previous models . From then , the development of the motorcycle engines was more on increasing the horsepower and the stability of the bike . Horsepower can be improved by changing the dimensions and configurations of the cylinders and pistons . While the stability is depend on the weight distributions of the bike . < heading > Performance Analysis and Discussion</heading > The performances for each racing engine were plotted in and the comparisons of performance for different types of racing engines were plotted in , all the displacements of formula and rally racing were very closed to 3000cc and respectively , however the maximum possible values for those racing vehicle should be larger since those performances were achieved under some racing regulations . On the other hand , the torque and compression ratio of formula racing engines as well as the compression ratio of rally racing engines were missing on the table due to those performance might be confidential to public . In formula racing engine were normally used since the racing engine could only consist cylinders in accordance with formula racing regulation . Most of the rally engines were employing inline configuration except for since a more efficient flat configuration was used . Further more , the combined table in represented the requirement of different racing engines . cylinders were used in formula racing engine since the vehicle required an extremely high speed . Besides , the displacement of sports racing engine was enormous compared to the others , due to the corresponding vehicle ( ) was an endurance racing vehicle , hence an extremely high value of displacement was reasonable . Conversely , the total weight of motorcycle was pretty light , therefore the fuel consumption and displacement required were not necessary to be high . The power of formula engine was the highest as the formula car needed to achieve a highest possible acceleration . On the other hand , the motorcycle power was the lowest as the weight of the vehicle was small ; hence only low force and power were needed in order to drive the vehicle . Although the torque of formula engine was not available , the expected torque of formula engine should be greater than the ( 500lb - ft ) . < heading > Conclusion</heading > Firstly , Wankel engines obtained a high power performance and were familiar in automotive industry during . However , the development was suspended due to the arising environmental regulations and the effect of the oil crisis although the future development of this type of engine was enormous . In conclusion , the performances of different racing engines were totally depended on the type of race . For instance endurance vehicle would require a high displacement whereas a motorcycle would not since endurance race needed a larger capacity of fuel . Besides , the performance could be improved by inserting extra components such as turbocharger and cooler , by modifying / replacing the current components or by either employing specific valve configuration in order to lower the centre of gravity of the vehicle . Light weight and high strength material such as aluminium alloy could also be used so that a lighter but stiffer product could be achieved . The future development of these racing engines would be tends to increase the horsepower by developing new systems to assist the current operations . Improvements of racing engine could also be achieved by developing individual components such as piston , crankshaft , camshaft , head cover ... etc .","< abstract><heading>1 . Executive Summary</heading > The report consisted of the design and analysis of a commercial meat slicer , which connected between an motor with speed of and a grinder with an output speed of ~90rpm . A variety of calculations would be performed for different major components . Computer program would also be used in order to compare the results from computer modeling to manual calculations . A computer aid design drawing would be conducted and presented near the final stage and an appropriate size of gearbox housing would be designed . After the analysis the optimal gearbox should have a double reduction system with gear ratios of . Optimal gears would have a size of and gear diameters with thickness and the optimal shafts would have a diameter of 25 mm with a length of . would be selected based on the size of the shaft , the revolution speed and the maximum loading , diameter of and bearings with thickness of and respectively were finally considered in order to achieve the optimal performance . Finally , the optimal size of gearbox housing was set to be   in order to enable the operation effective and safe . Unfortunately the computer program did not operate as expected so that the comparison between computer results and manual calculations could not be conducted . However , the variation of parameters in the computer program was limited so that only a limited number of comparisons could be done even though the programs were working properly . More developments and improvements were required in gear and shaft program so that a variety of variables could be selected for analysis . < /abstract><heading>3 . Introduction</heading > The assignment consisted of the design and analysis of a reduction gearbox which would be used for a commercial meat slicer . Appropriate components such as gears , shafts , bearings and housing would be selected and investigated in order to satisfy the requirement . A variety of calculations would firstly be performed in order to ensure the bending and surface stress conditions were within the safety limit , different dimensions would also be examined so that the optimal output could be achieved . A spreadsheet would be created in order to summarize all the possible arrangements . On the other hand , the shaft would be designed based on the optimal gear parameters , bending moment diagrams and shear force diagrams were constructed in order to perform analysis on bending . Computer program would also be used in order to determine and compare results of shaft between computer outcome and calculating results . Finally , bearings for corresponding shafts would also be selected based on their rotating speed and maximum load . A computer aid design ( ) drawing would also be presented in order to recognize any constraints for the physical arrangement in the gearbox and hence the smallest possible gearbox housing could be constructed . < heading > Requirements</heading > The input of the meat slicer was a constant speed motor running at rev / min and delivering power . A gearbox was connected to the motor in order to provide speed reduction and meet the functional requirements . Rotating speed of the final shaft was expected at rev / min and the duty ( utilization ) each day was expected to be hr . Severe constraint on size was required as the slicer required to go onto a work surface where space was limited . In conclusion , the initial specification could be summarized as follows : < list > Input speed n P = power P = Output speed n G = FORMULA   = Operation time t = < /list > Hence the gear ratio U =   = < heading > Initial Ideas</heading > Since the reduction gear ratio was enormous ( ) , a double reduction gearbox was selected so that a higher reliability could be achieved . The gearbox was connected between the motor and grinder and bearings would be placed at both ends of shaft . Straight spur gears would be the best combination to employ as such arrangement could provide a more convenient procedure in further analysis . < heading > Conceptual Design ( Initial Layout)</heading > Before the commencement of design analysis process , the initial layout of the product was illustrated ( Figure ) and the gearbox housing was represented by the grey rectangle . From the diagram , power was transmitted from the motor to gear through the shaft and gear was then connected to gear . Again , power was transmitted through the shaft from gear 3 to 4 and gear was connected to gear . Finally , power was transmitted from gear to the grinder through the shaft . < figure/><heading>4 . Design Analysis and Evaluation</heading><heading > A ) Gear Analysis</heading > In order to select the most suitable component , a range of analysis was performed and the limitation was identified so that the gearbox could be operated under safety condition . ) of all , the nominal velocity ratio was determined :   FORMULA ( Single reduction ) However , a double reduction arrangement was employed , therefore :   FORMULA   ) As the material used in both the pinion and the gear were identical , the pinion was always weaker since more undercutting could be found from the smaller gear . In order to avoid any undercutting appear in the operation , a high pressure angle was selected ( ° ) . To ensure no interference could be found within the gearbox , a minimum number of teeth were required in the pinion ( Appendix A ) . Hence the number of teeth could be determined for the gear :   FORMULA   If   FORMULA , then   , hence   FORMULA ( Within the required range ) After that , the modulus m was assumed to be and the pitch diameters were determined :   FORMULA   ( Pinion )   FORMULA   ( Gear ) Since D P and D G were defined , the centre distance c could then be calculated :   FORMULA   ) Moreover , the pitch line speed was computed : Since   FORMULA    FORMULA   ) As power P was provided , the transmitted load F t could also be determined : < figure/>5 ) On the other hand , the dynamic factor K v was identified :   FORMULA   ) In order to avoid torsional distortion , the face width b was required to lie between m and m ( when m = module in / tooth ) and should be less than or equal to D P :   FORMULA   and   if b was assumed to be m , , in which   FORMULA   and   ) Since the bending stress within the gear depended on the torque , geometry and the form factor , the expected bending stress σb in the pinion and gear could be determined :   FORMULA      The Lewis form factor Y could be identified ( Appendix B ) . For the pinion , Y P=0.27677 For the gear ,   Hence ,   FORMULA      Therefore the maximum bending stress occurred at the pinion with the value of . However , in order to achieve a safety and reliable operation , the allowable bending stress S at could be calculated based on the maximum bending stress σb . 8)   FORMULA   where < list > S at = Allowable bending stress k a = Surface factor k b = factor k c = Reliability factor k d = Temperature factor k e = Modified factor for stress concentration factor k f = Miscellaneous - effects factor</list > and   FORMULA , would be taken if the corresponding factor was not concerned . Hence assumptions of factors were made for a meat slicer : k a=0.9 , k b=0.8 , k c=0.7 , k d=0.9 , k e=1 , k f=0.9 As   FORMULA      Gray cast iron was selected as the ultimate tensile strength was approximately 160MPa , in which the bending stress could be covered sufficiently . Further analysis would be carried out in order to investigate the contact stress between gears . The contact stress ( stress ) σc on the surface of teeth could be identified as :   FORMULA   where   and   FORMULA    FORMULA      Similarly , the allowable fatigue strength S ac was determined :   FORMULA   where < list > C T = Temperature factor ( C T=1 for T<120 ° C ) C R = Reliability factor ( C R=1.25 for a reliability of , ) C L = Life factor ( C L=1.1 for life cycle . Assumed to operate times / day , and for , Appendix C ) C H = ratio factor ( C H=1 for spur gears)</list > Therefore FORMULA   Since the yield strength of gray cast iron was approximately 620MPa , the contact stress could be fully covered . The above manual calculation represented the detailed procedure of the gear analysis . A spreadsheet ( Appendix D ) was also created in order to simplify the calculation process and results of alternative trials could be summarized . According to the table , the fatigue strength and bending stress could be affected by variables such as life factor C L , reliability factors C R and k c , face width b and other miscellaneous factors . In general , bending stress was relatively small compared to the fatigue strength and the gear should firstly be failed by fatigue . The allowable bending stress and fatigue strength would decrease as the reliability ( factor ) decrease , which meant a gear with high reliability would require a material with high UTS and fatigue strength . Besides , the fatigue strength would increase as the life factor reduced . Therefore a gear with large life cycle ( hence low cycle factor ) could be manufactured using a high fatigue strength material . Moreover , both the bending stress and fatigue strength would become higher as the face width decreased , which represented a larger face width would have a lower bending stress and fatigue strength . On the other hand , alternative materials were compared in order to identify the optimal material to be employed in the gearbox . Since grey cast iron , case hardening carbon steel and aluminium bronze were mostly utilized , a number of trials based on those materials were performed . A larger flexibility could be achieved by using grey cast iron as the minimum module size for carbon steel and aluminium bronze were 5 mm respectively . In conclusion , an ideal gear would be manufactured by grey cast iron with module , with extremely high reliability and low life cycle factor . Since a larger face width would occupy a larger volume , low face width would be beneficial when size was significant . Although a high m or b would reduce the bending stress , both parameters were relatively small , which might due to volume was also of the significant parameters to consider . Moreover , the UTS of the corresponding material might also be able to compensate the change of bending stress so that a small module and low face width could be selected . The ideal combination was attached at the bottom of the spreadsheet and detailed specifications were presented below ( ): < program was employed afterwards and the above parameters were inserted . Commercial cut gear class was selected and metric module definition was considered . A number of figures were attached in Appendix E in order to show the calculation results with relevant specifications using gear program . Since a double reduction process could not be performed in the program and both reduction stages were identical ( with U=4.472 ) , only the reduction stage was analysis . However , the minimum number of pinion teeth could not be amended in the program and could only be , which might possibly due to either gear design failure or computational problems . A test was performed in order to lower the value of N P , however a gear ratio of was required in order to reduce N P to in the gear program . Although the face width calculation was successful , the module and the face width were different to the original specifications . Therefore the program could only be used as a supplementary element for gear analysis since a variety of parameters such as available materials and class of gears were limited . < heading > B ) Shaft Analysis</heading > The design and analysis of shafts could be performed using bending moment diagrams and shear force diagrams . An initial design layout was drawn in order to perform further analysis in the shafts(Figure 2 ) . < picture/>In this design , shafts would be employed in the gearbox in order to perform double reduction effect . Each shaft was assumed to be 100 mm long . of all , the power was transmitted from the motor to gear A , then to gear B on shaft . Since the contact force between gears was acting in directions , the vertical and horizontal analysis of shafts would be carried out sequentially . Initially , the arrangement of shaft ) was shown and the analysis for horizontal and vertical axis of shaft was also carried out . < picture/><figure/>Therefore , on vertical plane X - Y ( left ): M(R ):   FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA      Similarly , on horizontal plane X - Z : M(R 1H ):   FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA      The relevant shear force and bending moment diagram for both planes were shown . < figure/>Therefore the maximum bending moment M B :   FORMULA   Since   FORMULA   where < list > n = Safety factor ( assume n=2.5 in this design ) S y = of grey cast iron=620MPa T = Maximum torque=   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA < /list > Therefore the minimum shaft diameter should be . The power was then transmitted from gear B to C via shaft , followed by gear D on shaft . The design arrangement of shaft was shown(Figure 4 ) . < figure/>Again , analysis was carried out in order to investigate the vertical and horizontal axis of shaft . of all , the corresponding axial components of were determined .   FORMULA    FORMULA   Moreover , torque T at gear B was found :   FORMULA   As the torque was constant along shaft , the torque at gear C was equal to at gear   FORMULA      The vertical ( - plane ) and horizontal ( - plane ) analysis of shaft were then performed . Since point 3 & 4 were the reaction force , they required to act towards the resultant force together . < figure/>Therefore for vertical plane ( ): M(R 3V ):   FORMULA    FORMULA      Hence :   FORMULA    FORMULA      Similarly , for horizontal plane(XZ ): M(R ):   FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA   So :   FORMULA    FORMULA      < figure/>Therefore the maximum bending moment M B :   FORMULA   Again :   FORMULA   where < list > n = Safety factor ( n=2.5 in this design ) S y = of grey cast iron=620MPa T = Maximum torque=   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA < /list > Therefore the minimum diameter for shaft should be around . Finally , the arrangement of shaft was shown(Figure ): < figure/>Firstly , the value of F DY and F DZ were determined :   FORMULA    FORMULA   The vertical ( - plane ) and horizontal ( - plane ) analysis was performed : < figure/>Therefore , on vertical plane X - Y : M(R 5V ):   FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA      Similarly , on horizontal plane X - Z : M(R 5H ):   FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA      The relative shear force diagram and bending moment diagram for both planes were shown . < figure/>Maximum bending moment M B :   FORMULA   Since   FORMULA   where < list > n = Safety factor ( assume n=2.5 in this design ) S y = of grey cast iron=620MPa T = Maximum torque=   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA < /list > Therefore the minimum shaft diameter for shaft should be . A table was shown in order to summarize the specifications of shafts : < table/>On the other hand , the face width of the larger gear was relatively small compared to the pitch diameter . Therefore a reasonable size of boss ( ) would be placed with the large gear on shaft ( 10 mm each side ) and shaft in order to enhance the contact length between the shaft and gear . Since a rectangular housing would be used for the gearbox , the bearings would be positioned at both ends of the shaft and through the housing wall . < heading > C ) Bearing Analysis</heading > In order to investigate the correct size of bearings placed at the end of shafts in the gearbox , a number of calculations were performed . , the resultant forces at all bearings were determined : Bearing : FORMULA   Bearing 2 : FORMULA   Bearing 3 : FORMULA   Bearing 4 : FORMULA   Bearing 5 : FORMULA   Bearing 6 : FORMULA   After all the resultant forces were determined , the type and size of bearings would be selected based on the maximum load on each shaft using ( i.e. the higher load would be chosen as the typical maximum load for each shaft ) . Bearing 1 & 2 ) = ball rolling bearings = ball rolling bearings @ 90rpm = ball rolling bearings Since such corresponding points in the graph was close to the rolling bearings line , therefore they were used for the bearings at the end of the shaft . The purposed diameter of shaft was 25 mm , so the size of bearing should be larger than 25 mm . Besides , the bearing ratio BR should also be aware since the ratio should be greater than 1.5 and not less than 1 for any smooth operations . Assumed ratio=1.5 , since   Bearing , )   FORMULA   Bearing , 4 )   FORMULA   Bearing 5 , )   FORMULA   Finally , a summary of specifications for bearings and shafts was produced : < table/>Although the bearings were slight long compared to the available spaces on the shaft , the shaft would be extended in order to be surrounded by the bearings . Nevertheless , the shaft program was also an alternative way to simulate the outcome . However , errors occurred once all the data were entered each time ( Appendix G ) , therefore a computational comparison could not be conducted . < heading > D ) Specification & Discussion of Components and Materials</heading > Since roomage was also a particular factor to consider in design process , the smallest possible gear size was selected . Grey cast iron was chosen to be the production material of gear and shaft as the yield strength of grey cast iron was fairly high , so that a long lifespan could be expected . Besides , the module was also the smallest size within the range as any modules smaller than would not be able to perform their duties effectively and endurably . On the other hand , bearings were selected based on the maximum load and the speed of the shaft . However , a prudent decision was made and a larger bearing was used for some shafts as the corresponding point on graph was too closed to the upper boundary . Die - cast aluminium would be used for the housing and lubricated ball bearings would be used for shaft supports . A final specification was constructed in order to summarize the parameters of each component . < table/><heading > E ) Discussion</heading > The final version of the gearbox was plotted in and a drawing was attached ( ) . All the dimensions were shown in millimeters and an isometric view was shown below ( Figure ) . < picture/>In comparison of manual calculation with computer program , the computer program were not as convenient as expected , which might due to outdated operating system in the program or even bugs . Therefore manual calculation would be desired if the actual design parameters were given . However , the computer program will enhance the effectiveness and also provide a more convenient analytical procedure if further development was carried out Alternatively , the operation environment would also change the requirements and hence the specification . For instance the temperature factor would be increased if the operation temperature was higher than room temperature . Reliability factor would also increase if the precision of cutting is important . Developments could also be performed in order to improve the performance . Alternative materials could be used if the fatigue strength was not sufficient enough . Increasing the number of shaft sample would also improve the reliability of the analysis , which may also increase the variety of effective design . < heading>5 . Conclusion</heading > In the design process , a number of analyses were carried out in order to achieve an optimal gearbox design for a commercial meat slicer . The manual calculations were carried out smoothly and a number of gear combinations were investigated . Unfortunately the computer program did not operate as expected so that both results could not be compared . However , the computer program only offered a limited number of variables which meant the flexibility was limited even such program run normally . Nevertheless , manual calculations enable a more flexible and reliable analysis during design process , hence the volume of the gear box could be minimized more easily . After a range of manual calculations , the gearbox could be operated as requested from to ~90rpm , using a double reduction gearbox with gear ratios of ~4.472 . After that , the minimal gear diameters of and 161 mm with thickness were selected for small and large gears respectively . Such values were then utilized for shaft analysis and hence bearing analysis near the final stage . Finally , diameter shafts with length were chosen for gearbox shafts and bearings ( 12 mm diameter with and 18 mm thickness respectively ) were selected to support the corresponding shafts . The gearbox design was then constructed in , drawing was then produced in order to minimize the required gearbox housing . A size of   was used for the housing and a thickness of was reserved as a safety basis .",1
"The importance of our evolutionary past in determining who we are has risen in prominence in ( Archer ) , and most agree that a recognition of evolution 's importance is necessary . However Archer makes a very ambitious claim in saying that evolutionary psychology provides a single unifying starting point for understanding why we think and behave as we do , which is characteristic of the boldness of the advocates of this approach . What Archer means by this statement is that psychological research and theory should stem from an understanding that humans are products of natural selection and nothing else , hence hypotheses should be based on principles of evolution and tested to reveal what psychological adaptations are present in humans and how these influence our behaviour . This view is very contentious and there are many critics who pick holes in evolutionary psychology 's arguments and claim that this kind of stance ignores the complexity of culture and thus can not explain a plethora of culturally influenced behaviours . Cosmides and ( ) describe evolutionary psychology as a ' way of thinking about psychology that can be applied to any topic ' , and are attempting to replace conventional psychological thought with what they believe is a superior approach . They claim that humans suffer from ' instinct blindness ' - where we do n't realise the power that our instincts are having on our behaviour and thought processes - but they claim that evolutionary psychology provide insights into this . A key tenant of their approach is the belief that not just our bodies , but also our neural circuits have emerged by natural selection to cope with problems that our ancestors faced . They think that these mental processes are organised into modules , with each module serving a different function . Flexibility of human thought is explained by stating that it is made possible as a by - product of the large number of evolved specialised circuits ( ) . An important part of their theory is that because , they say , evolution is a slow and gradual process , there has not been any time for humans to evolve since the Pleistocene , meaning that the neural circuits that you and I have are suited to the kinds of problems that our ancestors faced on the savannahs and not in the concrete jungle that we live in . They say that adaptations can be discovered by thinking about what kinds of problems our ancestors faced , how they might have been solved by natural selection , and then by checking empirically to see if any adaptations can be revealed that fit into the model . This method has been used to suggest an evolutionary basis for sexual attractiveness based on body symmetry ( Archer ) and on the appearance of the face according to hormones changing ( Smith cited in ) , and mate guarding ( Buss ) . Rose and Rose ( 2001 ) argue that evolutionary psychology 's assumption that humans have not evolved since the Pleistocene may be flawed , as there is evidence that some animals have evolved in remarkably short time - frames . If true this could strike quite a fundamental blow to evolutionary psychologies theories about us having neural networks that were developed for use in a very different age and environment than the one we live in . They also make the important criticism that evolutionary psychology ignores culture , however this is be countered by the claim that humans have gained the capacity for culture through evolution , so studying evolutionary processes should teach us about culture ( ) . However this is unsatisfactory , as Gould ( ) points out that cultural change is directional and rapid , and happens through joining of different cultural lineages which is very different to evolution . History 's unpredictableness must also be taken into account meaning that not everything can be explained by evolution , we need to incorporate other avenues of research . Smith ( ) criticises evolutionary psychology 's reliance on the computational model of the mind , which has now largely been superseeded by the connectionist model . Smith also makes the important point that the process of reverse engineering adaptations is extremely flawed as we have no good way of knowing what the environment our ancestors evolved in was like . Another criticism of evolutionary psychology 's simplistic theorising about the conditions in which our ancestors were evolving comes from design systems theory ( Oyama et al ) which states that organisms do not simply encounter problems in their environment and develop adaptations - as advocates of evolutionary psychology would have you believe , but rather evolution is co - constructed by the interaction between the organism and it 's environment , particularly in the case of humans who took control over nature in a more significant way than other animals . Therefore there is no easy way to guess or work out the conditions our ancestors met and therefore we can not hypothesise about the kinds of adaptations that might have arisen , which is a massive blow for evolutionary psychologists . It is clear that evolutionary psychology has a lot of problems , and particularly comes unstuck when it tries to explain anything specific that is n't directly biological . The fact that there may have been evolutionary progress between the Pleistocene and now needs to be addressed , in fact evolution is a process with no end bar complete extinction so it is not useful to talk about evolution having happened or not happened , rather the pertinent issue is how much change there has been . The point that we ought not to merely speculate about the conditions in which our ancestors were evolving is also important . However despite these weaknesses evolutionary psychology can be robust enough to make an important contribution , especially if it does n't stray out of it 's depth into the murky cultural waters . Archer 's ( ) model of hypothesis generation is important and does come up with viable research in areas that conventional approaches would n't , such as research revealing differential mate guarding with different genders ( Buss ) . To make a strong case that such a phenomenon is due to evolutionary processes , it should be a case where there are no obvious societal or cultural explanations for the behaviour - as in Thornhill and Palmer 's ( ) explanation of rape which ignored viable societal explanations ( cited in ) , it should be shown to be universal across different cultures and if applicable it should be shown to be innate by providing evidence that babies also have the mechanism that drives the behaviour . Although many psychological phenomenon are too much located in the cultural realm to be studied from an evolutionary perspective effectively , evolutionary psychology does have an important part to play in explaining the actual mechanisms that have evolved to allow us to learn and use culture . Culture does not grow on a blank slate , rather it acts on a base , and biases laid down by evolution - we are clearly programmed to learn it , and we do have certain instincts in place , for instance the drive to have sex , even though culture can have a big influence on the expression of that , for instance suppressing it completely in nuns . It would be interesting and useful if evolutionary psychologists , instead of going hell - bent for a radical approach to psychology at the expense of good science , instead examined carefully the evolved ability to acquire culture , and cultural psychology can then explain how this potential is realised into a psychological system ( , cited in ) . Also evolutionary psychologists could search for any adaptations that we actually have evolved , and how much the environment can effect it 's ontogenetic development . Evolutionary psychology can not provide a single unifying starting point for psychology , as we inherit not only our genes produced by evolution but also our culture and history that were created by societal processes mostly so complex that evolutionary theory has little relevance to them ( ) . However it has a very important part to play in an integrated approach of evolutionary principles and cultural psychology where each compliment each other .","< abstract><heading > Abstract</heading > Aquaponics , the integration of aquaculture and hydroponic crop production represents a more environmentally benign and energy efficient method of production than each method practiced in isolation . This study sought to ascertain the viability of aquaponics as an alternative to conventional hydroponics when producing lettuce ( Lactuca sativa ) cv . ' ' . treatments produced lettuce in recirculating systems in trials . Control treatments supplied the plants with a full spectrum of nutrients , whilst aquaponic treatments supplied the plants with water from cold - water aquariums containing either solely goldfish ( Carassius auratus ) , or from identical goldfish aquariums with additional iron ( ) at parts per . The final trial examined the effects of fish stocking density . Growth rate and leaf chlorophyll content were measured to examine the effects of each treatment . Tissue analysis of dried leaf tissue from the and trials ascertained mean N , P and K concentrations in leaf tissue for each treatment . Statistical analysis showed significantly lower growth rates in both aquaponic treatments compared with the control in the initial trials . In trial , no significant differences were observed in growth rates . Leaf chlorophyll concentration was significantly different to across treatments in one trial and leaf tissue analysis showed some differences in N , P and K concentrations across the treatments in trial . The study ascertained that lettuce variety ' ' may grow in an aquaponic system at rates comparable to conventional hydroponics , as long as fish stocking densities are high enough . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > This trial was designed to compare growth rates and tissue composition of lettuce ( Lactuca sativa ) grown using a commercial mix hydroponic nutrient solution with lettuce grown in water taken from a cold - water aquarium . Hydroponic crops obtain their total nutrient requirement from soluble inorganic salts whilst aquaculture generally discharges nutrient - rich wastewater to maintain fish health ( , ) . Aquaponics is the integration of recirculating aquaculture and hydroponic crop production ( Rackocy , ) and mirrors the natural process of nitrogen uptake that would occur in an aquatic ecosystem ; the fish waste acting as a nutrient - source for the plants , which , in turn remove unwanted products from the aquaculture system ( fig . ) . < heading > Principles of an aquaponic system</heading > Fish health is maintained through phytoremediation of tank water Plant growth is maintained through fish - derived nutrients . The amount of nitrogenous waste produced dependent upon protein content of feed ( , 2004 ) substrate and plant roots can provide habitat for nitrifying bacteria ( ibid ) The design of this trial was developed from literature available on the webpage "" Building a mini - aquaponic system "" ( , ) . < figure/><heading > Literature review</heading > Food production has recently come under scrutiny from the environmental lobby and the media , whilst the depletion of sea fish stocks through over fishing means that on - shore fish farms may become more prevalent in ( Purvis , ) . Warm water species such as and Barramundi are already beginning to be farmed in intensive , indoor fish farms in the ( , , Times Online , ) . An increase in the number of in ( DEFRA 2005 ; Appendix 1 ) and concerns regarding the amount of nitrogenous waste entering the environment ( ) means these businesses may find it increasingly difficult to dispose of their waste products . In addition , industries such as horticulture and agriculture are also being made aware of the need to use non - renewable energy sources and water more wisely . Aquaponics goes some way to reducing the environmental impact of food production in the following ways : < list > Increased efficiency in waste management and water conservation ( , energy use per unit of produceCompatibility with urban situation can reduce the ' carbon footprint ' by cutting down on pollution caused by transportation ( "" food miles "" ) ( ibid ) Increased crop yields compared with soil - based systems as well as conventional hydroponic systems ( Savidov , 2006)</list > The above factors also go some way to increasing the profitability of both the aquaculture and horticultural produce . Disadvantages in aquaponic production systems include high start - up costs and reliance upon skilled staff to create and maintain a nutrient - balanced system . Knowledge of both crop production and fish rearing is required , and thus most current systems are personal hobbies , small , family - run businesses , or academic demonstrations of the technique . The time required before the grower sees the benefits of an aquaponic system must also be seen as a drawback . It is currently estimated that growth in aquaponic systems will not reach its full potential until , and ideally of operation ( ) . The intensive nature of large - scale food production in the probably limits potential for diversification into aquaponics to smaller growers . possibility , is for aquaponics to be used to produce organic fish and organic hydroponic fruits / vegetables under glass . However , current rulings , in the at least , by regulatory bodies such as The Soil Association stipulate that produce must be grown in soil to be certified organic . The need to work in harmony with soil flora and fauna means that even organically - derived nutrient solutions are not acceptable . It could be argued however that soilless growing preserves the soil - borne organisms as the soil is left completely undisturbed . Furthermore , recent work at in , suggests that the micro - organisms may be key to the success of an aquaponic system , ( ) noting that the increase in basil yield over was likely due to bio - stimulants released by populations of benthic organisms . and ( 2004 ) , using manure - derived nutrient solutions in conventional hydroponics , researched the possibility of organic hydroponics in but the results were disappointing . The major wastes from aquaculture and the major fertilisers for crop production are ammonia in its ionic form , ammonium ( NH 4 + ) and nitrate ( NO 3- ) , as well as phosphates ( 43- ) . Other chemical by - products of fish production may also serve as plant micronutrients . This has meant a wide range of crops , including cucumbers ( sativus ) , beans ( Vicia faba ) ( ) , strawberries ( Fragaria x ananassa ) ( Takeda et al , ) , tomatoes ( Solanum lycopersicum ) and melons ( spp . ) ( , ) have been successfully grown using aquaponics in previous experiments . A large proportion successful research , however has used lettuce and leafy herbs in the hydroponic component of the system , possibly because of its lower demand for potassium ( K ) ( Resh , ) , a nutrient not generally found in high concentrations in fish - culture water . Furthermore , with growth stage ( as a commercial crop ) lettuce does not generally require the change in nutrient formula of a fruiting crop such as tomatoes , as it begins to produce flowers and fruit ( ibid ) . Lettuce is a widely grown crop in the and can be produced under glass all year - round . It is feasible that growers could consider using an aquaponic system to create a income stream from fish farming alongside lettuce production , simultaneously reducing their fertiliser budget . It is possible to supplement the aquaculture water with plant nutrients harmless to fish ( Rakocy et al , , et al , 2000 ) or even grow fish in complete hydroponic nutrient solution ( et al , ) . Previous studies in aquaponics have often been carried out as aquaculture - based research projects , the hydroponic crop being seen as a by - product of the low - tech biological filtration . The majority of these systems have farmed warm water ( spp . ) in the aquaculture portion of the system , as these fish reach saleable size quickly and tolerate high nitrate loading in their grow - out tanks ( et al , ) . Successful trials have been carried out using cold water species such as trout ( ) , but owing to the lower stocking densities tolerated by cold water species ( due to relatively high oxygen demand ) , research has tended to favour warm water species . Most studies have included edible fish ; however , a proposed project to take place in the will use ornamental fish ( , ) . < picture/>The hydroponic production method has varied in previous trials . Where Nutrient film ) has been twinned with fish production systems with dedicated solids removal , aeration and biological filtering , floating polystyrene rafts have been used in gullies of aquaculture effluent ( . ) ( , , Rakocy , ) . In substrate - based systems , the movement of the water through the medium provides aeration and can be used to provide mechanical solids filtering as well as providing the necessary surface to be colonised by nitrifying bacteria ( , , , ) . Indeed the necessity of removing solid waste from aquaponic systems is a current cause of disagreement amongst hobbyists and researchers such as Rackocy , Lennard and Savidov . Anecdotal evidence from also suggests that the balance of macro and micronutrients can be controlled by altering the amount of solid waste removed from the fish production element , although no work has been published in support of this theory . ( ) also notes that non - ionic soil - borne substances such as amino acids , simple proteins , carbohydrates and urea can be assimilated in conventional soil - based cultivation by mass flow and contribute to plant growth . Substrate - filled grow beds may also have practical advantages such as temperature regulation and water - holding capacity if pumps fail . Flood - and - drain and continuous flow irrigation have been trialled , with initial work suggesting that reciprocating flow ( flood and drain ) provided greater aeration and more even nutrient distribution through the substrate ( , cited in , ) . and ( 2004 ) however disproved this theory , attaining higher yield [ lettuce ] , higher dissolved oxygen concentrations and smaller water losses from a continuous - flow irrigation system . < heading > Hydroponic lettuce production</heading > As Jones ( ) comments , although there Have been many published formulas for the preparation of hydroponic nutrient solutions from as th , the appropriate tailoring of the concentration of each constituent to the crop and production method is still largely down to the personal preference of the grower . Madestein UK Ltd , a well established produced of lettuce plants , supplied the formulation used for the control treatment in this trial . The effects of nutrient deficiency on the appearance and growth of plants is well documented and hydroponic nutrient solutions need to provide a complete spectrum of essential nutrients for crop growth and often supply these elements in excess to ensure maximum crop growth . Whilst many of these elements can have a deleterious effect on growth at high concentrations , supplying nutrients at supra - optimal levels ensures that assimilates are not used to produce excess root as the plant is forced to ' forage ' for nutrition . Authors such as Resh ( 1995 and ) and ( ) suggest the following approximate concentrations for lettuce production : < table/><heading > Nutrient content of aquaculture waste</heading > Waste products from aquaculture are either solid , organic matter , or aqueous , inorganic compounds , mainly nitrogen and phosphorus based . Whilst the majority of these compounds are not lethal to fish , it is beneficial to keep levels low as the effects on human health of eating fish grown in nutrient laden water are not entirely understood ( Lucas and Southgate 2003 ) . Methaemoglobinemia , or ' blue baby syndrome ' due to high levels if nitrate in drinking water , however is well documented ( Hooper 2006 ) . Failure to remediate the water used in a recirculating fish production system may lead to a reduction of efficiency of fish production ( ) . High levels of nitrate and phosphate in such systems left unchecked lead to the build up of algae , which must be removed , adding to the operating costs . Intensive aquaculture systems , even those that recirculate water from the growth tanks , produce a high density of waste products , and must either remove a portion of the water ( usually on a basis ( ) ) to maintain acceptable levels of aqueous waste or remove unwanted compounds on site . This may be followed by water re - use or by discharging the cleaner effluent into watercourses or sewage . Effluent treatment may consist of removal of inorganic nutrients through sewage treatment e.g. constructed wetlands , or expensive denitrification steps in recirculating systems . Secondary and water treatments before disposal may significantly reduce aquaculture profits and may mean large outlay for no return . Whilst a retrofitted hydroponics setup is costly , this outlay can be recouped from the sale of crops unlike the capital invested in reed bed treatment for example ( 2003 ) . Solids removal is another costly but necessary process in recirculating fish farms . The break - down of faecal matter in the growth tanks uses oxygen as well as obstructing water flow . Most systems for solids removal rely upon belt removal or vortex generators that allow solids to collect at the bottom of a conical tank enabling minimal water loss in their removal ( ) . Fish farms in , where environmental conditions and scarcity of water may be limiting factors , have incorporated greenhouse technology into aquaculture to control humidity , light and temperature ( Kolkovski et al . ) . This , as in controlled environment horticulture , gives producers greater control over the growth rate and quality of their product . In order to maximise available water , producers use super intensive recirculating systems , with of fish per cubic metre of water , meaning of the water volume is fish biomass . Incorporating hydroponics into such systems have successfully produced crop yields twice that of conventional agriculture in the same region ( ibid ) . ( ) has also researched the potential for aquaponics in a cool - climate , protected cropping scenario . This work has trialled many crops , both edible and ornamental since using a system based around that at ( ibid ) . < heading > Aquaponics - a more holistic approach < /heading > Aquaponics does not merely combine the technology of aquaculture and hydroponics . Recent theories by aquaponics researchers on the importance of a well established microbial population on plant growth e.g. those of Savidov ( ) are echoed in the work of hydroponics researchers such as et al ( ) . These works reinforce the ideas of aquaponics proponents who believe the method to represent a more holistic approach to crop production by harnessing natural plant , animal and microbial interaction in order to reduce external inputs . The horticultural focus of this study made goldfish ( Carassius auratus ) a sensible choice for the fish component of the system as they are hardier , and thus require less specialist care , than tropical or commercial food species . Cold water aquaria present less of a problem when attempting to maintain levels of dissolved oxygen as lower temperatures allow for higher amounts of the gas to be dissolved . As the tank water would be flowing past respiring plant roots and there would potentially be a large amount of decomposing fish waste in the grow beds , both of which consume oxygen , a cold water set - up was considered more appropriate . With no need to heat the aquaria water , there was also reduced risk of equipment failure . Furthermore , as goldfish flake food is protein , which is , in turn nitrogen ( ) this species would excrete more nitrogen - rich waste . Most literature aimed at hobby - aquarists stress the need to feed goldfish only moderately as they will consume much more food than they require , leading to a rapid deterioration of water quality ( ) . Although this poses a problem in domestic fish tanks , this trait was seen as advantageous in the aquaponic systems to be trialled at . < heading > Objectives</heading > This study was designed to compare the growth rate , chlorophyll content , and leaf tissue N , P and content of lettuce in aquaponic treatments ( one with and without supplementary iron ) and a nutritionally complete hydroponic control treatment . This comparison was achieved by comparing various growth parameters before and at harvest along with tissue analysis post - harvest . Other data were recorded ( nitrate content , and electro - conductivity of the nutrient solutions , and root production by the plants ) in order to explain any differences in growth rates . The following hypotheses were tested : There is no significant difference in growth rates of lettuce grown in aquarium effluent and lettuce grown in a commercial strength hydroponic nutrient solution . Leaf chlorophyll content of lettuce grown in aquarium effluent with added chelate is significantly greater than that of lettuce grown in aquarium effluent alone . There is no significant difference in leaf tissue N , P and K levels between lettuce grown in aquarium effluent and lettuce grown in a commercial strength hydroponic nutrient solution . < heading > Materials and Method</heading > The design of the systems used in this project is loosely based around the work published in by and : a continuous - flow lettuce production system . These systems will however also draw from the work of ( Backyard Aquaponics 2006 ) , whose grow beds contain expanded clay aggregate . < heading > Expanded clay aggregate</heading > Expanded clay aggregate gives fast drainage , allowing for high flow rates . The size of the substrate particles and porous nature of the material may also give the water a relatively high oxygen content , advantageous for both fish and lettuce growth ( et al 1996 ; UVI ) . Smith ( ) also suggested this substrate had the advantage of maintaining a dry surface due to less capillarity , again because of particle size , that results in reduced algae formation . It was anticipated that the clay would also give both buffering and ( ) benefits ( ibid ) . The honeycomb structure of the material also gave a large surface area to be colonised by nitrifying bacteria . < heading > Experimental design</heading > It was initially planned to randomise the treatments through the glasshouse in order to reduce the effects of environmental differences within . However , due to the heavy reliance on glasshouse staff for feeding , the replicates of the treatments were arranged so that all tanks containing fish were grouped together . different treatments , each with replicates , were used to produce lettuce plants hydroponically . plastic tanks contained the following : < heading > Tanks 1 and 2 < /heading><list . litres water from mains supply . Approximate pH 8.4Hydroponic lettuce nutrients : The stock solutions were added to tanks and in equal quantities until an E.C of mS / cm was reached . ( Feed formula detailed in ) < /list><heading > Tanks 3 and 4 < /heading><list . litres dechlorinated mains water , approximate pH 8.48 goldfish ( Carassius auratus ) , each approximately 60 mm in body length , to be fed daily with g of proprietary flake food</list><heading > Tanks 5 and 6 < /heading><list . litres dechlorinated mains water , 8 goldfish ( Carassius auratus ) , each approximately 60 mm in body length , fed twice daily with proprietary flake food as in tanks and chelate , ( Fe ) diluted to ppm Fe . ( concentration taken from Resh ; et ; UVI ) . < /list > FeEDTA is intended for use in hydroponic systems when the of the nutrient solution is around 6.5 - 7.0 . However , even at a pH of around , limited iron is still accessible ( Figure ) , and since neither the control treatment nor the Aquaponic + Fe treatment was pH - altered , the iron availability was considered constant across these treatments . The preferable range in aquaria to ensure goldfish health and maintain a efficient action of nitrifying bacteria is around 7.5 - 7.8 ( Bio - Con Labs inc . no date ; ) . The decision was therefore made not to alter the of the water in any tanks ; however , if iron deficiency symptoms , namely chlorosis of younger leaf tissue ( Jones ) , was observed in either of the treatments containing iron , this would be reviewed . < figure/><heading > Nutrient Supply</heading > The water from each tank was pumped into to a m length of rain gutter filled with expanded clay aggregate . The gutters were inclined at the end furthest from the tanks so that water returned to the tank ( Figure ) . The pumps in each tank continuously recirculated the water . Each tank was covered in plastic sheeting . This was black on the inside to prevent algal growth on the tank walls and white on the outer side to reflect sunlight and prevent the water becoming too warm . Initial construction took place on . < figure/>Water was supplied from each tank using a pump to the substrate - filled gutters via standard 13 mm irrigation tubing . The piping was attached along interior side of the guttering using zip - ties threaded through holes drilled in the gutter . holes approximately 3 mm in diameter were punched at regular intervals of - 200 mm along the section of pipe that ran inside the gutter . The water flow was adjusted using the pumps ' control valves to ensure minimum water was lost through splashing whilst still maintaining a rapid flow rate to ensure maximum aeration of the water . During a run - in period , when no fish or plants were present , significant water loss had been observed due to evaporation from the surface of the tanks and from splashing as the water returned to the tanks . In order to minimise these problems , black horticultural shade cloth was used to cover the tanks in an attempt to reduce evaporation . The same material was also attached to the lower end of the gutters so the returning water ran down the cloth and into the tanks with minimal splashing ( Figure ) . This also had the secondary effect of increasing the surface area available to be colonised by nitrifying bacteria . < picture/><heading > Action of nitrifying bacteria and tank ' cycling'</heading > In order to efficiently convert harmful ammonia and nitrite into less toxic nitrate all aquaria rely on biological filtration . ( NH 3 ) is excreted directly from the gills of fish as protein is metabolized ( below ) , as well as being produced by the bacterial breakdown of solid wastes and excess food ( Bio - Con Labs )   FORMULA   ( where R = organic nitrogen radical ) The most important genera of nitrifying bacteria , which facilitate the conversion of NH 3 and the less toxic ionic form ammonium ( NH 4 + ) to nitrite ( NO 2- ) and then nitrate ( NO 3- ) are and respectively ( ) . These bacteria are obligate chemolithotrophs , deriving their energy from the oxidation of inorganic salts and fulfilling their carbon requirements from carbon dioxide ( CO 2 ) ( Bio - Con Labs ) . They are also obligate aerobes as the following equations demonstrate :   FORMULA   This occurs in alkaline conditions , where the ammonia does not hydrolyze into its ionic form so readily . Then the nitrite is oxidised to nitrate :   FORMULA   ( ; Randall No date ) These bacteria need time and a source of ammonia to reach a useful population size . Their reproduction rates are times slower than heterotrophic bacteria , taking around to divide due to the low energy derived from the oxidation reactions ( ) . After initial construction , the tanks that were to contain fish were ' cycled ' using a bacterial starter colony solution and small amounts of fish food as a source of ammonia . This process coated the growing medium with enough bacteria prior to the addition of the fish to minimise toxic build - up of ammonia when the fish were introduced . The bacteria are non - motile and colonies attach to all submerged surfaces in the tank and continuously wetted substrate with a secreted slime matrix ( ibid ) . The fish were added to tanks after of cycling . < heading > Addition of fish and nutrient build - up</heading > Eight goldfish were added to tanks on 27th and ammonia , nitrite , nitrate and hardness levels in the fish tanks were monitored by dipping - in-1 test strips into the fish tank water during . after adding the fish , test - strips indicated ppm NO 3- , which was deemed adequate to support lettuce growth . < heading > Selection and addition of lettuce plants</heading > Prior to their addition to the systems , the lettuce plants were grown from seed in rockwool propagating blocks and irrigated with water . The variety of lettuce used in this trial was ' ' grown from seed supplied by . seedlings in rockwool propagating cubes were selected . These were arranged in a tray in a grid with columns and rows . The plants for each treatment were selected by taking from each column but from a random row number . The following data for each of the remaining plants was recorded : < list > Diameter ( mean of measurements taken at right angles through centre of plant ) - measured to the nearest using ruleHeight - measured to the nearest using a standard rule Number of leavesTotal leaf area ( cm ) - measured using a - T leaf area meterLeaf fresh weight ( g ) - all non - senescent leaves removed level with top of rockwool blockRoot fresh weight ( g ) - roots protruding from the propagating block were removed and weighedLeaf dry weight ( g ) - fresh leaf material dried at for weeksRoot dry weight ( g ) - fresh root material dried at 70 ˚C for approximately weeks.</list > All weights were recorded using a Sartorius 1212 MP balance . Root fresh and dry weights were taken throughout the project as the weight of those roots that protruded from the rock wool propagating block ( Figure ) . < picture/>This process was replicated prior to each growth trial , each set of mean measurements from these plants serving as a base line when comparing the effects of each treatment at the end of the trial . < heading > Trials 1 , 2 and 3</heading > The lettuces to be grown on , in their rock wool propagation cubes , were pushed into the clay substrate at approximately intervals , allowing direct irrigation from each of the holes punched in the irrigation pipe . Nutrient solution was added to tanks 1 and 2 until an value of mS was reached ( from both tank A and B ) . This represents a widely used concentration for most hydroponic crops . The batch of lettuces was harvested after ( rd ) . At this time a batch of pre - grown transplants were introduced . Tanks 1 and were replenished with fresh water and nutrient solution to bring the back to mS and the plants were then grown on for . A trial was conducted using the same procedure from . Prior to the trial , the entire nutrient solution in tanks 1 & 2 was again discarded and replaced with fresh water and nutrient solution . This procedure was also carried out prior to trial . < heading > Trial 4</heading > In order to assess the effects of fish stocking densities , a trial was conducted along similar lines as the previous , only with fish in each of the aquaponic systems , double the number used in the trials . In order to facilitate this without purchasing further fish , the aquaponic + Fe treatment was omitted . This trial ran from with the addition of glasshouse heating and supplementary overhead lighting . < heading > Data Recording</heading><heading > Daily</heading > Maximum and minimum air temperature ( from glasshouse max / min thermometer ) . < heading > Weekly < /heading><list and diameter of each plant .EC of the nutrient solutions ( using a instruments HI EC meter ) .Water parameters of each tank using , measuring : pH of the irrigation water ( using a HI 8014 pH meter)Nitrate content of irrigation water ( ppm NO 3 - -N ) using nitrate test kit . This method proved more accurate than - in-1 test strips.</list > The overall appearance and presence of any pests , diseases or signs of nutrient deficiency was also noted for plants in each system . < heading > At harvest ( in addition to measurements)</heading><list fresh weight ( g).Plant root fresh weight ( g).Plant total leaf dry weight ( g ) . Plant root dry weight ( g).</list > Chlorophyll content of a young leaf on each plant measured in relative using a chlorophyll content meter . Iron is a relatively immobile element and deficiencies will be apparent in younger leaves . < heading > Miscellaneous Data</heading > Fish mortalities were recorded along with the dates of their replacement . < heading > Nitrate testing</heading > Nitrogen supply , either in the form of the ammonium cation ( NH 4 + ) or the nitrate anion ( NO 3- ) is generally regarded as having the largest effect on plant growth of all nutrients ( Jones , ) . The nitrate content of aquarium water is simple to measure using either reactive pads on paper strips ( which proved inaccurate ) or a standard reagent test kit , commonly used for domestic aquariums ( this test was used for the majority of the project ) . When using the reagent method , reagents must be added to the water under test and then the sample must be set aside for whilst a colour change takes place . On comparison with a colour chart , he intensity of the colour indicates the level of nitrate in parts per million ( ppm ) ( figure ) . < picture/>Where the colour intensity appeared to fall between concentrations on the colour card , an estimate was made ; e.g. at the beginning of the each trial , the control solutions gave readings that were definitely darker than the 80 ppm reading on the card but not as dark as ppm gradation . In this instance , the readings were recorded as 100 ppm . < heading > Leaf tissue analysis</heading > Dry leaf tissue from trials and 4 was crushed and sent to NRM laboratories for N , P and K analysis . Leaves from all plants in each system were amalgamated to give samples for each treatment in each trial . This resulted in sets of data for trial and sets of data for trial . < heading > Data Analysis</heading > All data were collated using . All significance testing was carried out using the function in version . < heading > Results</heading><heading > Nitrate Levels</heading><figure/>The plants were added to the substrate as soon as nitrate levels had reached levels acceptable for plant growth . Test strips indicated NO 3- levels of on and the plants were added the following day . Later in the growth period , comparisons of nitrate levels using these strips alongside another type of test using liquid reagents showed the strips to indicate much higher levels of nitrate than the reagent test . The limited growth shown in the aquaponic systems during this period appeared to reinforce the inaccuracy of the strips and they were no longer used . During the trial , nitrate levels in the aquaponic systems had fallen to ppm after of lettuce growth ( Figure ) . Towards the end of the trial , the amount of food applied to tanks was greatly increased . Glasshouse staff were instructed to feed ' large pinches ' to the fish . This equated to g per day and as a result , nitrate levels of were recorded on st . Considerable water loss was noted in systems and 5 during of trial as irrigation jets became blocked and water was forced over the side of the gutters . The blockages resulted from particles of algae becoming trapped in the irrigation holes . This algal ' bloom ' is a well - documented phenomenon in new aquaria ( ) . The lost water in these tanks was replaced with water drawn from the mains , thus diluting any nutrients that had accumulated in solution . During trial , increased feeding rates helped nitrate concentrations climb to ppm in systems , and by the end of the trial . The concentration in system remained ppm lower than the other aquaponic systems during this time , following water loss and the death of one goldfish . At trial , nitrate levels in the aquaponic systems had reached . During the growth period , this concentration remained constant . Increasing the stocking density of goldfish in the aquaponic systems caused nitrate levels to reach approximately 80 ppm in the period between the end of trial and the commencement of trial . This concentration was closer to that found in the control systems than at the start of any of the previous trials . < heading > pH</heading><figure/>All treatments began with readings of , that of the mains water supply . The pH of the aquaponic systems showed a downward trend throughout the project . This was expected as a result of the action of nitrifying bacteria and fish respiration , however the fall in these tanks was not sufficient in relation to the control treatment to make any elements significantly more or less available ( Figure ) . By the end of the trial , and after an unexplained fall in in all systems at the start of the final trial , the water of the remaining aquaponic systems had a pH of . < heading > Electro - Conductivity</heading><figure/>At the beginning of the study , electro - conductivity ( ) readings mS were recorded across the aquaponic systems . In comparison , stock nutrient solution was added to the control systems to obtain values of and 1.49 mS. The of the aquaria water showed a general upward trend over the entire project , however when significant water - loss necessitated the addition of mains water , the of these fell , most notably in tanks and 5 during the and trials ( Figure ) . fish mortality occurred during the trial , in tank , on . This was replaced during trial , and this tank showed lower levels ( Figure ) as well as lower nitrate concentrations ( Figure ) than the other aquaponic tanks throughout the trial . further fish was found dead during the trial on th in tank . This fish was replaced in of trial . < heading > Growth Rates</heading><heading > Plant size</heading > The diameter and height of each plant was measured during each trial . These measurements enabled the calculation of a ' volume ' measurement for each lettuce and allowed a non - destructive comparison of growth rates between planting and harvest . The decision was made to consider both height and diameter as some plants tended towards a narrower but taller morphology , and some towards a flatter , wider morphology . Measuring the plants in this way does , however mean that differences in canopy density may lead to inaccuracies when making a direct comparison . < figure/>Figure shows the slow increase in plant size in both aquaponic treatments compared to the control treatment during the growth trial . The mean volume of the control plants at the end of this trial was over compared to and cm in the aquaponic and aquaponic + Fe treatments respectively After of growth in the trial , the mean volume of plants in the aquaponic treatment supplemented with was marginally higher than the control ( Figure ) and the un - supplemented aquaponic treatment ( , compared to and respectively ) . After , the mean volume of plants in the control treatment was the greatest ( ) . By this time , the nitrate concentration in the aquaponic systems , and 6 had fallen to 20 ppm , whilst that in system had fallen to 10 ppm ( Figure ) . < figure/><figure/>Volume measurements recorded after growth in the trial were comparable across all treatments , although the control plants were marginally larger . into the trial , however , there was a marked difference in plant size between the control treatment and the aquaponic treatments ( Figure ) . By the end of the grow - out period , the control plants ' mean volume was significantly greater than both of the aquaponic treatments ' plants . As in the previous trials , there was no significant difference in mean plant volume between the aquaponic treatments ( lsd = at P=0.05 ) < figure/>Throughout the final growth trial , the mean volume of plants in the aquaponic treatment was greater than that of the control treatment . After the grow - out period , the mean volume of plants in the aquaponic treatment was compared to cm in the control treatment ( Figure ) . It was noted though , that the plants grown in the aquaponic treatment displayed a much more open head structure than the control plants , which accounted for the marked difference in mean plant volume . < heading > Leaf area and number increase</heading > To compare the size of plants in each treatment more accurately , the number of new leaves and the total leaf area increase was utilised ( Tables and ) . The destructive nature of this comparison however meant it could only be carried out after harvest . In the trial , the control treatment produced plants with a significantly greater mean leaf area increase and a significantly greater number of leaves than the aquaponic treatments . Plants from the aquaponic + Fe treatment showed a leaf area increase greater than the un - supplemented aquaponic treatment in trials , although this was not significant at the P=0.05 level . < table/>After the trial the mean leaf area increase of plants from the aquaponic treatment was significantly higher than that of plants from the control at the P=0.05 level . Analysis of the number of new leaves produced during the trials showed significant differences between the control and each of the aquaponic treatments but not between the aquaponic treatments themselves at the P=0.05 level ( ) . After the trial , however , there was no significant difference in leaf number increase between the control and the aquaponic treatment . < table/><heading > Leaf fresh and dry weight increase</heading > The growth rate was calculated for each plant using both fresh and dry weights by subtracting the final weight from the mean starting weight , which had been calculated from the reference plants . The resulting gain was then divided by to give a simple growth rate in g d -1 . In the trial , plants from the hydroponic control treatment showed a mean leaf fresh weight increase of g d -1 over ( Figure ) . At over times the fresh weight increase per day , shown in either the aquaponic or aquaponic + Fe treatments , the difference was highly significant . < figure/>There were significant differences in leaf dry weights across the treatments . The mean leaf dry weight increase in the control treatment ( g d -1 ) was significantly higher than that in the aquaponic treatment and the aquaponic + Fe treatment , whose mean leaf dry weight increase per day values were identical at g d -1 ( lsd = at P=0.05 ) . In the trial , the control treatment continued to outperform the aquaponic treatments in terms of fresh weight gain per day with a growth rate close to that observed in trial ( Figure ) . There were significant differences between the control treatment ( g d -1 ) and both the aquaponic treatment ( g d -1 ) and the Fe - supplemented aquaponic treatment ( g d -1 ) at harvest , but not between the aquaponic treatments ( lsd= 0.374 at P=0.05 ) . < figure/>After drying , significant differences were again seen across the treatments . The mean leaf dry weight increase in the control treatment ( g d -1 ) was significantly higher than that in the aquaponic treatment and the aquaponic + Fe treatment ( lsd = at P=0.05 ) . The mean leaf dry weight increase per day was identical for the aquaponic treatments ( g d -1 ) . Trial 3 showed much the same pattern in growth rates , with the control plants showing a mean fresh weight increase per day over times higher than each of the aquaponic treatments ( Figure ) . The P=0.05 lsd of indicated no significant difference in growth rate between the aquaponic treatments . < figure/>Mean leaf dry weight increases in trial were g d -1 , g d -1 and g d -1 for plants from the control , aquaponic and aquaponic + Fe treatments respectively . Statistical analysis again revealed significant differences between the control and both aquaponic treatments , but not between the aquaponic treatments , at the P=0.05 level ( lsd = ) . In the final trial , when fish stocking density was doubled in the aquaponic treatment , no significant differences were observed in fresh weight increase per day ( Figure , P=0.05 lsd = ) . After drying , the mean leaf fresh weight increase per day for both treatments was identical ( g d -1 ) . < figure/><picture/><heading dry weight</heading > The level of root production was measured and analysed across treatments in all trials . In the trial , analysis of the mean root dry weight across the treatments showed very significant differences ( P<0.001 ) , significant differences occurred between each aquaponic treatment and the control at the P=0.05 level , but not between the aquaponic treatments ( ) . The control treatment was found to have approximately twice the mean root dry weight of each of the aquaponic treatments . < table/>Upon removal from the substrate - filled gutters , it was immediately apparent at the end of trial that the lettuces grown in the aquaponic treatments had much more extensive root systems than those from the control treatment . There was however a noticeable colour difference , the roots of the plants grown in the control were bright white and healthy , whilst those from the aquaponic treatments were generally brown in colour and appeared less healthy . Significant differences were observed in dry root weights between the control and each of the aquaponic treatments ( ) . At P=0.05 , testing showed no significant difference in mean root dry weight between the aquaponic treatments . After the trial significant differences were only observed between the control and the aquaponic + Fe treatment at P=0.05 . Analysis of mean dry root weight after the trial failed to show significant differences in between the remaining treatments ( P=0.737 ) . < heading > Chlorophyll content</heading > Although the aquaponic treatments gave slightly higher mean leaf chlorophyll content readings in the trial , on analysis of the data , no significant differences were observed between the treatments ( P=0.728 ) ( Figure ) . Analysis of data from the trial , however , showed significant differences in mean leaf chlorophyll content between the control and aquaponic treatments , the control and aquaponic + Fe treatments , and also between the aquaponic treatments themselves ( lsd = at P=0.05 ) ( Figure ) .. < figure/><figure/>In the growth trial , the highest mean chlorophyll content was observed in the control treatment . There were significant differences between the control values and each of the aquaponic treatments ( P=0.05 lsd=0.534 ) but not between the aquaponic and aquaponic + Fe treatments ( Figure ) . < figure/>In the final trial , the lowest chlorophyll content levels of the project were recorded , with plants from both treatments having mean values below ( Figure ) . There was no significant difference between the treatments ( P=0.107 ) . < figure/><heading > Leaf tissue composition</heading > Dried leaf tissue samples were analysed by NRM laboratories for nitrogen , phosphorus and potassium percentage by weight ( w / w ) for each treatment . Samples representing each separate system were prepared from trials and as growth rates in the control and aquaponic treatment(s ) were most similar in these trials . Statistical analysis showed no significant differences in total leaf nitrogen concentration across treatments in either the or final growth trial . The total nitrogen content was higher in plants from the control treatment in trial whereas in trial the aquaponic treatment produced plants with the highest leaf nitrogen content ( Figure ) . < figure/><figure/>Control treatment leaf tissue samples from the growth trial contained significantly higher phosphorus concentrations than each of the aquaponic treatments ( Figure ) but there was no significant difference between the aquaponic treatments ( lsd = at P=0.05 ) . In trial , the leaf phosphorus content was higher in the aquaponic treatment , but not significantly . < figure/>In trial , mean potassium concentrations in plants from the control treatment were significantly higher than those in plants form each aquaponic treatment , but no significant differences were observed between the aquaponic treatments themselves ( Figure , lsd = at P=0.05 ) . No significant differences in leaf potassium concentration were apparent in trial . < heading > Pests , diseases and signs of deficiency</heading > Several plants in systems and suffered caterpillar damage during of the trial ( Figure ) . Owing to the low vigour with which these plants were growing , were unable to recover and thus were omitted from the results . < picture/><picture/>The leaves of lettuces in the aquaponic treatments were noticeably thicker and more brittle in the trial . Furthermore , some of these plants also displayed spotting in the leaf surfaces . These appeared as small necrotic patches on closer inspection and occurred both within the inter - venal areas of the leaf lamina and on the veins and midribs themselves ( Figure ) . During the growth trial , a number of small flies were observed on all plants and several translucent larvae approximately 5 - 10 mm in length were observed in the sludge that had accumulated amongst the substrate in the aquaponic systems ( solid fish waste ) . Visible larvae were removed and the systems monitored closely but no damage became apparent . < heading > Discussion</heading > The design of the systems proved robust enough to support the growth of both lettuce and fish . fish were lost over the period of the project , and those surviving approximately doubled in size over the duration of the project with no symptoms of disease . The plants were able to remove nutrients from the aquaria water and , where enough fish were present to produce sufficient nutrients , growth rates were comparable to the control treatment . The increasing electro - conductivity of the aquaria water , did however suggest that some dissolved nutrients were not being removed in the aquaponic systems at the rate at which they were being produced . This may have resulted from the lack of faeces removal , and its subsequent mineralization . The pH of the water in all aquaponic systems followed a downward trend over the project , this resulted from the action of nitrifying bacteria , the dissolution of CO 2 from fish respiration in tank water to form carbonic acid , and also from the bacterial breakdown of faeces and uneaten food to form other organic acids ( Randall no date ) . It is fair to assume that longer - term aquaponic projects of this nature may require the addition of buffers to mitigate this acidification . The use of domestic goldfish in this project necessitated low densities of fish per unit volume of water . The size of the fish in the trial was not closely monitored , however those surviving until the end of the project had approximately doubled in size . of these fish , which appeared to be representative of an average size at the end of the project was weighed . A unit weight of g was recorded , meaning that the total weight of fish in each tank during trials and trial equated to m -3 and m -3 respectively . When compared to commercial stocking densities up to m -3 in the systems and m -3 in super - intensive aquaculture systems ( 2003 ) the aquaponic crop growth rates observed in this project , especially in trials and 4 must be seen as encouraging . The brands of fish food used during the project contained protein . In turn , proteins consist of nitrogen ( , ) . In a commercial system , where the food conversion ratio of a fish species is known , it is possible to estimate how much protein will be converted to fish biomass and how much will enter the water as ammonia . However , these calculations can be further complicated when the conversion of ammonia to nitrates is considered , with the rate of nitrification being dependent upon water temperature , and dissolved oxygen ( DO ) concentration ( ) . The growth of plants in the aquaponic treatments was up to times lower than the control plants in the trials . In addition , appearance of the plants in these treatments during the trial suggested some nutrient deficiencies ; the leaves of the plants were thicker and more brittle than those in the control treatment . Their dark green appearance and the generally stunted growth was consistent with a phosphorus deficiency ( Jones ; and ) . As aquaria nitrate concentrations did not rise above 40 ppm during the trials , it is also reasonable to suggest this low rate of growth was also significant of nitrogen deficiency . It is worthy of note , however , that no chlorosis was observed , often apparent in plants starved of nitrogen ( ibid ) . Other than the above , there were no other outward signs of mineral deficiencies . The use of mains water , which contains traces of both macro- and micro - nutrients ( Thames Water 2005 ) ( Appendix 3 ) , twinned with the lack of solids - removal may help to explain this . Leaf tissue analysis of plants from the aquaponic treatments in trials and showed concentrations of nitrogen , phosphorus and potassium in the normal range for lettuce ( Jones 2003 ) . Whilst leaf concentrations of phosphorus and potassium are good indicators of the levels of these elements available to the plant , excess available nitrogen can lead to ' luxury uptake ' ( Greenwood et al ) . It is worth noting that in the final trial , the aquaponic treatment showed higher leaf tissue concentrations of nitrogen than the control treatment , presumably because the nitrate levels in this treatment did not fall as rapidly as those in the control , exposing the plants to more nitrogen over . In temperate zones where there are periods of low light during , the propensity for leafy salads to store excess nitrogen as NO 3- means that lettuce are routinely tested for nitrate concentration ( Assured Produce 1997 ) . The possibility of higher nitrate concentrations in aquaponically - produced lettuce may therefore be in need of further investigation . Root to shoot ratio in the and trials were higher in the aquaponics treatments than in the control , suggesting a lack of available nutrients . ( ) imply that this is most indicative of low nitrogen availability , which is borne out by low recorded NO 3- concentrations in the fish tanks of these treatments during these trials compared to the control tanks . Low levels of root production in the aquaponic treatments in trial may also be indicative of low phosphorus availability at that early stage in the project . Small necrotic spots surrounded by a yellow halo were also observed on the plants from the aquaponic treatments ( Figure ) , which was identified as an early infection of campestris ( Agrios 2005 ) . Whilst necrotic lesions can also be indicative of magnesium deficiency , the symptoms were not confined to inter - venal regions , and thus the initial diagnosis was accepted . The control plants did not show any sign of such infection , possible reason being the vigour with which they were growing . The brown appearance of the roots of plants from the aquaponic treatments in the trial would seem to suggest that there may have been at least some occurrence of anoxic pockets of water within the substrate , causing root death . Sampling of the dissolved oxygen in the irrigation water ( when the water temperature was ° C ) showed levels of approximately 8 mg l -1 . This is within the desired range for freshwater aquaria and well above the minimum levels acceptable for good growth in hydroponic crops ( et al 1996 ) . Continuous flow systems through a substrate can lead to the water taking a ' path of least resistance ' through the particles with some areas flooded but not moving . In such areas , denitrification ( nitrate reduced to nitrogen gas ) can even occur . Such a phenomenon would perhaps explain why some root tissue appeared necrotic . The root systems of these plants tended also to trap solid fish excreta and hence impede the flow of oxygenated water past the roots , possibly another reason for the root death . Dense root mats can be problematic in conventional ( ) hydroponics where they can also starve themselves of oxygen by reducing solution penetration into the root mass ( Jones ) The fluctuations in nitrate content of the aquaria water during the trials would appear to suggest that the fish stocking rates and hence feed input were insufficient to produce the amount of nitrogen required by the plants . However , during the trial , nitrate levels remained at ppm for the entire trial . During this period ( ) day temperatures in the glasshouse were noticeably lower than in previous trials ( Appendix 4 ) . The corresponding fall in water temperature in the aquaria may have reduced the feeding rate of the fish , meaning less protein from the food was converted to fish biomass and more uneaten food may have merely decomposed than in previous trials . The lower temperatures also corresponded to lower rates of plant growth , and thus less demand for nitrogen , although nitrate concentrations in the control systems did fall in line with the previous trials . Higher growth rates ( although not significantly ) were observed in the aquaponic + Fe treatments in the trials but not in the . Furthermore , only in the trial did the addition if iron to the aquaponic systems have a significant effect on leaf chlorophyll content . The addition of iron did not therefore appear to have any consistent significant effect during the project . Plants are able to grow well in soilless systems where mineral concentrations are as low as those in soil solutions , as long as the nutrients can be replenished at a comparable rate to their uptake ( and ) . This continual renewal is central to the success of an aquaponic system , where levels of nitrate , for example remain much lower than those found in conventional hydroponics . From a fish - rearing perspective , treatment of aquaculture effluents are seen as problematic , especially in open systems , as the large volume flows carry relatively dilute nutrients ( Adler et al 2000 ) . Rackocy ( no date ) and ( 2004 ) have demonstrated the ability of aquaponic systems to produce leafy herbs when nitrate levels are . It is theoretically possible to match nutrient production to nutrient uptake ( at least for nitrogen ) and thus for aquaponic systems to reach a nutrient equilibrium ( Lennard 2004 ) . Plant scientists generally acknowledge the possibility that organic compounds such as vitamins can have a positive effect on plant growth ( and ) . The importance of chelating agents in the uptake of nutrients , especially relatively immobile ones , is also widely known , and in soils it is known that these chelating agents are often of microbial origin ( ibid ) . Commercially available bio - stimulants for use in soilless systems aim to enhance inorganic nutrient uptake in a similar way and indeed , et al ( ) proved the capability of such substance to maintain yields of rocket ( Eruca sativa ) when the nutrient content in a hydroponic system was reduced to of normal levels . In aquaponic systems , the understanding of the action of micro - organisms in the production of bio - stimulants is growing . The action of micro - organism - derived chelating agents as well as humic compounds from the breakdown of solid waste may well be a key factor in the success of aquaponics . ( cited in ) has highlighted the need for aquaponic systems to ' mature ' in order to produce economic crop yields . The speed at which the system reaches this maturity would obviously be important to any business application of the technique . The aquaponic systems in this project began to produce comparable yields to the hydroponic control after of operation . The decision not to remove solid fish waste may have been important in achieving this as the organic particles can act as carriers for bacteria and other beneficial micro - fauna ( Kolkovski et al 2003 ) Aquaculture - derived manure has been cited as a useful slow - release fertiliser ( Westerman et al ) . Naylor et al ( ) analysed fresh trout - farm manure , finding levels of nitrogen , phosphorus , potassium , calcium and magnesium ( Mg ) on a dry - weight basis comparable with cattle , poultry and swine manures . The amount of solid particles present in the system is also linked to the dissolved oxygen concentration , with the aerobic breakdown of excreta and uneaten food increasing the amount of oxygen removed from the water . This is the main reason why systems that are intensively stocked with fish , such as that of the , remove solids ( Rackocy no date ) . Over the project as a whole , there were much lower levels of water use in the aquaponic systems . Whilst the control systems required a water change between trials as well as supplementary water to replace that lost through evapotranspiration , the aquaponic systems only required the latter . Each aquaponic system thus used less water than the control . < heading > Conclusion</heading > The project demonstrated the ability of aquaponic systems to produce lettuce ( Lactuca sativa cv . ' ' ) using goldfish ( Carassius auratus ) aquaria as the nutrient source albeit at a slower rate than the control hydroponic treatment . The rate at which lettuce can be produced in these systems related directly to the amount of food added to the aquatic portion of the systems , which would normally be in direct relation to the stocking density of the fish used . Although the hydroponic control treatments produced a greater crop yield in of the trials , it is worth considering the amount of water used and the cost in terms of financial outlay for the inorganic nutrients and in terms of the energy used to produce these chemicals . Aquaponic systems also have the advantage of producing saleable products and , as has been demonstrated in , the possibility of generating further income from agri - tourism . Although there are obvious benefits to producing crops using aquaponic systems , the likelihood of commercial - scale aquaponic production occurring in the in the near future must be seen as unlikely . It is possible however , that large increases in energy costs and restrictions on water use and pollution discharge may make such techniques more important in to come . < heading > Future Work</heading > It was apparent towards the end of this project that the expanded clay aggregate bio - filters / grow - beds were not large enough to cope with of goldfish faeces . It became necessary during the later trials to periodically remove the plug at the end of the irrigation hose to remove some solids from the pipe . Larger , deeper bio - filters would therefore enable the retention of more soild waste and possibly , therefore higher concentrations of micronutrients and micro - organisms . and ( ) assessed the comparative abilities of gravel bed , floating raft and hydroponic systems to remove fish - derived nutrients in an aquaponics system , concluding gravel beds worked most efficiently . Combinations of grow - bed volume and various substrates could therefore be trialled along with the removal or retention of fish faeces . Now suggested as being an important factor in aquaponic systems , populations of water borne micro flora and micro fauna take some time to establish . ( in Wilson 2006 ) has suggested that for populations of these organisms to reach useful size may take , and that from that point forward aquaponics can outperform conventional hydroponics in terms of crop yield . A full investigation of these theories is currently under way by ( Wilson 2006 ) , however the limited time - scale for this project must be cited as a major limiting factor in view of these preliminary hypotheses . Possibly , future research could assess the effects of commercially - available plant boistimulants in aquaponics where ' virgin ' aquaculture systems are used to provide crop nutrition . Finally , the increasing need to reduce energy consumption also presents the possibility of using warm water fish production alongside glasshouse crops to store excess heat during periods of high temperatures to reduce the need for night - time heating .",0
"< heading > Introduction</heading><quote>""Justice is the virtue of social institutions , as truth is of systems of thought""</quote><fnote , A ( revised edn , : , ) , p. < /fnote > Justice is a contentious subject which has troubled philosophers throughout time . This essay will not be a study on the theories of justice , rather it will focus primarily on the practice of law and it 's relation to justice . Therefore for the purpose of this essay I have decided to define justice in ways : justice as truth and justice as fairness . < fnote > For example , , and many more . < /fnote><fnote>""Justice is truth in action "" , , speech in ( ) , taken from   URL   < /fnote><fnote > , A ( revised edn , : , ) < /fnote > As it is such a vast subject area , I have decided to limit the practice of law in order to provide sufficiently detailed analysis . For the purposes of this essay I shall confine myself to the topic of evaluating the adversarial trial and whether it is conducive to supporting justice . I have chosen to do so as the adversarial trial is the most high profile and recognisable practice of law in . From personal experience when I tell people I 'm a law student they immediately picture a criminal adversarial trial , demonstrating the importance of the adversarial trial with regards to public opinion and thus the necessity for constant academic evaluation . < fnote > In particular the adversarial trial in and . < /fnote > I shall briefly describe the content of the adversarial trial and individually examine of its defining features ; witnesses , judge and jury and advocacy before concluding whether the adversarial system is capable of supporting justice . < heading > The Adversarial Trial</heading > In the adversarial trial can be split into distinct categories of civil and criminal . The forms are very similar , the most significant difference being that in a civil case the judge ( or bench ) is the decision maker , whereas in a criminal trial this is the role of the jury , with the judge taking on the role of the adjudicator of the proceedings . I have decided to focus primarily on the criminal adversarial system due to the interesting questions posed by the relationship and roles of judge and jury . < fnote > References to England or the legal system include and < /fnote > The adversarial trial has been defined as "" ...... a dispute between sides in a position of theoretical equality before a court which must decide the outcome of the contest . "" Within this contest the prosecution act on behalf of the state competing against the defence with the judge acting as adjudicator and the jury as decision maker . The prosecution bear the evidential burden of adducing evidence to prove the elements of the crime alleged and satisfying the burden of proof "" beyond a reasonable doubt . "" Evidence is adduced through oral examination , subject to the rules of evidence and controlled by the impartial judge who is also responsible for directing the jury . The role of the jury is to analyse and interpret the evidence before them and come to a valid conclusion as to whether the defendant should be convicted or acquitted . < fnote > M.R.Damaska , "" ( ) . taken from , Jenny : Evidence and the Adversarial Process : The Modern Law , , , 1998 < /fnote><fnote v Minister of Pensions [ ] 2 All ER 372 Denning , J "" proof beyond a reasonable doubt does not mean proof beyond the shadow of a doubt .... If the evidence is so strong as to leave only a remote possibility in his favour , which can be dismissed with "" of course it is possible , but not in the least probable , the case is proved , but nothing short of that will suffice . "" Thus demonstrating the principle of the presumption of innocence . < /fnote > The adversarial trial has come under much criticism from commentators questioning its conduciveness to discovering the truth and producing reliable evidence and questioning the influence of advocacy and the treatment of witnesses . I shall examine and respond to these criticisms through analysing each aspect in turn and determining its relevance to justice . < heading > Witnesses</heading > The examination of witnesses is one of the most fundamental and contentious characteristics of the adversarial trial . Oral evidence is the classic form of evidence in criminal trials ; witnesses are subjected to examination in chief and cross examination asking the court to consider not just the content of the witnesses ' statements but also the appearance and of the witnesses ' . < fnote > McEwan , Jenny : Evidence and the Adversarial Process : The Modern Law , , , P85 < /fnote > Examination in chief involves the examination of witnesses from their own advocates , allowing the court to hear the evidence and decide upon it . This creates accountability of evidence or "" open justice "" and evidence that is both accessible and transparent to the court , as free from interference as possible . The major criticism of this is that the process of gathering and delivering this evidence is not conducive to reliability . < fnote > Oral Witness Testimony ex Criminal Evidence , and , , 2004 P214 < /fnote > The memory of an event is divided into stages ; acquisition , retention and retrieval and it appears as if the adversarial trial is obstructive in aiding these stages . The retention of a memory will often depend upon numerous factors ; the exposure time of the event , the frequency of viewing the event and the type of event . With regards to retrieval , it has been demonstrated that stress can increase the recall of a memory to a point , however when this becomes too intense there is often a decrease in performance . The adversarial process often requires witnesses to give evidence a long time after an event has taken place and unquestionably places witnesses under great pressure when giving evidence . Thus the adversarial process is arguably a highly inappropriate method for creating reliable evidence and hence justice . < fnote > Crowder ; Loftus and Loftus . Taken from ex . , < /fnote><fnote > Yerkes Dodson p357 Taken from ex . , < /fnote > Cross - examination of witnesses is based upon the theory that evidence is tested in court and that new evidence is created though the witnesses ' demeanour and delivery of evidence . Wigmore hailed cross - examination as "" the greatest legal engine ever invented for the discovery of truth "" and it should be acknowledged that cross - examination is a powerful tool in testing and creating evidence . However there remains much doubt and scepticism as to its value and legitimacy . < fnote > Wigmore on Evidence ( Chadbourn revision ) taken from Oral Witness Testimony ex Criminal Evidence , and , , 2004 P215 < /fnote > Critics of cross - examination question its treatment of witnesses and the resultant effect upon reliability . Protections are afforded to witnesses through the 's professional code of conduct and the need to protect witnesses from abusive cross - examination has been recognised by the judiciary . However despite these apparent safeguards , witnesses remain susceptible to attack from barristers . A recent high profile example occurred in the Damilola case , during the cross - examination of the prosecution 's leading witness a girl . The cross - examination was described as "" ... both vigorous and probing ... "" and the conceded that the adversarial process often fails to recognise the emotional and psychological consequences of cross - examination of vulnerable witnesses . In fact it has been recognised by that cross - examination is for many witnesses humiliating and traumatic . Such treatment of witnesses must surely contravene the principle of justice as fairness and it should be questioned whether a witness should be subject to this stress and anxiety when effectively serving the criminal justice system . From my own limited experience as a witness I found the process surprisingly pressurised and stressful . I was following a script and had no intention of lying or deviating from that script , yet I felt nervous and pressurised and could well have made a mistake under the pressure . There is also the danger that excessive questioning and abusive treatment of witnesses shall prevent witnesses from testifying , further harming the access to justice . < fnote > Barristers Code of Conduct full version available online at   URL   rules relating to the treatment of witnesses can be found at paragraphs , , , and 708 of the Code of Conduct . < /fnote><fnote > In the case of [ 1935 ] AC 346 , , HL Lord LC warned that "" cross examination becomes indefensible when it is conducted without restraint and without the courtesy and considerations which a witness is entitled to expect in a Court of law "" < /fnote><fnote > Oversight Panel ( Chair : The Rt Revd ) , ( ) , paras . , - 2 , online at   URL . < /fnote><fnote > Above paragraph paraphrased from ex Criminal Evidence , and , , , P 216 & 217 < /fnote><fnote > Home Office , Speaking Up For Justice : Report of on or Intimidated Witnesses in ( , : ) para taken from , : and , , , 2001 < /fnote><fnote > In the simulated "" "" trial < /fnote > In examining why this treatment of witnesses is allowed to take place the answer must be that it is thought to be the best method of obtaining the truth and thus creating reliable evidence . However many studies have shown that this is perhaps not the case . It has been suggested that improper questioning of witnesses often distorts the fact - finding process and distracts juries . Furthermore behavioural scientists have questioned whether juries are fundamentally capable of distinguishing between truthful and lying witnesses and that generally "" people are poor at judging credibility from demeanour "" . If so , this provides a fundamental blow to the adversarial reliance upon live oral witness testimony and its ability to support justice as both truth and fairness . < fnote > I shall examine this further when I examine the respective roles of Judge and Jury < /fnote><fnote > Wellborn ( ) , taken from Oral Witness Testimony ex Criminal Evidence , and , , , P 218 < /fnote><heading > Judge & Jury</heading > As mentioned earlier the role of the judge is primarily that of an impartial referee , presiding over the rules of evidence and trial procedure . In reality however , the judge is much more , his role described by Denning LJ as "" ... to find out the truth and justice according to the law . "" Thus demonstrating the dilemma for the judiciary ; to be the arbiter of justice and yet careful not to impinge upon the function of the jury as decision maker . In practical terms the role of the judge remains presiding over the rules of evidence and deciding whether there is sufficient evidence to satisfy the evidential burden of proof . Thus giving the judge the power to withdraw a case from the jury if the evidence is deemed insufficient to properly convict and in effect providing a check upon the power of the jury , protecting the accused from perverse verdicts . < fnote > Jones v National Coal Board [ ] 2 QB 55 , taken from , Jenny : Evidence and the Adversarial Process : The Modern Law , , , 1998 < /fnote><fnote > Galbraith [ ] 1 WLR 1039 < /fnote><fnote > R. Pattendon , "" "" [ 1982 ] Crim . LR taken from , Jenny : Evidence and the Adversarial Process : The Modern Law , , , P89 < /fnote > In it remains the function of the judiciary to sum up both the facts and the law to the jury , placing the judge in a position of great power . Due to the significance of such a function , it has been argued that rather than being an impartial umpire within a trial , the judge "" ..... and the jury try the case together and it is his duty to give them the benefit of his knowledge of the law and to advise them in the light of his experience as to the significance of the evidence . ""   < fnote > Lawton LJ in [ 1973 ] 1 All ER < /fnote > In light of all this it appears as if the role of the judge within the adversarial trial greatly supports the administration of justice . The judge will clarify evidence for the benefit of the jury , protect suspects from perverse verdicts and prevent abuses of evidence law , all of which can only support the practice of justice . cause for concern remains the restrictions upon these powers ; however has proved to be a very effective safeguard in overturning excessive use of power . Trial by jury has long been thought of as a "" cornerstone "" in the criminal justice system , "" men good and true "" , the heart of the legal system . However critics have characterised the jury as "" an anti - democratic , irrational and haphazard legislator , whose erratic and secret discussions run counter to the rule of law . ""   < fnote > Penny Darbyshire , Criminal Law Review [ 1991 ] taken from , , , , 2004 P500/501 < /fnote > The strength of the jury lies in trial by 's peers , thought to be the basic symbol of justice , however increasingly doubts have been raised as to the competency of a jury . Some of the most infamous examples of jury incompetence are seen in the cases of R v Ponting and R v Kronlid where perverse verdicts have been delivered . These cases demonstrate the potential for jurors to act outside of their function against the principles of law from which they were empowered . In other circumstances jurors have been simply unable to fulfill their role through sheer inability as in the case of . Such a case serves as an example that although the jury may in all intentions strive to serve the purposes of justice , in a minority of cases it may fail to do so . < fnote > R v Ponting ( ) WL 312100 < /fnote><fnote > R v Kronlid ( ) < /fnote><fnote > Ghosh ( ) Mr. Swallow "" Gentlemen of the jury , the facts of this distressing and important case have already been put before you some four or five times , twice by prosecuting counsel , twice by counsel for the defence , and once at least by each of the various witnesses who have been here ; but so low is my opinion of your understanding that I think it necessary , in the simplest language to tell you the facts again . "" < /fnote > Another controversial issue is the ability of the jury to interpret oral witness testimony , the problem being that often people over - estimate their ability to identify persons telling the truth . Traditionally we are taught to believe that confidence and fluency are signs of honesty , however in reality these are skills which can be imitated by an able liar . Ultimately this is simply a decision to be made by the trier of fact and should perhaps be considered as a weakness in evidence , rather than a reflection of the ability of the jury and as such is perhaps an unfair consideration when deciding whether the jury is capable of supporting justice . < fnote > G.Kohnken , "" The evaluation of Statement Credibility : and Expert Diagnostic Approaches "" , in , , R.Flin and R.Bull ( eds . ) , Legal Proceedings ( Faculty of Law , , , ) taken from , Jenny : Evidence and the Adversarial Process : The Modern Law , , , P107 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote > With regards to justice as truth the jury clearly has some weaknesses in the form of perverse verdicts and jury incompetence ; however this is arguably balanced by the fact that the principle of the jury and trial by 's peers supports justice as fairness . < heading > Advocacy < /heading>""Lawyerisation "" of the criminal trial took place in and has been described as "" the most remarkable change that took place in criminal procedure "" . This is undoubtedly true , as the influence of professional lawyers has changed the criminal process forever , of the most important being the influence of advocacy within the adversarial trial . < fnote > Vogler , : A World View of Criminal Justice , , , 2005 < /fnote><fnote > Both solicitors and barristers < /fnote > The theory supporting the adversarial trial is "" .... that the best way of getting at the truth is to have each party dig for the facts that help it ; between them they will bring it all to light .... prejudiced searchers searching from opposite ends of the field will between them be less likely to miss anything than the impartial searcher starting in the middle . "" In doing so , an advocate is simply concerned with fulfilling their duty to their client , demonstrating justice as fairness but in reality bearing little concern for justice as truth . This was reflected within my own experiences of advocacy . I experienced a loyalty to my client and a desire to succeed , rather than a desire to discover the truth . Advocates also bear a duty to the court however again rather than furthering justice as truth this creates a situation where advocates will only bring to the courts attention evidence that is of benefit to their client . < fnote > P.Devlin , The Judge ( , , ) , McEwan , taken from Jenny : Evidence and the Adversarial Process : The Modern Law , , , P4 < /fnote><fnote>""an advocate , in the discharge of his duty knows but person in the world , and that person is his client""Lord quoted in ( ed ) Trial of , ( , , ) taken from , Jenny : Evidence and the Adversarial Process : The Modern Law , , , P3 < /fnote><fnote > Within the simulated in Practice trial < /fnote><fnote > Bar Standards Board Code of Conduct - Part III Fundamental Principles - 307 < /fnote > Another concern regarding the use of advocacy within the adversarial process is whether it exudes excessive influence over the outcome . Advocates are inevitably in a powerful position representing their client , bearing the responsibility for the success or failure of the case and being in a position to affect the outcome of a case . An advocate can win or lose a case through planning , their use of evidence and oral technique , however this powerful influence does n't necessarily render the system unjust . When applying the interpretation of justice as fairness it can be seen than the power and influence of advocacy could not be fairer . It is one of the fundamental cornerstones of the criminal justice system that all parties are entitled to legal advice , and as such both parties enjoy an equality of power and an ability to influence the trial . Analysing advocacy as a whole it is clear to see that the overriding objective is not one of truth , however this is not to say that this does not arise as a consequence . As for the undue influence of advocacy , although it has been shown to be a powerful tool within the adversarial trial it is a tool available to both parties and thus fulfils the requirement of justice as fairness . < heading > Conclusion < /heading > Having analysed the adversarial trial there appears to be no clear answer as to whether it supports justice . In many ways it appears that some of the basic foundations of the adversarial process are contradictory to the principles of justice ; the treatment of witnesses , the reliability of evidence and the influence of advocacy . It has been suggested that the need for truth in litigation is merely a factor and more important is acceptability and the perception of fairness . Although this may appear irrational in many ways it does make a lot of sense . The adversarial trial has been relied upon for and in reality there is little real alternative in . < fnote > Olin Guy Wellborn III , ' Demeanor ' ( ) , taken from and : Oral Witness Testimony ex Criminal Evidence , Paul , , 2004 P289 < /fnote > The adversarial trial has the acceptability required and although it undoubtedly has some weaknesses , it is capable of supporting justice . However it must be recognised that the system is far from perfect and improvements must be made to allow the support of justice to continue in the future .","is a hugely nebulous concept , representing it often proves as difficult as defining it ; goes so far as to argue that ; ' There is no proper gender ' believing all gender to be performance . If so , appears to suggest that speech is a formative part of this ' performance , ' but the polarity established in her opinion is highly problematic as it utterly divides both men and women , and speech and silence . The central weakness of her statement < fnote > Butler , Gender Insubordination in Literary Theory : An Anthology , edited by and ( : , 2002.)p723 < /fnote > lies in its generality , as no one author or character is capable of representing the manifold aspects of an entire sex . As a result , I am not trying to ascertain how valid 's opinion is , nor do I wish to debate the extent to which the texts disprove or support her argument . Instead I am examining what people see as stereotypically gendered writing and characteristic of male and female in relation to speech . I will however investigate what the binaries of speech and silence may be implying about gender . I intend to concentrate on how each author uses language to create the voice or its absence , depict speech and generate eloquence . Although not directly exploring 's verse , I will briefly examine her poetry in order expose how ambivalent her own portrayal of gender is . Her work simultaneously supports and contradicts her opinion , again why I feel assessing its validity to be unfeasible and futile . As I consider her individual viewpoints and politics impossible to ascertain with certainty , I tend not to investigative the concept and cause of dread , as I believe it generated by various personal and emotional factors irrelevant to an assessment on how gendered language is created and represented . I have chosen to examine how gender , discourse and silence is rendered in and 's , in order to establish what similarities and differences emerge regarding the way in which male and female authors manifest their own gendered voices , take on those of the opposite sex , and depict men and women . Drawing specifically on criticism , I wish to explore what social commentary regarding gender , if any , the authors seem to offer in their illustration of how silent or vocal the men and women in their work are . Concentrating on the relevance and accuracy of established gender models in relation to speech and social role , I hope to discover how ingrained , reliable and veracious the gender stereotypes presented by are in each text . Men appear far from silent in 's text , manifesting their voices and opinions with authority and confidence , literally and linguistically belittling the narrator . Depicted as an authoritarian husband and respected doctor , John assumes a position of intelligence and reason that enables him to confidently dismiss his wife 's illness as a ; ' temporary nervous depression . "" An impression of hegemonic male hierarchy is established by ; ' My brother is also a physician , and also of high standing , and he says the same thing , ' as a seemingly superior education unites the male figures in a position of intellectual strength indicative of privileged masculine dominance . The colloquial ; ' I take phosphates or phosphites - whichever it is , ' instantly establishes the female as other to this , subordinate and at the mercy of male control in lacking the same advantaged medical knowledge . ' Personally I disagree with their ideas , ' calmly and rationally sets the female protagonist up as oppressed and in opposition to male hierarchy by establishing a firm feminist undertone ; ' I think sometimes that if I were well enough to write a little it would relieve the press of ideas and rest me . '   < fnote > Gilman , C.P. by ( : , < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p42 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p42 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p42 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . ,p.46 < /fnote > John explicitly infantilises the narrator , condemning her to a subsidiary position by condescendingly referring to her as ; ' little girl ' and ' blessed little goose . "" Aligning the female to the same helpless , inconsequential position of a child , could be read as demonstrative of female dependency , as women were expressly reliant on men both socially and economically . 's refusal to even allow her to walk unaided supports this ; ' he gathered me up in his arms , and just carried me upstairs and laid me on the bed .. and read to me . "" Repeatedly interpolating the conjunction ' and ' is reminiscent of childlike language and helps demonstrate how treating women in such a way diminished their dignity and confidence in their capabilities . The asexual parental relationship established between them creates a resolute power imbalance where is firmly dominant , as he ; ' takes all care from me . "" Demoted by her inability to fulfil her maternal obligations , the narrator is made obsolete , submerged in a demoralized sense of incompetence that drives her to create a new purpose in life , writing her journal ; ' I must say what I feel and think in some way - it is such a relief . "" The italicised modal verb generates a sense of insistency that demonstrates the force of female resolution . Much criticism insists that language is an essentially masculine medium from which woman is excluded . The female is consequently outside of language , struggling to find and create her own . Such firm insistence on the need for women to find a medium that allows them to express their experiences with authenticity could be read as a feminist statement . < fnote > Ibid . ,p.50 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.44 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . ,p.49 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . ,p.43 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . ,p.49 < /fnote><fnote > Showalter confirms the existence of such opinions by stating in ' The rise of gender ' in Speaking of , E ( London : Routledge , ) ' all speech is necessarily talk about gender .. and the masculine is the linguistic norm . ' p1 This helps illustrate how accepted and ingrained such estimations have become . < /fnote > Copious person personal pronouns embed the voice of a specifically female narrator in the text , allowing her to use language as a method of reversing her conventionally inferior marginality in assuming the position of centralised ' I. ' Within an otherwise circumscribed existence where she is silenced by her gender , control over narrative direction empowers the speaker by allowing her to experience the governance John takes for granted , while challenging ' belief that ; ' We are still trapped within the notion of woman 's language being deviant , powerless and submissive . "" But because narratorial reliability crumbles , it becomes impossible to argue that the text entirely contradicts this statement as this collapse could be read as an intimation that female language is essentially weak and prone to breakdown . The extent to which we can trust her narrative and judgement is contestable throughout . Initially , logical and considered opinions suggest a strong sense of self in spite of oppression that engenders the reader 's sympathy and confidence in the narrator , but her mounting paranoia steadily erodes this . Such inconsistency makes the narrative multiple and fluid , specifically female characteristics according to critics . In agreeing with Humm that ; ' gender is constructed through language and is visible in writing style , ' it could be argued that is using a form of ecriture feminine to fortify the specifically female gender of the narrating voice as a method of enabling the protagonist to narrate her experience of what the men dismiss as a ; ' slight hysterical tendency , ' in an unimpeded and authentic manner .   < fnote > Mills , S Feminist Stylistics ( London : Routledge , 1995)p.48 < /fnote><fnote > This is generated in part by her ability to manifest opinions that the reader can not help but agree with as we too come to believe that she would benefit from ; ' less opposition and more society and stimulus . 'p42 < /fnote><fnote > Irigaray 's essay ' and in Literary Theory : An Anthology , edited by and ( : , . ) further explains the fundamental morphological difference between men and women and why the female is characterized by fluidity and absence . She claims the female style of writing is ' .. always fluid .. Its "" style "" resists and explodes every firmly established form , figure idea or concept . ' P.572 < /fnote><fnote > Humm , M. A Reader 's guide to Literary Criticism ( : , < /fnote><fnote > Gilman , . , p.42 < /fnote><fnote > For further definition regarding the nature and purpose of the ecriture feminine see 's essay ' Sorties ' in Literary Theory : An Anthology , edited by and ( : , . ) where she examines the importance of ensuring that the female voice no longer adheres to circumscribed boundaries ; ' She lets the other tongue of speak - the tongue without barrier or death .. Her tongue does n't hold back .. doesn't keep in . ' p584 < /fnote > Fetterly disagrees believing ; ' she experiences anxiety , contradiction and ambivalence in the act of writing , ' not because her voice is characteristically female but ; ' because she is imprisoned in John 's house and text . "" If writing and language is seen as open only to the male , it could be argued that the collapse of the narration is inevitable , as masculine language is an ineffective medium for the female to use . The text therefore may be an attempt to demonstrate the difficulty faced by women in trying articulate their voices within the constraints of masculine language . Prohibiting the narrator 's writing keeps her within the circumscribed confines of the domestic world and reinforces 's masculine supremacy ; ' he hates me to write a word . "" By repressing her voice , John drives her further towards madness in not allowing her to manifest her concerns ; ' he looked at me with such a stern , reproachful look that I could not say another word . "" John is expressly reported to talk far more than the narrator , using his power to manipulate language in order to dominate the verbal exchanges between them . Finally verbalising an opinion that she is failing to improve , John corrodes her confidence and silences her by using comparatively longer and more dense syntax , repeated allusions to his Doctorial status and numerous patronising endearments . It would appear that keeping her silent keeps her sane to him ; ' I really do eat better , and am more quiet than I was . John is so pleased to see me improve . "" It is implied that had he adopted a position of silence in listening to her fears , she may have been saved from madness ; ' So of course I said no more on that score .. and lay there for trying to decide whether that front pattern .. really did move . ' < fnote > Fetterly , J. ' Reading about Reading . ' A Jury of Her Peers ' , ' The Murders in the Rue Morgue ' and ' in in and Reading edited by , and ( : , 1986)p.162 < /fnote><fnote > Gilman , . , p.44 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.51 < /fnote><fnote > An example of him doing so is;P50 ' I am a doctor dear and I know . ' This could be used to support 's opinion in ' Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema ' in Literary Theory : An Anthology , edited by and ( : , . ) that ; ' Woman stands in patriarchal culture as signifier for the male other , bound by a symbolic order in which man ... through linguistic command imposes on them the silent image of woman still tied to her place as bearer of meaning not maker of meaning . ' p586 But because 's voice is essentially created by a female author through , the woman retains a certain power over discourse that makes it difficult to assert that is entirely correct . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.53 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.51 < /fnote > The contrastive distinction between verbal and written communication demonstrates how problematic assessing the text in light of 's opinion is , due to the need to distinguish what we define as ' talk ; ' whether we take it to mean literal verbal manifestation of the voice , or narration . Although vocal and authoritative in her narration , the general lack of direct speech and reporting clauses that pertain to her actually engaging in dialogue , imply that outside of her writing the narrator is condemned to a silent existence , peripheral and ignored because of her illness and gender . On of the rare occasions where she actually ' talks , ' she uses ; ' a quiet , a very quiet voice , with a most restrained manner , ' therefore narrative writing becomes the only place she is allowed to ' talk ' in a freely expressed ' voice . ' But , this ' voice ' is a written voice as by ' talk ' she essentially means write , in example ; ' I will talk about the house . "" By predominantly narrating thought and not speech , it could be argued that she is ultimately silent as only herself and the reader hear her voice . Enumerable pauses and interruptions marked by asterisks continually disjoint the narrative , creating a lack of linearity again characteristic of the ecriture feminine . They also generate a physical graphological space and emptiness on the page that may be representative of her silence outside of writing . < fnote > Ibid . , p.52 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . ,p.42 < /fnote > Ironically , the narrator is highly eloquent in articulating her madness , paradoxically remaining lucid and coherent in her descriptions of the wallpaper ; ' The colour is repellent , almost revolting ; a smouldering unclean yellow , strangely faded by the slow turning sunlight . "" Alliterative consonance and heaped polysyllabic adjectives help draw the reader into her confusion . This almost poetic use of language demonstrates a verbal artistry that is testament to her ability to express herself with linguistic dexterity . Tactile olfactory imagery pertaining to the ; ' yellow smell ' , overwhelms the senses making the vivid visual depictions easy to envision . Personification and active dynamic verbs animate the paper 's movement allowing us to understand how she comes to believe it is a live presence ; ' imagine a toadstool in joints ... budding and sprouting in endless convolutions . "" The wallpaper , like her mind , lacks linear order , but although infectious and decaying both remain fertile and productive ; ' There are always new shoots on the fungus . "" It could be argued that the wallpaper in ; ' committing every artistic sin , ' may be a metaphoric representation of how many perceived women 's writing as an unpredictable , sprawling and uncontrolled medium ; ' up and down and sideways they crawl , and those absurd unblinking eyes are everywhere . '   < fnote > Ibid . ,p.43 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . ,p.54 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . ,p.51 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.54 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.43 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . ,p.46 < /fnote><fnote > This can be supported by ; ' The general characteristics of such ' womanly writing / speech ' are reckoned to be long and loosely co - ordinated sentences , fluid changes of topic , a resistance to ' linear ' logic and , implicitly , a woman - centred focus on inner feelings . 'p.121 may therefore be attempting to suggest that the different styles of writing between men and women may be partly attributable to their divergent thought processes . < /fnote > Madness is a problematic concept ; while demonstrative of the consequences of attempting to silence and confine women , it conversely seems to offer freedom from patriarchal subjugation ; although the narrator becomes increasingly silent in her progressive insanity , she also appears more confident and self - assured ; < quote > Of course I never mention it to them anymore- I am too wise- but I keep watch of it all the same . There are things in that paper nobody knows but me . < /quote><fnote > Ibid . , p50 < /fnote > Like Hester to an extent , in silence she finds empowerment , as her assertive tone implies a sense of pride in her newfound purpose ; the reader is therefore unavoidably both deeply disturbed and saddened by ; ' life is very much more exciting now than it used to be ... I have something more to expect , to look forward to , to watch . '   < fnote > The eloquence with which she depicts her all - consuming and energetic pursuit of the woman could be seen as an attempt to demonstrate the force of female efficiency and resourcefulness , as she does everything in her power to catch the woman even violently biting off the paper . Although written prior to the sexual revolution , the text demonstrates an awareness of the debate regarding the proper place of women . They were beginning to seek social change , increased freedom and economic security by forging their own careers . 's depiction of the power and pride felt by the narrator in having ' work ' could be indicative of her support for this as ; ' I must get to work .. I want to astonish him , ' demonstrates her need to prove herself , worth and value . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p53 < /fnote><fnote > The narrator derives a heady sense of supremacy from the fact that that John is unable to read her writing , becoming increasingly sinister , manipulative and secretive , not dissimilar to Chillingworth . In learning to lie she may be seen as becoming increasingly masculine as she actively ; ' cultivates deceit , for I do n't tell them I 'm awake . ' p52 < /fnote > The wallpaper may also be metonym for patriarchal dominance as it too ; ' slaps you in the face , knocks you down , and tramples upon you . "" Her fight with the wallpaper could be read as demonstrative of her fight to speak out against gender inequality . But , it is depicted as an overwhelming force impossible to escape ; enumerable heads illustrate the manifold forms of patriarchy , fortifying its power and emphasising the futility of her battle ; ' But nobody could climb through that pattern - it strangles so , I think that is why it has so many heads . "" Her failure to conquer it results in the loss of her mind and identity , a central thematic preoccupation fortified by the absence of her name and seeming metamorphosis into the woman in the wallpaper ; ' I suppose I shall have to get back behind the pattern when it comes . "" The narrative voice merges with that of the imaginary figure making it difficult to ascertain who exactly is speaking , as the central ' I ' collapses into a multiple persona . I believe Humm 's opinion substantiated by this reading ; < fnote > Ibid . ,p51 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . ,p.55 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p58 < /fnote><fnote > Further conflicting narrative levels are generated by this uncertainty regarding the identity of the speaker , making the language used increasingly heterogeneous and therefore increasingly female . Again the multiple is connected to the female ; indicative of both madness and female solidarity in the fight for gender equality ; ' there are so many of those creeping women , and they creep so fast I wonder if they all come out of that wall paper as I did ? ' P58 < /fnote><quote > Inevitably the ideologies of women are likely to encompass more contradictions than the ideologies of men since women are provided with many more confusing images of themselves than are men . < /quote><fnote > Humm op.cit . ,p.4 < /fnote > Utterly unimpeded direct discourse implies that madness allows the narrator to find her voice and achieve freedom of speech ; ' "" I 've got out at last "" said I "" In spite of you and . And I 've pulled off most of the paper , so you ca n't put me back ! "" Finally expressing herself without concern regarding how she will be perceived , in her mind the narrator has escaped and is victorious . But , the reader is painfully conscious that doing so will probably result in her institutionalisation . Seemingly unaware of the threat of this perennial entrapment , her perceptual freedom allows her to finally overthrow the patriarchal repression that has silenced her throughout . < fnote > Gilman , . ,p58 < /fnote > Manifold gendered voices overlap with complexity in The Scarlet Letter . Specifically aligning himself with , her story of ' human frailty and sorrow ' explicitly becomes 's own to narrate . Fuelled by his disillusioned disappointment in the men around him , initiates the central theme of hypocrisy in his depiction of ' the patriarch , ' an inspector who is ; ' so perfect in point of view ; so shallow , so delusive , so impalpable .. in every other . "" Images of decay illustrate the degeneration of patriarchy and strengthen the text 's conclusive nuance that social evolution lies in centring society on female ethics ; ' The angel and apostle of the coming revelation must be a woman . "" Desiring to distance himself from these men drives to emphasise his understanding and compassion , stereotypically female characteristics that fortify our faith in his ability to manifest the female voice and persona ; ' I experienced a sensation not altogether physical .. of burning heat ; as if the letter were not of red cloth , but red - hot iron . "" believes this moment makes and ; < fnote > Hawthorne , N. The Scarlet Letter , ( : Penguin , 1986)p.76 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.47 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.49 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . ,p.275 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . ,p.62 < /fnote><quote > Wearing her clothes and speaking in her voice , he becomes a hieroglyph of the crime of art by representing that crime as refusal of the gender boundaries instilled in everyday life . < /quote><fnote , ' , : and in Engendering Men : The question of male feminist criticism edited by and ( : Routedge , 1990)p.128 < /fnote > I disagree to an extent believing 's defence of those who live by their own morals not to be an attempt to demonstrate the plight of the ostracized female , but an effort to justify his desire to manifest his own voice through writing . 's well - documented sense of shame and inferiority in having chosen to do so enables him to empathise effectively with 's inner conflict and disgrace ; ' "" What is he ? "" murmurs .. of my forefathers .. ""A writer of storybooks! .. what mode of .. being serviceable to mankind .. may that be ? "" ' In establishing enumerated similarities between himself and seems to be trying to validate his ability to assume the female voice . Vehemently emphasising the parallels between them may be a method of bolstering his narrative authority ; an attempt to demonstrate an admirable ability to understand and write the female voice in order to engender the respect and approbation he feels necessary to prove the worth of his work to himself and society . < fnote supports 's interpretation and even goes so far as to argue that wears his own scarlet letter ; ' The narrator feels the same inward fire that stirred in .. He like Hester , is a creator , an artist , the kind of person scorned by societies of ridged and immovable old men . Like her he has been made to feel ashamed of his own creations ' creating fiction a ' bastard ' form of writing in eyes of the puritans . ' P.153 in Understanding the Scarlet Letter ( : , ) . The imagination was seen as a demonic instrument of heresy because the writer was seen as attempting to play God in the act of creation . < /fnote > But , the extent to which a man can accurately take on a woman 's voice is questionable . As male , holds a dominant linguistic and societal position making whether he can ever truly understand the position of other and subordinate debatable , as he is never excluded from hegemonic language and ideology . If he has never genuinely been made external or silenced by his gender , it could be argued that he can not truly empathise with Hester , so can not authentically render her voice . This further suggests that they can never become one . If male and female speech are at opposites ends of a gendered linguistic power divide , their voices can not be unified without antithetical fracture ; the realism of female voice is therefore always contestable , as the heart of her voice is essentially male . If we accept stereotypical definitions of male speech , this masculine core may be why her discourse is characterised by eloquence . But , the text 's representation of speech tends to challenge the accuracy of these gendered speech models . < fnote > See Cixous ' essay ' Sorties ' for further expansion and discussion of the binary power divide within male and female language . < /fnote > The verbal interaction between and in the woods contradicts what are considered the typical characteristics of male and female speech . Traditionally male language is defined as linear , ordered and rational , whereas female speech is seen as hesitant , illogical and disordered . In applying these models , appears comparatively feminine in speech , using elongated rambling syntax littered with caesuras , rhetorical questions and exclamations that generate a hysteria indicative of weakness and confusion ; ' None!-nothing but despair ! "" is articulate and rational , using shorter fully formed , end - stopped sentences to calm and reassure him ; ' You have deeply and sorely repented . Your sin is left behind you . "" She is almost like John here , adopting a paternal role in having to soothe and control . This impression is fortified by her organization and initiative in planning their escape ; persuasive imperative verbs generate inspiration and energy allowing her to empower and fortify with her own vigour ; ' Preach ! Write ! Act ! "" Imploring ; ' Think for me Hester ! art strong . Resolve for me ! "" establishes a disproportionate power division between them that allows Hester to linguistically and literally assume the dominant position , but unlike John she does not use it to manipulate and enervate .   < fnote > Many of these notions are examined in 's A Woman 's Place where he provides a model of what he considers to be the nature of female speech in conversation and how it differs from that used by the male . < /fnote><fnote op.cit . ,p208 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.209 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.215 . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p.213 < /fnote><fnote > Lawrence disputes this opinion in Studies in Literature.(London : . stating ; ' With Hester .. woman becomes a nemesis to man . She bolsters him from the outside , she destroys him from the inside . ' If so , it could be argued that remaining in is 's way of silently taunting to eventually confess the truth . < /fnote > In spite of holding a more ' masculine ' position of control , remains maternal and giving , continually sharing her strength ; < quote > Such helpfulness was found in her,-so much power to do .. that many people refused to interpret the scarlet A by its original signification . They said it meant Able ; so strong was , with a woman 's strength . < /quote><fnote op.cit . ,p135 < /fnote > Language in the text is therefore explicitly made open to interpretation , as the implications generated by certain words are shown to be subject to dramatic alteration . The nature of Hester 's speech is impossible to generalise as its more ' male ' attributes dissolve when she is overcome by forceful love ; her discursive strength collapses into disjointed exclamatory discourse when faced with the possibility of losing ; ' raising her voice almost to a shriek , ' she cries ; ' Ye shall not take her ! I will die first ! "" Here Hester appears to conform to the stereotypical model of an impassioned female ruled by feeling , but retaining her aggressive tone challenges the expectations of age when women were traditionally passive . boundaries , like gendered speech therefore overlap . As supposed ' male ' and ' female ' speech features are amalgamated in both characters , such discourse models seem an inadequate method of assessing gender and eloquence , as they tend to overly simplify the differences between them . < fnote > Ibid . ,p135 < /fnote > 's depiction of silence is as contradictory as his representation of gender , as it is generated by and demonstrative of divergent characteristics . defines women as absence and if we extend this perception of lack to the absence of voice , silence could be said to represent the notion of female as inadequate male . Throughout the majority of the text is a silent , remote presence , only unreservedly expressing her voice when outside of her circumscribed world in the woods , free like the natural world surrounding her . The emphasis on as a visual rather than vocal presence may support this interpretation ; detailed descriptions of her external appearance imply that she is a figure who is seen more than heard , reducing her somewhat to the position of object , as she is often explicitly made a spectacle , described as aware of the ; ' intense consciousness of being the object of severe and universal observation . "" But , also finds might in her silence , refusing to let her peripheral position quell her sprit or love ; ' I might endure his agony , as well as mine . "" Carrying the onerous secret for them both augments her strength , making her compassionate and self - sufficient ; as unable to look to others for support she is forced to draw on her inner - resilience . Unlike 's protagonist , she is not sent mad by ; ' the strange and solitary anguish of her life , ' as being ignored and ostracised liberates her by granting imaginative freedom .   < fnote > 's guilt and cowardice is manifested by silence but so is 's polaric stoicism . Momentarily the pair are even united in silence ; ' They now felt themselves , at least , inhabitants of the same sphere . Without a word spoken,-neither he nor she assuming the guidance . 'p208 < /fnote><fnote > Jones expands on this interpretation further stating ; P48'Women because they lack the phallus , the positive symbol of gender , self position and worldly authority around which language is organised , occupy a negative position in language . ' < /fnote><fnote > The body as a site of gender expression has engendered much contradictory literary criticism , making it highly difficult to ascertain a definite sense of what is implying by reducing to an object . See Mulvey ' Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema ' in Literary Theory : An Anthology , edited by and ( : , 2002.)for further discussion regarding the female as object especially in relation to the male gaze . < /fnote><fnote op.cit . ,p.87 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . ,p94 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . ,p110 < /fnote><fnote > This can be supported by ; ' The tendency of her fate had been to set her free . The scarlet letter was her passport into regions where other women dared not tread . Shame , These had been her teachers .. and they had made her strong .. the minister on the other hand , had never gone through an experience calculated to lead him beyond the scope of generally received laws . ' P217 < /fnote > Interaction between male protagonists differs greatly to that between women who openly admit their wrongs and pains , finding comfort in sharing and talk ; ' people brought all their sorrows and perplexities , and besought her consul . "" Conversely , Dimmesdale and Chillingworth use tense , loaded speech that engenders much dread ; ' Alas , to judge from the gloom and terror in the depths of the poor minister 's eyes , the battle was a sore one . "" Fear , anxiety and Puritanical hypocrisy shape their exchanges ; the need to maintain the façade of public self ironically ensures that there is very little honesty between them in spite of lengthy debate regarding its importance ; believes men are ; < fnote > Ibid . , p275 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . ,p149 < /fnote><quote > kept silent by the very constitution of their nature .. guilty as they may be , retaining a zeal for God 's glory and man 's welfare , they shrink from displaying themselves black and filthy in the view of men . < /quote><fnote > Ibid . ,p153 < /fnote > In spite of copious sanctimonious moralising , is equally as deceptive , concealing his past , suspicions and true objective . His speech is characterised by relentless psychological bullying , sinister unsettling insinuations and malicious threats that make him an ominous and menacing presence ; ' His fame , his position , his life , will be in my hands . Beware ! '   < fnote > Ibid . ,p102 < /fnote><fnote > Even when silent he engenders trepidation and dread , his very smile;p259 ' conveyed secret and fearful meaning ' . < /fnote > It could be argued that the text does little portray men favourably ; 's explicitly ; ' eloquent voice ' also allows him to hide his true nature as it is ; < fnote > Ibid . , p261 < /fnote><quote > itself a rich endowment ; insomuch that a listener , comprehending nothing of the language in which the preacher spoke , might still have been swayed .. by the mere tone and cadence . < /quote><fnote > Ibid . , < /fnote > The purpose of 's oration is to engender the respect and admiration of his parishioners , which implies that he uses his rhetorical power to manipulate people 's opinion of himself , not unlike . Placing communal respect above self - respect , he is ultimately destroyed by the impossibility of his duel existence ; ' I your pastor .. am utterly a pollution and a lie . "" Like his speech , 's silence is subject to his own control . In spite of longing to ; ' speak out , from his own pulpit , at the full height of his voice , and tell the people what he was , ' his silence , unlike , is essentially self - inflicted , as being male grants him the power to choose to remain hidden behind the protection it offers . As in the preceding text , his final gesture of empowerment is futile because self - destructive , as here too unimpeded speech ultimately leads to destruction . Speaking freely at last , he rejects social approval and the silencing repression of patriarchy and religion , but is never shown to face the consequence of doing so . The extent to which he becomes a true man in speaking aloud is therefore questionable . Even during his dramatic confession , is explicitly reliant on imploring ; ' Come , Hester , come ! Support me up yonder scaffold . "" This image has firmly feminist undertones , as only when expressly supported by women is he strong enough to manifest his real voice . < fnote > Ibid . ,p164 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . ,p.163 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . ,p.266 < /fnote > 's predictive depiction of a matriarchal society is radical and progressive ; < quote > at some brighter period ... a new truth would be revealed in order to establish the whole relation between man and women on a surer ground of mutual happiness . < /quote><fnote > Ibid . ,p275 < /fnote > This fortifies the novel 's ubiquitous suggestion that social advancement is dependent on communities becoming more nurturing and accommodating . This appears to corroborate Cixous ' belief that celebrating the female as a symbol of plenitude and multiple capacity can reverse the view of woman as lack . If so , in opening up the feminine in himself and his writing , could be deemed Feminist . According to ; < fnote > Doren firmly contests this interpretation arguing ; ' went to the centre of a woman 's secret , her sexual power .. for him it was not intellectual power . The women he considered .. he could never praise if their minds had got the better of them . Hester threatens to become feminist in the injustice of her solitude , but he saves her from that fate . ' P155 < /fnote><quote > Feminism proposed to revalue the Other , woman in all that she was .. as artist , thinker politician . To revalue ' womanly ' activities , the female body , quilt making , nature , the subconscious , the mother . < /quote><fnote > Jouve , and ( Cambridge : , ) < /fnote > 's depiction of fantastic ingenuity ' and self - expression in needlework supports this , as embroidering the letter allows her to mark it with her own voice in spite of the silence it condemns her to . 's representation of seems to illustrate a new generation of women . Her voice is subject to her control alone , she continually refuses to be silenced by who on repeated occasions is forced to warn ; ' , hush ! must not talk so . "" Frequently questioning , she is free and unimpeded in speech , her voice making her confident and ' dauntless . "" She resolutely refuses to adapt the way she talks , manifesting her opinions and queries without concern for their consequences ; having learned from her mother 's silent suffering , she actively reigns the power that speech can bestow upon the female . < fnote , op.cit . , p.107 < /fnote><fnote > see p.108 ' To it might have been a mode of expressing and therefore soothing , the passion in her life ' < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , p122 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . ,p125 < /fnote><fnote > Unlike Hester , in 's presence , remains astute and brave , justly challenging and asking;'Will he go back with us .. we together , into the town ? ' < /fnote > Both texts demonstrate how divergent gender characteristics can be manifested in both speech and silence . Each supports and disproves 's opinion on different occasions , helping advocate why I believe it to be too limited in its division to apply directly to either text . The lack of continuity regarding each author 's representation of speech and silence may be partly attributable to the impact of the individual writer 's gender , but the extent of this influence is impossible to ascertain . Because we will never know what personal and social factors motivate their depictions , how feminist either writer is , if at all , and their sexual politics are made impossible to establish with conviction .   < fnote > To argue that women even talk at all in 's text is made questionable by the author being male . < /fnote > 's poetry itself rarely makes overt statements regarding gender as she seldom inflects the speaking voice with a gendered identity , and even when she does , it is often tenuous and changeable . Polarity and opposites pervade her verse and are suggestive of a dual attitude towards the issues raised in her poems on love and marriage . Omitting certain words and multiple phrase meanings often make it difficult to discern how direct or ironic she intends her tone to be . Poem seems to imply that women are trapped and repressed by men ; ' He put the Belt around my life/ I heard the snap . "" A similar metaphoric suggestion of the cessation of freedom in marriage emerges in poem , where elliptical progressions suggest that the birth of the wife results in the death of the woman who is ; ' Born - Bridalled - Shrouded ' Yet other poems depict strong women explicitly using speech to educate and bolster men , not unlike does ; ' when his power dropped- ... I cheered my fainting Prince-/ I sang firm - even- Chants- . "" This substantiates 's belief that ; < fnote > Dickinson , E. , ( : Faber and Faber , 1970)p124 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . ,p.487 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . ,p303 < /fnote><quote > textual oscillations encode the contradictions of domesticity itself , contradictions that form the basis for the gender identity of 's poetic personae . < /quote><fnote > Foster , T ' in ( women 's ) History ' in Engendering Men : The question of male feminist criticism ed , J and Cadden , M ( : Routedge , < /fnote > Poem uses speech marks to graphologically emphasize the labels and markings that shape female existence ; ' I 'm "" wife""- I 've finished that-/ That other state-/ I 'm Czar- I 'm "" woman "" now-/ ' Copious caesuras and prolific use of enjambment tend to generate indefinite conclusions , making her verse and standpoint highly ambivalent . While certain undertones seem to mirror those manifested in the texts examined , they are not without contradictory elements and ironically demonstrate the difficulty of applying her own opinion to her work . Although seemingly radical and feminist on occasion , no nuance is beyond contention . < fnote > Dickinson , op.cit . ,p94 < /fnote > Both texts in their representation of speech and silence reveal how narrow and restrictive gender ideologies can be by exposing how the culturally constructed differences that distinguish us as feminine and masculine , are subject to multiple variations ranging from period and religion , to individual temperament . They prove how limited gendered speech models can be , while simultaneously supporting Mills ' belief that ; ' gender is a variable affecting both our language competence and .. expectations about language use . "" Limiting the examination of gender to how it is manifested by either discourse or silence alone is reductive in my opinion , due to the existence of so many varied methods of gender expression that challenge the implications generated by how it is rendered through language . Like 's quotation and gender itself , the texts demand continual questioning as each depiction and insinuation remains open to perpetual interrogation , part of the appeal and frustration inherent in each text . < fnote > Mills , op.cit . ,p16 < /fnote >",0
"< heading > Introduction</heading > This essay aims on comparing ancient oasis settlements of in regard to their sustainability and land use management over the millennia . The irrigation infrastructure needed for any agricultural production in this xeric environment is based on aini - aflaj ( sing . falaj ) systems , referring to canals that convey water from at the foot of a mountain to agricultural fields ( Siebert , Häseral . ) . A research project was carried out by an international and interdisciplinary research team of agronomists , archaeologists and urban planners of , and universities in the period from . The agronomic part of the research project was focusing on the following questions : Due to the erratic and scarce nature of precipitation in the area of study , genesis and survival of these oases very much depends on the existence of large and well buffered natural resources of water . How is this established and maintained ? The irrigation system and soil properties of these Omani oases are established in a way that salinisation of the terrace soils is avoided even under intensive and long utilisation . How could these agriculturally intensive oasis systems stay productive for millennia with only a moderate build - up of toxic salt levels despite extremely xeric moisture regimes ? Are the mountain oases of sinks for the plant nutrients ( N ) , Phospor ( P ) and ) ? Which role does the transfer of animal excrements from the surrounding areas to the fields play ? To what extent does sativa contribute to the N - supply of fields ? < heading > Location and history of the oases</heading><heading Located in the northern mountains of , the Wadi Bani Awf with its head oasis at ° eastern longitude and ° northern latitude and a height of m is the area of study . is a typical core oasis with ha of potentially irrigated agricultural area . ha are planted with palm groves , mainly dactylifera , and ha are planted with seasonal crops . < figure/>The settlement history of started in the Iron Age II period ( 1100 - 900 ) when a small village was established . As early as in , settlers from the nearby might have brought with them the innovative falaj system . The next larger step in the settlement of has taken place sometime in the Early Islamic period ( 630 - 1055 AD ) and was apparently characterized by a large expansion of the cropping and housing area . From this period onwards steady modifications of the aflaj system resulted in growing quantities of agricultural crops , increasing the village 's total amount of cropland by and of date palm groves by . It appears as if the cropping area steadily increased between 900 and AD and declined again only after the western terraces of ha size had been abandoned in ( , . ) . < figure/><heading > Maqta</heading > The area of study is with as head oasis at ° eastern longitude and ° northern latitude and a height of m. has a typical scattered oasis pattern with fields distributed and embedded in the countryside . The agricultural terrace system comprises of ha , while ha of this area is planted with date palms . ha of the area is used for non - perennial crop planting , and the average field size is m . Maqta is situated just below some recently discovered monumental tower tombs ( Siebert , Häseral . ) . At Maqta the pollen findings from agricultural crops other than ( perhaps not domesticated ) cereal spp . date back to the millennia AD . The area however shows evidence of prior human activities due to the recently discovered , monumental tower tombs of the plateau in close vicinity of Maqta oasis . A pastoral and transhumant way of life was the supposed land use system in the pre - agricultural period . The results of analysing a deep soil pit revealed that in the area erosion and sedimentation after occasional rainfall are a millennia - old phenomenon . The pollen profile and molluscan analysis results do not show any evidence for major climate changes over ( Siebert , Häseral . ) . < table/><heading > Sustainability of the oases</heading><heading > Hydrology</heading > For answering the question flow measurements of all springs at were made and . Additionally precipitation data were collected to observe the response of spring flow to rainfall . In and selected springs in and were sampled to determine the age of the stored water through its tritium/3helium ratio and concentration of the anthropogenic trace gases sulphurhexafluoride ( SF 6 ) and chlorfluorcarbohydrates ( CFC ) . The purpose of these water measurements was to show the relative importance of the different aflaj as water sources and the flexibility of their water flow during the extended period of drought experienced during the measurement period . Given the constancy of the geological properties of the springs ' parent rocks , insights into the resilience of the water supply are an important basis for subsequent hypotheses about any pre - historic settlement of the oasis system under study . < figure/>Relative flow of the major aflaj and rainfall at . Flow rates were set to at the onset of the measurement period on . . No rainfall measurements were taken before . < figure/>Results show that has a total annual water amount of m m ha -1 , which is much more than that of with m or m ha -1 . Water age measurements revealed that due to its geological properties of the aquifer water delivery is independent from drought periods for . Maqta in contrast has a different geological setting , thus making agriculture much more dependent on regular rainfalls due to lower storage capacities of the rocks . This might be a key factor for the earlier colonisation and larger population of . Nevertheless an in - depth survey on water supply is needed to give more detailed information . < heading > Soil properties</heading > At Balad Seet a soil profile was dug and soil chemical and physical properties were measured . It revealed that the terrace soils are all man - made , built of fine silty wadi sediments and coarse rocks . Over as much as 100 000 t of this material has been transported with simple tools to build these terraces . The combination of a low bulk density , a stable pore structure , a high pore volume and a regular pore structure with well - balanced micro-(storage ) and macro(drainage)-pores is characteristic for the meter of profile depth at the lower part of the terrace system , planted with crops . Deeper soil layers consist of gravel and rock . < figure/>The particle size distribution of the terrace profiles , the high quality of the irrigation water with its high calcium carbonate concentration and high soil organic matter due to intensive manure application all contribute to the avoidance of salinisation in the crop rooting zone over millennia . These factors contribute to rapid drainage of the soil profile and thereby help to wash out salt . The electrical conductivity in the rooting zone is with dS m -1 ( 0 - 0.45 m ) fairly low and only increases to dS m -1 in deeper layers ( - 1.0 m ) ( . ) . At Maqta a similar but shallower soil profile was found . The agricultural focus here is mainly on palm groves , and ha are potentially planted with crops . The date palm is one of the most salt tolerant crops , and thus low salt levels in soils are not as crucial as for crops . < heading > Partial nutrient balance</heading > A partial oasis balance was established for and , analyzing inputs , outputs and balances of nitrogen ( N ) , phosphorus ( P ) and potassium ( K ) in cropland and palms groves . All data are given as amounts per unit area and as totals for each land use system and represent averages of a measurement period for . For data show a average . < table/><table/>The balances reveal that all analysed nutrients are in a surplus , which confirms the initial hypothesis that both oases are sinks for the most important plant nutrients ( . ) . Surplus shown for mainly result from a high amount of applied mineral and organic fertilizer . Compared to nutrient concentrations of manure from the Sahel zone the nutrient concentration in this case reflects external inputs such as purchased animal fodder and fish meal as supplementary fodder . Maqta shows the typical pattern of a small scattered oasis with a high percentage of fallow or abandoned fields . Fertilisation here relies entirely on manure , which reflects the strong agro - pastoral land use system . In comparison to nutrient surplus was about lower . plays an important role in Omani oases . Optimal growing conditions for alfalfa ( high radiation , high day and relatively cool night temperatures , regular irrigation , high fertility soils ) allow an dry matter production of ha -1 -1 with cuts per year . These dry matter yields are times higher as published yields for example in the . Concerning the annual N 2 - fixation calculations resulted in a fixation rate of . Different results are reflected from other experiments and authors . The measured N ha -1 year -1 in the alfalfa stem ( Wichern , Luedelingal . 2004 ) is considerably higher as that of N ha -1 year -1 published by ( , . ) . The application of manure compost , crop residues and human faeces on the heavily irrigated oasis soils of allowed a constant built - up of humus and thus a stable agricultural production over long periods of time . Currently kg ha -1 year -1 manure compost are applied , they provide - 48 kg -1 and high amounts of organic C , leading to a narrow - ratio of in the upper m of the soil profile . This makes long time storage of additional amounts of N in soil microbial biomass unlikely , thus loss of N through leaching and evaporation are likely to occur ( Wichern , . ) . < heading > Seasonal distribution of crops < /heading > At Balad Seet the analysis of the land use pattern across ( winter compared to ) shows a characteristic fluctuation of used and unused plots . In the cooler , the fallow rate is only and a larger diversity of crops is maintained compared to , when the total proportion of fallow plots is and more drought - tolerant crops such as sorghum are planted . This strategy and the spacing of palm groves next to aflaj outflows make sure that the palm groves are supplied with water around the year , while crops are planted according to water availability . The backbone of the oasis is the date palm , and water and nutrient input is given to the palm groves . previously unknown varieties of dicoccon were found in the oases , both reaching high prices at local markets and being attributed with medicinal qualities ( . ) . < figure/><heading > Conclusion</heading > The geomorphologic setting of provides a reliable and well - buffered water supply necessary for intensive irrigated date and crop cultivation . Maqta water supply is less well buffered ; this is reflected by a different land use system with focus on agro pastoralism and to a lesser extent date palm production . The man - made terrace soils of the oases are built up in a way that salinisation is avoided . built - up is prevented by a particle size distribution favouring drainage , high levels of soil organic carbon providing good soil structure and a high irrigation water quality . The oases in fact are large temporary sinks for nutrients until they are lost through leaching or evaporation into the atmosphere . Both oases depend on a nutrient supply delivered through animal manure . At the influence of external inputs is reflected in the nutrient balance . The amount of biomass and nitrogen provided through N 2 - fixation of alfalfa is exceptionally high due to optimal growing conditions . Maqta still is relatively untouched by modern life , and reflected by its nutrient balance external inputs seem to be low . Oasis agriculture in has an ancient history but given the rapid transformation of this country 's economy heavily influenced by petroleum exploitation since it is rapidly changing in structure and extent . of traditional aflaj - based settlements have been abandoned since and a millennia - old mode of life with its cultural and genetic resources is threatened by extinction . Whether these systems can withstand the challenges posed by overpopulation , rapidly raising labour costs and the heavy use of mineral fertilizers instead of manure has to be seen in the future .","< heading > I've always been a bit on the plump side , but how can I tell if I 'm really overweight or just a bit chubby ? < /heading > By calculating your   Body Mass Index . This is calculated by dividing your weight in kilograms by your height in metres squared . - 25 is the desirable range , - 30 is slightly overweight and values over are associated with obesity . except where you are extremely muscular or have excessive accumulation of water in your body . < fnote > Barasi M , Human Nutrition , A health perspective , : Arnold ; : , . p < /fnote > FORMULA   < heading > Why do I lose weight quickly in of dieting and then find it so hard to shift the extra pounds after this ? < /heading > On starting a diet , the reduced amounts of food you are consuming may not be meeting your body 's normal needs . Your body has the ability to override the mechanism which controls energy intake when food supply is unpredictable or reduced suddenly and your basal metabolic rate ( the energy needed to maintain basic body functions such as breathing and heart beat , body heat ) is lowered to correspond with this decrease in food intake . During there is a loss of stored carbohydrate ( glycogen ) and its water that it is bound up in . This can be after which the fall in weight slows down . Your fat stores , however , remain unchanged . Fat is lighter than glucose and water and it takes more time to lose weight by burning fat . < fnote p10 < /fnote > Also as you lose weight , your smaller body , requires less energy to sustain it and the difference between the energy you need to take in and energy your expending decreases , hence your rate of weight slows down . < fnote > Barasi M , Human Nutrition , A health perspective , : Arnold ; : , . p < /fnote > Losing weight gradually can be advantageous because you will not have to make drastic reductions to your food intake so it is easier to accommodate and this allows you time to get accustomed to and maintain a new style of eating . It is recommended that you exercise as you lower your calorie intake . This way , you can improve blood supply to the muscles , and as you exercise your body is gradually transformed to burn fat more efficiently and as energy requirements from exercise demand . Physical activity has benefits not only for controlling body weight over the long term , but also in controlling appetite . < fnote > The Food Standards agency   URL   < /fnote><heading > c ) How can I tell how many calories a day I should be eating if I want to lose weight . < /heading > Estimated Average Requirement = Physical Activity level < fnote > Dietary reference values : a guide /prepared for by . : H.M.S.O. , 1991p12 < /fnote > When we consume substantially more energy than is required , excess energy is stored in the body as fat   consequently if you wish to lose weight you must expend more energy than you are taking in . < fnote p1 < /fnote > This can be done by increasing your current physical activity , l imiting your calorie intake or both . The extent to which you need to pursue each of these depends on your average energy requirement which is largely determined by your and levels of physical activity . The average recommended energy intake is 2000kcal a day for an average woman . Identifying your current average intake of food and monitoring your physical activity is a good step . It will allow you to plan how much you may need to cut down and how much more exercise you might need to do . This can be done by keeping a food diary and noting down calorific values of foods where available . Remember to take into account any drinks or alcohol you may consume .Many pre - prepared foods now have detailed nutritional information and though these are average typical values they area useful guide . A nutritionist can use your diary or a more accurate ' weighed food diary ' to calculate exact intake using computer software . Alternatively , nutritionist 's indirect calorimetry facilities can be used to measure your energy output based on how much oxygen you take in and carbondioxide given off and a suitable diet can be designed for you based on this < fnote > , p4 < /fnote > Eat a variety of foods so as to achieve the right balance of proteins , carbohydrates and fats and vitamins and minerals to promote health . Instead of cutting out fat , limit your fat intake to   of your calorie intake ( eating more unsaturated fats ) .Carbohydrates should provide   of your calorie intake . Taking in too much protein could also have a detrimental effect on your bones health on future .   < fnote > Bender D , Nutrition a reference handbook . ( ) < /fnote><fnote > Bender D , Nutrition a reference handbook . ( ) < /fnote><fnote > There is some evidence that excessive intakes of protein may contribute to the demineralisation of bone , although the relationship is not a simple one and increases in dietary phosphorous which accompany increased dietary protein may minimise such an effect . < /fnote><fnote > Department of Health . Dietary reference values for food energy and nutrients for . Report on Health and social subjects No . , . < /fnote><heading > d ) Will giving up smoking make me gain weight ? < /heading > Smoking affects your taste preferences and your diet tends to improve after you quit   < fnote > Eastwood , ( ) , 1935- Personal author : Eastwood , M.A.Principles of human nutrition .London : , ` < /fnote > i.e. you have increased appetite this may result in weight gain . < heading > e ) Are there any drugs that will help me lose weight ? < /heading > There are anorectic drugs that help weight loss by decreasing appetite , but these drugs are commonly used to treat obese people and are only used as a last line of action after a combination of diet and physical activity . Pills and preparations to lose weight should never be taken except on medical advice . < fnote p12 < /fnote >",0
"Ebbinghaus can be credited as of the founders of modern psychology , he was the psychologist to study memory experimentally and he showed that associative processes could be studied and measured in a laboratory , and henceforth lead the study of memory to a scientific , rather than philosophical path ( Ebbinghaus , ) . Sir however states that remembering is not the re - excitation of dull fragmented traces as Ebbinghaus would suggest , but that it is an imaginative active reconstruction based on past reactions and experience , which are constantly developing ( , ) . viewed memory as a semantic process whereby we store knowledge of the world , he developed the concept of a schema or knowledge structure , that captures the subject 's knowledge and assumptions about the world ( , ) . Several elements of Ebbinghaus 's research were ahead of his time , firstly he abandoned the method of introspection and instead he created ' nonsense ' syllables , constructed of a vowel between consonants - to rid the data of meaning , which he considered a confounding factor . These he described as being relatively consistent with one another , ' uniformly unassociated ' and virtually unlimited as a source of new combinations - to be memorised and tested in a laboratory . He tested the retention of this quantatively with statistical and mathematical models , and criticised the established laws of association ( ) . Ebbinghaus used himself as the only participant in all his experiments and he taught himself these nonsense syllables by reciting them aloud at a rapid rate , he then scored the number of recitations taken to learn each test , or to re - learn it after a delay had caused him to forget it . Ebbinghaus discovered the ' total time hypothesis ' that the amount learned directly reflects the amount of time spent learning the data ( , ) . Ebbinghaus found that the rate of forgetting , unlike the linear relationship between learning and memory , was rapid at , but gradually slows down and tails off . He was the psychologist to systematically plot this ' forgetting curve ' which he did this by learning lists of syllables , which he repeated until his recall was perfect , he then retested himself after intervals of up to 31 days and from this he was able to estimate the amount of forgetting that had taken place ( , ) . From his studies of memory Ebbinghaus made several further deductions , firstly that the longer the syllables are , the longer they take to learn , and that the quality of retention is greater when the number of repetitions of the data during the learning phase is increased ( Ebbinghaus , ) . Although this theory appears to have stood the test of time , as it has been applied to a wide range of materials and learning conditions , some subsequent research has show that forgetting does not always take the shape of a curve , particularly when the data has meaning ( , , , ) . For example carried out a series of studies ( ) to test Ebbinghaus 's findings , whereby he found that the rate for forgetting names and faces was approximately linear rather than in a curve . Fleishman and ( ) carried out a study testing continuous motor skills ( riding a bike , driving a car ) , and found a dramatic absence of forgetting , he also found that forgetting can be minimised if the subject is given a warm up trial previous to the retention test . Therefore what can be concluded is that many real - life skills are a mixture of several types of skill and knowledge , and the rate at which these are retained and forgotten vary accordingly ( , ) . Ebbinghaus suggested that there are different ways in which we forget , ' normal ' forgetting is concerned with trace decay ( memory traces are eroded by the passage of time ) and interference . There are types of interference , proactive ( prior to learning ) or retroactive ( later learning ) interference , but either way it occurs when sets of similar information competes with one another , causing one to be ' overwritten ' or physically destroyed ( Twining , ) . Although alternative figures of forgetting have been proposed since , it is widely acknowledged that interference between memory traces is an important factor in the rate of forgetting , but whether this is because one is overwritten , or whether it is a question of competition between traces is still unsolved ( , ) . Throughout Ebbinghaus deliberately avoided the natural complexity of memory in order to demonstrate that it could be studied objectively , hence he placed great importance upon the careful and controlled measurement of simple memory tasks . Advantages of this method are that it minimises the study of complex memory systems into manageable sizes . This was a crucial development for the empirical study of memory , and without this very little progress could have been made . However , the problems with such methods , are that we are leaving out important aspects of memory - meaning , which is arguably the very essence of human memory ; and that the elements which are most relevant to everyday life are not likely to be our knowledge of our ability to memorise lists of nonsense syllables . Aside from these reasons , points out that the studies of ' nonsense syllable learning ' can only tell us about repetition habits and may not apply to more complex stimulus . He also states that the oversimplification of the stimuli by using ' nonsense ' syllables , is pointless as it is impossible to rid stimuli of meaning , as long as it is possible for them to arouse a human response ( , ) . Throughout 's experiments he tried to avoid the artificiality as he viewed it , of Ebbinghaus 's nonsense syllables by using material which was normal , meaningful and interesting enough for the participants to not be reduced to using unusual methods of observation and recall . 's willingness to take the study of memory outside of the laboratory , and to study the effect of meaning in memory provided a less rigid alternative to Ebbinghaus ( , ) . proposed that subjects remember new material in terms of schemata , these are existing organised structures , that capture our knowledge and expectations of some aspect of the world based on our previous experiences and environment . He proposed that we have some basic biological schema drives such as food - seeking , sex , sleeping as well as various instincts ( assertiveness , submissiveness and danger reactions ) . Then these basic schemas are supplemented by the individual 's life experiences , this together with social conditions constitutes ' character ' . The complexity of these schema formations means that objects / stimuli / reactions get organised into different ' schemes ' , so that when they recur , they offer a framework of knowledge and organising influence , which can be used as a guide to reaction ( , ) . viewed memory as an active process , a function he named ' effort after meaning ' . He believed that we apply schemas to information , as this aids individuals to understand the meaning of the information ( , ) . The information however , is interpreted along these schemata , regardless of whether they are consistent , therefore what is retained is a schematised version of the original material and this is used in an attempt to reconstruct the original - because of this our memory of events can be suspect ( , ) . explored ' effort after meaning ' by presenting his subjects with unfamiliar items , for which they would have no relevant schemata , such as the folk tale ' the war of ghosts ' . He found that participants attempted to rationalise the story and relate the elements of the stories to various aspects of their existent knowledge framework ( , ) . This although helping the individual 's recall to a certain extent , made it difficult to realise which elements were associations , or true parts of the story , and this is what produced the memory errors . So when recalling the story the participants omitted features that did not fit in with their prior expectations or schemas , and distorted other features . concluded that people remembered accounts far better if they involved a well structured narrative story with a clear plot , rather than a strange jumbled account of a cricket match , because the data has meaning . 's studies have been replicated and extended , and they have similarly found in accord with , that memory is strongly affected by an individual 's conceptual framework ( , al . ) . also assessed memory using visual tests as well as the abstract accounts mentioned above . In the visual tests he found that participants sometimes suffered conflict between what the image looked like and what they judged the image ought to resemble . Hence his findings from his studies of perception and recognition support his view that when a specific event occurs some trace is made and stored in the mind , later a stimulus can re - excite the trace , and hence the individual recall it ( , ) . However 's studies , as well as Ebbinghaus 's are open to some criticism , some psychologists argue that ' the war of ghosts ' is not a ' well - formed ' story , as it includes a number of strange features and that there is a general lack of connections between the features . Some also state that the concept of schemas are too vague , however since 's studies , schemas have been redefined : as constructions embedded within one another , which are not mutually exclusive ( e.g. : the schema of a face can be contained within the schema of a body ) , that they represent knowledge at all levels of abstraction , as well as experiences rather than definitions and abstract rules ( , ) . 's influence to the theorems of memory is a widespread one : it is generally accepted that a person 's knowledge of the world and of his mental processes , plays an intimate part in learning and remembering - it is hence impossible to isolate cognition from the study of memory . Nevertheless , the methods introduced by Ebbinghaus , remain influential whenever an objective and empirical study of memory is employed . In fact Ebbinghaus 's influence may be accredited that from time to time psychologists remind one another that you can not ' decouple ' memory from other mental functions ( , ) .","< heading>1 . INTRODUCTION</heading > The notion of syllable is one of the key issues in and Phonology as it determines the structure and comprehensible production of speech . Its significance has led many linguists to develop several theories for its structure such as : onset - rhyme , mora theory , body - coda organization and flat structure among others . The purpose of the essay is firstly to provide a critical evaluation of the system for syllable structure presented in ( ) by comparing it to flat structure , and to discuss the importance of a good understanding of syllable and its structure in pronunciation teaching in a language classroom situation . < heading>2 . NATURE OF SYLLABLE</heading > There are main patterns governing the syllable structure : a ) sonority hierarchy and b ) phonotactics . To start with , every syllable contains a vowel which is the most sonorous element ( , , p. ) and which can be preceded or followed by consonants according to the sonority hierarchy . As it is stated "" less sonorous sounds preceding the nucleus are assigned to the initial C - element ( ... ) and those following it are assigned to the other C - element "" ( , , p. ) . Apart from this pattern , syllables are governed by a set of phonological consonants which determine "" the possible combinations of phonemes "" ( Roach , , p. ) . However , different linguists find different sets of restrictions underlying the syllable and thus form different theories about its structure . such theory is flat structure . < heading>3 . FLAT STRUCTURE</heading > Its basic implication is that "" each of the segments is an immediate constituent of the syllable node , with no intervening nodes "" ( , , p. ) . Its proponents have observed that the vowel can be easily attached to the preceding consonants as well as to the following ones . However , instead of favoring one aspect against the other they claim that "" co - occurrence restrictions holding between the nucleus and preceding elements of the syllable [ are ] as common as co - occurrence restrictions holding between the nucleus and the following elements "" ( , , p. ) . ( For more reference see Appendix ) . Overall , this view has been very strongly criticized by other theories such as the Onset Rhyme theory that is analyzed next . < heading>4 . ONSET RHYME THEORY</heading > According to this theory the consonants occurring before the vowel ( nucleus ) are called onset whereas those coming after it are called coda . Besides , the restrictions between peak and coda are noticeably more common ( , , p. ) and the grouping of "" peak & coda together [ is called ] ( ... ) the rhyme of the syllable "" ( Giegerich , , p. ) . In fact , most linguists seem to coincide to this view and elaborate on it . Besides , as and ( ) admit , "" a few of these constraints could , perhaps , be regarded as accidental gaps "" ( p. ) . < heading>5 . 'S SYSTEM</heading > Roach ( ) develops a system for analyzing the possible combinations of phonemes . He starts by describing the segments that can be part of the onset : a ) "" onset "" , ( ... ) b ) "" consonant "" ( ... ) and c ) "" consonant cluster "" ( p. ) and then moves on to describe the coda and its constituents parts : a ) "" coda "" , ( ... ) b ) "" final consonant "" , ( ... ) and c ) "" consonant final cluster "" ) ( p. ) . Finally , he presents the syllable structure according to theory . < heading>5 . 1 STRENGTHS</heading > Overall his system is very clearly structured and easily understood . The presentation starts from the onset where every single possibility is taken into consideration . After the analysis of simple onsets he discusses more complex ones by providing the possible combinations of clusters in a table . Then , following the same structure , he cites the coda combinations through examples and tables . So , one can easily follow his interpretation by looking carefully at the analysis . This analysis is more refined compared to ' ( ) where neither tables nor examples are provided thus making it hard for the reader to go through . Furthermore , ( ) does not present his system as the most accurate one , but acknowledges its limitations . Thus although he makes no distinction between onset and rhyme components in his system , he refers to onset - rhyme theory , by calling it "" a more refined analysis of the syllable "" ( p. ) . Also , he recognizes and records other linguists ' proposal about syllable structure as for example the idea that "" since post - initial j only occurs before , u : and ( ... ) one can postulate a diphthong j and remove j from post - initial position "" ( Roach , , p. ) . However apart from these strengths his system has certain weaknesses that will now be examined . < heading>5 . 2 WEAKNESSES</heading > Firstly , the terminology ( pre - initial , initial , post - final 1 ... post - final ) he uses is rather confusing for the reader and causes several problems . Specifically , by treating pre - initial /s/ as part of the onset and post - final /s/ as part of the coda correspondingly , he debars the sonority hierarchy . Particularly , pre - initial /s/ is more sonorous than the following /p , t , k/ consonants and "" violates the generalization that onset sequences increase in sonority "" ( Giegerich , , p. ) . On the other hand and according to ( ) , "" segments decrease in sonority the further they occur from the nucleus "" ( p. ) . Yet , post - final /s/ is more sonorous than the preceding /p , t , k/ post - final sounds . Therefore , a proposal made by and Hulst ( 2001 ) is to consider pre - initial /s/ as separate from the onset and treat it as prependix whereas post - final /s/ as an appendix ( p. ) . Finally , another idea is that "" sp , st , sk could be treated as individual phonemes , removing the pre - initial position from the syllable onset "" ( cited in , , p. ) . , although distinguishes between long vowels , short vowels and diphthongs , 's main interest is not in the possible nucleus positions but in the sounds occurring under onset and coda categories only . However , this distinction is important and needs to be shown in the syllable structure . In addition , according to and Hulst ( 2001 ) , "" long vowels ( ... ) occupy positions in the rhyme , and as such have exactly the same structure as diphthongs "" ( pp . - 3 ) . Finally as ( ) supports , "" the difference between branching and non branching nuclei is the formal expression of a contrast between long and short vowels "" ( p. ) . < heading>6 . PEDAGOGIC IMPLICATIONS</heading > After examining the syllable structure at a theoretical level , the paper moves on to discuss the importance of a good understanding of syllable and syllable structure in pronunciation teaching . < heading>6.1 RHYTHM OF SPEECH</heading > Initially , the understanding of syllable and syllable structure is necessary when teaching the rhythm of speech as according to ( ) , "" there are ( ... ) cases where people disagree on how many syllables there are in a word in "" ( p. ) . So teachers have to indicate to learners that is a stress - timed language ( , , p. ) . of their priorities is to teach the distinction between stressed and unstressed syllables highlighting the fact that "" stressed syllables ( ... ) have higher pitch and longer duration than their non - stressed counterparts "" ( , , p. ) . Finally , they must clearly indicate which words in a sentence tend to receive stress because students usually place stress in each single word and this hinders comprehensibility . < heading>6 . CONSONANT CLUSTERS</heading > Furthermore , a thorough knowledge of syllable and its structure helps teachers to identify possible problems with consonant clusters ( , , p. ) . Based on their familiarity with the learners ' native language , they can easily explain all the possible and impossible combinations of clusters and predict learners ' errors . As a matter of fact , different languages allow different consonant clustering so the best piece of advice for teachers is to start "" with the presentation of initial clusters because they tend to be easier for students to produce "" ( , , p. ) . Finally , their role is to raise learners ' awareness of the differences and similarities in consonant clustering between and their native language through examples and lots of practice . < heading>6 . VOWEL SOUNDS</heading > Apart from that , the importance of syllable structure is evident when teaching vowel sounds . In this case , teachers must clarify the distinction between diphthongs , long and short vowels in the pronunciation of words by considering branching and non - branching nuclei . However , as not all languages make this distinction , learners of often make errors leading to unsuccessful communication . For example , "" when a learner says ( ... ) soap in a ( ... ) restaurant where they should have said soup , the inaccurate production can lead to misunderstanding "" ( Kelly , 2000 , p. ) . Therefore , teachers need to illustrate for learners how these vowel sounds can differentiate between word meanings . So theoretical knowledge of syllable structure will allow them to teach these units by designing activities on minimal pairs and drilling . < heading>6 . MY LEARNING EXPERIENCE</heading > Before this paper reaches its conclusion , a connection between the importance of syllable structure in pronunciation teaching and my learning and limited teaching experience needs to be made . To start with , I had been taught as a foreign language for in but pronunciation was never part of the lesson . Some teachers considered it insignificant , whereas others had inadequate knowledge of it . of my most vivid memories is that of my best teacher saying "" do not try to divide syllables "" , as she considered the rule for syllable division very difficult to teach . When I entered the department of language and literature in the university and I took the module "" teaching the pronunciation of "" , I realized the importance of a good understanding of pronunciation for the learner and the teacher as well . < heading>6 . MY TEACHING EXPERIENCE</heading > I have only taught to beginners for a limited period of time but yet I have identified problems with teaching the pronunciation of long vowels and consonant clusters . For example , as lacks longs vowels my students mispronounced words such as "" heart , pool "" . With regards to consonant clusters they mispronounced clusters such as "" nd and mb "" . According to and ( ) , "" Greek speakers tend to simplify final nd , mb , and ng , by dropping the nasal consonant , so that "" bend "" becomes "" bed "" , and "" send "" may be misheard as "" sed "" '' ( p. ) . Overall , we tried to overcome the errors by introducing activities on minimal pairs , drilling and other similar ones . < heading>7 . CONCLUSION</heading > In conclusion , of this paper provided a critical evaluation of 's system for syllable structure , whereas presented the importance of syllable and its structure in pronunciation teaching . However , of its basic limitations is that there was no analysis of other theories of syllable structure such as mora theory or body - coda organization that could give us a better insight to syllable structure and a more critical view to 's system . Furthermore , the reference to the pedagogic implications of syllable and its structure was limited to the teaching of stress , vowels and consonant clusters . However , the importance of syllable could also be seen in teaching intonation and syllabic consonants . Nevertheless , the essay has brought to the surface many interesting views about the syllable and syllable structure and thus leads to further investigation of similar issues one being the teaching of pronunciation : what it includes and how it can be succeeded .",0
"< heading > Overview of the company</heading > The metro was street operational light rail system which brought a new concept of public transport among people . 's commuters now use public transport to travel as opposed to their car . in journeys are by train and a growing number are now using . commuters arrive by tram at during the peak time . Therefore they have increased the service from a tram to one every six minutes to help provide a more efficient service to the customers . reliability for has consistently exceeded . is a transportation company of the in the . It runs between and so more people in can benefit from such a reliable and frequent mode of transport . It is a part of and they pay wages to bus drivers . The company is doing a service to the community as opposed to operating for profit . < heading > Details about the trams</heading > The company owns vehicles . They have stops . Each tram is m long m high and m wide . They travel starting from to late in the night . The company developed machines to do the ticketing in the tram instead of having conductors , reducing the wage paid to employees . Since the machines were not able to give the customers change , the company had to get the conductors to carry on with the job . The trams are washed everyday when they come back in the night to the station , where the bus driver just drives through while it gets washed and parks it until it 's taken out in the morning again . Each tram holds people seated and people standing . is the maximum capacity . The company started off with a staff of and now has a staff of , there are bus drivers and conductors . The company has part time conductors as well . < heading > Structure of the industry</heading > The industry for local rail based transport is in its maturity and can be classified as a question mark . transport is still in the early stages of development . Its target market is relatively small with each company averaging turnover of approx in . Large amount of investment will be required to develop the networks so that it can compete with buses and trains . Currently the industry 's position on the spectrum of competition is an oligopoly . There are firms competing with each other with of sales in made by the top firms . < heading > Typical conduct of firms in industry</heading > Firms compete strongly on price . There is evidence of predatory price competition . has made a profit margin whilst profit margin was -17.94 % in . Demand is relatively price inelastic for metro as it is a unique form of transport on local routes in large cities . So even if the price is increased people will still continue using the service . Since each company operates different local routes there may be evidence of collusion : market sharing agreements . < heading > Turnover of the company during < /heading > turnover has grown rapidly with on increase of . The company is unprofitable however and running at a substantial loss ( see later ) . The table below shows the turnover . < table/>Source ( URL ) The rapid growth in turnover is clearly displayed by the bar chart shown below . The most marked increase was . < figure/><table/>Source ( URL ) The bar chart drawn below illustrates the data tabulated above : < figure/>By analyzing the graph we can clearly see that the company is not clearly profitable and running at a substantial loss . In Metro evidently struggled with direct cost and indirect expense control as their loss increased times . The situation has substantially improved with the loss falling at an average rate of per year . It is worthwhile for an entrepreneur to invest in the company rather than trying to start a new company . Initial sunk costs tend to be very high and the turnover data suggests that a rapidly growing market is using . It would be quite hard for a new entrant to capture the market as a result of high technical and economic barriers to entry . It is advisable for an entrepreneur to invest in the company and improve its management . In the long run is likely to achieve economic profit if it can manage its high cost structure in . < heading > Turnover between the competing firms and the company</heading > The turnover differentials between Metro and its competitors are shown below . turnover in was above the median suggesting reasonable performance by the company . led the peer group for sales with in , greater than Metro . was satisfactory despite coming last ; they only underperformed the median by in . Turnover levels are consistent between competitors suggesting relatively equal division of market share in the industry . < figure/>Source ( URL ) < heading > Return on capital employed < /heading > The bar chart below shows the return on capital employed . Looking at it we can see that has failed to achieve returns on the capital they have invested in development projects . Bad investment decisions have been taken and ROCE has fallen by . Average ROCE for the peer group in was a reasonable but large inequalities existed between companies . Leading the way was ISLAND LINE LTD with financial market beating ROCE of whilst Railways managed an insignificant level of . Thus should consider changing management and taking the necessary steps to improve their investment appraisal techniques . < figure/>Source ( URL ) < heading > Evaluate performance of the industry</heading > Since the competitors in the market are providing merit goods i.e. public transport profitability is not a key objective . In the average loss made by each firm in the industry was £ . There is large range in profitability however : is well below average and made a loss of £ in whilst made a profit of . Sales for were however , greater than average for peer group . ROCE in the industry is high ( average - ) reflecting good investment decisions made by companies . < heading > Most viable strategy</heading > Since Metro is already differentiated from its competitors it needs to focus via low cost to gain an advantage over its rivals . Its ability to meet its current liabilities is poor with a current ratio of just . This suggests increasing reliance on short term credit . By reducing its costs it would be able to cut its prices and compete more effectively . In the long term its market will grow if its prices are lower and it will become profitable . < heading > Recommendation</heading > An entrepreneur would be advised to acquire the company rather than set up a new firm . is well established with the th highest turnover in its peer group . They have made the large initial investment to overcome the barriers of starting up , acquiring technical knowledge and gaining economies of scale . They have managed to create a question mark product which needs better management and further investment to become profitable . has a powerful position in the oligopoly and the potential to become a star company . < picture/><picture/ >","presented the knowledge argument as a response to Physicalism in his work "" "" . Physicalism is the doctrine that knowledge of the physical world is the only knowledge possible , and that the only true facts are those expressible in the language of the physical sciences . 's claim is that this view denies or fails to adequately define the subjective features of experience . His apparently simple explanation for this is that one may know everything there is to know about human consciousness and experience , and yet fail to know facts about what these experiences are like subjectively . He uses the famous example of Mary to illustrate this . < fnote , F. ( ) , "" "" , Philosophical , pp . 127 - 36 < /fnote > Mary is a super - scientist who knows all the physical facts about colour experience , including all the activities of the human brain . Physicalism would maintain that she knows all the facts there are to know about colour experience . However , lives in a black and white room and has never experienced actual colour herself . When she ventures out into the real world , it is intuitive to say that she has learnt something new . From this concludes that there must be facts about colour and our experience of it that are non - physical , and as a consequence Physicalism is wrong . In a example introduces , who is somehow able to identify a colour that we ca n't . Where we see red objects will see objects of different colour . believes that we may know everything there is to know about 's mind and body , but we still wo n't know what it is like to see the colour that he sees . There are facts about 's experience that we simply ca n't know unless we are Fred . 's Fred example is similar to the views presented by in his essay What is it Like to be a ? . argues that even with complete physical knowledge we would not know what it is like to use sonar to detect objects . The fact that we can only know what it is like by actually being a bat suggests that there are subjective facts , something which apparently contradicts the physicalist view that all facts are objective and can be understood from any point of view . However draws a weaker conclusion about Physicalism than that of : He restricts himself to saying that at present we can not understand how Physicalism might be true . He compares the current state of Physicalism to "" that which the hypothesis that matter is energy would have had if uttered by a pre - Socratic philosopher "" . < fnote > Nagel , T. ( ) , "" What is it Like to be a ? "" , pp . - 50 . Rpt . in his . , - 214 . < /fnote calls these apparent non - physical facts that we experience "" "" . Qualia are the purely subjective qualitative contents of experience , such as the ' hurtfulness ' of pain . Upon leaving the room , does n't come to know the facts of colour in a different way , but she does come to know new facts about . The idea of raises many questions . As discussed , the nature of any non - physical objective facts must be very strange indeed ( the queerness argument ) . expresses a pessimistic view of our potential for knowing about . In a strange argument he writes that we are the products of evolution but that there is no survival value in knowing how are caused or the laws governing them , and as a consequence we simply ca n't . Epiphenomenalism is the view that are causal by - products of physical processes within our body , rather than the cause of any of these processes . A possible objection to this it the fact that we scream due to pain , or jump back due to the pain caused by a fire . answers this by saying that both events ( the pain and the jump back ) could be by - products of a single underlying cause . There is no doubt that Mary has some kind of new experience when she leaves the black and white room , but different conclusions can be drawn from this . The strong version , which adopts , is that there must be facts that are not physical . A weaker interpretation is that there may be non - physical knowledge , but not non - physical facts . Mary is gaining new knowledge , but not learning new facts . It is this , weaker version that is most often used as an objection to 's view . This interpretation can again be separated into various views about the kind of knowledge it is she gains . assumes that ' knowing what it is like ' is a kind of propositional knowledge , but others disagree and suggest it is simply the gaining of a new ability . She acquires no new facts or information , simply the ability to identify objects as red and remember what red objects look like . Another alternative is that is gaining ' ' or ' Indexical ' knowledge . She comes to know colour experience in the same way that she might know a person or a city . Whichever view we take on the kind of knowledge gained , even if we accept that 's new knowledge is propositional , the objection to remains . When seeing colour for the time , is n't exposed to any new facts , she simply perceives the facts in a new way . She acquires new knowledge of the physical facts under a phenomenal concept . This can be expressed in the following way : Mary knows the fact that x is red because she knows that x is F , where F is the physical property of colour and the physical response of the eyes and brain . But Mary can also know that x is red because she knows that x is G , where G is the phenomenal concept for redness . F and G are simply ways of knowing a single fact : that x is red . These types of knowledge are cognitively independent . It is possible to know that x satisfies the physical concept ( as Mary knew before leaving the room ) without knowing that x satisfies the phenomenal concept and vice versa . In most cases we rely on our phenomenal concept to tell us that x is red with little regard for the physical properties of the object . developed an additional criticism of the idea of . He imagined a machine that allowed people to swap each others , so each was experiencing those of the other . It may well be the case that they would see the world in a radically different way through the other person 's experiences . But points out that we have no way of knowing whether the machine is working properly ( whether the plug is in the right way ) because each person only has their own as a reference point . In such a scenario all talk of essentially drops out of significance . This view is similar to that expressed by in his private language argument . He suggests that a purely private language is impossible because the meaning of words requires them to follow some kind of independent rule . We can say that words are used correctly or incorrectly only because there is a set of external rules that their meaning is governed by . In the same way it is possible to argue that purely subjective facts , such as , are impossible without a relationship with the objective physical world . < fnote > Wittgenstein , ( 1953 ) Philosophical Investigations , : . < /fnote undoubtedly establishes an interesting thought experiment that raises interesting questions . However , his conclusion that 's new knowledge of the experience of colour necessitates non - physical facts is flawed . As has been shown , it is perfectly coherent to say that is simply experiencing the same physical facts in a new way , namely through a phenomenal concept . It is interesting to note that himself later rejected the knowledge argument , and turned to Physicalism . He does not accept that gains any new knowledge upon leaving the room , and instead believes we should focus on why we intuitively tend to think that she does . Despite the apparent lack of modern support for the knowledge argument it remains important as a counter - weight to the dominance of Physicalism in Twentieth Century analytic philosophy of mind . < fnote , F. ( 1998a ) , "" Postscript on Qualia "" in his Mind , Method and Conditionals . : Routledge . < /fnote >",0
"The economic climate of the interwar period was of much disruption . Following the war the world economy was met with a slump of unprecedented severity . Coupled with the disruption to international relations and the economy in general caused by as well as the increasingly protectionist environment around the world , services were faced with a completely changed climate within which to operate . Although services began to fall behind their counterparts , kept pace with and even exceeded in part their equivalents . To an extent this is to be expected , since the economy was largely open compared to the domestically orientated economy and more protectionist economy . However , this general picture conceals the fact that performance in the face of the challenging conditions varied considerably across sectors within services and this shall be examined in this essay . The extent to which different sectors were exposed to international competition was one of the factors which affected the varying intra - sector performance although it was by no means the most important . Finally I shall attempt to show that performance was more down to whether flexible networks continued to be suitable for organization in . The railway industry , although still the most important purveyor of freight within , hit decline in the interwar period . However , stagnation also hit the railway systems of the and . The industry went through one of the most difficult periods in its history , trying to cope with the rise of new alternative forms of transport such as aviation and more particularly road travel as well as the decline 's heavy industry . Freight traffic was hit particularly hard by the latter . Previously coal and coke had accounted for of the ton - mileage of freight carried on the railways ( and 1978:86 ) . Indeed the situation would have been even worse had not had the disastrous effects it did on the coastal shipping industry , which had provided the main competition to the railways before road . The period as a whole therefore was one of stagnation in output and low productivity growth . As shown in table , the still took a labour productivity lead across the interwar period . Indeed even the system had taken a productivity lead by . Undoubtedly there is an element of geography in the productivity lead , since there is a much smaller element of terminal handling associated with the long distance transport in the . However , the existence of a productivity lead brings the extent of this into question . The lead was more due to heavy industry investment which helped lower the costs in setting up the railways . < fnote > As cited in ( 2001:14 ) < /fnote > Before , shipping held a position in the market approaching hegemony . However , the war proved a major problem for the industry as it allowed other countries to build up their fleets while pursued shipping policies geared to war . Towards , all ocean - going tonnage was brought under government control ( Salter 1921:72 ) as shortages worsened in the battle . The war was followed by a period of speculative frenzy , where the reserves built up from the profits of war time were used to finance amalgamations and re - flotation , to buy up the old tonnage and also to order new ships at inflated prices . This created a severe problem of excess supply in shipping as world shipping tonnage increased way ahead of world seaborne trade during . This is apparent in the total and active tonnage in table . freight rates in were still booming at times the level , but they crashed to of the level in , and continued to fall until . The problem of excess supply was exacerbated by the rise of economic nationalism following the war , which was expressed in shipping through subsidies and such like . < fnote > As cited in ( ) < /fnote><fnote > Broadberry ( ) < /fnote > Tramp shipping suffered more than liner shipping . This was partly due to liner shipping lines limiting the aforementioned decline in shipping rates through shipping ' conferences ' on the established shipping routes ( 1973:27 - 42 ) . Coal exports , which had provided a major outward cargo for tramp ships also collapsed putting an additional burden on the tramp shipping firms . This was because carrying ballast rather than coal on the outward voyage was not nearly as profitable , meaning firms were no longer able to compete with the lower crew costs of the and shipping firms . < fnote > As cited in ( ) < /fnote><fnote > Which then brought bulk products home , therefore enabling them to undercut other firms < /fnote > These problems created a picture of shipping which had declining output throughout the period . Although employment grew across , it declined thereafter . Over the period 1914 - 1951 labour productivity grew less rapidly in shipping than in the rest of the transport and communications sector as a whole , although more rapidly than in the aggregate economy . This is shown by comparing labour productivity in tables , and 5 . < fnote > As shown in table < /fnote > In the distribution sector as a whole , output stagnated in the interwar period . , output grew at per year , compared to of the whole economy as shown in table . This also shows very rapid labour growth , therefore meaning labour productivity fell for the sector . However , there was no substantial decrease in the relative productivity position compared to the and . This is shown in table . Financial services were hit by a number of setbacks during the interwar period . Not only was there the disruption of , but also financial crises in a number of countries after the collapse of the inter - war in . Furthermore during the interwar period , financial leadership passed hands from to . On sight you would say that this would mean poor performance for the financial services . However , this really reflected the growing importance of the economy in the world economy as both the growth of population and per capita national income outstripped the , along with the different effects of world wars on national wealth . Comparing labour productivity in financial services , we find that pulled ahead across , but after the crises in was able to pull into a lead . For , there is combined data for both finance and distribution , but the data suggests a small lead . This is shown in table . < fnote > spent external wealth financing the war effort while the prospered < /fnote > I now move onto whether an industry being open or protected had an impact on the response of industry . Aldcroft ( ) is particularly critical of the performance of railways in the interwar period . The basis of the argument is that the flow of traffic increased under Government control during the war , despite the loss of labour to the forces and the understandable cut in capital expenditure . Therefore following the war there should have been economies from nationalizing the system . Although this was possible , competing interest groups meant that the final result was amalgamation into regional groups through the Railways act of . The limited productivity growth that followed is the basis for his argument . Aldcroft criticises the railways in areas , pricing , adoption of new technology and the continued use of small wagons . As an example of his criticisms , sees small wagons as "" far too small for economical handling ; wagons , for example , represented of the total mineral wagons "" ( Dyos and Aldcroft 1969:311 ) . However , it seems likely that Aldcroft was being too harsh in his main criticisms . With regard to small wagons , ( ) points out the real reason for the continued use of small wagons was that it provided flexibility , which was a crucial factor for small retail consignments . Bonavia continues that the transformation of freight handling that occurred later in the and had followed a transfer to road transport of these small consignments . Hence any improvements that urges perhaps would have worsened their problems . < fnote>""Considerable savings could be made by adopting the in place of the wagon . For a capital cost increase of the earning capacity is doubled whilst current maintenance costs would be reduced by per ton - mile , shunting would fall and locomotives could haul pay - loads up to greater "" . ( Dyos and Aldcroft 1969:311 ) < /fnote><fnote > As cited by ( 2001:17 ) < /fnote > Even if parts of 's criticisms of the railways are alleviated , we are still left with poor performance in the interwar period . The hierarchical form of management that was required and used successfully in the ran into problems in the conditions . This was largely due to the legacy of the past which became sanctified in of . It was also embodied in the experience and human capital of the workforce and management , which had a vested interest in doing things in the ' traditional ' manner . In normal conditions , continuity and tradition were seen as a source of strength . However , in the abnormal conditions of the interwar period they tended to be a handicap . It could be argued that ship - owners could have alleviated some of the problems they faced if they had been more willing to adapt to the changing conditions . An example of this is the rise of the motor ship . Henning and ( ) found that net cash flow was always highest for motorship on routes to compared to other forms of ship . However , they point out firstly that the commercial application of the motor ship was in , just after the speculative frenzy , so the spread of the motor ship was limited by the rate of replacement . Although was slower to adopt the motor ship than the , who were expanding their merchant marines , there was much less lag behind the and countries that did not expand their merchant fleets as shown in table . Henning and ( ) blame the slow adoption on the strength of the coal lobby and the general pro coal sentiment in , as well as the over - optimistic claims made by the builders of steam turbines . Ultimately , the loss of financial reserves and the lack of competitive pressure created by the shipping conference system led to firms not taking up the most efficient technology . < fnote > As cited in ( ) < /fnote><fnote > Over period 1922 - 39 on - Australia trade < /fnote><fnote > Henning and Trace ( ) as cited in ( ) < /fnote><fnote > As cited in ( ) < /fnote > In the distribution sector large scale retailing continued to grow . If we include department stores and co - operative stores under the heading ' large scale retailing ' , we find that by they accounted for of the total retail trade , from in . This is shown in table . Despite the growing importance of large scale retailing , which would later become suitable for ' industrialisation ' , small scale retailing continued to remain important overall , hence the lack of an productivity gap . There are a number of reasons for this . the small scale retailer was better able to cater for small local markets , as well as being more flexible . , there was a widening in essential goods which required frequent purchase close to home such as cigarettes . , small scale retailers could offer a personalized service in trades that required a tailored service such as bakers and butchers . Here the personal qualities of the owner have a significant effect on trade , especially repeat purchase customers . Finally , with the growth of trends such as branding and advertising by the manufacturer in the interwar period together with the growing importance of resale price maintenance , the small scale retailer was able to compete effectively with the large scale retailer on equal standing . A report on the commission of ( ) estimated that in , of consumer expenditure was on RSPM goods . By , this figure was . < fnote > Broadberry ( 2001:30 ) < /fnote><fnote > Broadberry ( ) < /fnote > As shown in the part of the question , financial services continued to prosper . This is shown in particular by the overseas banks in international banking . The terms of trade moved against primary commodities and there was an increasing spread of tariffs and exchange controls . This made supplying trade finance and exchange operations to the primary producing colonies like difficult . Despite this , 's overseas banking network survived . Indeed the value of their total assets increased considerably across both world wars in both real and nominal terms as shown in table . However , table also shows this declining in both terms in at the same time as the geographical orientation became even more focused on the which is shown in table . Ultimately though , their continuing reliance on networks meant that despite these asset figures , it coped well with war and depression and no major crisis occurred . In conclusion , it is clear that the response of industry to the immensely trying times of the interwar period was varied . The best way to explain differences in response to the interwar period between the and is not really by whether a sector was open to international competition but by whether flexible networks continued to be a solid base for organization . Where ' industrialization ' occurred in the such as in railways , there was a productivity gap , whereas where flexible networks continued to be suitable there was no such gap , such as in international banking and retailing . I must point out however that exposure to international competition does have an influence in some sectors such as shipping . The lack of a lead apart from railways is due to the continued employment of of the labour force in agriculture , which prevented the growth of services in most sectors . < fnote > Broadberry ( ) < /fnote >","Stabilisation policy is "" short term intervention by the Government , either to counter balance some trend in an economic variable or to speed up ( slow down ) its natural time path "" . It is used because economic variables such as output and unemployment in the short term deviate from their long - term natural and potential rates , creating a so - called business cycle . The source of these deviations and therefore the way the Government responds to them leaves a lot to argue about . economists , building on Keynes ' General Theory in argue that the economy is naturally unstable and that the economy experiences frequent shocks to aggregate supply and demand . Thus policy makers should use fiscal and monetary policy to stabilise the economy to prevent unnecessary fluctuations in output , unemployment and inflation . On the other hand , classical economists and monetarists , such as and argue that the economy is inherently stable and blame bad economic policy for fluctuations . They imply that policy makers should not try and tweak the economy and instead be satisfied if they do no harm . Hence in this essay I shall argue why in theory policy should be used in the economy . I shall also outline the limitations and why it should not be used , before concluding as to the extent to which policy should be used to stabilise the economy drawing examples from the . < fnote > P182 Issues in macroeconomics < /fnote><fnote > Natural rate of unemployment meaning the rate of unemployment where price and wage decisions are consistent . Potential output meaning the highest sustainable level of Gross Domestic Product that can be sustained . If unemployment equals its natural rate , then by logical deduction employment will equal its natural rate and it follows that output will equal its natural potential rate . < /fnote><fnote > Aggregate meaning total . < /fnote > According to Keynesians , as output begins to deviate from potential output , you should use contractionary monetary or fiscal policy if it begins to rise above Y * , or expansionary monetary or fiscal policy if it begins to fall below Y * . We can use the IS - LM and AS - AD models to show how shocks affect the economy . Keynesians work under a fixed price framework , which is true in the short term due wage and price rigidities such as menu costs . Keynes advocated the use of demand management policies to stabilise the economy and keep it at full employment and therefore close to potential output . Hence they believe that by increasing Government spending , decreasing taxes and by decreasing interest rates , recessions can be averted . Say for instance there was a demand shock , like a crisis in consumer confidence in a major trading partner like in , due to the collapse in share valuations , the slump in sector and the wider fall out after the events of . As a result demand for exports fell and this had an adverse effect on aggregate demand , as shown in the IS - LM diagram ( figure ) and the AS - AD diagram ( figure ) . It has been said that the effects of this depression in the on the were mitigated by the decrease in interest rates in the using monetary expansion , from in , to in and , thus increasing output back to a higher amount ( figure ) . This shows that stabilisation policy can be used to offset the effects of economic shocks . < fnote costs : the cost of changing a price . < /fnote><fnote > Policies which affect demand to keep output at its potential level < /fnote><fnote > URL   < /fnote > Keynesians therefore claim that monetary and more specifically fiscal policy can be successfully used to stabilise the economy . This applies more where we have a flat LM and a steep IS . Fiscal policy is therefore much more effective than monetary policy as changes in the money supply generate only small changes in the interest rate , therefore exerting only a small impact on aggregate demand , as shown in figure . This was encapsulated in the 's policy of stabilisation in , which focused on fiscal policy , which produced limited success as outlined later . However , as monetarist theory began to increase in credibility , which applies more where the curve was steep and IS flat ( figure ) , and as inflation took off and public debt increased in , there was an increasing shift towards monetary policy in as a tool for stabilisation , ( changes in monetary supply have a strong influence on aggregate demand in this setting ) . Nevertheless , this did not produce widespread success . In , the macroeconomic policy , as outlined by the then chancellor , "" was to keep inflation low by controlling the growth of the money supply "" . However , although this looked good in theory , in fact it failed to have the desired effect , as policy makers neglected the impact of institutional changes ( e.g. financial deregulation in and ) on the relationship between money supply and prices . Consequently the policies created uncertainty rather than stabilisation . Hence moving on from monetarists , neo - classical economists claim that stabilisation policy should not be used , with the reasons being outlined below . < fnote > P37   URL   < /fnote > With regards to the drawbacks in using policy , there are many . , there are lags in the implementation and the resulting effects of policies . are difficult to predict . There are types of lag , inside which refers to the time between a shock and the policy action responding to it and outside which refers to the time between a policy action and its influence on an economy . In the , inside lags with fiscal policy tend to be shorter due to the parliamentary system in place which enables the ruling party to enact ruling changes quicker than say the which requires the approval of both the president and both houses of congress . Nevertheless the fact that it has to go through a legislative process and also must go through the relevant department ( for example the treasury ) means that it could take to go through in the . However , with regard to monetary policy , the independence of allows it to have a short inside lag as bonds can be sold and bought instantaneously , therefore influencing money supply and consequently interest rates quickly . However the outside lags tend to be longer as firms tend to make investment plans far in advance , although some effects can be felt quicker . Fiscal outside lags tend to be quicker , especially when automatic stabilisers are put into place . For example income tax systems automatically reduce taxes when the economy goes into recession , without having to change tax laws , as people pay less as their incomes fall into lower tax brackets , thereby giving them more disposable income to spend to increase demand . < fnote > Bond supply and demand influences interest rates as for example , if the central bank buys bonds by creating money , increasing bond demand , which increases the price of bonds and conversely decreases the interest rate . < /fnote><fnote > Polices that stimulate or depress economy when necessary without any deliberate policy change . < /fnote > As stabilisation policy can take a long time to be put into practise and take effect , stabilisation policy that will be successful requires accurate predictions of future economic performance . However this is very difficult , as the predictions of the recession show in figure . As you can see economists have frequently under or over predicted . Economists find it easy to predict in advance or in advance , but in between it is difficult and also turning points in the economy are difficult to predict with accuracy . This means that any concretionary ( or "" cooling "" ) policy when an economy is in a boom may make any subsequent depression worse or vice versa with a depression . When using different models to evaluate the impacts of different policies , it is important to be cautious . This is because there is so much we do not know about the science of Economics , hence economists can never be completely confident when analysing the effects of different policies . However , although there is much we do not know , , of the chief critics of demand management , emphasised the role of expectations in the economy . For instance , household spending depends on expectations of a number of factors , such as policy , economic conditions and such like . He argued that traditional methods of policy analysis , such as those which used standard macroeconomic models like the Philips curve , did not take into account the impact of policy on expectations . This is known as the critique . For example , take the policy of disinflation like that in the in . The cost of disinflation is measured by the sacrifice ratio , which is the number of percentage points of GDP that must be forgone to reduce inflation by percentage point . Traditionally estimates of the sacrifice ratio are based on adaptive expectations . Under adaptive expectations , the curve , which originally displayed the relationship between inflation and unemployment rates , predicts that to reduce inflation you must increase unemployment . However , although adaptive expectations may be useful under some circumstances , under rational expectations , if policy makers make a credible change in policy towards disinflation , workers and firms will downwardly adjust their inflation expectations without a large increase in unemployment and therefore high sacrifice ratio . This shows that policymaking and its analysis is hard and policy makers must take everything into account when making decisions . < fnote > Means that expected inflation estimates by people will be formed based on past inflation . < /fnote><fnote > People take all factors into consideration and make an optimal decision based on these factors to forecast the future . < /fnote > Credibility is therefore extremely important in whether stabilisation policy should be used , as by making credible policy changes , will mean decision makers will adjust the expectations quicker and the cost of policy is lower . Hence political arguments come into play , as political cycles are shorter than business cycles , hence a politician may promise a policy that will deliver low inflation pre - election , but deliver high inflation hence creating credibility problems in the future and therefore stabilisation problems . The problem of credibility is illustrated in , where credibility was not established properly as policy makers failed to take account of the effects of the economic cycle on the fiscal position . Hence , fiscal policy became a destabilising influence , rather than a stabilising one . For example , in , the Government lowered taxes even though the economy was already overheating . Within the classical dichotomy , changes in monetary supply do not change real variables in the long run . This is known as money neutrality , as it will change nominal variables like prices but not alter real variables . Lucas also hypothesised within his Misperceptions model that monetary policy could stabilise output only if policy makers have information that is not available to everyone else because otherwise people 's expectations will alter immediately under the rational expectations hypothesis . In other words only unexpected policy changes will have "" real "" effects and change the level of output . This relies on the rational expectations theory above , which to an extent may be true , but how are we to know that economic agents will use all the information available in the best possible way . Also , monetary policy is ineffective where inflation is low or , as you can not achieve the negative real interest rates needed to stimulate the economy . This is the so - called liquidity trap , of which has fallen into . This is shown in figure . < fnote > Variables measured in physical units e.g. real GDP and relative prices e.g. real interest rate are known as real variables . It is also important to note that within the classical framework , prices are flexible in , as wage and price rigidities break down . < /fnote><fnote > The misperceptions model basically says that when actual prices exceed expected , i.e. when there is a shock , suppliers will raise their output . < /fnote > Finally , we can look at the historical experience of stabilisation policy in the . In , the 's economic objective was to "" maintain a high and stable level of employment "" , thereby meaning as close as possible to potential output . During much of this period , up until the end of fixed exchange rates in , the main purpose of fiscal policy was to stimulate domestic demand during lulls in demand to meet the objective of full employment such as by increasing investment in public works and also restrain the economy when demand was too high to avoid balance of payments and currency crises as prices and wages started to rise . However this ran into problems , because as every upturn effectively caused prices and wages to rise , there was no downward flexibility in wages and prices in the downturn because it is difficult to persuade people to have lower wages . Consequently , there were balance of payments problems throughout and 60s thus hampering the use of fiscal policy for stabilisation . To an extent the domestic aim of full employment conflicted with the aim of a fixed exchange rate . This illustrates the point that stabilisation policy is difficult and every aspect must be taken into consideration , while also showing that stabilisation policy is difficult to use in tandem with other objectives as it often conflicts with other objectives . < fnote > Historical Experience of Fiscal Policy and Criteria for Effective Fiscal Stabilisation , ,   URL   < /fnote > In conclusion , it is difficult to say which side is correct . On the one hand , we have the Keynesians who claim that , within their short - term fixed - price model that policy can be used to stabilise the economy . On the other we have the classical theorists , who say that policy has a negligible impact on output within a flexible price framework . I think stabilisation policy could have a role to play , but within certain rules , such as golden rule of , which stipulates , "" government may only borrow to invest over the course of an economic cycle "" , as otherwise aims and objectives within governments may conflict and hinder the ability of policy to stabilise the economy . It is important to take all factors into consideration when deciding on the extent to which policy can be used to stabilise the economy , such as the reaction of expectations and foreign economies to policy and the situation of the economy ( like a liquidity trap , which would prevent the use of monetary policy ) . In reality , we are seeing that governments are increasingly looking towards discretionary fiscal policy within rules to help stabilise the economy ( partly due to the improving budget situation ) , showing that there is a belief that policy to some extent can be used to stabilise the economy . < fnote >   URL   < /fnote >",1
"< heading > Introduction</heading > Undoubtedly , there are many companies that provide interesting case - studies for a discussion of their strategic marketing planning and the way that they have affected or been affected by the international marketing environment , its changes and its trends . with the implementation of and with the adoption of Sigma principles are of the most well - known examples . However , this assignment is based on easyJet , a which , by using a pioneering strategy , had a significant impact on the way that airlines do business . The current assignment initially examines the company and its strategy . Following on , under the perspective of macro - environment , the main events and trends that have affected the aviation market are presented and analysed . Moreover , micro - environment of easyJet is defined , and , in order to provide a clearer picture of the company , a SWOT analysis is presented . Furthermore , possible future events and trends and the way that marketeers should respond to them are examined and lastly , the conclusions drawn up from this analysis are set out . < heading>1 . Company Overview</heading><heading>1.1 The Company</heading > According to the official web - site of easyJet ( URL ) , founded the company and the family still remains the main shareholder . He is also responsible for some other easyGroup companies such as easyInternetcafé , easyMoney.com and easyHotel.com and although there are some "" cross - marketing "" agreements , easyJet operates independently . and ( , p. ) mention that Mr. based his policy on the low - cost carrier , , considering how he could reinvent the airline operations practice . Focused on the low - cost company 's ethos , he based easyJet at ( lower labour costs and airport fees than or ) and whenever possible , he chose as 's destinations , less busy secondary airports in . < heading>1.2 The Strategy</heading > EasyJet has been always focused on eliminating any unnecessary costs and thus able to keep costs low by various ways . According to and ( , pp . - 491 ) and to easyJet 's official web - site , the ways of implementing its strategy are : Specific aircraft type ( and , which are interchangeable on all easyJet routes ) . Maximization of aircraft utilization . Instead of flying for ( industry average ) , each easyJet 's aircraft flies on average of hrs / day . Thus , instead of using aeroplanes , easyJet does the same work with . Booking over the Internet . Having used the Internet to sell its ticket in , easyJet sells of all its seats over the Internet . Ticketless travel . All the transactions between customer and company are made with the use of credit card and the customer only receives a particular reference number , which should be with him at the check - in and of course a valid form of photographic ID . Thus , there is an important reduction on the cost of issuing , distributing , processing and reconciling of tickets . Selling drinks and refreshments , instead of offering a free lunch . It is worth mentioning Mr. 's opinion about free lunches : "" When someone is on a bus , he does n't expect any free lunch . I could n't see why we can not educate our customers to expect no frills on board . "" ( and , p. ) No travel agents . Instead of using travel agents , easyJet prefers direct sales since agents and computer reservation systems can add to operating costs . Efficient use of airports with average turnaround times of . Online check - in and on - site information desk . class of seating . On easyJet there are no business class passengers , thus no extra space is needed . Yield management . easyJet uses a kind of lottery to sell flight seats . The more the demand for a ticket , the higher its price . This strategy has worked very well for easyJet , since a lot of passengers book their tickets well in advance for popular flights , anticipating cheaper tickets . The result of this policy is of flights ' seats are booked . Paperless ' office ' . The management and administration of easyJet is entirely based on IT systems which ensure great flexibility . < heading>2 . and Trends</heading > Among the main events and trends that have affected , ( ) focuses on the following ones : < list > The Deregulation of European Airline Industry InternetSocial and Life - Style ChangesPrice Consciousness</list > Moreover , the Expansion of the to include more countries ( ) , is more significant event . Lastly , one should not fail to take into account the increasing environmental consciousness among consumers . Following on , the abovementioned events and trends are going to be analysed under the perspective of - environment . < heading>3 . The - Environment of easyJet</heading > According to Adcockal . ( , p. ) the consists of uncontrollable variables such as , Economical and Political ones ( also known as ) , which companies have little influence over . < heading>3.1 Social Variables</heading>'Social and as well as the increasing ' Environmental Consciousness ' , can be included to . < heading>3.1.1 Social and Life - Style Changes</heading > Sweeney N. ( ) states that since people nowadays enjoy more free time , their demands for short trips for leisure have increased , leading to increasing sales of low - cost flight tickets . easyJet realised this trend and offers a variety of destinations throughout , although recently it expanded its network to ( ) . ( easyJet 's web - site , [ 25/10/06 ] ) < heading>3.1.2 Environmental Consciousness</heading > During an increasing number of people have become concerned about green issues . Thus , it is very important for a company 's image to be in accordance with any environmental legislation . According to ( Food and Rural Affairs ) official web - site ( URL ) , "" ... is one of the policies being introduced across to tackle emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases and combat the serious threat of climate change "" . easyJet seems to be environmentally - focused and through its policy appears to be a strong supporter of . easyJet uses brand new aeroplanes - thus reducing fuel consumption- , but also tries flying point - to - point rather than wasting resources on unnecessary connecting flights ( easyJet 's web - site , [ 25/10/06 ] ) . Moreover , according to easyJet - news , this environmental - friendly policy is further promoted by means such as the easyBus express , ( a minibus connecting central and airport ) and by encouraging people to use public transport to and from airports ( easyJet advertises and express trains by links on its home - page ) . < heading>3.2 Technological Variables</heading > The impact of the Internet on the modern aviation market can be included among technological variables . < heading>3.2.1 Internet</heading > Internet enabled easyJet to change the traditional way that airlines did business ( see 1.2 ) . According to easyJet 's official web - site , Internet is the most "" cost - effective distribution channel "" ; thus , easyJet encourages its customers to use Internet for their transactions . < heading>3.3 Economical Variables</heading > Price Consciousness can be included among Economical Variables , although it would not be wrong to be also included in ones . < heading>3.3.1 Price Consciousness</heading > Ms Cassani ( ex senior executive of ) claimed that : "" The growth of the low - cost airlines shows that people are fed up with paying ridiculously high fares for a short flight "" . ( Walters J. 2001 ) . In the same article , it is claimed that "" travel managers and the self - employed keep an eye on their expenses "" ; thus easyJet must try to keep its prices low enough in order to be competitive . < heading>3.4 Political Variables</heading > Finally , and the expansion of can be considered as Political Variables . < heading>3.4.1 Deregulation of European Airline Industry</heading > In deregulated the airline industry . and ( , p. ) note that this resulted in an increase of new airlines that tried to enter the new and very promising market without , however , much success . A lot of them quickly faced various problems and by , of the companies that had started up , went bankrupt . Obviously , easyJet was not among them , and taking into account these statistics , its success becomes even more impressive . < heading>3.4.2 Expansion of EU</heading > The expansion of the to include new countries -which actually signified new potential aviation ( Economist , ) has created a significant opportunity for easyJet . The flight routes have now increased and easyJet has the chance to enter vigorously to the relatively new market of . However , in order to fully examine the marketing environment , one must not fail to take into account the micro - environment of the company . < heading>4 . According to Adcockal . ( , pp . - 36 ) a company 's micro - environment consists of some very important elements such as : The Company , the Competitors , the , the Publics , and the Customers . Although in the present assignment some of these elements have already been analysed ( e.g. the Company , see , ) , many of them require a further analysis in order to fully describe the marketing environment . < heading>4.1 Suppliers < /heading > According to easyJet 's official web - site , ( aircraft type : ) and ( aircraft type : A319 ) are the main suppliers of easyJet 's aircrafts . , 's fleet consists of aircrafts and at it will increase to . Although has some significant differences from the ( weight , size and number of seats ) , easyJet is orientated to use both of these aircrafts in the same way , consistent to its philosophy : "" any aircraft , any route "" . However , it is believed that easyJet should attract the double amount of its current customers , in order to fill up its new fleet . ( Economist , 2004 ) < heading>4.2 Competitors</heading > As it has been stated before , the deregulation of resulted in the increase of low - cost airlines . Thus , apart from the traditionally well - established airlines ( i.e. , ) that easyJet had to face , there have been some new competitors too , such as , and . In total , there are low - cost airlines struggling to get a share of market . ( URL , [ 25/10/06 ] ) < heading>4.3 Marketing Intermediaries</heading > In the case of an airline industry , the most common intermediary are travel agents . However with easyJet , things are slightly different since it does not use travel agents to promote its product . Instead it uses a direct sales policy through the Internet . Nevertheless , various web - sites that advertise and promote cheap flights could be considered as marketing intermediaries . < heading>4.4 Publics < /heading>'Publics ' is one of the most significant elements of , since public opinion and social trends can affect a company 's policy and reformulate its marketing strategy . easyJet tries to anticipate social trends and to be rather proactive than reactive to forthcoming social changes . Till now , easyJet 's policy seems to be quite effective since it succeeded in establishing transactions through the Internet -making this policy a trend in the aviation market- and furthermore , easyJet is focused on implementing environmental legislations ( see ) , satisfying its consumers ' environmental concerns . < heading>4.5 Customers</heading > Last but definitely not least , customers play a significant role on . They become the recipients of any product/ service and the prosperity of companies depends heavily on them . For easyJet , the target market are people who pay their tickets on their own , regardless of financial or social background ( and , p. ) and easyJet simply focuses on accomplishing what it has actually promised : low fares , safety , quality services and on - time performance . However , it is commonly stated that easyJet 's customers are more concerned about the price of the ticket , rather than the service itself . Thus , brand loyalty to easyJet is rather rare and it must continuously vie for its market share . After finishing with the last element of , the 's implementation on easyJet 's policy will be discussed . < heading>5 . ' 4Ps ' and easyJet</heading > According to Adcockal . ( , p. ) , ' 4Ps ' is the abbreviation for ' Product ' , ' Price ' , ' Place ' and ' Promotion ' . In order for this assignment to be complete , there must be an analysis of the effect of each of these elements of marketing mix to the policy of easyJet . < heading>5.1 ' Product ' < /heading > Obviously the ' product ' here is nothing more than a flight ticket . It may sound quite simple , but a closer look from the market perspective would reveal that the final product requires the completion of a series of operations . Furthermore , one should examine the reasons that have made this product so popular . Some of them can be found in part , while others can be found throughout this text . However , it is important to sum up the reasons that have made this product so well - established : , the combination of low - price , high safety standards and high quality service And , the implementation of innovative policies . < heading>5.2 ' Price'</heading > Lambin ( , p. ) states that ' price ' can be used as a stimulant for demand , while at the same time it can be an important factor for a company 's long - term prosperity . In the case of easyJet price is an even more crucial factor , since its entire policy depends on low - cost tickets and yield management ( see part ) . All its competitors offer tempting cheap tickets and seem to follow the same policy , therefore pricing has become an even more difficult element to handle . Nevertheless , the strategy of yield management has proved quite successful till now . < heading>5.3 ' Place ' < /heading > According to . ( , p. ) , ' place ' contains "" the activities that make products or services available to customers when and where they want to purchase them "" . easyJet has established the Internet as the ' place ' where any financial transaction between the company and the customer must be actualized . As noted above , easyJet sells of flight seats via Internet , minimizing various costs ( easyJet 's web - site , [ 25/10/06 ] ) . Thus , it can be stated that moved the airline business from the traditional "" marketplace "" to the contemporary "" marketspace "" , moving from the physical to the digital market . ( , p. < heading>5.4 ' Promotion'</heading > According to ( , p. ) , ' promotion ' includes all short - term stimulus , that can offer a boost in sales . Adcockal . ( , p. ) add that promotion can also be used to "" encourage repeat purchase "" . In the case of easyJet , promotion is exclusively accomplished via the Internet . According to its official web - site , easyJet provides a variety of offers to those who choose to book their ticket on - line ( i.e. discounted fares , flight transfers , name changes ) . This is more reason that explains of sales of flight seats on - line . After finishing with the 4P 's and their implementation on easyJet 's case , it is important to continue with a SWOT analysis . < heading>6 . SWOT Analysis</heading > According to Adcockal . ( , p.333 ) , the main purpose of SWOT analysis is firstly to find important data concerning a company 's strategy and , to classify this data into its main categories ; . Dibbal . ( , p. ) suggest that SWOT analysis can provide "" a clear picture of the business 's situation and where action is required to maximise opportunities and minimise threats and weaknesses "" . is presented on the following table : < table/><heading>7 . Future Events/ Trends & Marketeers ' Response</heading > The past main events and trends of the marketing environment have been already discussed , but what are the possible future events and trends in the market ? Undoubtedly , environmental issues are critical since an increasing number of people are becoming environmentally sensitive . Thus , it is important for easyJet to implement any future environmental legislation , as an environmental - friendly image can work effectively in promoting easyJet 's sales . Furthermore , since new airlines will probably try to enter the low - cost airline market ( i.e. subsidiaries of traditional companies ) and the majority of easyJet 's customers could not be characterised as brand loyal , easyJet must not only continue offering high - quality services at the same price , but also it must find ways to deter this entrance . In addition , . ( , p. ) suggest that it is crucial for market leaders to keep a balance between protecting their existing position and searching for a new market share . If examines easyJet as part of easyGroup , one could realise that Mr. has tried to implement the strategy of keeping its market position and trying to find new market shares using easyGroup 's companies ( new products/ services ) . However , entering a new market with a new product or service is not always the safest ' path ' for a company 's future development , although this strategy possibly has the greatest potentials . Finally , from the SWOT analysis , it is obvious that easyJet should take full advantage of its and try to make the most of its . Its established policy and the fact that its flights cover a big part of could play an important role for its future growth . At the same time however , the fact that most of the airlines use yield management to increase their sales it is probably a drawback . Moreover , taking into account that the aviation market is very competitive , one could argue that the future potential of the company is not so promising . According however to ( , pp . ) , there are still great potentials for the airlines due to the fact that many markets ( esp . Central and ) are still quite unexploited . Moreover , he states that < quote>""The abandonment of some short haul routes by full service airlines and the liberalisation of the air regulatory regime in ... forecast to result in further growth for the low cost airline sector . ""</quote > All these contradictory data make marketeers ' task even more difficult . However , what it is considered very important for easyJet 's potential growth is : < list > To succeed in anticipating future social trends to continue implementing proactive strategiesto continue implementing innovative policiesAnd finally , to continue being focused on satisfying consumers ' needs in the most profitable way.</list><heading>8 . Conclusions</heading > The conclusions drawn from this research can be set out by answering questions that have probably come up . may wonder why easyJet performed so well , especially when so many other airlines went bankrupt . have defined marketing as , "" ... the management process responsible for identifying , anticipating and satisfying customer 's requirements profitably . "" ( Adcockal . , p.3 ) It is clear that easyJet succeeded because it effectively implemented the aforementioned definition . easyJet identified people 's need to travel inexpensively , anticipated the demand for affordable tickets and eventually satisfied customers ' needs . It foresaw a ' market gap ' and although it promoted a rather common ' product ' ( flight ticket ) , the ' philosophy ' and the operations that lay behind it were particularly innovative . Furthermore , according to Proctor ( 2000 , p. ) "" An important dimension to strategic market management is to be proactive rather than simply reactive to environmental change "" . easyJet achieved its goals by an efficient proactive strategy and managed to remain a market leader by putting into effect various innovative strategies . It also managed to keep up with the different social trends ( i.e. green issues ) and in some way , easyJet promoted in the trend of booking flight tickets on - line . , may wonder how easyJet managed to become one of the market leaders in such a competitive environment . According to Proctor ( 2000 , p. ) , "" Competition involves finding a different way to satisfy customers from other companies in the market place "" . easyJet accomplished this , by reforming the traditional way of doing business and by finding alternative low - cost means of satisfying customers . Finally , the future development of easyJet will be probably based on the same ' tried and tested ' principles . However , the increasingly competitive aviation market necessitates constant vigilance and careful marketing strategy , always taking into account consumers ' needs and always seeking the most profitable way to satisfy them .","< heading > Question 1</heading><heading > Introduction</heading > The current assignment examines the financial and business performance as well as the future prospects of , a company which is specialized in testing and thermal processing services . The financial and business performance analysis of will be initially based on , and of the company . Moreover , the current analysis makes use of several reports ( i.e. Chairman 's Statement , Directors ' Report etc ) , and in order for this analysis to be complete , some ratios must be calculated and interpreted . Finally , press releases and articles about 's strategy , performance and potential growth are discussed . The data used for the financial and business performance analysis and the calculation of the ratios can be found at 's Annual Report for . Finally , the press releases and the articles can be found at the referenced web - sites . < heading>1 . The Company < /heading > According to its official web - site ( URL ) , the company was founded in by the family and started up as a textile company in Leicester . "" By , 's group turnover was and the company was producing a profit of "" . , operates in countries with over facilities . Company 's main activities include : < list Solutions</list > The main markets that serves are the following ones : < list > AerospaceArchitecturalAutomotiveChemicalsConstructionConsumer ProductsDefenceElectrical , SupportMedicalMiningNovel MaterialsOffshoreOil , Industry</list > In order to define its business relations with its customers , uses Subcontracts , Long Term Agreements and ( ) . Bodycote considers as an innovative way of doing business . are characterised as a "" win - win approach "" , since simply undertakes the construction of a facility near the factory that cooperates with , and the factory binds itself to use the facility . Finally , 's future objective is to become "" the leading provider of metallurgical and testing services "" . In order to accomplish this , Bodycote tries to successfully fulfil its customers ' demands , earning at the same time sustainable profit and ' investing ' on its human resources . < heading>2 . > As abovementioned , the analysis of the financial and business performance of will be based on several sources such as financial reports , board members ' reports , ratio analysis and analysis of press releases and relative articles . < heading>2.1 < /heading > The examined financial reports are , and -all of them for since according to , "" The consolidated financial statements incorporate the financial statements of the Company and entities controlled by the Company ( its subsidiaries ) "" . < fnote > Bodycote report , p. < /fnote > Note : The words in are data taken from the financial statements . < heading>2.1.1 Consolidated Income Statement < fnote > Bodycote report , p. > On examining , one can focus on the following main data : The   Revenue - continuing operations increased by ( from £ m in to £ 470.9 m in ) . This increase is mainly based on the increase of from in to £ 17.2 m in . - continuing operations also increased by ( from in to £ m in ) , and consequently the Profit for from continuing operations has been increased by to £ m ( 2004 : £ m ) . In Bodycote did not make any for from discontinued operations in contrast with when experienced a loss of £ m Finally there was an increase in by to £ m ( : £ m ) . < heading>2.1.2 < fnote > Bodycote report , p. > Among the data of that can be proved particularly useful on analysing the financial and business performance of , one can concentrate on the following : The Goodwill of Bodycote increased by ( from £ m in to in ) . Property , plant and equipment were also increased by to £ m ( : £ m ) . The above elements were the main reasons for the increase of the Non - current assets ( from £ m in to £ m in ) . On the other hand , the Current assets of the company decreased by to £ m ( : ) and , in connection with the increase of Current liabilities by ( from £ m in to £ 118.1 m in ) , this resulted in a decrease of Net current assets to £ m ( : ) . On examining the Current liabilities , it is important to take into account the increase of Trade and other payables ( from £ m in to £ m in ) . However , it is obvious that Bodycote could easily meet its using its Current Assets , for both and 2005 The Net assets increased by ( from in to £ m in ) , since there was an important increase of Non current assets as it was stated before . Finally , the Total equity increased by to £ m ( : ) . < heading>2.1.3 Consolidated Cash Flow Statement < fnote > Bodycote report , p. > The Consolidated Cash Flow Statement is very interesting since it depicts the vigorous investing activities of . However , the financing activities of are of great interest too . Thus , one can focus on : Bodycote 's Net cash from operating activities decreased from £ m in to £ 95.7 m in . The Purchases of property , plant and equipment which increased by to £ m ( 2004 : £ m ) , as well as the increase of Acquisition of subsidiaries from in to £ m in . Moreover , the Disposal of subsidiaries is much smaller in ( ) , compared to ( £ m ) . In addition , the Net cash used in investing activities is increased by to £ m ( : ) . In , there was a decrease in New bank loans raised , from £ m in to £ 0.1 m in . Moreover , in Net cash from financing activities was where in Bodycote used £ m in its financing activities . In addition , in the Net cash and cash equivalents increased by £ where in decreased by £ m. Finally , the Cash and cash equivalents at beginning and end of year in 2005 were £ m and m , whereas in they were £ m and respectively . < heading>2.2 ' Members Reports Analysis</heading > The reports that are going to be examined in the current assignment are : < list > Chairman 's Director 's Reportand Directors ' Report</list > These reports include important data which their impact is depicted on the financial reports of part . The data presented here explain and justify the differences between the financial reports of and 2005 . < heading>2.2.1 Chairman 's Statement < fnote > Bodycote report , p. 2</fnote></heading > According to Chairman 's Statement , achieved "" a strong organic growth of and a further from a series of bolt - on acquisitions "" . He also refers that during , obtained new acquisitions at a cost of £ m and has invested "" in projects that will bring a longer term benefit to the group "" . Finally , he seems optimistic about 's future growth , since he believes that markets such as aerospace and health science have great potentials . The new acquisitions justify the increase in , in Non - current assets ( and   Property , plant and equipment ) , in Purchases of property , plant and equipment and in   Net cash used in investing activities . < heading>2.2.2 Chief Executive 's Review < fnote > Bodycote report , pp . 3 - 7</fnote></heading > The Chief Executive 's Review contains several important data , worth mentioning in order to make this analysis more thorough . , he states that with the acquisition of the new facilities Bodycote managed to "" rebalance its portfolio "" . In addition , he mentions that the "" geographic and market spread "" of , reduces the risk of depending too much in a particular country/ market . He also pinpoints that 's "" top customers accounted for of total revenue "" . In addition he gives a detailed review of the new investments which include : < list>3 laboratories ( Health Science division)7 laboratories ( Materials testing , and Environmental divisions)establishment of in acquisitions ( Heat Treatment)4 plants in interest of in ( ) and ( France)</list > Furthermore , he mentions that increased both in and ( and respectively ) and has started investing in ; a plant of a m 2 is under construction and plans to "" complete similar other factories over "" through . He also states that there has been an increase in Revenue for all 's different activities . Finally , he points out that energy remains among the most significant costs and Bodycote tries to pass this cost on its customers . Some of the abovementioned data justify the increase in Revenue - continuing operations as well as the increase in Operating profit - continuing operations . < heading>2.2.3 Finance Director 's Report < fnote > Bodycote report , pp . Focusing on the Director 's Report , one can find several important data concerning . To begin with , he states that demand was improved in most markets , but the automotive sector in and faced a "" challenging "" period . He also mentions that exited from electroplating business ( loss of in ) , coming to a break - even point in . He also mentions that increased to ( 2004 : ) and the Final Dividend is compared to in . Furthermore , he states that various important projects started during in different places all over the world . The Director also makes significant comments on 's cash flow management . He mentions that company 's decrease in Net cash from operating activities is the result of "" increased capital expenditure "" . He also points out that there has been an increase in "" debtor from "" , increasing thus debtors by £ m. He also states that gearing in was compared to in . Moreover , he mentions that Bodycote tries to keep a balance of between fixed and floating rates and at "" of borrowings were at fixed rates "" for on average . He also refers that among 's main concerns is to reassure "" continuity of finance at a reasonable cost "" . Based on this , is financed by : < list > mix of cash flows from operationsshort - term borrowingslonger - term loans from bankscapital marketsfinance leases.</list > Finally , he mentions that is using "" uncommitted and short - term facilities "" in order to successfully manage "" day - to - day liquidity and working capital requirements "" . The exit from electroplating business justifies partially both 's for from discontinued operations ( £ m ) and of subsidiaries ( ) . < heading>2.2.4 Directors ' Report < fnote > Bodycote report , pp . The last report examined is that of the Directors . The particular report does not offer much financial information , however there are some data which can be used for the overall business performance analysis . Thus : Bodycote carried out a evaluation during , where all the Executive Directors were evaluated , as well as the Chief Executive . Among the responsibilities of the Directors is to review the effectiveness of the 's system of internal control . It is stressed that this system manages rather eliminates "" the risk of failure to achieve business objectives "" . It is also stated that Bodycote "" is committed to the achievement of the highest practicable standards of safety and health at work for all employees "" , while it also tries to minimize its environmental effects . Moreover , -where applicable- environmental standards such as and 17025 are implemented . Bodycote tries to keep its employees informed about company 's performance and progress , by giving them the opportunity to attend or participate in "" production , safety and health meetings at site level "" . Bodycote invests on research and development so as to be capable of "" deploying the best technology available "" . Finally 's creditor policy is defined by firm agreements and it is worth mentioning that for and 2005 were . < heading>2.3 Ratio Analysis < fnote > The Ratios and their analysis used in this section are based on the notes of the module , unless referenced otherwise.</fnote></heading > Ratio Analysis is the next step in examining 's performance . According to ( , p. ) , ratios can be a very useful tool on one 's attempt to interpret financial accounts . ( , p. ) points out that "" ratios taken in isolation for a single company or a single period of time are of limited usefulness "" . Based on the abovementioned , the ratios ' comparison made here is for and 2005 . The data ( in £ m ) used for the calculation of the ratios came from 's report and are presented in the following table . < table/>The ratios calculated in the current assignment , are presented on the following table : < table/><heading > Return on Capital Employed</heading > According to ( , p. ) , the main use of ROCE is to avoid jumping to conclusions about the profit of a company , failing to take into account the capital employed for achieving this profit . Bodycote 's ROCE increased by , from in to in . This slight boost is due to the equal increase of . According to ( , p. ) this increase could be the result of a better utilization of Total Assets . < heading > Return on Total Assets</heading > Return on Total Assets increased by ( 2004 : ) . Undoubtedly , this is an improvement for which is mainly justified by the new acquisitions that the company made during and its exit from the electroplating business , causing thus a change in the mix of 's business . < heading > Return on Shareholders ' Funds</heading > The results of this ratio ( : ; : ) are an indication of the probable long - term prosperity of the company ; 's stable profits and its reduced business risk -according to Chief Executive 's review- attract new investments and shareholders ' support , making thus company 's future promising . < heading > Gross Margin</heading > Gross Margin does not present any significant change from ( ) to ( ) . Although , as abovementioned , the automotive sector in and faced a "" challenging "" period , the demand in the rest of the markets was increased ( see Finance Director 's Report ) ; thus 's gross margin remained approximately the same . < heading > Net Margin</heading > The slight decrease of this ratio ( from in to in ) does not seem to be a source of worry , since both of operating profits and total sales increased for , but with slightly different analogy . < heading > Sales per £ 1 Capital Employed</heading > From in to in , the results of this ratio are probably low . However , one should take into account that has not probably fully utilised the recent acquisitions and the investments it made ; higher prices for the particular ratio can be expected for , when the company will be in place to make full use of its utilities . < heading here , although there is a slight increase of the ratio ( : ; : ) its results are low . The same reasons as above possibly affect this ratio . The capital invested for the new acquisitions has not probably become fully productive , thus the ratio remains in low levels . As above , better results can be anticipated for . < heading > Inventory Turnover</heading > The particular ratio decreased by to ( 2004 : ) . According to ( , p. ) , this means that the company does not "" turn over its stocks "" as quickly as it did . However , one must take into account that is a company with various activities and , consequently , with a wide range of products/ services . This variety probably caused some difficulty in the efficient turnover of the stock to sales , especially after the new acquisitions . It should be noted that the calculation of the particular ratio is highly affected by the industry trends in inventory management . < heading > Debtor days</heading > According to Finance Directors ' report ( see 2.2.3 ) , the debtor were increased from , resulting in an increase on debtors by £ m. It is obvious that an increase in this ratio is not desirable for the company and it might had a downward impact on the cash statement , which decreased by £ m. Nevertheless , ( , p. ) suggests that one must consider the type of the trade and the average debtor collection period for the market . Thus , it is difficult to draw any more definite conclusions without having any other information about market or competitors ' policy . < heading > Gearing</heading > Gearing for Bodycote increased from in to in . Although significant acquisitions have been made , has not increased dramatically and remains in relatively low level . These results prove that is not heavily dependent on borrowings , since according to Finance Directors ' Report ( see 2.2.3 ) , the company is financed by a mixture of borrowings -short and long term- , cash flows from operations , finance leases etc . < heading > Interest Cover</heading > Finally , Interest Cover increased by to times ( : times ) since 's profitability increased , while its borrowings decreased . The results for this ratio highlight 's stability and independence in terms of financial resources ; however , the figures must be compared with those of its rivals in order to draw a balanced conclusion . < heading>2.4 In this part , press release and articles about 's performance are examined . According to the November 3 rd 2006 Press Release , made "" further progress in the implementation of its stated corporate strategy "" , by acquiring new businesses , which however will not contribute significantly on sales and profits . Furthermore , in Bodycote plans to "" invest m in heat treatment and testing start - ups "" in emerging markets "" ( , , , , ) . On the advisory company pointed out that 's future seems promising , since an ongoing growth in industrial production through is anticipated . Moreover , it was stated that Bodycote "" has a better medium term end - market profile than many peers "" , since it is orientated to the market . ( TMCnet NEWS , ) Later on however , ( ) mentioned that 's performance failed to satisfy analysts ' high expectations , since the company did not achieve to take full advantage of what it was thought to be "" the peak of the industrial cycle "" . Moreover , it was stated that 's expansion in was made just to "" catch - up "" with its rivals . On the other hand , an article in , ( ) mentioned that 's revenue from continuing operations increased by ; it was also stated that Bodycote continues to "" attract new businesses from manufacturers in key markets "" , and the company tries to "" boost its testing business "" by expanding into new services and new markets . Finally , in the same journal in it was mentioned that formed a strategic alliance with , thus Bodycote can participate more dynamically in the "" titanium product area "" , which is thought to have important potentials . < heading>3 . Conclusion</heading > At this point , it is worth making a brief summary of the key data derived from the previous analysis . Operating profit and Profit for increased in by respectively . In addition , 's organic growth reached , possibly indicating company 's good managerial performance . The company could easily meet its Current Liabilities by making use of its Current Assets . To what is more , has a variety of ways in covering its day - to - day requirements . There were some dynamic investing activities throughout , which continued in and will carry on in . 's geographical and market expansion reduces the associated business risk . Moreover , demand increased in most markets and future prospects of particular markets seem promising . The majority of the improved , demonstrating 's strong and consistent performance . The decrease of by is probably due to the many activities that is involved in and to the new acquisitions and investments which have not been yet fully utilised . These new investments affected most of the ratios , keeping them in moderate levels ; nevertheless , better results can be expected once the company takes full advantage of them . Moreover , the figures for probably reveal 's low financial risk . Lastly , according to the examined articles , company 's future seems favourable since has forcefully entered emerging markets , without however neglecting and . Undoubtedly , if parameters such as competitors ' performance and industry 's averages had been included , the whole analysis would have been more accurate and thorough . However , taking into account the published data , 's business and financial performance in can be characterised as satisfactory and the company 's future seems encouraging . < heading > Question 2MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING</heading><heading > Part A</heading > Before answering the assigned question , it is considered important to make a short review of team 's strategy and author 's role . Team 's goal was to become market leader to selected markets with the product ' Tiger ' , at . Thus , it was decided to invest both in new market and new product development . Author 's role was that of the Commercial Manager and his main responsibility was to win orders . The orders that he was supposed to win had been discussed and agreed with the whole team , paying particular attention to production manager 's view about machines ' capacity . After mentioning these data , the significance of cash management and the impact of the author 's role upon the cash position of the business will be discussed . On examining Cash Flow Statement ( see Appendix ) , one can easily realize that the company was in a difficult cash position at . The decrease in cash by $ m was disappointing , but the reasons for this decrease had been identified well in advanced . The cash management was poor . The team aimed to win as many as possible orders in , and the author succeeded in it , after persuading the team to invest in . But on trying to complete the won orders , the team came to realise that it was short of cash ; the team had failed to take into consideration other costs such as market , product and supplier development and stock expenses . The easy solution was to make discounts to customers and have bank loans to cover current liabilities . But both of them deteriorated team 's cash position ; although the team was achieving high sales , it could not make profit ! That is when the team realised the importance of effective cash management . In , the team decided to invest less money in , but it did not succeed wining significant orders . Thus there was an increase in stock and debtors ( $ m and $ m , respectively ) and the company consumed ! The impact of the author 's role upon the cash position of the business during the simulation can be summarised on the followings : Commercial Manager was responsible for winning the orders . In order to do so , investments in were necessary , increasing thus the Investing activities of the team . Due to the inadequate cash management , in order to satisfy the won orders , team had to borrow money ; thus , loans were rising each year ( i.e. £ 30 m in ) . The impact of Commercial Manager 's role in real business 's cash management is also very important . Usually , he is responsible for all company 's commercial and sales activities as well as for the relationships with the customers . The aforementioned activities can provide company with sales and accordingly cash flow . Just like the game , these orders ( hopefully based on a better assessment of different factors , rather than machines ' capacity as done above ) may demand investments . These investments , in turn , create cash flows and affect the cash position of the company ( i.e. new loans , discounting ) . Concluding , effective management and close surveillance of cash are significant elements in order for a company to be successful . < heading > Part B</heading><heading > Activity Based Costing</heading > Firstly , it is considered important to give some data about ( ) . ( , p. ) mentions that "" is a relatively new approach to assigning overhead costs to products "" , while . ( , pp . - 128 ) state that costs are allocated to activities rather than cost centres , and that "" activities should describe what resources , such as people and equipment , are doing "" . Furthermore , Bhimanial . ( , p. ) point out that "" by identifying the cost of performing each activity , system seek a greater level of detail in understanding how an organisation uses its resources "" . Using method in , could have been proved quite useful . Team 's main decision was the development of a new product ( ' Tiger ' ) , totally based on future sales ' forecasts . Factors such as production cost ( i.e. machines ' set - up , machines , demand of raw materials ) and investments needed ( i.e. new machines , suppliers development ) in order to develop this new product , were completely ignored , since the team thought that achieving high sales in high prices would bring profit . But since the results were different from the expected ones , the implementation of may have helped team to make a more circumstantial decision , taking into account the different activities necessary for the new final product , and the cost that these activities were generating in relationship with the product 's potential profit . In the complex real world , can deter companies from either undercost ( "" makes sales that result in losses "" ) or overcost products ( "" risk of losing market share "" ) ( Bhimanial . , p. ) , by taking into account cost elements which traditional cost methods overlook . Thus , methodology can be a very useful tool for the modern companies . < heading > Investment Appraisal</heading > According to ( , p. ) , "" is about selecting investments where the benefits of the investment outweigh the costs and where the cash generated by the project more than outweighs the lost opportunities for shareholders and banks to invest elsewhere "" , while ( , p. ) highlights that the main points of is "" whether , when and how "" to invest capital on projects . One can focus on the following appraisal methods : < list > Payback PeriodAccounting Rate of of Period</list>(Mott G. 1997 , p. ) The main decision that was made during the business simulation "" "" was about the development of a new product ( ' Tiger ' ) . By using of the abovementioned techniques , the team could have made a more sound decision , based on other data too , rather than utterly on future sales ' forecasts . By developing the ' Tiger ' , the team found itself in need of more machines . The investment in new machines was based on the production rate of the particular type of machines that the team bought . However , the team could have take into account factors such as the initial investment and the future cashflows on examining the alternative types of machines that were on sale ; thus making a different , but more profitable choice . In the real world , techniques are indispensable part of any investment decision and can function as a guide for financial managers . Nevertheless , it is worth mentioning that investments ' future performances are to a certain extent based on forecasts , thus "" any appraisal technique can only produce advice based on these forecasts "" and not a success - guaranteed decision . ( , p. )",1
"The rise of a professional medical discipline was gradual process beginning from . Its fate was perhaps sealed in by , which enforced that all practitioners must be "" legally or duly qualified "" ( , , p.73 ) . In future all medical practitioners would have to possess what were deemed to be the necessary education and examinations in order to operate legitimately and legally . Sadly for women , this Act was also the peak of their increasing exclusion from medicine . It placed a legal barrier in the path of any woman wishing to practice , because none of the possible routes of entry into the medical register possessed examinations in which women were allowed to participate . Thus , in basic terms , the professionalisation of medicine was also its masculinisation . This masculinisation of medicine can not and should not be seen in isolation . It reflects but also perhaps aided the dominant ideology of the time which , in being influenced by ' enlightened ' thinking , saw the female gender as irrational and irresponsible , ruled by passions and emotion . In this sense , women were seen to represent everything about the past that was now incompatible with the rational and scientific modern world and , in turn , its medical discipline . The exclusion of women from the medical profession thus hinged on ' ideological tensions between superstition and tradition on the one hand and enlightenment and progress on the other ' ( , , p.30 ) , and was part of a wider context of female exclusion from labour . Enlightened thinking was similarly important on how professional medicine viewed and defined the body . Authors of asked the reader ' to consider the human body only as "" a living engine "" ' ( , , p.108 ) , a machine made up of interconnected parts , all of which need maintenance to ensure smooth running . This led to conclusions that the role of the professional practitioner was that of the engineer , someone who had mastery over and control of the machine . Jewson in his essay , links this to the processes inherent in medicine in the modern era , where the patient 's role in treatment has become negligible . We invest in medical professionals the belief that they possess the knowledge necessary for them to have complete control of the patient 's body . This notion is important for women in relation to professional medicine , in both gender and class terms , because this power - giving discourse was inherently male and middle - class . It could be found only in the universities and teaching schools , which admitted only men and only those who could afford their fees . The notion existing within professional medicine of the body as a machine was perhaps crucial in the elimination of women from what might be seen as the most feminine of medical arenas , that of childbirth and midwifery . As points out , ' throughout history it is women who have controlled their own reproductive function ' ( Oakley , , ) , meaning that its management was exclusively part of the feminine role . Childbirth was undertaken within a community of women , the midwife having learned her own skills within this very environment . Knowledge thus derived from experience remained within the female framework . However , with the rise of professional medicine came the re - definition of what was valuable knowledge . In a society in which , as we have seen , women were inferior and subordinate , men had the power to lever the importance of their ' textbook ' knowledge over that of female experience . This was aided by the , whose powerful anti - feminism led to the denouncement of many female healers as witches . This was linked in particular to those healers who practiced midwifery because of their access to un - Christened infants ( , , p.17 ) . Whilst it has been claimed that the entire impetus behind the era of witch trials was to deflect attention from the increasing criticism of the clergy , the remained a powerful institution because of its links to the hierarchies of the male and of the landed classes . In all cases the traditional female healer represented a dangerous being in society , it being seen to be unnatural for a women to be in a position of power over other beings , particularly as she was generally from the class of peasants . It was perhaps for this reason why , initially , professionalisation only entailed the gaining of license via character references , which only the better - off of women healers would be able to afford ( , , p20 ) . In this sense then it appears that the rich , the and men in general aided one another in this opportunity to suppress those women who violated their personal hierarchies , using the rise of professional medicine as their means . Take this ability to place professional ( thereby male and middle - class ) medical discourse over and above that of traditional female healers , alongside the vision of practitioner as the engineer of the human ' machine ' , and it is easy to see how the male takeover of even midwifery was large in extent . The male practitioner of modern medicine was far more invasive upon the female body , for example with the use of forceps . However , this could not only be justified by the machine analogy ( forceps made the machine operate more effectively ) but effectively used to promote professional medicine because it was men in society who defined the value in any process or procedure via their monopoly of medical education . Forceps are often seen as the symbol of the professionalisation of childbirth , representing the rationality of men in easing the birthing process ( , p.47 ) . Many attribute the increase in surgical intervention ( and thereby male intervention ) to fashion among the elites who embraced the enlightened ideology of progress it represented . Male practitioners were more expensive than their female counterparts ( Oakley , , p.24 ) so again it was the wider context of the rise of a wealthy middle - class as a result of industriallisation that precipitated the move to the use of medical men . As is seen to be normal , fashions adopted by the higher classes would inevitably eventually filter down to the lower ranks of society . Yet despite their rise in popularity , the male takeover of childbirth was always an area of contradiction and contention because the man - midwife threatened the very gender conceptions upon which male power rested . The man - midwife was often portrayed as a ' bizarre monster ' as can be seen from the frontispiece to the Man - Midwifery Dissected ( , , pp.33 - 34 ) . Male midwifery then is a complex issue . While its takeover was the final move in the complete exclusion of women from medicine , its role within the medical profession was not clearly defined due to existing visions of its as ' women 's work ' . Yet it was increasingly adopted as a way I which to enter general practice and thus continued to contribute to the ascendancy of men in the medical profession ( , , pp.48 - 52 ) . Perhaps it has received so much attention in relation to the masculinisation of medicine because of its very ability to pose a threat to the foundations upon which the profession was built . The rise of professional medicine thus implied that women lost control of any claim they once held over the healing of the sick . Medicine became synonymous of masculinity and ' middle - classness ' and the associated rational , scientific thinking . Whilst not legally excluded from professional medicine , society 's institutions ensured that access to the means of inclusion was barred initially just to women of the lower classes via the gaining of a medical license , but later to all via their inability to obtain the education and qualifications required . Women even lost their once total control over the processes involved in and around childbirth , an area once ' universally regarded as a female "" mystery "" ' ( , , ) . Although this followed a different course as a result of the moral complications involved in the conception of midwifery by the medical profession , the calling of the female midwife to a woman in labour was now no longer an immediate and unquestioned response . Equally , the female patient was also affected by medical professionalisation in that she lost the negotiable control she had held over her body with the female healer , to the medical man whose claim to understand her body better than herself ( Oakley , , ) was upheld by the dominant ideology surrounding the superior role of man in society at this time . In short , the informal , unregulated domain of the female peasant healer was replaced in professional medicine by the formal of the male practitioner whose validity was endorsed by the patriarchal institutions of education and the state .","< heading > Section 1 : Introduction</heading > Aimil Pharmaceuticals is one of the leading herbal medicines manufacturing company in . The firm manufactures various kinds of herbal medicines distributed in northern region of . The firm is mainly based in , of with few plant and offices in regions outside . At their plant , the firm manufactures large amount of medicines everyday . The medicines are manufactured by combining various herbs , which are being collected from various sources from in and outside . In this assignment , we shall try to simulate one of their manufacturing plants based in and solve some of the issues concerning the efficiency of the plant . < heading > Section 2 : Problem</heading > Each plant site manufactures medicine for certain regions of . The plant based in , mainly covers areas around . The plant operates from till , a week . In order to manufacture the medicines , raw material which are the herbs are needed . The company have contacts with different vendors who provide all the herbs . The herbs collected from vendor are only used for making one kind of medicine . The lorries leave the plant at to collect the herbs from different vendors located on nearly equal distance from the plant . The plant has different of different sizes used in bringing all the raw materials required . The leave the plant site at to collect the herbs in the following manner : . Grey Coloured Lorries go to I and do runs a day to that plant to collect the herbs , they leave the plant site . . Blue Coloured Lorries go to and do runs a day to that plant to collect the herbs ; they leave the plant site . . Five Black Coloured Lorries go to and do runs a day to that plant to collect the herbs , they leave the plant site . . Brown Coloured Lorries go to and do runs a day to that plant to collect the herbs ; they leave the plant site . The size of , Blue and are same where as the size of are . All the leaves through the exit gates , where they have to stop and get a clearance form from security When the arrive after their visit , they must stop at and driver have to provide the signed documents by the which are kept for record purposes . The next stage involves proceeding to the weighbridge area only if it is available else they have to wait in the queue designed to wait before moving onto weighbridge . If no spaces are available the lorry has to wait at the Entrance . After the weighing process is finished the lorry moves to the next point that is the stock check - in area . At present , there are stock check - in - area points present , whose duty is to check all the material . The can take any of available points to get the goods checked . If no point is free , then the lorry has to wait in a queue for the check - in - area . After receiving the satisfactory check letter , the final stage is the off - loading stage . There are off - loading bays designed to transfer all the material in quickest possible way . The lorry proceeds to of the offloading bays . If no bay is vacant they lorry have to wait in the queue . After off - loading all the material , the lorries either leave again for the next trip ( They would leave through the exit gates and if its busy they would have to wait in a queue ) or if its their list trip they move to final point which is the washing Zone . If the washing Zone is busy they would have to wait in until they get any free available point . After washing the lorries are parked in the parking Zone . The layout of the plant is in such a way that it allows up to maximum of lorries in a queue except the queue for the entrance which could usually have any number of lorries because its outside the plant area . The biggest congestion is seen during the timing at the weighbridge zone and check - in points . The management has plans to add some extra check - in points and some offloading points in order to enable all lorries to finish their work by . Under current operation the lorries usually finish by . < heading > Section 3 : Objectives</heading > The motivation to do this project came from personally worked in the firm as trainee and knowing the problem they were facing at their north plant . Office Address:2994/4 , Street No . Ranjeet Phone:91 - 11 - 5701203 , Website :   URL   The objective is to determine the number of check - in points and off - loading points required so that all lorries finish their tasks by . The maximum number of check - in and off - loading points allowed is . ( Conceptual model development is an iterative process . All aspects of the model were continuously refined ( including objectives ) . The report presents the final version of the model . ) The main report is pages with pages of appendices . < heading > Section 4 : Flow Diagram</heading><figure/><heading > Section 5 : Assumptions < /heading > The lorries arrive full . Lorries are never refused at Entry or points . The check - in of the material is always satisfactory . Every operation point has dedicated worker . The capacity of the queue is more than the actual number of lorries plant have . There are no breakdowns of the equipments or lorries . Data obtained on time it takes to travel to respective vendor and back to the plant are sufficiently accurate for the problem . Data obtained on time to perform the operations at the plant are sufficiently accurate for the problem . Travel time from to and Off - loading Zone to are equal . < heading > Section 6 : Simplifications</heading > Operation of only one day is being modelled in this project because the amount of work , vendors , and pattern of work does not change on day - by - basis . The breaks taken by the staff member is not modelled in this project . In real life scenario the staff takes a break when their work centres are usually waiting for operation . Travel time vary very little , so fixed values are being used to represent travel times between various activities . < heading > Section 7 : and Output</heading><heading>7.1   Experimental Factor</heading><list > Number of Check - in points ( Range : of offloading points ( Range :   to determine achievement of the objectives</heading > Time spent at work ( From ) by the lorry that finishes it work last ( it should be less then ) < heading>7.3   Response to determine reasons for failure to meet objectives</heading><list sizes ( Average , Minimum , Maximum ) for all operational processes . Queuing times ( Average , Minimum , Maximum , Standard Deviation ) for all operational processes . Time - series of queue sizes by of queues for all operational processes . Percentage of time that operational processes are waiting for work or blocked.</list><heading > Section 8 : Model Content</heading><heading>8.1   Model Scope</heading > Lorries are included as a flow through the operational processes . All operational processes are essential to be modelled as they all effect the time lorries spend at the yard ( Number of check - in points and offloading points are experimental factor in this project ) Queues for all operational processes are modelled as their statistics serve as responses to determine reasons for failure . Operational processes include , , Weigh Bridge Zone , Check - in Zone , Offloading Zone and . Operational processes at the site are not modelled in this project as they are independent businesses and management of has no authorisation to change their operations for personal benefits . Travelling to site and returning to the farm is modelled by creating a dummy work centre "" Vendors "" . It has replications ( for lorries ) as all lorries travel at the same time . < heading>8.2   Model Level of Details</heading><table/><heading > Section 9 : Model Data</heading > Empirical Data are presented in the , page . Stat::Fit was used to fit automatically analytical distributions into gathered data . The analytical distributions for each operations processes times where chosen by analysing the Stat::Fit summary of statistics , parameters estimates and most importantly goodness of fit tests and by comparing between the estimated distribution and the input data . of Stat::Fit was used to calculate mean and SD . < heading>9.1   Number of Lorries</heading > The total numbers of lorries available are and the lorries are being divided in groups of . Each group has its own destination , selection from of the that is already being decided . Lorries in Group I have size of and leave the plant site as compared to other group lorries . < heading>9.2   Parking</heading > It can accommodate all lorries . < heading>9.3   Entrance Gate</heading > Number of Entrance Gate is only 1 and time taken to travel from entrance gate to weigh bridge is . < table/><heading>9.4   Weigh Bridge</heading > Number of weighbridges present on the site is . Travel time from weigh bridge to check - in point is . < table/><heading>9.5   Check in Point</heading > Number of check - in points available in check - in are . Travel time to the offloading zone is . < table/><heading>9.6   Offloading Points</heading > Number of offloading points is . The time taken from offloading points to washing points is . < table/><table/><heading>9.7   Washing Points</heading > Number of washing points on the site are . Travel time to the parking area is . < table/><heading>9.8   Exit Gate</heading > Number of Exit Gates is only 1 . < table/><heading>9.9   Vendors</heading > Number of Replications : < table/><table/><table/><table/><heading > Section 10 : Verification and Validation</heading > Verification and validation of model has been important part of this problem . has been performed continuously in the model in order to obtain accurate model . In most cases comparing the computer model results with the conceptual model does it . < heading>10.1 Data Validation</heading > The empirical data were analysed for any inconsistencies present . The graphs were drawn to examine patterns . < heading>10.2 White - Box Validation</heading > Various methods has been used in the implementation of white box validation as suggested during the course lectures and from prescribed course book . The model was examined step by step to better examine various activities . The model was run often at slow speed to see how each entity behaved and if it resembled the real - life situation and in most of the cases it did . The arrival rate of the lorries arriving at the plant were increased to a maximum by setting times to travel to vendors to the same fixed values . The expected results where found that queues were built at the entrance gate as all lorries arrived at the nearly same timing . The timing for check - in and offloading points where set to extreme points to view the behaviour . And it resulted in building of queues at both the points which was expected result . < heading>10.3 Black - Box Validation</heading > Deterministic Test The model has been simplified to the extent that the mathematical model could predict exactly the outcome of the model . In order to achieve this , all the random elements of the model were removed and instead the mean value of each distribution was substituted to analyse the results . In this scenario the lorries only did one run . By simplifying it was possible to calculate the amount of time each lorry would take and compare it to the results given by the model . Table 2 shows the calculated time at which tanker appears at the particular work centre . Table calculations were done in . In order to infer that the model behaved as expected , the final values in the table where compared to the values in . Table values are being generated by the simul8 . And as we can see from the data both the values matches exactly , which proved that the model is behaving as expected . The deterministic test showed an exact correspondence between the deterministic model and calculated results . < table/><table/><heading > Section 11 : Experimentation</heading><heading>11.1Nature of Simulation Model</heading > The model that has been implemented in this assignment is a termination simulation . In this problem there is an end point present , as the plant closes at . This means all the operational activities in the plant has to be completed before this time . The termination point is after whole day of activity which is for period of . < heading>11.2 Nature of Simulation Model Output</heading > The output from the model is expected to be transient as there is no steady state pattern present in the simulation . This is due to the fact that it takes different time to travel to each vendor and bring the raw material needed to manufacture medicines . There is also transient result because different lorries do different number of runs based on the Vendor they are bringing goods from . < heading>11.3 Initialisation Bias</heading > The simulation starts and returns to an empty state . Each day the lorries leave in the parking zone in the morning to bring raw material from different vendors , so at that time the plant is empty . At all lorries going through the washing zone before they are parked into the parking zone and the plant state is empty . The model starts with initial condition of no lorries in the plant . < heading>11.4 Comparing Data</heading > While comparing alternative solutions to the problem there are limited numbers of scenarios that need to be considered in the experimentation part of the assignment . These scenarios were known at the start of the project . It 's given that plant can increase its number of offloading and check - in points to a maximum of each . At present , there are points for each of the activity . Having maximum of points each means there are different combination which could be possible and our aim is to find the combination which best solves the problem . The table below shows the various combinations that could be possible . < table/><figure/><table/>In order to select the best solution , numbers are being used in the model , a confidence interval for the difference between the results of each possible combination of scenario has been compared using the Paired T - Approach . The comparison between the scenarios using and resulting confidence interval in each cases led to of outcomes as shown in figure Outcome ( a ): The confidence interval is completely to the left of . It can be concluded , with level of confidence that the result of Scenario is less then the result of Scenario . Outcome ( b ): The confidence interval includes . It can be concluded , with level of confidence that the result of Scenario is not significantly different from the result of Scenario . Outcome ( c ): The confidence interval is completely to the right of . It can be concluded , with level of confidence that the result of Scenario is greater then the result of Scenario . < figure/>Table 19,20,21,22,23,24 shows a paired - t confidence interval for each combination of scenarios simulated with in the model . Common random numbers are implemented in this model . The results in the tables show the amount of time spent in the system ( in minutes ) for replications . In scenario check - in points and offloading points are available in the model . As we can see from those tables that the confidence interval is a long way to the right of this gives a lot of confidence that the results from Scenario is greater than result from Scenario . The aim of the model is to reduce the amount of time spent that infers that Scenario is preferred when compared to other scenarios .. The same technique was used to identify the next possible solution in terms of gaining understanding from the confidence interval in all scenario comparisons . < heading>11.5 Comparison of many scenarios</heading > The paired - t confidence interval is being extended to enable scenarios to be compared at once by the use of the inequality . In each of the possible scenario replications has been run and output data from the initial transient has been deleted . Common random numbers have again been employed . The results for the mean time in the system are shown in 1.5 . From the results we can see that there are possible scenarios which actually fulfil the objective of this project to reduce the amount of time spent in the plant to less then . All other scenarios takes more then and hence they will not be included in the next process of comparing each scenario to another . < table/>So next stage was to compare each of the possible scenarios to each other and see which offered the best solution . < table/>Conclusion from between all selected scenarios for . < table/><heading>11.6 Choosing the best scenario</heading > Beyond comparing scenarios , there is an obvious interest in identifying the best out of all of these selected scenarios . At the simplest level this could have been achieved by examining the mean time spent in the system in each scenario . In this model and as we can see from Table X Scenario gives the minimum result for the mean time in the system , so this appears to be best solution . Of course , simply comparing point estimates does not take account of the standard deviation of the results or the number of replications performed . It was therefore better to refer also to the confidence interval . In table it can be seen clearly that Scenario is in all cases better then any other scenario . That is , there is significant difference and the mean time in the system is lower for Scenario . It is apparent that next best solutions are Scenario and Scenario . < heading>11.7 Conclusion</heading > The paired - t confidence intervals helped in identifying the statistical significance of the difference in the result . There are other factors that are normally included in the final decision such as cost of implementing the changes . This report will give the firm an estimate of time spent in plant by changing the number of work centres . After doing all the experimentation I can recommend that : In order to achieve the aim of finishing the work by the firm needs to install offloading and check - in points Scenario that includes installation of offloading and check - in points gives the least time spent in the system . Scenario or Scenario offers nearly same result so by either having offloading and check - in or check - in points the objective will be met but not better then Scenario . In case the firm do n't have enough budgets to implement the change , Scenario would be the most appropriate solution of having each of offloading and check - in points . The firm can also design a similar simulation by viewing the results of the number of weighbridge points are increased from one to some other number .",0
"Brewer ( 2000 ) has described the aim of participant observation as fold ; firstly , as a means to ' understand the world as it is seen by those acting within it ' and , to reveal the taken - for - granted nature of that world ( Brewer , 2000 : ) . With these aims in mind , I decided to undertake a participant observation which would help me to gain a greater understanding of what has come to be termed ' deaf culture ' . ' Deaf culture ' is a term used to describe shared sets of meanings , values and experiences inextricably tied to the experience of being deaf in a world predicated on verbal communication ( Padden and Humphries , ) . important expression of this culture has been the emergence of ' deaf clubs ' , usually organised as informal gatherings of ( predominantly ) deaf people , in which ( BSL ) becomes the principal means of communication . ' Deaf clubs ' have become an important form of social support for people with various forms of hearing impairment , and offer an opportunity for the sharing of experiences and socialising . I intended to go into the field as an overt observer and to conduct informal interviews with the participants regarding their experiences of deaf club and the role it played in their lives . As I have basic training in BSL , I hoped that this would enable me to act not only as an ' observant - as- participant ' ( Bryman , ) , in other words , an observer whose role as researcher is and foremost , but also give me some ability to participate more fully in the club setting . The training I had received also provided me with the initial contacts through which to organise my entry into the field , which totalled a session at a deaf club in a local town . During my in the field , my role as a participant / observer fluctuated , with or the other role taking precedence at any given time , and with each impeding my ability to entirely commit to the other . It is widely recognised that the external socio - demographic characteristics of the researcher , together with their personal autobiography effects not only the acceptance of the researcher within the group ( Brewer,2000 ) , but also the way in which the research is recorded by the researcher . Indeed , I had a strong sense that my identity as a ' hearing person ' created somewhat of a distance between myself and the group , exacerbated by my basic understanding of the language . This inevitably impacted on the form of data I was able to collect , as my inability to keep up with the flow of fast BSL meant that potentially useful data was lost . However , despite this , I was able to conduct several informal interviews with participants during which I jotted down notes . At points my status as a disabled person , and my ability to use BSL ( even in a limited capacity ) united me with certain members of the group . Indeed , my experiences of my disability together with my motivations for taking up sign language were frequently brought up by members of the group as ' conversation - starters ' , and this common ground enabled me to conduct reasonably in - depth interviews and build a sense of rapport with certain members . Paradoxically , my inability to integrate entirely within the deaf community in this setting could have provided me with a greater understanding , in some respects , of the lives of deaf people , and therefore the importance of such outlets as deaf clubs . The problems I experienced during my participant observation , for example , the language barrier , is exactly the sort of reality people with hearing impairments face on a basis in the ' hearing world ' , and in this way I gained a form of insight which I had not anticipated .","It has been argued that culture in modern western society is increasingly constructed around and through the visual ( Jay , ) ; indeed , the effects of visual images are of fundamental importance to the emerging field of visual culture and visual analysis ( Rose , ) . Central to this analysis has been an examination of the various sites of meaning surrounding visual imagery , in particular their production , consumption and intended audience(s ) . With these sites in mind , a still photograph taken from a published autobiography of in My Hands ' ( 2005 ) will be examined . was born without arms and with shortened legs , and the photograph to be examined was taken of her at some point during which time she was institutionalised in a children 's home for the disabled and subject to regular medical examinations and photography in order to assess and ' correct ' her ' deformities ' . Rose ( ) has argued that the production of images in many ways influences the effect they have , and in this case , the fact that the photograph was taken in the late 1960s accounts for the fact that the photograph is in black and white , and the overall dated look of the image . A further site of meaning for this photograph can be located in its composition , or in what ( ) has termed , its ' internal narrative ' , which refers to the ' story ' that can be derived from the photograph and its content . In this instance we are confronted by an image of a child strapped into what appears to be restrictive and cumbersome prostheses with hooks for hands and with her feet hanging or balanced above a pair of artificial feet . There is a general sense of uneasiness about the picture , firstly created by the seemingly awkward nature of the artificial limbs , the dramatic shadowing and also the twisted positioning of her feet . The fact that the child is looking down and not up at the camera , apparently concentrating on using the prosthetic arms , furthermore creates a sense of intrusion and voyeurism ; the viewer is invited to look upon the child during a moment of personal struggle , reinforced by the accompanying text . There also seems to be an uncomfortable contrast between the child 's flesh and the metal and plastic of the limbs , giving the image a cold and clinical feel , and of overall restriction , tension and struggle . The social context in which this image is embedded , or its ' external narrative ' ( Banks , ) is equally important when analysing visual material , and can be linked to the intended audiences of the image . The fact that this picture was created to be viewed by medical professionals as a way of developing and extending 's treatment reinforces the sense of voyeurism as we are looking at through the ' medical gaze ' . Indeed , this image can be viewed as being deeply entrenched in power relations ; the very fact that it exists points to the widespread use of ' corrective ' devices for people with disabilities at this time in order to create or sustain , at the very minimum , an aesthetic appearance of ' normality ' , even if no practical benefits were derived ( Oliver , ) . However , as Rose ( 2001 ) reminds us , audiences have the power to resist or subvert dominant readings of images and to identify alternative perspectives . Indeed , the very presence of the image in 's autobiography supports an alternative way of viewing , and invites alternative audiences . Clearly then , whilst images may encourage complicity with dominant readings , as this example shows , there is much scope to re - read or subvert visual material in ways which transform or transcend their meaning .",1
"In this paper , I will reflect on a taped interview with a client , , who sustained a brain injury in a car accident and had recently been discharged from hospital . This injury affected his long - term memory meaning he was unable to work and was living with his parents , previously having lived in a flat . I will look at how I tried to build a therapeutic relationship , focussing on good points and areas for improvement , to guide me in future work I gave a good introduction , introducing myself , my role and explaining the purpose of the meeting and its confidential nature . I tried to put the client at ease , giving him the opportunity to ask questions at any stage . In introduction , let the client know the interview purpose , introduce yourself , saying you are an occupational therapist , and explain your role and the types of questions you will use ( : ) . Throughout I asked several open questions , enabling the client to give expansive answers . I also asked some closed questions which could have been open as I was n't using them to clarify specific issues . I did n't use a succession of closed questions , but the ones used could have led the client and I was lucky he gave more than a yes or no answer . For example instead of , "" Do you feel you would like to go back to it if you could ? "" ( his job ) , I could have said "" What did you enjoy about your job and what would make you want to return ? "" Too many closed questions can make the relationship seem like an interrogation and inhibit the client 's telling of his story ( 2005:151 ) . Open questions are more preferable , encouraging more expansive answers and being freer of value judgements and interpretation than closed questions ( 2005:152 ) . An area for improvement was my ability to stay with the client 's feelings . For example , I asked how he had been feeling since hospital discharge and he mentioned things had been difficult and it was taking longer for him to recover than he expected , also alluding to long term memory problems . Rather than jumping to another question , I could have drawn him out on his response to the . For example , "" Where is your long term memory causing you problems ? "" and/or "" Why are you finding things difficult ? "" Clarification would have been useful at several points as it would have encouraged the client to expand . For example , when he said , "" It would be nice to go back to that environment , but whether that will happen , I do n't know "" , ( referring to his work ) , again , I changed subject . I could have said , "" What makes you feel you wo n't be able to return to that environment ? "" I used empathy building and paraphrasing several times , which reassured the client I was listening . For example , "" Yes , so you are saying that in the circumstances , you are getting on well with your parents ? "" However , I did concentrate too much on this technique , meaning I did n't always use it appropriately . A better question than the one above , might have been the use of reflection , for example , "" It is not ideal ......... "" to draw him out on why living at home with his parents was n't ideal , or using another technique , "" What aspects of living at home with your parents is not ideal ? "" Reflection involves reflecting back the last few of the client 's words , or a paraphrase of them , to encourage him to say more . The counsellor echoes the client 's thoughts and uses them as a prompt ( Burnard 2005:154 ) . Mostly I listened well and showed the client , by nodding and responding verbally . I tried to maintain an empathetic , professional tone , which helped to put him at ease . Of empathy and say , "" The person tries to imagine how it is to be the other person "" ( : ) . At times the client hesitated and there were pauses , but I resisted the temptation to jump in , allowing him time . However , sometimes I was preoccupied with my response and did n't listen fully enough , which meant that my next question was n't the most appropriate , or as mentioned above , I did n't remain with the client 's feelings . of the barriers to listening is that "" You become preoccupied with your responses rather than the client 's revelations "" ( cited in ) . I used summarisation successfully , near the interview end , to recap with the client what had been said . However there was negative statement within this , "" Depending upon how you regain , or do n't regain your long - term memory "" . This could have seemed slightly demoralising for the client . In future I will omit such statements or frame them more positively . I ended the interview well , explaining next steps , and ensuring the client knew the process was focussed on his needs and goals . I mentioned I would investigate a brain injury support group , which helped assure him , I would work on something concrete before we met again , and I asked if he wished to comment on the process . "" Make sure that you allow sufficient time to summarise information , identify important themes in the client 's story and address how you and the client will work together ........ As the interview comes to an end , you should let the client know what the next steps will be and when you will see him or her again "" ( ) . So to conclude , I used listening skills reasonably well , maintaining a calming , welcoming tone and allowing the client to take his time . I also introduced and ended the session appropriately and allowed him to ask questions . I used the techniques of paraphrasing , empathy building and summarising . However areas for improvement are : Use reflection and clarification , to stay with the client 's feelings and get him / her to expand , rather than jumping to another subject . Always concentrate on listening , rather than thinking about my response . Avoid the use of negative statements to avoid de - motivating the client , and if possible rephrase these positively . Use open questions where possible , unless asking for specific information .","I am going to discuss 's contention that the above question can not be answered positively in a way that is not either contradictory or nonsensical . I shall outline 's discussion of how this is so before examining the so - called ' Master Argument ' . The force of 's argument derives from his imagistic theory of understanding . I shall cast doubt on the success of 's argument by attacking the imagistic approach to the understanding it rests on . I shall then suggest how a theory of understanding could be emended to give a positive answer to the title . < fnote > Berkeley , , G. ( ) ' Three Dialogues ' , : Penguin . Dialogue , * < /fnote > Berkeley believes that all talk of material objects is unintelligible . The foundation of all our knowledge is perception ; all perception has ideas as its objects ; for all the objects of perception , esse est percipi .   For , ontology is exhausted by such ideas along with the spirits required to give them existence by perceiving them . presents as an argument for this thesis - that , "" all the choir of heaven and furniture of the earth , in a word all those bodies which compose the mighty frame of the world , have no subsistence without a mind , that their being is to be perceived or known "" - the very proposal we are considering : "" To be conceived of which , the reader need only reflect and try to separate in his own thoughts the being of a sensible thing from its being perceived . ""   < fnote > ibid * ' Being is being perceived . ' < /fnote><fnote > Ibid * < /fnote > Berkeley believes that honest attention to our ideas , free from , "" the embarrass and delusion of words , "" should convince us that we can form no coherent conception of an object without conceiving it as perceived . I shall examine the validity of the imagistic thesis of the understanding that this rests on . I shall outline 's imagism . < fnote > ibid < /fnote > For Berkeley , philosophy falls into error when it takes man 's ability to manipulate words as a guide to ontology . The introduction to Principles of Human Knowledge urges that we return to the source of our knowledge : the objects of perception . argues that illegitimate abstractions from the ideas presented in experience has drawn philosophers ( here he is chiefly referring to ) away from the actual phenomenological basis of the understanding . In section he bemoans the fact that there has been a call to attend to the ideas ( by ) without an honest examination of them . Specifically , contends that 's thesis of the mind - dependent nature of the objects of the experience is too weak . believed that there are mind - dependent properties of physical objects ( qualities ) as well as mind - independent properties ( primary qualities ) . For , to make this distinction requires an unwarranted abstraction . All we are justified as taking as objects of the understanding are the images we perceive , either those that make up the external world or those that are the product of the imagination . Our imagination is constrained : legitimate abstraction , "" extends only to the conceiving separately such objects , as it is possible may really exist or be actually perceived asunder . "" asks us to attend to our ideas and ask ourselves if we can conceive of such abstractions as a body with extension and not colour . This is exactly the same move that he makes in considering the possibility of conceiving unperceived objects . We shall now show the assumption this argument is based on before passing on to consider that possibility . < fnote > To what extent has misread 's understanding of qualities shall not concern us in this essay : it does not affect our answer . But see Locke , J ( 2001 ) ' An Essay Concerning Human Understanding ' , : . ( IV , 1 , I ) < /fnote><fnote > Ibid * < /fnote > 's argument only makes sense on the assumption of an imagistic epistemology ; thus , in asking us to consider if we can conceive of an object with extension and not colour he is asking us if we can form an image of such an object . For , when we use words without attending to the images of what they designate they are , "" for the most part used as letters are in algebra . "" That is to say , they have a role in the performance of a calculation , but proper understanding is not present . Proper understanding requires the presence of , "" that particular quantity it was appointed to stand for . "" I shall return to a discussion of this thesis after examining directly 's argument against the possibility of conceiving an unperceived thing . < fnote > ibid Introduction * x < /fnote > Berkeley goes so far as to claim that he would be glad to give up his idealism if he could be brought to believe it is possible to conceive of an unperceived object . While this may be rhetorical there is some reason for it . His argument rests entirely on his conception of conceiving . 's entire epistemology collapses if his argument here does n't work , as I shall argue it does n't . Hence the argument has been labelled his ' Master Argument ' . < fnote > ibid * < /fnote > For Berkeley , it is a contradiction to conceive of a thing unperceived for by virtue of forming it as an image I am giving it the property of being perceived . To be able to conceive an idea is to be able to perceive it ( perception does not only refer to our experience of those images beyond our will , but to those of the will - directed imagination as well ) ; in forming an idea I perceive it . Therefore , I can not conceive of an object that is unperceived . This argument clearly works because ' being unperceived ' is not a property that can be represented visually . I can summon an image of a tree , then stipulate it as red and change the image accordingly . If I stipulate the tree as unperceived there is no way of presenting it to me that way visually . For this is enough to rule it out as a genuine property . I suggest however , that there is more to this argument . There appears to be a move made here analogous to that he makes to justify our knowledge of perceiving spirits . The existence of spirits is necessary given that there are images being perceived . Hence we can have knowledge of those spirits as the ground of the possibility of having knowledge of images , although knowledge of spirits is founded on knowledge of images . In having an idea I prove that spirit exists . We can see that were to claim that we can perceive of an idea as unperceived he would be to destroy his foundation of knowledge . It would mean that there was no necessary connection between the existence of an idea and the existence of a perceiver . If there was no necessary connection between having an idea and its being perceived by something then he would be left unable to justify the existence of perceivers and hence his entire description of the world could not get off the ground . He would be left with a form of solipsism that could not even justify the existence of the subject . The ' master argument ' is indeed critical , as seems to deny .   < fnote > Stoneham , T. ( 2002 ) ' Berkeley 's World ' , : . p.138 < /fnote > The obvious objection to 's thesis brings us right to the heart of the problem . I can ask you to imagine a world where humans never evolved . An abundant plant life dominates the planet . You can speculate : maybe fly - traps do well . Maybe rhododendrons dominate the swampy grasslands . What would be the consequences for pollination ? Would roses evolve as larger or as smaller due to the lack of cows to munch on them ? Clearly this is an act of the imagination . There is no need for you to picture giant roses or swampy grasslands to reason about the example and draw conclusions . This is what describes as ' conceiving - that ' . To apply this point to 's example of the unperceived tree , we can stipulate that the tree is unperceived and draw conclusions from this . I can use a fact without picturing it . would respond that we can not understand what we can not picture ( the imagistic thesis ) . How can we respond to this ? < fnote > ibid pp . - 138 < /fnote><fnote>'Principles of Human Knowledge/ Three Dialogues ' , Dialogue , p. < /fnote > First , we might want to show the consequences of this thesis . Much of physics would fail to be understood by the originators of the theories if is right . There is no way to visualise - dimensional strings . would take this point on the chin : "" since I can not frame abstract ideas at all , it is plain , I can not frame them by the help of pure intellect , whatsoever faculty you understand by those words . "" Also , the mind - body problem would remain forever insoluble , although , as an idealist , would respond again that there is n't such a problem . < fnote > ibid p.143 < /fnote > Second , conclusively , we might want to suggest that 's imagism is clearly false . I can not understand a term just by having an image before the mind . I could present a picture of the Queen to an alien with the same perceptual apparatus as us . He could form an image of the Queen , but he can not be said to understand that this is the Queen , even if I say the word over the picture of times . The mere ability to pronounce a word on the occasion of an image , let alone the mere presence of an image to the mind is nowhere near to providing understanding . Someone who could say the word ' Queen ' in the presence of the clearly would not understand the term : if they walked up to her as she made a tour of a hospital , pointed to her face and said ' Queen ' repeatedly we would undoubtedly say they did n't understand the concept ' Queen ' . The presence of an image can not assure us of understanding . Understanding has to at least include the ability to manipulate the terms and images in a way that is meaningful and relevant for other members of the linguistic community . One could manipulate the term ' Queen ' in an entirely appropriate way without having a clue what a Queen looks like , what she wears etc . We could not deny that a person who could do this failed to understand fully as the image they could form of a Queen was merely that of a woman with a gold hat on . Therefore , it is not just the case that forming an image can not assure us of understanding , but forming an image of something is an entirely separate matter from understanding it . describes the ability to use a term as ' having a concept ' , a description that will serve us satisfactorily . To have the concept ' the ' one needs to have recourse to other concepts and the ability to meaningfully employ them . < fnote > Putnam ' Brains in a vat ' in ( ) ' Reason , Truth and History ' , : . pp . . < /fnote > We can now apply this alternate sketch of the understanding to the question in the title , thereby filling out our alternative . We can respond to it on counts : ( ) is experience the source of our concept of a physical object ? ( ) We can give a sketch of an answer on our alternate account of the understanding . ( 1 ) Our above account of having a concept has made no reference to experience . To what extent is experience the source of our concepts ? We can only give a brief account of this deep question here . The thing to note is that being able to manipulate a concept is not the same thing as being able to manipulate the relevant object . Someone without the mental or linguistic capacities to use the word ' dog ' with the full range of potentialities that we do - recognizing different species of dogs , comparing someone to a dog , understanding poetic use of the term ' dog ' - could nonetheless pat a dog , kick it or pick it up . Analogously , having our concept of what it is to be a physical object is not identical with being able to manipulate ' physical objects ' . There is a horizontal as well as a vertical influence on the concept ' physical object ' that is constructed within metaphysical and scientific discourse . What is given in experience exerts an influence , but our concept physical object is as much determined by the needs of our theory as by our face - to - face contact with the world . To determine a physical object as what is given in experience is as much an act of abstraction from the inter - textual life of the concept as the abstraction of independent material subsistence that decries . To remove side of the distinction material / ideal can never be completed . It implies the understanding of the distinction , and as we have seen , the understanding of the distinction is constituted by the ability to use it ; i.e. understanding the terms ideal or physical is constituted by the ability to manipulate the opposition they form , there is no privileging of the physical as directly given in experience , as experience is given through concepts . I have to understand ' physical ' as opposed to ' ideal ' to use either term . Thus we can see that it is 's claim that is incoherent : it is impossible to conceive of a concept that does not imply ' physicality ' as much as ' ideality ' . 's doctrine of the ideality of existence can only be understood if the concept ' physical ( as opposed to ideal ) object ' is understood . < fnote > I am here referring to an ideally ignorant person . Understanding of a concept begins with the observation of someone using it ( in behaviour as much as in words ) and requires nothing more than that be observed and copied to however small an extent . < /fnote>(2 ) How do we make intelligible to ourselves the idea that physical objects may exist unperceived ? The naïve realist answer wo n't satisfy us given the foregoing analysis . There are fronts for our response . ( a ) We can affect directly unperceived objects . I can close my eyes , press alight switch , opened my eyes and find the appearance of the objects has changed . , of course claims this is no reason to assume the objects had a physical existence in the meanwhile , although he is forced to concede that they have existence in the mind of God at that time . This concession counts against the force of his objection to the conceiving of unperceived objects as the plausibility of the claim rests upon the fact that we can not experience the objects at this time . To claim they do exist in the meantime because they are conceived by God is to shift the weight of the point over to his argument against abstraction rather any argument that we have no perception of the objects at this time . He admits therefore , that the fact that objects are not perceived when I have no experience of them us not a criterion for assessing there existence or lack of it . ( b ) To understand something is to be able to manipulate the symbols of a concept in a way that is meaningful for other members of the linguistic community . There is no problem in understanding the concept of an unperceived object on this account . Indeed , to be able to think of something as perceived requires that we understand the concept of unperceived objects , otherwise there would be no use for either term . We have seen that 's rejection of the conceivability of unperceived objects rests upon his imagistic theory of the understanding , and that this theory is false . We have also claimed that to be able to understand the concept of a perceived object requires that we be able to understand the concept of unperceived objects , and so with the ideal / material distinction . We have sketched a theory of what it is to understand in terms of what it is to take part in meaning - practices in a linguistic community . We have thereby left the concept of meaning unanalysed , as was inevitable considering the space available . We have seen that an assumption of the question is that experience is something that exists pre - conceptually and have implicitly claimed this is not so .",0
"When I learnt that I was going to be doing a huge piece of coursework that counted for of my module , I was ecstatic . When I learnt that we did not get to pick our group members , to say I was displeased was an understatement . I personally do not like working with people I do not know and whose work ethics , I had no knowledge of . I remember our meeting like it was , I was very pessimistic . All my doubts seem to be coming true , when our nominated group leader called me to say he was running late . I remember thinking , if he can not manage a simple task like turning up to a meeting on time , how can he manage a whole group ? I quickly managed to turn things around so that I was voted team leader , as I wanted . I felt that as team leader I would have control in the group and I would have more say in the way our team was run , little did I know then . I did not realise that as team leader , the onus was on me all the time to ensure that the team had something to present at all times . People relied on me to share out the tasks , and then wait for me to chase them up about it . As a team , we worked very well together . We met in a non - academic setting to get to know each other better .We became friends and not just a group of people who were forced together for a common goal . Also , as we took our strengths finder tests , we were able to understand each other better and compensate for areas each of us as individuals were not too strong on . I noticed that in certain areas we were quite similar . Initially we got started really early , met , decided on a business idea by the meeting , by a democratic process I am quite happy to say . But we all struggled halfway through because we all had or more group projects going on at the same time and they had more pressing deadlines . So we let things slack until before the elevator pitch , when we all did some intense work , and discovered almost all of us like working under pressure . I really enjoyed being stressed before the pitch and then seeing it all come together . I was a bit worried when we did not get plenty of questions , and I felt that I had failed my group . I was concerned that we were not well prepared . On hindsight , I should not have let things slide in preceding the upper level pitch , and made sure we stayed on track , and not done things last minute . We repeated the same thing for the business plan , leaving everything to as well . But it was through the amount of time we spent together that we also were able to realise the different skills people brought into the group , like good IT skills , attention to detail , oratory skills and so on . We had to make decisions sometimes on the spot , but other times we would go away and make individual decisions that affected our areas of concern , and then bring it to the group for approval . I really enjoyed the experience of working in a team . I realise that most engineers would be working in a team on most projects . It has taught me invaluable skills such as diplomacy , helped me exercise patience , also I have been able to practice leading a group of my peers and trying to get the best out of people by concentrating on what they are good on rather than what they lack . Academically , I have gained so much from doing this project . of all , at the upper level pitch , I was able to practice my presentation skills . I was a bit nervous because we were the group to go , and I felt slightly disadvantaged because I like learning from other peoples mistakes , rather than making mine , but I realise that in the real world , especially as an entrepreneur with a new idea of my own , I would not have the opportunity to "" learn from others mistakes "" per se . I would have to be independent and be brave enough to take risks . Also as the team leader , even though for the business plan every - one had been assigned tasks according to there area of strengths , I still had to cross - check everyone 's work to ensure they were not doing it in isolation . This gave me an opportunity to really understand what goes on in every aspect of a business plan . I feel now , that I could write a marketing strategy and a financial forecast for a company with my eyes closed . I feel really privileged about that though , because in this small way , I am able to almost have an experience of what real entrepreneurs go through . They have to be familiar with all the key aspects of their business . They would not be able to say "" that 's X 's area of expertise "" ; but have to be totally immersed with all areas , and know crucial data at their fingertips . I noticed this when watching the ' Dragons ' Den ' programme . The entrepreneurs , that more often got the seed capital where the ones who could justify their ideas with good market data , and sound financial forecasts , and sold the money making potential of their idea rather than just the idea . Overall , I have learnt not just how to work with teams , but work well with teams ; I have learnt how to manage a group of people , without alienating any of them . I have also come away with some sound academic knowledge about the environment an entrepreneur works in . I have learnt about the business planning process . I have learnt to work to tight deadlines . But more especially , I have learnt a lot about myself as an individual over of the assignment , through the strengths profile , which has resulted in a greater self - awareness .","< abstract><heading > ABSTRACT</heading><picture/>This report provides a review of current display technologies , highlights recent research of the established technologies , and identifies new methods of display that will be used in the near future for the display of static and video information . Traditional Cathode Ray Tube and Liquid Crystal Displays are likely to be replaced in the future by displays based on electrowetting . < /abstract > It was who in refined 's vacuum tube from into ( CRT ) . The phenomenon of phosphorescence had been used solely as a method of detection of electron beams ; but in the CRT television sets were commercially available . These represented the modern method of displaying moving images . Television sets produced are based on the same principle . Electrons produced from a heated cathode filament by thermionic emission are accelerated through a vacuum tube towards the viewing end ( anode ) . Electromagnets are used to deflect the beam to scan the surface at the viewing end which is coated with a phosphorescent material . Modern television sets use different materials which specifically emit red , green , and blue light , closely packed together in strips , and electron guns which fire specifically at each type of phosphor . A shadow mask consisting of tiny holes in a metal plate prevent each gun hitting the wrong phosphor . Thus a raster scan of the entire front end of the set allows a full colour picture to be produced by modulating the intensity of the electron beam according to the video signal . Television sets made using this technology have been highly successful and only recently have other technologies been competing in the display market . CRT displays have several disadvantages that are overcome in part by newer technologies . They are essentially bulky , heavy and large in size to accommodate the vacuum tube and electron gun and they operate traditionally on an analogue input signal . Any still image projected onto the screen for an extended period can be ' burnt ' into the screen as certain clusters of phosphor are used more than others . Liquid Crystal Displays ( LCDs ) were the to offer a solution to these problems providing a thin and lightweight alternative . LCD technology took its greatest step forward in when presented an improved LCD which became the basis of modern displays of this type . Essentially it consisted of a light - polarising liquid crystal material trapped in cells between transparent polarising sheets arranged perpendicularly to each other . In the relaxed state before an electric field is applied , incoming light is polarised by the sheet which encourages the liquid crystal medium to polarise parallel to the light polarisation direction of the sheets . Between the sheets , the molecules twist naturally between the perpendicular extremes . Light is polarised by sheet , rotated through the smooth twisting of the crystal molecules , then passes through the sheet . The assembly looks nearly transparent but some light is lost by the polarisation sheet . On application of an electric field across a region of the cell , the molecules align themselves with the electric field thus inhibiting rotation of the polarised light . All light is absorbed and the cell appears black . A pair of thin layers of glass impregnated with ( ) electrodes allow only certain segments of the cell to be affected by the electric field , producing the desired pattern on the display . A colour display can be made using an LCD pixel divided into sections each with a different colour filter . Any colour can be produced by varying the relative brightness of the coloured sections . However there are limitations to this type of device . Small LCDs known as passive displays have electrical contact per segment . As the size of the display increases , this becomes unwieldy and a passive matrix structure is adopted which uses one set of contacts per column or row of pixels . pixel can be addressed at any one time , so the pixel must remember its state until it can be addressed again by the circuit . This makes the display of video material problematic as the display will respond badly to fast moving images . To solve this problem a matrix of ( TFTs ) are incorporated into the display which remember the electrical state of each pixel and maintain this until the pixel is re - addressed . This active matrix system allows video to be displayed with only little distortion . Now more commonly referred to as displays , this technology is present in modern computer monitors and handheld television devices . The limitations of displays are that of their narrow viewing angle , poor contrast and slow pixel response times . Research is underway into overcoming these problems - new liquid crystals and composites of liquid crystal elastomers and conductive polymers are being modelled and synthesised at in . < enote , ,   URL   < /enote > Another limitation of LCD displays is that they require a backlight to allow the user to see the display . For small appliances this light , generally a cold cathode fluorescent lamp , tends to take up of the battery power . This light is found along the side of the display and a light guide is used to spread the intensity uniformly over the display . A typical light guide is made from acrylic , with diffusing white dots on the bottom surface to help evenly distribute the light over the top of the display ; a reflective sheet to avoid optical loss at the back of the display , and a diffusing sheet to eliminate the images of the diffusing dots . In short , a lot of light intensity is lost . A group at in have been working on a highly efficient back - light guide that uses none of the above optical films but a series of microprisms at the bottom surface which reflect incident light to the top of the display with a high optical efficiency . They have demonstrated that spherical micron sized particles of ( CH3SiO1.5)n in a poly(methylmethacrylate ) matrix diffuse light effectively ; and have optimised the microprism geometry by computer simulation to produce a guide that is more efficient than any other produced using standard technology . < enote ; . . Cryst . Liq . Cryst . , , - 313 . < /enote > Plasma Display Panels ( PDPs ) solve some of the problems associated with LCDs and maintain some advantages over CRT technology . The display essentially consists of of small ' gas - discharge tubes ' several millimetres in depth . Electrons are accelerated between electrodes in the discharge cell . Electrons of appropriate energy collide and excite inert gas molecules which decay back to their ground state releasing UV radiation . The UV photons stimulate phosphors at the front of the cell to emit visible light . For colour reproduction , a triad of plasma cells containing red , blue and green phosphors is used . In order to vary the light intensity of each colour cell and thus produce an arbitrary colour , the voltage across the colour cell is not changed but the length of time that the cell is on during frame is altered . Since the eye response time is less than that of the television display frequency , it perceives different colours depending on how long each cell of the triad is on . To allow fast moving video and high definition colour to be displayed UV radiation must be prevented from passing between cells and interacting with the wrong phosphor . A honeycomb structure of cells separated by barrier ribs is used minimise this problem . The switching of cells on and off efficiently and cheaply has only recently been possible due to the miniaturisation of electronics . The cells respond to the applied voltage within which allows a passive matrix system to be used . Displays can thus be made up to in diameter without any picture quality loss . PDPs present the display market with a large , thin , high definition display which has a wide viewing angle thus overcomes of the main drawbacks of screens . However the drawbacks of PDPs must be addressed if they are to compete with new display technologies . They are relatively expensive to produce , hugely power consuming and have a limited lifetime . Research is underway at , and other manufacturers into increasing the energy efficiency of the displays and designing plasma cells which maintain emission intensity for longer . example of the research carried out is the development of new methods for processing photosensitive films which are used to produce the electrodes and barrier ribs between the cells . The cells are produced by photolithography ( figure ) - a photosensitive paste is deposited on the backing substrate , a mask with the required pattern is held over the paste and on UV irradiation the masked areas polymerise setting solid and producing the barrier ribs . < enote > Fujitsu laboratories , display panel research ,   URL   < /enote><picture/>Y. Igucghi et al . have been working on ways of increasing the amount of light transmitted through the photomask that travels in a ' straight ' line thus producing more defined cells and making the process quicker and more efficient ( Figure ) . < enote > Y. Iguchi ; . Bull . Chem . Soc . . , , , . < /enote><picture/>Another technology in which manufacturers are heavily investing research resources is that of ( LED ) displays . An LED consists of a thin film of semiconductor sandwiched between electrodes . On application of a voltage , electrons from the cathode and ' holes ' from the anode travel into the semiconductor and recombine producing a photon of light . Modern LEDs essentially consist of layers : a glass substrate , a transparent anode ( made from ) , a hole transporting layer , an emissive layer ( semiconductor ) , an electron transport layer and a cathode . Conventional LEDs are made from inorganic materials such as aluminium gallium arsenide ( AlGaAs ) , which emits in the red and far infrared region . The material used for the pn junction dictates the wavelength of light that is emitted . Organic compounds are likely to replace semiconductors in LED devices in the near future . These promise to be cheaper to produce and large arrays of them can be deposited using simple printing methods . They have the added advantage of such displays being lightweight , being able to offer a high degree of resolution , and , if semiconducting polymers are used , being flexible . Small molecule Organic Light Emitting Diodes ( OLEDs ) are efficient at generating light but harder to produce than LEDs ( PLEDs ) , however PLEDs have traditionally been much less efficient in generating light . For inorganic LEDs , there is strong spin - orbit coupling and so intersystem crossing is very efficient and the emissive state has a high ' triplet state ' content . For small molecule OLEDs and PLEDs , intersystem crossing is not so common , leading to the triplet : singlet ratio of excited states being held at ( This is due to there being triplet states for each singlet state ) . As only the singlet states can decay radiatively , the maximum efficiency of such a device is . The introduction of triplet emitters into the polymer layer increases the maximum theoretical efficiency of the LED to . Improving the efficiency of PLEDs in this way is an active area of research . An international collaboration of researchers have developed a carbaxole - oxadiazole copolymer based on 9,9- dialkyl-[3,3]-bicarbazolyl ( see figure ) which when doped with an iridium triplet emitter allows triplet emissions at - levels similar to that for hosts in small molecule OLEDs . < enote > A , . . Chem . Soc . , , , . < /enote><picture/>Research is also underway into finding the most efficient method for producing PLEDs . Inkjet printing is a common way of transferring electronic data to paper , but in its versatility has led to the method being investigated to print polymer layers for PLEDs . Inkjet printing allows amounts of materials to be accurately deposited on a substrate . In , a multi - colour active matrix PLED display was produced using an Epson Stylus II printer depositing a poly(phenylene vinylene ) precursor between barrier ribs created by photolithography ( see section on PDPs ) . < enote , , Soc . . Disp . , , . < /enote > Successful inkjet printing of poly(vinyl carbazole ) with a molecular weight of -6Da has been performed ; and the technique has been used to fabricate thin film transistors and the circuits based thereon . In short , inkjet printing offers manufacturers an efficient way of producing PLEDs and looks to be the best method of depositing polymer for full colour displays . < enote > B. de Gans ; , U. S. . Mat , , vol . issue , - 213 . < /enote > Now we come to technologies that if developed appropriately may well supplant all other in the display market : they are innovative and hold much potential for widespread use . Electrophoresis is traditionally used as a method of separating mixtures . The application of an electric field across a solution will cause each type of molecule to travel toward a particular electrode with a speed dependant on the molecules ' electronic charge and size . Thus , if a collection of stable charged microparticles in a clear liquid medium inside a cell are exposed to an external electric field , the particles will migrate toward the appropriate electrode . A bistable collection of back and white oppositely charged particles will be separated on introduction of an electric field . Thus a monochrome reflective display can be created . Among the many applications this technology would suit , ' electronic paper ' appears the most feasible . This is a thin , lightweight and flexible display that has the same optical characteristics as paper and allows material to be displayed that can be updated electronically . The active matrix working display was produced by the company E - Ink , in . < enote > E - Ink Corporation , ; .   URL   < /enote><picture/>B. Comiskey and worked on improving the resolution of this type of display . In their system , white microcapsules were created by atomisation of a suspension of titanium dioxide in polyethylene . Black particles were created the same way using an inorganic black dye . The particles where then dispersed in an organic solvent mixture , and prevented from coagulating by providing a polymeric adsorbed layer on the surface of each particle which provided the necessary inter - particle repulsive force . This suspension was emulsified into an aqueous phase and encapsulated by condensation of formaldehyde and urea to form a polymer in situ to form optically transparent microcapsules which were filtered to obtain particles of micrometer diameter . A capsule size of micrometer allowed a resolution of dots per inch ( figure ) . A higher resolution of dots per inch was realised by using a set of thinner upper electrodes using the same capsule diameter . < enote > B. Comisky ; , Nature , , , - 255 . < /enote><picture/>One of the biggest problems faced in producing a large display using this method is that in order to effectively address a large number of pixels , a passive or active matrix system must be used . The problem is that unlike an LED that has a threshold voltage needed to address the electronic state of the pixel , electrophoretic displays will respond to any current . This prevents lower voltages being used by the control circuit to switch to which pixel it needs to address . Active matrix systems are also traditionally expensive to produce and reduce considerably the flexibility of the display . In an international team managed to circumvent this problem . They exploited the fact that the switching characteristics of an electrophoretic cell are not a linear function of the applied voltage . By appropriate application of and fields at particular times they produced a working passive matrix display ( figure ) . < enote > T. Bert ; , presented at Eurodisplay conference , . < /enote><picture/>Displays have been made using this technology that have a high resolution , a high pixel density , are less than 0.3 mm thick and can be bent to a radius of curvature of without any degradation in the display properties . < enote ; , Nature , , , < /enote > A desirable property of such a display is that one might retain a displayed image when the power to the cell is turned off . A charged toner is electrostatically adsorbed onto the electrode when the voltage is applied exposing the majority of the white backing layer . The cell appears white . An opposing electrical field pulls the toner to the other electrode causing a more uniform distribution of toner over the cell and thus the cell appears black . Research into cells that effectively remember there colour state is being conducted at . < enote > Cannon research laboratories -   URL   < /enote > A variation on this type of display is ( REED ) developed by the company . A reverse emulsion , as the name suggests , is a typical emulsion but the orientation of the surfactant is opposite to that in water ( figure 7(a ) ) . A microemulsion ( droplets in the order of several nanometer ) is used for the display as a standard emulsion is not thermodynamically stable and prone to degradation . The structures of the components used in the emulsion are shown in figure ( b ) . < enote > The REED display : , , , CA . 95008 < /enote><figure/>A hydrophilic coloured dye can be introduced into the droplet . An appropriate applied electric field will cause the polar phase to spread out through the volume of the pixel , resulting in a coloured display , or contracted into microscopic droplets which give the pixel a transparent appearance . Several methods of addressing the display have been developed . The emulsion responds differently to electric fields alternating different frequencies . It is speculated that when an electric field is applied , the micelles self - assemble into ' supermicellar ' structures imposing a periodic distribution of micelles throughout the emulsion . Figure shows the effect of different frequencies on the micelle structure within the cell . Those driven at and 10000Hz appear transparent to the naked eye . < picture/>A full colour display can be made by stacking monochrome displays with different filters in the subtractive colour scheme on top of each other . A REED display as such has all of the advantages of an electrophoretic display but is more highly transmissive and it has potential for use as a multicolour display . Recent developments in the area of voltage induced wetting , or electrowetting have brought this technology to the forefront of display technology research . Electrophoretic systems are suitable for applications such as electronic - paper , but due to trade off between response time and contrast , the display of high definition video material is not possible . Electrowetting has been shown not only to be a suitable technology to use in this area , but with it comes many advantages such as reflectivity and contrast that will promote its use in the near future as a leading display technology . < enote > R.A. Hayes ; , Nature , , , - 385 < /enote > Electrowetting is the phenomenon whereby an electric field can modify the wetting behaviour of a droplet in contact with an insulated electrode . If the electric field is applied non - uniformly then a surface free energy gradient is created which can be used to manipulate a droplet sandwiched between plates . < figure/>Figure ) shows the basic construction of a single display pixel . The display is of the reflective type - light entering the front of the cell is reflected to the viewer by the backing white substrate . At equilibrium , the coloured oil spreads itself evenly over the hydrophobic surface ( usually a fluoropolymer ) to minimise interfacial tension . Due to the small size of the system , these interfacial forces dominate over gravitational forces and so the oil droplet is stable in all orientations . When an electric field is applied across the hydrophobic layer , the balanced interfacial forces are overcome by an electrostatic term . The system lowers its free energy by increasing the contact area between insulator and water , displacing the oil droplet ( figure ) ) . The hydrophobic effect prevents the oil droplet from bursting . If a pixel is made as such with a small enough size , the eye will interpret the relaxed state as a red pixel and the electrified state as a white pixel . Roques - Carmes et al . investigated the switching dynamics of an electrowetting cell . A cell was constructed of a white backing layer with implanted electrodes to form the base ; black for the cell walls and a non - polar dye dissolved in C 10 - C alkanes for the oil . The area of white visible after the electric field had been applied was measured as a function of applied voltage ; and the on and off response times ( time for the area of white to become constant after the field is applied ) were measured as a function of cell size using different depths of oil film ( figure ) . The change in white area percentage as a function of time was shown to be potential dependent . Above 22.5V , the response time was shown to be less than 40ms which due to experimental limitations was the limit to the speed which could be observed . This demonstrates the speed of on - switching is adequate for video display . < enote ; , . Phys . , , , number < /enote > It was shown that off - switching or relaxation times were governed by capillary forces alone . A major factor that determines the speed of electrowetting is the curvature of the oil / water interface . When increasing the oil film thickness or decreasing the pixel size , the oil film curvature needed to cover a certain percentage of white substrate increases . Thus , the capillary forces become stronger and a greater voltage is needed to achieve oil contraction . Therefore careful consideration of pixel size , oil film thickness and oil type needs to be done to obtain an optimal off - switching speed necessary for a video display . < figure/>The electrowetting principle can be used to make full colour displays . If a oil is introduced into the top of the cell each oil layer can be switched independently . By using a colour filter on top of each cell and subtractive colour dyes , an arbitrary colour can be displayed . Figure ) shows a schematic of the cell design . Figure shows the working display . Here electrodes only occupy half the top and bottom of a 2 mm cell with a magenta dye in the oil layer and a cyan dye in the . In the relaxed state the pixel appears in state ( figure 11(b ) ) ; when both films are contracted the pixel appears as in the electrified state ( also figure 11(b ) ) . With a yellow filter above this pixel , the relaxed state shown would appear black , and the electrified state yellow . Independent contraction of the oil layers in this way will produce the desired colour . < picture/>The use of electrowetting for colour video displays is an attractive option . Its reflectivity is times higher than that of a colour LCD and twice as high as other emerging reflective technologies . Video response speed has now been decreased to < 10ms ; the display boasts high colour brightness , good contrast , the possibility of high resolution and low power consumption . There are some problems that have not been highlighted by or . Although interfacial forces are sufficient to overcome gravitational forces in keeping the oil droplets in place inside the cell , any other forced movement of the display could lead to the oils mixing with each other which would render the display useless . The author asks can the oils be separated irreversibly within the same cell ? Is Ostwald ripening sufficient to keep the oil droplet together after the pixel has been switched a times ? How significant are impurities inside the pixel for the lifetime of the display ? Before this type of display is mass produced these problems will need to be addressed . The aim of this report was to provide the reader with a review of current display technologies , highlight active areas of research , and identify the methods of display that will be used in the near future . The positions of CRT , Liquid Crystal , Organic LED and panel displays have been described in relevance to desirable properties of modern display . Electrophoretic displays have been shown to be an area of interest for applications such as electronic paper , and electrowetting has been shown to be a very attractive technology that will undoubtedly have an input to the display market in the near future .",0
"There are numerous ways in which sociology and psychology aid health and social care professionals to understand the experience of health and its effects . Sociology benefits health and social care professionals as when working with clients , social context is vital as it has a great affect on their client 's lives . By upholding a sociological approach within practice , professionals become concerned with broader issues and not individual cases . Psychology benefits health and social care professionals as it allows them to gain a greater understanding of why people are different and what shapes individuals . For example , many theories have been developed to explain behaviour and all the aspects that make people individual ; I will be covering these topics as well as service delivery and the , beliefs towards health and illness , psychological theories , stress and roles , all of which relate to health and social care professionals , illustrated through a fictitious case study . People vary in many ways ; gender , age , appearance , culture , religion , intelligence , attitudes , values , beliefs and behaviours . These factors have an impact on a client 's health , illness and therefore a professional 's responses to them . Psychology and sociology can assist professionals to understand people further , shaping their understanding of health and illness . One of the most obvious differences between people is gender . Men and women respond differently to illness and their experiences of help differ immensely . Average life expectancy shows one of the major gender differences in regards to health and illness . Statistics have shown an overall life expectancy for females of and for males , ( , , as cited in , ) . theory for this statistic is that women tend to report more illnesses because adopting the sick role is more socially acceptable and therefore more common . The model of the sick role was designed by Parsons in and the general concept is , in order to be excused from their usual duties and to be considered not to be responsible for their condition , the sick person is expected to seek professional advice and to adhere to treatments in order to get well . Medical practitioners are empowered to permit the sick person temporary absence from the workforce and family duties as well as to absolve them of blame . The socialization hypothesis presumes sick - role behaviour is more compatible with traditional female roles and , thus , women may feel less constrained than men in defining and reporting mild symptoms . Understanding the differences between men and women and how they use health services can help professionals to understand an individual 's reaction to illness . For example , when ( case study ) found a lump on his testicle , although his wife advised him to get it checked out , he felt weak about going to the doctors so his lump got left untreated . has many varying opinions with regards to health care , what health care is , what it provides and how it is delivered . When thinking about service delivery the initial thought is usually ( NHS ) . The was set up in to provide healthcare for all citizens , based primarily on need and the concept of ' collective responsibility ' . The is funded by the taxpayer and managed by , which sets policy on health issues . Policies within the experienced their greatest shift . This was due to the introduction of the ' internal market ' , outlined in the . The ' internal market ' introduced ' market principles ' to health care delivery which meant a greater emphasis on funding and budgeting . As time has passed the has shifted from ' collective responsibility ' to ' individual responsibility ' therefore having a greater emphasis on people being more responsible for their own health . This has lead to an increase in health promotion and professionals becoming more concerned with client 's lifestyle choices . With this greater emphasis on ' individual responsibility ' , people are encouraged to become active in their health decisions and also to play a greater role in self diagnosis . This belief can be seen through the introduction of , a nurse advice and health information service via the telephone and internet . It provides confidential information on health conditions , advice about what to do when ill and local health services . Once again , gender distinction demonstrates how different groups of people approach health services . Research in a hospital in found that men make less use of preventative services , often regarding going to the doctor as a sign of weakness . Women , on the other hand , tend to be more involved with health care and are used to accessing routine service . Men who ignore health problems often get advice informally from friends , therefore reverting to a quick fix , at casualty , rather than using local services ( , ) . The has taken note of the misuses that can arise in service delivery and use and have taken action . Organisation ( SDO ) is a "" national research programme that has been established to consolidate and develop the evidence base on the organisation , management and delivery of health care services "" ( SDO , ) . This organisation has drawn attention to several problems within NHS service delivery . Issues the organisation addresses are improving communication of how they target specific audiences through more effective advertising and a greater emphasis on health promotion , and a greater need to work closely with other partner organisations . The increase in such organisations will hopefully improve service delivery within the health care system . Attitudes and beliefs are a key concept when looking at people as a whole and also individually . People 's perception towards themselves , others , professionals , health and illness generally and , finally , towards service delivery , differs greatly . This concept of people 's values , attitudes and beliefs in regards to health and illness is often described as ' lay perspectives ' or ' lay beliefs ' . Professionals , researchers and theorists have begun to realise that lay health beliefs are not just condensed versions of medical knowledge but are shaped by a variety of factors including location , cultural context , personal biography and social identity . The psychology and sociology of lay health beliefs is valuable to health care professionals for various reasons . Sociological lay health beliefs can add to a greater understanding of lay - professional relationships by providing an insight into lay ideas which could have previously been regarded as ' incorrect ' knowledge by professionals ( , , as cited in , ) . The professional - patient relationship , once regarded as a meeting between the knowledgeable and the ignorant lay person , is now more correctly described as a ' meeting between experts ' ( et al . , , as cited in , ) . reason for this is an increase in fatal chronic conditions , leading professionals to realise their own limitations and the importance of other types of support . Additionally , people are encouraged to take a greater responsibility with their own health and now have a wider knowledge in regards to factors which influence an individual 's health status . Also , the study of health beliefs may contribute to knowledge of informal health care . As Strong ( , as cited in , ) states , "" we are obliged to be doctors to ourselves and to others "" . Most health care is carried out by lay people in the form of self - care or caring for others , therefore by placing a higher regard on lay beliefs , may increase the patients status and sense of value within society and also in regards to health and illness . By professionals taking note of lay opinion , it will increase client satisfaction and self - worth , within the professional relationship and also within their status in society because , as ( ) notes , we are all health workers . Psychological lay beliefs are often explained through lay models . The model of health and illness that people form is often known as naïve or common - sense models . People can create fairly complicated systems of belief surrounding their health yet they often lack the knowledge to test these assertions , leaving them unchecked and unopposed . For example , has been smoking all his life but because he has never known anyone to die from it or get any form of cancer , he refuses to quit , regardless of experts opinions . This reflects research conducted by ( , as cited in , ) which highlighted that of the working - class people he interviewed in did not believe that smoking caused cancer . This emphasizes the need for appropriate health care education but also the difficulty health promoters have in adjusting existing health models by the general public . Lay notions of health and illness can affect the extent to which people comply with advice given to them by professionals . The Health Belief Model ( ) dates back to Rosenstock ( 1966 ) and is one of the most important frameworks for understanding health beliefs . The is based on the view that a person will take a health - related action if they feel a negative health condition can be avoided , if they have a positive expectation that by taking the recommended action they will avoid a negative health condition and they believe they can successfully take the recommended health action . The model motivates people to take positive health action by using the desire of avoiding a negative health consequence as the prime motivation . For example , HIV is a negative health consequence , and the desire to avoid HIV can be used to motivate sexually active people into practicing safe sex . The highlights an area of psychology which has a great impact on health care professionals , that of behaviour and learning . Through the individuals begin to learn to view a situation differently , thus changing their behaviour . Many theories have been developed to explain behaviour including learning theory , psychoanalytic theory , and humanism . Learning theory is based on the principles of conditioning , in which there are main areas , classical and operant conditioning . Classical conditioning , developed by ( ) , occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus , eventually producing a conditioned stimulus and response . Operant conditioning , developed by ( ) , is the result of reinforcement or punishment , which either increases or decreases the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated . Classical and operant conditioning can help health and social care professionals to understand health and the effects of illness in main ways . , professionals can apply classical conditioning to patient 's health behaviours . As my case study shows , associates smoking with socialising , and began to not only smoke when socialising but also when alone in order to recreate those feelings . Professionals can apply operant conditioning to patient 's health behaviour , for example a child may have behaviour problems but when being good , be rewarded , therefore increasing the chances of positive behaviour in the future . Psychoanalytic theory is both an account of personality development and a therapy . The basic principle is that early experiences may result in unconscious conflicts that motivate adult behaviour . Freud , , Alder and developed psychoanalytic theories focused on case studies of patients in the clinical context of psychotherapy . Their theories are concerned with the nature of personality in general , and in particular Freud and tried to account for individual differences ( , ) . Freud structures personality in terms of categories , the i d , ego , and superego , which often come into conflict because they are motivated by different principles . Conflicts create anxieties that are dealt with by defence mechanisms like repression , displacement , projection and denial . Psychoanalytic theory suggests that , for some people , the tension between their repressed thoughts and their conscious thoughts leads to psychological problems , which is when psychoanalytic psychotherapy is required . An example of how a professional could use the psychoanalytic theory is to confront , interpret or reconstruct the patient 's interpretations of the world which helps to solve their problems . Humanism is a philosophy oriented towards human beings , their feelings and what they have accomplished . There are major psychologists who adopted the humanistic approach ; and . Humanism is unique in the way that it emphasises the importance of subjective experience in understanding an individual . New forms of therapy arose from the introduction of humanist practice . Therapy ( ) was developed by who believed that people are good and that they all possess an innate drive towards . The primary object of 's therapeutic approach was to help the client focus on their own feelings . , like Rogers rejected the psychoanalytic and behavioural approaches ; believed that they ignored the positive aspect of human life and therefore introduced the Hierarchy of Needs . Client Centred Therapy and Maslow 's Hierarchy of Needs are both used by health and social care professionals to understand individuals further . Both focus on having a great positive outlook and approach and are therefore used a lot within mental health settings . Stress is an example of a behaviour and experience that theorists have begun to explain in both psychological and sociological terms . Stress affects most people and therefore is an important factor for health care professionals to understand the effect on clients and , indeed , themselves . Stress is also unusual in that it can cause itself ; if a person is aware of their stress symptoms , it is quite likely to increase their stress . Thus , a cycle which is difficult to break is established . Mechanic ( , as cited in , ) exposed that stress can lead to an increase in use of healthcare resources , because stress can cause ill - health and stressed people are more likely to become worried about their health , even when they need not be . This is a fact that and ( , as cited in , ) pointed out , who found that individuals put into a negative mood reported more aches and pains than those in a positive or neutral mood . Stress in health professionals is quite a common occurrence due to , difficult problems they face and sometimes being unable to distance themselves . An extreme stress response is burnout , in which the workers can no longer function effectively . The main characteristics of burnout according to and ( , as cited in , ) are emotional exhaustion , depersonalisation and perceived inadequacy . Overcoming burnout is not possible unless the reasons for its occurrence are treated . This means , that working conditions must be changed through a good balance between activities to create the healthiest option for professions to prevent full - blown burnout . There are many scales that have been devised to try and measure and catalogue stress . of the most influential was created by Holmes and Rahe in called ( SRRS ) . The SRRS uses a points system to measure levels of stress according to the severity of possible causes , for example the death of a partner is listed as the most stressful event with a rating of . However the levels of stress this may cause differs depending on factors including your age , the age of your partner and the reason of the death . Another drawback of the scale was the failure to allow for positive and negative stressors . For example moving house is listed as a stressful experience , however the person may want to move house . So therefore the experiences have negative effects but also a positive outcome . Kanneral . ( ) developed the Hassles Scale to try and measure stress caused by minor things , something the SRRS lacked . They realised that stress from these minor ' stressors ' could add up to a significant health problem . Their scale included little negative things such as arguments and queuing , but also ' uplifts ' - little positive event . By taking account of both the positive and negative of every problem that may cause stress , the scale helps to portray a better overall picture , ( however it still has flaws including not enough emphasis on major life events ) . Coping with stress , like anything , depends on the physical and mental resources , including the personality and attitudes of the individual . Lazarus ( ) developed a model to try and explain the process of coping with stress and found that events are ' filtered ' by individuals . If an event is perceived to be potentially harmful , and if a person believes they are ill - equipped to deal with it , it will become likely to cause full - blown stress . Thus , by coping with a stressful situation it is possible to cure the problem . In , et al . described types of coping strategies used by individuals facing stress . These were escape - avoidance , distancing , positive reappraisal , self - controlling , seeking social support , problem - solving , accepting responsibility , and confronting . Understanding how people cope with stress can affect their responses to health and illness and therefore it is vital for health care professionals to know about the ways to measure , and also the different individual responses to coping with , stress . For example , in relation to my case study , the responses to the stress of Jake losing his job would have rated highly on the SRRS . The coping strategy adopted by and his family were seeking social support and problem - solving . Jake sought support from his family and they realised the problem could be solved , through and getting jobs . Social support is the support given to individuals from family , friends , peers and professionals , and can be a fundamental factor in reducing stress . According to ( , as cited in , ) the main categories are appraisal support , emotional support , esteem support , informational support and instrumental support . Within my case study the support Jake was offered was emotional support from his wife and son . As social support demonstrates , throughout life people adopt a number of different roles . For example , professional , patient ( which have already been discussed previously in relation to the sick role ) , friend , family , carer or a role within the community . Each role imposes a range of duties and tasks to be completed successfully , either by individual standards or the standards of others . Most people have a number of different roles and need to consider the demands of each and prioritise activities to maintain a healthy balance in life . For example , some people value the role of the homemaker above that of a career while some people prioritise careers finding the homeowner role as restrictive . As a health care professional , it is vital to comprehend the roles a client has and how this may shape their health and the effect illness may have on them and their family , community and own profession . For instance , lost his job due to his illness , low feelings and lack of motivation , his wife and son had to therefore go and get jobs . His role as breadwinner changed as did 's role as homemaker . This imposed some stress on the family as adjusting to new roles can take time to get used to and can create a sense of disorder in the home . The roles of family and friends can be so valuable to individuals , sometimes more so than professionals . Individuals often turn to family or friends before professionals and would rather receive help and support from them . This can be seen through the increase of informal carers , whereby the role of just family or friend has increasingly shifted to role of informal carer in many homes . Intermittent informal care is carried out by most families , while long term informal care is carried out by people who spend a week caring for a dependant relative . The responsibility of informal carers can lead them to have increased levels of stress , which can cause increased levels of perceived illness and therefore increased use of services . These factors put strain on the government and health care professionals . Sociology and Psychology are essential to health and social care professionals when understanding the experience of health on individuals and the effects that illness and service delivery can have upon individuals , families and society .","The mail order bride industry is a global commodity chain , and the product is the mail order bride , marketed through a variety of media , but principally now through the internet . The consumer is ( generally ) Western men who are seeking an international marriage for a variety of reasons . The marketer / distributor is . It can also be argued that a secondary actor in the distribution of mail order brides is themselves , through their domestic policies . This paper will focus specific mail order bride commodity chain : women as the product , with , and men as buyers . The section of this paper will examine all elements of the commodity chain . The section will discuss some of the gendered social and economic effects of the mail order bride industry . < heading > SECTION I : THE COMMODITY CHAIN</heading><quote>""She 's a player in an international meat market ... She knows what she 's doing ... except now and then when something really bad happens . ""</quote><fnote > Lana Mobydeen , Something Old , Something New , Something Borrrowed , Something Mail - Ordered ? ( 2004 ) at . < /fnote><heading > The Product : Mail Order Brides</heading > Women who become Mail Order Brides ( MOB ) may do so for a multitude of reasons . The prominent reason for emigration is that the women are seeking a more prosperous life elsewhere . Tied into this traditional reason for emigrating are socio - cultural reasons unique to women . Women may also have a romanticized view of the men in the country of destination , due in part largely to stereotypes that are fostered by the mail order industry . "" The purpose behind the perpetuation of these stereotypes is to convince clients that they are getting a higher quality of mate than they could find in their home country . ""   < fnote > Ibid . < /fnote > The way potential MOB are portrayed by the mail order industry is fairly universal . The industry caters to what is perceived as the antithesis to Western women . MOB are characterized as docile , subservient and eager to assume the role of the traditional "" housewife "" . Men have claimed that the feminist movement is one of the main reasons for seeking an international bride . Using the as an example , "" there is displeasure among men that women are not content as wives and mothers , but rather seek personal fulfillment through their own careers and interests . Foreign women are thought to be happy as homemakers and mothers serving the interests of their husbands . ""   < fnote > Ibid . at . < /fnote><heading > The Consumer : Western Men</heading > A pre - Internet survey "" by found that the men participating in these relationships were generally white , highly educated , politically and ideologically conservative , and generally economically and professionally successful . "" There is a tendency for consumers to be significantly older then the MOB and for them to have had previous marriages . The concern for many human rights groups is that with the presumption that consumers will be obtaining a woman that is subordinate and docile , there is an equated presumption that they are seeking a woman to dominate . Many of the consumers "" feel empowered by the number of women they have to choose from when using mail - order bride agencies ... The man usually has his pick of extremely young and beautiful women that he might not were he trying to court women in his native country . "" Given the proven psychological link between male domestic violence abusers and insecurity and low self - esteem , there is obvious reason for the concern that consumers attracted to the MOB industry are those that fall into the category of potential abusers . "" While no national [ ] figures exist on abuse of alien wives , there is every reason to believe that the incidence is higher in this population than for the nation as a whole . Authorities agree that abuse in these marriages can be expected based on the men 's desire for a submissive wife ... ""   < fnote > Ibid . at . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . at . < /fnote><fnote > , Appendix A [ to International Matchmaking Organizations : A Report to ( ) ] : ) , online : on < /fnote><heading > The Distributor / Marketer : There is limited information about ( IMA ) , and with the advent and explosion of the internet , a limited number of marriage agencies have become a booming industry . Historically , were designed to match up individuals of similar cultures , generally when the male spouse had emigrated to a country where there were few women of his culture . The process was often called the "" picture bride "" system ( from the catalogues of women advertised ) . However , in , the focus of the industry has dramatically shifted , creating an industry that "" is based on a ' different structure , a different focus , and different consequences than the traditional picture bride system . ' Many social and legal implications of the mail - order bride industry were absent from its picture bride counterpart . "" < fnote > Supra note at . < /fnote > The mail order bride industry of is powerful and , absent a few exceptions , completely unregulated . after the advent of the Internet , there are still no known statistics for how many exist , either on the Internet or otherwise . Very few countries are even able to track how many MOB arrive in Western destination countries via international marriage agencies . < heading > The legal structures surrounding the MOB industry are principally in the area of immigration law . There has been little success in regulating the MOB industry as an economic entity . The exceptions to this are legislation and . < heading > Philippines Anti Mail Order Bride Legislation</heading > In , the government passed legislation to prohibit women from participating or being coerced into mail order marriages . The law was enacted as a result of public pressure and declares all actions affiliated with the mail order bride transaction to be unlawful , including banning any person or company from matching with foreign nationals . The law also includes a ban on the soliciting of women by marriage agencies and states punishments for both and foreign nationals . < fnote > , An Act to Unlawful and Other Similar Practices , including and in Furtherance thereof and , Republic Act No . , online : < URL > Accessed on < /fnote > Since its adoption , legislation has had little effect in stemming the flood of agencies recruiting women . Even if the legislation could be updated in a manner that could target the elusive online nature of the , there is little likelihood of the government having the resources to enforce the legislation , or the will where such enforcement would negatively affect the significant remittances resulting from MOB transactions . < heading > Act</heading > The International Marriage Broker Regulation Act of 2005 ( IMBRA ) was enacted under act of . It was drafted as one of the only attempts made so far to regulate . The main focus of IMBRA is controlling the information that is disseminated by the . IMBRA seeks to control underage marriages by prohibiting the transfer of personal information of females under the age of to a potential consumer by an . The is obligated to collect a consumer 's personal information , disseminate it to the MOB , provide the MOB with information about her legal rights as a immigrant , and obtain the consent of a MOB to release of her personal information to the consumer . interesting aspect of IMBRA is that it compels to develop a database that tracks multiple applications for a K - visa ( visa for fiancé(e ) ) . This is particularly important since a number of the MOB who have experienced domestic violence were not the first MOB that the abuser had married . This database is likely one of the most effective aspects of the legislation as it can be monitored and enforced domestically , and is not therefore subject to the myriad of difficulties in policing internationally held web - based companies . IMBRA also modifies the manner in which K - visas are processed and establishes penalties for marriage brokers that violate the Act . IMBRA obligates to conduct a study of international marriages in the and their correlation with domestic violence to be produced by . < fnote > Immigration and Nationality Act , , § ( ) , online : on < /fnote><fnote > U.S. Bill , , of 2005 , , , ( enacted ) , online : Library of Congress < URL : HR03657:@@@T > Accessed The situation for MOB in is very precarious . immigration has effectively managed to limit the ability of international spouses to obtain citizenship , and the Claim for the Revocation of a Decision Not to Permit the Change of the Status for a Sojourn in - 1999 has cemented this limitation . In , whether an international spouse can retain their residency after divorce turns on the type of visa they hold . If they hold a spouse visa , which is the likely visa for a MOB , "" divorce means that this status will be revoked and this particular type of visa can not be renewed . A is valid for either a period and can be used after divorce until it expires ... For those holding a , the presence or absence of children is a key element in deterring the new residency status . "" The structure of the limits the options of women in situations of domestic violence , for if they initiate divorce proceedings , there is a strong likelihood of the result being eventual deportation . "" Even if the wife has adjusted well to life in and invested a lot of her life 's energy in building up friends and relationships , she faces possible ejection from due to her husband 's misdeeds and no wrong doing on her part . ""   < fnote > Claim for the Revocation of a Decision Not to Permit the Change of the Status for a Sojourn in - 1999 ( Gyo - Hi ) No.46 [ ] JPSC 46 ( ) , online : , < URL > Accessed on < /fnote><fnote > J. Sean Curtin , in : Part - Visa status of spouses in , online : : of Global Communications < URL > Accessed on < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . < /fnote><heading > Canadian Legislation < /heading > immigration law was completely revamped in with the creation of ( ) . While the immigration of MOB to is slightly more advantageous than other developed countries , there are still problems with the legislation . "" Immigration law provides that the fiancé(e ) must prove to the visa officer that he or she is free to marry , that he or she is over the minimum age to be married in and that marriage is not solely for the purpose of immigration . He or she is then given the permanent resident status on the understanding that the marriage will take place within of arrival . "" Once the couple is married , the foreign spouse 's permanent residency is independent of her relationship with the spouse . While this is obviously better than the pre - IRPA legislation , which tied a foreign spouse to their sponsoring partner for , it still presents difficulties for women . For example , if women are abused within the period before the marriage , they will be deported if they leave their future spouse . This can pose incredible difficulties for women who are culturally limited in terms of their reputation if they end the engagement and return to their home country . Additionally , there have been grave difficulties for immigrant spouses who have been socially isolated by their spouse and are not aware that their immigration status is no longer tied to their spouse 's after the marriage . < fnote > Centre de recherche interuniversitaire sur l'immigration , l'intégration et la dynamique urbaine , Precarious Immigration Status , Dependency and Women 's Vulnerability to Violence : Impacts on their , online : on < /fnote><heading > SECTION 2 : THE GENDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE COMMDITY CHAIN</heading><quote>""Heaven is an salary , an country home , a chef , and a wife . Hell is a salary , an chef , a home and an wife . ""</quote><fnote > Nicole Constable , Romance on a Global Stage : Pen Pals , Virtual Ethnography , and "" , ( , ) at . < /fnote><heading > Feminist Discourse on Mail Order Brides</heading > Within feminist discourse on the issue , there are diametrically opposing views on why women become mail order brides and how mail order brides should be "" classified "" . There are those who take the view that "" sex tourism , mail - order - brides and prostitution are variations on the theme of sexual exploitation . "" A report by states that "" the trade in mail - order - brides is a form of trafficking in women . Bride trafficking enables men from wealthier countries to seek and acquire women from impoverished countries or those in economic crisis . "" However , there are many feminists who take the opposing view . They believe that while it can not be denied that women who become MOB originate from developing countries with weakened and gendered economic and social structures , it is an economic decision made of ( relatively ) free choice on the part of the women who participate in the MOB industry . This view recognizes that many MOB face risks of personal violence as a result of gendered power structures , but believes that to class MOB as "" victims "" or worse , "" prostitutes "" disempowers them . < fnote > , and Predators on the Internet - Globalizing the Sexual Exploitation of Women and Children [ Part of ] , , online : < URL > Accessed on < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . < /fnote > The concern with the "" exploitation "" view is that it undermines the power of the women as individuals to make choices and have their choices respected . As stated by in her critique of the exploitation view , "" assuming that women are objects who are bought and sold , that their culture is traditional and unchanging ... [ robs ] women of their ability to express intelligence , resistance , creativity , independence , dignity and strength . "" However , the assumption that all women participating in the mail order bride industry make their choice freely and unhampered by gendered constructs is naïve . The fact remains that some women are trafficked into prostitution after agreeing to a mail order bride transaction . Likewise , a number of mail order brides experience personal violence as a result of their marital transaction . These facts can not be denied . There is a need for a new understanding of mail order brides : one that respects the mail order bride 's personal decisions , but also recognizes the need for support for mail order brides and an awareness of the personal dangers they face . The solution lies in policing the risks women face , rather than the women 's decisions . < fnote > Supra note at . < /fnote><heading > The Economic and Social Context for Industry</heading > One of the most commonly accepted reasons that women become MOB that is because of the economic and social situations in their country of origin . "" Economic considerations and obtaining permanent residency in are often important factors in influencing a woman to become involved in the mail - order industry . "" This is particularly the case with the , where there is a long - history with . However , it can not be denied that Filipinas MOB are also destined for , and for which is a growing destination for MOB and is likely to increase in the near future . < fnote > Supra note at . < /fnote > The has limited industries and has not been successful in marketing itself to foreign investment and development in the same way many other countries have been . "" As a developing country , the gap between the rich and the poor in the continues to worsen ... of the population lives below the poverty line , mostly peasants and workers . "" As in much of the developing world , women comprise the majority of those living in poverty in the . < fnote > Philippine Women Centre of , : , online : Status of Women Canada < URL > at . Access on < /fnote > One of the main economic sectors for the is tourism . "" Under the policy of tourism development , are also used as prime selling points to attract foreigners to the ... are thus pushed into the informal sectors of the economy , most tragically into prostitution . Despite the fact that ' sex for hire ( is ) not a component of the indigenous culture of the ' , the now has the highest number of prostitutes in - according to . ""   < fnote > Ibid . at . < /fnote > However , the primary economic resource of the lies in exporting its citizens . The government actually encourages emigration through its ( ) . This policy of systemically exporting its best and brightest "" is part of ( SAPs ) imposed by ( IMF ) and as conditions for borrowing . "" However , despite pushing its nationals towards emigrating , the government has done little to make aware of the risks involved , including the potential for violence , discrimination and exploitation . The fact that their country of origin happens to be "" the top labour exporter in the entire world , described as the world 's largest migrant nation "" , certainly influences the MOB decision to emigrate . < fnote > Ibid . at . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . at . < /fnote > The economic migration sector that has experienced the greatest growth in is the export of workers for informal employment - domestic work , entertainment , and prostitution . Now the category of mail order bride must also be added to this category of informal employment . "" ... On the one hand , women who are considered as poor , low - earning and in that regard low value - adding individuals , often represented as a burden rather than a resource , and on the other hand , what are emerging as significant sources for profit making , especially in the shadow economy , and for government revenue enhancement . ""   < fnote > Ed . , , ( : , ) at . < /fnote><heading > The Impact of the Chain on Gendered Structures < /heading > It is clear from the discussion of the description of the characteristics and reasoning of the male suitors , that the social structure of society plays a critical role . As men search for a woman to fulfill the traditional role of wife - unpaid domestic labour and childcare included with love and devotion - they are inevitably participating in the global economic order , as they are paying into the system to find their bride . The MOB industry is flourishing in the new millennium - a time of globalization and unadulterated capitalism . Author states in her article on cultural reproduction and MOB , that "" capitalism can not function without patriarchy ... "" She clarifies this by stating that "" the key characteristics of capitalism is the social and sexual division of labor ... [ and ] involves main dimensions - within paid work and between paid and unpaid work - and operates to value men 's work more highly than women 's work . ""   < fnote , In ( ) at . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . at . < /fnote > One interesting aspect of the mail order bride phenomenon is the correlation between the stereotyping of women and the cause - and - effect dynamic it has had on Western women and women . As stated above , many men have claimed that Western women no longer make adequate wives . As women become more powerful , both economically and socially , their value has decreased in the view of a signification portion of the Western male population . The correlation between the commencement of the feminist movement in , and the upsurge in the mail order bride industry can not be denied . However , of the results of the shift in social structure in the has been an alteration in social structure in the ( and other countries of origin for mail order brides ) ; women are shifting in the social structures as they become a valued economic resource , if only for exportation . < heading > CONCLUSION</heading > At every level of the chain , from as the product , to Western men as consumers , to the direction of policies regarding MOB , gendered relations and effects are present . Whether the actors in the chain act under duress or choice , the ramifications remain the same : gendered structures are affected the world over . The global sex chain of mail order brides and consumers is much like any other commodity chain - it creates both bridges of opportunity and vises of exploitation .",0
"Poems in , , by and Judge by both address linguistic issues . Each poem looks at the ways in which ' acceptable ' or traditional language practices can be altered . Although the poems both share the same theme , the poets approach the subject matter in very different ways . explores , through the use of poeclectics , how traditional forms can be manipulated to the point where the meaning is altered . In contrast to this almost celebratory approach , looks at how such manipulations of language can be rejected and oppressed . Poeclectics , as defined by , is a growing tendency for poets to "" utilise more freely ... a variety of texts , styles , voices , registers and forms "" . It is "" a re - orientation towards Re - Writing that re - emphasises the conventional re - visitation of literature 's more recognisable ' voices ' . "" uses such techniques in his   Four Poems in , . In each , he takes a traditional form and manipulates the text to form something quite distinctly different . < fnote > Mario Petrucci Poetry in Performance : Intertextuality , Intra - textuality , ,   URL   ( 2000/2001 ) pp.1 - 2 < /fnote > The , , takes the traditional forms of various different letters . Through re - arrangement and fragmentation , creates a humorous and ironic piece . The verse is fragmented into line segments , which uses the "" familiar and perhaps key ' Intra - textual technique ' - the cut - up . "" The way in which the text is broken up leads to the juxtaposition of contrasting initial statements that , through the enjambment and even stanzas creates an ironic effect . An example would be between the and stanzas . ' Mr. ' at verse appears to be the object of the statement . However , the tone of the letter changes in a humorous way when we read the opening of stanza , to discover it is the death of the recipient 's , not Mr. . < fnote > Mario Petrucci Poetry in Performance : Intertextuality , Intra - textuality , ,   URL   ( 2000/2001 ) p.11 < /fnote > Victor Questel also uses enjambment and caesuras extensively in Judge , however , the effect is distinctively different to that of 's work . 's poem refers to Rastafarian Youth Culture ' Dread Talk ' , which developed as "" a formal way to refuse the - Saxon seizure on the people and to reinterpret the new heritage . "" The central character , ' Rude boy Q ' , is being accused of practicing this Creole both in speech and writing . The use of enjambment and caesura has different effects . As a dramatist and writer of performance poetry , Questal can be seen to use such techniques in order to create the drama of the scene we are presented with . < fnote > htttp:// URL   < /fnote > It is possible , however , to see such techniques as being a reflection of the manipulation of language against accepted contemporary forms . Although the enjambment between stanzas and five is ironic , since the reader is also not ' looking ' , the effect of this , as with other occasions in the text , is that the verse is disjointed . This is also apparent in 's , between stanzas and , where the simile ' black / as a space - time singularity , ' is divided . On other occasions , in Judge the enjambment creates tone through the encouragement of stress on certain words . An example of this is line when the vowel sound of ' every day '' becomes stressed and hard because it has been placed at the start of the line . In order to demonstrate their chosen theme , the poems and Judge manipulate traditional ideas and forms to achieve the poets ' desired effects . In experimentation is one of "" implicit Intertextuality "" ; taking a "" reader orientated "" text and translating "" not between languages , but from one discipline to another . "" This , he describes as a "" Centrifugal tactic "" . takes the line from the children 's nursery rhyme , , which has a regular scansion with an inverted stress in the foot of the line , then using poeclectic tactics and genetic variation he ' mutate[s ] ' the line , developing it into a contrasting , sinister phrase . Petrucci demonstrates how the alteration of vowel sounds , stresses and grammar can change , not only what the text means , but how it sounds . As a piece of performance poetry its true effect can only be fully understood when it is read aloud . Written phonetically it is "" astonishing to arrive at that point in the poem which drives irresistibly to speak in . "" < fnote > Mario Petrucci Poetry in Performance : Intertextuality , Intra - textuality , ,   URL   ( ) p.8 < /fnote><fnote >   The English Studies Book , ed , ( London : Routledge , ) < /fnote><fnote > Mario Petrucci Poetry in Performance : Intertextuality , Intra - textuality , ,   URL   ( ) p.8 < /fnote > Although Judge is not written phonetically , there is in the stanza , hints of a sociolect . In the line , ' I have a language in a vice all my own ' , there is ellipsis of the word ' of ' between ' all ' and ' my ' . The main way demonstrates this theme however , is through the content of the poem and his use - or misuse - of the poem form . ' Rude boy Q ' is being charged with the murder of the language ; the poem opens with ' I am a murderer ' . In Judge the key theme of shifting traditional forms to something more uniquely distinguished , is heavily dramatised . personifies the language and the particles used within it . The poem refers to ' Dread talk ' , in which alterations have been made to the language many in the form of ' Up - full sounds ' . Through , "" the phonological structure of the words was probed and broken into to expose the opposition between the sounds and the significance of the words . "" < fnote > htttp:// URL   < /fnote > Everything ' Rude boy Q ' claims to do or is accused of doing relates to this development of a more distinct language that helped form the identity . The sentences the defendant is charged with reflect the time of suffering and oppression ( or ' downpression in Rasta ) that the people have experienced and still experience through racism . The writers listed at and beginning of the stanza are all controversial writers from around the world . was murdered by nationalists in ; Pasternak was expelled from for his novel Doctor ; poet , and from were exiled for their work . They are used in the poem as examples of ' word merchants ' , who ' abuse ' tradition . This breaking of tradition is also evident in the use of the poem form in the text itself . < fnote > URL   < /fnote><fnote > URL   < /fnote><fnote > URL   < /fnote><fnote > http://   URL   < /fnote > At times there is some sense of rhythm , for example in the line , ' I wring words by the rough of the neck ' , the repeated ' r ' sound of ' wring ' and ' rough ' gives the text a fluidity . There also other poetic techniques employed such as rhyme in the penultimate stanza ( ' interrupt ' and ' corrupt ' ) , and part rhyme in the and stanzas ( ' necks ' and ' next ' , ' without ' and ' mouth ' ) ; there are also several examples of alliteration , such as in the stanza , ' product of proven tradition ' . The repeated ' P ' gives a momentary sense of rhythm and infuses a dramatically angry and threatening tone . Overall , however , there appears to be little more , other than its appearance on the page , which defines the text as a traditional poem . Aloud , it reads as a dramatic dialogue which , on a macro - textual level , can be analysed through the power relations and social rules of the speakers ; the Judge holds a higher status and thus has authority over ' Rude boy Q ' . This is demonstrated through his repeated use of imperatives , ' up ' ; ' Do n't interrupt ' . It might be possible then , to suggest that demonstrates the manipulation , or ' mutation ' of traditional or ' accepted ' in his own use of the poem form . 's poem also explicitly demonstrates such breakings of traditional forms using a "" tactic of inversion applied to platitudes or common sayings . "" The poem is made up of similes , which are de - familiarised from their common usage . uses various different poetic techniques , such as alliteration ( as old as hats ) and the repetition of the ' t ' sound in the line to create a tone that prevents the inversions becoming "" facile humour "" and "" manages to reverse the logic of cliché to [ a ] distinctly non - comic effect "" . This illustrates clearly how the manipulation of the familiar can create something distinctly different in sound , tone and more importantly meaning . < fnote > Mario Petrucci Poetry in Performance : Intertextuality , Intra - textuality , ,   URL   ( 2000/2001 ) p.10 < /fnote><fnote > Mario Petrucci Poetry in Performance : Intertextuality , Intra - textuality , ,   URL   ( 2000/2001 ) p.10 < /fnote > However , it is not only the manipulation of common idioms that demonstrates the central theme of altering traditional patterns and forms . Although there is an almost regular rhythm , the verse scansion has been very cleverly worked upon to illustrate the title of the poem . The feet measurements of each line are , in most cases , a reversal ( ' reflection ' ) or close opposite of another line close to it . The line scans as follows : < quote > "" Bees will sting like a razor "" < /quote > It reads trochee , dactyl , trochee . The line scans the exact opposite : < quote > "" The air will be clear as glass "" < /quote > This reads iambus , anapaest , iambus , which is a full reversal of the line . The line follows as a repeat of the , but with an inverted stress at the beginning of the line . In the stanza , the and last lines are almost the exact opposite of each other also . In the stanza lines and are worth noting : < quote > "" Clockwork regular as citizens And the button , that big red button "" < /quote > The of line reverse the stress pattern of of line ; line ends iambus followed by unstressed syllables , whilst line begins with a reversal : unstressed syllables , trochee . The final foot follows the same pattern . The , however , uses the opposite of the anapaest in the corresponding foot of line . Like , has manipulated regular and traditional forms to create an alternative , more effective poem . Probably the most obvious technique has employed to illustrate the evolvement of traditional , is that of direct speech . Although the dramatic scene is introduced to us by ' Rude boy Q ' , there is no consistent narrator . As a consequence , the poem is filled with deictics and other common features of speech , such as interruption . Other than direct answers , however , the speech of the defendant is no longer included after the stanzas , thus interruptions are implied : "" Do n't interrupt "" . Since it is face to face contact there is also implicit physical action : "" you snivel in my court "" ; the poem is dependent on the atmosphere set by the writer through such techniques and dramatic language . Similarly , demonstrates ' innovational situational development ' . It stands as part of , fixed upon a pillar and involves a superimposed telescopic sight . This creates a "" paratextual space "" , which allows for the text to become multidimensional . The readers are reminded of the context of the highly dramatic nature of the poem . This is reinforced by the internal aspects of the text , such as the consistent use of rhyme , many of which are hard - ended are intended to "" emphasise a sniper - like scanning of the eye "" . However , it also helps to create the sinister atmosphere of the situation the speaking soldier is in . This is further enhanced by the "" familiar child - like naiveté of the opening lines "" . has imitated the beginning of the nursery rhyme , ) , which "" evokes vulnerability "" . The ultimate result of the textual and physical factors of the poem is a creation of "" a matrix for reception far more resonant than that of the page alone . "" has extended the traditional form of the poem into something physical to achieve a far deeper effect on his audience . < fnote > Mario Petrucci Poetry in Performance : Intertextuality , Intra - textuality , ,   URL   ( 2000/2001 ) p.13 < /fnote > Both writers adopt the theme of the manipulation , or ' mutation ' , of the language and its various traditional forms . Despite some similar techniques however , their approaches are very different . 's dramatic piece demonstrates how ' Dread talk ' has manipulated language in order to form a identity . This is achieved through the prosecution of such notions by Judge , who appears to hold authority over what is acceptable within the language . All of 's poems are examples of poeclectics and the ' Re - writing ' or mutation of familiar language to create a new sense of meaning . His re - organisation and manipulation of the familiar illustrate clearly how language can , and has been transformed to give new meaning , as does 's own dramatic transformation of the poetic form .","I would advise that it may be difficult to recover all of his losses . This case is an example of arising from ' negligent mis - statement ' and as such , it must be proven that a duty of care exists between the parties . The duty is established by the relationship between the claimant and the defendant , a stage duty test . The ' proximity test ' , requires the parties to have been brought adequately close to one another i.e. ' the statement must be made directly to the claimant by the defendant ' ( 1 ) . They were friends from university , and were having lunch thus establishing proximity . There are grounds to disagree with this as their meeting was coincidental and they had n't seen each other for a long time . The next , is ' reasonable foreseeability ' . "" Defendants will not be liable unless they should reasonably have foreseen that the claimant would reasonably rely on the statement and voluntarily assumed responsibility for it . ""(2 ) In the case of ' , ( ) ' indicated criteria upon which this may be established . Amongst these were:- ) The defendant 's ability to give reliable advice - was a Director of the firm and we can therefore assume that he knows about the company .. Even so given ' Esso Petroleum v Marden ( ) ' the defendants were liable because they had more skill / experience than the claimant . Given his position in the company , this is likely to be the case . ) The circumstances in which the advice was given - ' and Dredging Co Ltd v Ogden ( 1978 ) ' is relevant here . It said that it had to be ' considered advice which someone would act upon ' and not ' off the cuff ' . We know that it was an off the cuff remark made on a social occasion . Inspite of this , in ' Chaundhry v Prabhakar ( ) ' - liability was imposed when the statement was made on a social occasion but the defendant had specialist knowledge . In ' Caparo v Dickman ( ) ' tightened the rules in such cases . Hence "" the defendant must reasonably have anticipated that the advice would be acted upon without the claimant seeking further clarification or independent advice . "" I feel this may prove difficult to argue given the size of the investment and the possibility that may have ulterior motives . Even so , as a company director we would expect his advice to be relied upon especially given the certainty of his words . There are possibilities that the defendant may not be liable in this situation . However , the law suggests that it is likely will be liable in tort . I would therefore tell that he would be well advised to attempt to recover damages from , but be prepared that he may not recover the full amount . Even if a duty of care could be established , it may also be possible for the defendant to prove that said duty was n't breached . We are told only that the advice was given & ' the firm went into liquidation . We would have to find out whether or not the advice given was accurate at the time & 's losses were unforeseeable . If this was the case , then there was no breach of duty . The case is another example of arising from ' negligent mis - statement ' . This case is slightly different to the previous in that sought the advice and gave it to her in a professional capacity . This fulfils the of the criteria set out above ( ( ) ) to establish whether or not a duty of care was owed . We can also assume that the of the criteria - that the advice is deemed to be reliable - was fulfilled as was a law lecturer and had agreed to provide support to . This infers that he is confident enough in his knowledge of the law to advise others . Regarding the tightening of the rules regarding duty ( ( ) ) as mentioned in the above case , we can assume that could have reasonably foreseen that would have relied on the advice given without seeking further clarification . I would advise that she has a good case , but may have to settle for less than she would have made from the insurance claim if the case is viewed as an example of ' Contributory Negligence ' . Whilst it is reasonable for to have relied upon the advice given by , it could be said that it would have been simple for her to seek a opinion.(ie from a solicitor who is currently practising and would therefore be more up to date on any changes in the law ) . This does however make the assumption that she could afford to seek secondary advice . She did rely , to her detriment , on the advice of an expert and therefore might be able to win full damages . In the and final case , the claim is made based on a negligent act . The most likely party to make the claim against would be 's employer as this is most likely a case of . We are n't told in the text the reason for the accident , so this would have to be established . If it occurred during the course of performing the job for which he is employed , then it is his employer that is liable . If this is n't the case ( i.e. was taking an unnecessary detour ) then it may be himself that is liable . If however the accident was unavoidable then there would be no case to answer To successfully make a claim , damage must be proved . I would have to advise that he may only be able to claim the price of the crops destroyed plus the profit he would have made selling those , as this is regarded as ' consequential economic loss ' . The further field of crops that he was unable to grow is classed as ' pure economic loss ' and as such may not be recoverable . This is illustrated in the case of ( ) . In this case , the claimant successfully claimed for the cost of metal spoilt by the defendant 's negligent act and the proceeds that would normally have been made on its sale , however the claim for lost profits on the melts which could n't be processed because of the damage , was rejected by the court . This policy is also illustrated in ' research Institute ( 1966 ) ' where the court held that as a matter of public policy the claim must fail . Should such an action be allowed to succeed it would open the door to a host of other claims . In our case this could be from the firm that processes the crops , the eventual retailers or a host of other parties involved . The argument against this is that the remoteness of the damage could be seen as being ' reasonably foreseeable ' as opposed to just a direct consequence . ' ( ) ' case is relevant here . Since our case deals with petrol , it is foreseeable that an accident involving such a liquid would cause consequential damage and therefore it may be possible to seek damages for future crop profits as well . In short I would certainly advise to proceed with the case but he should make sure to further investigate the nature of the crash and if it could have been avoided . This information will generally be available from the police report of the incident . Footnotes - Law for Business Studies ( rd Edition ) - Alix Adams ( 2003 ) - Pg 155 - Law for Business Studies ( rd Edition ) - Alix Adams ( 2003 ) - Pg",0
"< heading > Referral information Source of referral and a summary of key information</heading > Referred by GP to Dr   outpatients clinic , the patient was having persistent problems with eating , chronic vomiting and abdominal pain since . Treatment with paracetamol , then PPIs prescribed by his GP did not relieve the symptoms . On the visit to his GP he was referred on urgent dysphagia referral list for further endoscopic investigation . The patient was attending Dr   outpatients clinic after the endoscopy to find out the results from the endoscopy . < heading > History All relevant information gathered from the patient about the presenting illness , co - existing problems , current treatment , significant past medical history and the social and family background . The patient 's view of the nature of the problem and their expectations for treatment . < /heading><heading > Presenting complaint : Problems with eating , continuous vomiting and stomach pains</heading><heading > History of presenting complaint:</heading > The problems with eating , stomach pains and chronic vomitjng started in and the symptoms have not changed in character since this time . The patient says he vomits after eating , he has n't been able to keep anything down for since xmas . When he is sick the food is undigested . He feels that the food is sitting at the top of his gullet / stomach and not going any further . The epigastric pain is central and moves to the right upper quadrant . The pain was described like a dead ache that goes away after he has vomited . It is aggravated by lying on his back on right side and not eating makes the pain better . The patient has lost stone since . He feels tired and sick all the time . Since this his bowels have changed and now he only goes once a week and the stools are ' just like water ' , he used to be as regular as clockwork once a day . His urine has nit changed in frequency , character and is non painful . The patient commented that he is continually starving and can not satisfy himself . Since he has also suffered from visual symptoms where is eyesight glazes over for and he can not focus his vision , like seeing through a mist . This has happened - 5 times since . He has not travelled abroad in . He has never had a heart attack , stroke , diabetes , rheumatic fever or asthma < heading > Past medical history:</heading > He suffered with stomach ulcers in the and the symptoms he suffered from then were nothing like the current symptoms . He has no other significant medical history < heading > Family history:</heading > There is no - ojne in the family who has suffered from similar symptoms , or had peptic ulcers There is a history of in the family where of his family have been affected from it < heading > Drug history and allergies:</heading > Omeprazole 40 mg - proton pump inhibtor , anti - acid mg - anti - hypertensive , ? He has never taken NSAIDs on a prolonged basis He does not have any drug allergies < heading > He lives alone in a house in . He is divorced and has children who live all over the country . of his daughters , who accompoanied him to the clinic lives close - by . He smokes a pipe of tobacco a day which equates to pipes a day . He is an occasional drinker but binge drinks when he does drink . < heading > Systems review:</heading><list><heading > Cardiovascular - dyspnoea , PND , chest pain , palpitations , intermittent claudication , oedema</heading></list><list><heading > Respiratory - cough , haemoptysis , sputum , wheeze</heading></list><list><heading > Gastrointestinal - appetite , weight , heartburn , dysphagia , abdominal pain , nausea , vomiting , bowel habits changed , melaena</heading></list><list><heading > Neurological - he has never suffered from faints , fits or funny turns , headaches , weakness , dizziness parasthesiae</heading></list><list><heading > Locomotor - joint pain , stiffness , back pain</heading></list><heading > Analysis of history The most likely single cause of the presentation , other possible causes and reasons for these choices . The findings to be looked for on physical examination to help decide the cause.</heading><heading > Physical examination Highlight the findings most relevant to your clinical problem solving by underlining them</heading > He was a slim gentleman who was fully mobile . He had bad dentition Hands - the patient had a dupuytren 's contracture on his left hand , apart from that he did not have any visible liver related hand signs , such as , palmar erythema , leuconychia , koilonychia , finger clubbing He did not have a visible tremour or liver flap His pulse was bpm and regular rate of I was not able to measure his blood pressure He had no signs of jaundice , anaemia or central cyanosis He did not have any lymphadenopathy His chest and abdomen was symmetrical , no evidence of scars and he was laying comfortably without discomfort < heading > Palpation:</heading > The patient was tender on light palpation in the epigastric area . There was no evidence of hepatosplenomegaly or abdominal masses < heading > Percussion:</heading > No evidence of ascites < heading > Auscultation:</heading > Bowel sounds were heard in al quadrants . No liver or splenic bruits were heard . No evidence of pedal oedema < heading > Analysis of history and examination Reasons for your choice of the cause of the patient 's problem(s ) and any other cause that still needs to be considered at this stage</heading><heading > Formulation of the patient 's problem(s ) Encapsulate this in physical , psychological and social terms ( the triple diagnosis)</heading><heading > Management Use the framework of RAPRIOP to structure your proposed management . to the guidelines to the writing of portfolio cases for the details of the issues to be addressed under each heading.</heading><heading > Investigations</heading><heading > Reassurance and explanation</heading><heading > Prescription / medical intervention</heading><heading > Observation</heading><heading > Referral and team working</heading><heading > Advice and Prevention</heading><heading > Outcome A description of the progress of the patient as far as possible . This should include consideration of further issues to be resolved . Where appropriate you should contact by telephone patients who have been discharged home.</heading><heading > Evidence based care and issues for research A brief consideration of the evidence base required for the diagnosis and management of the patient 's problem(s)</heading><heading > Commentary A commentary on issues of epidemiology , psycho - social , health care delivery , ethical issues or disability relevant to the patient and/or problem</heading><heading > Impact on your learning Describe what you have learnt from this case</heading >","< heading > Referral information Source of referral and a summary of key information</heading > Suddenly over developed severe pain in his knees in feet , which was so bad he could n't out pressure on his feet . GP was called out who prescribed him painkillers , he said he could n't do anything else without blood tests . Patient went to the   to get some bloods taken . Stayed on the floor of the living room as could n't get up the stairs . Came into via ambulance as an emergency to the   on the   as the pain had not subsided and he was unable to walk to the toilet or upstairs . in admitted him . < heading > History All relevant information gathered from the patient about the presenting illness , co - existing problems , current treatment , significant past medical history and the social and family background . The patient 's view of the nature of the problem and their expectations for treatment . < /heading><heading > Presenting complaint:</heading > Severe pain in knees and feet < heading > History of presenting complaint:</heading > Couldn't get feet on the floor , could n't climb the stairs . Slept on the floor . Pain in feet was all over an agonising burning / achy pain . It was v tender / sore to the touch , the point were he could n't bear anything to touch his legs , not even clothing . The pain as bout out of on the pains scale . Nothing really made the pain any better . The tramadol he was prescribed did n't do much good , seems to be working now . Movement and pressure seems to make it worse . He thinks a similar thing happened on his right foot after he had an arthroscopy . But nothing as bad as this current episode . Knees and feet were swollen , red and every hot to the touch . No other joints were effected . His bowels have stayed the same apart from the tramadol giving him some constipation more recently . No problems with his waterworks . He was generally feeling well prior to this episode , no fever , not feeling run down . Had n't been eating large amounts of offal , protein or drinking lots of alcohol before this admission . < heading > Past medical history:</heading > Some arthritic knee pain over and niggling right thumb pain Had viral pneumonia at age of Type II diabetes , controlled on diet and tablets , was diagnosed . had an investigative arthroscopy on right knee Never had a , stroke , epilepsy . RF . Does have slightly raised cholesterol and blood pressure . < heading > Family history:</heading > His mother had arthritis , but he does n't think she was treated for it . He thinks his brother had a similar problem with his hand , where his hand was so tender he did n't want clothes on it , but he is not sure what the diagnosis was . His other brother is fine . < heading > Drug history and allergies:</heading><list > NKDAAspirin 75 mg OD POPravastatin 40 mg OD POGlimitizide 2 mg OD POFelodipine 10 mg OD PODoxazosin 8 mg POThyroxine 100 micrograms POColchicine 500 micrograms POTramadol 50 mg POPRN : Tramadol 50 mg ( maximum dose mg and maximum per = mg)</list><heading > Social history:</heading > Lives in   with his wife who has an arthritic hip and neck , both can manage the stairs and ADLs He has daughters and sons all are well . Ex - smoker , gave up when he was Drinks no more than 5 units of alcohol a week . red wine occasionally . A retired mechanic , used to work at   for before they made him redundant , then he worked at   for until he was . < heading > Systems review:</heading><list><heading > Cardiovascular - dyspnoea , PND , chest pain , palpitations , intermittent claudication , oedema</heading></list><list><heading > Respiratory - cough , haemoptysis , sputum , wheeze</heading></list><list><heading > Gastrointestinal - appetite , weight , heartburn , dysphagia , abdominal pain , nausea , vomiting , bowel habits changed , melaena</heading></list><list><heading > Neurological - the patient has never had any of the following : parasthesiae , faints , fits or funny turns , headaches , weakness , dizziness</heading></list><list><heading > Locomotor - joint pain , stiffness , back pain</heading></list><heading > Analysis of history The most likely single cause of the presentation , other possible causes and reasons for these choices . The findings to be looked for on physical examination to help decide the cause.</heading><heading > Physical examination Highlight the findings most relevant to your clinical problem solving by underlining them</heading > Hands - clear ( small scar on thenar eminence right hand ) No clubbing . Hands no signs of or , normal full movement without pain < list and regularBlood pressure - 140/80Eyes - no jaundice , some pallor in conjunctivaTongue - quite dry and furry , no central cyanosisNo lymphadenopathySlight ankle oedema??</list > Ankles : < list><heading > Right</heading > Swollen ( oedema?)No painSome pain in the front of ankle on dorsiflexionNo rednessNot hot</list><list><heading > Left</heading > NormalNo painNo pain on movementNo rednessNot hot</list : < list><heading > Right</heading > No painNormal tempDeformityMuscle wasting of quadsFlexion to degreesSome creptiusNo pain on rotationNo fluidNo fixed flexion of knee</list><list><heading > Left</heading > No painNormal tempNo deformityMuscle wasting of quadsFlexion to degreesSome crepitusNo pain on rotationNo fluidNo fixed flexion of knee</list > Look : Feel : Move : Heart - S1 and heard , no added sounds Chest - lungs clear Abdomen - bowel sounds heard and non tender on light and deep palpation < heading > Analysis of history and examination Reasons for your choice of the cause of the patient 's problem(s ) and any other cause that still needs to be considered at this stage</heading > From notes : problems CRF ? < table/>MCV = = normal results - right knee shows osteophytes + + , . Knee xr NAD Arthroscopy showed grade IV OA on right knee , patient having total knee replacement in august Both knees aspirated the aspirate contained calcium pyrophosphate crystals Diagnosis = polyarticular crystal arthropathy or polyarticualr septic joints , the latter is less likely . Why anaemia ? Why lymphocytes going down ? B12 , folate and ferritin all normal = Diagnosis is pseudo gout < heading > Formulation of the patient 's problem(s ) Encapsulate this in physical , psychological and social terms ( the triple diagnosis)</heading > This usually asymptomatic condition of the elderly is due to deposition of calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate ( CPPD ) crystals in large joints , most commonly the knee . The crystals are initially deposited in the cartilage - chondrocalcinosis - where they are associated with degenerative changes . The shedding of the crystals into the joint space results in an acute synovitis and a clinical picture that is similar to that seen in gout . This condition is more common in men ( ratio of ) . < list><heading > pseudogout : < /heading > usually presents as an acute synovitis often affecting the knee radiology shows calcification of articular cartilage and , if the knee is involved , of the menisci CPPD crystals are demonstrable in aspirated synovial fluid</list > gout - occurs generally in patients ; affects small joints , especially the great toe ; clinical features include severe joint pain and swelling , hyperuricaemia ; radiological features include soft - tissue swelling ; there is uric acid crystal deposition in affected joints ; treatment measures include rest and non - steroidal anti - inflammatory drugs e.g. diclofenac , in chronic gout allopurinol prophylaxis pseudogout - usually affects the elderly ; large joints generally involved ( especially the knee joint ) ; clinical features include moderate joint pain and swelling ; radiology reveals calcification of articular cartilage menisci ; calcium pyrophosphate crystals are deposited in affected joints ; possible treatment measures include rest , non - steroidal anti - inflammatory drugs and joint aspiration radiology - reveals linear opacification of articular cartilage examination of synovial fluid - shows positively birefringent crystals arthroscopy - ' microtophi ' on the synovial membrane tests to investigate associated conditions Treatment consists of the well tried combination of rest and 's . Intra - articular injection of corticosteroids or joint aspiration may be used in more severe cases . < heading > Management Use the framework of RAPRIOP to structure your proposed management . to the guidelines to the writing of portfolio cases for the details of the issues to be addressed under each heading.</heading><heading > Investigations</heading><heading > Reassurance and explanation</heading><heading > Prescription / medical intervention</heading><heading > Observation</heading><heading > Referral and team working</heading><heading > Advice and Prevention</heading><heading > Outcome A description of the progress of the patient as far as possible . This should include consideration of further issues to be resolved . Where appropriate you should contact by telephone patients who have been discharged home.</heading><heading > Evidence based care and issues for research A brief consideration of the evidence base required for the diagnosis and management of the patient 's problem(s)</heading><heading > Commentary A commentary on issues of epidemiology , psycho - social , health care delivery , ethical issues or disability relevant to the patient and/or problem</heading><heading > Impact on your learning Describe what you have learnt from this case</heading >",1
"< heading > Introduction</heading > This practical investigates the properties of metal acetylacetonate complexes . The complexes are synthesized , purified and their UV - Vis and spectra obtained . < heading > Safety</heading><heading > Flammables</heading > Acetylacetone , pyridine , toluene and Petroleum ether are flammable . Thus the entire experiment will be free from sources of ignition . Due to the volatile nature of some of the compounds used , all chemical handling will be carried out in a fume cupboard . < heading > Carcinogens</heading > Pyridine is a suspected carcinogen and thus all human contact with it will be nil . < heading > Corrosive and Toxic chemicals</heading > Oxovanadium(IV ) sulphate , manganese(II ) chloride hexahydrate and potassium permanganate are all toxic , sodium sulphite is harmful and an irritant and sulphuric acid is corrosive and so care must be taken when handling these substances . Protective glasses and vinyl gloves will be worn at all times . < heading > Preparation of Oxobis(2,4 - pentanedionato)vanadium(IV)</heading > A dark blue solution of oxovanadium(IV ) sulphate hexahydrate ( g ) in water ( 75ml ) was made - up and combined with a solution of acetylacetone ( ) and anhydrous sodium carbonate ( g ) . The resulting solution turned black and was nearly opaque when held to the light . It was maintained at until light opaque blue crystals where seen to form ( 10minutes ) . The solution was then cooled in an ice bath , which promoted further crystallisation of intensely coloured , opaque indigo petrol - blue crystals . The solution was filtered with a sintered glass crucible under reduced pressure and washed with water to reveal flaky intense indigo - blue , granular crystals of varying particle size ranging , from course to sand - like . Moisture was driven from the product using an oven set to 100ºC.   FORMULA      The dry green product ( g ) was fused in a nickel crucible with white potassium hydrogen sulphate ( g ) to form a black bubbling mass . Once the effervescence subsided , further portions were added to affect total decomposition . A green - blue solution of the cooled melt in sulphuric acid ( 200ml , 1 M ) had to it added , a microspatula - worth of sodium sulphite and was brought to a gentle boil for . An aliquot ( ) of the resulting solution was titrated with potassium permanganate ( M ) . < table/>Analysis shows that content by weight = ( error when compared to the literary value of quoted by Row and Jones , ) . < heading > Preparation of tris(2,4 - pentanedionato)manganese(III)</heading><heading > Experimental procedure , account and observations</heading > A solution of Manganese(II ) chloride tetrahydrate ( g ) in water ( 40ml ) was made - up and to it was dissolved sodium acetate trihydrate ( g ) . To the faint pink solution was added acetylacetone ( ) which instantly colourised it translucent yellow off - clear . Potassium permangate crystals ( g ) where than added which caused the solution to cloud - up brown . Upon stirring , the solution turned a dark olive brown and very fine black granular crystals where apparent forming around the surface which caught the light . With time , the precipitation of crystals became so heavy that the solution glimmered as it was stirred . The resulting solution was filtered using a sintered glass crucible , washed with water and air dried . The black crystals where fine and granular in consistency , until they where dissolved in toluene ( ) at The solution was decantered , and cooled in ice with petroleum ether for . During cooling , fine black needle - like crystals formed out of solution . After , recrystallisation was still not complete but the experiment continued . The crystals were filtered using a sintered glass crucible under reduced pressure , then washed in pet . ether and air dried . < heading > Reaction stoiciometry</heading > Basic action of sodium acetate on acetylacetate ( formation of pentandionato ligand )   FORMULA   Oxidation of Manganese(II )   FORMULA   Under the less extreme acid conditions , there are possible oxidation stoiciometries   FORMULA      Assuming reaction takes place , since the mixture has been basified ;   FORMULA    FORMULA   Reduction of the manganate(VII ) ion to manganate(II ) is not supported by the brown - clouding of the solution which suggests manganate(IV ) was formed instead . Also , a more acidic is required to fully reduce MnO 4- . Lastly , the ligand association with manganese(III ) stoichiometry .   FORMULA   Combining all equations gives   FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA      < heading>2.1.5 bis(pentandionato)vandyl complex can be though of as a derivative of the vanadyl cation ( V 4 + ligated to O 2- ) . It has a has a d configuration and is thus diamagnetic . Arising from the d - d transitions , as with many other vandyl coordination compounds , this complex is blue . The spectrum for bis - acetylacetonate yields a new strong peak at cm -1 which corresponds to the vibration for the vandanium - oxygen vanadyl bond - this is close to the value stated by , of cm -1 , and of , of -1 . This is significantly stronger than the MO vibrational frequencies quoted by , for the metal - oxygen acac bond . The V = O bond is exceptionally short due to an increased bond order as electron density in populated p - orbitals residing as lone pairs on the oxygen , are donated into vacant d - orbitals on the metal cation ie . , ligand - to - metal pπ - dπ donation . This gives rise a particularly high bond stretch vibrational frequency , ie . , - 980 cm -1 ( , ) . This results from the increased bonding order of the V - O bond . The orientation of orbitals is such that a triply bonded moiety is entirely plausible . This postulate is supported by thermodynamic evidence showing one of the strongest M - O bonds of any metal ( with the exception of T 4 + ) . Occupation of those previously vacant d - orbitals on the metal disfavours ligation trans to the oxygen atom as to avoid competition for the d - orbitals , hence a tetragonal ( square ) pyramidal structure is found . The shape of the pentandionato ligands causes a slight deviation from the perfect square base to more rectangular . < figure/>Association of a ligating species trans ( the only available site ) to the vandyl oxygen causes a reduction of the V - O bond order and thus the ) is made less energetic , ie . , the result of adduction of pyridine is to shift the υ(VO ) to a lower wavenumber . This is supported by the work of , , in which works he states that in many solvents with un - appreciable coordination ability the wavenumber of vibration is ( solid mull in nujol , υ(VO)=997 cm -1 ) , whereas in highly coordinating solvents , ) is lowered close to -1 . < heading>2.1.7 Magnetic Data</heading><table/>The number of unpaired electrons can be found by manipulation of the magnetic moment , μ of the complexes .   FORMULA   The number of unpaired electrons present in the manganese complex suggests the octahedral splitting parameter is low enough as to allow unpairing of all electrons . The octahedral shape is distorted with the result being the compression of some bonds and extension of others , this would alter the splitting pattern but only the pure octahedral splitting is shown below . < , , explains that distortion along the z - axis will cause splitting of the e degeneracy . However , this principle was not specifically applied to the complex vanadyl bis - acetylacetonate and so the undistorted model will be used . < enote > A.B.P. Lever , electronic spectroscopy , , , . < /enote><figure/><heading>2.1.6 Ultraviolet - Visible Spectra</heading > Spectra was obtained at - 350 nm . In all UV - Visible spectra obtained , there is a distinct trough centred at nm . This is quite probably due to the wavelength cut - off set for the bulb switch over from the visible bulb to the mercury UV bulb . The actual spectrum is more likely to be continuous from up to 350 nm . To establish this , a different spectrometer would have to be used , or it known for definite if it is viable to adjust the bulb cut - off wavelength using this spectrometer and the samples run again . However , upon closer inspection , the spectrum for bis - acetylacetonate appears to have troughs at nm - one is for sure to be caused by the bulb switch - over , but the other could perhaps be the Band III peak ! In addition , the spectra obtained for the vanadyl complex in pyridine , and the manganese complex in both toluene and pyridine exhibit major fluctuations to the expected smooth spectrum at wavelength under nm . This can perhaps be rationalised by considering the absorbance below this wavelength goes above the working range of spectrometer of . Above A=3.5 , the sensitivity becomes very low for the machine ie . , in the case of vanadyl in pyridine , the absorbance approaches which given the logarithmic ratio nature of the measurement means the machine is trying to make measurements in the part transmission per range ( transmission ) . Thus , instrumental error will become large . The major fluctuations perhaps result from UV dispersal in the sample or a failure of the apparatus to self compensate using the UV bulb which just turned on . For what ever reason this occurred , a possible fix would be to try diluting the sample solution , by for instance . < table/>Locating the band I & III peaks for the manganese tris - acetylacetonate in were difficult , and the value quotes an estimate . The vandyl bis(acac ) complex , with C symmetry the degeneracy of the eπ * is removed , and thus d orbital transition are possible although not all are allowed following formal symmetry rules . The bands nm are these d - d transition . This is what gives rise to the colour of the complex . The strong adsorption characteristic of the vanadyl centre gives rise to it 's typical blue - green colour . All higher bands are charge transfer . The effect of an associating solvent is shift the band peak higher in wavenumber , and band I to a lower wavenumber , as is quoted by , . < heading > Calculation of the extinction coefficients</heading > The Lambert - Beer law can be manipulated to give the molar extinction coefficient in terms of absorbance , cell length and molar concentration . The exact mass of the samples dissolved which where used in the spectroscopy is unknown . It would appear therefore impossible to calculate molar extinction coefficients . However , the assumption made that the solutions were saturated is true for solutions in toluene , for which the solubilities where low and so the concentration is known ie . , saturation solubility . With solubility data available from literary sources it should be possible to calculate , or at least estimate the molar extinction coefficients . However , I was unable to find literary values for the solubility of complexes in toluene . In pyridine , the complexes where very soluble and I was not able to saturate the solutions . < heading>2.1.8 ESR Spectra of VO(acac)2</heading><heading > Calculation of the gyromagnetic factor , g</heading > H is taken to be ( 3350gauss )   FORMULA   < table/>1.575 cm read from the graph corresponds to 88.68gauss or 8.87mT. This is a fairly large hyperfine splitting constant and implies the paramagnetic electron is delocalised away from the metal centre . < heading > Physical means of g and A</heading > Paramagnetic materials possess an unpaired electron which spin can be forced to undergo a transition through the application of radiation . The energy required to bring about this spin transition depends on the strength of the magnetic environment in which the paramagnetic electron is found . The magnetic field is applied externally and thus it 's strength is known - however , the frequency of radiation required to bring about resonance is different to what would be expected , which implies the electron experiences additional magnetic influences . These other magnetic effects are caused by the local magnetic environment in which the electron is found , ie . , through spin - orbit coupling . When an electron is placed in a magnetic field it 's degeneracy is split dependant upon the B - fields magnitude . The energy separation between levels is proportional to the effective magnetic field strength and the gyromagnetic factor . The gyromagnetic factor is characteristic of the complex under measurement . For a free electron , the g - factor is ( g e ) , and when the observed g - factor is greater than g e , the local field is larger than that applied externally . The magnetic field set for which the data was collected requires radiation with frequency of 9.22GHz . This is in the X - Band range , and has a wavelength of ca . . Nuclei that possess non - zero spin contribute additional magnetic components to the field . This gives rise to a hyperfine , splitting pattern . The magnitude of the hyperfine splitting constant tells us how probable it is that the paramagnetic electron is found close to a magnetic nucleus . This is has a very important implication - if the ligands possess magnetic nuclei , then the constant tells us to what extent the metal 's paramagnetic electron is delocalised onto the ligands .","< quote > "" The estimate of our rational knowledge a priori at which we arrive is that it has only to do with appearances , and that things in themselves , while real in themselves are nothing to us . ""</quote><fnote > Kant , Immanuel ( 1781)2004 ) The Critique of Pure Reason , : Orion Publishing ( B vxii ) < /fnote > Kant 's version of transcendental idealism relies on the view that our experience of things is how they appear to us as opposed to how they are in and of themselves . Kant agreed with the view that the only things which exist are minds and things that reside in the mind . Physical objects , such as tables and chairs are merely mental entities and collections of representations . As in the quote above , believed that there are outer objects which exist outside the mind . However , we do not experience these objects as they are independently of us , but rather , we have responses to these objects and therefore experience them from a distinctly human perspective . For , objects of experience are appearances . These objects exist in space and time and as states , "" they include things seen , felt or otherwise perceived . "" Many philosophers regard 's transcendental idealism as a version of 's idealism . claims that is "" an inconsistent . "" However , argues that disregards objects which exist independently of us . If they are just ideas in the mind , then experience is a systematic illusion . < fnote > Van Cleve , James ( 1999 ) Problems From Kant , : , p. < /fnote><fnote , . E , ( ) : , p. < /fnote><quote > "" . . .the dogmatically idealism of , who maintains that space , together with all the objects of which it is the inseparable condition , is a thing which is in itself impossible , and that consequently the objects in space are mere products of the imagination . ""</quote><fnote > Kant , Immanuel ( 1781)2004 ) The Critique of Pure Reason , : , ( ) < /fnote > Berkeley also believed that God implants ideas in our minds . Kant thinks this makes us passive . transcendental idealism considers objects which are "" things in themselves . "" These are objects which exist independently of us and we have experiences of them only because they impinge upon us . These "" things in themselves "" are the grounds of our experience . We can not , however , according to have any real knowledge of these objects as they really are . For example , when we see a table , we see it as being square . But does not believe that it is really square in and of itself . That is only the way it appears to us . Since spatio - temporal objects are the only ones given to us , all objects for us are therefore , are appearances . < quote > "" ( E)verything intuited in space and time - all objects of a possible experience - are nothing but appearances , that is , mere representations and these . . . have no self subsistent existence apart from our thought . This doctrine I call transcendental idealism . ""</quote><fnote > Ibid . , ( ) < /fnote > However , also argued that although appearances or experiences are of things in themselves , they are not representations of things in themselves . If things in themselves were given to us , then this would require us to have immediate awareness of them and would therefore conflict with the idea that we have no knowledge of such objects . Many find fault with this concept . states , < quote > "" Kant frequently says that things in themselves are utterly unknowable . . . Yet , the very view that there are things in themselves involves making claims about them . ""</quote><fnote > Dicker , ( 2004 ) , : , p. < /fnote > Many would agree with this criticism and claim that is guilty of contradicting himself . However , argues that in fact , is not being self - contradictory . < quote > "" . . . he says there can be no knowledge of things in themselves , then proceeds to make an impressive number of claims about them . . . He is open to reproach but not to a charge of contradiction . What he is guilty of is . . . pragmatic paradox . ""</quote><fnote , James ( 1999 ) Problems From Kant , : , p. < /fnote > Kant 's position is a controversial one which conflicts with many prior realist assumptions . He argues that the empirical world , consisting of objects in space and time is a product of the activity of the human mind . Kant offers main arguments to back up transcendental idealism . The assumes that we have synthetic a priori knowledge of geometry . For example , the proposition that the shortest distance between points is a straight line , is synthetic a priori . It is synthetic because its truth can not be determined by the concepts "" straight line "" and "" shortest distance between points . "" The reason it is a priori is because it is necessary as opposed to contingent . We do not need empiricism or experience to know it is necessary . Kant argues that we are able to reach certain synthetic a priori knowledge by the use of transcendental idealism . Propositions about the empirical world are made true by the activity of the human mind . The mind structures and shapes experience so that experience conforms with the propositions . < fnote > Kant , Immanuel ( 1781)2004 ) The Critique of Pure Reason : : , ( B16 ) < /fnote > Many philosophers have found fault with this argument . A common objection is that the argument assumes that the proposition will be synthetic a priori , but this is not always the case . < quote > "" . . . it is highly questionable that 's chief example of synthetic a priori propositions , namely , the truths of geometry , really are synthetic a priori . Suppose instead that they are analytic . ""</quote><fnote > Dicker , ( 2004 ) , : , p. < /fnote > Geometers nowadays distinguish between different types of geometry . states that geometers often "" define a straight line in just the way . . . says we should not : as a geodesic or shortest line between points . "" This makes the sentence analytic and not synthetic as would have wanted . Critics also argue that physical space is in fact , so the shortest distance between points is not a straight line . These objections demonstrate that the propositions are not in fact necessary but contingent and therefore undermines the a priori status of them . However , addresses the issue that geometers have merely modernised terms and therefore altered the status of the propositions . < fnote > Van Cleve , James ( 1999 ) Problems From Kant , : , p. < /fnote><quote > "" Of course , if rival geometries undo the apriority of these s only by redefining terms , they do not really undo it ; they make the same sentence express a different proposition , and it need come as no surprise that the new proposition is not a priori . ""</quote><fnote > Ibid . , p.23 < /fnote > If meanings of words have been changed , then argues that this poses no challenge to . Kant asks how it is possible to have empirical knowledge about outer objects . He disregards the realist explanation that our experiences conform to outer objects and that they represent them as they are independently of us . In his preface to the edition , suggests that what is needed is . < quote > "" . . .is has been assumed that all our knowledge must conform to objects . But all attempts to extend our knowledge of objects by establishing something with regard to them a priori . . . has ended in failure . We may . . . have more success in the tasks of metaphysics , if we suppose that objects must conform to our knowledge . . .we should then be proceeding on the lines of ' primary hypothesis . ""</quote><fnote > Kant , Immanuel ( 1781)2004 ) The Critique of Pure Reason , : , ( B xvi - xvii ) < /fnote > In general , this aims to turn the traditional assumptions on its head , and the turn endorses transcendental idealism . < quote > "" Transcendental idealism expresses the precept that objects are to be considered as necessarily conforming to our mode of cognition ; transcendental realism is committed to the pre - Copernican conception of our mode of cognition as conforming to objects . ""</quote><fnote , ( ) Kant and the Critique of Pure Reason , : Routledge , p.96 < /fnote > Rather than think of knowledge as conforming to objects , we should think of objects as conforming to our knowledge . We make the empirical world the way it is simply by experiencing it the way we do . states , "" Objects in question owe their very existence to being cognised by us . "" Therefore , knowledge is determined by the knowing subject rather than the object and so we are left with necessary , a priori knowledge . This can explain some of the objections to transcendental realism which have n't been answered before . < fnote > Van Cleve , James ( 1999 ) Problems From Kant , : , p.5 < /fnote><quote > "" . . .(Kant 's ) position is that transcendental realism . . . is incapable of explaining knowledge of any sort . That is why a philosophical revolution is necessary . ""</quote><fnote > Allison , . E ( ) : < /fnote > A transcendental argument consists of a claim which is universally accepted as being true and if denied would seem absurd . For example , the claim , "" I think . "" The argument then demonstrates that the claim can only be true if another claim , one which is more controversial , is also true . For example , proposition P is true and accepted as being true . Proposition Q is contentious . If believes proposition Q to be true , they must convince people that it is true . To construct an argument for Q , one must prove that Q is true in order for P to be true . The truth of P therefore , presupposes the truth about If people believe P then they must believe outlines this classical argument in . < quote > "" . . . it is a requisite , firstly , that such knowledge does really flow from the given concept ; and , that the said knowledge is only possible under the presupposition of a given mode of explaining this concept . ""</quote><fnote > Kant , Immanuel ( 1781)2004 ) The Critique of Pure Reason , : , ( / B40 ) < /fnote > However , what if one was to deny the truth of P ? If , for example , we take the truth about geometry and we have a proposition about physical space , such as "" the shortest distance between points is a straight line , "" one could argue that space is and argue that the proposition is not necessarily true , but contingently true . This would pose a problem for those who want to prove that Q is true . As states , < quote > "" ( transcendental arguments ) . . .only show that if we are to have experience . . .then we must have certain concepts or beliefs . . .""</quote><fnote , James ( 1999 ) Problems From Kant , : , p.104 < /fnote > This demonstrates that sometimes , transcendental arguments fail . In fact , many conclusions brought about by transcendental arguments are shown to be analytic rather than synthetic . The arguments identify "" mere ' subjective conditions of thought ' rather than demonstrating objective validity . "" < fnote > Gardner , ( ) , , : Routledge , p.189 < /fnote > Most philosophical positions agree that objects of our cognition are transcendentally real . These objects have the constitution which we represent them as having independently from us and so they can be known as they are in themselves . This claim is known as transcendental realism and disagrees with this view . He argues that realism does not explain how empirical knowledge is possible or how experience can deliver knowledge . Realism seems to create a gap between us and the world . , in his defence of transcendental idealism , argues that , "" transcendental realism is incapable of accounting for the possibility of knowledge of an objective temporal order . "" , however , disregards the objection that transcendental idealism is no better than realism as it can not offer an explanation as to how empirical knowledge is possible either . Kant may seem to be guilty of falling into 's position as he seems to imply that in a way , we create reality . This was in fact , something wanted to avoid . says , < fnote > Allison , . E ( ) : , p.219 < /fnote><quote > "" The doctrine is not just that we can have no knowledge of a super sensible ( non - empirical ) reality , but that reality is super sensible and that we can have no knowledge of it . ""</quote><fnote > Dicker , ( 2004 ) , : , p.34 < /fnote > Strawson conveys that according to the doctrine of transcendental idealism , we can only ever know appearances but never reality . also takes a look at the objections made by and . Russell accepts that according to , the truths of arithmetic and geometry are necessary and owe their necessity to our cognitive constitution . , however , argues that it is contingent that we have the constitution that we do . He questions whether things would be different if our nature would change . < quote > "" The thing to be accounted for is our certainty that the facts must always conform to logic and arithmetic . . . Our nature is as much a fact of the existing world as anything , and there can be no certainty that it will remain constant . It might happen . . .that tomorrow our nature would so change as to make and two become five . ""</quote><fnote , James ( 1999 ) Problems From Kant , : , p.38 < /fnote argued that this possibility never occurred to Kant - a view shared by . "" . . .how can we know that all men 's minds are so constituted as always to act in a certain way ? "" Therefore , the laws of arithmetic and geometry are not necessary after all . < fnote > Ibid . , p.38 < /fnote > However , protests that gives the necessary truths of geometry a contingent grounding in our form of intuition . < quote > "" Kant is not denying that these truths are necessary after all ; he is only denying that they are necessarily necessary . ""</quote><fnote > Ibid . , p.38 < /fnote > Despite many objections to 's doctrine , there are many varieties of idealism and so it remains an open subject for debate . The main theory is that transcendental idealism denies that we can ever have real knowledge of a thing in and of itself . What can not be debated about his doctrine , is that the problem of reality deeply objects to transcendental realism and therefore poses a big problem . However , although the case for transcendental idealism is significant , it is inconclusive and so seems falls short of a watertight theory .",0
"< heading > Is There A Global Economy ? < /heading > Global economy , as an ideal type , exists in the minds of those who see the world through this frame . The question of it existence , therefore , should be answered by examining whether this concept helps us grasp certain aspects of the empirical world otherwise indiscernible . In , there emerged many radical elaborations of this concept , such as the notion of an emerging ' borderless ' world where ' national ' is no longer relevant ( , Ohmae ) , as well as much criticism , such as the claim that global economy ' is much a myth ' ( Hirst and Thompson 1999 ) . Contrasting the views from both sides , I found those skeptical voices valuable in pointing out some empirical errors of the radical elaborations prevailing previously , but faulted in confusing the radical elaborations with the concept of ' global economy ' itself . Instead , I will argue that the concept ' global economy , ' though often over - stated , still has its merits in helping us understand 's world . The term ' global economy ' entered the core lexicon of academic and public discussions in in the discourse of globalization debate . Its popularity reflected the wide - accepted notion that , with the huge surge of international trade and foreign direct investment ( ) through transnational corporations ( TNCs ) and global financial system , we are moving toward a world economy qualitatively different from the past . Carnoy and his colleague ( ) stress the geographical scale of economic interdependency and defined global economy as a world economy in which ' all aspects of the economy are integrated or interdependent on a global scale ' . Castell ( ) further incorporate the temporal aspect by defining it as ' an economy that works as a unit in real time on a planetary basis . ' This concept soon became a handy phrase widely used among opinion leaders with different degree of implications . Sometimes it was applied to refer to the increased international economic inter- dependence , or step further to mark certain fundamental change in the economic order , but some went as far as to claim the irrelevance of national economies and domestic policies in the face of powerful global market force . Such perspective , later labeled ' globalism ' by critiques , were politically consequential that it soon became widely cited to justify some less favored governmental policies ( deregulation ) and corporate decisions ( outsourcing and layoffs ) . Partly in response to the more radical views and their political consequences , various skeptical voices emerged , primarily from the perspective of state - centrism , which see the nation - states as continuing to play important roles . Hirst and ( ) proposed the following argument challenging the global economy thesis : ( ) The present highly internationalized economy is not unprecedented . ( ) Genuinely TNCs are rare , and most companies are based nationally . ( ) is highly concentrated among the advanced industrial economies , hence is does not produce a massive shift of investment and employment to the developing countries . ( ) Most international economic activities are concentrated in the triad of , and , less from truly global . ( ) Some nation states ( especially the G3 ) still have the capacity ' to exert powerful governance pressure over markets . ' As an alternative ideal type , they developed a model of ' inter - national economy ' to explain the empirical economic trends , in particular the increase in international trade and capital flow . By doing this , they aimed to ' emphasize the possibilities of national and international governance ( ibid : ) . ' The challenges and presented are valuable in correcting some popular over - statements and stress the possibility of governance . Also the alternative model they propose can really account for some major economic trends . However , this view failed to grasp certain aspects of contemporary world economy that can only be described with the phrase ' global . ' , while their ' inter - national economy model ' can illustrate the increase in the cross - border trade and investments , it fails to capture the spatial extensiveness and complexity of the network of such links , which goes beyond regional scale and can only be best described as ' global ' . It is true that this network is concentrated in the triad of , and . But this ' triad diagram , ' drawn from the - world perspective based on the absolute amount of trade and capital flow , fails to show , from the perspective of the peripheral countries , how important the cross- border economic activities are as relative to their GDP . In other word , while people in the core countries can hardly feel the influence from these peripheral countries , the people there may experience a great influence from the core countries . Hence , excluding them from the world economy map and claim the absence of a global economy is not only problematic but ' - world - centric . ' , skeptics in this vein overlook the qualitative change in the nature of world economy . While the international economy before is only shallowly integrated through short distance inter - firm trade and portfolio investment , now we are living in a world that is deeply integrated by TNCs through the intra - firm division of labor in the production process . It is true that ' genuinely TNCs are rare ' in number , but their importance can be seen in the fact that TNCs accounts for of world trade in , among which is actually intra - firm trade ( ) . , such claims underestimate the impacts of information network . The network of modern communication have made the worldwide dissemination of knowledge , technologies , ideas and news much more comprehensive and easier . Of the information shared in these global networks , a considerable portion may bring economical consequence ( for instance , economy forecasting , technological innovation , and the news of war ) . Such effects , in term of their geographical coverage and scale , are of course ' global ' . In sum , the concept of ' global economy ' has its merits in capturing some aspects of contemporary world economy , and hence should be refined rather than be rejected by the empirical critiques proposed by the skeptics . clarifications are needed here . , the concept of global economy , in this sense , should not be taken as an exclusive term that represents an economy entity independent from regional and national economies ; rather , I use it as and inclusive term which embrace . , by recognizing the merits of this phrase , I do not assume it to be unprecedented . The study of the contemporary may sometimes lead us to rediscover the past from a new perspective . If we find this new concept useful in making sense of a part of history , e.g. the period , it is not a threat to the validity of this concept . < heading > Who Controls It ? < /heading > Can we really claim that any group of people is controlling global economy ? It depends on what implication we hold for the term ' control . ' By definition , ' control ' lies somewhere between ' determine ' and ' have nominal influence ' , but there is not a clear guideline for how much influence is considered control . In end , surely no one has the absolute power as to determine the whole global economy . In the other end , if we talk about any influence , literally everyone involved in global economy may have his share . The later view can be seen in neo - classical orthodox , which claims that the economic outcome in a market - mediated system is controlled by our individual decisions collectively . This argument could be valid from certain aspect , but is irrelevant here because it totally ignores the unequal power distribution in influencing global economy . Hence , the question of ' who controls global economy ' should be answered by identifying a group of people , who , relatively and collectively , has more power than others in shaping the outlook of global economy . In this sense , there could be many answers , and indeed there were many answers proposed - the westerners , the , the well educated , male , or a bunch of CEOs -each group of people has a different degree of control , on perhaps different aspects , over global economy . A noteworthy point of these grouping frames is that they are identified by some well - established social categories . This is quite understandable because people tend to think in terms of existing mental constructs . More often than not , we talk about some institutions as key actors . In such discourses , what is discussed could be the institution per se , its administration team , or the people bounded in the institution . What I observed , however , is the confusion of the in most cases . prime examples relevant here are and the TNCs , which deserve some discussion . political and economic domination is well reflected in the global economic order after ( ) . From , , to , the has always stood at a unique position and played a dominant role in settling the economic agenda and order , hence it is not hard to see why many people see global economy as a by - product of - led economic ordering ( e.g. , ) . This notion is especially popular in and , where ambivalence toward the penetration of dominance is often felt . In the other hand , the major TNCs are also said to be the major force behind the global economy . Consider the scales of the TNCs , many of which have assets and revenues far more than the GDP of most countries ( Sklair ) , their decisions could really impact the lives of . It has long been argued that TNCs , by deciding where to invest , can trigger ' race to the bottom ' between countries competing in low - wage labor , lower tax - rate and less regulated environment ( Beck 2000 ) . The notions of and TNCs dominance were actually derived from opposite underlying perspectives , namely globalism and state - centrism , and each provides a partial and exaggerated account . If restrictedly elaborated , the notions are of merits in highlighting the pivotal role the and ( as institution per se ) in global economy . But it need to be stressed that the real world is shaped by a set of complicated political - economical interaction between various parties , each exerting different degree of control of some aspect of the overall outcome , and the stress of any single power is incomplete . Further , when applied on identifying those who have more power in global economy , the notions are misleading . Assuming a collective will for each institution in analysis , the views overlook the heterogeneity of the compositions in both parties . For instance , when claiming ' is imposing neo - liberal rules ' , whom do we really refer to as subject , the authority , the Republic , the media , the public , or some other people ? When we talk about TNCs as actors , are we talking about their employee , their manager , CEO , board , or the shareholders . The and TNCs were taken as analysis unit because they are part of our widely shared mental construct , but they seem not map well the target we intend to identify . Hence , we need a more sophisticated grouping frame that can fit better with the profile of those who dominate the power in shaping global economy . In order to obtain a more - balanced and better - mapped account of who are controlling global economy , Sklair ( ) proposed the concept of transnational capitalist class ( ) , which contains the fractions : ( ) owners and controllers of TNCs and their local affiliates , ( ) globalizing bureaucrats and politicians , ( ) globalizing professionals , ( ) consumerist elites ( merchants and media ) . The new grouping strategy was not taken from any given social category , but rather was developed by tailoring several smaller categories to meet the analysis purpose . In a way , this strategy provides a much accurate grouping frame than most of the previous claims , but meanwhile , such a frame is less clear in its boundaries and sometimes vague in practical analysis . In comparison , while conventional grouping frames are partial , inaccurate but clear defined , the grouping frame of is more - balanced , arguably more accurate but less clear . Here , we saw a trade - off between precision and accuracy in the attempt of formulating the grouping frame , which seems to signify a theoretical limit , given the existing social categories , for the answer to the question ' who controls global economy . ' From the previous discussion , we find that : ( 1 ) There are numerous frames for grouping up a people that are more powerful in controlling global economy than the rest , yet there does not exist a single , definite line to separate those who have control and those who have not . ( ) The describable frames based on existing terms may not match with those conceptual frames , and hence misleading in some way . In sum , the real world is shaped by a set of complicated political - economical interaction between various parties , each exerting different degree of control of some aspect of the overall outcome . Throughout the pursuit of this question , from neo- classical orthodoxy , notion of - dominance and TNCs dominance , and the proposed by , what we got it a gradient of a set of frames , each grouping up a set of people , who have different level of control of global economy , with various degree of precision and accuracy . From this basis , it seems that we should move forward from asking ' who controls ' toward a more sophisticated exploration by asking ' who , in what way , control what to what degree . '","Are there communities in cyberspace ? The internet enthusiasts believe that the computer - mediated communication ( ) technologies promise a new way of creating communities ; the skeptics dismiss the authenticity of ' virtual communities . ' This question is plagued by the elusive notion of community , which reflects the intellectual struggle between the nostalgic calling for returning to traditional communities and the attempts to acknowledge new forms of social solidarity by re - conceptualizing community . Identifying the inevitable subjective element in every definition of community , I found it a genuine aptitude not to impose any a priori criteria of community in studying the social life in cyberspace , but rather focusing on the user 's subjective interpretation . Based on the empirical evidence available , I found : ( a ) users can indeed use this medium constructively in maintaining some sort of social life from which they can obtain a ' sense of community ' ( b ) However , to claim that such community exist ' in cyberspace ' is misleading . The cyberspace does not exist as a distinct , separate realm from the real life , but forms a complementary relation with the later , and most social groups formed or maintained with the aid of seem to transgress the boundary between the . ( c ) The hope of regenerating communities through the internet is misplaced . The internet , though powerful a tool , has certain restrictions and brings mixed effect on our social life . < heading > Introduction : Debate of the in Cyberspace</heading>""Cyberspace , "" a term coined by ( ) in his science fiction and now understood as "" where human interaction occurs over computer networks "" , suddenly kick into our vocabulary as the computer mediated communication ( ) swept our lives in . Its potential impacts on our social life soon captured attention , and triggered the debates on whether there are authentic communities in cyberspace or not , and whether are leading us toward a more accommodating or a more alienating world . < fnote ( ) A Glossary of Telecommunications . < /fnote > The optimists believe that promise new ways of building human communities . They see the flourishing mailing lists , discussion groups , chat rooms , BBSs as new forms of the "" places "" which ( ) claimed to be central to communities ' sociality . Rheingold ( : ) , for instance , described the online social life with the term "" virtual community , "" which he defined as the "" social aggregations that emerge from the [ Internet ] when enough people carry on those public discussions long enough , with sufficient human feeling , to form webs of personal relationships in cyberspace . "" ( : ) also claimed "" computer technology ... can play a positive role in rebuilding community . "" Apparently , what is achievable online will not be exactly the same as the traditional geographically- bounded communities , but as ( ) stated , < quote > The old concept of community is obsolete in many ways and needs to be updated to meet 's challenges . The old or "" traditional "" community was often exclusive , inflexible , isolated , unchanging , monolithic , and homogeneous . A new community needs to be fashioned from the remnants of the old ( p.9 ) . < /quote > Similarly , ( ) described that the virtual community , from her perspective , is "" incontrovertibly social spaces in which people still meet face - to - face , but under new definitions of both ' meet ' and ' face ' . "" The paragraph written more had became more plausible as applications like instant messengers , visual ( where one can see the avatars of other players ) and video chat emerged in . In the other hand , the skepticism of technologies ' capability in improving our life seems never cease since 's critique of the "" inauthentic existence "" under technological and market domination . Some theorists , tried to re - examine the online social life with the criteria they believed essential for a community . For instance , ( ) argued , < quote > A community is bound by place , which always includes complex social and environmental necessities . It is not something you can easily join . You ca n't subscribe to a community as you subscribe to a discussion group on the net . ( p.37)</quote > She carried on to stress that a community must be lived , be intertwined with all the senses , and involve the "" continuing , unplanned interactions between the same people for a long period of time ( p.37 ) . "" Similarly , Calhoun ( ) used the criteria of density , multiplexity and autonomy to examine the relationships forged with the aid of electronic technology . He concluded that , to the most , they are merely manifestations of fostered "" categorical identities "" based on similar race , occupation or interests , and far from being truly communities . So , how do we negotiate between the contradictory views ? Logically , the question "" are there communities in cyberspace "" should be answered by examining what is achievable in cyberspace with the criteria of what is a community . I will discuss the later first . < heading > The Concept of Community : A Historical Perspective < /heading > The term ' community ' has an elusive meaning . At minimum , community could means "" a collection of people who share something in common . "" But it often bears much deeper connotations , such as to "" encompass all forms of relationship which are characterized by a high degree of personal intimacy , emotional depth , moral commitment , social cohesion and continuity in time ( , : ) . "" Van Vliet and ( ) argue that a community contains "" social interaction , a shared value system , and a shared symbol system "" in its social , economic , political , and cultural realms . Calhoun ( ) proposed "" density , multiplexity , and autonomy "" as criteria for a community . As Fernback ( ) observed , the term community "" seems readily definable to the general public but is indefinitely complex and amorphous in academic discourse ... It has descriptive , normative , and ideological connotations . "" < fnote > Johnson , A ( 2000)The Blackwell Dictionary of Sociology , ed . : , p. < /fnote > This "" normative and ideological connotations "" explain partly the difficulty of defining community . While community is often defined in objective terms of social structure and social interaction , each version of definition inevitably encompass a subjective element of interpreting an ideal state of how we live together . Furthermore , such interpretations are constantly challenged by the social shifts which impact the way in which people relate to each other . Here I will draw a short outline of how community had been conceptualized and discussed , which shows that the elusiveness of its concept reflects a intellectual struggle between the nostalgic calling for returning to traditional communities and the attempts to acknowledge new forms of social solidarity by re - conceptualizing community . The sociological study of community can be traced back to , when many sociologists used this concept with the dichotomies between pre - industrial and industrial , or rural and urban societies . In und ( ) , for instance , equates ( community ) to the rural , self - contained society that is united by kinship , shared values and a sense of belonging . For many sociologists then , communities were associated with all the assumed good characteristics of the rural , pre - industrial societies , and discussed as a contrastive alternative in their critique of the alienating modern societies . Hence , the rediscovery of "" traditional community "" in can be seen as a reaction out of the anxiety of the social disintegration brought by industrialization and modernization . < fnote > Abercrombie , . ( ) , ed . Penguin : , p. < /fnote > The anxiety of the plausible decline and disintegration of traditional values and social orders has never ceased . It is often argued that the urbanization , the penetration of technology and market rationality , the rise of individualism and many other social shifts in modern Western societies has created generations of lonely , atomized citizens , and caused the "" loss of community , identity , and morality "" ( , ) , "" the disappearing social capital "" ( ) , and the "" corrosion of individual character "" ( Sennett ) . intuitive response is to call for returning to traditional communities and restoring traditional values , as we can clearly see from 's Quest of community in to 's calling for rebuilding the "" spirit of community "" in . Sampson ( ) , in reviewing the community issue , noted "" as we approach a new century and reflect on the wrenching social changes that have shaped our recent past , call for a return to community value are everywhere ( p.241 ) . In the other hand , some respond to these challenges by re - conceptualizing community , usually by doing so to include some new forms of social solidarity that were not considered communities previously but are performing certain functions that are similar to the traditional communities . For instance , despite how community had been associated in the rural / urban dichotomies , and his colleague at started to use this term in studying urban life since . "" Another example was the shift from focusing on the geographical sense of community toward stressing more on its functional and process aspects in 1940s-60s , when social relations were becoming less geographically - confined as the communication and transportation means evolved . This conceptual shift is best reflected by 's ' community without propinquity ' ( ) , with which he illustrate how friendships could be maintained at a distance and how community of a sort could emerge on the basis of professional grouping and complex organization as well as neighborhood . < fnote > Borrowing from bilogical ecology , defined community as "" a population [ of people , animal or plant ] , territorially organized , more or less completely rooted in the soil it occupies , its individual units living in a relationship of mutual interdependence that is symbiotic . "" ( Quoted by , .   URL   accessed ) < /fnote > Furthermore , after , as television swiftly spread into most western societies , the effect of mass - mediated experience in narrowing the difference between people 's experiences and creating new forms of communities also capture attention . ( ) noted that the electronic communications technologies have essentially nullify the space and time distances so that we effectively live in a "" global village . "" ( ) , his "" imagined community "" thesis , also argued "" all communities larger than primordial villages of face - to - face contact ( and perhaps even these ) are imagined . Communities are to be distinguished , not by their falsity/ genuineness , but by the style in which they are imagined . ( p.7 ) "" Placed at the end of the historical context outlined above , the current debate about the authenticity of virtual communities is just last round of the intellectual struggle of how community should be defined . While the optimists ' claims represent a new attempt of re - conceptualizing community to capture the emerging social solidarity online ; the skepticism inherit the traditional resistance to technology penetration and the longing for the idyllic notion of the traditional community . From the discussion above , we can see that the word community has acquired a spectrum of meanings , which does not correspond to any specific form of social structure , but reflects various ways , at different levels , of conceptualizing an ideal state of how we live together . In other word , as I pointed out earlier , any form of conceptualization encompass a subjective element , which can not be logically validated . Since so , I believe the genuine aptitude is not to choose any a priori criteria for community , but to explore how the users actually experience and interpret their online social life , and whether they would call it a community , if so , in what sense . In this changing society , how the sense of community can be provided has been changed many times . Hence , while the nostalgic calling for returning to traditional communities never ceased , it is more realistic to re - conceptualize community as our social life patterns change . After all , the idyllic notion of community implied by the critics , as commented by Castell ( : - 388 ) , "" probably did not exist in rural society ... has certainly disappeared in advanced , industrialized countries . "" < table/><heading in Cyberspace</heading > A comprehensive assessment of how social life is lived online is destined to be overwhelmed by the fast progress and the enormous diversity of applications . For instance , while we are still talking about text - based , the visual - based ( such as , which was launched in and now has members ) is already on its way . Moreover , internet does not provide environment , but various environments . Table 1 . presents some typical online environments involving social interaction , classified by its temporal aspect ( synchronous/ asynchronous ) and the number of users involved ( interpersonal / multi - user ) . More aspects can be further added to differentiate internet environments , such as the norm and administration of online group , its traffic flow and demographic composition , and the use of certain media formats ( image , voice , video ) . Each combination of all the factors above has its own strength and limitation in terms of social interaction , and can not be discussed in a general voice . < fnote > Gamania Site   URL   < /fnote > Nonetheless , the exiting literature already show sufficient evidence that some users can indeed use this medium constructively in maintaining some sort of social life , from which they can obtain ' a sense of community . ' Rheingold ( ) is among the earliest writers who captured the richness of online social life . After participating in the WELL ( a bulletin board system based on bay area , ) for , He wrote , in cyberspace , people "" exchange pleasantries and argue , engage in intellectual discourse , conduct commerce , exchange knowledge , share emotional support , make plans , brainstorm , gossip , feud , fall in love , find friends and lose them , play games , flirt , create a little high art and a lot of idle talk . "" They "" do just about everything people do in real life . "" Such richness of online social life is confirmed by ( ) , who , after studying the newsgroup rec , arts , tv , soap ( r.a.t.s ) for , wrote that "" the of people who have participated in r.a.t.s have created a dynamic and rich community filled with social nuance and emotion . "" She also noted the emergence of group - specific identities , norms , relations and expressions with group - specific meanings : < quote>"" ... participants in develop forms of expression that enable them to communicate social information and to create and codify group - specific meanings , socially negotiate group - specific identities , form relationships that span from the playfully antagonistic to the deeply romantic ... and create norms that serve to organise interaction and to maintain desirable social climates . ""</quote > Moreover , some participants do feel a sense of community and were willing to share personal experience in certain online group . In a survey of the participants on the mailing list WMST - L , and ( ) found , while asked what is satisfying and useful about the group , aside from "" information , "" many participants also mentioned a "" sense of community "" and the "" discussion of personal experience . "" ( ) also demonstrated that players could form a sense of community as well . However , to claim that such communities exist ' in cyberspace ' is misleading . Because the cyberspace does not exist as a distinct , separate realm from the real life , but forms a complementary relation with the later , and most social groups formed or maintained with the aid of seem to transgress the boundary between the . In way , internet is often used as a supplementary tool to enhance the already existing social relations or network in real life , such as the email among family members , friends , colleagues and schoolmates . As ( ) argued , "" can supplement face - to - face contact ... provide a powerful new channel for connections among people already linked by residence or engagement in a common organizational framework "" ( ) In the other way , a considerable portion of the relations initiated online will be extended in to real life . For instance , "" virtual community "" advocate also admit , WELL "" felt like an authentic community ... because it was grounded in my everyday physical world . "" In a survey investigating the relations newsgroup subscribers build on the newsgroup , and ( ) found that a high percentage of their respondent had contacted their online mates using means other than internet , such as telephone ( ) , the postal service ( ) , or face - to - face communication ( ) . ( : ) also observe that the "" on - line groups are often woven into the fabric of off - line life rather than set in opposition to it . The evidence includes the pervasiveness of off - line contexts in on - line interaction and the movement of on - line relationships off - line . "" Finally , while has certain strength and can be used constructively in our social life , it has certain restrictions , and the hope of regenerating communities solely by is misplaced . of the major reason for skepticism to rise was some "" overheated language , "" as ( ) noted , that "" falls within a long tradition of technological optimism "" and "" tend to represent urban decay and class polarization as out - of - date formulations of a problem that could be solved with the right technology . ' "" Such hyper - optimists provided promising prophecies of 's capability in promoting equality , democracy , civil society and so on . Yet these hopes are now challenged by the findings that in effect strengthen the "" hegemonic culture "" ( , ) , create a "" new class "" of the information- elite ( Luke , ) , caused the "" compartmentalization of community "" ( Calhoun , : ) and "" polarization "" ( et al , ) . Fernback and ( ) , in contrasting the hopes placed on with the reality , concluded : "" virtual community is more indicative of an assemblage of people being "" virtually "" a community than being a real community in the nostalgic sense that advocates of would seem to be endorsing . "" < heading > Conclusion</heading > The debate of whether there exist community in the cyberspace is the latest round of a intellectual struggle between the nostalgic calling for returning to traditional communities , and the attempts to acknowledge new forms of social solidarity by re - concept- ualising community . Recognizing the inevitable subjective element in every definition of community , I found it a genuine aptitude to focus on the user 's interpretation instead of imposing any a priori criteria of community , but in studying the social life in cyberspace . Examining the empirical evidence from existing literature , I found : ( a ) users can indeed use this medium constructively in maintaining some sort of social life from which they can obtain a ' sense of community ' ( b ) However , claiming such community as existing ' in cyberspace ' is misleading , because the cyberspace does not exist as a distinct , separate realm from the real life , but forms a complementary relation with the later , and most social groups formed or maintained with the aid of seem to transgress the boundary between the . ( c ) The hope of regenerating communities through the internet is misplaced . The internet , though powerful a tool , has certain restrictions and brings mixed effect on our social life .",1
"In this essay I intend to compare and contrast an example of conversational talk with an extract from a political radio interview . The methods that I will employ to do this will be the Ethnography of speaking , Conversation analysis and sociolinguistics , all of which are methods used in applied linguistics and specifically in the analysis of spoken discourse . I have chosen several approaches because as ( : ) points out ' To do a thorough job of talking about discourse or a discourse , the analyst must have recourse to the findings and methods of other sub disciplines . ' The that I have selected in particular , reflect both the macro and mirco analysis which is conducted within the field , yet at the same time all focus their analysis on language that has occurred naturally ( Schiffrin 1994 ) ( Hutchby and Wooffitt ) ( Cameron 2004 ) . Before I begin to conduct my analyses though , I will highlight the importance of transcription , in particular the decisions made about what it should represent , as this is influenced by the methods of analysis used to examine the discourse ( Ochs ) . Therefore I will explain the difficulties that I encountered and try to explain the choices that I made in compiling my transcripts . ' Recordings are essential tools in discourse research , but are not sufficient by themselves for the systematic examination of interaction ' ( Edwards : ) , therefore in order for the tape recording that I made to be useful I had to be selective . The selection was not however random , instead it systematically reflected the aims of the approaches that I wanted to employ , as advised by Ochs ( ) . With this in mind I decided to follow some of the transcription conventions proposed by , a major contributor to the conversation analysis approach ( as cited by and ) . This meant paying particular attention to the structure of the talk , by indicating features such as latches , overlaps and simultaneous speech ( see appendix for the notations used ) to highlight the distribution of turns ( reinforced by the colour coding of turns ) . I also decided not to omit hesitations , false starts and discourse markers because they are characteristic of spoken language and specifically valued by Interactional sociolinguists . With regard to the Ethnography of speaking I incorporated a small introductory summary at the beginning of the transcript to place the discourse in context ( an important principle within Ethnography ) . I will begin my analysis with the Ethnography of speaking . One of the most integral parts of the approach , according to ( ) is placing the discourse within a cultural and social context , which enables the ' big picture ' to be seen ( Cameron 2004 : ) . To do this the Ethnography of speaking uses certain analytical frameworks , which I will employ , to characterise culturally meaningful behaviours to help highlight ' the differentiation ( between ) languages , varieties and styles ' ( Schiffrin 1994 : ) . theorist who has contributed to this is , focusing his investigation on what he defines as ' communicative competence ' ( : ) . This is the subconscious knowledge that a speaker requires about context to be able to interact appropriately . To analyse this put forward units of analysis : the speech situation , event and act , as well as the SPEAKING Grid which is used to describe the components of the speech event ( Cameron 2004 ) . As a result I intend to use these tools in my comparison of an excerpt of conversation and a political interview . The interview can be broken down into the units of analysis described by relatively easily , for instance the speech situation is a radio broadcast ; the speech event a political interview ; and the speech acts within the speech event include greetings , statements , questions and replies . This is in contrast to the example of conversation , which is much harder to define in Hymes ' terms , for example the speech situation could be described as being at home in the reviewing the events , but this is not as neat and as easily classifiable as the speech event for the radio interview . Also , although the speech event can be identified as a conversation , the speech acts are not so well defined as the question answer sequences that are found in the interview . Instead it is composed of many different speech acts such as interrogatives , replies , exclamations , expressions of opinion , agreements , disagreements and proposals . However both examples of discourse can be placed into Hymes ' SPEAKING Grid . For example the setting of the interview is a live radio broadcast conducted between a studio and a radio car , whilst the conversation is set during the in a living room in one of the participant 's homes . The interview 's participants include the interviewer ( a journalist ) and the interviewee ( the Prime Minister ) as well as the radio audience ( who although not an active contributor to the discourse , might still be considered as a participant , as they help to construct the context and content of the discourse , shown by 's acknowledgement of them : ' that I think your listeners would probably like to hear about ' ) . The participants in the conversation are and both of whom are and have shared a relationship together for . They both take the roles of addresser and addressee within the discourse . The ends ( or purpose of the interview ) broadly speaking is for the interviewer to impart information from the interviewee ( as shown by the distribution of question and answer acts between interviewer and interviewee ) what information should be imparted however seems undefined between interviewer and interviewee , as within the discourse the different expectations are made explicit : ' into the interview , you 've not asked me a single question on the economy , on schools ... ' The purpose of the conversation is phatic ; to construct and enhance a relationship ( contributing to the notion of discourse being a social action ) . The act sequence for the interview begins with an introduction of the interviewee : ' When ... ' which is then followed by greetings from both active participants : ' Good morning ... Good morning , ' after which a series of question and answer pairs follow ' ... has it been ? Well I think , ' with the conclusion to the discourse denoted by the interviewer 's thanks ' many thanks ... OK thanks . ' The act sequence of the conversation opens with an anecdote , ' you know the girl ... ' it is then followed by a series of question and answer pairs and statements of opinion in relation to some confectionary that the participants are eating : ' Is it chocolate ? ... ... Quite nice . ' Finally it concludes with exclamations and another anecdote which is then evaluated using declaratives and judgements : ' My God ... when I went back down ... I do n't mind you worry about it too much . ' The key of the conversation is informal and colloquial reflected by the terms of address : ' we 've got this left hunny ' and idiosyncrasies : ' thingies , ' ' biscuity . ' In comparison , the key of the interview was relatively formal with any breaks in formality such as ' I mean really ! ' quickly disregarded by the interviewer ' There are many big questions are there not ? ' The spoken medium is used in both examples of discourse but interestingly in the interview the visual communication channel is unavailable ( due to the interview being conducted across different locations ) depriving the participants of the visual and context dependent cues which are so prevalent in the face to face interaction of the conversation as shown by this deictic expression , ' you 've got this one left . ' The norms of interaction in the interview seem to be that the interviewer controls topic management and the timing of any topic shifts : ' let 's deal with some more , ' ' Well let me just before we leave that one . ' The interviewer is also the only participant to ask questions directly : ' So was that a yes or a no ? ' whilst the majority of sentence moods used by the interviewee are declarative : ' where people have fallen down then action 's been taken . ' This is in contrast with the conversation where both participants initiate topic shifts , ask interrogatives and use declaratives : ' we 've got this one left hunny , ' ' was it the last one of those ? ' ' I prefer the cinnamon one , ' ' They 're nice though are n't they ? ' However this in itself is an important observation as it shows that the roles of the participants are on more flexible than those within the context of a political interview . The genres can be defined as a result of the above components as examples of an interview and of phatic conversation . In contrast to the Ethnography of speaking Conversation Analysis ( CA ) takes a micro analytic approach to the study of discourse , however like of speaking CA does consider language as action , although it does not place it within a social context unless made explicit within the data ( ) . CA , as the name might infer does not only study conversation but all forms of ' talk in interaction ' ( Pomerantz and Fehr 1997 : ) making it an appropriate tool to conduct a comparative analysis with . It views talk in interaction as ' methodic , ' ' systematically ordered , ' and ' deeply organised ' ( Hutchby and Wooffitt : ) and attempts to describe these structures to explain how participants create social order ( Schiffrin 1994 ) . Areas of enquiry that CA is concerned with , and which I plan to investigate are adjacency pairs and overlaps . observed that talk in interaction is constructed from a minimum of turns , some of which are ' adjacent , produced by different speakers , ordered as a part and a part ' ( Schiffrin 1994 : ) , this occurrence is what he later defined as adjacency pairs . The observation of such constructions can be found in the interview , in the form of a greeting : ' Good Prime Minister , Good morning John ' and in the conversation as a question and answer pair : ' Was it the last one of those ? Yeah ' These examples both show what ( Hutchby and Wooffitt : ) describe as the ' participants orienting to the relevance of adjacency pairs ; ' that by displaying a relevant answer ( a feature which CA relies on to infer understanding , known as the next turn proof procedure ) the addressee is displaying his knowledge of what the prior turn was trying to achieve . However not all instances of a part of an adjacency pair receive the relevant or expected part ( as noted by and Kroger 2000 ) , for instance : ' Is it chocolate , it tastes toffee treacly ? ' ( ) ' Does n't it ? ' ' ... ' In this example taken from the conversation transcript a question is asked : ' Is it chocolate , it tastes toffee treacly ? ' ( the part of an adjacency pair ) but no response is given to complete the pair ( note the three second gap ) and therefore its noticeable absence prompts the addresser to append a tag question ' Does n't it ? ' in order to gain the relevant part of the adjacency pair , which it achieves : ' ... ' The study of overlaps also examines the organisation of turns and in spite of their apparent unstructured nature ( as cited in and Wooffitt ) has provided evidence that overlaps are in fact systematic , in that they adhere to specific distribution rules . to identify overlaps as organised she examined their onset and observed types : transitional ( where the next speaker interjects at a possible place of transition ) ; recognitional ( when the next speaker projects what the current speaker is saying ) ; and progressional ( when there is disfluency in the current turn which is resolved by another speaker ) . Examples of these can be found in both of my transcripts , in particular transitional overlaps : ' ... the tax burden is n't going to go up ] [ No actually what I said ... ' ' There were cinnamon things ] [ Oh the box ... ' However an example of recognitional onset is only present in the conversation data : ' More like ] [ [ lemon curd sauce , ' where accurately projects what the other was about to say and simultaneous speech occurs . Having said this though , there is an element of recognition in some of the overlaps that occur in the interview data . For example ' the big questions as you put it are discussed all the time as you know Prime Minister , but let me ] [ Well really they are not discussed here ... ' in this overlaps not at a transitional onset ( because it occurs after the speaker begins a new clause : ' but let me ... ' ) ; or a progressional onset as the speech had not become disfluent ; nor was it recognitional in the sense that does not complete what the speaker is about to say ( as found in the conversation transcript ) . This led to problems in categorising it , however when looked at without preconceived definitions ( as CA aims to do as a data driven approach ) it might be possible to say that this is an example of recognitional onset because although not continuing what the speaker would have said would have to project what the speaker was likely to say in order to disagree with it ( is protesting against the speaker 's unwillingness to discuss the big questions- which signals by his use of ' but ' ) . Finally I want to approach my data using ( IS ) . This is an approach which studies ' the interaction between self and other and context ' ( Schiffrin 1994 : ) , enabling it to combine aspects of the Ethnography of speaking and CA . For instance it makes explicit the subconscious structures and techniques which CA is concerned with , but correlates the observations with external factors such as context ( which is so central to the Ethnography of speaking ) . To demonstrate this I intend to study the role of discourse markers ( a microanalytic observation ) in relation to context in both sets of data . The function of a discourse marker according to Stubbs ( , as cited by Pridham 2002 : ) is ' to relate utterances to each other or to mark a boundary in discourse . ' In my own analysis I would not only like to find out the specific functions of the discourse markers in my data but to see if there are any interactions between the function of discourse markers and the context or speech event they appear in . To begin the analysis I took 's example of trying ' to specify the conditions that would allow a word to be used as a discourse marker ' ( Schiffrin 2001 : ) and found that the most prominent discourse markers were the interjection ' oh ' ( occurring only in the conversation data ) and the adverbial particle ' well ' ( found in both sets ) . ' oh , ' which appeared when an anecdote was being recalled but its distribution was incredibly specific , preceding any direct quote : ' She said oh um , ' ' she um said oh I 'm really sorry , ' ' I was jokingly said oh yeah . ' These systematic examples seem to indicate that the condition for ' oh ' is to precede a direct quote , functioning as an introductory marker . This reinforces what ( : ) describes as ' oh 's ' role in marking ' information state transitions . ' ' Well ' only occurred once in the conversation data : ' Well sorry I thought we were sharing it ' where it is in initial position framing an exclamation ; a function supported by Stenstrom ( : ) . In comparison to the interview data this observation remained relatively consistent , with ' well ' almost always occurring in initial or near initial position : ' Well I think ' ' Well let me ' ' Yes well let 's . ' In this context it is again acting as an introductory mechanism although to both the beginnings of questions and responses : ' Well let me just ... you are proud of them ? ' ' Well I think where we have n't been ... what we have done . ' The exception to ' well ' not occurring in initial position occurs in 's introduction when he questions whether the government has been ' purer than pure ' : ' Well has it been ? ' In this example ' well ' although not initiating the turn does however begin a new clause which introduces an opposing view . To introduce an opposing view is also the function of some of 's replies : ' Well of course they do but ... ' From this analysis it would appear that the distribution and primary function of some discourse markers , in particular ' well ' can be maintained across different speech events ( ' well ' occurring in initial position and as an introductory , framing device ) . However this is only a small sample , of not only data but of the discourse markers present in both transcripts and as a result it would not be possible to generalise these findings . In conclusion I think I have provided an insight into quite contrastive but complementary approaches to discourse analysis and by ordering them as I did was able to address some of the weaknesses of each approach . For instance of speaking pays little attention to the micro structures of discourse ( Schiffrin 1994 ) , which is integral to Conversation Analysis ( Cameron 2004 ) , whilst Interactional sociolinguistics attends to the criticism of CA that it ignores the important role of context ( and ) . As a result I feel that I have both learnt and demonstrated the importance of triangulation within discourse analysis . However in this assignment I have not been able to present a representative view of these approaches , as I have only offered small examples of how such approaches can be applied . Also there are many more features which these approaches may well have included in their analysis but due to time and word constraints I have been unable to acknowledge . Nevertheless in spite of these limitations ' the alternative is not to engage at all , which undermines the rationale for applied linguistics as a whole ' ( 2003 : ) .","< heading > Introduction</heading>'Only a few centuries ago the language consisted of a collection of dialects spoken mainly by monolinguals and only within the shores of a small island ' ( Cheshire 1991:1 ) . However by , it was estimated by ( : ) that ' well over a third of the world 's population ' had some command of the language ( be this as a native , or foreign language speaker and to varying degrees of proficiency ) . As a result of this global spread of , 's - centric description of is no longer relevant . Instead classifications such as 's concentric circle model are far more reflective of the current situation of ( Jenkins ) . The model separates into main types : the inner circle ( composed of countries where is the predominant native language , resulting from the diaspora ) ; the outer circle ( countries of the diaspora who use as a language ) and the expanding circle ( those countries which use as a foreign language ) . In this essay I will examine what would describe as the outer circle of . I will particularly focus on the introduction and development of ; its role in a post colonial ; the consequences that its introduction has had for other languages ; and what place there may be for in a future . < heading would be categorised by as an outer circle because it is used as a second language ( to ) , and was introduced as a result of its colonisation in ( the diaspora ) . As and ( : ) recount , came under control as a result of the Opium wars with , ' it was ceded to in by and was officially leased from in for ( Crystal 2003 ) . According to ( : ' was untypical of other colonies , ' in that ' from the outset it was meant to be an outpost of the empire ( ... ) ( designed ) for the sole purpose of facilitating or reinforcing trade and commerce ' ( : ) . In addition , unlike other colonisers , the administration delivered non intrusive ideals which the had aspired to since the times of ( Li : ) . The colonial era of also coincided with political unrest in which led to many fleeing the main land in search of the stability and opportunity which the rule provided ( ) . was quickly becoming a centre for business and commerce generating employment and trade opportunities . ( : ) points out that these kinds of socio - economic trends did not ' conform to the usual pattern of colonisation ' and therefore has greatly shaped the development of in . < heading According to Jenkins ( 2005 ) for the one hundred years of rule the and led relatively separate lives ; coexisting alongside each other and only interacting for the purposes of business and trade . This led to ' the development in of Pidgin English ' ( Pennington : ) which actually survived right through to . However this was not the promoted by the administrators , as it was a mix of derived vocabulary and grammar as ( : ) exemplifies : < quote>'Boy ! pay my that two piecee book ' ( ' Give me those two books boy!)</quote > In spite of the use on non standard English , Pennington ( ) points out that the pidgin did flourish in of rule , although not as a lingua franca , as most would speak . Instead it was a language which was employed to trade with powerful foreigners . However ( : ) states that ' by ( ... ) there was ( ... ) increased access to educated varieties of through mission schools and other sources and some speakers of developed a distaste for pidgin , ' resulting in its decline . was promoted through its use in the law , education ( missionary schools ) and administrative institutions ; a common practice for many of the colonies in the diaspora ( Crystal 2003 ) . However unlike many other , was not necessarily viewed negatively as representing and perpetuating the imperialism of colonial rule as ( ) has described of colonies such as and . , as a growing financial centre in found that the demand for in fact came from the people of . According to ( : ) it was partly as a result of ' the colonial government 's social selection policies ' which had implications for those citizens who were proficient in , enabling them to have access to higher paid and more prestigious jobs than those who had little or no knowledge . had become a competitive advantage providing higher social status and increased opportunity . However as ( ) points out , far from providing opportunities for everyone , became a perpetuator of social divide . This is because it was only the middle and higher social classes who could afford the private education needed to reach the required standard in , therefore creating a privileged elite of Hong Kongese who were closely tied to the centre . Yet in spite of this unequal distribution the number of speakers has increased since the1970s with the introduction of educational legislation which provided a free and compulsory education system ( ) . Under these reforms the medium of instruction was in both primary and education ( as it had been in the missionary schools previously ) . Although this is a clear example of what ( ) would describe as linguistic imperialism ( the imposition of a coloniser 's norms and ideals ) , it was nevertheless as ( ) proposes , providing a certain economic and monetary benefit to the students of , which resulted in parents supporting the use of in schools . < heading > English In In colonial rule came to an end and was returned to . The administration had prepared for the handover by reducing the number of medium schools , which as a result of public pressure had been in the majority . This goal was described by ( : ) as ' belatedly realistic given that , the mainland standard of spoken , is the national language in all of , which now again includes . ' Indeed , after the strength of in education was weakened when it was decided in that education should be conducted in . However due to public demand schools were permitted to continue using as the medium of instruction . Yet even this did not subside the public outcry which followed as Boyle ( : ) recalls : < quote>'This has caused an outcry amongst parents and alumni of some of the schools forced to change to medium . Letters appear in the papers , with angry protests from parents or heartrending appeals from pupils to be allowed free choice in the matter of medium of instruction . ' < /quote > But was this a response conditioned by imperialism ? Phillipson ( ) argues that it was , citing the influence of the colonisers which was maintained even after their physical presence had gone : ' The ideal way to make people do what you want is of course to make them want it themselves , and to make them believe that it is good for them ' ( : ) . It is possible to see the truth in 's argument as in , is and has historically been viewed as desirable ; ' a value added commodity ' ( : ) . However , whether this opinion is justified or whether it is a tool to perpetuate neo colonialism is unclear and difficult to clarify . For example ( : ) points to the genuine importance and economic benefit of speakers in commercial colonies such as , especially with a growing service industry that is dependent on an international lingua franca such as . Conversely though it would be naïve and selective to think that there was no evidence of linguistic imperialism during the colonial era and that it ended as soon as the handover took place . For instance a typical example is the language policy which benefited speakers , putting those who were not proficient in at a distinct social and economic disadvantage . Ultimately though I agree with ( : ) who concluded that : < quote>'there is no way that an elite who have mastered the colonial language can hope to create and sustain a strong desire among the ex - colonial subjects to learn that language willingly if there is no incentive for them to learn it ( .. ) parents are not passive victims but pragmatically - minded active agents acting in their best interests . '</quote><heading > English And It 's The introduction and development of any foreign language , ( in this case ) in any country and for whatever reason will inevitably have some impact on the existing indigenous languages , and of course is no exception as I have already highlighted . However unlike many other colonies ( such as in ) there is little evidence to suggest that the introduction of has been at the cost of other languages . For instance , ( : ) states that ' one of the clearest indicators of linguistic imperialism in former or colonies is that the vitality or existence of local languages is under threat . ' Yet is in a period of continual growth ( Pennington ) , as the native tongue of is the dominant language at home , as ( : ) describes : ' in personal domains such as family , friends , social activities ( ... ) the use of is superseded by . ' It is also the predominant medium of instruction in most schools ( in spite of parent 's demands ) as well as having a growing influence within the government and the law , where it is the norm for spoken interaction to take place in ( Bolton ) . Although I have found no evidence of being subsumed or negatively affected by ( at least after decolonisation ) , one language which may be threatened or which the policy on may have serious consequences for is . This is primarily because according to Boyle ( : ) ' time given to learning will probably be borrowed from time given to learning , ' and therefore any increase or decrease in in schools is going to impact on the time dedicated to . The use of , which is spoken by mainland , was expected to rise following the handover to sovereignty in and according to and ( : ) it has grown , citing that it is ' becoming more and more important in administration and for interaction with people from the rest of . ' It has indeed benefited from the governmental strategy to pursue a ' trilingual , biliterate language policy that recognises , and as spoken languages and written and as written languages ' ( Bolton 2002 : , but in spite of these measures there are some concerns for its future which Boyle ( ) raises . For instance , < quote>'many prefer to use as a means of communication rather than having the person struggling in bad or themselves attempting . ( ) some Chinese , especially those from and want to use and improve their ( ... ) ( which ) is considered to be a symbol of modernity and affluence . ' ( Boyle : 38)</quote > So far I have examined the consequences of on other languages but perhaps the most profound influence of in is the way it has contributed to mixed codes . ( ) points to this as one of the characterising features of highlighting in particular a mixed code between and which is exemplified in the following excerpt from a leaflet issued by : < quote>'mag - deposito ng pera mula sa ibang account , at any using your cashcard . Mag - transfer ng regularamount bawa't buwan ( by standing instruction ) . ' ( : 164)</quote > This shows the way in which is integrated with indigenous languages to form a new variety ( in this case ) and as ( : ) states it is an illustration of ' the extent to which it is possible to go and still retain an identity which is at least partly . ' This is only example of code mixing however , for instance ' ' has also been documented ( Vittachi : ) , as a mix between and . ( : ) explains that although ' indecipherable to people outside ( ) is spoken by taxi drivers , tailors , business people and anyone positioned between the and speaking communities , ' thus demonstrating that code mixing is not necessarily confined to the uneducated or to certain social groups but restricted to a geographical area , conditioned only by the surrounding linguistic profile . Indeed , ( : ) even points to a study showing the growth of ' mixed mode ' in classrooms . In mixed mode teaching grew from to twenty per cent and in subjects such as science and mathematics it had even become the ' dominant mode ' ( Pennington : ) . Pennington ( : ) concludes by reaffirming most important linguistic feature : ' The most significant fact about language in the present era is the vitality of the mixed code which has resulted from this process of linguistic flooding , diluting and blending and which in a sense carries on the traditions of the previous generations of pidgin speakers . ' < heading > The Future of Hong Kong English</heading > So what to the future of as perhaps a new variety of ? This seems a little far off and to explain why perhaps once more unusual relationship with must be considered . For instance ( ) states that ' despite the growth in amongst ( ... ) it appears that does not have widespread acceptance as a variety , ' pointing to the norms to which learners try to follow : ' it 's existence is acknowledged , but it is apparently not the variety to which speakers aspire . Instead ( ... ) teachers remain firmly attached to norms of correctness ' ( Jenkins 2003 : ) . This employment of exonormative standards instigated and perpetuated by an educated elite ( not necessarily the colonisers ) perhaps demonstrates some form of post colonial imperialism , as described by ( ) whereby the enforcing of the coloniser 's norms only serve to reinforce the coloniser 's influence . Yet it may also be argued that without a standardised language the need to follow circle norms is stronger than ever in order to gain from the international opportunities which can offer . Whatever the reasons behind exonormative stance however , without the codification and acceptance of its place as a new variety of looks to be uncertain . < heading > Conclusion < /heading > In this assignment I hope to have provided an account of how was brought to and the conditioning factors under which it developed . I have also described its effect on other languages as well as considering what the future may hold for in a post colonial . Although the account has been relatively brief and there are many issues that I have not been able to touch upon I hope that I have at least pointed to the most significant developments and issues concerning its progression . My information is from a range of sources to avoid a bias approach , although inevitably this is very difficult when researching a former colony because as ( : ) highlights ' whoever writes history is likely to be defending the interests of the group the historian belongs to , ' as a result I have tried to neutralise this effect by selecting texts and accounts written by academics based both in and outside of . Similarly there are problems with the reliability of the estimated figures of the number of speakers of , as they are beset with the inevitable problems of approximation and definition , but whatever the number of speakers in it is clear that has had an enormous impact on not only the teachers and students of but on other languages , and the history of .",1
"< heading > Mini - case Overview""Survival of the biggest "" - Telefónica acquires < /heading > Telefónica 's all cash offer for O 2 will create the largest telecoms company by number of customers with mobile and landline users . 's strategic goal is "" to provide the best combination of growth and cash returns in the industry "" and the acquisition is a step to accomplish that . < fnote > China Mobile is the number Telecoms company by customer numbers < /fnote><fnote > From the Telefónica O 2 acquisition presentation , accessed from   URL   < /fnote > Big European telecoms are jostling each other for fear of coming off worst in a continent wide wave of consolidation and strives to move up league table of telecom companies ( see figure ) . Acquiring O 2 will increase revenue growth for ( see figure ) and will prevents others from buying it . < figure/><figure/>The acquisition comes at a time when wireless technology is increasingly a substitute for traditional landline calls ( see figure ) , and mobile ownership is expected to rise from to units by . The biggest growth is expected in ( see figure ) . Mobiles are being increasingly used to do more than make phone calls , providing new opportunities for wireless operators and equipment makers . There is also the impending threat of Voice Over Internet Protocol ( VOIP ) from companies such as and KaZaA. Skype offers free calls to other users and can add users a day without spending anything on new equipment . It signals the intent that one day all voice calls will be free . < figure/><table/>Telefónica chairman justifies the acquisitions as a way of broadening the firm 's reach across different markets and technologies . At present the majority of 's sales come from and and from traditional land lines . Acquiring O 2 will increase percentage of revenues from from and decrease the proportion of fixed - line revenues by percentage points ( see figure ) . Although Investors believe the deal is expensive ( a premium is being paid ) . O 's ability to translate its strategic objectives quickly and smoothly across its communications strategy makes it an attractive acquisition target . < fnote > Based on the average share price of O during < /fnote><figure/>In many ways the deal represents a step back not forward . The recent trend has been for incumbent operators to spin off their wireless and internet divisions and concentrate on their core capabilities . Since the spin off of O from every £ 1 held in the old group at the time of the split has delivered a return of , assuming dividends were reinvested . Meanwhile , O 2 has delivered a return of and is now worth more than . Arguably the most significant change has been the transformation and re - engineering of the brand to give O 2 greater awareness among consumers . < fnote > That is far more than most other telecoms stocks have delivered . has returned , minus 13 per cent , and Telekom minus 21 per cent . < /fnote > Although no job losses are planned , expects savings of £ 200 m by , mainly on handset and equipment buying . However analysts expressed caution at its leap into the northern market . Analysts at wrote : '' Strategically it seems questionable , and it is not in 's area of expertise : emerging markets . '' . , analyst at believes O 2 represents a more attractive target for acquisition than other operators because it has a less diverse and less complicated footprint , making it a more ' cleaner ' business to acquire and integrate . Their recently enhanced position in the business calls market also adds to the attraction . The deal could be beneficial for both and O 2 . In , could combine its fixed - line operation with O 2 's mobile offering to create a "" - stop shop "" however 's previous foray into ended in failure . The offer also puts greater pressure on rivals to achieve growth outside of their current markets .   URL   URL   URL   URL   URL   URL   URL < heading > Question : Is the acquisition of a strategy that will allow to stay competitive in a industry shifting from fixed line calls to wireless technology ? Mini - case Analysis</heading > Telefónica is a global telecoms company whose success has been built on fixed line services with a strategy focused on emerging markets particularly in . It now faces challenges in an industry shifting towards mobile services . We define 's competitiveness as their ability to continue to make profit inline or greater than their rivals . 's matrix ( figure ) shows that acquiring O is a strategy between product development and diversification ; entering new markets ( and ) and using products away from the landline service they offer . < fnote > This can not be considered complete diversification as offer mobile services in the and markets . However the deal represents a greater emphasis on mobile calls . < /fnote><table/>This strategy will allow to exploit the growing substitution of landline services for mobile / wireless services where margins on calls are higher . Entering lucrative markets with high mobile phone ownership may provide with a predictable source of revenue . The potential source of growth may come from Third Generation mobile phones for which O have licences . However there are risks involved with diversification , particularly moving away from their core competencies ; providing fixed line calls . The and markets also show low growth opportunities as they approach saturation and this is also a move away from 's expertise of emerging markets . A previous failure in indicates that may have lessons to learn if they are to be successful . < fnote > UK Mobile Phone ownership is estimated at ( , ) < /fnote > The goals of diversification are growth , risk reduction and profitability and achieves these by acquiring O . Mobile subscriptions are growing strongly ( see figure ) , decreasing their dependence on revenue from fixed line services reduces risk , and O gives access to profitable mobile calls business . Overall they will be better placed to compete . < fnote > Grant , Robert . M , ( ) , Contemporary Strategy Analysis Fifth Edition , , pg < /fnote > Although this strategy shows benefits to , an assessment of the industry attractiveness will help show if it will keep them competitive . Porters for industry analysis ( figure ) although providing only a static snapshot in time , is useful for this . < figure/>For Telefónica to stay competitive they must be able to counter the threat of new entrants . By acquiring O , has greater economies of scale , resources and the strong O brand , which makes it harder for new firms to enter the industry . Thus the threat of new entrants decreases , which is beneficial for . O 's strong capabilities providing data services may help reduce the threat of substitutes to , but the threat of the internet and remains . However access to large mobile markets ( and ) combined with the strong brand name of O , may enable to cross sell internet / VOIP services in the future . The strong bargaining power of buyers is prevalent in mobile and fixed line markets . Acquiring O gives the economies of scale in the industry and enables them to retain and increase their supplier power . With greater firm concentration the intensity of rivalry between the remaining big players will amplify . Using Porter 's framework and looking at the growth of the market ( figure ) , the mobile telecoms industry appears attractive and furthering their presence seems logical . For more complete analysis we should also consider the th force of the model , complements . must be responsive to the position held by mobile phone manufacturers who offer the complements to the service they provide . There are drawbacks to the deal ; the high premium paid on the share price , the addition to debt and a focus on markets showing slower growth than emerging markets ( see figure ) . In conclusion , acquiring O and increasing its presence in a growing mobile calls sector will keep competitive as the telecoms industry consolidates . The strength of the O 2 brand and the increased revenue growth of the combined entity are key drivers . The ease at which O may be integrated makes it more attractive than rivals but must be aware of the future threat of VOIP . Successfully integrating O 2 will keep competitive now , and in the foreseeable future .","< heading > A. Introduction</heading > CFS faces an increasingly competitive and sophisticated market place . Pressure has been growing to reduce prices in order to maintain market share but this has affected profit margins . To overcome these pressures and to remain competitive the Director has proposed further restructuring of the company . This report has been instigated by to investigate the proposals outlined by the Director . The report will provide a thorough analysis of these proposals and outline how the project will be implemented , controlled and reviewed . Recommendations will be suggested at the end with more detailed justification provided in the main body of text . < heading > B. Project Stakeholders</heading > Stakeholders are those who have an interest in a project . They may be few ( e.g. a assignment ) or numerous ( e.g. building a new hospital ) . Good management of project stakeholders is important because "" if stakeholder management is undertaken successfully , the project will run more smoothly "" . The expectations of different stakeholders may vary but will also change with time . < fnote > There are many stakeholders in this project : local community , MPs , society , hospital employees , building contractors to name < /fnote><fnote > Orr , . D , ( ) , , < /fnote > The stakeholder groups in this project are as follows . High Street Agents who would welcome a "" much closer working relationship "" and "" more effective service "" . Trade Unions , who will want to protect the interest of the workers , e.g. pay v work load . , external customers who would like a "" more personal and effective service "" . IT Employees - Responsible for implementing new IT services . Shareholders who will want to see a positive return on the project . - directly affected by the reorganisation . The Director - Has overall responsibility for the department . for training of employees . Wider society should be considered as they will benefit from increased taxes on potentially greater profits made by , should the project be a success . < fnote > Although shareholders have no direct stake in the project , they have a stake in the company and so would wish for it to succeed < /fnote > For effective management of each of the stakeholder groups , their interest / stake and influence on the project must be ascertained . This will enable the suitable method of communication with that stakeholder group to be used . Figure illustrates the grouping of the stakeholders by their interest and influence . From this is can be determined how best to communication with them . High street agents , trade unions , shareholders and IT employees all have low stakes in the project and have little influence . To best manage this group , informing is required . External customers have high influence ( they can shop elsewhere for insurance ) as do HR as they will perform the training . Fully informing is appropriate here . The operations department employees have a high stake in the project and because their power is low it is best to consult with them . Finally the operations director has both high interest and influence in the project so should be invited to participate . There is no need to communicate explicitly with society on this project . < table/><heading > C. Aim , and Evaluation</heading><quote>""One of the most common causes of unsuccessful projects is a failure to define properly the purposes and nature of the project "" . < /quote><fnote , . J , ( ) , page < /fnote > It must be clear what the project is going to do , how it is going to do it and how the outcome of the project will be measured . After the implementation the project should also be evaluated to see if what was promised in the beginning was actually delivered . The definition of the project is fold : aim , objectives and evaluation . The project aim defines what the project will do and why . The project aim is : < quote>""To bring savings in operational costs and to increase profits , by increasing employee flexibility , commitment to teamwork and improved customer service through the multipurpose teams and the implementation of internet connectivity""</quote > The objectives are a more detailed set of statements of what the project is going to deliver . The objectives should be to ensure a focus on what is pertinent and facilitate a thorough evaluation of the project . Evaluation will allow for further improvement and also helps to ascertain if objectives set out at the beginning were indeed achieved . Figure shows the objectives and evaluation criteria for the project . < fnote > Meaning specific , measurable , attainable , realistic , and time based . From Lock , ( ) , < /fnote><table/>Each evaluation criteria has been chosen after considering the pros and cons . For example although there are drawbacks to using a mystery shopper for evaluating objective , it was felt that this was the most appropriate method for objectively evaluating how staff work . Using a focus group to evaluate objective allows participants to interact and ' bounce ideas off each other ' , and also covers many staff quickly . However it was recognised that there are drawbacks to this technique ; that individual views may get suppressed and skilful facilitation is required for the method to be successful . For objectives - 7 , the evaluation criteria are an objective measurement of the parameter . Therefore the conclusion drawn is founded on fact , and not opinion . Moving forward , the project scope should be considered to ensure that it is made clear what the project will and will not cover . The project will not allow selling through the internet , team leaders will not be responsible for setting sales targets for their team , insurance premiums will not automatically decrease as a result of the project , HSAs wo n't be forced to upgrade their computer systems and savings in operational costs wo n't automatically be used to increase pay / bonuses . < heading in every project is uncertainty and risk . To fully understand and manage risk one must understand what underpins risk , uncertainty . Uncertainty relates to "" possible variations in factors related directly or indirectly to a project that may affect project performance "" . Risk is the resultant deviation from the planned outcome of the project . methods that are useful for determining uncertainties are the Failure and Effects Approach ( ) and the - and - Effect Approach . The approach works from cause to effect which is naturally the way things occur whereas the - and - Effect approach is places a stronger influence on the operating objectives and works from effect to cause . Because considers the effects on project outcome and overall organisation performance this is the most appropriate approach for this project . Using , the uncertainties and variations ( risks ) for implementation and operation can be described and a probability of occurrence and level of impact assessed . This is normally done on an arbitrary scale ( e.g. 1 - 10 ) . Figure summarises this , where levels of impact and probability has been converted to a simple low , medium or high scale for ease of understanding . This all facilitates the rating of significance of the risk . < fnote > Wheeler , . J , ( ) , page < /fnote><fnote , . J , ( ) , page < /fnote > Having established the uncertainties inherent in the insurance project , the next step is to classify the uncertainties which will facilitate the development of a strategy to deal with the risks to the projects success . Using the impact / probability matrix ( Wheeler 2005 , page ) each uncertainty factor can be rated in terms of its significance to the project . For avoidance of doubt the levels of significance must be defined . cost and deadlines are not affected . Significant - If not dealt with project cost and deadline will be affected . Critical - Currently poses a threat to the project 's overall success . Fatal - Immediate action required or project should be abandoned . This is all summarised in figure below . < table/>Once the risks have been established and their significance to the project ascertained , a risk management strategy can be devised . Broadly speaking there are strategies for managing risk . Avoidance - reject the project outright . Mitigate - put in place a strategy to reduce the risk to the project . Risk sharing - by way of a strategic alliance or through contractual terms . Allowing - accepting that the negative outcome may occur but preparing a contingency , setting aside extra resources . Ignorance - take no special action . < fnote > It must be noted that a focus on risks to the project and not to the company is taken . A large company may be able to undertake high risk projects but for a smaller firm the failure of a project may be fatal to the firm < /fnote > To decide which strategy is appropriate the level of impact and the probability of occurrence must be taken into account . The level of impact / probability of occurrence matrix ( Wheeler , , page ) may be used to devise a strategy to best manage each risk . The risk of savings in operational costs not being realised has a high impact because this is one of the key drivers for the project , and is a fundamental operational objective . It has a medium probability so a strategy of avoidance should be adopted . However as this is an integral part of the project this is not practical , so instead mitigation should be adopted . CFS must ensure that the HR department implements the necessary training , and introduce a feedback system whereby the employees can comment on their competency in a certain area . The risk of increased training costs ( due to resistance to the project ) has a medium impact because reducing costs is an important objective of the project . It has a medium probability , and as such mitigation or sharing strategy should be used . Involving employees in the project at an early point and allowing them to have their opinions heard may prevent this . However I also feel a strategy of allowing , and thereby setting aside some contingency funds for this eventuality is also appropriate . The risk of the project being delayed is due to several uncertainties and so mitigation and allowing is suitable here . If reorganisation and employee training takes longer , contingency time should be set aside . To combat complications with connecting PCs to mainframe , tests should be carried out as early and possible and research should be carried out to understand the technicalities . The risk of a recession and a decrease in revenue demands aspects of allowing , by conducting sensitivity analysis to see how profit is affected by particular drops in sales , and ignoring as there is little that can be done by to prevent a recession . Finally the risk of increased PC / software prices , and therefore cost to the project should be managed through allowing . Sensitivity analysis should be conducted to see how the project cost is affected by a certain increase in PC / software prices . A small contingency fund should also be set aside . < heading The pace of change</heading > With a higher pace of change the project has a better chance of being completed on time but there is a greater risk and less chance for consultation with key stakeholders during the realisation phase . Ultimately at a higher pace , the project may encounter resistance . However at a slower pace there is a higher probability of acceptance , as cultural shifts are often slow . As a shift in thinking is operations department staff , and thorough training is required a medium pace of change is suitable for the project . This should enable it to complete on time , while still capturing "" buy in "" from key stakeholders . At a medium pace , is an achievable time span to complete the project . < heading > Necessity for an exploratory or "" pilot "" phase</heading > The introduction of a "" pilot "" phase may be beneficial to "" allow the project , the project introduction process and the operational benefits to be thoroughly evaluated "" . Although a pilot mitigates some of risk of failure for the main implementation , there is an added cost to the project . As there is no implementation of cutting edge technology or a mass shift in culture the project can not be considered high risk . It would seem prudent to conduct a pilot phase on of the multitasking teams only . This should be done over a period with fortnightly reviews and lessons learned taken forward to the main implementation . < fnote > Wheeler ( ) , page < /fnote><heading>3 . Overall pattern of activities</heading > The pattern of activities defines how the project will be conducted , more specifically how activities are implemented . The options available are serial or parallel approach . A serial approach , where activities are carried out one after each other , would enable easier management of the project with clear points between activities for management to exercise control . However this approach often lengthens the time for completion . By contrast a parallel approach sees activities carried out at the same time , and hence the time taken for completion is shortened , and there is opportunity for interaction between activities . Although the project may be more difficult to manage with a parallel approach , this is the recommended approach for the project as the reduced time taken is a clear benefit to CFS . < heading > Implementation pattern in the organisation</heading > This step is relevant to as the project will implement change to a large part of the organisation , . A simultaneous pattern offers blanket coverage and thus requires greater resources to adopt . The next choice is between a horizontal ( implementation at a limited number of levels across the organisation ) and vertical ( implementation spanning all levels but to a limited operational area ) slice . For CFS it is recommended that a progressive pattern with a vertical slice is used because it will give better control for the project team and will involve all employees . This approach would follow the pilot on multipurpose team . < heading > Degree of empowerment</heading > This step is important when a project causes change for other people , and thus this is pertinent to . The key decision is to decide how much freedom is extended to individuals in the implementation of the project and what changes it will enforce . In theory the greater the degree of empowerment offered to individuals the more committed to change they will be . However involving people properly takes time , and may lengthen the time taken to complete the project . The project team should ensure that enough empowerment is given to individuals to capture their support and "" buy in "" for the project changes , whilst the ensuring that the company remains customer focused . < heading > Support for employees</heading > Linked with the step is the provision of support for employees so that they are suitably trained and prepared to make decisions during the project . Fundamentally a high level of support will increase the chances of a successful change but with this comes greater costs both covering the cost of training and lost productivity . As a family oriented firm , there should be a good level of support for employees during the implementation of the project . < heading involvement</heading > Interaction with trade unions should be considered separate to dealings direct with employees and all styles of interaction should be considered . Interaction must take into account the strong history between the , and the active trade union membership of employees . It is recommended that on some issues CFS negotiates with trade unions ( for example pay levels and working conditions ) as this allows more bargaining into the process . On less important issues such as reorganising into multi - skilled teams , consulting or informing ( a more one way process whilst retaining a degree of listening ) is appropriate . < fnote > These are informing , consulting , participating and negotiating < /fnote><heading > Contractor strategy</heading > For this step , it must be decided whether parts of the project are carried out "" in house "" or outsourced to external contractors . CFS should outsource activities which they do not have competencies in for example the IT training and implementing PCs for the reorganised teams . < heading > Project team</heading > The project team will be headed up by the project manager ( appointed by the Manager ) who would ideally be already working as a Section Leader . Work will be divided using ( WBS ) with a work package manager responsible for each work package . The work packages for the project , with work package managers in brackets are : Director ) , Team Reorganisation ( HR - Personnel Manager ) , ( HR - Training Manager ) , and Installation ( IT Department Manager ) . < heading>10 . Strategic control</heading > The overall strategic control of the project will be the responsibility of the Director management . As a parallel pattern of activities will be adopted it will make it harder to exert control of the project and thus strategic control should be exercised every by way of a meeting . < heading and Control of Progress</heading><quote>""Planning is the process of outguessing and outsmarting failure "" < /quote><fnote > Gilbreath , Robert . D , ( ) , Wining at , What Fails and Why , Wiley and Sons < /fnote > The stage process is simple but if followed closely is effective . Plans should be prepared prior to execution , with agreed measurements of performance . During the execution progress should be monitored , followed by review of actual versus target performance . < fnote > These are prepare plans , monitor progress , review progress and make any corrective action < /fnote > Planning and control will be exercised at levels . At a strategic level control should come from the operations director who has the authority to allocate resources . At an operational level the project manager or operations manager assumes responsibility and with their team , provides more depth and detail than at a strategic level . At the day - to - level detailed plans covering specific areas of work are laid out by those carrying out specific work , including HR staff , IT employees and the operations department employees . The nature of the review periods and the project work structure must be defined . It must be taken into account how much the project may drift from its course when setting the review periods . CFS should conduct operational reviews more frequently than strategic reviews as conducting frequent strategic reviews is more difficult because it is hard to get the key stakeholders together , as the demands on their time are often greater . The project should build in the option for the project manager to call review meetings as this will make the project team more flexible to changing circumstances . To make the project easier to control , the outlined in section E.9 , should be used . By breaking the larger project into smaller work packages , the management team can exercise greater control . Some packages will span the length of the project ( e.g. Employee Training ) whilst some will occur for a shorter period of time ( e.g. Software Installation ) . Each work package should be reviewed at suitable intervals and after completion , so a comparison with the progress of the overall project can be made . < fnote > A work package is the smallest element of a WBS for allocating responsibility and resources . < /fnote > To ensure effective planning should use a combination of planning techniques . A chart although limited , provides a good visual overview of the activities contained in the project and is a starting point for resource planning . Activities are positioned on the chart with their duration ( and sometimes resources required ) running on the horizontal axis . This can provide a project manager with a brief snapshot of how long the project should take and what resources are required at any given moment in time . As charts become too large with many activities and do not show logical relationships the use of will provide a more detailed view of the project . illustrates the project activities as nodes interconnected by logical links . By working through a forward and backward schedule the project manager will be able to calculate the critical path . This is useful because it shows the manager which activities have slack and which activities have slack and can be delayed without delaying the overall project . The activities on the critical path must be controlled most carefully to ensure the project is not delayed . At a higher level should also investigate the option of activity crashing . This involves allocating extra resource to reduce the duration of certain activities with the aim of reducing the critical path , and thus the overall project completion time . < fnote > An activity with slack is by definition one where the forward event time equals the back event time . < /fnote><heading > G. Planning and Control of Expenditure</heading > As important as controlling the progress of the project is controlling the expenditure . Financial planning will enable CFS to calculate the total project cost , identify when cash is need during the project , decide who has the authority to spend funds and provide a framework for control . The stage is to decide against what financial parameters the project will be measured . Commonly this will be cost and "" earned value "" . Wheeler defines this as "" the value of work actually completed "" . In some situations income may be generated during the execution phase ( e.g. increased sales due to the better service offered by staff as a result of training ) and future commitments in the project should also be considered ( e.g. future orders for parts ) . Management must then establish when costs and income are recognised , and at what point in time commitments are made . < fnote > Wheeler ( ) , page < /fnote > When dealing with the costs of the project should be aware of what type of cost are relevant . As the project is internal and is serving an internal customer ( reorganisation of the operations department ) , only the direct costs of the project need consideration . Overheads will be recovered through the service provided by , by being passed onto external customers . As the project is broken down into work packages , it complements nicely to break the project budget into time periods , thus adopting a complex financial system of control . At the end of each period performance may be assessed and reviewed . Although a cost is incurred for setting up this type of system it will allows tighter financial control for the project manager . The project manager must also be aware of the structure of the costs . As overheads are to be ignored , the project manager must decide whether to treat the cost as direct cost , or break it down further e.g. direct labour , direct materials or direct expenses . The more detailed the breakdown of costs the tighter control can be exerted but this will may prove longer and more costly . The final decision that the project manager must make regards whether the budget is fixed or revisable . Having a fixed budget allows the management to more accurately forecast the company 's cash flow and better invest other funds . However having a revisable budget allows a company more flexibility in the event of cost changes . As there is some technology involved in the change at it would be prudent for them to adopt a revisable budget structure should unforeseen circumstances arise . Having adopted a complex system of control the project manager must refine the details for planning and control . The projected expenditure on the project will be expressed at periodic intervals throughout the project and also for each work package . Budgetary control should be exercised by measuring cost to date and adding this to predicted future cost to provide a comparison with the project budget . The project manager should also measure the earned value and compare this with the actual cost to date . This is important because a project may look like it is running over budget but if the earned value equals the cost to date then the project will at least be running on schedule , that is what should have been achieved , has been achieved . of the project should be carried out for each work package ( ensuring tighter control ) and at the end of the project . < fnote > This is what differentiates a complex system from a time - based system < /fnote > The project manager must prepare a budget for the project and be aware of cashflow issues that may arise , so as to not bring the company into cashflow difficulties . The chart is useful for seeing the activities of the project , from which each activity must be assigned to a work package . Costs for each activity must be calculated once the direct and indirect costs are known , which will then allow the project manager to determine the cost of each work package for each period . The project manager can then establish the overall project cost . < heading > H. Conclusion</heading > This report makes the following recommendations to the board . Further reasoning is provided in the main body of text . The brief aim of the project is to bring savings in operational costs and to increase profits The estimated time for project completion is CFS must manage risks through strategies of mitigation , allowing and ignoring depending on the impact and probability of the risk The project should be implemented at a medium pace , using a initial pilot and a subsequent parallel approach A progressive pattern with a vertical slice should be used for implementation should be used alongside a chart for a visual overview of the project and for more detailed control A system for financial control should be adopted , using a revisable budget and periodically reviewing cost to date and earned value figures The impact of a successful project will be positive for the company and position it more competitively in the market . However it was assumed that should the project fail , the company would continue to operate as a going concern . < heading > I. Annex</heading > A successful project is one that involves not only on time and on budget implementation but also thorough review . Developing the process and improving project performance is fundamental to doing it better next time . This involves some reflection on the techniques adopted during the execution , and understanding mistakes made during the process . It would be naïve of a project manager to assume that all project management techniques will work successfully on every project . Thorough risk management is a fundamental part of project management . The risk strategies matrix is useful for determining which strategy is appropriate for the type of risk . However the tool is limited as for medium impact / probability of occurrence and high impact / probability of occurrence risks the suggested strategy is avoidance , and this is not always appropriate or indeed feasible . Limitations of this particular matrix are in many ways limitations of any simple decision matrix . When situations are n't ' black or white ' , or there is some ambiguity , the tool loses its ' effectiveness . Planning and control is important to a projects ' success . method to aid this is ( ) which has been described in the main body . This method has origins in decision ( discrete ) mathematics , and is one I have been familiar with since studying at . Its strengths are that is provides logical analysis that is lacking from a chart . Given estimates of activity duration , it allows a project manager to easily establish the time taken for the project , based on activity duration lengths . However despite its strengths is by no means a perfection solution , and does not provide a good visual representation of the project . "" Why should there be need for other methods for to replace or maybe enhance ? Self - evidently , frequently does not work "" . 's recent cancellation of a multi billion pound contract with Accenture shows that even companies who devote their profession to project management can get it wrong . This suggests "" either the methods being used for project management or their application or both must be at fault "" < fnote > Rand , ( ) , page < /fnote><fnote > Maylor , Harvey , ( ) , , page < /fnote > There are several issues that demonstrate the problems with . All goals are based on estimates , which by definition will contain uncertainties . Activities in network diagrams often display latest start times , and if for example cash flow pressure demand that projects start at the latest time , then there are more activities on the critical path . This decreases the likelihood of completing the project on time and may cause the project manager to lose focus . A differing approach which provides a possible solution to the problems of is ( TOC ) . The crux of this , highlighted by is "" A fundamental of this is to manage systems by focusing on the constraint "" . The TOC approach identifies a constraint ( critical path , critical resources ) , exploits the constraint , subordinates everything else to the constraint , elevates the constraint and then repeats the process . Alongside this is a shift in estimating techniques which calculates on activity times only and emphasises that off activities will finish early and 50 per cent will finish late . Overall TOC constructs a critical chain ( as opposed to a critical path ) analogous to "" a relay race - where the runners are lined up ready to receive the baton before continuing with their leg of the race "" . The benefits are that early finishes for activities are encouraged and the stigma of a late finish is removed . This also creates a more active role for the project manager . < fnote > Maylor , ( ) , page < /fnote><fnote > Maylor , ( ) , page < /fnote > Although an esteemed discipline in its own right , impacts on all organisations from hospitals to blue chip companies . area that incorporates deeply in its thinking is . Many principles of are transferable to techniques such as ( SDLC ) . Piloting , risk management and the parallel implementation approach are fundamental to SDLC . With greater demands placed on managers whether in business , not for profit organisations or government institutions , project management is a skill that is quickly becoming a prerequisite for success .",1
"According to the Encarta Encyclopaedia environmental archaeology by definition ' examines the relationship between human societies and the natural world and takes as its point of departure the premise that environment governs human life . ' It would therefore be reasonable to assume that the task of environmental study and reconstruction is an important one , as in order to understand how humans function and interact with their environment , we firstly need to know what that environment was like . The study of environmental archaeology can be split into main categories ; off site and on site . Off site consists of evidence that is gathered from natural deposits such as peat bogs , lakes , marine sediment and ice cores all of which give archaeologists evidence of long term environmental change . On site evidence comes from excavation sites , it consists of environmental remains such as plant and animal deposits , which provide local information about a particular site often giving us information about diet , lifestyle ( hunter gatherer or farming community ) , trade links and local weather / landscape changes as opposed to the global climatic information provided in off site studies . Plant and animal remains that are found in an onsite context during excavation are often seen in terms of resource exploitation . Off site analysis is extremely important in archaeology to the understanding of the environment in a wider context . Water covers of the 's surface , it therefore seems sensible to begin the search for information about past climates here . method undertaken is that of deep sea coring , whereby a piston corer is employed to extract a thin core of sediment , usually m in length , from the ocean floor . Dating of the different layers in the core is usually carried out using radiocarbon , or the uranium series method . Changing environmental conditions of the past are then deduced by tests on microscopic celled organisms found in the sediment . m core from can present a climatic period of ; this sort of information which can be gathered from the coring techniques is invaluable to archaeologists when studying periods of climatic change . of the most crucial effects of climate is that it determines the amount of land available for habitation , measurable by studying ancient coastlines . For example at age sea levels were substantially lower than they are providing the inhabitants of with a much larger land mass , and were joined to making them a part of the continent . An example of the rise and fall of sea levels can be seen at the early man site at box grove , which over used to be on the cost , it is now 7miles inland , this is an example of the coastline retreating . Coastal erosion can dramatically change the overview of a site ; example of this is the late roman signal station at , of which has now been lost into the sea due to coastal erosion showing that coastlines have changed even in relatively recent time periods . The opposite effect to erosion may also take place this is known as silting and instead of land being lost , it is created , example being the roman fort at which used to be on the coast and is now inland . It is important to identify these environmental changes in order to understand the context of a site , the roman fort of was not built inland it has just ended up there , so we must recognise that the resources and surrounding area looked very different to the that occupied it . The interesting thing about this study of changing coastlines and past climates is that it comes into great relevance in helping us to understand climatic changes such as global warming . We are able to recognise from the archaeological study of the environment , that the earth has gone through temperature fluctuations in the past ranging from the glaciations of ice ages to major heat blips such as in when cultivation of the land was much more plentiful and grapes and wine were being produced much farther north such as in . Archaeological examination of our environment can help us to understand the present and future as well as the past . extremely important area to consider when addressing any archaeological site but particularly in the case of environmental archaeology is factors affecting preservation ( or differential survival ) . These include ; matrix or soil type in which artefacts are preserved , chalk and limestone present good preservation of bones and shell , acidic soil is bad for bone , the acid dissolves the bone away , however sometimes an outline of the body is left in the soil indicating the former presence of a burial , for example at . Metal salts will preserve organic material to a certain extent , an example of this could be seen from a wooden helmet with a metal band , the wood under the band would be preserved due to the metals protection from rotting bacteria , however this only really occurs with copper and not all metals . Peat bogs provide excellent preservation conditions for skin and hair but not bone e.g. the bodies , ' Lindow ' man . Another highly influential factor leading to differential survival is climate ; Tropical climates are very poor for organic preservation due to high bacterial activity , temperate climates are usually poor conditions for organic preservation because the temperature fluctuates a lot . Arctic and arid conditions are the best climates for organic preservation , obvious example of arid climate preservation would be that of the mummies in , in the valley , pre - dynastic burial , c.3000BC presents an example of natural mummification in arid conditions . The final hugely important aspect affecting preservation is local site factors . A cave creates an isolated environment from the outside , it is a more stable climate not affected by temperature fluctuation . Waterlogged conditions can produce some of the best preserved organic artefacts , e.g. the tablets found near 's Wall . These tablets have given archaeologists extensive information about everyday life in a roman fort during their occupation of . They provide such information as shopping lists and inventories , even a birthday party invitation giving us information about social structure . of the most amusing comments on tablet is from one of the commanders stating he would not travel because the ' roads are so bloody awful ' these sorts of snippets into peoples lives are fascinating and would not be evident if it were not for the organic preservation and environmental conservation of the finds . of the best examples of organic preservation and its importance to archaeologists when trying to reconstruct and understand a site is the urban waterfront of ) . Organic preservation was extensive , finds included wood , thatch , leather , textiles , animal bone and grain . Almost everything from the Vikings activity consists of organic material ; it is only because of the ideal preservation conditions in which they were found that we have been able to identify and reconstruct the activities that took place and the items used there in Viking times . Organic preservation therefore is usually limited to extremes of temperature or moisture , water logged , arid or frozen conditions . Excavation of the early site situated south of in has yielded an excellent collection of organic and flint remains together with other data of the site that has enabled archaeologists to reconstruct the way of life and ecological conditions experienced by inhabitants at the time of occupation . Archaeologists have identified that the site was built on a birch wood platform on the edge of a lake ; the organic remains have survived due to the ' damp ' or waterlogged nature of the site . Evidence from the deer antler ( which have a seasonal growth ) and from other plant and organic remains suggest a hunter gatherer community and that occupation of the site took place in and spring over . In the late , and peat blankets formed , making land that had previously been farmed unavailable . We know that the land had previously been cultivated because the field systems can still be detected under the peat . In the levels an ancient track way known as the ' sweet track ' dating c3806 - 3807BC has been detected . Its construction has been dated to spring / autumn using and analysis of pollen remains preserved in the peat . Otzi the ' Iceman ' was discovered in the mountains ; his body was preserved in almost perfect condition due to the immediate covering of snow and consequential freezing of his body . Dr. has reconstructed the 's last meal using microscopic analysis of a tiny sample ( .0016 ounces ) removed from the mummy 's intestine . What he discovered was einkorn , of the few domesticated grains used in the 's part of the world at this time , suggesting that he had contact with an agricultural community . The sample also contained many different varieties of pollen one being from the hop hornbeam tree , which grows in a warm environment . This told archaeologists the side of the mountain he had been travelling on and the season in which he died ( The hop hornbeam tree blooms . ) Another example of a frozen burial that yielded many interesting organic finds is the ' ice ' . Pollen is one of the most resilient organic substances ; it has the capacity to last for , and is best preserved in waterlogged conditions . As such pollen analysis is the one discipline in environmental archaeology that can be applied to most excavated sites . Pollen can tell us about times of depending on when certain plants produce their pollen ; it also gives us a great deal of information about climate change . Where pollen and spores have accumulated over time , a record of the past vegetation of an area may be preserved . Changes in the vegetation of an area may be due to changes of climate , and this is made evident through the presence or absence of specific pollen species . Sediments containing fossil pollen have been taken from peat bogs , lake beds , alluvial deposits , ocean bottoms and ice cores . Environmental archaeology is also an important area to consider associated with other archaeological processes for example radio carbon dating . The levels of co2 in the atmosphere have fluctuated considerably over time due to environmental change . Therefore it is important to consider as it will affect the accuracy of our dating techniques . Archaeological reconstruction also includes a need to study the environment of a site , it enables the artist to produce an image that is more accurate by placing sites and finds in a suitable context that often makes a previously unrecognised function obvious . When introducing the topic of environmental archaeology states that ' It 's strength lies in the unchallengeable assumption that man , his sites and his artefacts can only be understood properly if full account is taken of their surroundings , landscape , climate , plants and animals . ' It is clear then that the discipline of is key to our understanding of archaeological sites . By putting them in context we are able to begin to understand the complex structure of human habitation . Not only that but environmental archaeology spans from the vary broad to the extremely detailed , it can tell us about differing sea levels around the world throughout the all the way to minute details such as the last meal of a man . The information we gather from the environment is invaluable in understanding the source of human life and the change and continuity of habitation throughout time .","Roman occupation is a fact easily identified from the material remains that they left behind them , a coin dropped by the roadside to the standing remains of an entire town . But what are not so obvious are the activities that were carried out there that define their functions . Problems arise in archaeology when we have only the foundational remains of a site with which to reconstruct a whole above ground structure and identify the function of a particular site . Here is where archaeologists employ the use of historical archaeology , whereby we may consult the historical evidence of a site rather than just its material remains . When identifying the functions of town 's archaeologists may look at the main features of roman urbanism , these include ; a centre of administration ( the forum ) , sites of public entertainment ( theatres / amphitheatres ) , religious worship sites ( temples ) , places of private occupation and sites of trade and commerce ( markets ) . These particular functions can be identified through looking at the physical shape of buildings and creating a model which can then be applied to new and existing town plans to identify the functions just by looking at the physical appearance . ' Although it may be justifiable to say such and such a building is a basilica , a forum , or a bath - house , it is seldom possible to state the precise function of each and every constituent part of the building , except in the most general terms . ' ( ) . It is important to note that although a plan can help it can not be deemed an entirely accurate way of identifying functions and should not be taken as unquestionable fact . There is also the individual primary function of any single town to consider . Is it primarily a centre of administration , or possibly is it primarily a centre of trade and distribution ? A for trade and distribution can be seen in the links that a certain town has with other towns . This can be identified from roads , present in the archaeological record through aerial photography , archaeological excavation and indeed the very roads that penetrate modern towns . Also water proximity , for example if the town is situated with a harbour on the sea or a major river it is likely to be a centre of commercial trading importance with far reaching trade networks . Also the remnants of storage facilities , such as granaries and a market centre indicate that towns functioned as places of distribution and redistribution much as they do . The covered hall of 's market represents the ancient equivalent of the modern shopping centre , housing no less than 150 shops and offices . The offices are believed to have been used to administer the corn dole . A place of public administration is an essential area of function in a roman town , and most often this came in the form of the roman forum . The town would have main roads , heading and the other East - West . At the point where these roads met was the town centre and it was here that the administrative centre , the forum and the market could be found , from here the town would radiate outwards . < figure/>This basic internal layout of the forum basilica can give archaeologists a model to go on that would enable them to identify the forum and its basic functions just by consulting the foundation plan of a site . However ' A Roman forum is a Roman forum , but there were probably not exactly alike anywhere in the , so that , while the general identification is easy , interpretation of the individual elements often depends on restoration of the buildings parts . ' ( ) it would then seem that a model can not be lightly undertaken as a means of identifying the individual functions of the site but merely a basic overall one . Places of public entertainment were an important part of the structure of roman towns . They consisted of often the most massive structures and were built not only for their obvious function as a place for public congregation to delight in the entertainment of the theatre or gladiators but they also had a function as a status symbol and popularity booster . The Emperors it is known often built amphitheatres such as the ' Coliseum ' in in order to gain public adoration and raise their public profile . These huge public structures are very much a characteristic of the major towns , and because of their vast size are often easy to identify in the Archaeological record . ' Theatres , Amphitheatres and temples are in some ways easier to identify , provided that they have reasonably conventional plans ' ( ) ' Most public buildings were associated with a religious aspect , whether they were temples , theatres , amphitheatres , basilica or markets . However , there is also a secular dimension to these buildings . Their construction by an individual enhanced that person 's prestige and position in society . ' ( Laurence 1996 ) Other public buildings included public baths , good example being those that are preserved in full working order at ' , ' modern day Bath . Bath - houses were often given to the people as a sign of generosity by the emperor who would pay for the construction and running of the baths . Again we see the function of public buildings not only for its obvious public service of enjoyment and sanitation but as a sign of goodwill from the emperor and a sign of his generosity towards his people in order to gain their support and keep them contented . ' Bath - houses in general present few difficulties of interpretation unless structural survival is poor ' ( Grew & Hobley ) The presence of baths are fairly easy to identify in the archaeological record from their material remains due to their highly developed structure of hypocausts etc that are not generally seen in other buildings . ' This makes monuments very different from domestic structures . They take on roles that express the power , the ideology and the identity of the society ' ( Laurence 1996 ) . Private occupation sites tend to grow outward from the areas of public amenity . A highly developed infrastructure is a key aspect of Roman urbanism , and can be identified particularly in the material remains of the aqueduct system , the famous roman roads , and roman town walls . Aqueducts and the movement of water were an essential part of urban living . All human beings need water whether for cleaning , drinking and in the cases of the rich for its aesthetic pleasure ( e.g. Fountains ) . The function of Aqueducts is highly important to urban life and the physical remains of such structures are still highly prolific in the archaeological record as standing structures , enabling us to study and realise their function . The use of roads was highly important during the roman period much as it is . Roads enabled the towns to trade with both merchants and farmers . They also assisted travel and established connections between culturally diverse areas . < figure/>This map of the town of Silchester provides us with proof of the formal layout of Roman towns that enables us to use a model to identify its functions . The forum basilica is to be found , as expected , at the centre of the town with right angle roads radiating from this centre . The presence of a clear outline to the town produced by the presence of town walls enforces the idea of a developed infrastructure . And if consults the page -   URL   the presence of buildings such as temples , a bath - house , an amphitheatre , the forum and other public buildings , all the basic features of roman urbanism are evident . And again if we look at this map of the relative features exist . < figure/>This forming of a model enables archaeologists to identify the functions of particular buildings just by looking at their foundational structural layout and to an extent ( this works particularly with the constant central position of the forum ) by their position in the town . Archaeologists also need to consider the regional and cultural diversity and chronological change . ' One has only to compare visually a modern village in Kent with one in to appreciate the differences , which must have been equally marked in the roman period , caused by variation in building materials and local vegetation . ' ( ) We must take into account when comparing different sites the differences regionally , we can not assume that just because Roman towns were occupied at the same time that they will necessarily have identical functions in the same places . Similarly we must take into account chronological differences ; a town from republican in will again differ from one that was constructed in the late imperial occupation . The city of 's physical appearance was immortalised in 's work ' ' . In book he describes Aeneas ' arrival in the city and greeting and guided tour by the king . ' It is a poetic tour de force , a journey through time as well as space ' ( ) The picture of that describes in his work can be matched up to the archaeological remains of the city to create a full picture of the site as it was in the Rome of the Kings . Indeed ancient documentation is highly valuable when assessing the functions of different sites and areas . ' Trawling through the byways of literature has yielded a rich trove of abstruse knowledge which has been used to reconstruct everything from the history of the early Roman calendar to the topography of the Roman forum ' ( ) . The documentary evidence of a detailed plan of the correct construction of a town provided by gives us a few indications of location being linked to function . ' Town streets should be planned , then the forum . In a seaside town the forum should be by the harbour ; elsewhere it should be central . Next the theatre site should be chosen . Temple sites should be fixed with due consideration for the deity involved . For baths as warm a site as possible is advocated . ' ( ) Not only can we consult the layout remains of a building and site but by looking at its other material remains within the building ; ' buildings given to industrial use may contain traces of the processes carried out within them . ' ( ) This is an idea highly developed in archaeology especially in such cases as Iron Age huts where the physical remains of loom weights , butchery tools , leather working tools and other such tell tail signs help to identify the function of a building . Similarly a roman building used for metal working in the Roman era may have remains of metal slag or a potter 's site could contain remnants of clay and the signs of a kiln . Many Ancient Roman structures after the fall of the empire were incorporated into new structures or employed for new uses . An example of this incorporation can be seen with the ' Temple of Fortuna Virilis ' which was converted to a church and renamed ' . ' The basic function of the building has not changed and by being incorporated into a new building it ensured that the structure remains standing although it was returned to a temple ruin in . It is important for archaeologists to incorporate not only what the remains indicate a site functioned as , but all forms of archaeology . To consult documentation and in particular pictorial evidence can provide information that would have otherwise been unobtainable . Pictures can tell a lot about a sites function by showing us things that could not otherwise be identified in the archaeological record such as a painting of the that showed an awning covering the higher tiers of public seating and market stools set up outside the arena . These are all functions that are not visible in the material remains of the site because they were movable structures and their function although an important one at the time is lost in the archaeological record . ' It is seldom easy convincingly to associate functions with buildings , and , more often than not , attempts at restoration stop at the structures and forget the people who had to use or work in them . ' ( ) . It is what we can not see then in the physical remains that really tell what the true function of a site may have been ; these ' invisible ' functions can however to an extent become visible . By consulting recorded historical documentation and by looking at contemporary images whether it be a relief on a coin , mosaic on the floor , or graffiti on the walls of Pompeii these resources can tell us invaluable otherwise inaccessible information about activities carried out that identify the functions of a certain site .",1
"Before looking in any great detail about possible solutions for turbulence , it is important that we define the term itself . This in itself alike turbulence is also rather complex due to the variety of interested parties and the relevance it has for them . For meteorologists , it could be said that turbulence is "" irregular , quasi - random , nonlinear variations or gusts , with durations of "" ( i ) , with the obvious relation here to the changing wind , however for engineers the problem of turbulence could be said to be far more important with the effects of turbulence on drag such that there is "" rapid variation of pressure and velocity in space and time "" ( ii ) . In physics we generally try and encompass both these aspects and describe it as an "" unstable flow of liquid or gas , or instability in the atmosphere "" ( iii ) . Examples of turbulent flow can be seen in the physical world around us , simply by looking as water flowing from a tap . At certain flows the water appears smooth , and is said to be laminar however upon increasing the flow from the tap and one will see a rather more rough , or turbulent flow . The turbulent motion only occurs when the speed of the liquid exceeds a certain limit , below which forces in the liquid are able to overcome the turbulence ( Figure ) . Until the invent of the supercomputer dealing with fluid dynamics mathematically had always been a problem , not least due to it 's tedious nature . The equation used for dealing with fluid dynamics was discovered by individuals , working separately known as in and Stokes in . Although 's hypothesis was never formally accepted his name has been joined with Stokes to form the - Stokes equations ( Figure ) , which can be derived from 's laws of motions . These differential equations are simply the rules governing the motion of a fluid . The equations show "" for any point in space near an object , the velocity and pressure of the fluid flowing around that object "" ( iv ) . When supercomputers were given such formulas to solve they were able to relatively fast in comparison to humans and had the added benefit that the computer was also it infallible , such that it only ever solved what it had been asked to do . With this small amount of processing power becoming available in the 's , the study of computational fluid dynamics ( ) was born and simple models could be simulated . It will be many years yet before the processing power necessary to solve complex models will become available , such that studying the airflow over a car in real time would be possible . In order to study turbulence in greater detail and find possible ways of solving it as physicists we would like to create a model to study . Current research at own turbulence research centre is focused upon model simulations of large eddy and turbulent flows . This research is focused upon looking at both ways to solve turbulence in situations where it is undesirable , such as an aircraft in flight ( boundary layer turbulence close to the aircraft surfaces , not the bumpiness experienced in rough weather ) but is also looking at situations where we can use turbulence to our advantage such as increasing efficiency in combustion chambers . Conclusions drawn from the research allow us now to create turbulent flows where necessary ; however have been quite inconclusive in ways of solving it . Research has shown however there is a strong link between turbulence and a number . The number , named after the engineer shows "" the relative importance of a flows inertial forces compared to its viscous ones "" ( v ) . Large inertial forces seem to tend toward a turbulent flow being present in comparison to a high viscosity which oppositely tends to create a rather more laminar flow . Drag on a golf ball can be significantly reduced by dimples on the ball . When looking at this in comparison to the number from the graph on Figure we can see that the drag coefficient is substantially lower on a dimpled ball . The renowned Noble prize winning physicist described turbulence as "" the most important unsolved problem of classical physics "" and to this day it remains just that . Despite modern technological advances including the development of supercomputer , we have yet to create a working fully model for solving turbulence and hence a formula for it . With the ever increase power of the supercomputer for both creating and analysing data from simulations , and also the formulas available for studying flow behaviour , I believe it is now only a matter of time before equations can start being formulated from dedicated research centres and our understanding of this phenomena progressing . < heading > Images and Diagrams</heading><picture/><figure/><figure/ >","The model of the atom was proposed by , a born physicist who during his lifetime made many important contributions to physics . winner made contributions in quantum mechanics , the principle of complementarity and of course perhaps his most famous work on atomic physics . After receiving his doctorate in , he moved to the in initially to work with at the in ; however it is speculated that and never agreed on certain points and so in Bohr went to work under in Manchester where he began to study atomic structures . In published his model of the atom , the model which although totally flawed is still a success on . < figure/>The Bohr atom itself had been developed by using a mixture of ideas , something that was known for . Initially when thinking of idea 's he was quite happy to mix and match many models into one , taking already accepted ideas , modifying them and adding parts which he had himself observed to make a model that at least agreed with most observations . In this slow process he was however working his way towards a new model of the atom , ever changing things to get a more accurate picture . After some time became relatively happy with his model and imagined it to look something like a solar system ( Fig 1 ) , with electrons moving in orbits adhering to classical mechanics and electromagnetism laws . The stable orbits of the electrons can be justified using classical mechanics laws whereas quantum ideas where needed to describe the fact that electrons are in shells of energy levels and thus can only emit a whole amount of quanta . This means that there is no such thing as a stable orbit anywhere in between the fixed energy levels , quanta only comes in whole packets and not partial amounts making it impossible . < figure/>Key to the development of the atom was the Balmer series . It was not until a colleague of suggested he may wish to look at it that he even considered it part of the atomic puzzle . Balmer was a schoolteacher who in published a formula to describe the frequencies of spectral lines of the hydrogen atom . The series predicted where spectral lines would be found in a hydrogen atom . Balmer was able to predict the lines in the visible spectrum , and later with technological advances further lines could be seen in the infra - red part of the spectrum . The Balmer series obviously held some information about the structure of the hydrogen atom and was going to use this in order to aid his development of the atom . By when was working on the puzzle he was sure that the newly discovered 's constant had something to do with it . The introduction of 's constant was allowing the atom to have some form of dimension and this is why he felt it important to include it . Of course , now including it was puzzled as to why spectral lines could be found ? It was known that energy was related to frequency by 's constant ( E = hν ) and for it seemed obvious therefore that if an atom emitted an energy hν that the change in the energy of the atom must be exactly equal to E. After discussing his ideas with , in published his model of the atom . < figure/>Bohr made a number of postulates with his theory of the atom . said that the electrons in orbits had discrete quantum energies meaning that only certain orbits would be allowed at certain energy levels . said that the laws of classical mechanics did not apply when electrons jumped from orbit to another , infact once again the electrons followed a quantum theory . said that when electron changes energy levels that the energy released or absorbed is equal to that of the difference of that of the energy levels . 's final postulate about the atom was that the allowed orbits depended on quantum values of angular momentum ( and was related to 's constant . ) In , after his papers on the structure of the atom gave some lectures at in ( interesting to note it was one of the after the war ) . In these lectures , after setting the scene on the development of the atomic model and explaining the reasons why he needed to mix both classical physics with quantum went on to introduce his idea of the periodic table of elements . described the theory which in essence we still use to , discussing the shells as the different energy levels are talking about the properties that elements had . was able to work out through all the different electron shells using evidence that had been collected by means of spectroscopy . With the elements arranged on the table , there were gaps that told his audience were just elements that had not been discovered yet . The prediction was confirmed in after giving the speech with one of the elements being discovered . The element had exactly the spectral lines that would be predicted by and this really was a high point for . Until this point , the atom has been a great success . It has followed the and Paschen series for hydrogen , and also was able to account for new series in the UV and spectrum as developments in technology came along . The atom also accounted for the Pickering series and attributes related to the ionization of He ( Helium ) . However the atom has really got a number of fundamental flaws in it . The model really lacks any solid basis ; it had been "" patched up "" from a number of different ideas and models without being fully explained in both a physical or mathematical sense . We are also going to see that the model will fail for other atoms . Although a lot of work went into trying to prove the model for other atoms is was a disaster . < model was wonderful , it had rocked the scientific community but it was not long before cracks started to show in the model and failures were beginning to appear . A pattern started to emerge , and it seemed that the model of the atom only worked for element , hydrogen . In general it is a failure and far from the truth for atoms with the exception of low energy spectra of metals to which it can be slightly modified to give a good representation . Something that is especially unique about hydrogen , it only has shell and that shell only has electron orbiting in it . As for the other alkali metals , well they share a somewhat similar idea the fact that although they have more shells , the outermost only has electron orbiting in it . A partial success of the model could be accounted for by the outer most electron sees the rest of the atom as a single charge at the nucleus , and by leaving the outer most electron thus behaving very similarly to hydrogen with its single electron . However the biggest failure of the atom was to come from idea 's brought around with the advance on quantum mechanics . The idea of the atom not succeeding was for the scientific community as a whole a real struggle . The model seemed right but obviously there was still a misunderstanding of the microscopic atom . Extra spectral lines were being detected in even in a simple atom like hydrogen and seemed obvious therefore that there must be more structure in the atom that thought . There seemed to be more allowed states for the electron than 's model was able to predict , perhaps even more than just simple circular orbits of fixed quanta . Scientists like , a renowned theoretician from tried to extend the idea 's of to elliptical orbits in order to explain the newly found effects . Similar to , only certain shapes and energy levels were allowed . This in itself was not going to be enough and more radical ideas were needed in order to solve the problem of the atom . The ideas that were to be used were based upon newly discovered evidence of wave and particle duality . < figure/>Between and June 1926 , and came up with a prediction which at least in theory seemed to accurately describe the behaviour of atoms . started by looking at the largest orbit , and then looking in from that to try and extrapolate some kind of answer . He said that momentum ( p ) and displacement from an origin ( q ) when multiplied pq is not equal to qp . This is a radical idea and would defiantly not be true is classical mechanics . So pq - qp≠0 but infact pq - qp = ω2πi , and therefore could show that energy states were quantized and thus stationary . Matrix mechanics is born and 's principles are transferred to a systematic matrix form which is easier to understand . Something had happened here very much different to the atom . While tried to produce a picture of what the atom did , did not do this . This was a pure theory that had no visual aids , no model and nothing to imagine . However hard therefore it might be for people to see a picture of what was going on , that was not important because the matrices were giving the write answers . Meanwhile Schrödinger was concerned more with the ideas of and the idea of matter waves . Schrödinger had an equation which linked , position , wave function , 's constant , the mass , energy and potential energy all together . The wave function of the series could be replaced with a Fourier series which would show natural harmonic wave functions of each individual state , thus showing that frequency was related to the ratio of integers . Visualising Schrödinger work was difficult , and maybe in some sense it would have been easier to take the approach of and not have any visualisation . Trying to visualise vibration systems is a difficult idea , especially in the times of Schrödinger where computer simulations were not available . , an mathematician had seen both versions of the quantum ideas and being a mathematician was puzzled by the ideas of . Naturally in mathematics the usual outcome of would be . He thought that this may be the key to approach he should take and so quickly found a relation to classical mechanics and used the idea of AB ≠BA to form a theory . In , prepared a or so page paper and sent it to to review . was impressed , and claimed that there was no doubt that the results were correct . was able to complete an important paper , known as transformation theory which showed both and Schrödinger 's ideas could be seen as a more generalised formula as they are equivalent . was able to calculate spin , and thus his argument of the atom conformed also to 's theory of relativity . The model of the atom at this stage had all but been disproved . It seemed at this stage the model could only really be generalised for hydrogen . of the biggest flaws of the model is that it could be generalised beyond hydrogen . The model was made in an ad - hoc way and made assumptions and carefully selected the rules about the atom . With the quantum ideas of the atom there no longer needed to be specially chosen ideas and all ideas could be brought into the model . The model is known to give incorrect values for the ground state of orbitals . In a true ground state the value is however the model still seems to make a prediction of some small angular momentum . The model fails to describe the spectrum of larger atoms accurately , merely being able to make weak predictions of certain emission spectrum of atoms only with a single outer shell electron ( namely the metals ) . Linked to the spectrum is which is the split of the spectral lines due to magnetic fields . The model is not able to predict the spectral lines splitting up into several components . Although the atom was along the same lines as the formula , in that the spectral lines shown confirmed this equation it would appear that this only works in the case of hydrogen once again . The atom only worked for the simplest of atoms . < figure/>Bohr 's model of the atom turned out to be wrong is just about every possible aspect , however still to it can be found in textbooks for students from right through degree levels . Why should such a flawed model , which is so untrue , be taught to people ? 's efforts were invaluable to the development of the atomic theories , including that of the quantum atom however why is it continued to be taught ? From a conceptual point of view it is a very easy model to teach people and perhaps this is the main reason that it has survived . Exploring the path of quantum ideas around the atom is something that I would defiantly have not understood when I heard about during my study of chemistry . The simple diagram in figure shows how I understood the atom at school level , the simple shells can be seen and the red dots represent the electrons on their circular orbits . the flaws of the model are known in much greater detail and yet we still continue to teach is to student of all levels . A quote from an academic says , "" I think they 'd be a lot better off learning the model of the atom in its entirety , including its popular extension into multi - electron atoms that makes my rigorous side cringe . ""1 This statement in itself shows the knowledge of the atom being incorrect at least in the teaching community , and perhaps more surprising the fact that they still are happy to teach this model of the atom . The fact it makes the author "" cringe "" however he somehow feels compelled to teach this model shows them just being sympathetic towards the students . I do not this it would be fair to expect what can be best described as "" youthful scientists "" to understand for yet the ideas behind the true atom , after all these new ideas on the atom take the idea into a dimension which is far away from physical reality and for the best of scientists hard to understand fully . Strictly speaking the model fails for all atoms apart from hydrogen . It was able to successfully predict the spectral lines of hydrogen and for that reason initially appeared to be correct . The theory still holds to this day and however for a somewhat different reason . The model today is used more as a teaching aid in an attempt to try and get people to understand the principle of electron orbits . The model has been a success of its own simplicity and the ability for people of all ages to easily understand and relate to it rather than a success for the science behind it .",1
"< abstract><heading > Summary</heading > Isolated chloroplasts and an oxygen electrode were used to investigate photosynthetic control , P / O ratio and the effect of uncoupling agents such as ammonium chloride on them . Uncoupling agents such as ammonium chloride prevent the formation of a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane and mechanisms such as synthesis that diminish the proton gradient , remove a constraint on the rate of electron transport . Hence the rate of oxygen evolution is enhanced by a smaller proton gradient . Non - cyclic photophosphorylation alone is capable of providing sufficient per molecule of to satisfy the demands of the Calvin cycle . The rate of oxygen evolution is dependent on the irradiance level that the chloroplast are exposed to . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > Research into photosynthesis is often carried out on suspensions of isolated chloroplasts , for example photophosphorylation . This reaction is part of the light reaction and is studied in broken chloroplast therefore allowing the access of artificially added hydrophilic reagents such as electron acceptors to the thylakoid membrane . The oxygen electrode is a tool in conjunction with a light source that allows the continuous measurement of photosynthetic activity in such research . The reaction ( ox → O 2 + 4Fd red + 4H+ ) is a light - dependent oxygen evolution in the absence of reaction , which requires the non - physiological electron acceptor ferricyanide to be present for it to proceed . is located on the luminal side of the ferricyanide - impermeable membrane therefore ferricyanide can only accept electrons from a donor on the stromal side of the complex . Hence the evolution of oxygen in the reaction with only ferricyanide present as the electron acceptor requires the activity of both photosystems ( Figure ) . < picture/>Cyclic phosphorylation ( i → ) as the name suggests is driven by cyclic electron transport in which the electron in the reduced ferredoxin molecule is transferred to the cytochrome bf complex rather than to . As a result there is no net oxidation - reduction or oxygen evolution . In contrast to this , non - cyclic photophosphorylation ( H 20 + Fd ox + nADP + nP i → 1/2O 2 + Fd red + 2H+ + nATP ) involves the non - cyclic electron transport in a similar form to that of the reaction . Much controversy over the real value of n exists . n is often referred to as the P/2e- ratio or P / O ratio ( i.e. number of molecules synthesised per pair of electrons transferred or per oxygen atom equivalent evolved ) . The value of n though must be greater than 1.5 if non - cyclic photophosphorylation alone is to provide enough per molecule of to satisfy the demands of the Calvin cycle . Otherwise cyclic phosphorylation would be required to fulfill the deficit that a situation of n would create . The aim of the experiment was firstly to demonstrate the reaction . to calculate a value for the P/2e- ratio and investigate the effect of uncoupling agents such as ammonium chloride and decreasing chlorophyll concentration have on photosynthetic control and the P/2e- ratio . < heading > Method</heading > The method was adhered to as stated in the laboratory manual ' Experiment : Photosynthetic electron transport in isolated chloroplast using the oxygen electrode . ' With the exception that in part ( ii ) the amount of chlorophyll in the reaction vessel was halved to that of µg . < heading > Results</heading > When the external light from the LED 's was turned off the rate of oxygen evolution decreased from to µmol / O 2 / mgchl./hour a reduction of ( rates and respectively ) . Upon turning back on the external lights the rate of oxygen evolution returned back to approximately what it was before the lights were turned off ( though higher ) . Upon addition of ( rate ) the rate of O evolution decreased to µmol / O 2 / mgchl./hour ; a reduction of . Upon addition of i the rate of reaction increased from ( rate ) to ( rate ) an increase of this increase lasted after which the rate ( rate ) reduced back to that of the rate before the addition of From this , one is able to calculate the P :O ratio of the reaction to be calculated as . Also is able to calculate the number of "" extra "" oxygen atoms evolved as a result of having added of which is equal to . Addition of NH 4Cl increased the rate of oxygen evolution from ( rate 8) to 92.40µmol / O 2 / mgchl./hour ( rate ) an increase of , subsequent addition of i ( rate ) further increased this rate to 117.04µmol / O 2 / mgchl./hour an increase of . When the amount of chlorophyll in the reaction mixture ( rate ) was halved to that of µg the rate of the reaction was reduced by in comparison to rate while the rate of oxygen evolved increased by in comparison to rate . The reaction mixture containing the limiting quantity of potassium ferricyanide ( 1.5µmol ) did not become a limiting factor on the reaction until after 2.2minutes . This is confirmed by the fact that the rate reaction and rate of O evolution pre and post addition of ( rates +14 ) was equal to that of the reactions in which potassium ferricyanide was in excess ( rates + 6 ) . After the rate of reaction and evolution of O 2 rapidly decrease to within . From this one is able to calculate the number of moles of oxygen present in the reaction volume as , the reaction mixture contained a supply of 63- which would be exhausted after the evolution of of oxygen . The proximity of these values ( ) gives a measure off the accuracy of the calibration of the electrode . The addition of but no P i increased the rate of oxygen evolution from to 30.01µmol / O 2 / mgchl./hour an increase of ( rates + 12 ) . This increase in oxygen evolution post the addition of but no P i is lower than that of the corresponding reaction ( rate ) in which inorganic phosphate was added in addition to that of . < heading > Discussion</heading > Photosystem II contains chlorophyll molecules ; they are often referred to as P680 since they absorb light at a maximum wavelength nm . On excitation by a photon , P680 rapidly transfers an electron to the nearby pheophytin from which the electron is transferred to the tightly bound plastiquinone at the Q A site and to the Q B site at which an exchangeable plastiquinone is located . A electron and the uptake of protons are required to reduce the plastiquinone to QH at the Q B site . The source of electrons that neutralise the positive charge formed on the P680 is that of water molecules bound at the manganese center . The center is oxidised electron at a time until 2 bound water molecules are linked together to form a molecule of oxygen which is then released from the centre into the luminal side of the thylakoid is an electron transport inhibitor and binds between the plastiquinone molecule sites ( Q A and Q B ) , therefore inhibiting the flow of electrons in photosystem II . Thus after one flash of light reduction of Q A to a semiquinone occurs since will block the transfer of the electron to the Q B site and thus prevent QH production . Since QH can not be produced , a semiquinone will accumulate at Q A and the reaction centre can not be oxidized and reduced on later flashes of light . However with no oxidation of P680 the manganese center will not be a strong reducing agent and so will not extract an electron from water molecules and so no oxygen will be produced by PSII transfers its electrons one at a time to a plastocyanin in the thylakoid lumen ; the protons released from plastoquinol are released into the thylakoid lumen further enhancing the proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane . Photosystem I contains a special pair of chlorophyll a molecules that initiate photoinduced charge separation . The electron is transferred to a chlorophyll at site A o and then to a quinone at site A 1 and then to a set of clusters . From which the electron is transferred to ferredoxin , the positive charge on is neutralised by the transfer of an electron from the reduced plastocyanin . As described both photosystems I and centers P680 and respectively utilize light energy to initiate charge separation i.e. photoinduced charge separation . The source of the electrons that are used to neutralize the positive charge formed on P680 and is that from water molecules bound at the manganese centre and reduced plastocyanin respectively . In the absence of light , photoinduced charge separation can not occur , thus there will be no positive charge on either P680 or to neutralize . Thus no oxygen will be evolved and no oxidation of plastocyanin by photosystem I and hence no reduction of ferredoxin . However in the experiment oxygen evolution was greatly reduced , therefore indicating that photoinduced charge separation was still occurring . The reason for this lies in the experimental procedure . The external LED light source was turned off but the reaction vessel was still exposed to light from the windows and ceiling lights . Therefore at the greatly reduced photon level the rate limiting step of oxygen evolution is that of light absorption rather than the oxidation of plastoquinones . The potential energy in the proton gradient is used to convert and P i to by allowing the protons to return to the stroma through the CF oCF complexes located in the thylakoid membrane . Potassium phosphate is the source of inorganic phosphate required in addition to to allow synthesis to occur in the chloroplasts given that a sufficient proton gradient exists across the thylakoid membrane . synthesis is therefore described as being coupled to electron transport in the thylakoid membrane . A reduction in the proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane increases the rate of electron efflux from PSII and that of oxygen evolution . Since at a high proton gradient , it is more difficult for the reduced plastoquinones within the membrane to become oxidised for they must give up protons against a concentration gradient . Thus as the percentage of reduced plastoquinones in the membrane increases and the number of oxidised plastoquinones which are capable of accepting electrons form decreases . The rate of electron efflux from decreases however if the proton gradient is diminished the situation is reversed . A greater percentage of oxidised plastoquinones in the membrane will exist capable of accepting electrons , thus the rate of electron efflux no longer becomes the limiting factor in oxygen evolution but rather that of light in the case of non - light saturated photosynthesis.3 Agents that reduce the proton gradient across the proton gradient drive a greater rate of electron efflux and therefore oxygen evolution from PSII , examples of such agents are ammonium chloride and ADP+ P i. i and the presence of a proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane drives synthesis . and P i are condensed together to form by the movement of protons through synthase , thus synthesis decreases the proton gradient across the membrane . Once the source of and or P i is exhausted , synthesis will no longer be able to occur . Therefore the proton gradient will no longer be dissipated and the proton translocation action of PSII and cytochrome bf will increase the proton gradient across the thylakoid membrane . As a result of the increased proton gradient the flow of electrons through PSII will reduce along with the rate of oxygen evolution to that of the rate before the addition of chloride is described as an uncoupler since it dissipates the proton gradient and thus the potential energy for synthesis . Ammonium chloride is able to do this since in solution it dissociates to NH 3 and H+ . Since ammonia is uncharged it is able to cross freely the thylakoid membrane and enter the lumen where it re - associates with protons again to form an ammonium ion . As a result , protons in the lumen are removed without passing through the CF oCF 1 complex and so the proton gradient is destroyed without being utilised for synthesis . Addition of ADP and P i in addition to that of ammonium chloride further decreased the proton gradient and thus further increased electron flow through PSII resulting in a further increase in the rate of oxygen evolution . Upon addition of but no P i the rate of oxygen evolution increased , though at a reduced rate than the corresponding reaction in the presence of both i. would expect no increase in the rate of oxygen evolution , since synthesis will not occur and so the proton gradient will not be dissipated either . Therefore suggesting contamination of the reaction vessel by inorganic phosphate and or alternatively residual inorganic phosphate in the chloroplast which was at a sufficient concentration to drive synthesis and thus increase in the rate of electron flow in PSII . Contamination by ammonium chloride another agent that could possibly decrease the proton gradient is unlikely . This is because the rate of oxygen evolution pre addition of is less than that of the corresponding rate i.e. which was conducted before ammonium chloride was added to the reaction vessel for the time . In previous reactions it was shown that the concentration of inorganic phosphate was the limiting factor on the rate of synthesis and thus oxygen evolution . Since the conditions at which the experiment was run in comparison to that where inorganic phosphate was artificially added were the same . Any residual concentration of inorganic phosphate in the chloroplasts would be at such a low concentration in comparison to the reaction in which it was artificially added would result in a reduced rate of synthase activity and thus proton gradient dissipation . With a higher proton gradient than the reaction in the presence of both and P i the rate of electron of flow through PSII will be less thus explaining the lower rate of oxygen evolution . Halving the concentration of chlorophyll in conditions which are known not to be limiting and to produce a recordable amount of oxygen evolution one would logically expect the amount of oxygen to be evolved over a set period of time . This would occur since there are the number of chlorophyll capable of producing oxygen , a reduction of was observed . Experimental error such as dilution , light differences and differing rates in the activity of the isolated chloroplasts due to their condition are the most likely reasons for the deviation of this value from a theoretical reduction . The rate of oxygen evolution is greater than when the amount of chlorophyll present was double even though the rate takes into account the amount of chlorophyll involved in the reaction . possible reasons for this exist , firstly the sample of chloroplasts were in a better condition following extraction than those used in the rate calculation . the chloroplasts suffered less diffraction of light since less chloroplast were present therefore the rate of photosynthesis was greater . The and most likely reason is that of the accuracy of instrument in its ability to measure oxygen evolution , evidence for this lies in rates and . These rates are from a chloroplast reaction mixture that was subjected to the same conditions , but were separated by a period of darkness . The rate was calculated once the chloroplast had equilibrated to the light following a period of darkness however this rate of oxygen evolution was greater than rate . Ferricyanide allows the reaction a light dependent oxygen evolution in the absence of to occur . is found on the luminal side of the ferricyanide impermeable membrane thus ferricyanide can therefore only accept electron from the donor on the stromal side of . Therefore oxygen evolution with ferricyanide requires the activity of both photosystems i.e. non cyclic phosphorylation . The P/0 ratio from the experiment is equal to indicating that the non - cyclic photophosphorylation will make enough per molecule of to meet the requirements of the cycle . The minimum value that the P / O ratio can take to fulfill the requirements of the Calvin cycle is that of . Ammonium chloride as discussed destroys the proton gradient and increases the concentration of oxidised plastoquinones . Thus the rate of synthesis decreases however the rate of flow of electron through PSII and hence concentration of reduced plastocyanin increases . Reduced plastocyanin no longer becomes a limiting factor for in the process of producing reduced ferredoxin which is utilised in the conversion of . The number of molecules synthesised per oxygen atom equivalent evolved will decrease i.e. the P / O value will decrease . Thus non - cyclic phosphorylation would be insufficient to provide sufficient per molecule of to satisfy the demands of the Calvin cycle . Cyclic phosphorylation would therefore have to occur to produce enough to cover the deficit and the high concentration of reduced plastocyanin would permit this to happen . 4FeCN 63- are reduced per O molecule that is evolved , the concentration of potassium ferricyanide added in reaction ) is equal to 1.5µmol thus the supply of 63- will be exhausted after of oxygen have been evolved . After which point , oxygen evolution will cease because the pool of oxidized plastoquinones to accept electrons from PSII decreases to such a low level and so will that of the flow of electrons through the system . This will occur since the reduced plastocyanin becomes oxidised by by donating its electron to the positively charged centre ( ) . However if the supply of oxidised ferredoxin is exhausted then there will be no flow of electrons through and so the reaction centre can not be oxidized and reduced on later flashes of light . With no oxidation of , the centre will no longer be able to extract an electron from plastocyanin and the concentration of which will grow . Hence when the supply of oxidized ferredoxin becomes exhausted no oxygen evolution can occur . Reduced ferredoxin can not be regenerated become the experiment was carried out in the absence of . Having a known concentration of potassium ferricyanide and a known amount of oxygen that can be evolved , one can test the accuracy of the calibration of the oxygen electrode . The data from the experiment indicates that the calibration of the curve is -34 % the actual amount of oxygen evolved . Thus the rates measured in the course of this experiment could be lower than what they actually are .","< abstract><heading > Summary</heading > The kinetics of the protease enzyme α - chymotrypsin was studied spectrophotomically by measuring the breakdown of the substrate p - nitrophenyl trimethylacetate . The optimum of the enzyme was determined to be and the biphasic reaction mechanism of α - chymotrypsin was observed . The kinetic constants of the α - chymotrypsin - catalyzed hydrolysis of p - nitrophenyl trimethylacetate were found to be 2.87x10 -4 sec -1 and -1 respectively . The constants A and B were observed to be dependent on only the enzyme concentration while the rate constant b was determined to be only dependent on the substrate concentration . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > The serine protease enzyme : α - chymotrypsin is a protein of molecular weight . It synthesized in the pancreas and secreted into the small intestine where it acts as a digestive enzyme and catalysis the hydrolysis of proteins . The hydrolysis of the peptide / amide bonds is specific and occurs between amino acids containing large hydrophobic side chains ; phenylalanine , tyrosine and tryptophan in proteins . Peptide and amide bonds in proteins and synthetic ester substrates are hydrolysed by an acylenzyme mechanism i.e. by a covalent bound intermediate . The stage of which is that of the enzyme and substrate form a non - covalent enzyme - substrate complex held together by the physical force of attraction between the particles . The hydroxyl group of Ser-195 located in the active site of the enzyme attacks the carbonyl group of the substrate ( nucleophilic attack ) to form the acyl - enzyme releasing the amine or alcohol . The acyl - enzyme intermediate is then hydrolysed , releasing the carboxylic acid component of the substrate resulting in the regeneration of the ' free ' enzyme . contains a series of sub - sites across its surface onto which the polypeptide substrate can bind ; there is no well defined cleft or groove for substrate binding . With the exception of the primary binding site which the side chains of aromatic amino acids on the substrate can fit . The biding pocket is a well defined slit deep , to by to in cross section , these dimensions provide a pocket which provides a snug fit around an aromatic ring ( wide to 3.5Å thick ) . The pocket is lined with non - polar amino acids thus provides a suitable environment for the binding of non - polar or hydrophobic side chains of the substrate . The binding of a suitable side chain in to this slit positions the adjacent peptide bond into the active site for cleavage . The reactivity of is due to the attachment of the imidazole ring of which is also hydrogen bonded to the carboxylate of Asp-102 forming a catalytic triad . The key reason is that histidine polarizes the hydroxyl group of serine therefore generating an alkoxide ion which is a stronger nucleophile than that of the hydroxyl group attached to serine . < figure/>Hartley and examined the catalysis by chymotrypsin of the hydrolysis of p - nitrophenyl acetate ( ) . The product of the catalysis ( PNP- ) , is bright yellow with a strong absorbance at nm allowing the reaction to be followed at great ease spectrophotometrically . When is present in large excess the release of is linear with time ( Figure ) , however if this linear line is extrapolated back to time it does not extrapolate to absorbance . This is since the hydrolysis of proceeds with an initial ' burst ' of p - Nitrophenolate release followed by the slow - order release of product . The biphasic release of product implied a step reaction mechanism , the burst face was a stochiometric process between substrate and enzyme since p - nitrophenol corresponded to mole enzyme . The stage of the reaction is the rapid acylation of some of the groups on chymotrypsin by releasing a stochiometric quantity of PNP- . The slower step is the hydrolysis of the acylenzyme followed by the fast reacylation of the free enzyme by that of accounting for the slow - order reaction4 . The hydrolysis of p - nitrophenyl trimethylacetate occurs at far greatly reduced rate than that of the p - nitrophenyl acetate and so the reaction can be followed by simple spectrophotometry rather than by special stop flow techniques . The ability to measure protein concentration accurately is an essential technique in protein biochemistry including that of enzymology where it is important in determining the specific activity of an enzyme . Proteins are complex and variable in structure and because of this not one assay technique is capable of measuring the absolute protein concentration . Numerous assay methods have been developed , each of which measures a different aspect of the protein and often have different sensitivity ranges e.g. ( Lowry ) measures the reduction of the reagent by tryptophan , tyrosine , cysteine and histidine residues sensitivity µg Biorad measures hydrophobic interactions between protein and reagent , sensitivity µg . Therefore different assay techniques may produce different protein estimations so the importance of using the same assay method when comparing the concentration of unknowns when they are compared is off great importance . < heading > Aim</heading > The aim of the experiment was to determine the optimum and the concentration of α - chymotrypsin in the stock solution by ) and assays as well as to investigate the biphasic kinetics of α - chymotrypsin action . < heading > Method</heading > The method was adhered to as stated in the laboratory manual ' . ' < heading > Results</heading><figure/>The pH profile of α - chymotrypsin shows a bell shaped profile with the exception of the data point at pH 10.2 with a ~ optimum of . An increase in absorbance indicates an increase in the rate of hydrolysis . The rate of hydrolysis increases as the pH of the solution increases i.e. deprotonation of the enzyme until the optimum of the enzyme is reached after which the rate of hydrolysis by the enzyme decreases . < table/>Table details the concentrations of α - chymotrypsin estimated by both the Folin ( Lowry ) and Biorad assays for the experimental data as well as the class data ( For calculations see appendix ) . The protein estimation of the concentration of the stock solution of α - chymotrypsin is greater than that of the class average , whilst the protein estimation is greater than that of the class average . The average protein estimation of the stock solution of α - chymotrypsin derived from both assays is that of mg / ml , higher than that of the class data value of 106mg / ml . < figure/><figure/>Figures and show the catalysed hydrolysis of p - nitrophenyl trimethylacetate by α - chymotrypsin in , the appearance of the product p - nitrophenoxide is biphasic . There is an initial rapid exponential release of product followed by that of a slower ( - order ) release of p - nitrophenoxide . See appendix for calculation of constants A , B and the rate constant b which were calculated from figures 3 and 4 , see table for the summary of results . No plateau of absorbance was observed indicating that substrate was in excess for each of the six assays . Doubling the concentration of substrate concentration at constant [ E]o Figure assays 1 , 3 and Figure assays 2 , 4 the constants A and B remain unchanged ( gradient of order rate remains the same ) while the rate constant b doubles ( difference between absorbance at end of exponential phase i.e. doubles ) . < table/>Table summarises the results derived from figures 3and 4 which is that as the enzyme concentration is doubled at a constant [ S]o ( and ) , the constants A and B double while the rate constant b remains unchanged . Doubling the concentration of substrate concentration at constant [ E]o ( assays 1 , and 2 , 4 ) the constants A and B remain unchanged while the rate constant b doubles . The assays and contradict the statement since as the enzyme concentration is doubled at a constant [ S]o the constants A and B remain unchanged however the rate constant b supports the statement since it remains unchanged . N.B. See appendix for calculations of the data summarised in table . The average deacylation of the acyl - enzyme rate constant ( K 3 ) for the α - chymotrypsin - catalyzed hydrolysis of p - nitrophenyl trimethylacetate is equal to 2.87x10 -04 sec -1 greater than that of the literature value of -1.(2 ) The average rate constant of acylation of the enzyme over that of the equilibrium constant ( K 2 / K s ) is equal to molLs -1 greater than that of the literature value of -1.(2 ) The enzyme purity of the enzyme solution is equal to ( See Appendix 2 for calculations ) . < heading > Discussion</heading > The rate of reaction for the enzyme was measured by the change in absorption , the substrate was yellow and not very soluble due to its size ( observed by the formation of a yellow fraction and a colourless one when was added to the buffer ) . Once the reaction was stopped at the appropriate time interval , it was important to separate the substrate and its hydrolysed form ( product ) since both were yellow and so the undigested protein was allowed to precipitate out of solution and only digested protein was measured . The bell shaped profile of α - chymotrypsin for the hydrolysis of the neutral substrate suggests the presence of ionising groups which play a key role in the catalytic reaction . The midpoint of the left of the profile shows that the rate of the catalytic reaction increases as the deprotonated form of an ionising group with an apparent of is formed . This can be associated with the imidazole group of histidine which would be unprotonated in the catalytically active form of the enzyme . The deprotonation of the imidazole group allows it to polarise the hydroxyl group of serine-195 which generates an alkoxide ion which is stronger nucleophile than that of a hydroxyl group . Therefore greater protonation of the imidaole group creates a stronger nucleophile which results in the greater probability of successful nucleophilic attack of the carbonyl carbon atom of the substrate hence increase in the rate of reaction . The midpoint of the right hand side of the profile indicates that the rate of reaction decreases as an amino acid with an apparent of is deprotonated . has a of however the amino isoleucine would be charged at neutral condition therefore there must be another mechanism rather than deprotonation of responsible for the decrease in the enzyme reaction rate . The mechanism is due to the removal of the positive charge ( deprotonation ) from the amino - terminal isoleucine resulting in the reforming a salt linkage with Asp-194 which obstructs the substrate binding site . Therefore the decrease of enzyme reaction rate is due to a decrease in affinity of substrate to the active site and not the decreased efficiency of the catalytic capabilities of the enzyme . Therefore the optimum is defined as the at which the enzyme possess its greatest catalytic activity , figure shows that this pH to be that of which is lower than that of literature value pH 8.0 2 . The difference in values of the optimum and the occurrence of the anomalous point at pH 10.2 is most likely to have occurred through pippeting errors . Greater clarity to the experimentally derived optimum could have been obtained if a greater number of increments in the pH buffers were used in the construction of the curve i.e. differences of rather than . < figure/>α - Chymotrypsin shows biphasic kinetics since there is covalent modification of the enzyme i.e. an initial burst followed by a slower rate order reaction . If no covalent modification of the enzyme occurred , the release of product would be directly proportional to time until substrate is exhausted and then no more product would be released ( figure ) . The enzyme purity of the reaction ( ) is much lower than that of what one would expect i.e. given that the reaction was carried out in excess . Reasons that are likely to have contributed to this dramatic drop is that the enzyme became denatured somewhere in the experimental procedure . The most probably point was that the , α - chymotrypsin was kept in the back of fridge before receipt and subsequently froze and was gently defrosted upon receipt . This extreme of temperature is likely to have denatured some of the enzyme irreversibly while some reversibly thus reducing the percentage of active enzyme expected in the given concentration of enzyme therefore reducing enzyme purity . α - Chymotrypsin catalysed hydrolysis of p - nitrophenyl acetate occurs at a greater rate than that of p - nitrophenyl trimethylacetate since the methyl groups on p - nitrophenyl trimethylacetate result in steric hindrance of the molecule giving rise to a slower rate of hydrolysis . Steric hindrance occurs in this case since methyl groups replace the hydrogen atoms in p - nitrophenyl acetate , the methyl group are much larger and therefore result in the greater overlapping of electron clouds resulting in a loss of energy and therefore reactivity . Thus a greater amount of energy must be put into the formation of the acyl enzyme and its subsequent breakdown since there is a loss in the reactivity in the substrate i.e. methyl groups create a steric barrier which must be reached before the molecule will react . The constants A and B are dependent only on enzyme concentration thus confirming the following equations A = K 3[E o ] and B=[E o ] . Evidence for this comes from in which enzyme concentration was doubled as so was that of A and B while altering the substrate concentration in had no affect on either A or The rate constant b is dependent only on the substrate concentration confirming the following equation b = K 2[S o ] / K s. Evidence for this comes from and where the substrate concentration remained the same ( within the assay pair ) and b remained unchanged . While if the substrate concentration is doubled at a constant enzyme concentration as in the rate constant b doubles . contradicted the statement that A and B are dependent on enzyme concentration since when the enzyme concentration was doubled within the assay pair no change in the constants A and B were observed . The absorbance 's for both assays from the raw data ( see attached laboratory day book ) are very similar suggesting that human error is to blame i.e. the same volume of enzyme was pipetted into both assays . When the constants A and B and the rate constant b were described as doubling or remaining constant there was variation in the figures . This was put down to accuracy of the assays i.e. pippeting errors ; however it was felt that the nature of A , B and b could still be explained with confidence since the variation was not large enough to mask the true trends in the data . The experimentally derived value of k 2 / K 3 and K 3 show percentage error of when compared to that of literature values . These percentages are high suggesting that improvements in experimental procedure should be implemented if the experiment was repeated . The largest source of error is likely to lie in pippeting errors which are human technique . Though greater definition of the exponential ( burst ) phase one could utilise the stopped flow spectrophotometric technique which would allow the reaction to be followed on a millisecond time scale rather than a time scale . Greater definition of the exponential phase would increase the accuracy of the rate constant b and since both are taken from this poorly defined region . Overall the ability to separate the exponential phase from the order reaction would improve the accuracy of the following since they are all derived directly or indirectly by the line equation of the order reaction . The biphasic nature of α - Chymotrypsin catalysed hydrolysis of p - nitrophenyl acetate is explained by the serine nucleophilic attack with the substrate resulting in the formation a covalently bound enzyme - substrate intermediate . During the burst phase of reaction the substrate binds to the enzyme where the alkoxide ion ( strong nucleophile ) of serine-195 attacks the carbonyl group involved in the peptide bond of the substrate to form an acyl - enzyme intermediate releasing p - nitrophenoxide . During the order phase of the reaction the intermediate is hydrolysed releasing the carboxylic acid component of the substrate and therefore regenerating the free active enzyme . Acylation resulting in the formation of the acyl - enzyme intermediate is a reaction that occurs at a greater rate than that of the deacylation of the intermediate thus explaining the biphasic nature of the enzyme . The difference between the protein estimations derived from the different types of i.e. ) performed on the unknown concentration of α - chymotrypsin is large in both personal and class data : and . The difference between the protein estimations yielded by the different types of assays lies in the fact that they measure different attributes of a protein . ( Lowry ) measures the reduction of the reagent by tryptophan , tyrosine , cysteine and histidine residues sensitivity while Biorad measures the hydrophobic interactions between protein and reagent . The results demonstrate the importance of using the same assay method when comparisons of samples of the same protein at unknown concentrations are compared with reference to their protein concentrations . The difference between the class data and experimental data is large for both assays ( ~55 % ) . The class data set is larger than the experimental data therefore the values posses a greater degree of reliability . The experimental data is clearly an overestimate of the stock solution , the data for experimentally derived protein estimations for the different shows a low range ( see appendix 1 ) . Thus indicating that the error did not lie in the dilutions that occurred after the extraction of the appropriate volume of the diluted enzyme solution . The absorbance 's for both assays were outside the standard curves therefore contained a concentration to great for the assays to measure accurately . The fact that the data for each assay contains a low range and the average of each type of assay is ~55 % greater than that of the corresponding class data assay suggests that the dilution of of the stock solution is in error . Both assays used the same diluted stock solution which gives a unifying cause of error for both types of assay . Thus the diluted stock solution was not diluted correctly ; this is due to human error and poor pippeting technique .",1
"< heading > Introduction to Organic food production</heading food production in the has to adhere to standards set by the soil association or other certified bodies . These bodies all meet certain minimum standards , but they may have additional rules that are more stringent which producers will also need to comply with to be certified by them . Under organic food production standards there must be minimal or no use of fertilizers and pesticides , instead aiming to use natural pesticides and fertilizers . Organic food production is trying to establish sustainable agriculture , with the aim of maintaining soil fertility , levels of soil organic matter and the biological activity within the soil . Organic food production can have a positive impact on the environment as the following table indicates . < table/><list></list > The Organic food market in the is currently increasing . This is partly due to food scares and environmental issues which have been at the forefront of the media in . This is likely to have influenced consumers to buy organic produce , as organic food is partly marketed on being healthy and having a positive impact on the environment . In the , of all agricultural land is organically farmed . This is still a very small proportion of the total land area , and only a small proportion of this is arable land with the majority being grassland ( Source Vaarst , R , L , L 2004 ) .. < heading in Organic Wheat</heading > Powdery mildew is a disease that often affects a wheat crop . It is caused by the fungus graminis ( ) and is most common in humid and semiarid regions . Powdery mildew will utilize the nutrients and reduce the photosynthesis of the plant . This means that the green area index will also decrease and therefore the plant will not be intercepting as much light and so could affect growth . Wheat crops that are affected by powdery mildew : < list vigourCan affect growthSeed filling can be impairedIf leaves or whole plant are heavily affected they can be prematurely killed</list > A decrease in yield can be associated with powdery mildew depending on the intensity of the attack . ' Yield losses of are recorded and are greatest when disease development precedes or accompanies flowering ' ( Source Wiese M V ) < heading > Symptoms of Powdery Mildew in Wheat</heading > Powdery mildew most commonly occurs on the upper surface of the lower leaves . White colonies start to appear on the leaf surface , and as the plant matures these turn to distinct brown dots . < picture/>Powdery mildew development is most likely to occur ( Source Wiese M V ) . This means that temperatures are optimum for powdery mildew development in wheat , and therefore early planting of a wheat crop could increase its susceptibility to this disease . < table/><list></list > Powdery mildew can also be spread by airborne infection and environmental conditions which may permit rapid development of the disease ( such as high humidity or cold temperatures as mentioned above ) . Powdery mildew also thrives on nitrogen rich plants , therefore if wheat is being planted organically on nitrogen rich soil than it may be more susceptible to powdery mildew . This could cause problems for organic farmers because nitrogen rich soil is important for the growth of wheat . Infections of powdery mildew in to young wheat crops can reduce tiller numbers and can also reduce the hardiness of the crop to frost . This means that as well as the effect of the powdery mildew on the crop there is likely to be a greater effect from frost damage and therefore the crop yield is likely to be affected . Disease attacks that occur later in the lifecycle of the crop can affect the grain size and therefore also affect grain quality . < heading in organic wheat</heading > In organic production systems there are fairly limited ways to try and control the disease of crops . This is because the use of many fungicides , fertilizers and pesticides is prohibited or limited to extreme situations . Therefore other methods of disease control need to be used . A major way to try and control powdery mildew in crops is to grow varieties of wheat that are resistant to the disease . The varieties of wheat resistant to powdery mildew will change as after , resistance to powdery mildew is likely to deteriorate . However , updates are available on a yearly basis on wheat varieties that are most resistant to powdery mildew . ( See   URL   to find these varieties ) Varieties of wheat that are more resistant to powdery mildew should seriously be considered by organic farmers because a resistance to this disease will mean that the crop has the chance to produce a higher yield , as it will intercept more light and will not have to compete for nutrients . This method of weed control will also not have any negative effects on the environment which is viewed as an important aspect of organic farming , and therefore is a method that should initially be tried . The has a varied climate and different diseases favour different climates . Planting the wheat crop later could be a possible defence against powdery mildew for organic farmers . This is because powdery mildew does not grow in weather or cold fall ( field crop production and marketing ) . Spore release and germination of powdery mildew is also reduced when there is water or dew on the leaf surface ( ) . This means that powdery mildew is more likely to affect wetter areas of the and therefore this should be taken into account by organic farmers . A problem with the idea of planting wheat later is that wheat does not grow well in weather or cold fall and therefore although this method may help to defend against powdery mildew , the wheat crop is likely to suffer anyway due to being grown in unfavourable conditions . Another alternative to growing the whole crop at a later date could be to spread out the planting date so that the whole crop may not be susceptible to the disease . This would allow some of the crop to be grown at the more favourable period for wheat and some to be grown slightly later at a time when powdery mildew is less active . Again , this method of attempting to control powdery mildew will not have any negative impacts on the environment , but the practicality of spreading out the plating date could be an issue to due time restraints . This method may therefore not be an option which is favoured by some organic farmers . Crop rotations are an important aspect for organic farmers for the following reasons : < table/><list></list > The use of crop rotations will be an important element for an organic farmer trying to control powdery mildew in wheat . This is because crop rotation will help to break down the disease cycle of powdery mildew . It will also help to reduce the number of inoculums with initiate disease on stubble and other cereals . However , crop rotations will only help to control powdery mildew to a certain extent because the disease is also airborne spread and therefore even with good crop rotation to help break the disease cycle it is still possible for powdery mildew to spread by other methods . Crop rotations are a method used in most farming systems . It is not an impractical method and is no more time consuming than not rotating . This means that organic farmers will have few reasons as to why they should not at least try rotating crops as a means of breaking down the disease . As a last resort to help control powdery mildew in organic wheat , farmers may opt to use non- synthetic pesticides and fungicides . However , in order for organic farmers to use these , they must first have prior approval from their certified body to use the treatment . This method should be used as a last resort only because it can disrupt beneficial insects and have an affect on the stability of organic farming . This therefore indicates that this method can have an impact on the environment and so is not fully supportive of the concept of organic farming . This method is however likely to be fairly efficient at controlling the disease . < heading > Conclusion</heading > Powdery mildew is a disease that can affect wheat grown both conventionally and organically . In organic production systems there are fewer options available to help try and control this disease in wheat . This means that careful planning is needed with regards to the type of wheat grown , the time of sowing and also the time in a crop rotation that the wheat is grown . These factors will help to try and control powdery mildew in wheat and are also methods that will have less effect on the environment and therefore will be more in line with organic standards . However , as the disease can also be airborne spread these planning factors will only help to a certain extent . It may be that organic farmers who have a severe attack of powdery mildew to their wheat crop will have to opt to use non - synthetic pesticides and fungicides . This method should always be a last resort for farmers and should be carefully considered and of course needs prior approval from their certified body . For an organic farmer , there are measures that can be taken prior to disease infection which will try and avoid the contamination of the crop . However , these are all actions which need to be considered before the crop is planted . If , after the careful planning of these factors the wheat crop is still attacked by powdery mildew that is when the organic producer has fewer options than the conventional producer in terms of controlling this disease . This therefore indicates that for an organic producer trying to control crop diseases careful planning is required prior to the planting of the crop .","< heading > Symbiosis and Parasitism</heading > Symbiosis is often defined as ' an ecological relationship between organisms of different species that are in direct contact ' ( and , p545 ) . The organisms in the relationship are referred to as the host ( the larger ) and the symbiont ( the smaller ) . There is a spectrum of symbiosis : Commensalism -where only one of the organisms benefits but does not harm the other to any significance , Mutualism -where both symbionts benefit , and finally organism ( here called the parasite ) benefits from the relationship but at the detriment of the host . However such terms are difficult to define and measure , and instigate questions such as ' what reasons are there for considering predator - prey and herbivore - crop relationships to be different from associations given names like parasitism , symbiosis and commensalism ? ' ( Whitfield , p1 ) . Exploitation of the host environment is very similar to the exploitation of any other environment , however , it may be distinguished by the host environment 's ability to respond adaptively to the presence of the parasite . ( ) Parasites can be harmful to their host in a variety of ways , including lowering the fitness of the host by draining it of energy and feeding from its tissues and introducing pathogens to the host causing disease , as in the case of the Anopheles mosquitoes and the apicomplexan Plasmodium which causes the human disease ' ' . ( and ) Most of the organisms dealt with by and Demaree ( Parasitology ) are obligate parasites , which need a host for the completion of their life cycles . Although there are some parasites , referred to as facultative parasites that can easily remain free - living but take advantage of hosts if / when the opportunity arises . Parasites can be divided into groups : , which live outside the skin / feed on the external surface of the host i.e. suck blood , feed upon hair , feathers , skin or its secretions . They have biological and morphological adaptations to help them do this , e.g. enzymes suited to feeding on blood , similar body temp to host . The life cycle involves transmission/ dispersal stages and it may be synchronised with the host . Ticks are an example of ectoparasites . Endoparasites , which live under the skin / within the body of the host : there are ranges of organisms both prokaryotic and eukaryotic that survive in this way . They have evolved many times - not necessarily from ectosymbionts- and live a wide variety of tissues . Examples of endosymbionts include viruses , bacteria , plasmodium ( malaria ) , schistosoma ( causes schistosomiosis ) and tape worms ( worm eggs cause problems ) . Some insects ( usually small wasps ) lay eggs in or on their host 's surface . The larvae then go on to feed on the living host , eventually killing it . This type of parasitism is called ' Parasitoidism ' , described by ) . < heading > Life cycles of endoparasites</heading > The life cycle of the parasite involves transmission and dispersal stages and it may be synchronised with the life cycle of the host . There may be a direct cycle during which the parasite is never exposed to the outside environment . The parasite may reproduce and have an infective stage in the host , which may be preyed upon and eaten . The parasite can then be transmitted to the new host as it is released by digestion , e.g. spiralis ( ) . Another possible cycle taken by the parasite whilst still not exposed to the outside is the use of a vector . This is a more indirect cycle and an example of this can be seen in the life cycle of where it is transferred between humans by the Anopheles mosquitoes . Here , the vector takes up infective stages of the parasite during feeding on the host , these stages develop in the vector until it feeds on a new host , where the parasite can then be transmitted . Other parasites may be exposed to the outside world by release of eggs but not as a free - living agent and develop and become transmitted directly e.g. , or indirectly by an intermediate host e.g. tapeworms . A free - living stage may be seen in the life cycles of hookworms or where parasitic eggs hatch and develop in outside world and may be transmitted to final host directly or indirectly by ingestion / penetration of infective stages or the ingestion of the infective intermediate host . ( ) < heading > Transmission to new hosts</heading > Transmission between different species can sometimes be seen , as the closeness of the bond between parasites and their hosts is varies considerably . Some parasites are limited to a single species e.g. saginata , whilst others are very random e.g. cruzi . Parasites are not free - living , and this disadvantages them in their ability to adapt themselves to different environments . This is due to any change being significantly different to the previous factor as there are very few intermediates when entering a new host , in comparison to the adaptive potentials of a free - living organism . For example , a song sparrow can experience a huge number of intergrading conditions between the damp , cool forests of the northwest and the dry hot deserts of the southwest while an sees no intermediate conditions between the conditions of a pig intestine and that of a human . Therefore any changes must be carried out in jump , or not at all . This case also gives example of how sometimes inherent host characteristics are of little importance as the parasite 's priority is more inclined to the hosts similar environmental conditions brought about due to shared habits or diets , and adaptation to phylogenetically unrelated hosts can be observed . ( and Read 1961 ) . < heading > Defence mechanisms against parasites and infectious disease</heading > There is an interesting and continually evolving relationship that can be seen between the parasite and the host , as both develop immunity against each other and the defences raised . As many of the parasites introduce microbes which bring about disease and infection of tissues animals have both natural and acquired immunity to resist this . < heading > Natural immunity - Fast and general responses to microbes:</heading > First there may be an incompatibility of parasites to the host that may prevent its infection . E.g. the physical barrier of the skin maybe sufficient enough to keep out some helminths , such as hookworms and schistosomes whose success is reliant on reaching the dermis by penetrating the epidermis and the basement membrane.(Wakelin ) Mucous membranes prevent entry of some microbes into the body and mucus is produced by some of the membrane cells . An example of where this technique of defence is used is in the trachea of mammals . The ciliated epithelial cells present sweep the mucus and trapped microbes upwards to stop them entering and potentially harming the lungs . Secretions can restrain microbial colonisation on surfaces of constantly exposed epithelia by bathing them e.g. tears and saliva . ( and ) Initial development of the parasite may soon be quashed by nutritional deficiencies or lack of more specific conditions for further growth , migrations and reproductive maturation . E.g. , lumbricoides eggs can survive and hatch perfectly well in many variations of mammalian body where a general environment is shared , however when the parasites then becomes ready for maturation it must migrate to the lungs of the host and will only exist further in the lungs of humans . ( ) Phagocytosis is a very important defence against invading microbes , whereby the phagocytes ( specific type of white blood cell ) attach to the microbe allowing it to be engulfed by the cell . An effective response by lysosomes releasing various toxic compounds then destroys the microbe . ( and ) ) explain how antimicrobial proteins attack microbes directly or hinder its process of reproduction . Inflammatory response- a standardised response in most higher organisms that causes an increase of blood flow and permeability to the affected area . This allows the required defensive cells and compounds to reach the area more rapidly . Natural killer cells attack virus - infected cells by releasing chemicals to kill them by apoptosis . Their substantial resistance to cancer is recognised by ) . Another spectrum of innate response is the behaviour of animals . Some seem to have instinctive ways of freeing themselves of , or avoiding , parasites . E.g. when sheep faeces are infected with worms they infect the ground and cause the growth of lush grass . Sheep seem to sense this danger and avoid these patches . Some animals , such as rats , groom themselves and each other to get rid of lice . A person who suffers from Sickle cell Anaemia has natural resistance to the human disease . < heading > Acquired immunity - Slower , more specific responses to microbes:</heading recognise the epitopes ( antigenic determinants ) of pathogens and can undergo an attack to counteract the specific problem ( ) . Lymphocytes only have type of antigen receptor pattern , however there are different antigenic variants . There are therefore a huge number of different lymphocytes to fight against the pathogens with different surface patterns . The advantage of this is specific response . < list > Exposure to antigen Selection Stimulation Mitosis Maturation Effecter cells antigen . < /list > Recovery from disease provides immunity for the specific disease . This is achieved following the production of the required antibodies to kill / immobilise the organism and subsequent memory cells which mean that the pathogen can be quickly recognised in the future and antibodies can be produced more efficiently . The defences of some organisms may hold some diseases in check without eliminating it , and the host can live with the parasite in a state of balance . Here there is sufficient parasite population to ensure the production of required defence chemicals , without the numbers being capable of significant harm . ( and Read 1961 ) . Age resistance - most animals seem to cope better with fighting disease as they get older as the organism is more developed and fitter in adulthood than in childhood . Work by in indicated that there is another aspect to age resistance in some disease cases , in that it can be seen to be related to incompatible hosts which is intensified with age . ' It is significant that most cases of human infections with ' foreign ' worms belonging in other animals , are recorded in children ' ( and Read 1961 , p26 ) . < table/>The subject of parasitism is an interesting and highly important one , which is greatly relevant to us all . Parasites have affected nearly everyone in their lives on a very variable scale . Parasites cause of the diseases considered to be the most devastating to human health by ( Marquardt and Demaree ) . However life among parasites is inevitable and host density is one of the most important of a number of environmental factors determining transmission rates . Therefore Man himself does increases his chance and the chances of his livestock to infectious disease , however indirectly . The prevention of these scenarios is of course the ultimate objective for immunoparasitologists . There have already been successes in the fight against these organisms in the form of vaccines against parasitic infections but few have reached large - scale commercial production . The progress that has been made however , includes of the major parasitic infections of man : and Schistosomiasis . The success of previous work has been hugely significant in saving countless lives , an example of this seen in the decrease of cases and death rates of people with , which is prominent in approx . countries . ( ) concluded from a variety of sources that previous to the eradication efforts that began in , there were cases of malaria per year over the world , which can be compared to the current ( approx . ) cases per year . Relationships between parasites and their hosts following evolution exist in all species , and as pointed out by ( ) exploitation of the environments provided by the bodies of living animals is , in essence , no different from the exploitation of the environments provided by the seas , the land fresh waters .",0
"< abstract><heading > Summary</heading > The human skin provides an essential barrier to the environment , preventing the transport of substances to and from the human body . In order to extract blood for the purpose of sampling and diagnosis , the skin 's natural barrier must be overcome . As a relatively painless alternative to hypodermic injections , microneedle arrays have been fabricated using microstereolithography ( MSL ) techniques , which may be capable of penetrating the skin and increasing its permeability . This is expected to facilitate the extraction of blood and allow efficient transfer of drugs across the skin . In this study , a number of needle designs were fabricated from a biocompatible photopolymer , with a variety of needle geometries . Using finite element simulations , and experimental techniques , the performance of each design was determined by modelling the force required to fracture the microneedles . Experimental data estimated a range of failure forces from and these forces were shown to depend primarily on the radius of the needle tip . By fabricating the microneedle arrays using a single photon process , this study provides an economical means of producing microneedle arrays for the process of blood extraction and/or drug delivery . < /abstract><heading>1.0 - Introduction</heading><heading>1.1 - Blood Sampling</heading > Blood sampling is a vital medical procedure , and is used for many different purposes , from assessing liver and kidney function , to controlling substances such as blood glucose and hormones . Traditional methods used to sample blood and deliver drugs to the human body can be inefficient and often painful . The use of hypodermic needles is a common choice however this procedure can cause significant pain to the patient and in many cases , is not acceptable when the rate of drug release needs to be accurately controlled . There are many safety concerns associated with the use of hypodermic needles , with needle injuries accounting for of reported incidents by staff , totalling injuries per . As a result of these concerns , alternative technologies have been investigated . The transdermal patch is a popular alternative , as it not only allows a steady delivery of drugs at most sites of the human skin , but overcomes many of the pain issues associated with intravenous injections , and is inherently safe . However , the tough outer layer of the skin ( the Stratum Corneum ) provides a highly effective barrier against most compounds and as a result , the transdermal patch method is limited to the transport of small , soluble molecules . < heading>1.2 - Current Research</heading > With the introduction of microstereolithography in , dimensional structures can be fabricated with micron scale geometry . In the past , a number of microneedle designs have been proposed , using a variety of materials such as metals , silicon and polymers , , , . Although silicon is able to produce highly accurate microneedles , it is not only expensive but also brittle . Metal microneedles however , provide much greater strength and previous results have shown that skin permeability increased by a factor of , with the application of solid metal microneedles . The development of polymer microneedles has been shown to provide a more cost - effective means of production and due to its inherent biocompatibility with the skin ; is a viable alternative to metal and silicon . In previous studies , microneedle arrays were produced using techniques most commonly associated with integrated circuit fabrication and ( micro - electro mechanical systems ) devices , such as deep reactive ion etching , and ( lithography , electroplating and moulding)3 , . Although many microneedles have been produced using these methods , the techniques used give very little control over the geometry of the designs , as the design form is driven by the manufacturing processes used . < heading>1.3 - Thesis Outline</heading > In this study , microstereolithography ( MSL ) techniques have been used to produce arrays of micro - needles , which have been fabricated to puncture the Stratum Corneum and hence , substantially increase its permeability . This should allow the efficient transport of blood and/or drugs across the skin , with the minimal amount of pain to the patient . This aim of this project is to produce a number of microneedle arrays , using a single rapid prototyping process based on photopolymerisation . This enables the rapid and relatively cost effective fabrication of a variety of microneedle designs directly from data . In addition , the performance of each microneedle design is tested using a combination of computer simulations and load cells , to determine the optimal design parameters , and to assess the ability of each design to pierce the human skin . < heading>2.0 - Literary Review</heading><heading>2.1 - Current Materials and Methods</heading > The purpose behind the microneedle is for the painless sampling of blood or for drug delivery . Interest in the area began in and since then , significant research has been performed to enable the concept to be realised . Many issues have been addressed , with the majority of research focussed on the fabrication methods and material choice , with less emphasis on the design form and shape of the microneedles . < enote , , , "" processed microneedles "" , Proc . Int . . sensors and actuators ( ) , pp.237 - 240 , 1993 < /enote > The institute has undertaken research into both hollow and solid microneedles , in a variety of materials such as glass , silicon and biodegradable polymers , , . Metal microneedles were produced through electro - deposition onto laser drilled moulds , and glass microneedles were produced by a glass - drawing method . The fabrication of silicon microneedles however , was inspired by the microelectronics industry , utilising micromachining techniques . The microneedles which were formed , have typical lengths varying from µm , and were shown to increase the skins permeability to particles nm in radius . By altering the different stages of the fabrication process and etching chemistry allowed the geometry of the silicon needles to be changed . By casting the silicon needles into moulds , other materials such as polymers and metals were produced , by metal electro - deposition , or by polymer injection moulding . < enote , , , , , , "" Microfabricated needles for transdermal delivery of macromolecules and nanoparticles : Fabrication methods and transport studies "" , , vol.100 , no.24 , pp.13755 - 13760 , 2003 < /enote > Another fabrication method was proposed in a publication by the department of mechanical engineering , at the advanced institute of science and technology . This publication highlights the inability of silicon - based etching techniques at producing long needle shanks , and proposes a fabrication method using deep x - ray exposure . This method involves producing a column array , by exposing ( polymethylmet - acrylate ) to vertical x - ray lithography , followed by a , inclined exposure which produces a triangular pyramid array . The shape of the needle and the tip geometry is varied by altering the exposure angle , with the mask and substrate . The publication indicates that a number of designs have been produced using the inclined x - ray exposure method , with varying shank length , hole diameter and needle base ( see table ) . < enote , , "" A novel fabrication method of a microneedle array using inclined deep x - ray exposure "" , . . , pp.903 - 911 , 2005 < /enote><table/>As a novel alternative to conventional materials , members of along with the university school of medicine in , proposed the development of microneedles fabricated from sugar , which could be used as a transdermal drug delivery system . The paper describes a similar etching technique as shown by the institute , which was used to produce needles varying from µm to 2 mm in length . The difference however , is that the paper proposes that the drug to be delivered is mixed with powdered maltose , and is cast into the microneedle mould . Upon insertion , the needle would be snapped , and left in the epidermis / dermis , where it could dissolve , and as a result , deliver the drug which is contained . The experiments performed indicate that the system was a viable means of drug delivery . < enote , , , , , , , "" microneedles as transdermic drug delivery system "" , , , pp.185 - 188 , 2005 < /enote > Further publications indicate a similar combination of deep reactive ion etching ( DRIE ) and micromachining as a fabrication method , where the designs are controlled by the degree of under etching , and the position of photolithographic masks . ( See ref , ) Table indicates the typical properties of these microneedles :( see ref , , ) < enote > B. Stoeber , , "" Arrays of hollow out - of - plane microneedles for drug delivery "" , , vol.14 , no.3 , pp.472 - 479 , 2005 < /enote><enote > E.V. Mukerjee , , , , "" Microneedle array for transdermal biological fluid extraction and in situ analysis "" , , A , - 275 , 2004 < /enote><enote , , , , , , , "" Fabrication of silicon oxide microneedles from macroporous silicon "" , , B , , 2005 < /enote><enote > H. J. G. E. Gardeniers , , , "" micromachined hollow microneedles for transdermal liquid transfer "" , . Syst . , vol.12 , , pp.855 - 862 , < /enote><enote , , "" Side - opened out - of - plane microneedles for microfluidic transdermal liquid transfer "" , . Syst . , , , pp.296 - 301 , 2003 < /enote><enote , , "" Fluid injection through out - of - plane microneedles "" , Proceedings of the , , , - 228 , 2000 < /enote><enote , , , , "" Fabrication of array of hollow microcapillaries used for injection of genetic materials into animal / plant cells "" , . . Phys pt.2 , vol.38 , , pp . < /enote><table/>The problem with these fabrication methods , namely deep reactive ion etching , micromachining , and deep x - ray exposure is although the methods produce highly accurate microneedles , with extremely sharp tip geometry , the design of the microneedle array is only controlled by the different stages in the fabrication . For instance , the inclined deep x - ray exposure method can produce slender or thick designs by changing the exposure angle of the x - rays ( See Figure 1 2 ): < picture/>Similarly , the publication by demonstrates that the cylindrical master moulds are produced with bevelled tips by controlling the etching stage of the fabrication process , thus providing the required geometry . As a result , these fabrication methods allow very little control over the shape and form of the microneedle design , as changes in the design are driven by the different stages in the process . In terms of material selection , the fabrication of micro - moulds demonstrated in ref , allows deposition of to produce metal microneedles , or the melting of polyglycolic acid to produce polymer microneedles . Thus , the use of reactive ion etching to produce micro - moulds allows a greater compatibility with different materials , and so strong designs can be obtained with desirable material properties . The use of inclined deep x - ray exposure however , does not offer this advantage since the material is fixed by the fabrication method . < heading>2.2 - Bio - Compatibility Research</heading > The production of silicon microneedles is very popular in the literature ( see 1,4,5,6 , ) as its use is inspired by the field of micro - electronics . However , silicon is not a proven bio - compatible material , which if broken off during insertion could cause harm . This could include allergic reactions to the silicon , irritation , and possibly infection . This concern was addressed in ref.5 which indicates that although the silicon is not biocompatible , it oxidises quickly in air , producing glass which is non - toxic . However , insertion tests indicated mild itching and redness in the skin after repeated insertion of a silicon microneedle array . The use of biodegradable polymer microneedles has been implemented by , which involved using previously demonstrated methods to produce moulds , from which biodegradable polymer microneedles can be formed . The publication indicates that the use of biodegradable polymers to produce the microneedles , were strong enough to pierce the skin without breaking . The paper also indicates that a broken needle left in the skin would safely degrade and disappear , without causing harm . < enote , , , , "" Microfabricated microneedles : a novel approach to transdermal drug delivery "" , , vol.87 , no.8 , - 925 , 1998 < /enote><enote , , , "" Biodegradable polymer microneedles : Fabrication , mechanics and transdermal drug delivery "" , , , pp.51 - 66 , 2005 < /enote > The research performed by 4 was also focussed primarily on the issue of biocompatibility and by moulding microneedles using maltose , they were able to produce fully bio - degradable microneedles . < heading>2.3 - Microneedle Testing</heading > In order to determine the strengths / weaknesses of a particular microneedle array , the designs are tested in the publications by a number of different methods . For instance , provides confirmation of skin puncture , by applying the microneedle to the author 's skin and subsequently applying a dye to the location . By using an in vivo microscope , it was determined if the dye had penetrated the outer layer of the skin . Results showed that the dye was able to pass through the outer layer of the skin , after microneedle arrays were applied to the skin surface . This approach is also adopted in ref.13 , in which the authors used hydrophobic dyes to determine if the skin permeability had been increased . The difference in this study however , is that the authors used heat stripped epidermis from human cadavers , and placed the epidermis on tissue paper to provide support . The disadvantage with this method is that the use of tissue paper as a support may not be adequate to simulate the actual support of the skin . An actual skin puncture test as shown in is far more accurate , in terms of needle insertion mechanics . In , the authors tested the ability of the microneedles to deliver transdermal drugs . This was achieved by microinjecting insulin to diabetic rats , and subsequently monitoring the blood glucose level . This study confirmed the ability of hollow microneedles to deliver insulin to diabetic rats , by inserting a single needle for , and applying an insulin flow pressure of . The results showed that of fluid could be flowed , however the skin in rats is expected to be thinner than human skin , and so the results may be inaccurate . The study also fails to address the amount of pain which may be experienced from needle insertion . The authors of ref.3 demonstrated needle insertion using a more crude method , which involved using human subjects , and by piercing the skin with extra - long microneedle samples , designed to penetrate deep enough to rupture blood vessels . This enabled the authors to determine if penetration had indeed occurred , since the pressure in the vessels of the epidermis forced blood to the surface . This study allowed the authors to perform tests at different locations on the bodies of subjects , where skin thickness varies . The microneedle array used in the insertion tests were 900 µm in height with µm bases , and µm spacing . In both cases , the test subjects were able to confirm that the insertion was painless . < heading>2.4 - Modelling Microneedle Mechanics and Skin Puncture</heading > The use of finite element modelling in assessing microneedle mechanics is rare in the literature , although a study by does makes reference to the use of finite element modelling to determine needle fracture forces . Each design has a force applied iteratively until the sum of stress ( ) reaches the strength value of the material . Although this method does not require additional test equipment , it is believed that the simulation underestimates the fracture force . Although the force results are smaller than would normally be observed , this method still provides meaningful results as the forces can be considered to include a safety margin . < enote , , , , , "" Insertion of microneedles into skin : measurement and prediction of insertion force and needle fracture force "" , , , < /enote > The use of the finite element method at modelling the needle insertion force has not been demonstrated in any of the recent publications , although models of the human skin have been investigated to some extent . For instance , members of research laboratory and defined the skin as behaving as a non - homogenous , anisotropic , non - linear material . By using a material model to characterise the non - linear stress strain relationship , the paper demonstrates an ability to simulate the behaviour of the skin when indented . In another publication by a faculty of medicine , the authors attempt to determine the mechanical properties of the skin , by using a suction method . However , this study assumes the skin as an isotropic elastic membrane , as opposed to the research laboratory study of a multi - layered non - isotropic material . In ref.16 , the 's modulus of the skin is found to be . However , the young 's modulus calculated in other studies varies greatly , for example another suction cup experiment estimated the young 's modulus to be MPa . This variation in 's modulus is observed in many experiments , and the ranges of typical values are summarised in table : < enote > F.M. Hendriks , , , , , "" Mechanical properties of different layers of human skin "" , MATE , pp . N / A < /enote><enote > S. Diridollou , , , , , , , "" In vivo model of the mechanical properties of human skin under suction "" , , , pp.214 - 211 , 2000 < /enote><enote , , , "" Mechanical properties of the skin : A comparison between suction cup methods "" , , , - 115 , 2003 < /enote><enote > Grahame R , , "" The influence of ageing on the in vivo elasticity of human skin "" , , vol.15 , pp.121 - 139 , 1969 < /enote><enote > Sanders R , "" Torsional elasticity of human skin in vivo "" , , vol.342 , pp.255 - 260 , 1973 < /enote><enote > Alexander H , Cook T.H , "" Variations with age in the mechanical properties of human skin in vivo "" , , ed . Bedsore . , pp.109 - < /enote><enote > Agache P , , "" Mechanical properties and 's modulus of human skin in vivo "" , , vol.269 , pp.221 - 232 , < /enote><enote > Escoffier C , "" Age related mechanical properties of human skin : an in vivo study "" , , vol.93 , /enote><enote , , , "" Mechanical function of the skin : state of the art "" , bioengineering techniques and applications in dermatology and cosmetology , , chap.26 , < /enote><enote > Panisset F "" Le stratum corneum : sa place dans la fonction mecanique de la peau humaine in vivo "" , thesis , , , , < /enote><table/>The observed variations are primarily due to the large variation in skin composition , which may suggest that a non - isotropic model would provide a more consistent representation of the human skin . As well as providing research concerned with the skin 's mechanical properties , some publications provide experiments to determine the puncture mechanics of the skin . For example , a publication by the department of chemical engineering at the university of used high speed jets to pierce skin samples taken from the human abdomen , and from the skin of pigs . As well as indicating that the stress - strain curve for the skin is non - linear , the experiment determined that the critical stress for failure varied from to MPa . This range coincides with the value given by another study performed by members of , which indicated the pressure required to pierce human skin as MPa . By combining this puncture stress with a finite element model of the human skin , a computational skin puncture test can be performed , which could indicate that microneedles will puncture the skin , when this stress value is achieved . < enote , , "" Jet - induced skin puncture and its impact on needle - free jet injections : Experimental studies and a predictive model "" , , , < /enote><enote , , "" Geometrical effects in mechanical characterising of microneedle for biomedical applications "" , , B , pp.226 - 234 , 2004 < /enote><heading>2.5 - Conclusion</heading > To conclude , there has been a large amount of research performed on the subject of microneedles , and a large number of designs have been successfully fabricated . In nearly all of the previous studies , silicon micromachining and deep reactive ion etching techniques have been employed to produce the arrays . Although successful , these methods require multi - step processing and clean room facilities which makes the process expensive , and time intensive . The machining techniques used give very little control over the design and geometry of the microneedles . The geometric shapes of microneedles will play a significant part in determining the overall strength and performance , and the choice of needle shape are restricted by these processes . and metal microneedles have been shown to provide high strength structures , but issues with biocompatibility tend to suggest that polymer microneedles may provide a cleaner and safer alternative . < enote > Hadgraft , , , , . Transdermal Drug Delivery : Developmental Issues and Research Initiatives ; Marcel Dekker : , . < /enote><heading>3.0 - Modelling Microneedles</heading><heading>3.1 - Design of Microneedles</heading > The microneedle arrays were designed using the CAD package . A total of designs were modelled , and are shown below in figure : < picture/>The designs shown in figure were chosen to offer a range of structure , to enable an optimal design to be established . These designs were modelled with a variety of geometry , namely : < picture/>The typical range of microneedle specification is shown below in table , along with some values taken from previous research . The chosen microneedle geometry coincides with the specifications from previous studies : < table/><heading>3.2 - Optimising Design Parameters</heading > There are a number of design parameters which can be controlled in order to influence the failure force , and hence the performance of the microneedle array . The tip radius , and bore diameter were altered using the CAD package , as these parameters were believed to have the greatest influence on the fracture force . This assumption is coherent with previous studies on needle mechanics . Separate SolidWorks files were generated for each of the above designs , each with varying tip radius and bore diameter . Using the integrated Finite Element package within ( COSMOSworks ) , these array models were subjected to an incremental force at the tip , until the stress reached the materials ultimate strength . At this point , needle failure was assumed . Figure shows the pre - processing conditions which each model was placed under : < picture/>Each design was subjected to the same simulation and by analysing the performance of each , the effect of tip radius and bore diameter on the fracture forces were established . < heading>3.3 - Results of Design Optimisation</heading > In order to determine the effect of tip radius and bore on needle failure force , the basic designs ( fig.2 ) were subjected to an iterative force using the finite element package , . By modelling each of the designs with a variety of tip radius and bore diameter , their effect on the failure force of the needle array was simulated . The material chosen for the simulation is a typical photopolymer with material strength , 4.78E+007 N / m . Tables - 10 show the failure forces ( Newtons per needle ) for each of the designs , as a result of the simulations . < table/><table/>The tables show that for each of the designs which were modelled , the cylindrical design showed the greatest failure force , followed by the conical design , the stepped cone , and the inverted trumpet . Failure forces were shown to vary from to 0.03N depending on the geometry of each design . The tables also show that the Tip radius had the greatest influence on the failure force of the microneedles , and as the tip radius varied from µm , the failure force increased by times in the case of the conical design . In terms of the effect of the needle bore , this was shown to have no real significance on the needle failure force , except in the asymmetric designs , such as the asymmetric pyramid , in which the presence of the bore caused a sudden drop in needle failure force for a microneedle with a µm tip . This observation is coherent with previous studies on microneedle mechanics ( ref.14 ) in which statistical analysis showed that needle failure force depended primarily on tip radius . The effect of the tip radius and bore diameter on failure force is better observed graphically , and is shown below in graphs - 6 : < figure/><figure/><figure/>The graphical representation shows an approximately linear relationship of needle failure force , with respect to tip radius . The graphical data also shows the effect of the bore on each of the designs . The symmetric designs ( cone , inverted trumpet , pyramid ) showed that the bore had no significant effect on the failure force , where as the asymmetric designs ( asymmetric pyramid , elliptical ) were affected far more by the presence of the bore . In this study , the results suggest that a greater tip radius is the optimal choice for microneedles , in terms of fracture force . However , in order to minimise the insertion force , the tip radius should be kept small . Since the machine is limited to a resolution of µm , a µm tip radius was elected as the optimal choice , since it does not exceed the limitations of the fabrication process , and should provide adequate strength . The results suggest that the Elliptical design offers the greatest strength , however it is expected that the large area at the tip would make insertion difficult , therefore the optimal designs were chosen from the remaining . The inverted trumpet and stepped cone designs offer excellent performance at smaller tip radiuses and as a result , were elected for fabrication and testing . < enote > EnvisionTec Perfactory   < /enote><heading>3.4 - Modelling Needle / Skin Interaction</heading > As well as assessing the performance of the microneedle array designs with respect to the force at which they will fail , an analysis was performed in order to model the interaction of the microneedle array with the human skin . Due to the elastic nature of the skin , the application of a microneedle to the surface causes the skin to distort around the tip before failure occurs and hence , this effect should be taken into account . In order to assess whether or not the chosen microneedle designs would penetrate the skin , a finite element simulation was performed using a non - linear skin model , which expresses behaviour . The non - linear model used is similar to previous studies on non - linear skin modelling ( see ref.15 ) , and was obtained by inputting the material properties of the human skin into the COSMOSworks material database . The thickness of the skin was based on the dimensions given in ref.15 . Using , an assembly was set up with each of the chosen microneedle array designs placed in the same plane as the skin model . A reduced size array of only several needles is used due to restricted computer memory . The typical arrangement is shown below in figure : < enote > Mooney - Rivlin Material Model - Definition -   URL   < /enote><picture/>A non - linear finite element study was performed , by restraining the base of the skin and controlling the displacement of the array . A contact set was defined , which models the interaction between the needle tip and the skin surface , in order to calculate the stress . By auto - stepping the displacement in intervals , the level of stress was monitored . Once the maximum stress in the skin model reached the experimental value found in ref.26 ( 3.183MPa ) , skin penetration was assumed to have occurred . The elected optimal design was tested using this method in order to model the interaction with the skin , and judge the ability to puncture the skin . < heading>3.5 - Results of Needle / Skin Interaction</heading > The optimal design was modelled using , to assess the interaction of the microneedles with a model of the human skin . The inverted trumpet design was chosen for the study ( see fig . ) and the results of which are shown below in figure : < picture/>Figure shows the stress distribution in the skin and the needle tips as a result of the simulation . The results show that the stress in the top layer of the skin reached MPa , while the needle stress was shown to be MPa . Previous research on the failure stress of the skin suggested that skin failure would occur at MPa and as the above results demonstrate , this value has been reached . The microneedle array was modelled as a resin with ultimate strength of MPa . The results indicate that the needle stress did not reach this critical value which suggests that the microneedle array may be strong enough to penetrate the human skin , however due to the highly non - linear behaviour of the skin , a definitive conclusion can not be made without actual skin testing . < heading>3.6 - Modelling Discussion</heading > By modelling chosen microneedle designs using the COSMOSworks software package , the performance of each microneedle design was established by evaluating the failure force of each model . The results indicate that the strength of the microneedle design depends primarily on the outer tip radius , and that the presence of a hole only has a significant affect on the strength of asymmetric designs . This observation is consistent with previous studies on microneedle mechanics , ( see ref.14 ) where a statistical analysis was used to conclude that the failure force of a microneedle only significantly affected by the outer tip radius . The use of finite element techniques provides a useful alternative to actual testing , since results can be obtained before any building takes place , and this greatly reduces the costing involved in the project . However , the finite element method calculates the stresses on a point by point basis , and not as a perfect continuum , therefore the analysis also underestimates the failure force of the microneedle models . Although this error can be reduced by refining the finite element mesh , the technique is often limited by the high demand on computer memory . Similarly , the simulations performed , were based on reduced size arrays , of only several microneedles , since an actual sized array would far exceed the available computer memory . However , an actual sized array is expected to show similar behaviour and thus the reduced size model is considered to be satisfactory . Although there are some errors associated with the finite element modelling , the analysis does provide valuable comparison between the effects of changing design parameters such as tip radius and bore diameter . The results of the skin modelling provide some indication of the stress distribution in the top layer of the skin , and suggest that needle insertion may be possible . However , due to the non - linear behaviour of the human skin , the finite element analysis may not be able to provide accurate results , which suggest that the ability of the microneedles to pierce the skin could only be assessed precisely by an actual insertion test . The observations made during the study allowed an informed choice to be made as to what would be the most desirable parameters to include in the final models . However , although a smaller tip radius would certainly reduce the necessary force to break the skin , the choice of geometry would also be limited by the fabrication process . < heading>4.0 - Fabrication Process</heading><heading>4.1 - Description of Process</heading > Microneedle arrays were created using a microstereolithography technique , employing photopolymerised resins . An system ( Lens ) was used to fabricate the microneedle array designs , and this process is illustrated below in figure : < enote > Perfactory Process Description -   URL   < /enote><picture/><picture/><picture/><picture/>The fabrication process can be controlled by altering a number of parameters in the above process . For instance , the layer thickness can be controlled to give greater accuracy at the expense of build time , and the speed at which the resin tray is tilted ( peeling speed ) can be reduced to protect fragile components , and maintain the structural integrity . < heading>4.2 - Material Selection</heading > There were a number of resins available for use with the machine , namely Y8 , R5 / R11 and E - Shell . The material properties of these resins along with a other methylacrylates are show below in table : < enote > Material Properties Data Sheets - E - Shell and were chosen for fabricating the microneedle arrays , due to their high strength and stiffness . As shown above , the E - Shell is the optimal material which is compatible with the fabrication process , as it has a 's Modulus of 2360MPa , which is times as stiff as Y8 . In addition , material data indicated that E - Shell was bio - compatible with the human skin in terms of both skin irritation and skin sensitivity . < enote Sheet - E - Shell , Report on Needle Stick Injuries , pp.4 - 5   URL   34 Microsensors , and , . J , . V , . O , "" microstereolithography "" , pp.179 Schneeberger Linear Technology -   URL   < /enote><heading>4.3 - Machine Optimisation</heading > In order to optimise the prototyping process , microneedle arrays were fabricated with a variety of needle geometries and process parameters such as resin peeling speed and layer thickness , in order to determine the limitations of the machine . A number of experimental arrays were modelled using the CAD software . Test builds were fabricated with heights ranging from µm , in order to determine the smallest needle height which is achievable . This was performed using layer thicknesses ( µm ) , and peeling speeds ( µm / s and µm / s ) , in order to discover the effect of each parameter on the build accuracy . After selecting the optimal needle height and layer thickness , a test array was fabricated with needle spacing varying from µm . This helped to enable the constraints which the process places on the array density . Each test build was then scanned by ( SEM ) , in order to visualise the result of each test build . < heading>4.4 - Results of Machine Optimisation</heading > Initially , microneedle arrays were produced with heights ranging from µm . These models were produced with default process parameters ( a peeling speed of 1000µm / s and µm layer thickness ) . The SEM photographs of the test build are shown below in figure : < picture/>Figure shows a complete failure in the build attempt , when the needles were fabricated using a layer thickness of µm , and a peeling speed of 1000µm / s. The photographs clearly show areas of polymer which have been cured by the prototyping process however the structure of the needles is virtually non - existent . The mode of failure also shows a number of craters which have been left behind , as a result of the peeling process . The speed at which the peeling process occurred is believed to be responsible for the failure , as it may be stripping the fragile tip from the base of the needle . The build failure was also largely attributed to the layer thickness , since the layer thickness is large with respect to the needle heights . To explore this possibility , the same test build was repeated using a layer thickness of µm . The results of the build are shown below in figure : < picture/>In figure , the photographs show the results of decreasing the layer thickness to µm . As is clearly visible , the structure of the needles became far more defined . Although the needles remain incomplete , the effect of reducing the layer thickness is clearly beneficial to the accuracy of the design . In order to ascertain the effect of peeling speed on the build accuracy , a test build was fabricated with heights ranging from µm , with a slower peeling speed of / s. The results of the build attempt are shown below in figures and 11 : < picture/><picture/>Figures 10 and 11 demonstrate a much more successful build , as a result of the slower peeling speed . Figure indicates that microneedles were able to be fabricated at a range of heights and needle spacing from µm - 400 µm . Figure shows a close up view of some of the microneedles . Images ( a ) and ( b ) represent a µm tall needle , where as images ( c ) and ( d ) represent a µm tall needle . The results show that there is a clear limitation in the height of microneedles which can be achieved , with some of the quality of the build beginning to degrade in images ( c ) and ( d ) . As a result , the arrays which are produced for testing should be no smaller than µm tall . In terms of the optimal design , the inverted trumpet and stepped cone showed excellent build accuracy across the range of needle heights , with very little deformation apparent from the SEM photographs . In order to provide greater accuracy during the build , the results from figures confirm that the layer thickness should be minimised , along with the peeling speed . The results also show that the minimum needle height is restricted to µm by the fabrication process . After optimising the process parameters for building microneedle arrays , a final test build was performed using a layer thickness of µm and a peeling speed of / s. All of the needles were µm tall , and were fabricated with a spacing of µm . The results of the final build are shown below in figures and : < picture/><picture/><heading>4.5 - Fabrication Process Discussion</heading > By producing a number of test builds , the fabrication process was optimised by experimenting with a number of layer thicknesses , needle spacing , and resin peeling speeds . The results indicated that the peeling speed should be minimised , as the observations ( figure.8 ) suggest that the peeling process is stripping the needle structures from the base . By reducing the peeling speed , the structural integrity of the models was greatly improved . The optimisation process also indicated that the height of the microneedles was limited to µm , as the smaller models showed structural defects . The µm tall microneedles which were successfully fabricated , correspond with the heights of microneedles produced in previous studies ( see table.2 ) in which needle heights varied from - 500 µm . The results of the machine optimisation indicate that the process parameters have a great affect on the build , in terms of minimising structural defects , and producing accurate models . For instance , the extent at which the final product conforms to the shape of the initial design depends on the layer thickness which is used . The accuracy of the build could have been improved by reducing the layer thickness further ; however this may exceed the limits of the machine , and would greatly increase the build time . Reports on the thickness of the skin show that the outer layer of the skin ( the stratum corneum ) is µm thick , where as the epidermis is approx . µm thick . Therefore a µm microneedle would easily penetrate deep enough for the extraction of blood and/or the delivery of drugs . < heading>5.0 - Testing Microneedles</heading><heading>5.1 - Description of Finite Element Test</heading > In order to quantify the performance of the microneedle arrays , the optimal designs ( inverted trumpet , stepped cone ) were tested , using different methods . The microneedle arrays produced for testing were fabricated using resin ( see table ) . Both methods of testing aim to assess the performance of each design based on the failure force , and the of these tests was based on a finite element analysis . A model of each microneedle array was produced , and using , each array was subjected to an axial force at the needle tip . Once the maximum stress in the needle tip reached the strength of the resin , failure was assumed . The arrangement of the array prior to simulation is shown below in figure : < picture/><heading>5.2 - Results of Finite Element Tests</heading > To compare the performance of the chosen microneedle designs , each array was tested to failure by a simulated axial load . Failure was assumed to have occurred once the maximum stress in the structure reached the materials maximum strength . The results of the simulations for both the inverted trumpet and stepped cone designs are shown below in figure , and table : < picture/>The stress distribution plots for each design are very similar , with both showing maximum stress near to the peak of the needle , with stress levels reducing towards the base . The maximum force levels for each design are shown below in table : < table/>Table indicates the per needle failure force for each of the optimal designs . The failure forces which are observed are very similar , with the stepped cone design proving to be only marginally stronger than the inverted trumpet design , with a failure force of N. As was discovered earlier in , the radius of the tip has the greatest affect on the strength of a design , and since the tip geometry was identical in both cases , this is responsible for the similarity shown . By increasing the applied force beyond the maximum level , COSMOS can be used to demonstrate the typical failure mode for each of the designs . Figures and indicate the deformed shape of each design as a result of an excessive load : < picture/>Figures 17 and indicate that at an excessive load ( the material strength ) the failure mode for both designs was similar , with both figures demonstrating the tip deforming into the base . Due to the ductile nature of the photopolymer used in the fabrication process , this type of failure was expected , making needle breakages uncommon . < heading>5.3 - Description of Spring Loaded Test</heading > As an alternative to the finite element method , and as a means of comparing the simulated data , a spring loaded test rig was assembled and used to apply an axial force to the microneedle arrays which were fabricated . The test rig is shown below in figure : < picture/>Figure shows the arrangement of the force test rig used to assess the performance of the fabricated samples . Each test sample was placed into the sample site ( ) , and the displacement of the Schneeberger table ( ) was controlled by the attached screw thread ( ) . As the spring load compresses , it applies a force to the microneedle test sample . The spring was calibrated to provide a force of N / mm . The degree at which the spring was compressed was monitored by the TESA sensor ( ) and by recording the numerical displacement output ( ) , the force on the structure was calculated , by multiplying the displacement by the spring stiffness ( N / mm ) . The point of failure of the microneedle samples were determined by inspection of the needle tips , using an optical microscope ( 7 ) . The failure force was measured as the force required to significantly deform the microneedles . microneedle array samples were fabricated using ( see table.11 ) , with the same design specifications as used for the finite element testing . The test specifications are shown below in table : < table/><heading>5.4 - Results of Spring Loaded Tests</heading > The performance of the fabricated microneedles were determined by testing the arrays using the spring loaded test rig shown in figure . The needle tips were monitored under an increasing load , until deformation occurred . samples were tested , and the average failure force for each design was determined . The results of the tests are shown below in table : < table/>The results in table indicate a similar average failure force in both designs , with the inverted trumpet design showing a slightly greater average failure force of N. This observation is dissimilar to the simulated results shown in table , which indicate that the stepped cone design offers the greatest strength . The failure forces observed during the spring loaded tests are at a higher level than was observed in the simulations . This observation was expected since the finite element analysis calculates stresses on a point - by - point basis , and as a result , the inaccuracy leads to underestimated failure forces produced by the simulations . The results in table also show considerable variation between different samples . This observation is shown below in a graphical representation of the results : < figure/>The graphical representation of the results in graph and 8 , show the comparison between the measured values of the failure force , and the simulated failure forces . The results also show that the measured values , obtained using the spring loaded test rig , have considerable deviation from the average value ( shown in blue ) . The reason for the large diversity is due to inaccuracies in the force test rig . Since the microscope was mounted above the sample , only the outer row of needles were visible . This meant that the full array of needles could not be examined for failure . Observation of the test samples after testing indicated that some needles in the array failed more catastrophically than others . This was due to the spring load providing an uneven load across the array , causing some of the variation in results shown above in graph and . The majority of needles observed during the test underwent a crushing mode of failure , which is consistent with the deformed shape simulated in figures and . However , some of the needles in the array exhibited a bowing failure at the tip , caused by an imperfect axial load being applied by the spring loaded test rig . < heading>5.5 - Discussion of Test Results</heading > The microneedle arrays which were produced for testing embody all the optimal variables which have been investigated through the finite element simulations and the test builds . The stepped cone and inverted trumpet ( figure ) were chosen as the optimal designs based on the results of the machine optimisation and modelling studies . To enable a comparison between the designs , each was tested to discover the failure force , when an axial force is applied at the needle tip . This was performed using both COSMOSworks , and a spring loaded test mechanism ( see fig . ) . The model was restrained at the base , and an iterative force was applied at the needle tip . By monitoring the calculated stresses , needle failure was assumed to have occurred when the maximum stress reached the maximum strength of the material ( ) . The results of the simulation enabled a comparison to be made between the designs , and showed the stepped cone to offer the greatest strength . However , there is some uncertainty with the simulations , since they do not take into account buckling as a mode of failure , and this suggests that needle failure may have occurred at a smaller force than was predicted . However , the studies on microneedle mechanics ( ref.14 ) concluded that buckling should only occur when the wall thickness was µm . Since the microneedles which were tested had a much greater wall thickness , it is safe to assume that buckling would not occur . In contrast , the spring loaded test results produced a greater average failure force , than was predicted by the finite element simulations . These simulations calculate stresses on a point by point basis , by modelling the structure as a number of connected elements . Since the analysis does not treat the structure as a continuum , the results produce underestimated failure forces , as was shown by the results . Despite this , the finite element analysis has shown to provide an economical means of testing , and the results may be useful as a means of predicting a safe working load . Graph and indicate considerable variation between the different samples used in the spring loaded tests . There is some error associated with the method , primarily due to the way in which failure was assumed . failure was judged by observing the tips of the needles as the force was applied . However , the entire array could not be examined for failure , as only the row of needles were visible by the microscope . Observation of the samples after the tests indicated that modes of failure were occurring . In most cases , the microneedles exhibited a crushing mode , similar to the simulated deformation shown above in figures and . However , some of the samples showed that the microneedles were bowing at the tip , caused by an uneven load during testing . Although the uneven load produces inaccuracies in the results , it does provide an indication of how the arrays could perform , if they were used commercially . Since microneedle breakages did not occur in the tests , they would be safe in the environment , and would minimise the risk of injury . In both types of test , the results have shown that the performance of design is similar with respect to the other , and no significant data suggests design as the optimal choice . Despite the designs being considerably different in form , the tip radius of each remained constant , which suggests that this factor has the greatest influence of the strength of a design . This is consistent with previous studies on microneedle mechanics ( ref.14 ) , which has shown that the tip radius is the primary factor in determining the strength . < heading>6.0 - Conclusion</heading > This study demonstrates that microneedle arrays can be fabricated using a single process , to produce a variety of microneedle designs directly from data . A finite element analysis was performed to determine the optimal design parameters . The strength of a design was found to depend primarily on the radius of the needle tip , and the presence of a bore was found to only marginally lower the failure force . The finite element analysis was also applied to model the interaction between the microneedle arrays and a human skin model . Results have shown that the polymer microneedle arrays may be able to penetrate the skin before failing , however due to the non - linear nature of the human skin , a precise assessment could not be made without an actual skin insertion test . By optimising the parameters of the fabrication process , microneedle arrays were able to be produced efficiently , with a variety of geometry and features . These microneedle arrays were tested by both computer simulation , and by a spring loaded test rig . The failure forces observed varied from N. Due to the ductile nature of the polymer used in fabrication , needle breakages were found to be uncommon indicating that the microneedles are safe , and would carry minimal risk of injury . < heading>6.1 - Project Costing</heading > The study which has been presented has provided a means of addressing the problems with conventional blood sampling . This was achieved by applying a novel fabrication process to produce arrays of needles , with micron scale geometry . Due to practical nature of the project , there are a number of expenses involved . The following table provides a breakdown of the costing associated with the project : < table/ >","following the Wall Street Crash devastated both the and economies leaving facing destitution and unemployment . Among these were many workers both skilled and unskilled who were unable to support their families and heavily reliant on the state for support . Working - class pressure in this context mainly constitutes groups and Left - leaning political parties that claim to represent working - class interests . Nonetheless , as Salter ( Salter and Stevenson ) argues there is a distinction between the attitudes and behaviour of working - class members and the organisations that purport to represent them . Moreover , working - class expression is more than just or parties ; it also involves lower - class women , the unemployed , non - union workers and the conservative and liberal working classes . However , due to time constraints this essay will mainly focus on and party activism as the major sources of working - class political expression . In both and different states responded very differently to the , using varied state policies to tackle the problem of mass unemployment . The traditional economic orthodox approach was a belief in laissez faire policies that involved public expenditure cuts , the free market and the conviction that unemployment was a natural part of capitalist society . The divergence from this was new ( or ) influenced policies stemming from belief in government investment in economic planning and full employment strategies with new state sponsored public works . Working - class pressure from parties to was overwhelmingly in favour of this new more positive approach to overcoming economic problem of mass unemployment . This essay will compare , the only country to steadfastly adhere to the old economic liberal traditions ; with the country that most fully embraced economic ideals with the permanent restructuring of their economy . In the Labour government ' failed to break out of the straitjacket of orthodox financial advise ' ( Salter and Stevenson , p. ) when faced with the mass unemployment of the . The Labour cabinet agreed to the traditional response of massive cuts in public spending as unemployment had doubled in and the debt of the unemployment insurance fund stood at . The Labour party split over this issue , torn between its socialist commitment to maintaining welfare through unemployment benefit and the pressure to secure the economy . The divisions in Labour led to the creation and election of the National government encompassing Labour leaders , and . Therefore as Whiteside ( ) argues in comparison with the other major industrial countries ' only the electorate remained loyal to classical economic precepts ' of public expenditure cuts and minimal state intervention . Arguably in there was very little alternative to the traditional economic liberal policy as ideas were not fully formed until later , with the publication of his General Theory in . However , there were opposing voices with general council any cuts to unemployment insurance whatsoever to protect their workers interests . This ' union firmness sprang from the influenced conviction ... that the entire deflationary policy was misconceived ' ( Heclo , p. ) thus this failed protest represents working class pressure against government economic policy . In marked contrast , adopted ideas and implemented a new economic policy with their new government . Thus it was alone that used ' the to mount an all - out assault on the organising principle of bourgeois politics ' ( , p. ) by dismantling the prevailing economic liberal ideology . When the struck , unlike already had a reflationary response in ' Crisis Programme ' calling for expanded state funded public works and an planned unemployment policy to support in general . In winning the election the were able to lead a practical political breakthrough against the traditionally dominant economic doctrine . Therefore , the example indicates the critical importance of working - class pressure in shaping economic policy ; as the representatives of the working - classes the and their partners the Trade Unions were triumphant . In contrast , the working - class pressure was arguably a less critical influence on unemployment policy than the hegemonic economic liberalism supported by ruling elites and the middle classes . This notable disparity invokes questions : firstly why was economic orthodoxy so dominant in ? , why did the support a new government and policy that involved a radical restructuring of the economy ? The main interlinked reasons why unemployment policy in was shaped by economic orthodoxy far more than by working - class pressure ; were the dominance of the ruling elite and the vitality of the Liberal tradition . The relatively newly enfranchised working - classes and their organisations lacked the political clout to tackle the historic legacy of ruling elite ascendance . The Labour government was a ' hung parliament ' thus in facing the economic crisis it desperately needed the support of the , , and the . Therefore the Labour cabinet accepted these groups ' essentially political interpretation of the collapse of the international monetary system ' ( Heclo , p. ) . The traditional dominance of economic liberalism benefited middle class and ruling elite interests by promoting the theory that unemployment is natural ; thus these groups had a vested interested in upholding this economic orthodoxy . The dominant ideology held that 's wealth and empire were built on its laissez faire and free trade economic policies therefore the ' policy for the unemployed still betrayed the political and cultural heritage of ( Whiteside , p. ) . Consequently , the sheer magnitude of middle class and ruling elite political support for the economic orthodoxy of and the ; ensured working class pressure was less important factor shaping economic policy . Contrastingly , working class pressure was critically important in the development of state policies to overcome mass unemployment as within of the advent ' the balance of class political power had radically and permanently shifted in favour of the Labour movement ' ( , p. ) . The major reasons for this shift were organisational and political developments ; the creation of the Crisis Programme ' ; the unity of the Labour movement and its alliance with the farmers lobby . In the late twenties leaders began to question the ascendancy of economic liberalism in ; critiquing its assumption of the ' temporary ' nature of unemployment . Moreover , the unions became increasingly militant in response to the government anti - union activities including using unemployed workers to break strike activity . In demanded a ' completely new unemployment policy ' ( , p. ) . This increasing militancy and growing tide of union feeling could not be ignored , least of all by the Social . Alongside these Trade Union developments there emerged a generation of leaders personified by who became Minister after . Wigforss demanded socialism become a practical party policy rejecting the orthodox doctrine of waiting for and stimulating the crisis in capitalism and then implementing socialist policies . His more pragmatic new policy was the antithesis of economic liberalism calling for economic planning , greater public spending and the maintenance of working - class purchasing power through a full employment policy . Wigforss won the party over by providing a ' new conception of what ought to be done ' ( Heclo , p. ) about the problem of mass unemployment . Therefore working - class pressure was crucially important in as the representatives of the working - classes , and , provided a comprehensive , popular and coherent programme of reform . Moreover the internal unification of and economic consensus in , the Labour movement ensured it was a critical factor in the development of state policies to tackle the problem of mass unemployment . 's Labour movement , in contrast , was irreconcilably split over the ' symbolic importance of unemployment insurance cuts ' ( Heclo 1974 , p.119 ) thus working - class pressure in was weakened . Furthermore , while the minority Left who called for a re - evaluation of the traditional deflationary economic policy were isolated ; were able to unite with the farmers lobby to push through their policy for overcoming mass unemployment . won the election but like the Labour party in they did not have a majority in parliaments . Nonetheless , through ' detailed manoeuvring and negotiations ' ( Heclo , p. ) they established the agreement that gave economic concessions to the agriculture in exchange for the farmers party vote on the crisis policy . had ( and lacked ) a large agricultural industry with a powerful lobby thus in when old conservative leadership lost control ... a new leadership in favour of a "" red - green "" alliance with the emerged ' ( , p. ) . Therefore with the internal unification , partnership of support and the development of the ' Crisis Programme ' meant that ' the considerable mobilizing forces of the Labour movement were galvanised around a lucid and appealing alternative vision ' ( , p. ) . Therefore working - class pressure was crucial in as it provided a new radical and coherent programme to overcome mass unemployment . Whereas , working - class pressure in had a negligible effect in the face of the united dominance of the economic orthodoxy of the ruling class . However , the differences in class power structures are not the only reasons for the divergent unemployment strategies implemented by the and states . The contrasting nature of mass unemployment in the different countries also explains why working - class pressure was so crucial in and less important in . and , the and had both experienced persistently high unemployment throughout therefore the was not such a shock . However , 's highly particular and regional experience of mass unemployment during the years meant it had a very different response from other countries . As Whiteside ( , p.112 ) argues ' only ... experienced structural , highly regional unemployment ' due to the decline in heavy industry hitting the industrial areas the hardest . society in the thirties became heavily polarised between the northern working - class areas facing debilitating unemployment levels and desperate poverty and the affluent more middle - class . A significant number actually saw improvements as ' average real living standards for those in work rose in by ( and Stevenson , p. ) . Smaller families , cheaper food and later economic recovery ensured that many members of the population were unaffected by the devastation of the . As the most shattering effects of the mainly struck those unemployed working - class in industrial areas there was a lack of support for new radical policies and an unquestioning acceptance of economic orthodoxy by the middle classes . Therefore the unemployed working - class were demoralised , neglected and disillusioned , as such , the pressure they asserted on government was minimal and ignored . The effect of the Depression on , in contrast , was permeated the whole of society thus working - class pressure for reform was supported across class lines . Nevertheless , the unemployed working - class in were not wholly inactive and demoralised as they did engage in political protests and in some cases change unemployment policy . Thus working - class pressure was , at times , an important influence on the development of state policies to overcome mass unemployment . Heclo ( , p.124 ) cites the protests against the Unemployment Act as a rare occasion where ' popular pressure directly altered the substantive content of a policy ' . The Unemployment Assistance board gave cash indefinitely according to need ; however in practice this meant recipients were subjected to a humiliating means - test . There was a storm of protest against the rigid and bureaucratic implementation of a new benefit scale and the hated means - test . The result was ) Act of that provided cash relief based on need outside the old Poor Law principle of ' less eligibility ' . Therefore this protest indicates that on rare occasions working - class pressure could have an important impact on state unemployment laws . Moreover , the hunger marches were also important means by which the working - class unemployed were able to shape government economic policy . The hunger marches were a campaign of mass demonstrations , protests and propaganda to highlight the plight of the unemployed . The main leader of this campaign was ( ) a communist group with the objective of mobilizing and politicizing the working - classes . Their was an important piece of ' successful agitation ... forcing the National government to halt its introduction of nationally based , unemployment benefits ' ( and Stevenson , ) . Therefore working - class pressure was able to successful adapt government unemployment policy with rare displays of particularly powerful protest . In conclusion , working - class pressure was crucial in as its representatives , the , managed to implement significant structural changes that radically altered unemployment policy . The restructured the economy by instigating state regulation not as a temporary measure but as permanent fixture to guarantee full employment . As ( ) argues there was a shift from the treatment of unemployment policy as an improvised social programme to an economic tool for labour market policy . Therefore the ascendancy in in was arguably a triumph of working class pressure , organisations and ideals . However , this victory was only possible with cross - class support for the reforms ensuring their introduction and longevity . In contrast , the National government did not implement any significant structural reforms in as this country only embraced ideals after . Thus the response to the was ' one of studied inactivity ' ( Whiteside , p. ) in comparison with other major industrial countries . The critical divisions in the Labour movement ; the regional nature of unemployment that isolated the industrial working - class and the dominance of the ruling elite ensured that working - class pressure was marginal and ineffective . The protests of and indicate rare occasions where the unemployed working class were able to make important difference . Nonetheless working - class pressure in was significantly less crucial than in as the unemployed were largely isolated , demoralised and disillusioned by the devastating effects of .",0
"< list > = Multinational CompanyFDI = Foreign Direct Investment</list > A company incurs additional costs when it operates across national boundaries ( e.g. the costs of complying with local regulation ) . Hence , there must be some offsetting advantage to the to produce abroad to overcome these costs and also to have some advantage over competitors already operating in the foreign economy ( as suggested by ) . Dunning 's ' eclectic paradigm ' ( ) gives us the O+L+I framework of why MNCs might have such an advantage . < heading > Ownership - specific Advantages ( O)</heading > These firm - specific advantages address the why question : why go abroad ? The answer should be because the 's core competencies allow the firm to overcome the foreign competition and costs of operating abroad . Such advantages could be tangible assets like size and market power or intangible like brand names and knowledge that can be spread in a non - rival way across many plants . < heading > Location - specific advantages ( L)</heading > Locate where ? Gaining access to a large market is likely to raise the potential profitability for the but will also do so for local firms . Local production may incur high costs of imported inputs and diseconomies of scale ( especially communicating and coordinating difficulties ) , which can be caused by cultural differences . These lead to higher average unit costs . However , the trade costs in supplying remote markets will be reduced . Many other location - specific advantages include : political , social and economic stability , culture , language , and infrastructure of the host country . < heading > Internalisation Advantages ( I ) < /heading > How should the go abroad ? If a firm decides to operate abroad , it can do this in a number of different ways , for example by opening a subsidiary or by licensing to local firms in foreign countries . Internalisation is when the company establishes a foreign subsidiary to preserve its ownership advantages and to maintain closer control over the company 's operations ( e.g. knowledge , price , quality ) . The internalisation decision that a faces investigates the costs and benefits of retaining activities internal to the firm rather than dealing with them through market transactions . Without the incentive to reduce these transaction costs between markets , the motivation to engage in would be of a lesser amount . Given that markets are not perfect ( i.e. with no entry barriers , perfect knowledge and homogeneous goods ) the market imperfections that exist create uneven competition and uneven profits , which drive MNCs to internalise its market transactions via vertical ( controlling supplies or retailing ) or horizontal integration ( expanding at the same level of production ) . The distinctiveness of Dunning 's paradigm suggests that if the O and L advantages exist , then that company should internalise these advantages and set up a foreign subsidiary . < heading > Weaknesses of the Paradigm</heading > The paradigm is simply a list of variables without examples or analysis . It has no predictive validity of the activities that firms may engage in . It assumes that MNCs are fully informed , rational decision makers . In reality politics intrudes within the firm . Internal organisational difficulties may lead to the failure of a particular firm to open a foreign subsidiary , so the behaviour of individual firms is not addressed . In , owning the rights of a process or technology would not give a firm an ownership advantage because the culture does not give much importance to patents or copyrights . So the environment is a function of ownership advantages , which disqualifies the Paradigm . < heading > Why do MNCs Become Multinational in Scope ? < /heading > broad categories explain why : < heading > Asset - oriented Production < /heading > MNCs seek resources that are either not available ( e.g. flowers ) , of low quality ( e.g. R&D ) or expensive ( e.g. labour ) in their home countries . Production must locate where there is a high resource quantity and quality , and where it can be easily accessed at a low - cost . For example , set up a subsidiary in in search for their large oil reserves in . Even though has larger oil reserves , they were apt to limit oil supplies while was eager to offer low - cost petroleum extraction . Hence , political influences ( as given under 's L advantages ) merge with other factors before a decision is made . Another motivation could be based purely on cost cutting grounds , like manufacturing in where labour costs are $ compared to $ / month in their home country , . Labour wages are an important L advantage , especially in labour - intensive industries such as the clothing industry where labour costs are on average of total costs . Labour wages are not the only element of labour that varies across the globe . MNCs may open a foreign subsidiary to gain the benefits and cost savings of possessing either high labour productivity , highly malleable labour ( in terms of trade unions ) or high labour knowledge and skills . Since labour is such an immobile resource there is a strong basis for an to do this . < heading > Market - oriented Production < /heading > A central element to the market seekers ' decision to open a foreign subsidiary is the market 's growth rate and size , in terms of GNP or population . The size of the foreign market may justify local production , while momentous deviations in GNP across the globe effects demand structure , as in the types and quantities of goods bought . An 's market development strategy could entail horizontal integration to gain access to markets abroad and/ or to serve adjacent countries , particularly when the 's home market is saturated . For example , Gerber opened a foreign subsidiary in as a response to flattening birth rates in the . This strategy was also a response to the opening of . As well as market structure , of the most important reasons is the home and host governments ' approach to . By imposing import controls , eliminating barriers to entry , etc the host country attracts . < heading > Strategic Advantages</heading > The following examples demonstrate how an can benefit from the common governance of global activities . These motivations are mainly appropriate for large and diversified MNCs . For rapid , inorganic growth by acquisition . This gains immediate economies of scale such as bulk - buying , finance , marketing , risk and specialisation economies , which reduces average production costs . A risk diversification strategy to minimise the risk of relying on or few locations . To access and combine knowledge . For example , a owning an exclusive technology may fear that a licensing contract could lead to a dissipation of its proprietary knowledge and therefore internalise and set up a foreign subsidiary , because the alternative options , although cheaper , are unviable . Such as owning R&D subsidiaries across the globe . To escape or exploit geographical differences in legislation , political conditions and economic policies , such as funding and tax subsidies by host countries , trade barriers and quota export restrictions in home countries and unstable political elections . For example , some firms produce in to overcome the import quotas on produced goods levied by countries . Furthermore , closed their operations due to an overdose of red tape . The categories are not sharp ; they overlap . A balance must be made between market proximity and production costs . The size , experience and industry of the affects the strategy it uses . < heading > Conclusion</heading > can be seen under many lights , one being as the result of governments who use MNCs as strategic instruments . Evidence of this can be found during when the governments attracted by their own MNCs while the liberalisation of markets and privatisation broke down communism . In general however , subsidiary motivations can be seen as capitalist movements due to market imperfections . The drive is increasingly for global profits as MNCs are in search of more revenue ( the market seekers ) and lower costs ( the resource seekers ) . In conclusion , differences among MNCs ' characteristics and dynamic environmental conditions mirror the variety of different reasons why firms set up foreign subsidiaries . Nevertheless , a strong ability and desire of an to internalise its possessed O and L advantages , matched with market imperfections and high uncertainty , creates a complete atmosphere for an to set up a foreign subsidiary .","Scenes of violence are relatively common in film , and contemporary cinema is no exception . However , the type and grade of violence , and the context in which it is portrayed , differ significantly from film to the next . It is therefore useful - and arguably necessary - to examine each expression of violence on its own merits and in the context of the film in order to really understand what purpose it serves . Several questions stand out as central to this analysis : What manifestations of violence are shown ? How is it used by directors / writers ? What effect does the violence have on the viewer ? How does it contribute to our understanding of the film 's story and characters ? How , if at all , does the portrayal of violence in contemporary cinema reflect the realities of modern society ? What societal values / views do the films expose regarding violence ? These are the questions which this essay will deal with , using as case studies critically acclaimed films from : < list > Abril Despedaçado [ Behind the Sun ] ( , ) , ; [ 's a ] ( Mexico , ) , [ City of God ] ( , ) , the films all contain violence , the degree , type and context vary considerably , allowing a good general overview of the related issues and the questions outlined above . Although violence is a key part of each of the stories told in the films , it is not in itself the main focus ; all films are primarily the stories of people , their experiences and their relationships , allowing us a view of society 's reaction to the violence . Even within just these films , there is a staggering array of violence in terms of perpetrator , victim and type of aggression : Inter - family and inter - gang feuds ( , ) , domestic abuse ( Amores Perros ) , animal and human suffering ( including women and children ) , horrific bloodlust ( ) , controlled - yet no less vicious - assault ( in Amores Perros ) compared with crazed brutality ( Zé Pequeno in Cidade de Deus ) , the idea of honourable death ( ) or justified violence ( Octavio in Amores Perros ) , and the habituation of violence ( all films ) . The role of violence in the films therefore changes depending on who is the perpetrator and who is the victim , but in all cases it is there to make the audience think about the characters in greater depth , beyond the simplicity of ' good guy ' or ' bad guy ' . Characters who we are inclined to sympathise with commit similar acts of violence as those who we are less fond of ( e.g. in stabbing , or asking to organise the beating of his brother ) , yet their actions are somehow more defensible because we understand more about their circumstances and their feelings . The reasons for the behaviour become more important than the behaviour itself , and thus excuse it , at least to some degree . Violence in each of these films is used as a tool to help communicate the beliefs and values of all key characters , rather than as a stigma to attach solely to the less likeable protagonists . Indeed , despite the obvious negative consequences of resorting to violence , the films repeatedly present aggression as part of a code of honour , a way of gaining respect , as necessary ' street justice ' where there is no other real authority . In , the killings highlight the importance of family honour to each of the fathers ; in , violence allows us to observe 's and sense of moral justice ; in death sparks a violent search for justice of a kind . In each case , the characters prolong the cycle of violence , but see their actions as legitimate in the circumstances . This portrayal , which only to a limited extent excuses some of the violence , suggests a criticism of society in communities ( such as and where of the the films are set ) where violence has to some degree become an omnipresent and accepted part of everyday life . By embroiling likable or vulnerable characters ( especially Tonio and Pacu in , in , Buscapé and Angélica in ) in the cycle of violence , the films shatter any comfortable , rose - tinted notions of society and question our tolerance and ignorance of injustices . Given that several victims suffer in situations not of their own making ( principally those mentioned above plus in the part of , but it is also worth considering others who 's stories are untold , for example the innocent child of and [ Amores Perros , part ] , or the widow of the man shot in the restaurant by [ Amores Perros , part ] ) , the films highlight the largely arbitrary nature of violence in the featured societies and force the cinemagoer to confront the reality that the violence in their communities affects everyone , male and female , old and young , poor and middle class . Hence , while a kind of measured violence represents justice for some characters , for others there is no justice at all . Even for those of us who watch these films but are not part of the societies they present , the boundaries between the acceptable and the unacceptable become more indistinct and in this way the films ask the viewer to reassess their own values . The portrayal of violence in , and can then be interpreted as not only a tool for examining and understanding the identity of characters , but also as a catalyst for self - reflection . Through an understanding of how the violence in each film exposes the beliefs and values of the characters and how it moulds them as the stories progress , issues are raised regarding the legitimacy - or not - of violence in certain situations , the morality and sense of social justice of the individual and of the importance placed on honour and justice in . This goes well beyond simplistic notions of right or wrong actions and into an examination of tolerable / justifiable evil in the pursuit of a greater good . i.e. the power of the dealers in , gained through violence and regimes of fear , but - for a time at least - providing security for residents and comparatively prosperous economies ; or for example , in , would Octavio organising the assault of have been further justified if it had facilitated ( and the child ) escaping the abusive relationship ? The violence in these films therefore has a certain introspective , didactic function ; the films invite an analysis of the societies where this violence takes place ( whether the violence be entirely fictional [ Amores Perros ] , or based on real events ] ) . As such , it provides a catalyst for the discussion or at the very least consideration of related social issues such as poverty , social isolation , machismo , the role of women , disaffected youth or the absence of authority figures or institutions - issues which are usually all too easy ignored . We grow to like characters like ( ) , ( Amores Perros ) , ( Cidade de Deus ) and even contract killer ( Amores Perros ) and benefit from a deeper understanding of their history , their current situation , their thoughts and motivations . Often this understanding comes through observing and learning from their experiences of violence . In none of these films is the depiction of violence wanton or uncalculated . Instead , it performs a specific role for the writer and/or director , either introducing a character , evolving that character , or putting events in a meaningful context . The violence itself is not the story , but the background to it ; the explanation of who characters are , why they act the way they do and why events occur as they do . For example , in generations of violence have conditioned every aspect of the family 's existence and even when leaves , the reason is as much to reject the violence as to follow . The story though , is one of family honour and asserting one 's identity . Similarly , in , 's upbringing in a family where his brother is violent is the central influence on the vast majority of subsequent decisions he makes , but the violence is there to add realism and depth , not simply for the sake of voyeuristic sensationalism . Although at a viewing some of the violence in may seem unnecessary , it is important to acknowledge that the vast majority of it feeds directly into our understanding - albeit limited - of ' favela justice ' and of the personal growth of and . It is their story , not one of glorified bloodshed , and the omnipresent backdrop of violence demonstrates a certain logic behind their decisions and helps us understand them in a way which would otherwise be impossible . We still may not agree with them , but at least we can begin to understand their motivations . In conclusion then , in contrast to some blockbuster films which could be argued to gratuitously use scenes of violence for sensationalist purposes , these films highlight , with very different representations of violence , a common trend : that of using depictions of violence not to dehumanise the victims or the aggressor , but rather to humanise all the characters . Likable characters are the victims and the perpetrators of violence . As such , the films present credible situations which engage the viewer and encourage a critical analysis ( from outside and from within ) of the societies which have produced these cyclical and self destructive manifestations of violence .",0
"< heading>1 . Introduction</heading > This practical aims to assess the best method for determining the saturation vapour pressure ( ) of water over the temperature range ( -5 ° C - +40 ° C ) . The formulae referred to throughout the practical are shown in . All exercises were carried out using . < heading>2 . Comparison of formulae</heading > A script was created to calculate the values of derived from the theoretical and empirical formulae for a given temperature range , and compare these values to measured values of . The script is shown below . The output was written to a text file , which is included in .   FORMULA   The data generated by the aforementioned script ( and shown in ) was used to plot a graph in MATLAB . This graph is shown in Figure . < figure/>The data sets derived from the theoretical and empirical formulae generally show a good correspondence to the measured data . However , there does seem to be some divergence from the measured values at higher temperatures ( above ~ 300 K ) . To determine which of the formulae represented the best approximation to the measured values , the measured value of was subtracted from the corresponding value given by the theoretical and empirical formulae . These differences were then plotted using ( see figure ) . In this graph , y = 0 may be regarded as representing the measured values of , whilst the lines represent the difference between the measured values and those derived from the formulae . < figure/>The empirical formula for deriving saturation vapour pressure appears to correspond closest to the measured values over the temperature range from K to 313K. The kink in the empirical line at ~311 K in figure is the result of an error correction made to the measured data in a previous exercise . The presence of this feature suggests that the corrected value of measured is not completely accurate , and may be slightly too low . However , since this feature does not significantly distort the data , it may be considered a negligible error within the context of this assignment . < heading>3 . Accounting for variation of with temperature</heading > It is possible to derive another formula to calculate ( see Appendix 1 ) . As with the theoretical formula previously discussed , the new formula is derived from the - Clapeyron equation . However , whereas the theoretical formula assumes that L ( the latent heat of condensation of water ) is constant , the new derivation accounts for the fact that L varies with temperature . Therefore a relationship must be established between T and L. Figure illustrates this relationship , assuming is a linear function of temperature . The data was taken from data sheet . < figure/>A best fit line fitted to this data specifies the approximate relationship between temperature and the latent heat of condensation of water . Of particular interest is the value of the gradient ( -0.0024 J kg -1 K -1 ) , which approximates the rate of change of L with temperature . This value may be used in the new equation for . The - Clapeyron SVP values were calculated using this value , and the difference from the measured values was determined by the same process used to generate figure . These results were compared with those for the empirical formula , currently the best approximation available to the measured values . This comparison is shown in figure . As in figure , the line y = represents the measured values . Figure indicates that accounting for the variation in with temperature has little effect on improving the accuracy of the theoretical derived from the - Clapeyron equation . The empirical data remains the best approximation to the measured data available for the range of temperatures considered . < figure/><heading>4 . Conclusions</heading > The empirical method for deriving has been shown to correspond better to measured values of than the formulae derived from the - Clapeyron equation across the entire temperature range . This is not surprising since , as its name suggests , the empirical formula has been derived from empirical ( observed ) data . The inaccuracies of the - Clapeyron based formulae lie in their mathematical handling of the latent heat of condensation of water ( L ) . The theoretical formula assumes L to be constant across the range of temperatures considered ( dL / dT = ) . As figure demonstrates , this is not the case . However , even when dL / dT ≠ is accounted for by a refined derivation of , the approximation is still relatively poor ( figure ) . It is possible that this results from oversimplifying the relationship between and T by assuming it to be linear . Improved approximations may be achieved by better defining this relationship , at the cost of a more complex formula defining for a given temperature . There appears to be little practical use for such a formula , given the accuracy of the empirical version .",", which was "" founded in by immigrant "" is "" one of the world 's largest brand - name apparel marketers with sales in countries "" . Its success is such that there is no other company "" with a comparable global presence in the jeans and casual pants markets "" . The trademark , 's ® and their very product , ® Original Jeans are well recognized around the world and is registered in countries with its headquarters in , and in . As stated by , "" The purpose of a business is to create a satisfied customer "" ; in order to suceed in 's competitive marketplace the company must be customer - orientated , where they must be able to successfully recognize the needs and wants of the customers . managed to establish high standard customer value with long term customer relationship where they were effetive in using various marketing strategies . < fnote > Vrontis , and , ( 2004 ) . : an international marketing investigation . . vol ( 4 ) . p389 < /fnote><fnote > ibid . < /fnote><fnote > ibid . < /fnote > The most succesful marketing strategy have adaopted would be promotion , the main factor which allowed to maintain its leadership . has a high promotion spending , especially on TV commercials , which are considered to be the main contributor in advertsement strategy . For example , the company put on an iconic TV advertisement showing "" a group of young people twisting and contorting their limbs into strange positions "" , which led to a rise in the market share from in to in . The dominant role , which TV played was that it allowed ® Original Jeans to establish and maintain its brand leadership by shaping up the consumer perception . < fnote > ibid . < /fnote > Consumer perception is greatly influenced by branding and successful brand must be able to create "" feeling of confidence that brand is of higher quality or more desirable than similar products from competitors "" . Once this brand leadership is reached , people are willing to pay higher price for it even though the other competitors offer a better deal . < fnote > Doyle , P. ( ) . . ed . University of Warwick : FT . p158 < /fnote > Once the 's ® established its brand , the price of ® Original Jeans became inelastic , where even though the price increased the demand fell only slightly since high price signified high quality . Also , as a leading brand , 's ® worked to sustain its brand image successfully . For example it did not allow from selling ® Original since it undermines its brand image . Instead , introduced discounts with a brand called Signature , which is sold in in . The fact that is able to establish and sustain its brand leadership and maintain high profit from selling ® is also due to its successful tactics against the competitors by constantly "" comparing its products , prices , channels of distribution and promotional methods "" to identify areas where it can gain a competitive advantage . 's ® is a market challenger and these are the main areas , which allowed the ® Original Jeans to achieve a competitive advantage over the competitors . < fnote > Proctor , T. ( ) . Essential Marketing . ed . : p < /fnote><heading > Strengthening value advantage by promotion.</heading > Lees Jeans is one of the main rivals of the 's ® , where both of them are associated with west , designed and priced similarly . However , 's ® has a higher market share , where perception of Levis being more "" powerful and vivid "" led the consumers to choose 's ® over , especially teenagers and young adults , the main targets of the Levi's ® . However , it could be stated that the advertisements are too iconic , where it only targets teenagers and young adults . Since signature is introduced in , a common supermarket , advertisement would need to appeal to a broader base including people in their and even . < fnote . ( ) . . Complete MBA companion in . ed . : . p 8 < /fnote><heading > More focus on customer value . < /heading > As and have stated in their mission statement , under empathy ( one of the main core values the 's uphold ) , they focus on analyzing consumer needs and wants ; "" Understanding and appreciating needs - consumer insight - is central to our commercial success "" . An example of 's ® focusing on the customer value is to marketing , where 's introduced personal pair system to design ® Original Jeans according to individual customer 's measurements . They use what is called , "" the ' Original Spin ' program , an in - store computerized kiosk to let the consumer select between specific models , fabric , leg openings , buttons and colors . Then a sales associate measures length and waist size "" . When this personal pair system was introduced , there was repurchase rate , where there was an increase of . Also , "" they have expanded their made - to - order jeans from different sizes for women , to customized styles for both sexes . ""   < fnote > Levi Strauss and Co. About LS&CO . / Values and vision . [ Online ] . ( URL   URL ) < /fnote><fnote > Zeiger , ( ) . Customization nation . Incentive . Vol ( 5 ) . p35 < /fnote><fnote > ibid < /fnote><heading > Brand Stretchability</heading > Levi 's ® did attempt to extend its brand by selling men suits under its name but it failed dramatically since was perceived as "" informal , denim association "" . This is also a failure in perceiving market opportunities where they failed to recognize the benefits consumers look for from the products . However , 's introduced ® , a very successful brand where for example , "" Dockers ® quickly became the No . khaki pant brand in and still holds that leadership status "" . Also , in , 's ® entered into "" a licensing relationship with to manufacture and sell men 's and women 's lifestyle footwear under the 's ® brand name in the , and "" , which was based on the consumer appeal of the 's ® brand footwear in . However , there is always a risk of stretching its brand too much , where it might lose its core market and objective , which is producing fashionable and quality denim . < fnote > Doyle , P. ( ) . . ed . University of Warwick : FT Prentice Hall.p175 < /fnote><fnote > Levi Strauss and Co. Our brands / Dockers ® brands . [ Online ] . ( URL URL ) < /fnote><fnote > Levi Strauss and Co. and Co. signs license with . ands . [ Online ] . ( URL URL ) . < /fnote > Well - Segmented market is another factor , which allowed 's ® to gain a competitive advantage over its competitors . Segmentation is advantageous in that firstly , it can provide higher satisfaction to customers and , it can enhance profits since customers have different attitudes towards the price and lastly communication targeting can be carried out more efficiently . 's ® , which adopted mixture of differentiated and concentrated marketing strategy are divided into segments in demographical terms ; Women , men and Kids . The style of the is different for each segment ; for example , the for men are loose where as for women it is usually tight on the hip and flare at the bottom . 's ® however focuses its market on teenagers and young adults as they have more disposable income and tend to be more in to the fashion . In order to get closer to the youth market , not only 's ® produces iconic advertisements but also 's ® introduced ' Antidote ' with digital agency , Lateral . Antidote is an user - generated content , "" a living , growing snapshot of what people are thinking and doing across , which aim to "" actively try to link different groups together with similar interests , or common themes "" . Even though this might help to promote 's ® brand to the youth groups , the company should always focus on the effectiveness and quality of the site , where it is possible that it will undermine the brand . In regards to geographical factor , has headquarters in , and in as "" products do not always occupy the same stage in the life cycle between different countries "" and also the wants of the consumers can be distinctive in each area due to various factors such as climate and culture . For example , in are in mature stage , where as it is in growth stage in eastern countries and . Moreover , recently as the market is falling down in the women 's market including the profit made from ® , tries to focus on its premium repositioning . < fnote > Levi Strauss and Co. Antidote . [ Online ] . ( URL eu.levi.com/antidote ) . < /fnote><fnote > Vrontis , and , ( 2004 ) . : an international marketing investigation . . vol ( 4 ) . /fnote > Levi Strauss & Co was able to achieve ' customer intimacy ' , where they were able to segment and target markets precisely to fulfill the demand of each sector and maintain ' product leadership ' , where they offered superior services such as to marketing and thus was able to create "" superior custom value "" . "" was successful in meeting customer need economically and conveniently and with effective communication "" , where they were able to maintain customer satisfactions and create long - term customer relationship more effectively than the competitors . Even though it could be argued that recently the market seems to be driven by fashion rather than brand and thus brands such as and seem to gain more attention from the teenagers and young adults , it continues to benefit from "" economies of scale , global uniformity and consistency with the mobile consumer "" and maximizes its competitive advantage across the world market . < fnote > Piercy , ) . Market led strategic change . : . p77 < /fnote><fnote > ibid < /fnote><fnote > ibid , p76 . < /fnote><fnote > Freeman , J , et al . ( ) . Business and management : selected readings for . Volume . ed . Essex : p98 < /fnote><fnote > Vrontis , and , ( 2004 ) . : an international marketing investigation . . vol ( 4 ) . p389 < /fnote >",0
"The reports that microwave energy sources were suitable for accelerating organic synthesis reactions appeared in , and the reliable device for generating fixed microwave radiation was designed by Randall and Booth at during . Initially the risks associated with the flammability of organic solvents and the lack of available systems for temperature control were a major concern . However safe microwave equipment is now available on the market which enables both accurate temperature and pressure control as well as the means to monitor reactions effectively ( see figure ) . < enote > , , , , , and , The use of microwave ovens for rapid organic synthesis , , ( ) < /enote><enote > , * , and , Application of commercial microwave ovens to organic synthesis , , , ( ) < /enote><enote > J.P. Tierney , , , press < /enote><enote > Mats Larhed , , - assisted high - speed chemistry : a new technique in drug discovery , Reviews DDT , vol , ) < /enote><picture/>The microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum corresponds to wavelengths of to 1 m ( frequencies of to 300MHz ) . Microwave heating is due to an electrical field exerting a force on charged particles and dipoles . Molecules undergo rotational excitation as the material absorbs the microwave radiation and it is the increased kinetic energy of the molecules that is registered as a temperature increase . It is the electric field component of microwaves that is responsible for their heating effect through major mechanisms : dipole polarisation and ionic conduction . Small molecules with permanent dipole moments interact with microwave energy in the gas phase . In the dipole polarisation mechanism the frequency of irradiation is such that the molecular dipoles respond by rotating to the alternating electric field . That is the molecules align their dipoles with the external field , and energy is lost by molecular friction and random collisions , generating dielectric heating . The ionic conduction mechanism is the movement of ions under the influence of the electric field , and the kinetic energy involved is released as heat through an increased in the collision rate ( see figure ) . Microwave radiation has been used more widely in organic chemistry in and has been reported to give significant reductions in reaction times and cleaner reactions , which are easier to work up than those from conventional heating techniques . Higher yields have also been reported in many cases . < enote > J. Jacob , , , Review Thermal and non - thermal interaction of microwave radiation with materials , of material science , , , ( ) < /enote><enote > , , Developments in microwave - assisted organic chemistry , . , , , ( ) < /enote><enote et al , Microwave irradiation : more than just a method for accelerating reactions , , - 386 , ( ) < /enote><figure/>Efficient internal heat - transfer ( in situ heating ) , resulting in even heating through out the sample , is produced through microwave irradiation . The simplest method of microwave heating involves irradiation of reactants only in an open container . This is similar to classical reflux but with increased reaction rates . An alternative method , ' microwave - organic reaction enhancement ' chemistry , was developed by et al6 . This method uses polar , high - boiling solvents in open vessels . A solvent is chosen with dielectric properties which is suitable for coupling microwave energy and rapid heating to temperatures which are below boiling point . However this technique is limited to high - boiling polar solvents and isolation of product from these solvents can be difficult . Superheating of solvents can be generated rapidly in a closed microwave vessel for reaction pressure . This occurs when a liquid is heated to a temperature higher than its standard boiling point , without actually boiling . Reaction rate enhancement maybe possible through superheating of solvents under microwave irradiation , for example a reaction that takes under conventional heating maybe completed in using microwave heating . < heading > Advantages of microwave heating over conventional thermal heating</heading > Microwave irradiation has several advantages compared to conventional thermal heating of reactants . Conventional thermal heating usually involves the use of a furnace or oil bath , which heats the walls of the reactor by convection or conduction . The core of the sample takes much longer to achieve the desired temperature and as a result the sample is not heated uniformly as with microwave heating . Energy is also wasted in heating the furnace or oil bath . The introduction of microwave energy into a chemical reaction which has component which can couple with the microwaves can lead to much higher heating rates compared with conventional heating . As microwave energy is introduced into the sample remotely , there is no direct contact between the energy source and the sample . Microwave dielectric heating resembles a flash heating process where the energy is produced much more rapidly and the sample cools more rapidly at the end of the reaction . This leads to very different temperature - time profiles compared with conventional heating which may lead to significantly different products . < heading > Use of Microwave assisted organic synthesis</heading > Several organic synthesis reactions have been reported in the literature to have increased reaction rates when subjected to microwave irradiation- , one of which is the synthesis of an 1 - aryl-1H - indazole via a - pot - step copper mediated system ( see figure ) . The reaction was carried out as a test to determine if using microwave irradiation would produce the product in sufficient yield and shorten the reaction time . This reaction involved heating an aldehyde ( ) and a hydrazine ( ) in a sealed reactor for mins at in the microwave . This forms an intermediate arylhydrazone ( ) which after further heating at for mins facilitates the cyclisation to forms the desired 1 - aryl-1H - indazole ( ) upon addition of potassium carbonate , copper iodide and a ligand . The reported yields of similar reactions were approximately 85%11 however upon carrying out the reaction with aldehyde ( ) and hydrazine ( ) the yield obtained was a disappointing . This may be due to the fact that different substrates were used and further work to optimise the microwave conditions could be carried out along with further comparisons with conventional heating in order to improve this yield . The poor yield could also be due to purification issues of the product which could also be optimised in order to improve the yield . The reaction time was decreased however , as using conventional heating the reaction could be up to several hours compared with mins heating in the microwave . < enote > Usyatinsky ; - assisted synthesis of substituted imidazoles on a solid support under solvent - free conditions , , , , ( ) < /enote><enote ; ; ; ; ; ; Tetrahedron Letters , , , ( ) < /enote><enote , , , - , and , - assisted synthesis of - aryl-1 H - indazoles via one - pot - step Cu - catalyzed intramolecular N - arylation of arylhydrazones , , , - 7557 , ( ) < /enote><figure/><heading > Future applications of microwave irradiation in organic synthesis</heading > Unfortunately using microwave heating in this case did not produce the product in sufficient yield . However as mentioned before many other reactions have been reported as having faster reaction rates and higher yielding reactions due to microwave heating and these maybe be exploited successfully , thus decreasing reaction times of other organic syntheses . The reactions performed in the microwave may also produce less side reactions and so making purification of compounds easier . Provided that the conditions are optimised using microwave irradiation in organic synthesis it could significantly shorten reaction times and improve yields , which is essential to the drug discovery process when synthesising a large number of compounds .","Food manufacture is the process of turning a raw food material into a finished product , usually by means of a large - scale industrial operation in which mechanical power and machinery are employed ( Walker , ) . The food processing industry is continually changing as a result of technological advances and consumer pressures . In industrialised countries consumers no longer require the majority of foods to have a shelf life of at ambient temperature , such as that offered by canning and pickling . Changes in family lifestyle , and increased ownership of freezers and microwave ovens are reflected in the demands for foods that are convenient to prepare , and are suitable for frozen or chilled storage . Consumers are now increasingly demanding foods with a healthy or natural image , those containing fewer synthetic additives , or which have undergone fewer changes during processing , and resemble the original raw materials . This is also reflected by the growth in demand for organic foods . Manufacturers have responded by reducing or eliminating synthetic additives from products , substituting them with nature or nature identical alternatives . Ranges of low - fat , sugar - free or low - salt products can be found in nearly all sub - sectors , and foods are often supplemented with vitamins , minerals and even probiotic cultures ( Fellows , ) . The origins of mans struggle with food can be traced ; the development of man and agriculture is divided into periods : pre - agricultural times , agricultural times and agro - industrial times ( , ) . Pre - agricultural times , which span from , are based on collecting , hunting and fishing ; man living on wild food taken from its natural environment . He domesticated fire and used shells and bark as simple containers to collect , transport , preserve , cook and eat with . It is apparent that man has always been driven by the need to process food , even in times . Man was no longer satisfied with roasted or grilled food , cooked in the dry heat of flames , so he invented earthen pots and cooked foods with moist heat . This gave a greater diversity of dishes and flavours and allowed foods to be mixed in the same meal , thus the culinary revolution preceded the agricultural revolution . On a scientific basis , it can even be argued that the simple and prehistoric process of cooking can be seen as unnatural , however , the anthropologist , gives the argument that while raw food is natural , cooked food is cultural ( , ) . Cooking of food generates both flavour and aroma compounds , usually through reactions of proteins and sugars and through lipid oxidation , but these are now considered natural and indeed are expected in food products . The agricultural period , which spanned from to , is based on the domestication of food plants and animals and the development of agricultural techniques . Founder species were selected , for example wheat ( durum ) , oats ( vulgare ) , pigs ( Sus scrofa domesticus ) , and cows ( taurus ) . These species were used as the starting basis for agricultural development , although were added to after and his successors brought plants , such as maize , potato and tomatoes from to . Acquisition tools were replaced by Production tools , stone tools by metal tools , manual agriculture by animal - powered agriculture . Agriculture is also responsible for the change in socio - cultural conditions by encouraging the settlement of communities around cultivating lands . With the development of towns , and the increase in population , agricultural productivity had to be increased to provide for the level of consumption . This indicates the ' natural ' progression towards food manufacture , through economic necessity , as food gathering was inadequate for feeding the increased population ( , ) . The agro - industrial period , which is only a tiny period of time in mans evolution , ranging for to present day , is characterised by a combination of agricultural and industrial activities . The development of sciences and their practical application , education and information , and the superiority of new techniques , resulted in the increase of agricultural production . Transportation was revolutionised with railways , steamships and then the motor vehicles , and refrigerated transport allowed for long distance transport of heavy and perishable agricultural produce . The agro - food industry replaced agriculture in the transformation of agricultural foods for example the substitution of industrial butter for farmer - produced butter , however more recently , it allowed the replacement of homemade foods with ready - made food products . Despite industrialized societies reaching a stage of mass production and consumption , in underdeveloped poor countries starvation and malnutrition remains . people suffer from hunger , which kills people every day , or each year , of which are ( , ) . Society is heavily influenced by the information provided to them relating to ' food scares ' . This information is often misinterpreted and exaggerated . The use of chemical pesticides on foods has been related to the cause of cancer . Bate , reviews the effect of pesticides in foods and suggests that the carcinogenic effects of synthetic pesticides are minuscule compared to the benefits , in terms of protection from cancer , resulting from eating fruits and vegetables . He argues that regulating the use of pesticides increases the cost of food and thereby reduces the consumption of fruit and vegetables , and that such regulations therefore tend to harm the poor and are not necessarily in the public interest . Concerning organic foods , , argue that if modern farming techniques were to be replaced with organic farming , there would simply not be the agricultural land to produce the same quota of food because of is lower yields . There is also no evidence to suggest that the quality of organic foods is better , and no claims are permitted that organic foods taste better . Genetic modification ( ) is another topic of public concern , yet it has the potential to offer very significant improvements in the quantity , quality and acceptability of the world 's food supply , but issues of product safety , environmental concerns , and also ethics must be and are continuing to be addressed . For the development of improved food materials , improves pest , disease and herbicide resistance in plants and may also provide drought resistance , improved nutritional content and improved sensory properties . It is also faster and cheaper and allows for greater precision than traditional selective breeding techniques . and , believe that crops hold the key to solving famine over , and to using less land without causing an increase in pollution . Environmental pollution is caused by contaminants in air , water , or land , by both natural phenomena and human activity . The greatest source of air pollution is the burning of fossil fuels by power plants as well as by motor vehicles , which results in increase in carbon monoxide , lead , nitrogen oxide , carbon dioxide and ozone . All of which have either a known or suspected effect on human health as well as environmental balance . Human activities are often the cause for localised water pollution , as water becomes contaminated with heavy metals , toxic chemicals and bacteria . of the worlds worst man - made environmental disasters is the shrinking of , which is now of its size 30years ago . This was caused by the Unions decision in to convert much of the area to land for growing cotton . Rivers , which once flowed to the sea , were dammed and redirected to the plantations . The water and soil were polluted with salt and chemicals , including nitrates , through heavy use of chemical fertilisers . The draining of water also dried out the areas top soil , producing dust filled with poisonous chemicals , which caused respiratory problems in nearby residents . The contamination resulted in an increase in birth abnormalities , liver cancer , and blood disease in some areas . Fishing was also dramatically affected ( , ) . Chemically treated agricultural fields also give rise to heavy metal pollutants such and lead , cadmium , nickel and mercury in water . These can build up in the tissues of animals and are poisonous in excess . Soil erosion , which occurs when vegetation is removed or land use is changed in an area causing top soil to be carried away by water , wind , or ice action , decreases the fertility of cultivated land . Top soil is being lost at a rate much greater than the amount being naturally replenished . Soil erosion is affected by man - made factors as well as natural , including deforestation , such as for cattle grazing or development , uncontrolled land use and poor agricultural and forestry practises . However , the food industry alone is not sole cause of pollution , it is just a contributing factor from the world wide industrial society . The pollution burden is diminishing ; economic growth does not seem to be destroying the earth , in fact in many areas pollution has been reduced and an increase in environmental quality seen ( , ) . The produces of waste , with of household waste being potentially recyclable , and a further is kitchen waste and other organic matter suitable for composting . of dustbin contents are recycled or composted in the with being landfilled . Every day , food and drinks cans are bought in the , of which are recycled . The has a glass recycling rate of and of plastic bottles are recycled ( The , ) . Recycling reduces the amount of materials entering the environment , and is essential because without recycling , many of our renewable and non - renewable resources will eventually become severely depleted . For the food manufacturing industry , the major points of consideration include reducing waste , reusing materials , recycling materials that can be converted into other products , and conserving energy . In , mandatory recycling had decreased the amount of waste reaching landfills in some areas by ( , ) . In has been in force since , therefore their waste practise is well above that required by standards , the is still to reach these targets ( Hitchens et al . , ) . It is possible to put these environmental issues into context , for example by examining a supply chain ( et al . , ) . The dairy industry consists of primary milk products , pasteurised , powdered , and condensed milk , as well as processing of milk into by - products , both intermediary ( such as casein ) and final consumer products ( cream , butter , cheese and yoghurt ) . , there was steady growth of the industry , with consumption increased by and production by . During the same time , however employment in the industry fell by as a result of increased automation . The dairy industry is distinguished by the presence of companies of different sizes , from small specialised industries to large fully automated production . The main environmental issue resulting from the farming stage of the dairy industry is the pollution of water beds by animal farming , which is also apparent in dairy processing activities , where there is considerable water usage and discarding of effluents . During processing , the main problems stem from the disposal of packaging and the recycling of used containers whilst following the or national standards of practise . In many industries , the entire processes of food manufacture can be automated , from the reception of ingredients , through processing and packaging and then to the warehouse . This requires a higher capital investment by the manufacturers , but results in improved quality assurance , reduced production costs and less wastage . Automation increases production efficiency , uses less energy and often fewer operators , and generates an increased revenue and market share because of the resulting high quality of the finished product ( Fellows , ) . This essay reviews the development of man and agriculture , and ultimately the food manufacturing industry , with particular reference to some of the concerns and also the benefits . Manufactured food is often different to home prepared food , for example the shelf life of foods must be extended with preservation techniques , which inhibit microbiological or biochemical changes to allow time for distribution , sales and home storage . However with these changes , the food industry is trying to make a positive contribution to society , by increasing the variety in our diets by providing a range of attractive flavours , colours , aromas and textures in food and ultimately in providing the nutrients required for health . Without the scale of modern food manufacture , we could not sustain the population , and the modern lifestyle could not allow for a reversion to natural ways of food gathering . In this situation , it is more a case of ' normal ' versus ' natural ' ; the whole of industrialised society is dependant on the food industry , in the same way it is dependant on , for example the health care profession . Despite this , it can be argued that we are defying natural selection ; since the beginning of time , shortages of food and famine have been the limiting factor to population growth explosions . If food manufacture continues to grow and thus allow our population to expand , we could reach the point were there are not enough other resources on the planet to substantiate life , for this reason , careful consideration must be taken about the long term effects of food manufacture on the environment . In summary , modern agriculture and food technologies provide benefits both to human health and to the environment , therefore , I conclude , that food manufacture , although not scientifically natural is essential , both for our development to date and for the future .",0
"< abstract><heading > Abstract</heading > The ability to "" use our senses "" relies on a number of sensory systems that enable detection , perception and cognition of environmental stimuli . Every sensory system has a specific way of responding to stimuli , yet the end result essentially remains the same : the generation of an action potential to stimulate nerve cells with a nerve impulse that will transfer this signal to the central nervous system . In this essay sensory transduction is illustrated by briefly explaining the different cell signalling mechanisms involved in the sensation of touch , heat , light , sound and smell , to allow for discussion of their similarities and differences . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > Sensory systems allow us to sense various stimuli constantly provided by the environment . This essay focuses mainly on the processes of sensory cells involved in the detection of these stimuli by specialised peripheral receptors , transduction along signalling pathways and encoding into a pattern of nerve impulses . Stimuli can be of mechanical , visual or chemical nature . Acoustic sensations as well as those of touch and heat rely on the activity of mechanoreceptors , which are mostly ion channels of some sort . In contrast to that , vision and olfaction are achieved by detection of photons and odourants , respectively , which act as ligands on receptors that are coupled to G proteins . The ultimate goal of generating a nerve impulse , to be perceived and interpreted by specialised areas of the central nervous system is the common task of all sensory cells , which otherwise are very distinct from one another on the structural level . All sensory systems function differently , yet there are a lot of similarities as well . It is difficult to establish comparisons on all aspects alike sheer due to the complexity and specificity of the cell signalling pathways involved , thus comparison has to be limited to some of the most obvious characteristics of sensory perception . < heading > Touch and Temperature going hand in hand</heading > Cutaneous touch and temperature perception are senses that have quite a lot in common . Touch and temperature are detected by receptors , which are primarily found in specialised epidermal cells e.g. Merkel cells for touch or specialised nerve cells called nociceptors . As there is generally no ligand involved in touch perception or temperature perception , unless the skin is suspected to irritant chemicals or acid , the identification of mechanically sensitive receptors by ligand or toxin binding is not possible . Thus the detailed molecular compositions of mechanically activated proteins and the exact ways of activation remain unclear . But in either way , the response to touch or temperature does cause activation of mechanically gated ion channels and change of ion concentrations within the cell , which in turn cause the cellular membrane potential to change , therefore generating an action potential and ultimately resulting in a nerve impulse . The types of proteins most intimately involved in somatosensational processes belong to the transient receptor potential ( ) channel family . Up to now , genes in subfamilies have been classified as channels in humans . These channels are largely non - selective and classified by their primary amino acid sequence or structure , which commonly entails a certain number of ankyrin repeats , transmembrane helices and a membrane pore , rather than their properties or selectivity , due to their diversity.6 A model protein for channels is the vanilloid receptor ( TRPV1 ) as it is the only one so far that could be isolated and characterised on the basis of its ability to bind a ligand , in this case capsaicin , the molecule responsible for the hot taste of spicy food . Among many other nerve cells , is expressed in nociceptors of the skin , which appear to increase their cytosolic concentration of Ca 2 + and Na+ ions in response to several stimuli . is obviously capsaicin , which activates at a concentration as low as 1 M , as well as substances with a pH below and temperatures above - 42 ° C . Interestingly , the presence of of these factors intensifies the response to another e.g. the reaction to heat is greater at lower , maybe because these conditions are associated with cell injury and infection.7 It is not certain how exactly touch in form of pressure or stretching can activate touch sensitive receptors . However , mutations of elegans elucidated that genes encoding microtubule subunits , membrane - associated structural proteins , and collagen are essential for touch sensitivity , thus this set of proteins could play a role in conveying force to a channel from each side of the membrane.4 On the other hand , activation by temperature might be attributed to conformational changes of the channel , since essentially all proteins are temperature sensitive . But there are several TRP channels with unusually high temperature sensitivity , which can be found preferably in pain and temperature sensing neurons of the skin . Besides , is thought to be susceptible to noxious heat above 50 ° C while TRPV3 and are activated by temperatures from ° C . Temperatures below ° C on the other hand , activate . There is little selectivity for ions , but especially Ca 2 + permeability is markedly increased upon activation of these channels.6 < heading > Hearing by Hair Cells</heading > Another sense that relies on mechanical transduction is hearing . The mechanisms involved in the detection of sound waves , however , are far better understood than the detection of other mechanical stimuli . And in contrast to the several different touch or temperature sensing cells with their vast number of receptors , type of specialised epidermal cells exists in the cochlea of the human ear , namely the hair cell . This is not to say that there are no other cells involved , but hair cells are the primary sensory cells with organelles that enable purely mechanical transduction . These organelles are stereocilia , tiny cylindrical , actin - filled rods of different lengths that emerge from the upper cellular surface in a hexagonal array . A sound wave entering the cochlea sets the stereocilia in motion , causing them to slide along one another and exert pressure on tip links , which are fine filaments connecting the stereocilia . Tip links are thought to be directly connected to Ca 2 + ion channels , which will open or close , depending on the direction of the movement . 2 + ions causes opening of Ca 2 + gated ion channels and subsequently depolarisation of the membrane , thus the generation of an action potential . Changes in potential release a neurotransmitter from the basolateral surface of the cell to synapses connecting to the auditory nerve . The resulting postsynaptic signal leads to a nerve impulse , which is then transmitted to the brain . Rapid return to the resting potential is possible through specific channels , which allow the ions to leave the cell . Hair cells that are tuned to higher frequencies express channels with smaller relaxation time constraints than cells tuned to lower frequencies , moreover , the number of channels in a cell increases with the preferably detected frequency of this particular , 8 Aside from being remarkably temporarily accurate and sensitive due to the lack of slow chemical processes and employing a direct mechanical approach for transduction , amplification of sound waves are another outstanding feature of auditory transduction . The proposed , and as of yet most likely , mechanism is thought to involve the hair bundle organelle . Unlike amplification of signals in visual transduction , which relies on the biochemical cascade taking place within rods or cones , it is the cell organelle itself that enhances vibrations caused by sound waves . And stereocilia may even vibrate in the absence of exterior stimuli , which seems as unlikely as the emission of photons by rods and cones , or the production of odourants by olfactory receptor cells.9 < heading > GPCRs unite light and to that , phototransduction as well as olfaction are processes involving a relatively complex cell signalling pathway , which commences with a G protein coupled receptor ( GPCR ) . In fact , rhodopsin , a complex of the protein opsin and the chromophore - retinal responsible for detecting light , and the ca . different olfactory receptors both belong to the family of GPCRs Type A , and have a characteristic transmembrane structure . The human genome contains genes encoding odourant receptors , which are found in gene clusters containing up to genes on every chromosome except for the th and the Y chromosome . Despite of of these genes being functional , this still accounts for of the whole genome , thus constituting the biggest gene family by far . The member of the olfactory receptor family in humans was cloned and identified in . Meanwhile , a complete gene cluster containing pseudo- and functional genes on chromosome was isolated , sequenced and cloned to further investigate protein function and ligand binding properties . A lot more research was done on rhodopsin , and deducing its crystal structure provided significant insights concerning relationships between structure and activity in related GPCRs , for example the above mentioned olfactory GPCRs . The specific arrangement of - transmembrane helices for example is stabilised by molecular interactions , which are conserved among type A receptors and the helix movement model of GPCR activation was proposed on the basis of the study of rhodopsin as well.10 is expressed in rod cells , which are located mainly along the retinal periphery and responsible for detection of rather low levels of ambient light . In order to do so , the outer segments of rods entail up to rhodopsin filled membrane disks as to maximise the surface area exposed to light . Cones are mostly found in the fovea centralis of the human retina , and do not have such highly specialised cellular structures , since the major role of their different types of rhodopsin is to enable colour vision at high light levels instead of sensitivity to low levels of light . Olfactory receptors , on the other hand , are expressed in cilia projecting from of sensory neurons located in the main olfactory epithelium . kind of receptor is expressed per cell but it is as of yet unclear how expression is regulated . The axon of each odorant receptor is targeted to a particular point in the olfactory bulb , such that all cells expressing the same receptor synapse with one set of interneurons , patched together in glomeruli . The pattern of electric activity in the olfactory bulb reflects which receptors have been stimulated and is therefore unique for every odourant since each odourant activates a certain number of specific receptors to a different extent . Also , most receptors are activated by odourant . This enables the human olfactory system to detect odourants , although there are receptors , at remarkably low concentrations and with high specificity - it can , for example , distinguish between the R- and S - isomer of carvone , a small organic molecule , as peppermint and caraway . Transgenic techniques revealed that the coding sequence of a receptor serves as a label that specifies the matching of olfactory neurons to their target glomeruli . This was done by substituting the coding sequence for receptor in the gene encoding another . The neurons expressing the modified gene were found to project to glomeruli near those appropriate for the donor protein.11 , Olfactory receptors operate in conjunction with the - binding protein ( olf ) , thus binding of an odourant , usually a small organic molecule of specific shape and stereochemistry , leads to activation of G ( olf ) , by conversion of to GMP . This in turn activates an adenylate cylase , which converts to the messenger cAMP . cAMP opens a cation - channel , causing influx of Ca 2 + and Na+ ions from the nasal mucous . In addition , calcium activates an ion channel facilitating the efflux of chloride ions out of the cell . The cilium 's membrane potential is depolarised by this current flow . If the sensory potential reaches a certain threshold , an action potential is forwarded at the axon . The cell signalling pathway in photoreception shows some similarities , albeit it involves several additional steps . Absorption of light by - retinal causes its isomerization into that of all - trans - retinal , and changes rhodopsin into its active form . Activated rhodopsin promotes the exchange of GDP for GTP on of G protein transducin ( G t ) molecules , to produce an active , - bound form of G t ( . While an olfactory sensation results in the increase of messenger levels , G t ( interacts with the subunits of phosphodiesterase ( PDE6 ) , activating the catalytic and subunits , to initiate the hydrolysis of cGMP . A decrease of the cGMP concentration in the rod outer segments ( ) causes cGMP gated ion channels in the plasma membrane to close . Na+ and Ca2 + ions are prevented from entering the cell and the are depleted of Ca2 + due to the continuous function of the plasma membrane + Na+ -Ca2+/K+ exchanger . This causes a drastic reduction in the circulating current and activates the guanylate - cyclase - activating - protein ( ) , which is inactive when bound to Ca2 + . As the name suggests , activates guanylate cyclase ( ) that catalyses synthesis of cGMP from supplied be the guanine nucleotide cycle , which comprises guanylate kinase ( ) and nucleoside diphosphate kinase ( ) . loses Ca2 + as well , and dissociates from the cGMP - gated channel , which results in a lower affinity for cGMP.14 Contrarily to all other sensory cells , which produce nerve impulses upon detection of a stimulus , nerve impulses from photoreceptor cells are sent to the brain in the absence of light . So ultimately , the activation of rhodopsin leads to changes in the net production of cGMP and because cGMP levels determine the number of open ion channels , the external light stimulus is converted into a biochemical pathway , leading to hyperpolarization of the plasma membrane and interruption of the nerve impulse.14 Thus it is not surprising that activation of the phototransduction pathway functions in a similar way to inhibition of the olfactory transduction pathway , which leads to rapid desensitisation of olfactory neurons in case of high intensity or prolonged presence of the odourant . As Ca 2 + and cAMP accumulate in the cell , phospodiesterase is activated by Ca 2 + ions , which converts cAMP back to . Furthermore cAMP itself activates protein kinase A , which inhibits further influx of Ca 2 + and Na+ ions by phosporylating crucial residues in the ion channel . Thus the current flow is interrupted.12 Phosphorylation of rhodopsin , on the other hand , is prevented in the absence of light by formation of a recoverin ( Rec ) - rhodopsin kinase complex . So for the phototransduction process to go full circle , an additional step is needed . It is terminated by the dissociation of Rec from rhodopsin kinase , enabling the latter to phosphorylate activated rhodopsin as a prelude to arrestin binding . As arrestin binds to rhodopsin , the effect on G t is terminated . Finally , the release of all - trans - retinal enables opsin to engage in - retinal binding and restoration of rhodopsin 's original inactive ground state . < heading > Conclusion</heading > Sensory systems are just as diverse as the multitude of stimuli they have to respond to , yet they share a common goal , that is translation of environmental sensations into signals that can be interpreted in the brain . The senses discussed are thought to have evolved divergently , yet certain common characteristics can be found , which indicates that these shared mechanisms are "" as good as it gets "" . Membrane bound receptors are the primary cellular entities , detecting stimuli , and nerve impulses are the final outcome from all sensory cells . In all cases , ion concentration changes within the cells are essential for generation of an electrical signal . Calcium ions are the ones most widely used either as messengers to control the action of certain proteins ( e.g. in the case of phototransduction ) or to directly influence the cellular membrane potential , contributing of the action of sodium , potassium and sometimes chloride ions . Changes in intracellular ion concentrations are either induced directly by mechanically- or voltage - gated ion channels that function as receptors in the case of hearing or sensing of temperature , or require a whole range of biochemical processes . The proteins most commonly involved in cell signalling pathways are G protein coupled receptors , G proteins , adenylate or guanylate cyclases , phosphodiesterases , protein kinases and ultimately messenger gated ion channels . All sensory systems have some kinds of adaptation and inhibition mechanisms to prevent overstimulation of the central nervous system , and these mechanisms are generally specifically tuned to the stimulus in question . < heading > General References</heading > Augustine , , , , , , , , , , Purves , and ( ) , nd Edition published , Inc. , , , , , Lodish , H. , Madsudaira , P. and ( 2000 ) , , 4 th Edition published W.H. Freeman . Batzler , , , , , and ( ) Signaltransduktion in Sinneszellen . , .   URL   , , Stryer , and ( ) Biochemistry , , 5 th Edition published W.H. Freeman . , and N.K. ( ) Sensory systems . . . Neurobiol . , - 641 . < heading ( in order of appearance)</heading > Clapham D.E. , and ( ) TRP ion channels in the nervous system . . . Neurobiol . . , , , and A.D. ( ) and channels : a family of lipid - gated cation channels . Neuropharmacology : - 888 . Hudspeth , ( ) How hearing happens . Neuron : - 950 . Ashmore , and F. Mammano ( ) Can you still see the cochlea for the molecules ? . . Neurobiol . : - 454 . , ( ) Structure of rhodopsin and the superfamily of - helical receptors ; the same and not the same . . . Cell . Bio . : - 195 . ( 2003 ) Von der Nase bis ins Gehirn : Düfte nehmen Gestalt an . , , .   URL   Reed , ( ) After the Holy Grail : Establishing a Molecular Basis for Mammalian Olfaction . Cell : - 336 . , , , , and ( ) Phototransduction : crystal clear . . Sci . 28:479 - 487 . Dizhoor , ( 2000 ) Regulation of cGMP synthesis in photoreceptors : role in signal transduction and congenital diseases of the retina . Cell . Signalling 12:711 - 719 .","< heading > Part one1.0 Formulation of Manufacturing Strategy</heading > In question sheet , the manufacturer planed to convert process layout to more suitable and advanced cell layout . I , as a new managing director , has been asked to formulate a manufacturing strategy for the new body shop of lean manufacture , based on Hayes and 's elements [ 1 ] , released in their well - known book "" "" , where they argue that the process of formulating a manufacturing strategy should involve in company 's structure and infrastructure , divided in decision areas . Manufacturing strategy is dynamic , in different times firms have different strategy . A manufacturing strategy , on the one hand , should support corporate strategy which determines what businesses the division should operate , and on the other hand , should interact with other functional strategies such as marketing strategy and financial strategy etc . < heading>1.1 Business Environment</heading > Before the start of formulating manufacturing strategy , a clear understanding and assessment of market is necessary to help us to get competitive advantages through manufacturing . market segmentation grid is the tool that is often utilized to define market position of product and show the link between the market and order winning criteria . The distinction between order qualifying and order - winning criteria is important . The order qualifying is a basic requirement which must be satisfied , and the order winning is your competitive advantage compared your competitors . < figure/>As what is indicated in the figure - 1 , for exhaust system product that is launched in a well - developed market , high complexity and low uncertainty are significant factors . The grid also implies that , in the quadrant , delivery lead time and flexibility would be the order winning which could provide a competitive edge to gain sales in market place , rather than product quality and reliability which just are basic factors required to maintain a market share . From market perspective , a noticeable trend has been seen that global car market is increasing gradually , especially in certain areas including , , and , the growth is obvious . From the figure - 2 [ ] , we can see that the sales in increased from units in to in , raised by . With the development of technology and maturation of production system , many automakers start to increase variety of car models and reduce product life cycle for each model of car , actually has reduced its product life cycle to . Meanwhile , large automobile company have changed in their behaviour and structure such that they subcontract more to 's . Because a greater reliance on 's , they seek to integrate suppliers into their supply chain system through a series of certificate constituted by themselves . All above are signals that there are huge development room for automotive component industry with high flexibility and short lead times required . This is a great chance for to recover < figure/>Source : < heading>1.2 Structure Decision Area</heading > Structure decision areas contain categories and Vertical Integration . The decisions in each of category will have a long - term impact , and need a large sum of capital to expand capacity , rearrange plant layout , employ new n / c machines and robots for example , which maybe lead to financial problems if the decisions made in wrong way . We will analyze the categories respectively . < heading>1.2.1 Capacity</heading > Capacity strategy is a major element of a company 's manufacturing strategy , which consists of a set of time - sequence capacity decisions based on long - time market , economy environment , technology and behaviours of competitors . The most important decisions are the amount and timing of capacity changes in relation to demand changes at strategy purposes . There are various ways to change the capacity . For example , overtime work and shift are convenience ways to increase or reduce capacity in a certain period ; rebuilding machine shop layout to lean manufacture . Increasing new equipment and new plant also are commonly ways to expand capacity to meet customer demands in a long - term perspective . As 's statement [ ] , there are generic type of capacity cushion when demand is expected to grow steadily . , capacity leads demand type , it indicates that capacity should exceed demand and keep in a reasonable range in order to avoid the likelihood of running short . The type of capacity cushion is capacity in approximate equilibrium with demand , which suggests that company should attempt to match the capacity and demand as accurate as possible , although forecasting is difficult in reality . The capacity lags demand is the capacity cushion which can achieve maximum capacity utilization . Determining how much capacity we need to meet market demand is another problem . Tradeoffs between the economies of scale and diseconomies of scale should be done to get the optimal economic scale . Although has been steadily losing business and unused capacity generally is expensive , I still recommend expanding production capacity by using the capacity cushion as the result of motor industry 's boom and economy cycle . According to the analysis of industrial environment , the growth of market opportunities driven by and car consumption market has boosted many auto companies blooming again which imply that there would be a rapidly increasing needs for capacity of exhaust system to meet customers satisfaction . In a growing market , extra capacity is a strong and aggressive weapon to attract new customers who do n't get what they want from our competitors with capacity constrained . Actually , if a firm runs with the type of capacity lags demand , it seems as if maximum utilization of machines can be achieved and therefore provides a higher average rate of return on manufacturing investment than that would be possible with a lower utilization rate . However , company has to reject some order because of capacity - constraint ; it means customers lost which is disadvantaged for further development . Nowadays , the rate of interest is definitely low , although global economy has broken away from recession gradually and starts to recover . Investment at the bottom of economy will form large competitive advantage and put company into indefectible position . < heading>1.2.2 Facility</heading > The term of facility involves in number , size , location , specialization of plants , and organisation of individual plant . In a multinational corporate , how many different facilities should be utilized , how big should each be , where they should be located , and how should each be specialized , these questions are key structural decisions confronted by leadership . An optimal network of plants can provide core competitive edge to beat competitors . However , in this case , only has plant with employees in the machine shop . So , we focus on the choices of layout and process . There are basic layout types as follow : Fixed position . It is common to use this layout when the product is heavy or fragile and in this approach operators and raw materials come to the product itself . Process layout . In this layout , machines with similar functions are gathered in certain area to make a wide range of products . Cell layout . With this approach , areas of the plant are dedicated to particular product types in a cell of manufacture , machines are grouped together for a particular family of products . Product layout . Machines are dedicated to a small range of products and every stage is different from next . Layout is just layout itself if there is no link with process . According to hill [ ] , there are classic processes that a firm has to choose or more : project , jobbing , batch , line and continuous process . The choice of process is the best able to match the market requirement in which the company is competing . Considering the assumption in the preceding , this company provides a large range of exhaust system for motorcar and motorbike companies . Small order quantities , high frequency delivery , high level of product 's variety are significant characteristics of order from motor company in where lean manufacture usually is implemented . The company 's machine shop is functional layout now . In order to meet the customer requirement that small volume , flexibility and quick delivery , batch process associated with cell layout should be selected in the main process . It could be better to choose line process for the final assembly and packaging , because of the standard nature of these activities . Cellular organization is the heart of lean manufacture , and with the introduction of philosophy of lean manufacture , we can reduce manufacturing lead time , improve product cost , quality and delivery and create an atmosphere of employee involvement and continuous improvement . Indeed , in , layout and investment in facilities has been made for flexibility and the ability to quickly shift to different product models or to different outputs of production , that is why companies can beat west in . < picture/>Adapted from   URL   From figure [ ] , it is easy to see that cellular layout reduce the flow of materials and information , each cell is self managed and responsible for different products . < heading>1.2.3 Technology</heading > The implementation of latest technology in manufacture does not mean the best performance . Technology by itself will not bring benefits to the firm unless it can be applied through know - how and experience which will provide advantage for the firm . In order to provide strong support to the cell manufacture we chose above , where a group of machines forms a cell in order to build a small range of products , is best choice to fit the change from job shop layout where the company stay in , to cell layout where we wish to go . According to 's statement [ ] , successful implementation of group technology will result in a great performance of manufacture , demonstrated in figure 1 - 4 < figure/>How much automation to use is a big problem has to be determined by manager . Simply equipment could result in a loss of efficiency ; while over automation will lead to capital waste and negative effect on affordability and reliability . We need adequate n / c machines and robots to reduce the load of workforce and increase productivity . < heading>1.2.4 Vertical Integration</heading > Vertical integration enjoyed a high popularity in , at that points many corporations enhance the degree of vertical integration . Over , however , horizontal integration has drawn more attentions . Outsourcing unprofitable activities and focusing on core competence have got a broad agreement . Take , which produce its own computers and write its own software , for example , it sold whole pc and laptop divisions to , of the biggest computer manufacturers in the world , and focus on providing software solutions for its business customers . The figure - 5 shows clearly the relationship of vertical integration and horizontal integration . < figure/>As to sun company , it is necessary to confirm the boundaries of products , and take some actions to outsource the products , which is unprofitable , and focus on its core products which make large profits and profound in the future market . In order to horizontal integrate to the whole supply chain , on the one hand , should communicate with its customers frequently to learn what they need , on the other hand , it should prudently select its supplier , and train them to meet requirement itself . < heading>1.3 Infrastructure Decision Areas</heading > Infrastructure decision areas include categories : Performance Measurement and New Product Development . Infrastructure is an internal system which can provide strong support to structure . < heading>1.3.1 Workforce</heading > Human resource management is now in lamplight , any successful implementation of decisions base on execution power of managers and collocation of staffs . Cell layout is self - contained , and requires every worker to be able to operate almost all the machines grouped in a cell . So , it is necessary to offer a long - term training course to not only leadership , but also employees . In fact , multi - skilled employees form the backbone of a firm . However , many companies , in default , consider the training as a cost , while companies usually support a large sum of fund to train their employees as a long investment , the most valuable investment . Employees sometimes are more important than strategy , because strategy is easy to copy by competitors , but employees are not . In a job shop , there is little teamwork . In contrast , in a cell , all the workers are totally responsible for completing every job . Therefore , teamwork and communication among workers are essential . Team in the cell manufacture is also used as a method to solve production problem . When problem appears , all workers in a cell stop their work and to solve it , for every team is responsibility for their own equipment and quality inspection . At present , there are employees in the machine shop , and split almost equally between fully skilled machinists and semi - skilled machine minders . It is inevitable to downsize the numbers of workforce during the changing of machine shop , but it is not a pretext to fire employees . In general , the ones who are cut down during the process of changing are excellent employees ; they will form core power for the implementation of new project and new product line . So , will not lay off any employees . < heading>1.3.2 Organization</heading > In functional layout , organization usually has developed through function department , such as test department , maintenance department , material department and quality control department . A cellular layout emphasizes product - based , and the organization should be built based on products or product group . Cell organization simplifies the difficulty of management . Each cell has its own team leader who is in charge of both workers and machines . Cell manager should be responsible for operations such as forecasting , scheduling , inspection and maintenance . General Manager could be easily control the whole manufacture and operations through managing cell managers . < heading>1.3.3 Quality</heading > defines quality as "" degree to which a set of inherent characteristic fulfils requirements "" [ ] . A strategic view of quality is one which sees quality as a long - term competitive requirement , an ongoing , unending means of outperforming competitors . With the globalization , companies have to confront with the competition from all over the world , and customers also have great amount of choice for product , these make quality become more important in strategy aspect . The sun company often pulls products from finished goods and rebuilds them for custom orders that , further , lead to overdue of order and increase customers complaints and dissatisfactions . In order to change this situation , Six Sigma will be applied to improve our quality . [ 7 ] claims that sigma is a disciplined , data driven approach , it concentrate on continually improving process quality and productivity . Although the process quality is not focus on reducing cost , cost will undoubtedly reduce in successful quality drives because of the eliminating of waste , excess and other non value - added activities . is a good example . sigma improvement projects include steps : , and Control ( ) . A set of tools ( charter , , process map , measurement system evaluation , , etc . ) can be used to guarantee the successful implementation of . We still need some employees as black belt and green belt who are trained individuals responsible for leading sigma teams through the process . Project team will be responsible for the improvement of quality and control . < heading>1.3.4 Production Planning and Control</heading > Production planning and control aims to assure efficient and effective process of operation and manufacture of product as required by customers . Nigel [ ] claims that how to reconcile supply and demand in terms of volumes , timing and quality , is the most significant purpose of planning and control . There are over - lapping activities which should be considered during the process of reconciling volume and timing . < figure/>Source : operation management In order to make production planning and control system run effectively , computers have been used . According to [ ] , planning and control system based on computer system can help manager to efficiently manage the flow of materials , effectively utilise people and equipment , co - ordinate internal activities with those of suppliers , and communicate with customers about market requirements . Generally , there are types of control system that can be chose depending on firm 's operation environment : , , or , . The diagram below shows the relationship between control system and certain environment . < figure/>Through analysis of the diagram , could use , and system . MRPⅡ is more complicated than which only integrates material and engineering departments . MRPⅡ also has higher requirements for supply network . So , initially , system is a sensible choice and for future . There is also a caution that reliable suppliers are premises which is a key factor for the successful application of . < heading>1.3.5 Performance Measurement</heading > This category includes financial and non - financial performance management and linkages to recognition and reward systems . Appropriate measurement system can help the manufacturing strategy implement successfully . Generally , there are set of measurement indicators : quality , delivery performance and customer service , process time , cost , and flexibility . In machines shop , measurement indicators usually involve in percentage of scrap , set - up time , total lead time , required and stock level . and reward system is an important method to improve performance and productivity . It should be quick , known , understandable and attainable as well as compatible with job measurements . If a reward system is unfair and unrealistic , it will have a negative effect on employees . Company 's profit should be shared by every workers , if company get high profit , workers can get high bonus , if the company not , workers not . Team reward system is becoming more and more important in order to promote teamwork in cell environment . < heading>1.3.6 New Product Introduction</heading will pay more attention to new product introduction as a weapon to gain market share . At the outset of a new product development project , a clearly assessment about market demand for the new product should be made . Once the market gap is understood , we should select and form new product development project team . Developing the product [ ] have steps : preparing for concept generation , concept generation , concept selection , product engineering and design , prototyping and pilot production and ramp up and market launch . Figure - 8 shows the product development funnel . < figure/><heading>1.4 Conclusion</heading > According to the analysis above , we can easily draw a conclusion : Manufacturing Strategy Statement In order to recapture the market share which we lost in the past , and provide customers high quality products with flexibility and fast delivery , we should take some actions as follow : Rearrange the plant layout to cell layout so that we can reduce product lead time , improve products quality , cost and delivery . Leave enough spaces for expanding capacity in the future to meet customers ' requirement . Select products range and outsource unprofitable product to reliable suppliers who should pass the certification made by sun company and should be encompassed in company 's supply chain management . Introduce the sigma quality management to improve process quality and reduce cost . Train all levels of employees in order to assure the successful implementation of cell layout and sigma method . . Provide appropriate fund to support any requirement of the manufacturing strategy . < heading > Part two2.0 and Solutions</heading><heading>2.1 Introduction of force field analysis</heading > In order to successfully implement manufacturing strategy , a clear understanding of all the forces for or against decisions is vital . The force field diagram , which was developed by , is a simple but very effective tool to weigh pros and cons . Through drawing a diagram , it is easy to see the forces for and against the change , and identify whether the forces for change will become dominant . Once decision to carry out a project has been made , is helpful to work out how to improve its probability of success . Usually , there are choices . , increase or add new driving force . , reduce or remove the forces against the change . , change the direction of forces . < heading>2.2 Analysis of driving forces and restraining forces</heading > Each force will be assign a score to compare which forces is stronger , range from ) to 5(strength ) < heading > Driving force : < /heading > The requirement from leadership ( ) The sun company has been losing business , if we do not take actions to change this situation , what we have to face is bankrupting . No one would like to be a loser , what the owner wish to see is profit not bankruptcy . So , the leadership has strong desire to pull the change . During the implementation of Six Sigma , the attentions from leadership will be useful too The requirement from customers ( ) Nowadays , automobile corporations pay more attention to their horizontal integration . They require supplier to employ new technology to meet what they need . So , as an automobile component manufacturer , we should integrate to their supply chain management . Improve speed of production ( ) Reduce lead time could increase capacity and productivity as well as meet the requirement of quick response to customers . Reduce scrape and rework ( ) Scrape and rework raise the material cost , labour cost and overhead , it is necessary to improve quality to maintain market share and attract new customers . Simplify management ( ) Large and complex organization is usually difficult to manage effectively and efficiently because of the inconvenience of information flow . Work cell is a flat organization , so it is convenient and feasible to communicate quickly . Simplified organization is more nearby the product group , so it is possible to find problems existed in manufacture and solve them as soon as possible . < heading > Restraining forces</heading > Fear to lay off ( 5 ) Actually , many companies usually take action of firing employees when they start to reform or conditions become difficult . Because employees are worried about losing their job , there would be a strong force to resist reform to increase workload ( ) New cell layout need worker operates several machines at the same time in a cell . would be bored and dissatisfied to increase workload . Poor skills ( ) Every one gets used to keep stable and reject alteration . Employment of new process technology and implementation of sigma quality improvement project , need high skilled staff . Workers should enhance skills to know how to operate almost all the machines in a cell . Cost for new equipment ( ) Rearrange plant layout and purchase of new equipments will cost a large sum of money which would result in financial problems in operation management , even a breakdown of cash flow . Manager resist change ( ) It is very difficult to change organization structure . People who work in functional department resist change , because they may lose their position and have to work nearby product . Managers may be uncooperative if the change is forced on them . • Difficulty of integration of MRP(3 ) MRP system requires high skilled computer professionals , certain database and integrated computer network . Meanwhile , demand management and supply management require raw material department and production department integrate completely . According to the analysis above , it is easy to draw a force field diagram showed as follow . We can see that the balance of driving forces and restraining forces is 20:20 which means high risk to fail the project . So , we need some solutions to redraw the balance of forces . < figure/><heading>2.3 Review and redraw forces</heading > There are different kinds of restraining forces , accordingly we have different solutions . < heading > Solutions for fear of unemployment ( 5)</heading > We can demonstrate company 's policy for employees to remove the scared feeling of no job . In fact , it is unnecessary to lay off anybody , although we do not need peoples in machine shop . Because the people who would be seek out from machine shop will be ones who have an excellent performance in production , they will be members of new project teams , in which they are responsible for converting the process layout to cell layout as well as apply the sigma quality improvement project as black belt and green belt . Indeed , the change of layout will provide new opportunities for everyone to promote . With the guarantee that no one lose job , it is feasible to remove the fear of unemployment . So , the score of this problem can reduce to . < heading > Solutions for dissatisfaction to increase workload ( 4)</heading > With the reduction of number of workers in a cell and growth of responsibility for multi - function machines , workload will definitely increase , although cell layout can decrease the movement of material and staffs . It is impossible to remove the dissatisfaction for increase of workload , but it is possible to fall the dissatisfaction . For example , increase the salary , bonus and holiday based on job environment ; show them the change is necessary for business survival for holding their job . The score of this problem may reduce to < heading > Solutions for poor skills ( 3)</heading > It is undoubted that training is the best choice for solving this problem . Employees should get adequate training course to learn specification of machines and correct operations . The training also can help workers to know how to communicate efficiently which is vital in teamwork . Then , the score reduce to < heading > Solutions for cost of new equipment ( 3)</heading > There are solutions . As for heavy , expensive and unusually used equipment , we can seek in - hand market , or buy from some companies which have bankrupted . The solution is that we can apply government 's grant and loans of low interest rate as a result of government 's manufacturing strategy in which it offers a large sum of fund to help 's to develop theirs career . The score can reduce to < heading > Solutions for manager resist change ( 2)</heading > Dismissal as a short - term method is a good way to solve this problem . However , this method may hurt and has a bad influence on other employees ' morale . Building company 's culture is a long - term method in which workers will be proud as members of through a series of honour education . The score will keep . < heading > Solutions for the difficulty of integration of ( 3 ) < /heading > It is very hard to reduce or remove the score of this problem . We can look for some consultant and IT companies to help us to implement system , but the expense will increase . So the score should be level off on . < heading>2.4 Conclusion</heading > Through a series of activities to reduce or remove restraining forces , the balance between driving forces and restraining forces is , which indicates that we have a great chance to implement the strategy successfully , although we still have to do further analysis . < heading > Part threeProduce a feasible implementation plan and timescale for the overall project of converting the machine shop to a cell - based organisation3.0 Implementation Plan</heading > In order to successful implementation of manufacturing strategy , the overall project can be divided into sub - projects : education project , layout transformation project , sigma project . For each project , we need to appoint a senior executive as a captain , and a project manager in charge of integration of all resources . In every project , we will run a continual measurement in order to ensure achieving every target of the project . < heading>3.1 Education Project</heading > This project should run firstly to build foundations for the implementation of other projects . Target 1 : Ensure that leadership understand clearly the importance of change , and get commitment . < list > current conditions of machine shopAnalyze possible difficulties and resistance which we may meet during the course of convertingCalculate the total expense in money , man - hours and equipment which must be identified and quantified . Demonstrate the possible effort in the future when the transformation has done . Set up routing map to accomplish overall transformation . Get sustention and commitment from leadership.</list > Target 2 : Ensure that every worker understand clearly the importance of change < list > Show the current conditions of machine shop by brochures and meeting . Compare the advantages and disadvantages of cell organization . Demonstrate the cell organization 's benefits offered to workers . Train employees in the concept and application of cell organization.</list 3 : Each machine shop worker must reach a level of skill and knowledge to meet the requirement of tasks < list > Establish current level of skill and knowledge of each worker for machine shop task . Define requirement of each taskIssue handbook for each taskCross - train all workers in each of the cell 's operations until their skills satisfy requirements of tasks.</list><heading>3.2 Once the education project finished , transformation project will be implemented . This project is a main project and aims to achieve an efficient and effective change from process layout to cell layout . Target 1 : Build a work cell as test . < list > Record original production line performance as a measurement criterion . Identify product family which focus on the common set of operations needed to manufacture the products in the cell . Consider a pilot cell where the members will work effectively and comfortably . Create a pilot cell . Compare the performance between original production line and workcell.</list > Target 2 : Transform whole plant into cell organization completely < list > Identify all product family which focus on the common set of operations needed to manufacture the products in the cell . Consider and determine all resources , machines human resources and equipment which will be used by cell in dedicated area in the plant . Allocate all resources , machines , equipment and human resources into each cell . Fine - tune the cell 's performance.</list><heading>3.3 sigma Project</heading > sigma project aims to continually improve process quality and reduce defects , which can be applied when the transform project finished . Target 1 : Set up and train project team < list > Choose appropriate persons from machine shop or human resource market to form project team . Employ management consultants to train members of team to become master black belt , black belt and green belt . Project team start to 2 : Reduce defects to level of sigma which means defects per units . < list > Define problem existed in the process of manufacture . Measure the problem process and define the target outcomes . Analyze problems and get the root cause . Improve process and refine . Control . Hold the gains , and sustain.</list><heading>3.4 timescale</heading > The implementation plan will start in and complete in . A simple timescale shows the schedule of each project . < figure/ >",0
"This involves a study of the aerodynamics of a car designed using solidworks and tests its aerodynamic factors and then make informed decisions on the improvements that can be made in the car to improve its aerodynamic performance . < heading > AIM</heading > The Study of aerodynamics aims at reducing the drag force of a body moving in a . Every Moving Car is acted upon by types of resisting forces . The resistance to tyre treads motion due to the friction and inertia . It is directly proportional to the mass of the car and the coefficient of friction of the surface The resistance to forward motion due to the viscous force of the air . It is directly proportional to the Frontal area and velocity of the car . Ref :   URL   The type of resisting force is what the study of aerodynamics aims to reduce and is called the drag force . Thus when a car moves in air . The air tends to push the car along the direction in which it flows across the car hence impeding its forward motion and also reducing its acceleration . Thus aims at designing the car such that it offers least resistance to the flow of air across it and reduces the drag force caused due the viscosity of the air . Thus aerodynamic car design improves the economy , Handling , Comfort and hence . The influence of the drag force on these various aspects of the Car increases with increasing velocity of the car Note : The Velocities that are discussed about in this report essentially mean the relative velocity between the wind and the Car . < heading > BERNOULLI THEOREM < /heading>*For a stream line flow of non viscous and incompressible liquid , the sum of the pressure energy , kinetic energy and potential energy per unit mass is always constant .   FORMULA   We can ignore the potential energy factor in this equation for our measurements in this as the changes in this term are insignificant in automotive air flows . This theory does not completely work in most practical cases because all fluids have a measurable viscousity and most liquids are compressible in some cases . But in the case of cars , they would have to travel at record breaking speeds to make the compressibility effects of the fluid to become significant and hence we shall consider air to be incompressible as far as this report is concerned . This implies that the pressure and velocity are inversely proportional in this case . The rise in one will cause a fall in another and the fall in of them will cause a rise in another . For Implications of Bernoulli theorem in car , refer to the < heading > REYNOLD NUMBER</heading>**Experiments show that every flow has a factor called the number expressed by the alphabet , where   FORMULA   The value of the Number determines the type pf flow of the fluid . For K = 0 to 2000 , is = 2000 to , is unstable and it switches between Laminar and Turbulent flow K > 3000 , is Turbulent The value of Number in the Simulation was of the range of and hence the flow was Turbulent . < heading>***MACH NUMBER</heading > The number is the ratio of the velocity of the body to the velocity of sound in the same medium .   FORMULA   The behavior of fluids change when the fluids are compressed and fluids are considered to be incompressible when the mach number is greater than 0.3.The Mach number of cars would generally be much lesser than 0.3 and hence the fluid is considered to be incompressible throughout the study . Since the number of the simulation was lesser than 0.3 all the time . The was considered to be Incompressible . < heading > PITOT TUBE</heading><picture/>Picture Ref :   URL   * * * * The pitot pipe consists of a tube with a lot of holes drilled around its surface connected to one end of a pressure transducer . The pipe also contains a hole drilled along the axis of the pipe and is connected to the other end of the transducer . The pressure transducer is an instrument used to measure the pressure difference between the groups of tubes . Since the holes on the outside are perpendicular to the atmosphere , they represent the static pressure of the system and the hole drilled across the axis measures the total pressure of the system which is the value of the constant . Hence these two can be substituted into theorem and the value of dynamic pressure can be obtained . Dividing the dynamic pressure by the density and obtaining its square root gives the value of the fluid 's velocity .   FORMULA    FORMULA      Thus the Pitot tube is used to measure the velocity of fluid flow . < heading > PROCEDURE</heading > The project on involved designing a car on , Putting it in a wind tunnel with a fairly large cross section and length avoiding point contact between them . It was then tested for it 's drag force for various relative velocities of m / s. After the measurements were done , the car was modified on a few aspects for better aerodynamics and put through the same tests again . I chose an as my Model for simulation and it was designed fairly to scale The drag forces and drag coefficients were observed to be very high for the original car and it was reduced considerably by making a few improvements in the car . < heading > CHANGES MADE IN THE CAR < /heading><heading>1.Reducing Surface Friction drag   Caused due to the friction causing boundary layer separation ( Appendix)</heading > The energy lost in the form of friction on the front surface of the car that results in the boundary layer separation tends to cause a drag in the car . It can be minimized by smoothening the surface and avoiding gaps in the surface The original Car had a lot of edges and Flat front and rear surfaces . This increases the friction drag of the car . Hence the improvements for this factor were made by < list > Cutting an arc through the front and rear surfaces of the car by cutting arcs along the Z axis Top to bottom . This gave the car a curved surface on both the sidesChamfering all the sharp edges of the car.</list><heading > Reducing Pressure Drag by Streamlining</heading > When the air encounters the front surface of the car , it forms a high pressure region as it is a high force of the car over a given area and the pressure drops as it moves to the rear of the car . It also forms a small area of low pressure before the region where the boundary layer reunites called the wake . This causes swirls of air in the area and also attracts the air particles from high pressure areas causing a drag force . < picture/>This figure shows the different regions of pressure around the Car It can be minimized by streamlining and making the surface area of the rear lesser than the surface area of the front . This will also enable the boundary layer to stay on maximum possible part of the car 's surface . Minimising Pressure drag involves maintaining attached flow through out the car as far as possible . This can be done by streamlining and by making the surface area of the car as we move from the front to the back . When a drop of water is dropped in air , it takes the form of a tear drop which is fairly streamlined and has a reducing surface area as we move from the hemispherical shape to the conical shape . Thus the shape of a tear drop is found to have the lowest coefficient of drag among all known shapes . The improvements of this factor on the car were made by < list > Making the shape of the car fairly continuous ( Streamlining).The arc shape on the back reduced the surface area of the back when compared to the front as curved areas have least surface area compared to flat ones.</list><heading < /heading > Fitness Ratio = Diameter of frontal area / Length of car The Length of the car was initially mm and the height was mm . The fitness ratio of a car is the ratio of the car 's height to the length . This gave me a fitness ratio of .335.The car has a lowest coefficient of when the ratio is 0.333.Hence I increased the length of the car to 4031 mm which gave me a new fitness ratio of I found a considerable reduction in the drag coefficient . < picture/><picture/>The above Pictures Show the original design on the right and the improved design on the left with better chamfers , arcs and streamlining . < heading > OBSERVATION AND RESULT DISCUSSION</heading><list > Frontal Area = m 2 Density of Air = / m of air = / ms</list > The coefficient was found to reducing gradually with velocity while the drag force was found to be increasing with velocity . With increase in velocity , there would be an obvious increase in the Number and hence we can arrive at the conclusion that the aerodynamics of the car improves when the air flow gets more turbulent . < figure/><figure/>Refer Appendix for Tables and Values The Blue Lines show the readings of the original design and the pink lines show the readings of the improved design . Thus the improvements made on the car showed significant improvements in the aerodynamic performance of the car .","For I have worked for a small business , watching it grow . Only in have I started to think about the tools & techniques required to set up such a business and how to implement them . I now realize that even if you believe that you have the best idea or invention since sliced bread , without the ability to show to others the economic viability and strategy to support it , the future outlook is grim . < heading > Reflections on the upper level pitch development</heading > In our group meeting we brainstormed a number of different business ideas . I started to control the meeting and was consequently elected as group leader . This role may have been better served by another member of the group , but at the time we had not assessed the individual strengths of each member of the group and consequently this was not known . A number of idea - generating meetings followed with little or no success . I asked each member to think about ideas individually to bring to the next meeting and collate them . This was a major mistake . Virtually no ideas were brought to each meeting . On reflection if we had spent more time brainstorming in a group , sharing ideas and creating new ones together this process would have been dramatically improved . However , when we did brainstorm as a group , many ideas were rejected very quickly without enough discussion as problematic areas were focussed on . If a more open minded approach had been taken instead of quashing ideas almost immediately , I believe that our final business idea could have been a lot better . We eventually settled on a business idea that was to become the worst mistake we made because of the problematic brainstorming process . Organising meetings proved to be difficult however . I started by e - mailing each member of the group to remind them of the meeting . This proved not to be enough and I collected phone numbers to call and see why they did not attend . With hindsight I would have called everybody before the meeting to make sure they were coming as I eventually had to later on in the project . A massive phone bill was incurred however , which could have been avoided by asking group members to call other members in a chain , even this though would have not assured attendance . On the whole , the pitch was a success . The criticism received suggested that the techniques used such as the positioning map , outlining a clear break even point , etc . were utilized well , but the underlying business idea was questioned . With a clearer brainstorming process , this could have been avoided . < heading > Reflections on the upper level pitch presentation</heading > Even though I had twisted my ankle the day before and was presenting , our pitch stood up well . of the group presented the pitch . More involvement from other members would have promoted a better image of teamwork , however I believe this could have confused the audience . We made the mistake of not rehearsing for the presentation until beforehand . This caused the preparation to be a little rushed and elevated nervousness . The pitch was delivered well despite this , with the timing and words were clear in our heads . Preparing before as well as the hours leading up to the pitch would have caused the team to be more relaxed and could have possibly eliminated any technical problems ( such as the break even analysis was wrong , but was not noticed by us or the audience ) and allowed us to improve on the presentation of the slides . With hindsight I believe that if we had focussed more on promoting the niche market ( especially after identifying a virtually identical competitor ! ) for our business , the future prospects would have been more convincing . < heading > Reflections on the business plan development</heading > As a team we decided not to start the business plan until after . I was not entirely happy with this and tried to change their minds , but to no avail . Knowing the time constraints we faced because of this , I would not let it happen again , trying harder to convince them what a bad idea it was . When the time came to allocate work for the plan I believe the team dynamics were developed enough to assess accurately everybody 's strengths and apportioned work accordingly . group member started to not turn up to meetings at this stage and was unreachable . At the time we did n't think this was a major problem and we kept sending updates via e - mail . The member 's attendance was non - existent from that point forward . As we did n't address the problem immediately ( finding out how to reach the member somehow through the , for example ) it got rapidly worse and virtually turned into a person team which was a disaster . Continuous e - mails containing updates on the plan and the plan so far helped everyone to see the group 's progress , allowing individuals to assess how much work others had done , praising those who had supplied a sufficient quality and quantity and causing the whole group to encourage stragglers to keep up . This was particularly good for me as it was n't I was n't the only one "" encouraging "" stragglers , causing a more productive response . I would definitely do this again . I am particularly proud of ( and interested in ) the financial section of the plan . Before this course I had no idea how to present the economic viability of a business without a history , believing that financial analysis in this case was basically guesswork . I now know that this is not the case ( although some guesswork is involved ) and by using market research a clear financial future can be accurately predicted . I have come to realize that the entrepreneurial process of starting a business needs a lot more structure than I thought , with careful time management of all parties involved , using appropriate techniques to produce a business plan to a standard to convince investors of the viability and convince yourself , before leaping into a market with no prior knowledge , no financial plan and subsequently failing as many technically proficient engineers continue to do .",0
"< heading > Referral information</heading > Referred to by ambulance following a RTA . < heading > History</heading><heading > Presenting Complaint : < /heading > was hit by a bicycle and fell onto paving slabs . He sustained an open displaced fracture to his right tibia and fibula . He also suffered a cut to the bridge of his nose . < heading > History Presenting Complaint : < /heading > Admitted on   after he was hit by a bicycle and fell to the ground . pain in his right leg and sustained an injury to the bridge of his nose which was bleeding profusely . He did not lose consciousness and there was no pain elsewhere . No previous history of falls . No disabilities or special needs . < heading > Past Medical History : < /heading > Had surgery in to remove an umbilical hernia . No asthma . No Diabetes . No . No other medical history of note . < heading > Drug History</heading > Ibuprofen mg . He has no allergies . < heading is a who lives with his unemployed father . His father is a single parent and is separated from 's mother who lives nearby with 's brothers and sister . 's parents separated when he was . He chose to live with his father .   attends a local school and is happy there .   does not smoke and does not drink . < heading > Analysis of history</heading > has an open displaced fracture to his right tibia and fibula . In a displaced fracture , the bone breaks in or more pieces that have moved out of alignment . The distortion is visible from the outside and the break often causes severe pain . In an open fracture , commonly called a compound fracture , the ends of the bone are displaced , visibly piercing the skin . In these cases , there is a significant risk of infection . After a displaced fracture , there may be pain , tenderness , stiffness , loss of movement and usually swelling in the affected area . The anatomic location of the fracture can be described as diaphyseal ( involving the central shaft of a long bone ) , metaphyseal ( involving the ends of the shaft of a long bone ) , physeal ( involving the growth plate ) , or epiphyseal ( involving the ends of a long bone ) . Fractures involving the tibia and fibula are the most common lower extremity paediatric fractures . The tibia is the longest bone of the skeleton , located at the medial side of the leg . It articulates with the fibula laterally , the talus distally , and the femur proximally , forming part of the knee joint . It attaches to the ligament of the patella and to various muscles , including the popliteus and the flexor digitorum longus . It also is called the shin bone . The physician will take into account the location of the fracture , to what degree the bone is shattered , the amount of displacement , whether the adjacent joint surface is involved , or if the overlying muscle , fat and skin are disrupted , as in an open fracture . All of these facts help determine the best course of treatment . If a fracture extends into a joint , it must be carefully assessed with x - rays to determine if there is any significant change from the normal position of the joint surface . Fractures involving the joint may lead to early arthritis . < heading > The x - ray</heading > AP and Lateral views show a comminuted transverse type fracture through the mid to distal of the right tibia and fibula . Occasionally , an accurate assessment of the amount of displacement can not be made with routine x - rays , and special radiological studies must be obtained in the form of a CT scan or tomograms . These studies still require the use of radiation to generate the images , but the detail in hard - to - see locations is much better than with conventional x - rays . < heading > Physical examination</heading > General : Patient comfortable in bed , he has a ½ cast over his right leg . He will have an operation later today . < list><heading > Respiratory . < /heading > Chest movements are normal . No lung crepitations.</list><list><heading > Cardiovascular system . < /heading > BP 129/81Pulse 120 / min</list><list><heading > Neurovascular . < /heading > No dizziness . No visual disturbance . There is no sensory deficit . Reflexes are normal.</list><list><heading > Abdominal . < /heading > Abdomen is softy and non - tender . No masses . No abnormal signs . < /list><heading > Analysis of history and examination</heading><heading > Formulation of the patient 's problem(s)</heading > Ideas . He considers his fracture to be an accident and places the blame on the bicyclist . Concerns . He has been described by his father as a worrier .   has been quite distressed about being admitted to hospital and would like to return home as soon as possible . He is concerned about the forthcoming operation . Expectations . He expects to leave hospital in . He is aware that he will be given some crutches and expects to return to school in . He also expects that he will not be able to take part in sports activities until his plaster is removed in time . He is optimistic about the future and does not think the fracture will interfere in his plans to become a premier league footballer . < heading > Management</heading > Analgesia may be administered to reduce the child 's pain and anxiety during examination of the injury . Before palpation , the skin must be examined for breaks . The neurovascular status of the limb must be assessed prior to and after splinting and reduction . Although it is not necessary to palpate the site of an obvious fracture , palpation of adjacent or distant areas may be required to determine if fracture may exist . A baseline motor examination should be completed . Assessment of the joints above and below the injury should be included . Prior to obtaining radiographs , the limb should be temporarily immobilized to minimize soft tissue trauma and improve patient comfort . Views in the anteroposterior and lateral planes , are required . An oblique view may be necessary in areas such as the elbow or wrist . Comparison views of the opposite limb may be helpful in distinguishing growth plates from fracture lines.(1 ) Open fractures carry a high risk of infection . should be removed immediately . Pressure applied with a sterile pressure dressing will control hemorrhage . The limb should be splinted . The wound should be irrigated with saline and covered with saline - soaked sponges . Intravenous antibiotic prophylaxis , usually a - generation cephalosporin should be initiated . Tetanus prophylaxis should also be administered.(2 ) Operative treatment under general anesthesia is required for approximately 4 - 5 % of paediatric fractures.(3 ) Indications for surgical stabilization include displaced epiphyseal fractures , displaced intra - articular fractures , unstable fractures , fractures in the multiply injured child , and open fractures . basic techniques are used in the surgical management of pediatric fractures : Open reduction and internal fixation ( ) . Open reduction refers to intraoperative surgical reduction of the fracture ends . Closed reduction and internal fixation . Closed reduction refers to manipulating the fracture externally to achieve reduction . Internal fixation refers to the insertion of metal pins , screws , plates or other hardware to stabilize or fixate the fracture once reduction is achieved fixation . External fixation refers to fixation of bones by splints , plastic dressings , or transfixion pins . Casts are sometimes considered external fixation but they are usually referred to as external support . Open reduction and internal fixation may be required for displaced epiphyseal fractures ( especially types III and IV fractures , intra - articular fractures , and unstable fractures ) . Other indications include neurovascular injuries requiring repair , failure to obtain anatomic alignment , and occasionally , open fractures of the femur and tibia . In this case the fracture was treated by suturing the periosteum and retinaculum and temporary smooth Kirschner wire ( K - wire ) fixation was performed . These "" K "" wires can be placed and replaced with minimal trauma to the bone until they are in optimal position . The cannulated screw is then placed over the wire and slid down to the bone surface . A special driving tool then allows the screw to be driven into the bone along the shaft of the K wire , in a manner very similar to the way radiologists pass angiographic catheters over guide wires using the Seldinger technique . The K - wire is then withdrawn . < heading > Reassurance and explanation</heading > was informed about the x - ray findings . He was shown the X - rays and had them explained to him . He had the forthcoming operation explained to him . He gave his informed consent for the operation to proceed . However he is not competent and therefore his fathers signature was needed for the consent forms.(4 ) < heading > Prescription / medical intervention</heading > was admitted to a children 's ward . The operation was to take place of admission . The anaesthetist was aware of the patient 's history . Surgery involves a K - wire reduction . < heading > Observation</heading><list><heading > Check for complications:</heading > InfectionNon - union , Mal - union or non - union may be treated by bone grafting . embolismImmobility associated morbidityPost - op anaemia</list><heading > Referral and team working</heading><list > PhysiotherapistOccupational therapist</list><heading > Outcome</heading > Open fracture of the right tibia and fibula was stabilised with a k - wire .   will remain in hospital until he is able to use his crutches and is able to weight bear . < heading > Prognosis < /heading > has no co - morbidities , a speedy recovery is expected .","< heading > Referral information</heading > Referred to by ambulance following scalds to the face and shoulder . < heading > History</heading><heading > Presenting Complaint : < /heading > is a girl who pulled a cup of recently made coffee on herself and scalded her lower face and right shoulder . < heading > History Presenting Complaint : < /heading > Admitted on   after she was scalded by a cup of hot coffee . She did not lose consciousness . No previous history of scalding or injuries . No disabilities or special needs . < heading > Past Medical History : < /heading > No asthma . No Diabetes . No . No congenital abnormalities . No other medical history of note . < heading > Drug History</heading><list > Oromorph 1 mg , oral , maximum times a dayFlucloxcillin 125 mg , IVIbuprofen 50 mg . sodium chloride . , IV</list > She has no allergies . < heading is a girl who lives with her mother and father . She has an older brother . Her mother is a full time mother whilst her father works outside the home .   does not attend any play groups . Neither of her parents smoke . < heading > Analysis of history</heading > has full thickness burns below her lip and covering her entire chin . She has she patches of partial thickness burns over her right arm . The depth of dermis lost is a function of the temperature and the duration of the exposure . It is crucial to the long term effects of the injury . < heading > Assessment</heading><heading > Extent of burn</heading > Assessing the extent of the burn gives important information regarding severity , likelihood of complications , and need for specialist care . This is usually expressed as a percentage of total body surface area ( TBSA ) . The and Browder chart , if available , is a reliable method of assessing the amount of skin burnt . It can be used in both adults and children . In adults , the ' Rule of Nines ' is commonly used ( areas of slight redness are ignored ): for the head , for each arm , for each leg , for either the back or the front of the trunk , and for the perineal area . In children , the head is relatively larger and the legs relatively smaller , so the ' Rule of Nines ' does not apply . A simply way of assessing the area of skin burnt is to compare it with the surface area covered by the child 's hand with the fingers closed , which is equal to of TBSA . This method can also be used in adults for assessment of scattered burns , but the equivalent surface area is ) < heading > Depth of burn</heading > Assessment of the depth of the burn can often be made clinically , although this may be difficult , especially for partial - thickness burns . Superficial ( - degree ) burns ( e.g. sunburn or minor scalds ) involve the epidermis and are usually erythematous , slightly painful , and do not tend to blister . They peel and usually heal in with no scarring . Partial - thickness ( - degree ) burns involve some damage to the dermis . Superficial partial - thickness burns involve the epidermis and the superficial part of the dermis . They present as painful , red , blistered areas , which become moist as the blisters burst . They heal within . Deep partial - thickness burns involve deeper layers of the dermis . They present as pale or red areas , which may be painful or relatively anaesthetic . There is usually less blistering than with superficial partial - thickness burns . Healing occurs with variable degrees of scarring , depending on the depth of the burn . Full - thickness ( - degree ) burns destroy the entire dermis . They result in a painless , dry , leathery , white or brown wound , which usually requires skin grafting.(2 ) Circumferential burns of the chest can cause difficulty in breathing by constricting chest wall movements . If a circumferential burn involves a limb or digit it can cause distal ischaemia by restricting blood flow . Surgical incision ( escharotomy ) may be needed.(3 ) burns can cause severe respiratory distress , which may be delayed . The possibility of a respiratory burn should be suspected from the history , or from the presence of burns around the face and neck , burnt nasal hairs , soot particles in the nose and mouth , hoarseness , stridor , or wheezing . < heading > Epidemiology</heading > Burns are common ; most are minor and will be treated at home , without need for medical intervention . It is estimated that around people visit and Emergency departments as a result of burns or scalds and that at least a further people visit GP surgeries for burns and scald injuries . Children account for of all severe burns and scalds . of these accidents happen in the kitchen . Cups of hot drinks are involved in severe burns ( requiring admission to hospital ) , of which occur with children . Most involve the child reaching up and pulling a mug or cup of hot drink on to himself or herself . Baths are involved in severe burns . Most involve an unsupervised child falling or climbing into a bath of very hot water . Other common causes of severe burns include kettles , teapots and coffee - pots , jugs of hot water , saucepans , irons , cookers , fires and heaters , and chip pans and deep fat fryers.(4 ) involving the face , scalp , hands , feet , joints , and the perineum require special care , and should generally be referred unless obviously minor.(5 ) < heading > Differential diagnosis</heading><heading > Non - accidental injury</heading > Suspected non - accidental injury always requires urgent referral or admission . Indicators of possible non - accidental injury include : < list brought for treatment by an unrelated adult Unexplained delay of or more in seeking medical attention History of injury inconsistent with developmental capacity of the child History of injury inconsistent with injury Historical accounts of injury that differ over time Prior history of injury to child or siblings with clear - cut immersion lines with no splash marks involving perineum , genitalia , and buttocks image injury of extremities Other physical signs of abuse ( e.g. bruises , welts , or fractures).</list><heading > Physical examination</heading><heading > General : < /heading > Patient sleeping , she looks very sore around her face and chin . < heading > Respiratory . < /heading > Chest movements are normal . < heading > Cardiovascular system . < /heading><list > BP 106/78Pulse 161 / minTemperature 36.7</list><heading > Neurovascular . < /heading><list > No dizziness . No visual disturbance . There is no sensory deficit . < /list><heading > Abdominal . < /heading><list > Abdomen is softy and non - tender . No masses . No abnormal signs . < /list><heading > Formulation of the patient 's problem(s)</heading > Ideas .   is too young to communicate complex ideas . Her parents however blame themselves for her accident . They feel very guilty and express regret . The state that they should have been more vigilant although they rarely leave   alone . Concerns . The parents are concerned that she will be left with scars and will be disfigured . They think this might lead to her being bullied when she goes to school . Expectations . The parents expect the hospital and the staff will do the best they can for   and that any pain and disfigurement will be minimised . < heading > Management</heading>1 . Minor burns are comparable to abrasions , and there is no need for complicated treatments . . Keeping the burn clean is probably the most important aspect of care and can be done simply by washing with tap water and patting dry . . There is controversy over whether to leave blisters intact or not.(6 ) There is some evidence that burn blister fluid may impair wound healing . However , there is also some evidence that draining or de - roofing blisters may increase the likelihood of the burn becoming infected . In practice , small or thick - walled blisters are often left intact , whereas large confluent or thin - walled blisters are usually drained . . Prophylactic systemic or topical antibacterials ( e.g. Flamazine ) are not indicated for minor burns . should only be used if infection is clinically present . . Exposing the burn to air or covering it with a dressing ( non - adherent dressing or vapour - permeable film ) are both reasonable options and depend on individual circumstances ( e.g. the need to cover the burn to keep it clean ) . . Consider reviewing the person at , to reassess the condition of the burn and advise whether any further wound management is necessary ( this may best be done by the practice or district nurse ) . . As the burn heals the use of an emollient may soothe and ease itching . . Pain relief with paracetamol is usually adequate . The addition of a weak opioid , such as codeine , may be useful for more severe pain . < heading > Tetanus prophylaxis</heading > For all wounds , check tetanus immunization status . < heading > Reassurance and explanation</heading > 's parents have been kept informed about the investigations being undertaken . They have given their informed consent for skin grafts to proceed if need be . < heading > Prescription / medical intervention</heading > was admitted to a children 's ward . A patient profile has been created which aims to normalise the child by keeping as many aspects of her home routine as possible . < heading > Observation</heading > Observe general condition and report any significant changes in condition . Monitor all input / output on a chart . Alter oral fluids regularly and diet with increased calories to aid recovery of skin . Dressing to be applied to shoulder and soft white paraffin to face . Involve parents in 's care . Answer any questions they might have . Analgesia to be given regularly to aid pain relief . < heading > Complications and prognosis</heading><list > Infection ( and possible septicaemia ) Respiratory distress ( inhalation / respiratory burn or circumferential chest burn ) insufficiency ( circumferential burn of limb or digit ) problems ( may be long - term ) Death ( as a result of severe extensive burns or electric shock).</list><heading > Outcome</heading > She is being taken to   children 's hospital , then a plan of action will be formulated by the plastic surgery team . < heading > Prognosis < /heading > is very young and a speedy recovery is expected .",1
"According to ( , p.1 ) , ' The task of empirical science , like that of other investigative disciplines , is to separate as thoroughly and efficiently as it can the true statements about the world from those that are false , and to retain truths . ' With this in mind , we must consider whether or not induction can play a part in this separation of true from false statements . By referring to an inference as ' inductive , ' we are referring to the process of moving from singular statements - such as observations or results of experiments - to universal statements such as theories and hypotheses . While this may intuitively satisfy our idea of how science is practiced , there is no logical justification to suggest that we can infer universal statements from singular ones in such a manner . In the analysis of induction and its relevance to science , it is important to also recognise that inductive inference is more concerned with weighing evidence and judging likelihood than it is with the actual proof of a scientific theory . This raises the question as to how we can make such non - demonstrative judgements and believe that they are reliable . Clearly , we can not sanction the use of a method whose practice has not been justified and thus , the question of whether or not induction has a place in science is essentially the question of justifying it 's position as an acceptable scientific principle . The aim of this essay is thus to establish whether or not our inductive practices can be justified , and if not , if the inductive inference can be salvaged to play any role at all in our methods of scientific discovery . Our desire to use these inductive principles stems from the fact that , in our scientific quest , we search for general rules to explain a set of seemingly linked observations . According to ( , pp . - 58 ) , ' General scientific laws invariably go beyond the finite amount of observable evidence that is available to support them , and that is why they can never be proven in the sense of being logically deduced from the evidence . ' The failure of deduction to satisfy all of our scientific needs means that we require an alternative approach in our practice of science . For a long time , induction has presented itself as the most likely alternative and even Popper ( , p.56 ) has recognised that , ' the empirical sciences can be characterized by the fact that they use ' inductive methods . ' According to this view , the logic of scientific discovery would be identical with inductive logic , i.e. with the logical analysis of these inductive methods . ' The pervasiveness of our inductive methods is further emphasized by ( in Popper 1959 , p.426 ) , who claims that the elimination of our principle of induction from scientific practice , ' would mean nothing less than to deprive science of the power to decide the truth or falsity of its theories . Without it , clearly , science would no longer have the right to distinguish its theories from the fanciful and arbitrary creations of the poet 's mind . ' One of the main areas of concern with our inductive practices is the problem of underdetermination . According to ( , p.412 ) , ' A description of the evidence , along with a certain set of rules , not necessarily just those of deduction , may underdetermine what is learned or inferred . ' That is , a unique solution is not guaranteed from information concerning initial conditions and rules applied . If an inference is inductive , then by definition it is underdetermined by the evidence and the rules of deduction . This problem of underdetermination also brings into question the problems of justification and description . Before accepting induction as having a place in science , it seems logical that we should consider exactly what principles that we are using , and more importantly , whether or not they can be shown to be good principles . The problem of justification is concerned with showing that our inferential methods are indeed good methods . Here we must refer back to the earlier question of what we expect to achieve in our practice of science . We want our methods to be truth - tropic , that is , to take us closer towards the truth behind a given theory and would thus like to show that the inductive inferences we make are those that take us from true premises to true conclusions . The problem of justification is thus , ' to show that the arguments we judge valid are in fact so . ' ( Lipton , p.414 ) Hume provides one of the most commonly acknowledged sceptical arguments concerning the justification of induction . His analysis of the problem begins with the underlying problem of underdetermination , and the way that our observations do not entail our predictions . He claims that our inductive practice relies on the assumption that nature is uniform , i.e. the unobserved world is much the same as what we have observed . Because of this , Hume claims that the problem of justification is actually the problem of showing that nature is uniform . The claim of uniformity in itself incorporates a massive prediction , and thus , we can not deduce it from our observations . The only other way we can argue for nature 's uniformity appears to be through the use of an inductive argument which would itself rely on the principle of uniformity . It is clear then , that the question is left begging , and Hume ( in , p.416 ) concludes that , ' we are addicted to the practice of induction , but it is a practice that can not be justified . ' While taking a slightly different approach in his consideration of the problem , agrees with Hume that justification of our inductive principles is hampered by the problem of circularity . He claims that an appeal to knowing the truth from experience will lead to similar problems from a justificatory perspective . ' To justify it , we should have to employ inductive inferences ; and to justify these we should have to assume an inductive principle of a higher order ; and so on . ' ( Popper 1959 , p.427 ) It is clear that an attempt to base the principle of induction on experience suffers from the same problems encountered by Hume in his attempt to argue for nature 's uniformity through use of an inductive argument . To illustrate this problem further , we can compare competing principles of induction . The , ' More of the Same , ' follows the principle of conservative induction and specifies that our strong inductive arguments are such that they predict the continuation of an observed pattern described in the premises . The , ' Time for a Change , ' follows the principle of revolutionary induction such that we should predict a change in an observed pattern described in the premises . Considering solely the track record of each of these principles would lead us to favour conservative induction . Most of the inferences from true premises using this method have led to true conclusions , compared to the principle of revolutionary induction , which has been conspicuous in failure . The problem here is that saying conservative induction will continue to work because it has worked in the past is an induction in itself . Perhaps more worrying is that , by revolutionary standards , conservative induction is likely to fail precisely because it has succeeded in the past , and the past failure of revolutionary induction bodes well for its future success . It appears that whatever inductive principles we use , their inductive nature is enough for the sceptic to show that they defy justification . The problem of underdetermination between observation and prediction means we have no way of showing that a particular inductive principle is any better than any other . The most prominent difficulty in satisfying 's sceptical argument is that he casts doubt on our inductive principles as a whole , so that any attempt to use induction to justify induction is impossible . provides us with some possibilities to satisfy this problem of justification however . He suggests that we should try justifying particular inductive principles rather than induction as a whole . of his examples is the principle of inference that makes us more likely to infer a theory supported by a variety of evidence than if it is supported by a similar amount of homogeneous data . ( , ) suggests that this may be justified by the more basic inductive principle that , ' we have better reason to infer a theory when all the reasonable competitors have been refuted , or that a theory is only worth inferring when each of its major components has been separately tested . ' He also suggests that we may have more success justifying the principle that a theory deserves more credit from its successful predictions than it does from the data it was built to accommodate . While this is a preference most of us seem to have , it is not clear whether or not this thought process is rational . The appeal of justifying this principle stems from 's claims that it might be justified without circular evaluation . Disregarding the problem of justification temporarily , even if our inferences are unjustifiable , one may feel that there is still something to gain by describing them as they stand . The problem of description is thus to describe how our inductive inferences work . While this may at appear a trivial problem , is quick to point out how difficult it is to describe our inductive principles . He states that , ' It is not merely that ordinary reasoners are unable to describe what they are doing ; of focused effort by epistemologists and philosophers of science has yielded little better . ' ( Lipton 1991 , ) The problem appears to be that , not only are we yet to capture all the details of induction , but the most popular accounts of induction vary wildly in comparison with our actual practice . reason for our problems is the gap between what we can do and what we can describe . To illustrate this , ( , ) refers to the work of ( ) on the principles of language acquisition . It appears that , as with justification , underdetermination plays a significant role in complicating the description of induction . As our principles are not available to introspection , the task of description relies on a process of ' black box inference ' in which we observe the superficial patterns of evidence and inference to describe the principle 's underlying mechanism . Faced with the task of providing a general description of our inductive practices , again suggests that we should break induction down and begin by describing just one of its aspects . In this way , we can attempt to salvage the conservative principle by giving account of the case where we project a pattern into the future . Disregarding the problem of accounting for inferences to the unobservable and predicting change in this way leaves us with what is known as the instantial model of induction . Using this model , a hypothesis of the form ' All A 's are B 's ' is supported by its positive instances , i.e. by observing A 's which are also B. Thus , if enough positive instances are observed with no refuting instances , we can infer the hypothesis and predict that the next A observed will also be B. The primary appeal of this model is that it satisfies Hume 's claim that we tend to extend observed patterns in our inductive practice . Unfortunately however , the instantial model has been shown to be massively over - permissive , due to the fact that many hypotheses are not supported by their positive instances . In 's example , observing only black ravens may lead us to believe all ravens are black . However , observing only bearded philosophers would be unlikely to lead us to the inference that all philosophers are bearded . The other major shortcoming of this model occurs when we consider the contrapositive of a particular hypothesis . Considering the ravens ' example for instance , while black ravens support the hypothesis that all ravens are black , evidence such as green leaves support the contrapositive that all non - black things are non - ravens . Faced with these problems , another account of inductive support is provided by 's hypothetico - deductive model . According to this model , ' a hypothesis is supported when it , along with various other statements , deductively entails a datum , ' ( in , p.422 ) thus , a theory is supported by its successful predictions . This model seems appealing in that it allows for the support of hypotheses concerning the unobservable - providing much wider scope than the instantial model . Another advantage of this particular model is that it enables us to co - opt our better - understood deductive principles to provide an account for induction . Finally , the hypothetico - deductive model seems to provide a superior reflection of general scientific practice than the instantial model . Unfortunately , this model also inherits all the over - permissiveness of the instantial model . According to the hypothetico - deductive model , the hypothesis that all A 's are B 's , along with the premise that an individual is A , entails that it is also B. In this case , the thing observed to be B supports the hypothesis , and the model is thus confounded by the problem of unsupportable hypotheses as well as the previously discussed raven paradox . In addition to its over - permissiveness , this model also suffers from being too strict in its dismissal of supporting data . A hypothesis , along with additional premises may not entail data , which nonetheless provides support for it . ( in , pp.423 - 424 ) provides other account of the practice of induction in his discussion on the methods of experimental enquiry . His explanation of induction is based on the causal inference we often make when we are really interested in prediction . Causal inference refers to our inference of probable causes from effects , and it seems that the use of causal theory when moving from data to prediction accounts for many successful scientific predictions . 's account of such causal inference is based on central methods - the Method of Difference , and . According to , when we find that there is only one factor that is shared by all the observed instances of an effect , we infer that it is a cause . According to , when we find that there is only one prior difference between a situation where the effect occurs and a similar situation where it does not , we infer that the factor that is only present in the case of the effect is the cause . example of this form of induction from a scientific perspective is the adding of sodium to a blue flame to make it yellow . We infer that the presence of sodium is a cause of the new colour , since this is the only difference between the flame before and after the sodium was added . When we apply , we hold the effect constant and try to vary the background as much as we can to see what stays the same . Conversely , when we apply , we vary the effect , and try to hold as much of the background as we can to see what changes . Thus , both methods work through a combination of variation and retention . 's methods help to support the role of induction in science by referring to their popularity within our scientific practice . For instance , the controlled experiment is one widely used application of . 's approach is also appealing in that it avoids some of the over - permissiveness suffered by the instantial and hypothetico - deductive models of induction . This comes as a result of the strong requirements on variation and retention in the practice of both and . Unfortunately however , 's methods also have their share of problems . The methods he describes can not apply to unobservable causes or any such inferences where the cause 's existence , and not just its causal status , is inferred . Also , the methods place strong requirement on there being only a single agreement or difference in antecedents - something which is rarely the case in practice . It seems that any attempt to describe or justify a particular inductive principle is plagued with problems and it may in fact be more productive to take on a more defensive stance in protecting our inductive practices from the sceptics . Many , such as , attempt to defend our inductive practices precisely because they have controlled the process of scientific discovery for so long already . The fact that induction has already been unreservedly accepted by the whole of science , as well as the fact that it plays such a prominent part in our everyday thinking and intuition does work in its favour to a large degree . ( in Popper , p.5 ) also appreciates how much the principle of induction is already ingrained in our scientific methods , and states that if it is rejected , ' every attempt to arrive at general scientific laws from particular observations is fallacious . ' Another approach to defending our inductive inferences is to adopt the doctrine that while not strictly valid , they can still attain some degree of reliability or probability . ( in Popper , p. ) is an advocate of this approach , stating that instead of using the principle of induction as a means for science to decide on the truth , ' we should say that it serves to decide upon probability . For it is not given to science to reach either truth or falsity ... but scientific statements can only attain continuous degrees of probability whose unattainable upper and lower limits are truth and falsity . ' Unfortunately , even this defence of induction has its sceptics . Popper details the problem that if probabilities are to be assigned to statements based on inductive inference ; this method will have to be justified by invoking a new , modified principle of induction . It appears that , like any form of inductive logic , the ' logic of probable inference ' approach also leads to an infinite regress . Perhaps the most likely solution to the problem of induction is the principle of Falsificationism , as proposed by ( , pp . ) . He takes a different approach to the previously discussed attempts at justifying induction 's role in science . Rather than enforcing that a hypothesis must pass tests before it can be admitted into the realm of scientific knowledge , Popper subscribes to the view that a hypothesis need only be subject to tests once its has already been admitted to science . If the hypothesis subsequently fails any of these tests , it is removed from science , so the key feature of 's method is that a hypothesis may be admitted to science only if it is falsifiable by experience . In summary , to discover something true , we propose conjectures and incorporate them into science without regard for any evidence in their favour , or any reason to think they are true . We must then go to rigorous effort to falsify these hypotheses and thus reject them from science . Not only must these theories be open to falsification by experience , but also our treatment of them must involve a determination to eliminate them if they are in fact false . Of course , many objections have been raised to this method of solving the problem of induction , but this approach seems a lot more promising than any previous attempts . < fnote > A detailed discussion of such objections appears in ( , ) . < /fnote > In conclusion , it seems induction is far too embedded in our scientific practice to discard completely . All traditional attempts to justify our methods of inductive inference have failed , but discarding induction completely will make it difficult for us to practice any science at all . Consequently , to allow induction to play a serious role in scientific discovery , it is clear that we need to change our view of induction such that we can abandon the search for a justification we can never achieve . Even though our inductive practices can not be justified therefore , the principle of induction could be rescued if we can bring ourselves to abandon the doctrine of justificationism . Falsification provides us with an alternative solution to the problem of induction and it is perhaps this practice that can save the role of induction in science .","In this reflective review I will firstly give an outline of our group presentation . I will then identify the most interesting aspect and the most significant learning in the topic . Lastly I will evaluate how well I was able to identify points in this report and discussion . I will also look at task processes as a group . In addition I will mention some questions rising at each stage . Our group has worked with the topic , how do we understand speech ? . In order to answer the question , we have approached the topic with points . They are speech perception from the biological view , comprehension of speech in a context and models of speech perception . In this topic I personally questioned whether we perceive sounds in the brain or whether we hear words with contextual meaning when we actually understand speech . We concluded that both approaches are possible ways to understand speech in our study . In the topic I found it most interesting about the lack of invariance problem as I have never realised the fact before although the point is reasonably understandable . It also leads to a further question whether brain has any effects on understanding speech with lack of invariance problem . In addition my significant new learning was the fact we expect what we hear or we guess missing parts from the context when we could not accurately hear speech . It in fact proves how I found speech in . For example in lectures I can not catch all words lecturers speak nor understand some of the meaning . However I am able to follow the content overall . The fact was a surprise for me as it enabled me to realise how my brain is working on when I hear speech . In addition from the reading I am interested in how our brains biologically have comprehended missing sounds with only meanings such as phoneme restoration effect . Our group was able to introduce some important terms and concepts such as comprehension of sounds and garden path effects . However since we had included too many points in the presentation we made it confusing and difficult for audiences to follow the context . Furthermore it made difficult for audiences to come up questions . Therefore in discussion I could not identify points very well . However in this report I have achieved to answer each question clearly . It was beneficial to work on the topic as a group since our topic was really complicated and I could not comprehend it fully by myself . We have achieved to understand better by helping each other . On the other hand it was challenging as each of us were given different sources approaching the topic with different ways . Therefore we were confused where to focus in the discussion from the broad sources . Overall I believe the task process in group discussion was fairly successful since students ' presentations had brought friendly atmosphere which enables other students to engage the discussion better . It also encouraged to examine the topic and to produce questions by themselves rather than simply listening to lectures . However some students had made a speech rather than having discussion . Therefore these sessions lacked the benefit of the group discussion . I believe it would be improved if we can concentrate a question arisen from the topic area and discuss it in the discussion . Since the detailed context will be covered in the lecture it would be much useful and interesting to concern a particular aspect on topics .",0
"The governments all held a belief in the workings of the market that was unprecedented in the era and rejected the fundamental principles that underpinned the welfare - consensus . Their repudiation of the high levels of state regulation and interference that characterised the governments before them was borne out of the conviction that social democracy had taken into economic decline and that only constricted public expenditure and the further integration of markets into public life could remedy the malaise . The main principles that informed the approach to social policy were the supposed need to : control inflation , end the dependency culture , expand property ownership , tackle bureaucratic monopolies and increase competition within the public services and lastly reassert government authority . Whilst these principles are intermeshed , and it is rather artificial to present them as discrete from one another , in the interests of clarity the essay will do so nonetheless . The overriding economic imperative for the government was to control inflation . This goal was hoped to be realised through the adoption of strict monetarist policies and maintenance of what was then termed ' sound public finance ' . The Medium - term Financial Strategy of sought to set targets for money - supply growth and implemented in resulted in cuts of public expenditure and in turn of welfare provision . The most obvious manifestations of this parsimony can be found perhaps in the termination of maternity and death benefit in the Social Security Act in1986 and the freezing of child benefit .   < fnote > George , V. ( ) , p.23 < /fnote > The principle to be outlined is based upon an analysis of human nature . They argue that the optimistic notion that someone will in normal circumstances work towards a wider social good is illusory . In reality people are naturally and irredeemably self - centred and as such they will only work hard if there are sufficient rewards in doing so and sufficient costs in not doing so . Thus as the post - war welfare state dampens the rewards of success through taxation and mitigates the costs of failure through the provision of generous benefits it reduces the incentive to work hard , be enterprising and innovative .   < fnote > . F.G. , ( ) , The Welfare State Reader , Cambridge : p.145 < /fnote > This has negative effects according to exponents of New Right ideology . , the classic welfare state undermines economic growth . it "" saps the moral fibre of our people as a nation "" ( , , ) , engendering a culture of dependency in which feckless humans opportunistically utilise all the resources and facilities open to them . Through exposing people to the crucial disciplines of poverty , unemployment , illness or homelessness and through allowing them to enjoy a greater portion of the fruits of their labour people become more self - respecting and responsible and the economy becomes more dynamic . The supposed need in increasing incentives and making people less reliant on the state was manifest for instance in the top income - tax rate of being reduced to in the budget of and than being further reduced to in , and the freezing of child - care allowance . By extension the onus to find a job was progressively being shifted upon the individual marking a rejection of the practice of the state ensuring employment for all . This change in attitude resulted ultimately in 's replacement of unemployment benefit with 's allowance in . < fnote > Page , R.M. & Silburn R.(1999 ) in , : Macmillan p.54 < /fnote > The selling off of council houses was part of belief that mass private ownership created a more prosperous and prevented a concentration of power in the hands of the few . It gave people who were wealthy enough to buy up the property a renewed sense of pride and a feeling of being in charge of their destiny . It also marked a repudiation of the whole culture that apparently pervaded council housing in which "" slums , delinquency , vandalism , waste , arrears , and social polarization""(Alcock , , p.34 ) . Most importantly for the it was politically expedient as it changed the electoral landscape in that by reducing the provision of council houses they were eroding traditional Labour strongholds , with new homeowners more ideologically inclined to vote for the incumbent government . Another key principle of Conservative social policy was to tackle bureaucratic monopolies and impregnate social services with greater levels of competition . Reform was premised on the notion that any service would be more efficiently provided if it was free from administrative controls and political interference . Government support for inefficient producers simply distorts the price mechanism ; and the traditional state provision of services creates monopolies not subject to the influence of patient 's choice , resulting in the patient not getting the optimal treatment . Referring back to quote in the beginning of the essay it is simply unfeasible for government ministers or senior civil servants to be more receptive to the complex and ever - changing needs of the consumer as well as the market does . Employing this rationale , the government initiated modest reforms ; permitting hospitals and other important service providers to become organizationally and financially autonomous and to be run as independent trusts . Larger GP surgeries became independent and were allocated national cash budgets rendering them ' fund - holding ' practices , allowing the GP to purchase the health care patients require from the hospital trust that was offering the best value service . Moreover , optical and dental services drifted into the realm of the market . < fnote > Alcock , P. , Erskine A. & May , , ( ) , , : p.76 < /fnote><fnote > Pierson , C. & Castles . F.G. , ( ) , The Welfare State Reader , Cambridge : p.13 < /fnote > The Conservative governments also seemed to increase the power of the consumer in the realms of education , allowing parents and governing bodies of schools to decide whether to take them out of the control of the local education , and encouraged greater choice on where their children could go . They also sought to determine the content of the curriculum , so different schools ' examination results could be easily comparable for parents , just as results in profit margins of businesses can be compared by shareholders . Here too lies the basic assumption that monopolistic organizations seeks to entrench producer power , and that only if it can be broken up in some way can it become more responsive to the needs of the consumer .   < fnote > Gamble , A. ( ) , , : p.18 < /fnote > Finally , inherent within the social policy of the government and later the government was the notion that governments can not achieve miracles , and their consistent attempt to do so undermines their credibility . As a consequence of this they did not bring it upon themselves to achieve so - called utopian goals such as the abolition of poverty , the equalisation of educational opportunity or the improvement of the national health . This they believe would end in failure and government pandering to the demands of interest groups such as pensioners or tenants groups who call for government to promote their supposed rights , as evidenced by goings - on of the 1970s . The experience showed for the New Right that being submerged in a group politics of envy and self - interest resulted in the Government losing all power and legitimacy . It was decided that it was incumbent upon the to restore its authority , showing ferocious resolve against the miners in and an unwillingness to accommodate for the desires of the new - class of public - sector professionals who benefited so much from the structure that existed by . Without combating those groups , they reasoned , their vision of a free society with a free economy may never come to fruition . < fnote > Alcock , P. , Erskine A. & May , , ( ) , , : , R.M. & Silburn R.(1999 ) in , : p.161 < /fnote > In conclusion there are no doubt other salient principles that underpinned policy that deserve mentioning such as the desire to reinforce the nuclear family . However 's and 's approach to family issues are not clear - cut and it is hard to differentiate between their convictions behind their rhetoric and their outcome of their policies on the ground . It is complex and merits a deep - level analysis that can not be provided in an essay so constricted by the world limit . Nevertheless what has hopefully been illustrated is the fact that the rise of Thatcherism in and its virtual continuation in marked a fundamental embracement of market values and rejection of what had underpinned the classic welfare state . A comprehensive system of welfare that was designed to do more than relieve poverty was considered inefficient , inflexible and parasitic , "" sucking the lifeblood of the more productive parts of the economy "" ( , p.47 ) and weakened the character . What the governments sought to do was remove the ' perverse incentives ' of not working ; identify the individual as having responsibility over their impoverishment and penetrate public services with market mechanisms . Through doing this it was hoped that the legitimacy and the authority of government be restored .","The idea that one can establish whether the system of vocational education and training ( ) is superior to its counterpart rests on a number of fallacious assumptions : , it assumes that the systems are directly comparable , with the logical inference being that the vocational systems of both countries emerged in hermetically sealed environments , devoid of any wider social or historical context . This of course is an untenable position to hold . The dual system rests on the firm foundations of its guild tradition and it is sustained by 's manufacturing - based , export - led "" coordinated market economy "" ( Soskice and Hall ) . The on the other hand possesses neither such a strong guild tradition nor the corporatist institutions which make the system so fitting . Ours is a more "" liberal market economy , "" ( Soskice and ) based more on the service industry and the production of low - quality goods which requires an altogether different model of voluntary education . , the question posits that the effects of the countries ' on their respective labour markets and respective economies at large are ascertainable . This necessitates the impossible task of isolating the effects of the voluntary education system from all other factors . To illustrate this point , what extent is the decline of the number of apprentices in the from in to attributable to failures in 's , or the more overarching economic structural changes , or anything else ? Or to what extent was the recession of the economy in and due to the inadequacies of the dual - system , or the natural slow - down in the business cycle , or the pains of unification ? The fact is one can not answer these questions with any accuracy . The relationship between vocational education - the labour market - and the economy can not be summed up by one causal arrow pointing from left to right or right to left , there are in reality myriad causal arrows pointing in myriad directions . , there are a variety of client groups who want a variety of things from the vocational system . For instance , businesses may want workers to be inculcated with ideas of flexible labour practice , the workers may want to be given skills that will give them a long and stable careers and the government may be animated by wider concerns regarding economic prosperity or social inclusion . These client group interests are not always congruent and indeed sometimes they may be deemed mutually exclusive . This renders questions of "" superiority "" somewhat vague and fruitless , what should instead be asked is : "" superior for whom ? "" Lastly , by asking for comparisons between the countries the question implicitly posits that the effects of have been felt uniformly within the confines of their respective borders , and so one runs the risk of disregarding the disparities in outcomes inside a country . For example , as the essay shall later show , the effects of the dual system in have been very different from those in . With these points in mind , the paper shall now proceed to analyse the effects of the vocational systems within both countries , not so much in relation to one another but according to their own individual merits and demerits . By doing this , perhaps light may be shed on areas of strengths and weaknesses within both VETs . The dual - system of vocational education is both massive and comprehensive in that of every age cohort ( ) in passes through it , with most courses offering of a rigorous training lasting . It is run on a cooperative basis between private enterprisers , who offer practical apprenticeships to the trainee , and part - time vocational colleges ( Berufsschale ) , who impart more general , supplementary knowledge . The private firms contribute a great deal towards their funding . There are reasons for this : firstly it allows them to utilise training as a means of inculcating good work habits and developing a highly skilled work force , and because of the traditional belief that private enterprises have an obligation to help mould the youth into self - sufficient and well - adjusted individuals in the view of maintaining social cohesion . This system has won many plaudits in the academic world , and has been copied by other countries with a varying degree of success . However over the model has been put under strain by discernable phenomena : the reunification and the emergence of post - Fordism . The assimilation of the rather stagnant low skilled economy into the more productive , high wage economy had damaging repercussions for the vocational educational system in the newly unified state . cities were very different to ones in that they did not have the same amount of flourishing middle - size companies which provided the optimum condition for the dual system to operate effectively . To compound matters , youths found it difficult to adapt to the more western work patterns introduced and the profound changes taking place in the labour market . The result was that the in became more costly and uneven in its effects- this can be seen in that in of the apprenticeship contracts in firms in had to be subsidised by the state and that whilst of apprentices were kept on by their firms after completing their apprenticeship , of eastern apprentices were given contracts . The emergence of post - Fordist forms of production and the increasing pressures of globalisation have put into question the viability of the dual - system . The system has become more costly for the government as foreign firms , not bound by the same social contract as companies feel less obliged to offer apprenticeships and funding to the youngsters . This can be seen that from the percentage of the cost of the system coming from public money rose from . The increasing importance of information technology has also created profound difficulties . , because the rapid increase in demand for highly - qualified workers , has not been met with a rapid increase in supply , as most programmes are geared towards menial work . , because most firms in the information technology sector are small , they feel too unstable to take on apprentices for . , because the sector is rapidly changing , many students have found that their teachers ' knowledge is outdated and that the theoretical instruction is not relevant enough to their future operations . More generally , the apprenticeship system , with its focus on providing people with the necessary skills early on in life so they can then proceed in joining the occupational labour market , seems to be antiquated in light of the fact that rapid economic and technological we are experiencing require education to be a lifelong occupation and workers to be flexible in their work - patterns . The misfit between what is taught in the dual - system and what is required in the labour market is further exacerbated by the bureaucratic inertia embedded within the corporatist decision - making process . At a time when the obsolescence rate of knowledge and skills is ever- increasing it can sometimes take for government to advance from the awareness of the need for policy change and the materialisation of that policy change . Even when reforms are made they are often half - baked because of the need to compromise between the competing interests of labour and capital . Indeed while the governments ' have tried to respond to the new demands posed by globalisation and post - Fordism , all of the policies initiatives exhibit their profound disinclination to make any major structural changes . The bitter fruits of this tentativeness over are the add - on programmes which however well - intentioned make the system more complex and confusing . Despite all these criticisms , the governments ' approach to has been far more systematic and consistent than anything found in the . Indeed there are a large number of examples in the of government vocational initiatives which were devoid of long - term planning and substantial funding . was put together with a large degree of improvisation with the result being that the quality of the programmes were variable , with there often being a disconnect between what was taught in on- job learning and off- job training . The NVQs have been seen to have dubious validity , with work - based assessments overseen by the supervisor / trainer without external verification , leading to a privileging of practical skills over theoretical knowledge , an unnecessarily high rate of assessment errors and a wider abuse of the process when economic rewards are linked to high test results . The Individual Labour Accounts scheme seemed to be a worthwhile response to the pressures of post - Fordism , but it ignominiously died amidst a funding crisis and suspicions of widespread fraud . Thus , it seems evident that while the government can perhaps react more nimbly to the rapidly transforming global economy than its counterpart , this is partly because of the very fact that it has not committed itself to creating any deeply embedded , highly institutionalised vocational educational system . Nonetheless , the shortfalls of the 's vocational education system can not be adequately explained by the government 's fairly non - committal attitude in this area of policy - making . There is a wider issue of public perception and social exclusion at hand that has been more acute in the . While most 's hold the dual - system in high regard and pass through it at some point of their life , 's is seen as a mere stop - gap for a minority of dejected unmotivated working class youths . The low expectations of wider society and the low aspirations of many of the working class trainees exist symbiotically- feeding off one another , resulting in high - drop out rates in courses and an unwillingness of businesses to employ those youngsters who have successfully completed their training . This can be clearly seen in where in many cases trainees were exploited as cheap labour and then dismissed after they finished their course if they had not already quit before this time . Thus , although there is no doubt that does little to abate social inequality , social inequality undoubtedly makes harder to function successfully . In conclusion , the question is a complete nonsense as it posits that there is a definitive way of ascertaining whether vocational system is superior to another . In reality and forms of vocational education are the results and to a lesser extent the causes of their own social contexts in which they find themselves . To isolate them from their contexts so as to compare them would be theoretically myopic . 's highly co - ordinated dual - system would be totally unsuitable for 's liberal market economy , and 's more loose and fragmented model of vocational education would be completely unfitting for the more socially inclusive . Anyhow , what does seem apparent is that there is an inevitable trade - off between having a systematic and comprehensive vocational system and having an innovative and flexible one ; the system goes so far in the former direction that it is bloated and unwieldy , and its counterpart goes so far in the other that it becomes flimsy and utterly incoherent . Therefore to meet the profound challenges of heightened global competition and post - Fordism , it is imperative for both countries to construct their vocational educational systems so they are flexible enough to cope with rapid change and comprehensive enough for to create a highly skilled work - force , with greater dexterity than hitherto evinced .",1
"< heading > Part the Physiological implications of a chosen inherited disorder . Your discussion can include the following;</heading><list > InheritanceGerm layer developmentImmune dysfunctionSystemic changes</list><heading > Introduction</heading > Part of this essay aims to discuss the physiological implications of ( CF ) . CF is the most common of all life - threatening inherited conditions . As life expectancy and the population increases so do the number of people living with the condition , in the ( URL . ) . CF is most common in white populations but can affect all ethnic groups ( , p830 ) . Current estimates suggest that 1:25 of the 's population carries the faulty cystic fibrosis gene ( URL , ) . CF affects the respiratory , digestive and reproductive systems as well as sweat gland secretions to varying degrees and has different mutations and classifications . This essay aims to explore its inheritance , diagnosis , mutations , classifications , systemic changes , affects on the immune system and treatment . < heading > Inheritance</heading > Cystic Fibrosis is an autosomal recessive disorder and is caused by mutations in the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance Regulator ( CFTR ) gene , which is located on the long arm of chromosome ( & ) . Recessive disorders require copies of the affected gene in order for the condition to result . If there were normal gene and affected gene the normal gene would be dominant over the affected one . In order for a child to be affected with CF they therefore need a copy of the defective gene from both parents . People who have a copy of the defective gene but do not have CF are known as carriers . carriers would have a chance of having an affected child , a chance of having a child who is a carrier and a chance of having an unaffected child . In many cases the diagnosis of CF comes as a shock to the parents because most parents did not know they were carriers . ( , , p1 ) . < heading > Diagnosis</heading > The diagnosis of is usually based on phenotypic features and confirmed by an elevated concentration of electrolytes in the sweat . Phenotypic features include ; persistent chest infections , chronic cough and sputum production , persistent abnormal chest x - rays , wheezing , nasal polyps , distal clubbing , meconium ileus , distal intestinal obstructive syndrome , rectal prolapse , pancreatic insufficiency , recurrent pancreatitis , chronic hepatic disease , cirrhosis , protein - calorie malnutrition , fat - soluble vitamin deficiency , salt loss syndromes and in males , obstructive azoospermia . It is important to note that not all patients will display all of these features , the systems affected and to what degree can vary by individual and by specific mutations . ( et al 2000 ) . < heading > Mutations and Classifications</heading > There are over 800 different mutations that lead to , the most common being which accounts for of all mutations ( et al 2000 ) . The gene for CF encodes a protein of amino acid residues . This protein is know as the transmembrane conductance regulator ( CFTR ) and is a chloride channel . CFTR is found in the apical membrane of the epithelial cells where it is not only the cells main chloride channel but it also helps regulate transepithelial transport of other ions and water . These functions mean plays an important part in regulating the ion and water content of secretions , in secretions are thicker than normal . In culture CF cells have higher sodium absorption and lower chloride secretion rates than cells . ( et al 2000 ) . The genes different mutations fall into pathophysiological classifications depending on where and how they interfere with CFTR production and function . To understand these classifications it is important to know how CFTR works . Normally CFTR is made in the cells nucleus then ' packaged ' in the endoplasmic reticulum from where it is taken to the cell membrane . In the cell membrane it opens long enough to let the correct amount chloride through its channel , it does this by responding to signals . Class includes all mutations that interfere with production of CFTR protein . Class mutations are those where the CFTR proteins has been degraded or broken down in the endoplasmic reticulum , not allowing it to travel properly to the cell membrane ( this class includes ) . Class includes those mutations that reach the cell membrane but can not respond properly to the signals . Class mutations reach the membrane , respond to the signals but do not open the channel long enough to let enough chloride conduction take place . Mutations in class are like those in class , in that they interfere with protein production , but they do allow some reduced synthesis of protein . It is the reduced or non - existent functioning of CFTR in patients that causes the systemic changes . ( et al 2000 ) . < heading > Systemic changes</heading > The major cause of mortality in patients is respiratory failure ( et al cited in , p62 ) . In thick mucus , clogs the upper and lower parts of the respiratory tree , causing progressive lung damage . This happens because the mucous secretions contain less water than normal , making them thicker ( a result of the faulty or absent CFTR ) . The normal ciliary beatings are therefore unable to remove them effectively . The resultant build up of mucus causes ball - valve effects , deformity of the chests , pheumothorax , recurrent bacterial chest infections and bronchiectasis culminating in chronic lung disease . ( , ) . CF has many affects on the digestive system , notably pancreatic insufficiency , malnutrition and bowel blockage . CF patient 's pancreatic cells are replaced with fibrous scar tissue with time , caused by dried up mucous secretions , which ultimately result in pancreatic insufficiency . Pancreatic digestive juice production decreases leading to a lack of enzymes essential for the breakdown and absorption of food , causing malabsorption . This leads to abnormal excretion of fat in the faeces ( steatorrhoer ) , deficiency in vitamins , protein , nutrients and water . The partial digestion of fat causes irritation in the bowel leading to increased bowel movements and inflammation . Supplementing digestive enzymes can reduce some of these affects . ( , ) . Diabetes mellitus is another complication associated with the pancreas in . Fibrous scar tissue contracting can cause damage to the alpha and beta cells in the islets of langerhans , this reduces its ability to produce glucagons ( in the alpha cells ) and insulin ( in the beta cells ) . Diabetes in CF differs from normal type diabetes as it is caused by damage to both types of cells , normally only the beta cells that are affected . CF diabetes is normally easily controlled and is not associated with the common diabetic complications . ( , ) . Another digestive problem associated with is bowel obstruction . In newborns meconium ileus is common , the small intestine is clogged with thick meconium caused by the abnormally thick mucus from the intestinal glands . Meconium Ileus can be further complicated by peritonitis . Through childhood and into adulthood the most pronounced symptoms are failure to thrive ( often accompanied by an increased appetite ) , frequent oily or loose fowl smelling stools and abdominal distension . Rectal prolapse can be a complication of frequent stools . Malnutrition often occurs because of the lack of pancreatic digestive juices reaching the small intestine that means nutrients can not be absorbed properly . ( , ) . Liver and biliary diseases are less common than some of the other systemic changes associated with CF , occurring of patients , but can lead to cirrhosis . As in the pancreas the liver becomes blocked with dried mucous secretions causing fibrosis and reduced liver function results . ( , ) . Most male patients have abnormalities of the epididymis and vas deferens , of men have congenital bilateral absence of the vas deferens ( ) . It is thought this happens because at some time before birth the vas deferens become blocked resulting in their destruction . Reduced fertility in CF women is thought to result from thick cervical mucus , some women also have the added complication of multicystic ovaries . ( et al 2000 ) . CF patient usually have a high salt content in their sweat . This is caused by absent or faulty CFTR in the sweat duct epithelium . Sweat is made of a solution of electrolytes ( sodium , chloride and lesser amounts of calcium and potassium ) and water . In patients the electrolyte concentrations are increased because of the absent or faulty chloride channels mean that chloride ions can not be absorbed and sodium ions are retained in the sweat duct , there is also less water than normal . As mentioned before the presents of raised electrolyte concentrations is an important part of diagnosis . ( et al 2000 ) . < heading > Immune system</heading > There is no detectable immune deficiency in CF however , the respiratory system is more susceptible to recurrent and chronic bacterial infection ( , p79 ) . The thick mucus in the respiratory system is thought to be a cause of this . The mucus can not be expelled properly , enabling bacteria such as staphylococcus aureus and pseudomonas aeruginosa to thrive . As respiratory complications are often the cause of mortality in CF preventative treatments for these and other bacteria are often given to help prevent further lung damage . Regular physiotherapy is also used to help expel the thick mucus . CF patient have been know to become resistant to some antibiotics which further complicates their management . ( et al 2000 ) . < heading > Treatment</heading > Many CF patients now attend specialised CF centres where they are monitored , educated and treated . The clinics are multi - disciplinary and are usually staffed by specialist doctors , nurses , psychologists and/or psychiatrists , social workers as well as with physiotherapists and dietitians with an interest in . These centres monitor patients with regular physical examinations ( including height and weight ) , chest x - rays , lung function test and cough swabs and/or sputum samples to check for bacterial flora . They treat the patients proactively and when their symptoms are exacerbated . Treatments include the use of prophylactic antibiotics , specific antibiotics to treat any infection found , nutritional supplements and intensive physiotherapy . They are also able to support and educate the patients and their families . ( , ) . < heading > Conclusion < /heading > It is clear that cystic fibrosis is a complicated condition and its variations are dependent on many things . Although its management and symptomatic treatment has improved vastly there is still no cure . Patients and parents alike need to have a good understanding of the condition and need to be closely involved in its treatment . The UK Cystic Fibrosis Gene Therapy Consortium has already done a lot of research into 's genotype and is currently working on gene therapy treatments , which offer CF patients hope for the future ( URL ) .   URL   URL   URL < heading > Part following pedigree diagram shows the family of a boy who has . What does the diagram tell you about the family ? Show how you would implement a genetic assessment and counselling program for the family .</heading><picture/><heading > Introduction</heading > In part of this essay I hope to describe the above pedigree diagram and what it tells us about the family . I also hope to explain what genetic assessment and counselling involve and how it could be used to help the family . I wo n't be explaining ( ) in any detail but as an overview it is an x - linked genetic disorder that usually only affects boys . A carrier mother usually passes it on but the mutation of the gene can occur in the individual . is a progressive disorder that causes muscle weakness and degeneration . It is caused by a gene defect that interferes with dystrophin ; dystrophin is required inside muscle cells for structural support ( URL   30/11/04 ) . < heading > What the pedigree diagram tells us about the family</heading > The , and most important step in genetic counselling is collecting genetic information and is best achieved by drawing a family tree or pedigree ( Harper , ) . A pedigree diagram allows genetic information to be set out more clearly than a list of family history . The use of established clear and consistent genetic symbols allow an unambiguous record of a families history to be taken . The above pedigree tells us that there is a married unaffected farther and a carrier mother . The double line between them tells us that it is a consanguineous marriage , this means that the mother and farther are related . Consanguinity may suggest autosomal recessive inheritance but does n't increase the chances of having a child with , as it is x - linked ( URL   ) . The diagram also tells us that there are unaffected daughters , an affected son and a pregnancy . We do not know the sex of the pregnancy . The arrows under the son and pregnancy indicate that they are the proband 's , this means the affected people , or possibly affected people in the case of the pregnancy . Assuming it is not the son or the pregnancy requesting information the parents are the consultands . Consultands are the people seeking advice and genetic counselling . < heading assessment</heading > As a genetic pedigree has already been constructed and there is already an affected child in the family it is possible that a genetic assessment has already been made . The purpose of a genetic assessment is to gather all possible information about the family and from this give information and advise about the risks of a genetic condition and how to manage them . Although we have the genetic pedigree we do not know what advise the family has already received or if any tests were done during the other pregnancies . The family may well have been through the process of genetic counselling and testing with their other children . It is also important to consider that they may not have done and may be new to the whole process . A family can be referred for genetic assessment and counselling through their GP . This can take place at many different times , for example on diagnosis of a child with a genetic condition or because another member of the family has been found to have a genetic condition and the parents are worried they might be carriers . In the case of this family we do not know when or why they were referred for genetic counselling . The genetic pedigree we have only show the parents and their children , it may be the case that over members of the family have or that other women in the family are carriers . < heading > Genetic Counselling</heading > Once a genetic assessment of the family has been made it is possible to begin the process of genetic counselling . Many factors need to be taken into consideration during this process as they many affect the information given or any actions the family may take . These factors include cultural beliefs and values e.g. consanguineous marriage , the amount of information a family wants and affects on the wider family e.g. the risk of other carriers ( URL   30/11/04 ) . It is important that genetic counselling is delivered in a non - directive way and without prejudice . Genetic counselling involves main steps , the of these being an accurate diagnosis . Once this has been achieved it is necessary to describe the consequences of the disorder , including the probability of developing it and transmitting it . The major step is to discuss the ways in which it may be prevented or , if it ca n't be prevented how the family can learn to deal with it . ( URL   30/11/04 ) . As the family have a diagnosis of and they probably know something of its consequences as they already have an affected son it is necessary to concentrate on the unborn child . Part of the role of a genetic counsellor if explain and arrange any prenatal tests the family wants . In there is a chance that a boy would be unaffected and a chance a girl would not be a carrier . By knowing the outcome the family could decided whether or not to continue with the pregnancy , if they did n't want to consider abortion they would at least have all the facts and be able to plan accordingly . ( URL   05/12/04 ) < heading Prenatal tests are carried out during pregnancy to see is the unborn child is affected with a condition that the parents carry , in this case . There are tests that can confirm if the unborn child is affected , these are Amniocentesis and Chorionic Villus Sampling ( ) . Both of these tests carry a small risk of miscarriage and respectively . Amniocentesis usually performed at of gestation . It involves a thin needle , guided by ultrasound , being inserted through the mother 's abdomen into the uterus . A small sample of amniotic fluid is taken for DNA testing to see if the gene causing is present . Results take . Chorionic Villus Sampling ( ) is usually performed and can be performed transcervically or transabdominally . A small sample of chorionic villus tissue is taken from outside the sac where the fetus develops . The Chorionic Villus tissue has the same genetic and biochemical makeup as the fetus . The tissue DNA is then tested . Results take . As well as amniocentesis and placental biopsy and foetal blood sampling can be done at . Parents will be offered the choice of which test to have , if they want any . All of these tests are able to determine whether or not the fetus has the same genetic changes already found in the affected child . (   URL   05/12/04 ) < heading > Conclusion</heading > Genetic counselling offers diagnosis , information , risk estimation , and support to individuals and families with genetic disorders . By using a family based diagnostic approach and specialist counselling skills it can help families make informed decisions . In the case of this family it can help to work out if the unborn child is affected with and if so , whether or not to continue with the pregnancy . The service will offer unbiased support and information to the whole family . ( URL   )","I will reflect on a decision made in practice and incorporate critical analysis of the evidence that was and could have been used to inform it , using the reflective cycle ( cited in : Palmer et al , p39 ) ( appendix b ) as a guide . Decision - making processes and theories will be discussed and information I feel relevant to my decision and the context in which it occurred will be included . I will reflect on my methodology for gathering evidence ( appendix a ) , and critically review pieces of evidence I feel are of relevance based on the criteria of the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme ( CASP ) ( , ; , ) . I will also discuss the implications of my learning on future practice . Pseudonyms will be used to respect anonymity . Whilst on placement at a stroke unit I was caring for , who was post stroke and had right - sided hemiplegia . was a consultant surgeon from who had travelled to give a lecture and had a stroke on in the country . Together with the worries caused by having a stroke and by being in a different country away from his family , he was finding it very difficult to accept that he had to rely on others and , because of his cultural beliefs , found it particularly difficult to allow others to wash and dress him . I had spent time with but was not directly involved in his care . On his day post stroke I was assigned his care with one of my responsibilities being to assist him with his washing and dressing . I knew that up until now the nurses caring for had been washing him at the bedside and that rather than expose himself he had chosen to neglect his hygiene needs . I thought he would find it hard to let me wash him so after discussion with my mentor and , and based on my knowledge of his ability , I decided to try and enable him to shower himself . In deciding this I had to make assessments of the risks posed and needed to balance what wanted against his safety . I spoke with colleagues to see if they felt was able to manage , asked what he felt , and looked at all the shower rooms to see if it would be feasible and which would offer the safest environment . I hoped that by adapting the environment and making continued assessment in I would be able to minimise the potential risks . I felt that as was finding it so difficult to allow others to wash him , and as he understood the risks and was managing well despite his hemiplegia , helping him to shower himself would be a risk worth taking and if successful would benefit his overall wellbeing . Decision - making is integral to nursing ( Muir , 2004 ) as all nursing decisions have implications for patient outcomes ( Thompson et al , ) . Decisions are made at the end of a problem - solving process ( Muir , 2004 ) and involve gathering information and making judgements ( Thompson et al , 2004 ) thus , judgements and decisions are interlinked . Judgements are about determining risks and assessing alternatives while decisions involve choosing between alternatives ( , ) . ( ) suggest that as in healthcare there is almost always uncertainty most nursing decisions have their foundations in judgements , such as the judgements nurses make about the condition or ability of patients . "" Health care is dependent on the clinical decisions of the professionals delivering it . These decisions are often borne of , and accompanied by , uncertainty . "" ( , p22 ) . Decisions are informed by evaluation of available information and clinical judgement ( ) . theory of reasoning is the information processing theory which refers to the different stages of reasoning used to reach decisions . There are different interpretations of this theory involving differing stages but they all have stages in common ( , ) . ( ) advocate that in nursing decisions the following stages are relevant . The stage , referred to as ' cue acquisition ' , involves gathering preliminary information about the situation or patient ; in relation to my decision this includes gathering information about the patients ability , desires and needs , and what risks are attached . The stage , ' hypothesis generation ' , involves generating an initial hypothesis or solution to the situation against which the decision can be judged . The stage , ' interpretation ' , is a reasoning process that involves interpreting gathered cues and classifying them as confirming , refuting or not contributing to the hypothesis ; and the stage , ' weighing up , involves weighing up the pro 's and con 's and attaching value . Information processing theory can be described as an analytical framework as it involves analysis and evaluation and requires conscious awareness ( Muir , 2004 ) . Intuition is offered as an alternative explanation for decision - making , especially in relation to nursing ( , ) . Intuition is often described in abstract ways such as ' gut feeling ' , ' instinct ' or ' hunch ' ( Muir , 2004 ) and is a "" process of reasoning that just ' happens ' , that can not be explained and that is not rational "" ( , p11 ) . ( ) believe that many clinical decisions involve intuition but point out that when used alone it can not provide all the answers while , ( cited in : Muir , 2004 ) believes that intuition is an essential part of nursing judgement . Muir ( 2004 ) adds that intuition is often used in conjunction with information cues and other forms of knowledge and represents a function of experience and pattern recognition . Analysis and intuition offer conflicting conceptual frameworks of decision - making ( Muir , 2004 ) , however the cognitive continuum offers a framework that acknowledges the differences in the approaches and relates them to different tasks ( , ) . There are dimensions to the cognitive continuum - complexity of task , ambiguity of task and task presentation ( Thompson et al , ) . The mode of cognition used is determined by the task structure , the time available and the number of information cues , with cognition being viewed along a continuum from analysis to intuition ( Muir , 2004 ) ; unstructured tasks are seen to require intuition while structured tasks require analysis ( , ) . The cognitive continuum therefore suggests that reasoning is neither purely intuitive nor purely analytical but instead located somewhere between the . As nursing decisions are often unstructured , with numerous information cues and time constraints intuition occurs frequently and is often appropriate ; it is acknowledged that decision - making in nursing involve a combination of analytical reasoning , intuition and evidence based knowledge ( Muir , 2004 ) . Strokes often happen suddenly and without warning . Many younger people , like , who have strokes often have no previous experience of serious illness or hospitalisation thus as well as dealing with a stroke they have to deal with a change in role and the psychological consequences this can bring ( , no date ) . can have a profound impact on almost all activities of living ( ADLs ) which can cause patients to feel embarrassed and ashamed ( ) , the consequences of becoming a ' recipient of care ' can include feelings of fear , helplessness , loss of dignity and autonomy , and isolation ( , no date ) . Gibbon ( ) highlights that inability to independently perform ADLs should not be regarded as a permanent state in patients following stroke as rehabilitation can be inhibited by doing things for patients rather than assisting them to do what they can . The psychological consequences of physical disabilities caused by strokes , such as embarrassment at not being able to wash and dress independently , are seen by patients as being vitally important to wellbeing and as requiring attention in nursing care ( , ) . The nursing role in stroke rehabilitation therefore encompasses both physical and psychological factors ( , ) as rehabilitation is the process of enabling and facilitating a patient to regain optimal physical , social and psychological functioning ( Mallik et al , ) . In stroke rehabilitation significant gains can be achieved in and following stroke with therapeutic nursing intervention in combination with more formalised rehabilitation regimes ( ) thus nurses have a significant role ( , ) . The nursing role includes facilitating the assimilation of skills into meaningful self - care and social activity ( Burton , ) . "" Restoration of independence in activities of living is one of the central aims of rehabilitation "" ( p51 ) and as such it is recognised that falls and other risks represent an inherent consequence of an active rehabilitation process and can not be completely avoided ( , ) . Early mobilisation is important in stroke rehabilitation as it improves functional gains and ultimately quality of life however such improvements are only achieved by taking risks ( Bernhardt et al , ; ) therefore "" effective rehabilitation entails an inevitable risk of falls as patients are encouraged to regain independent mobility . "" ( Oliver et al , 2004 p122 ) . Risk assessment is fundamental in managing patient care and therefore in decision - making in nursing ; as clinical practice is uncertain it is never without risks ( Hogson , ; , ) . Risk is "" the probability that a particular adverse event occurs during a stated period of time , or as a result of a particular challenge "" ( , p2 cited in : , p82 ) and "" must be in the minds of all who deliver health care "" ( Mallik et al , p31 ) . Risk assessment is a continual process and with adequate assessment and intervention risks can be reduced even though the hazard remains ; key questions to ask in risk assessment are : what can go wrong ? What could be the effect ? And what can be done to stop it from happening ? ( Mallik et al , ) . Risk management is rooted in risk assessment and in the planning and implementation of preventative action and involves trying to reduce negative outcomes by implementing measures to reduce risks occurring ( Mallik et al , ; NMC , : , ) . Risk assessment tools offer a formalised method of making judgements about risk assessment ( , ) . A common approach to managing risk is an ' engineering approach ' that assumes that by modifying the environment safety can be enhanced and risk reduced ( Mallik et al , ) . I can now see that this approach featured strongly in my decision as I hoped that by manipulating the environment I could reduce the risk of harm to . "" The outcome of risk assessment must be the identification and implementation of risk management strategies to ensure that particular risks are eliminated or adequately controlled "" ( Mallik et al , p35 ) . Nurses have a responsibility to "" deliver safe and effective care based on current evidence , best practice , and , where applicable , validated research "" ( NMC , p1 ) thus "" the nurse 's role is to ensure the safety of the environment by assessing the potential risks and facilitating action for change "" ( Mallik et al , p31 ) . Although it is rarely possible to completely eliminate risk , nurses must manage it and reduce it to an acceptable level ( NMC , ) . Risk assessment and management should include ensuring an environment that helps maintain and enhance physical , psychological and social wellbeing ( Mallik et al , ) . Patients may have different perceptions of risks and different priorities about what causes the most risk to their wellbeing . A patient 's perception of wellbeing can be influenced by their culture , social class , gender , age and level of education ( Mallik et al , ) . As culture can influence patient perception and priorities , nurses should ensure they are sensitive to multicultural needs ( , ; , ) , and patient preferences should be taken into account where possible ( Hogson , ) . and Breisinger ( ) believe that risk assessment can be enhanced in rehabilitation by including a patient 's input and perception of their own abilities . Hogson ( ) adds that patients should be encouraged to take part in risk assessment when it relates to decisions about their care , while and ( 2004 ) add that patients may consider the psychological and social effects of stroke more significant than the physical effects and thus risk assessment should be holistic including physical and psychological factors ; a view that is supported by et al ( 2004 ) . Snape and ( ) conducted a literature review to explore nursing practice in stroke rehabilitation based on the perceptions of stroke patients concluding that nurses play a key role in facilitating individual recovery and wellbeing because nurse interventions impact on patient recovery and self - esteem ; addressing psychological as well as physical needs has a positive impact on patient wellbeing . Decisions involving risk assessment in healthcare often have multiple and conflicting decision goals ( Thompson et al , 2004 ) and can lead to moral dilemmas between respecting a patient 's cultural and individual beliefs and acting in their best interests to maintain and promote safety ( Mallik et al , ) . My main concern was that letting shower himself would put him at risk of falling . It is recognised that falls are one of the most frequent complications in stroke patients and although few falls result in significant injury it can be assumed that injuries and other consequences of falls are likely to have a negative effect on rehabilitation and patient outcomes ( , ) . Falls prevention is a frequently discussed topic in rehabilitation nursing ( , ) and it is widely believed that minimising fall occurrence by implementing targeted prevention strategies would be desirable ( , ) , however it is noted that there is often inconsistency in predicting falls risk ( , ) . A retrospective study aiming to develop an easily administered falls risk index for patients in a specialist stroke rehabilitation unit in stated that the identification of patients prone to falls is an essential aspect of risk assessment and the development of prevention strategies ( , ) . 's ( ) study indicated that the risk factors associated with falls in stroke patients are : male sex , urinary incontinence , dependence in ADL 's , bilateral signs of motor impairment , signs of visuospatial hemineglect and the use of antidepressants , sedatives and diuretics . However it should be noted that although the sample was considered representative of stroke inpatients in the sub - acute phase of care ( , ) the study was limited as the prediction factors were only tested on the data from which they originated ; thus to achieve validity the predictors would need to be tested prospectively . Smith et al ( ) conducted an extensive prospective cohort study to investigate the predicative validity and reliability of the falls risk assessment tool when applied to acute stroke patients across specialist stroke units . The STRATIFY tool has been found to predict patients at high risk of falls with clinically useful sensitivity in gerontological settings . Risk factors used by are : previous falls , agitation , visual impairment , frequent toileting or incontinence and poor mobility ( Barthel index ) . A patient is given a score of if the risk factor is not present and a score of if it is ; scores range from 0 - low fall risk to - high fall risk ( Smith et al , ) . Although the researchers believe a routinely used falls risk assessment tool would be useful in stroke units the study concluded that performed poorly as a predictor of falls in a heterogeneous population of stroke patients . The authors believe that the studies results highlight that it can not be assumed that a generic tool will perform well in specific patient groups and suggest the need for a stroke specific assessment tool . They go on to suggest that the factors that would be more useful in predicting fall risk in this group are : male sex , increased motor response time , postural sway and depression ; as these were the factors associated with falls in the study sample ( Smith et al , ) . 's ( ) methodically sound study ' A description of the nursing role in stroke rehabilitation ' set out to explore and describe nursing roles in stroke rehabilitation . It set clear aims and used an appropriate qualitative / reflective methodology , had ethical approval and was based in an appropriate setting , although some non - stroke rehabilitation patients were on the unit and therefore included in the study . Registered nurses working on the stroke unit where the study took place were chosen as the best participants because it was felt that as they managed the majority of care they would provide the most valuable information ; all nurses on the unit agreed to participate . Data collection appeared adequate however information on the exact content of the proforma used was not included ; I assume that all reflections were included but this is n't made obvious . Some description of the data analysis was reported , including information on the content of the thematic analysis . Findings were clearly reported and discussed in relation to their bearings on other literature . The author acknowledges that the study 's generalisability is reduced as it was restricted to unit , however I can relate some of the findings to my own experiences on a stroke ward . The study identified categories of nursing role : nurse as provider of care - including meeting basic requirements , maintainence of safety and prevention of harm ; facilitator of personal recovery - including maintainence and improvement of wellbeing , improving coping strategies , improving ADL 's and including working with risks and a willingness to take risks to produce benefits ; and , manager of multi - disciplinary provisions - involving liaising , planning and aiding transition and wellbeing ( Burton , ) . Facilitating personal recovery was seen as a key aspect of the role and includes nursing interventions that involve a greater degree of interaction between patient and nurse in which the purpose is to maintain and improve wellbeing ( Burton , ) . ( ) point out that although the need for risk taking in the interests of rehabilitation was a recurring theme it was often not supported by formal training or formal assessment tools but based on intuition and knowledge of the patient and their needs . The critical role of acknowledging the socio - psychological impact of stroke was highlighted as was the importance of holistic awareness in facilitating individual recovery ( Burton , ) . In line with the view of Bernhardt et al , , and et al , , the study suggests that doing things for a patient does n't help them to achieve independence as much as facilitating them to do things . Oliver et al ( 2004 ) paper ' Risk factors and risk assessment tools for falls in hospital in - patients : a systematic review ' aimed to identify all published papers on risk factors and risk assessment tools for falls in hospital inpatients to identify clinical risk assessment tools or individual clinical risk factors predictive of falls . The exemplary review included relevant research in order to achieve its aim and involved a comprehensive literature search , using methodology and included relevant databases and indexes , follow - up of references , did n't limit the search to only papers , and ' experts ' in the field were contacted to gain information on unpublished trials . Papers were independently and blindly assessed by assessors using agreed inclusion and exclusion criteria that limited inclusion to papers of high methodological quality and validity relevant to the review aims . Despite the heterogeneity of the studies the review identified a small number of risk factors that repeatedly emerged : gait instability , lower - limb weakness , incontinence / frequency , previous fall history , agitation / confusion , impaired judgement and hypnotic / sedative drugs ( Oliver et al , 2004 ) and concluded that there are few validated risk assessment tools but there are common risk factors . Oliver et al ( 2004 ) also state that no consistent evidence of effective risk assessment tools or interventions to prevent falls in hospital inpatients were found and they therefore suggest that the best way to prevent falls is to target reversible risk factors in all patients . In agreement with Smith et al , the results highlight that due to the lack of validity in different setting generic tools may not be sensitive in specialised settings , adding that even the best validated tools will fail to predict a significant number of falls ; and as such the review does little more than highlight the need for further methodologically sound and validated research in the area . "" Evidence - based decision - making involves combining the knowledge arising from one 's clinical expertise , patient preferences , and research evidence within the context of available resources "" ( Thompson et al , p68 ) , thus nurses should incorporate research evidence into their professional practice and decision - making ( McCormack et al , ) . ( ) purport that areas are included in influencing decision - making : clinical experience , research evidence , patient preference and available resources ; with different weight being applied to each area in different circumstances thus no one area can ever be considered superior . It is acknowledged that nurses tend to base their decisions on personal experience or the experience of colleagues as human sources of information in situations with uncertainty are preferred ( Thompson et al , ) , however many nursing decisions are amenable to the application of research ( , ) . It is clear to me that much of the information I used to make my decision was based on experience - of 's abilities and needs , and my intuition that it was a risk worth taking ; however , by et al ( 2002 ) criteria in which evidence includes research , experience and patient preference my decision could be considered evidence based . Integrating evidence - based practice into decision - making is an active process that relies on the ability to source relevant information ( McCormack et al , ) . The methodology I used to gather the evidence I have incorporated is detailed in appendix a. I found extensive research and literature on stroke rehabilitation , risk assessment and falls risk factors and feel this has helped me better understand the decision I made and the evidence it was based on . A lot of the research findings , such as the importance of psychological wellbeing and the risk of falls in stroke patients , support what I already knew , or thought at the time , although I was unaware that it was based on any sort of formal research . I now better understand how focusing questions maximises search results ( , ) as I found that I needed to refine my search as I went along , so having a better idea of how to find relevant information would have improved my searching and made better use of time ; however I do feel I was able to access adequate and appropriate information . I will learn from this and build on it in future . I feel that risk assessment was central to my decision as if I had considered to be at a greater risk than I did my decision would have been different . On the whole I feel that it was based on weighing up the pro 's and con 's ( , ) of the benefits would gain by washing without feeling uncomfortable against the chances of him coming to harm . I better appreciate the integral role risk and risk assessments play in nursing decisions ( , ) and appreciate the need for holistic assessment in this area ( Mallik et al , ) . Although it was not possible to eliminate risks , as some risks factors are inherent in rehabilitation ( Bernhardt et al , ; ; , ; , ) , managing risk is central to the nursing role as it is a nurses responsibility to ensure the safest possible care ( NMC , ) . I had assumed that as fall risk assessment tools offer a formalised framework for calculating risk my decision would have benefited from their use yet as Oliver et al , and Smith et al , point out those that exist do n't seem to be applicable to the stroke setting and may therefore be inappropriate . There are differing views regarding which factors are predictors for falls ( , ; Oliver et al , ; Smith et al , ) and although some appear to emerge consistently , had very few of them so would have been considered at low risk . I now see that my decision involved a combination of intuition , analysis and evidence based knowledge and therefore in accordance with decision - making theory . My understanding of how decision - making processes and evidence - based practice are interlinked ( Muir , 2004 ) has improved as has my appreciation of the reasoning process and I hope I will be able to apply this to my future decision - making and wider practice .",1
"< heading > INTRODUCTION:</heading > Tort is a civil wrong which neither a breach of contract nor a breach of trust . The main goal of tort is to compensate for injury suffered by the victim and try to put him back to the position had the accident not occurred . In this essay I would look at several areas of law which tort law delves into , its implications and what can be done to improve the law . < heading > AREAS OF TORT LAW:</heading > Negligence is one of the important areas under tort law . A person owes a duty of care to several persons and would be liable if he breaches the same . There are special duties owed , e.g. in cases of nervous shock . But there is a tension as to the degree of proximity ( the "" neighbour principle "" ) required to be liable under this . Until recently the ' foreseeability of injury by shock ' was the basis of compensating victims of nervous shock ( King v Phillips [ ] 1 QB 429 ) . Now there are ' primary victims ' who are at a risk of physical damage and ' secondary victims ' who are not at risk of suffering physical damage , but saw or heard the accident , which caused the shock . He can only recover if he is a person of "" normal fortitude "" and "" customary phlegm "" . < fnote > Tort , , . , pg < /fnote><fnote > Casebook on , , . , . < /fnote><fnote > Bourhill v Young [ ] AC 92 ; Page v Smith [ ] 1 AC 155 < /fnote > In Page v Smith the claimant ( primary victim ) did not suffer any physical damage in the accident but saw a revival of chronic fatigue syndrome , which he had suffered . The defendant was held liable for psychiatric illness . It was laid down that the defendant could only be liable if the risk of psychiatric illness was reasonably foreseen or the risk of physical injury was foreseen . There was the earlier case of where the claimant who was just a bystander miscarried as a result of witnessing a motorcycle accident from a distance . Held , was not a foreseeable victim . The law is rather absurd because had she suffered physical injury she could have recovered for that as well as her mental trauma but since she did n't , she could not recover for anything . < fnote>[1996 ] 1 AC 155 < /fnote><fnote>[1943 ] AC 92 < /fnote><fnote > Tort , , . , pg . < /fnote > Alcock v Chief Constable of South Yorkshire was a case where the relatives and friends of disaster victims brought claims . It failed because there was no sufficient proximity in ' time and space ' . The people did not suffer injury as a result of witnessing the incident in its "" immediate aftermath "" . The court also held that the people who brought the claims had no close tie of love and affection . It was restricted to spouses , parent and children of victims . Psychiatric illness resulting from witnessing the incident on TV was not actionable . The judges may have had the floodgates issue at the back of their mind when they limited the persons who could bring an action for damages . In v Railways Board the claimant assisted in the crash by giving injections to the injured by crawling between the collided trains . He suffered clinical depression as a result of witnessing the incident and committed suicide . His wife could recover since rescuers were primary victims . Contrasting this is the case of White v Chief Constable of South Yorkshire where the policemen who had assisted the victims in the football disaster could not recover for the harm suffered . Held , rescuers were not primary victims or a special category of people . But Lord has said that it should not make a difference because : a rescuer is a rescuer is a rescuer . In v O ' Brian held , liability was owed only if the claimant was present at the scene of the incident , or was a person who witnessed the incident in the "" immediate aftermath "" and had ties of love and affection with the victim . < fnote>[1991 ] 4 All ER < /fnote><fnote>[1967 ] 2 All ER 97 < /fnote><fnote>[1999 ] 1 All ER 1 < /fnote><fnote>'Nervous Shock : Wider still & wider ? ' [ ] CLJ 254 @ pg . . < /fnote><fnote>[1983 ] AC 410 < /fnote > The ' secondary victims ' are to prove that close friends or relatives witnessed a ' shocking ' event . Another important area under tort law is loss . As a principle pure economic loss is not recoverable unless it is consequential to physical loss . This is an area of contract law but tort fills in for the gaps created by contract law . Here it only compensates losses , but does not restore status quo like under the other areas . It also redresses the wrongs done by contract law . Tort law provides remedies for strangers too . < fnote Alloys v [ ] QB 27 . < /fnote><fnote > Duty of Care & Economic Loss : A wider agenda ( ) LQR @ pg . < /fnote v is the leading case which says that a person is responsible for economic loss arising out of negligent misstatement if there is a special relationship between the parties and there is a voluntary assumption of responsibility . These restrictions are placed reduce the number of cases coming before the court , i.e. , the floodgate issue . If there were a disclaimer then the person is exempt from responsibility ; if someone with special skill gives any advice it is reasonably foreseeable that there would be a reliance on the statement , making him liable . White v says the relationship of a solicitor and beneficiary of will is a fiduciary relationship and a special one . < fnote>[1964 ] AC 465 < /fnote><fnote > Smith v [ ] 1 AC 831 where it could be foreseen that the purchaser would rely on the surveyor 's statement even if it was not made to her directly . < /fnote><fnote > Per Lord in v < /fnote><fnote>[1995 ] 1 All ER < /fnote><fnote > Per Lord in White v Jones < /fnote > Another important yet rare area of tort law is awarding punitive damages ( exemplary damages ) . These are only awarded if they are required for adequately punishing the defendant . Rookes v Barnard is the authority on this , it says that punitive damages can only be awarded if the person was a servant of the Government at the time of commission of the tort ; he committed it because he figured he would make more money than he would have to pay as damages or there is a statutory award . < fnote > Tort Law , McBride , , . Edition - 2005 , @ pg . . < /fnote><fnote>[1964 ] AC 1129 < /fnote><fnote > Tort Law , McBride , , . Edition - 2005 , @ pg . . < /fnote><heading > CONCLUSION:</heading > Having looked at few important areas under tort law one would think that the law deals with a number of issues . If a case does not fall under any other civil law , it falls under tort . But we can see that not only does tort law deal with cases which other branches of law do not deal with but also ones that fall under categories of law , like contract law ( economic loss - contractual breach ) . Again , the aim of tort law is not to punish people , but to compensate the party and restore status quo . The award of punitive damages falls under criminal law . These only increase the number of cases . But exemplary damages are only awarded rarely . Usually regular or special damages are awarded . Tort law has been there for and there can not be a sudden change , the judges can not say that they would only deal with particular areas and reject the rest ; it is expected of them to address the claims of the injured party . Yet it would be desirable if tort law limited its scope to promote efficiency . Yet another important problem under tort law is it lacks coherence . When we look at the cases above we can notice that there are conflicting decisions . Judges mostly decide cases on policy arguments than relying upon precedents . This leads to incoherence in the law . But this has been the problem prevailing since times immemorial . But it would be welcome to see tort law being more coherent , if the judges follow the ' rule of precedents ' , there would automatically be more coherence . And also if the law concentrates on its primary aim of compensating for the injuries suffered and tries not to extend the law , then tort law would be more certain . Extending the law would only increase the cases before it and would make the law inefficient and incoherent which is not desirable .","The government in the is compiled of a - tier system : central government and local government , in the form of local authorities . Local government revenue in , and is raised through a combination of local tax , charges for some services provided , central government grants and borrowing . Local government largely have power over the methods but since the central government have been more and move involved in local government finance , in the form of grants , which have resulted in the bulk of money spent by councils coming from sources over which they have little or no control . It not only this they have little control , local government have to pass the majority of decisions through central government , which means they do not have as much control in the decision making process as they would like . More recently : < quote>'A significant number of state and local governments are improving revenue collections with the help of private agencies , according to a survey jointly sponsored by the Government Finance Officers Association ( ) , the professional association for state and local finance officials , and , the leading insurer of municipal bonds and provider of investment management and tax administration services . ' < /quote><fnote > No author : studies state and local government revenue collection ( ) . Available at :   URL   Accessed ( 03.10.06 ) < /fnote > Central government grants come in the form of , which sets spending totals to take into account the costs to local authorities as a result of providing local services , specific grants , supplementary grants , transitional grants and ( RSG ) , which is considered the most important . The is an annual grant given by central government to local authorities and is the part of aggregate external finance that is not provided from business rates or specific and special grants . form the majority of local government revenue and comes from business taxation . The Government distributes this grant so that if every authority set its budget at the level of its formula spending share , then the council tax would be the same for all properties in the same valuation band throughout . The formula spending share makes use of information reflecting the demographic , physical and social characteristics of each area . The is made up of its standard spending assessment ( SSA ) , less the amount it will get from the national pool of business rates and the amount it would get if council tax is set at a national standard rate . The money raised goes towards responsibilities , which include : education , housing , planning applications , strategic planning , transport planning , passenger transport , highways , fire , social services , libraries , leisure & recreation , waste collection , waste disposal , environmental health , revenue collection . Central government keeps financial control of local government in a number of ways , such as adjusting the level of its revenue support grant , the distribution of non - domestic rates , which are collected locally and returned to central government or setting a maximum level for council budgets . As a result , of local government finance is controlled by central government . It has been insinuated , by some , that governments of both parties have often manipulated these grants to favour areas where their own party predominates . The grant system only equalises for differences in needs and resources at point , whereas spending equals the Formula Spending Share that the government calculates for each individual authority . A disadvantage of central government grants is that it reduces local authorities ' independence , as stated by ( ): < quote></quote><fnote > No Author : Direct Government : Local Government Finance . Available at :   URL   ( Accessed on : - 06)</fnote><quote > Non - domestic rates are a form of revenue : they are a national tax on business premises , which is collected by and then paid into a pool and redistributed to all charging authorities based on a prescribed formula . ' The introduction of a uniformnation business rate had the advantage that it does not distort the location of industrial , commercial and financial undertakings . In the past local authorities in greatest need of the influx of new businesses to relieve local unemployment , had a small tax base and little choice but to charge high rates which discouraged immigration of firms'2 ( , 1996)</quote > Local tax is another method of raising local government revenue . This takes the form of council tax , which was introduced in and is a local tax on domestic property , collected by local authorities . is simple to calculate : it is based on the market value of a persons dwelling : the price it would fetch if it had been sold on the st April of that financial year , which means local people understand it and it is also easy to collect . This tax provides a stable and predictable income for local authorities . It was devised to keep a link between the users and payers as a replacement for community charges / poll tax . There are exemptions to council tax , such as a rebate for - person households and some property will be exempt from council tax , such as student houses . Thus , making it fair for the whole community . The actual tax levied will depend on the money needed by each local authority for its expenditure . Therefore , it is dependant on where you live , the value of the property and the number of people in the household , with reference to the authority you live in . According to the results form council tax only raised of total local authority revenue , which is only a small percentage to have control over . As stated by Professor : < quote></quote><fnote > House of Commons : Local Government Revenue Report ( ) < /fnote > As with most things , there are disadvantages with council tax . It has been pointed out that it is regressive ; it is not a buoyant tax , as it does not automatically increase with economic growth . Therefore it has been stated by the ' that it provides and insufficient safety net ' . Expanding on this view , from explained that : < fnote > No Author : Direct Government : Local Government Finance . Available at :   URL   ( Accessed on : ) < /fnote><quote></quote><fnote > House of Commons : Local Government Revenue Report ( ) < /fnote > Fees and charges for various services also contribute to local government revenue , although it is parliament who decides which services they have to finance out of taxation and for which they have to make a charge . It is the services which benefit the consumer personally and directly , that give them choice whether to avail themselves personally or directly and those that allow for individual or household consumption to be measured . An example of this could be the use of public transport . It is up to the individual to use the facility and if they do they will be charged accordingly to the time and distance of their journey . Local government borrowing is a source of local government revenue . Councils may borrow from any willing lender ; in practice most borrow from ( PWLB ) or from a . The amount that an individual council will be authorised to borrow will normally be limited to a maximum of £ in . ' The borrowing should be for a purpose that would be capital expenditure as defined in . "" ( No author , ) < fnote > No author : Local Government Finance and ( ) . Available at :   URL   ( Accessed ) < /fnote > Democracy , as defined by President , is ' Government of the people , by the people , for the people ' . Local government are the only political bodies , besides , that are elected by the people and play and important part in preserving democracy . I think if any system had to be selected as the best for protecting local democracy would have to be one which does not involve central government . This would suggest local taxes are the best source but even then it has all been passed though central government and intimately they have control . New sources of revenue , to either accompany or replace existing ones , have been suggested to help local authorities retain their independence , as mentioned by of the Public Sector : ' The new revenue could be under the authorities ' own control or represent a proportion of national taxation assigned to them . ' Different local taxes have been considered , such as local income tax , local sales tax , local motor vehicle tax and local payroll tax . The central government could assign a certain amount of any one of these taxes to local authorities . problem with more local taxes is the extra administration and collection costs that are likely to arise , resulting in the local system becoming more complex . < fnote > Trotman - Dickenson , D ( ): Economics of . : Hampshire and . < /fnote > It would be better if local agencies had to raise money locally and justify their spending to the local community : this would encourage community involvement as well as a better understanding for the people due to the involvement . The problem is that some local communities are much better off than others . The areas with the most acute law and order problems , health needs and training requirements would receive the least money . This shows that local governance is substantially dependant on central funding in some form or another . If the quality of local services depends largely , or in some cases exclusively , on the money that could be raised locally , the poorest areas , with the greatest needs , would have the least income for spending on public services . That is reason why even elected local authorities , that do have their own tax raising powers , still rely on grants from the national exchequer for the bulk of their spending , in the form of revenue support grants .",0
"< heading>1 . Introduction</heading > It is controversial - but probably not an exaggeration - to state that "" does not play a formal role in the Community decision - making and does not constitute an institution hierarchically superior to "" in the light of examples from law and Community decision - making . However , it is clear that the validity of the statement is limited to an extent , because there is evidence that in fact interferes with the Community decision - making process . Therefore , limitations to the statement arising from contradicting evidence are discussed with relevant Community law . , the role of is compared with the executive and administrative Community Institutions . , the related institutional hierarchy is investigated , which is , thirdly , followed by evaluation of the realities of Community decision - making processes . Finally , it is obvious that the statement has underlying political implications and these are discussed , although briefly because the emphasis is on the legal perspective , but the need for reform is dealt with in the conclusion of the essay . Hence , a critical viewpoint to the statement is established . < heading>2 . The formal role of and The role of in the Community decision - making process is rather broadly defined in the Treaties and it is important to contrast it with those of in order to form a more realistic picture . When the executive and administrative roles of authority in the are considered , we can limit the number of the Institutions we are dealing with : , ( the Council ) and . Problems result from their similar areas of competence ; the balance of power between them has been widely debated . Now , the role of and the extent of its powers is discussed and contrasted with the other executive and administrative Community institutions . < fnote > Adapted from Bermann et al ; : < /fnote><fnote phrases similar views ( Craig ; : ) < /fnote><heading>2.1 is a formal institution recognised in the Treaties , but its origins are different from the executive Community institutions , which are defined in . In , it was agreed in that should meet regularly to decide policy issues and these summits were institutionalised at the summit . The Single European Act included the meeting in the Treaties under the name "" . Furthermore , Treaty on ( TEU ) ( Art . , paragraph ) defined the task of as "" [ to provide ] the Union with the necessary impetus for its development "" and "" [ set out ] general political guidelines . "" It is clear that TEU Art . is a broad definition and allows for interpretation . Additionally , TEU conferred the responsibility over the definition of principles of ( CFSP ) , in ( now ) , but that is outside the sphere of competence of . Moreover , the Treaties of Amsterdam   and Nice 2000   contributed to , but they did not clarify the role of . < fnote ; : ; Title as in ) of from ; : < /fnote><fnote > Lenaerts et al ; : < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote > Adapted from et al ; : < /fnote><fnote > Art J.3 on CFSP < /fnote><fnote > Issues relating to expansion of the ( ; ; ) < /fnote > It has been argued that the institutional framework of the does not include to any extent : "" [ the ] operate through a single institutional framework ( i.e. ) . "" This supports the argument that does not play a formal role in the Community decision - making . < fnote > Galloway ; : < /fnote><heading>2.2 The role of contrasted with In addition to , administrative and executive power in the Community decision - making process is arguably vested in . Surprisingly , there are concerns that interferes with areas the 's competence in Community decision - making and , the identified a problem involving its overlapping role with : "" [ T]he Commission 's own role of initiative is being ' usurped ' in [ the internal mechanics of the institutions ] by . The conclusion is that can interfere with the role of the . Therefore , the exact division of the roles of and the Commission is not clear . < fnote > Fairhurst ; : < /fnote><fnote ; : < /fnote><heading>2.3 Distinction between and the Council</heading > The membership in and the can be overlapping , thus , identification of their comparative roles seems problematic . A distinction can be made based on the procedural considerations , which arise from . to ( ex Arts . - 154 ) that define the 's procedures ; for example , in the as opposed to , the President of the is not allowed to take part in the decision - making . On the other hand , it has been argued that : "" In theory , may act as the , because it is composed of a representative at ministerial level of each member state . "" Hence , the distinction based on the procedural difference is not necessarily helpful . It can be concluded that the distinction of the roles of as opposed to is not clear and their hierarchical positions have to be considered . < fnote > Fairhurst ; : < /fnote><fnote > Lenaerts et al ; : < /fnote><heading>3 . Hierarchical superiority and The hierarchical superiority of to the Community Institutions can not be found in Treaties , but evidence suggests that a degree of political superiority exists . Not surprisingly , the hierarchical position of has provoked debate . The has phrased concerns about the increasing influence of : < quote>[T]he Lisbon decision [ 2000 ] to give the spring Councilthe task of reviewing the state of progress of the 's economic and social modernisation strategy and updating its content each yearthreatens to undermine the institutional balance between , the and the and especially the 's position . < /quote><fnote ; : < /fnote > Clearly , it is not a misperception that in practice the influence of has been growing . Therefore , alterations in the balance of power may lead to superiority of . In contrast it has been argued that the hierarchy of excludes : < quote > is not an institution of the and [ ... ] takes no formal part in Community decision - making . The institution of therefore does not mean that are subject to a higher - ranking intergovernmental institution . < /quote><fnote > Lenaerts et al ; : < /fnote > This supports the statement under discussion ; under legal definitions is intergovernmental organisation not directly part of the supranational framework of . Moreover , made an observation on the Community authority : < quote>[W]e were wrong in to think that would be built on of the Coal and Steel Community as a supranational government . What matters now is that the Heads of national governments meet together regularly in . That 's where the authority is . < /quote><fnote > Tillotson et al ; : < /fnote > He argues that the intergovernmental has the greatest authority instead of the supranational institutions . Thus , has its role of supreme authority exists in a different framework , which supports the view that does not constitute an institution hierarchically superior to . The importance of conception of hierarchy in the Community has been challenged by various authors . For example , and have argued that the significance of unambiguous hierarchy is overstated , because it is relevant only in terms of public identity . However , it is clear that public identity does matter , as lack of transparency and democratic legitimacy are arguably problems in the Community decision - making . < fnote > Bermann ; : , ; : < /fnote><fnote > Bermann agrees with that view ( ; : ) < /fnote > The conclusion is that from the legal perspective does not constitute an organisation hierarchically superior to . has arguably acted beyond the powers that have been conferred to it in the Treaties and there have been concerns that its influence has become too wide . Therefore , the influence of in Community decision - making is discussed below . < heading>4 . The influence of in Community decision - making</heading > Obviously , there are examples of influencing Community decision - making process . However , according to the Treaties has no powers in Community law - making , although the decision - making process in the is elitist and consists of top representatives of .   < fnote agrees with this view ( Craig ; : ) < /fnote > There is evidence that has influenced Community decision - making beyond its powers : < quote > held in on adopted by a majority vote against a minority the decision to initiate the procedure provided for in Art . of the EEC Treaty and toconsult the on amending the . In so doing , it disregarded the 's rules of procedure ... However the formal decision was taken by the . < /quote><fnote > Lenaerts et al ; : < /fnote > The implication is that influences the Community decision - making processes , but it can not do so within the powers that have been granted to it in the Treaties and hence formal decisions are taken by the other executive Community Institutions . In support of this view Lenaerts et al . argued that : "" in practice [ the ] only gives a legal effect to what has already decided on the political level . "" decides to an extent about the policies of the , which then legalises the decision . Nevertheless , the has no legal obligation to obey their decisions but there is a political obligation as the ministerial members are from the same governments . < fnote > Lenaerts et al ; : < /fnote><fnote > Lenaerts et al make similar observation ( Lenaerts et al ; : ) < /fnote > Interestingly , the has suggested that : "" [ no longer serves just to provide general impetus and arbitrate on specific issues : although the Treaties do not confer on it any explicit decision - making powers , it has become a genuine political decision - maker in practice . "" This observation identifies decision - making processes in the which are not based on the legal powers set out in Treaties , but on political influences . < fnote ; : < /fnote > Furthermore , the gives an example where regulations falling under the competence of were agreed on by without the Community procedures , which most certainly falls under the competence of the and the Council . < quote > The code of conduct for business taxation has no legal force but constitutes a kind of political agreement between . It relies on peerpressure and the monitoring which that involves , but does not introduce a formal system and covers only a very narrow range of taxation . < /quote><fnote ; : . Moreover , the Code of Conduct for Business Taxation was originally discussed in conclusions of of 1.12.1997 Doc . / C 2/01 , but it was not legally binding ( ; : ) < /fnote > It might be an exaggeration to say that the is trying to understate the importance of such agreement , but clearly , it can be seen that interferes with an area that is more likely within 's competence . Thus , there is evidence that has influence in the Community decision - making exceeding those powers defined in the Treaties . Moreover , et al . argue that : "" [ ] is not itself normally engaged in formal legislative and political co - operation processes . "" It seems logical that the interference of in the Community decision - making process is the exception , but that should not devalue the importance of those interferences . Interestingly , et al . clearly suggest that can take part in formal decision - making processes . < fnote > Tillotson et al ; : < /fnote > Adopting a similar view , argues that : "" does not adopt laws ... thus its law - making ( or , nominally , decision - making ) is not subject to the heightened scrutiny . "" It is crucial to note here that in fact takes part in the legislative process , but it can not be held accountable or reviewed . < fnote > Bast ; : < /fnote > Craig goes even further in his argument and has stated : < quote > although the treaties say relatively little about the powers of , the reality is that nothing of major importance happens without its approval . It has a say in setting the legislative agenda , in setting the 's priorities , and in deciding the pace and direction of change within the Union . < /quote><fnote ; : < /fnote > It has to be agreed on that the political reality is a major factor in the decision - making , not just the legal arguments . In conclusion , if only legal considerations are taken into account , then the statement under discussion is valid , but the arguments above show that there is a need notice the political and practical implications . The interferences of with the Community decision - making processes are not based on Community legislation and hence give a rise to concerns , which are addressed next . < heading>5 . The implications of the statement</heading > The statement under discussion was phrased by Lenaerts et al . in their work Constitutional Law of and it is clear that their statement is subject to limitations . Thus , there are underlying reasons to take such point of view . < fnote > Lenaerts et al ; : < /fnote > Surprisingly , it can be agreed that the acts of are not subject to judicial review in . The direct implication is that the accountability of is limited , and therefore , a need for reform arises . That is relevant here because is a judge in ( ) and it is likely that his motive to make the statement is to call for a reform . In support of this view , it has been argued that judges try to maintain the 's institutional position and "" extend the ambit of their jurisprudence "" . This supports the view that the statement under discussion is to an extent political . The judges are concerned for interferences and the lack of accountability of , which contributes to democratic deficit . However , the approach taken by Lenaerts et al . is not necessarily right . There has been argument that legal isolation of from the decision - making processes will discourage citizens ' identification with the Union . < fnote > Adapted from Bermann et al . < /fnote><fnote > Hirschl ; : < /fnote><fnote > Bogdandy ; : < /fnote > The likely purpose of the statement is to argue for reform - based on the Treaties the statement is arguably valid , but in reality it is not . The establishing a for attempted to remedy some of the problems , but it is highly questionable whether the will ever be ratified . The lack of clarity remains . < heading>6 . Conclusion</heading > In conclusion it has been satisfied that from a legal perspective : "" does not play a formal role in Community decision - making and does not constitute an institution hierarchically superior to . "" Nevertheless , it is not straightforward to define the absolute extent of the powers of , as the various examples supra have shown . It has been shown that there are both legal and political aspects to the role of in the Community decision - making as well as in the institutional hierarchy of the Community . However , there is no evidence in the Treaties that could play a formal role in the Community decision - making , which largely justifies the statement under discussion . When making the statement , it is likely Lenaerts et al . were calling for more clarity and reform in the Community decision - making process , but following the rejection of , it seems that such cohesion can not be achieved with the present legislation . Again , an argument for reform of the Community decision - making process can be invoked .","< heading>1 . Introduction</heading > Organisational culture influences individual and group behaviour and it can be managed to facilitate success within groups and organisations . There has been academic debate whether highly integrated organisational culture , "" strong "" organisational culture is a key factor in success . It can be argued that stimulation of individuals within the organisation to high performance and contribution to their well - being is feasible for any organisation . Thus , finding a suitable organisational culture is important in human resources management ( HRM ) considerations . However , the precise nature of an appropriate organisational culture is disputable , for example the official descriptions of companies do not reflect how the life as a part of the organisation is perceived by individuals and groups . In the light of cases in organisational culture it is possible to derive support to both sides of the academic debate . Nevertheless , the extent of integration of the ideal organisational culture seems to be limited , even though there is a clear case for ensuring the element of control in a successful organisational culture . < heading>2 . "" Strong "" Culture</heading > In order to understand the scope of "" strong "" organisational culture , the concept of organisational culture has to be clarified . Schein defined organisational culture in his work : < quote>""cognitive framework that consist of assumptions and values shared by organization members . ""</quote><fnote > Schein ; : < /fnote > Schein 's definition is broad and it can be rather easily observed that the definition allows a wide inclusion of factors into concept of organisational culture . However , "" strong "" organisational cultures have distinguishing characteristics . and most importantly , the vision of the organisational culture is strict in "" strong "" cultures , as and define it : < quote>""Anything which lies outside this predefined frame of reference is said to be counter - cultural and is to be discouraged . ""</quote><fnote > Rosenfeld et al ; : < /fnote > It must be noticed here that is a critic of so - called "" excellence school "" that is in favour of "" strong""-culture theory . But , it is clear that the definitive characteristic of "" strong "" culture is the drive for integration and it discourages anything that is in contradiction of its perceived essence . , in "" strong "" cultures there is a certain level of control to discourage devious behaviour . Methods used to discourage particular types of behaviour are often sanctions and failures to reward . The integrity in "" strong "" cultures must be enforced , it is arguably not self - sustaining , as sub - cultures will eventually develop and deviate from the original culture . Porter et al argued that there is an observable connection in numerous cases of a "" strong "" organisational culture accompanied with financial success and increased competitiveness . This implies that any deviations should indeed be discouraged . Porter et al based their arguments on findings of , who found empirical evidence of existence of a relationship between "" strong "" cultures and financial success .   < fnote > Porter et al ; : < /fnote><fnote ; : < /fnote > On the contrary , has argued already in that similar conclusion can be reached , but the underlying theoretical issues are supported by questionable empirical evidence ; his argumentation was a reply to such findings by Kotter et al . identified limitations of the empirical proof : < fnote > ; : < /fnote > I ) Numerous good companies fail to sustain success II ) There are alternative ways to corporate success , such as monopoly III ) Most studies have poor sampling and represent only view of top managers ) All industries do not provide such empirical evidence   < fnote > Adaptated from 1992 < /fnote > There are clearly cases that favour his view about the limitations of empirical evidence . However , there is no explicit empirical evidence suggesting that a "" strong "" culture does not matter .   < fnote > Martin ; : < /fnote > In sum , it is possible to identify benefits and downsides in the organisational culture . In the light of academic debate , the uses of a "" strong "" organisational culture can be empirically shown , but the limitations are rather complex . Therefore , these are discussed below using case evidence . < heading>3 . Uses and limitations of a "" strong "" organisational culture</heading > Even though the cases below are primarily about the "" strong "" organisational culture , the models of corporate culture and organisational performance can be identified in the cases below . In addition to "" strong "" culture theory , there is "" culture - fit "" theory , which encourages adaptation to the values of environment , but paying attention to the internal values as well . , in so - called "" adaptive - culture "" theory the values of the culture are seen as tools of adapting to change in the environment . The characteristics of the theories can be overlapping as well in some cases they can be mutually inclusive , i.e. they all can be observed in a "" strong "" culture . A classic case of a "" strong "" organisational culture is . The organisational culture of the car manufacturing giant was very "" strong "" in , it did not allow deviations from the rules of the organisation . They had their own "" Sociological department "" that enforced "" aright "" behaviour of the workers at work and in their free time , any failures to comply with company standards resulted in a reduced wage or expulsion . Such high level of control created employee discomfort and it arguably contributed into the already large labour turnover . To illustrate , in turnover was in spite of relatively high wages . Individuals tend to dislike excessive control , certain extent of privacy is needed , workers are barely happy in an Orwellian organisational culture . Hence , high level of control can cause negative impact on individuals and this speaks against "" strong "" organisational cultures . < fnote > Corbett ; : < /fnote><fnote > Corbett ; : < /fnote><fnote > Corbett ; : < /fnote><fnote > George Orwell pictures a control society in his novel ( ) < /fnote > However , there is evidence that lack of control can be harmful , as the members of organisation can act as they please . This can be depicted in the example of skin and body products retailer . The majority of outlets are franchises and there is a very limited amount of control , the franchisees can sell their own related products and modify the store concept , which has been a key to their success . However , in a franchisee of outlets , suffering of a mental disorder without her managers knowing of it , became hostile to the culture of the company and let her outlets to degrade , which resulted in damage to company 's reputation and extensive litigation and the top management was forced to escalate the level of control . On basis of The Body Shop 's case , it can be argued that some level of control is needed in order to eliminate the risk of hostile deviations against the organisational culture itself . The organisational culture is a means of management and the managers should appreciate and manage it rather than to let the culture to guide themselves . Organisations such as The Body Shop claim that their success is largely based on freedoms of the franchisees and this is clearly the case . Thus , some level of control is certainly needed and this is in favour of "" strong "" organisational culture . < fnote > The Body Shop International < /fnote><fnote > Corbett ; : < /fnote > The organisational culture has an impact on the groups within the organisation and their decision - making ; it can be argued that role of organisational culture is larger the "" stronger "" the culture is . The case of Body Shop implies that freedom of the group - decision making is beneficial . However , it is not straightforward whether the bias resulting from the organisational culture is beneficial or detrimental . In conclusion , the analysis of "" strong "" organisational culture has to be applied on a case - by - case basis . < heading>4 . Alternative perspective of success and failure</heading > Assessment of the benefits and downsides of "" strong "" organisational cultures has limitations . It is clear that the evaluation in the academic debate is often based on solely financial factors . For example , in his work describes as a healthy organisational culture , due to its low turnover . Indeed , the culture at appears to ensure the employee welfare and it is characterised by integrated values . But , pressure groups argue that the organisation exploits the Third World and promotes inequality in the developing countries . 's view is solely finance - based , and hence limited . This implies that wider considerations of all levels , individual , group , organisational and environmental , should be made about judgement of the success of an organisational culture . Starbucks might be a profitable organisation , but the negative economic externalities sourcing from their failure to respond to the needs of their environment reduces dramatically the value of as an example of a successful "" strong "" organisational culture . < fnote ; : < /fnote><fnote > Starbucks Career Center < /fnote><fnote > IWW Organisation < /fnote><heading>5 . Conclusion</heading > There are cases and academic work explicitly supporting "" strong "" organisational cultures , but the limitations to this view do exist . Element of control seems to be the most crucial and disputable one , but there is a demand for a certain level of control in order to ensure that the employees work towards the goals agreed on by management . However , excessive control causes discomfort amongst individuals and groups leading into reduced motivation to work . Nevertheless , managers must make their choices about HRM solutions and try to adjust the organisational culture to what is most suitable for them , as it is by no means clear whether to choose "" strong "" culture or not . It is not likely that the academic debate will be solved in favour of side or the other , as the real world is one of diversity and uncertainty and therefore , the power of models is restricted .",1
", as put forward by in his Philosophical Investigations , simply argues that an individual can not have a language with himself or herself . This is because there is no way of ostensibly defining a sensation in an internal way because there is no way of assuring that the word ascribed to a certain sensation is being used correctly at any particular point in time - there is nothing to guarantee the user of the language that they are in fact using it properly . poses some difficult questions for and they are hard pushed to answer convincingly . If a private language is not possible then it destroys the concept of the soul in the sense and as a result it undermines the whole of philosophy ; if there can be no private language there can be no Cartesian Subject . In the Meditations Descartes sets out to find something he can be sure of by doubting everything . He shows his own existence through the cogito then goes on to prove the existence of God and then the existence of the world . In building up a view of the world must be using a private language because after doubting everything there is no one to have a language with , and in the early stages of finding certainty there is n't even God to guarantee correct use of language . The cogito provides the grounding for all other knowledge , but as a private language is n't possible then can not even express his existence with any certainty . If there is no language then it may not even be possible to think at all . If , for , to think is to be , and no language means no thought , then how can be ? Even if he is , he can not express his existence , even to himself . The problems for the cogito are now apparent and as this is his foundation for knowledge then they are serious problems . Although the private language argument undermines his whole philosophy it also poses problems for individual concepts within the Meditations . The ontological argument in particular has issues . Again it is a similar argument to the one that undermines the cogito ; if has no private language then how can he express the ontological argument ? This is a grave problem as the ontological argument is a linguistic - using the meaning of the term ' perfect ' in order to prove God 's existence . If we allow the cogito , regardless of it 's faults , still has nothing to guarantee the accuracy of his language other than himself , which even the will admit is a fallible and flimsy guarantee . The will often point to God as their guarantee of the accuracy of their private language , however at this stage in rebuilding the world has not yet proved the existence of God . In the ontological argument a degree of circularity is being introduced ; words are used to prove the existence of God , and in turn God proves the validity of language that is used to prove His existence . This circularity is mirrored within the Meditations when God presents with certain clear and distinct ideas that he can be certain of , and of these clear and distinct ideas is that of God . A circular argument is perhaps the best kind of argument as the critic is troubled to see exactly where to attack it from , as being a circle leaves no weak points that may be found . The start and end of the argument are impossible to find as each necessarily leads to the other . However , it appears that here is putting forward a causal argument by essentially showing that language in a sense causes the existence of God and God causes the existence of language . This is impossible because without God there would be no language and without language there would be no God ; either language or God must exist independently of the other else neither can exist . Perhaps here the would respond , quite rightly , by saying that language does not cause God it just shows the subject that God exists . As an all - perfect being , God can not be caused by anything because it would subtract from His perfection . The problem remains though ; the idea of God is caused by the use of a language that is caused by God . This seems to show that language is leading the subject to the existence of God . If there is an underlying concept of God in language then perhaps this is illustrative of ' trademark argument . However , this shows the shortcomings of scepticism and so undermines his philosophy . He has not doubted everything , in fact depending on how powerful we see language to be ; he has not doubted anything at all . Descartes did not remove the bias of language from his worldview and so in rebuilding it he is rebuilding it in the only way possible because his use of language of leads him to . Even if the Cartesian Subject is granted the existence of God to guarantee the validity of their private language it 's not really a private language as the individual is sharing it with God . Although God may well assure the individual of the validity of their language , it is a public language that is being guaranteed and not a private one . It is as if destroys his worldview but then rebuilds it using the same materials and consequently has the same worldview with which he started . The may argue that this shows that we can be sure of the world we see , however , as did not doubt his use of language then he did not doubt absolutely everything as he set out to do . This seems to illustrate the loaded bias present in language and perhaps shows that our perspectives and worldviews are in fact determined by our language rather than language being reflective of it . Even if we doubt everything our language leads us to construct it all back again in the same way , perhaps then ' the limits of my language are the limits of my world ' . It seems that as undermines the very foundations of there is little to be achieved in analysing separate concepts within his philosophy as they all fall foul in a similar way . Instead this essay will now go on to look at ideas implied or associated with , principally the concept of a soul . will subscribe to a belief that they have a body and an immaterial soul . The soul is seen to be the essence of the person and is known only to that individual . How , though , can the soul be known ? A private language is the only option for discovering the soul , however a private language is not an option as shows . The only way a language works is if it is public and so the contents or properties of a soul must also be public . Nothing can be ostensibly defined by just person , but if the soul is known only to the individual then all talk of the soul is meaningless , as words can not reliably match up to anything . All talk about the inner workings of the self are likewise meaningless . It is all well and good to say ' I am in pain ' and someone else saying that they too are in pain but as neither subject has access to each others feelings there is no guarantee that the meaning of the word pain is captured in both sensations or even either of them . This is developing into a behaviourist 's criticism of dualism ; however , this is an implication of . Although there is something romantic in the idea of a soul and indeed there may even be one , all talk of it is meaningless . There is something not captured by a behaviourist explanation of the self , namely qualia , but does not necessarily lead to behaviourism . We can reject the idea of talking about the soul without rejecting the soul itself . Religious discourse is seen to be meaningless and just a matter of faith rather than reason , but people still believe in God , likewise , talk of the soul can be seen to be meaningless but we can still have faith that it exists . is devastating for in the sense that it undermines all of the and method of doubt . However it is possible to hold a vague viewpoint without taking it all too seriously . does not destroy the concept of the soul it just suggests that talk of it is a pointless . The only is a quiet one as half their philosophy is undermined and the other is meaningless . It would appear then that when applied to , is fairly successful in subduing its supporters .","I have chosen a shot from the very beginning of . I chose this shot because I feel that a lot is often made of the stylised fight scenes in this film and , spectacular as they are , the scenes of outside the ring are just as vital to the overall effect of the film on the audience and the portrayal of the main protagonist as a man whose anger is both the key to success and ultimately the cause of his downfall . The shot cuts in from an image of a billboard advertising 's show . In this previous shot his voice can be heard practising a speech . When we cut to in his dressing room this voice is matched to a body . This is a medium shot in black and white , with framed slightly right of centre and the camera at about head height with . The camera does not move at any point during this shot and the light source appears to be coming solely from the naked bulb which hangs into the shot on the far left , however a fill light must have been placed SOMEWHERE . There is a bulb hanging next to the lit one but it is not lit , leaving face shadowed . The mise - en - scene is sparse and the dressing room appears small and cramped . On the wall below the bulbs there are small mirrors placed directly next to each other to create one larger mirror . The reflection is difficult to make out but it seems simply to show a similar mess on the other side of the room , which is off screen . Under the mirrors is a shelf which holds only some old newspapers , a screwed up ball of paper and SOMETHING ELSE . On a smaller protruding part of wall to the right of the mirror , facing the camera is a black old - fashioned telephone . Part of this wall appears to be affected by damp . there is a folded up chair , a steel coffee pot and plastic cup on a table , a singular , bare heating pipe and old , dusty looking striped curtains which cover the window . There is no background noise , diegetic or non - diegetic . The only sound that can be heard is voice . himself is wearing a black suit with a white shirt and a white handkerchief in the breast pocket . He is not wearing a tie and the shirt is open at the collar but even so he appears fairly well dressed . His hair is slicked back and he is holding a cigar . He is clearly not a fit man , he is quite fat and his face , although hidden in part by shadow , is obviously scarred and even deformed , his nose appearing bulbous and his eyes small and sunken . There is not an enormous amount of action in this scene . The lack of external sound focuses the audience on and his words . His eyes do not meet the camera ; he is not talking to the audience but to himself . He appears to be practising some sort of speech , repeating phrases and using varying hand gestures , lighting a cigar halfway through . Finally he is satisfied with this little private performance . The camera then cuts to a closer shot of his face with his name and in bold print beneath the image . From the previous image the audience can infer that they person they are looking at is in fact . However this is not confirmed until this quick cut . A medium shot is used here to get a clear view of the actor and to encompass his hand gestures , as well as to relate him to his surroundings , the voiceover in the previous shot acts to prepare the audience for an image of the speaker . However , not only does it look very unlike the setting for a successful boxer , but the actor before our eyes looks nothing like the image of we have in our minds . Immediately the audience is surprised and identifies with the sense of loss that plagues this character . He speaks nostalgically of his former career , which heightens this feeling . Despite his tired , overweight , beaten appearance , he dresses well . The costume clashes entirely with the surroundings as does the cigar , often symbolic of wealth , power or high class , not to mention masculinity . also acts with a certain sense of self - respect and esteem . This gives the impression that although this man appears to be in a rather sorry situation now , he probably came from a better place , and has certainly not given up trying to be the man he was . suggests that this is a story of the loss of masculinity . Perhaps this is an image of trying desperately to regain a little of that masculinity which he himself destroyed . The fact that this shot and indeed the entire film is shot in black and white has many implications . Scorcese himself suggests that it is in the name of nostalgia or perhaps even slight realism ' anyone 's memories of are black and white memories ' and points out that black and white is ' not black and white , it 's shades of grey ' . also suggested to him that the red boxing gloves were distracting . He also cites his growing dissatisfaction of colour film stock as reasons for this decision . also suggests that it is homage to films , and claims that is was also a method of distinguishing from the many other boxing films which were around at the time . All these arguments are valid however with regard to this particular shot , I would say that the nostalgic sense of memory , and of a time long passed by is the most important effect which the use of black and white film has on the audience . This shot is the memory of a man remembering , it seems totally appropriate to use black and white in this context . This shot also conjures , in my opinion , a mistaken sense of sympathy for the character . The black and white shot , the shoddy mise - en - scene , the poor lighting coupled with the massive contrast in costume and performance of makes us feel that this is a man who , through some unfortunate circumstance has found himself in a place where he does not belong . As the film progresses the audience finds that they are entirely wrong . There is only one person to blame for downfall and that is himself . The mirror in the dressing room is one of many in which peers in an attempt to understand and deal with his own animalistic qualities . The man we see in this shot is the result of his inability to do this . The total lack of camera movement during the shot is , like the sound , a method of keeping the audience 's eyes fixed on the only moving thing in the room , . This is clearly a film which circles around him and his turmoil , much less the pain he causes others . This shot also prepares the audience for that . What it does not prepare them for is the brutality of the rest of the film . This version of the boxer is quiet and almost tired looking . Cramping him into this tiny space also suggests that he has never quite got out of the cell he was put in and the lighting although not dark is not particularly bright , also suggesting the shadows of the cell in which is now eternally trapped . When we cut into the next scenes , although Scorcese maintains some distinctive graphic continuities , such as shot length , the contrast between the young and old is not only painfully physically obvious but the tone of the film changes to reflect the character . Our impression is of a rather slow , dignified but humorous man . The young is louder , fast talking , blunt , foul mouthed and far more angry than the man we already know he will become . This is reflected in the noisy , tense environment we are suddenly thrust into : the boxing ring .",0
"< heading > Structure of the market / industry</heading > Jaguar belongs to the luxury automotive market . This is an oligopoly containing companies such as , , , , , , , Bentley , etc . 's code is ( manufacture of motor vehicles ) . is the market leader ( is not a luxury car manufacturer ) with a profit of ( ) . ( ) is with a profit of ( ) . however made a loss of £ ( ) . < table/>The industry is highly differentiated with products of high quality , cost , and speciality . With respect to the market adoption graph : the automotive industry is a cash cow . However , is at the dog stage at the moment as the firm has a low market share and growth rate . A new firm would face many barriers trying to enter this market . It would have to build a reputation of quality . The specialist machinery needed to enter the industry would be extremely expensive , resulting in sunk costs , resale of which would be difficult . Leaving the market would also be difficult due to these sunk costs which could not be recovered . However , an existing firm could be acquired reasonably easily . Firms in this market compete on non price , for example . Consumers in the market are looking for a luxury vehicle and therefore have money to spare , enough to buy into a brand name purely because of its reputation . The control over price in the market is therefore limited mainly by the firm 's reputation . < figure/>The main order winners and qualifiers for are its heritage . They have an outstanding reputation for quality and racing . However its heritage does limit its market by only appealing to the older generation . Demand in this market is price elastic as the products are luxury items ; demand is responsive to a change in price . The concentration pie chart opposite shows that the market is indeed an oligopoly . holds of the market concentration , rd in the market . < heading > Typical conduct of firms competing within the market / industry</heading><picture/>Within this market there are adversarial relationships between firms and therefore there is no collusion . This creates a sum game . , the most powerful member of the market receives the largest share of the profit , whist poor performers , such as lose business . There is a finite profit available to the supply chain . 's premier automotive group is a small exception to this , as within the group , collusion occurs . The firms within the group are as follows ; , , , and . As the market competes on non price , promotional activity is rife . Promotions such as free optional extras ( satellite navigation , leather seats , etc ) help to boost sales . Advertisements in automotive magazines , by the roadside and on television are also common . Research and development is practiced by all companies to be at the forefront of technology . New designs also have to be researched to keep up with the changing trends in design . The industry is high tech , requiring the most accurate and fast machines available . This inadvertently excludes new entrants due to the high cost of research and build of these machines . < heading > Performance of this market / industry</heading><figure/>Jaguar has not performed well . From the table in page , a loss of £ can be seen . The net profit ( profit / turnover ) for in was . From the graph opposite showing net profit , can be seen to be falling far behind other firms in the market . The main reason for 's poor performance is the fact that they export a lot of product to the . At , the exchange rate was to the £ . This meant that if sold a car for £ in the it would cost $ in the . As the price of the car in $ could not increase ( this would result in a decrease in sales ) , the car would have to be sold for $ at when the £ was worth $ . Therefore , at , would be selling the car for £ less relatively in the than at . < figure/><table/>Jaguar 's current ratio is very low , suggesting that the firm is not in good financial health , if their obligations came due they probably could not repay them . However other firms in the market have much higher current ratios . All is not lost however as invested $ in jaguar in . This infusion of capital will allow to produce new models , advertise more and possibly make a profit by . < heading > Most viable strategy for a new entrant</heading > A new entrant to the luxury car market would need to compete via differentiation and focus differentiation . To compete with firms such as jaguar , who produce high cost , luxury , quality products a new entrant would need to produce products of the same or better quality , but with a unique quality to the product they produce to differentiate themselves from the rest of the market . < picture/>The luxury automotive market spans from companies such as , to companies like , producing top of the range vehicles . To compete with these companies a new entrant would have to compete via focus differentiation . A small number of high quality products would need to be produced and an amazing reputation built . < heading > Recommendation to entrepreneur</heading > Acquiring Jaguar and making a profit is possible . Out - sourcing factories to to avoid the dependence on the exchange rate would be beneficial . However , as 's heritage lies in this could damage the company 's image . Reducing the number of employees and focusing on new technology could also increase profits . 's reputation is bought with the company . A reputation such as 's takes to build . This is the main reason why I would advise upon the acquisition of . Major changes to the company would need to be made , but large profits are possible after they have been implemented .","< heading > Introduction</heading>""Sport has long been considered the generic preserve of males "" ( : ; see also , ) . The prevalence and extent of this hegemonic masculinity within the sporting domain has meant that women , from all ethnic backgrounds , have faced a number of barriers in their bid to participate in sports ( , ; see also Tirone , al . ; , ) . A review of the sociology of sport literature reveals that the mass sports media is largely responsible for reinforcing the establishment of such constraints through their disproportionate and often biased coverage of sport ( references ) . For example , researchers have found that , when compared to the coverage of sportsmen , the sport media systematically "" stereotyped , trivialised , and under - represented "" sportswomen at all levels of sport ( : ; see also Salwen and Wood , ) . Consistent with this view , researchers stipulate that the sport media , through their photographic coverage of athletes create , perpetuate , contributed to , reaffirm and strengthen hegemonic masculinity ( Pederson , ; see also , ) . This study performed a content analysis of newspaper photographic coverage in order to determine whether this "" coverage bias "" ( essentially against women ) is evident in . The study utilised "" hegemonic masculinity "" to focus on the "" amount and type of newspaper photographic coverage given to male and female athletes "" ( : ; see also and , ) . As such , in keeping with the proposed research question "" does the sports media portray a coverage bias ? "" the following hypotheses were established : ( a ) male athletes / sportsmen will receive more photographic coverage compared to female athletes / sportswomen ; ( b ) male athletes / sportsmen will receive more prominent photographic placement than female athletes / sportswomen , and ( c ) male athletes / sportsmen will receive photographic cover that portrays them in "" action "" compared to female athletes / athletes < heading > Methodology</heading > Sample : As it was almost impossible , too expensive and too time - consuming to sample the entire population of newspapers , it was decided that the unit of analysis ( e.g. , newspaper photographs within a sporting context ) should be selected from a variety of newspaper issues from those newspapers which devotes a section to sport , and those which are circulated on a national scale ( i.e. , around excluding , and ) . This would provide more representative data ( see Fink , ) and therefore allow reliable / consistent statement(s ) to me made about the population ( e.g. , national newspapers ) from which the final sample for the study was drawn ( Maxim , ) . In this regard , of the most popular daily circulation newspapers were collected from the to the 6 th of February 2006 ( i.e. , the sampling frame for this study was ) ; these included the , mail , The Sun and the as these were in keeping with the aforementioned sampling criterion . This produced a total sample size of newspapers ( issues from each major newspaper ) over the sampling frame . These in turn yielded photographs pertaining to sports athletes for the study . Due to time constraints , a simple random sample of photographs was selected for analysis ( e.g. , photographs were given numbers and these numbers drawn out of a hat ) . This technique of sampling ensured that all potential units of analysis from the population of photographs had an equal probability of inclusion in the final sample , and was also independent of the volition or wishes of the researcher ( Maxim , ) . Coding : As a technique of content analysis was chosen , which when broadly defined represents a "" technique used to make inferences by systematically and objectively identifying special characteristics or messages "" ( Holsti , : in , : ) , the criteria by which the "" character of the data / content within the unit of analysis "" ( i.e. , the proposed variables to be scrutinised from the photographs ) would be analysed had to be defined , operationalized and made explicit ( , : ) . This is known as the criteria of selection and must be formally established to reorganise the themed content before the actual analysis ( and , ) . In this respect , a coding scheme was devised to examine the photographic portrayal ( the dependent variable ) of gender ( the independent variable ) in sports through the following categories : Amount of coverage : all photographs were analysed and coded depending on whether the picture portrayed a male ( code=1 ) or female athlete / sportsperson ( code=2 ) .   Type of coverage I : coding related to the prominence given to location of these photographs within the original newspaper . Hence when a photograph portraying a male / female athlete appeared on the front page and above the crease ( the most prominent location ) , it was coded "" "" , when on the front page below the crease , it was coded "" "" , on the front page of the sports section it was coded "" "" , on pages of the sport section , it was coded "" "" . A code of "" 1 "" was established if the photograph appeared anyway else in the newspaper ( this represented the least prominent location ) . To reduce confusion , when referring to "" a page , or a number pages "" , the researcher implies that both sides of a single leaf / page of the newspaper is analysed . Type of coverage II : coding related to the context within which the male / female athlete was portrayed in the photograph . Hence when a photograph portrayed a male / female athlete in an "" action shot in the sport setting , "" a code of "" "" was given , when the athlete was portrayed in a "" still pose , but within the sports setting "" , it was coded "" "" and when an athlete was portrayed in "" a still pose shot in a non - sport setting "" , it was coded "" "" . In both categories regarding the "" type of coverage "" , a high coding score represents more prominent coverage of the athlete as well as "" positive "" portrayal of the athlete ( e.g. , in their natural setting ) . As these were objective methods of analysis , I simply counted and tallied the number of times each theme occurred against the coding scheme . Any ironic / doubtful content , which could not be located within these predetermined categories ( e.g. , content which could not be accounted for ) was coded "" "" and excluded at the data analysis phase . This was an appropriate measure as there is a tendency for the researcher to code such ambiguous content subjectively ( , ) . The total amount of time spent coding was . < heading and Discussion</heading > A content analysis of the photographs , randomly drawn from a sample population of sports photographs , reveals that through their "" biased "" coverage , the media show sport to be the generic preserve of males . For example , this study found that male athletes received more photographic sport coverage ( ) when compared to female athletes ( ) across newspapers . This difference is illustrated in . Consistent with the latter view , it is also evident that more male sports athletes received prominent coverage e.g. , front page coverage both above ( ) and below the crease ( ) of the main newspapers , in comparison to female athletes who received no front page coverage in newspapers . A similar , yet slightly less prominent difference was also revealed in the sports section of each newspaper . For example , compared to of female athletes ( female photograph ) , of the male athletes ( or ) photographs received front - page coverage in the sports section of newspaper . This finding is in keeping with previous literature , which suggests that the sport media works to reinforce and perpetuate hegemonic masculinity in sporting contexts ( and Disch , ) . These trends are illustrated more clearly in figure . There was also a clear biased portrayal of male and female athletes . For example , whilst of male athletes photographs ' showed them "" in action "" or "" on the pitch "" , no such photograph portrayed female athletes in this light . In stead , the larger majority of female athletes photographs showed them "" posing "" either in ( ) or off the sports setting ( ) . of male athletes were shown "" posing "" off the sports settings . This overwhelmingly stereotypical portrayal of females sitting pretty and men "" in action "" inculcates an ideology which considers sports to be "" off limits "" to females thus contributing to the establishment of barriers for females to participate in sports . ( , ) < heading > Conclusion</heading > In conclusion , it is plausible to assume that the print media largely provide inequitable photographic coverage of male and female athletes . As a result of such findings , researchers often stipulate that through its interpretation of events , and subsequent creation of social reality , mediated sport is presented within certain ideological discourses , which reflect existing power structures ( : - 307 ) . Despite this however , one can not overlook the strict limitations on the inferences the researcher makes within content analysis . E.g. , inferences about motivation or intent can not be made , nor can the researcher infer what the effect of seeing such content would be on a viewer . Likewise , since content analysis is only an analysis of what is in the text ( what is presented to him / her ) , the researcher is limited to making inferences about the unconscious bias or unintended consequences of a text ( , ) . In such instances , it would have been more feasible to employ a combination of both quantitative and qualitative techniques to provide the reader with a more in - depth understanding of this phenomenon ( . in , : ) . Moreover , since the analysis of data included a determination of whether there is a difference ( i.e. , a proportional and disproportional coverage ) , it would have been better to use the chi - square test , the most commonly used statistical analysis in content analysis ( Riffe et al . , ) . < table/>Bar chart illustrating the prominence of photographic coverage given to male and female sports athletes bar chart : using this table : < table/><figure/ >",0
"In general , plant remains are applied extensively in the study of environmental archaeology , providing the basic view of the environmental context for early human communities . The evidence of disturbance traditionally had been considered to be associated with starting of domestic plants by population , however this perspective was modified by increase available evidences of forest disturbance in Late Mesolithic period ( 1994:35 - 74 ) . The new idea explains the purpose of clearance as the manipulation of environment by human to raise the productivity and predictability of the plant resources in order to the increase total carrying capacity of the environment ( Mellars 1976:15 - 45 ) . In the purpose of this essay , may suggest expectations about the nature and distribution of the subsistence systems ( Clarke : - 481 ) . However the evidence of anthropogenic forest disturbance is difficult to distinguish from natural disturbance factors . Thus the objective in this essay is to discuss the basic view of the palaeobotanical study in order to understand economy , settlement and seasonality in the , with evaluating the degree of human and natural disturbance factors to past environment . In section , outline the significance of palynological and macrobotanical studies to understand environment followed by evaluation of deforestation mechanisms and anthropogenic forest clearances factors , which are investigated by recent ethnographic and palaeobotanical studies . Then , section introduces the evidence of seasonally movements and settlement patterns with palaeobotanical records . Finally , introduce the natural disturbance factors in forest environment with the methodological and interpretational limitations in palaeobotanical analysis . The palaeobotanical studies have been contributing the great role in the understanding of past human activity and their environment . Further researches and technical improvements revealed that the evidence is far more extensive than previously thoughts ( 1994:35 - 74 ) . Therefore this section is going to briefly represent the significance of the palynological and macrobotanical analysis , with the basic view of sampling and preservation of the evidences . Pollen grains frequently derive from the seed - producing plants , which are disseminated over wide areas by wind , water , animals or insects . These pollen evidences are obtained from stratified sequences of sediment ( : ) . In general , pollen data are sampled either from off - site or on - site . Off - site pollen data is obtained from bogs and lakes at distance from archaeological sites , particularly at upland , northern , and western locations . On the contrary , on - site pollen data is obtained within archaeological soil contexts , although data has the difficulty in interpretation compared to off - site pollen data ( ) . Figure represents the maps of dominant woodland types in 5000BP , due to the evidence of pollen record ( Edwards : - 544 ) . On the other hand , macroscopic plant remains include fruits , seeds , wood and other part of plant including leaves , buds , scales and spines . Moreover , the results of the burning forests are also recognised from the inclusion of microscopic carbon particles ( : ) . Both pollen and plant remains are best preserved in anaerobic conditions , such as lake sediments and peat deposits , but plant remains also occur in cave sediments , riverine sediments , buried soils and archaeological contexts , especially in carbonised conditions ( : ) . However , the preservation of pollen evidences with chalkland soil relatively difficult ( Edwards 1999 : - 544 ) . According to ( ) , there are and edible plant species in temperate regions . Table , 2 and 3 ( 1994:35 - 74 ) shows the species of plant remains and the excavated place . < table/><table/><table/>Intensive plant use for food consumption has been identified from contextual information , for example the high frequency of broken hazel - nut shells from settlements , which indicates that possibility of high reliance to the hazel nuts in the diets ( Mellars 1976:15 - 45 ) . These intensive plant use supports the notion of wild plant husbandry instead of the incidental and opportunistic use of plants for main diets ( 1994:35 - 74 ) . Moreover , the estimation for the plants contribution to diet in the is , in order to satisfy human protein and energy requirements from plant food consumption , because the nuts and grass - seeds contained a good supply of proteins , fats and carbohydrates , although it varies between individuals and regions . Moreover , the nuts and grass - seeds contained a good supply of proteins , fats and carbohydrates ( Clarke : - 481 ) . The heavy reliance on plant foods might be expected to increase the economic and the social status of women , providing relative independence of men 's foraging activities , and invest women with the responsibility and rights associated with the distribution of plants in the community ( 1994:35 - 74 ) . The idea of clearing forests by pre - agriculturalists is introduced by , palynologist , who claimed that foragers generated coppiced woodland by ring - barking for assisting shrubs and grasses to flourish under a more open canopy during the early pre - Neolithic stage ( 1994:35 - 74 ) . Generally these forest management activities include coppicing , pollarding , shredding , and leaf foddering ( Edwards ) . This section is going to discuss the forest clearance as part of promotional strategy , which disturbed the natural environment , and evidence is represented in pollen data , as well as ethnographical studies of modern hunter - gatherer society . The deliberate forest clearance and the maintenance of a more open landscape by groups have been frequently conducted by occurrence of fire as part of promotional strategy ( 1994:35 - 74 ) . In especially , the manipulation of non - domesticated plants and animals are explained in ( : ) . , burning forest increase the fertility of the soil , at the same time fire leads the reduction in the density of the over - storey vegetation . Consequently these encourage the increase in available food to browse eating animals ( Mellars 1976:15 - 45 ) . These occurrences of fire are supported by microscopic and atmospheric charcoal , increase in fire indicators as well as changes in pollen diagrams during : - 143 ) . In particular , there is evidence of declines in the larger canopy- forming taxa , oak , elm and lime , at the same time under - storey species , hazel and alder also decline but frequently represent a regional rise associated with clearance phases ( Brown : - 143 ) , therefore likely to expand considerably as a result of the repeated occurrence of fires , hazel is known to be a fire tolerant species ( Mellars 1976:15 - 45 ) . In order to detect the purposive clearance by human agencies from wide range of forest clearance episodes , major principals tend to be applied . is the occurrence of artefacts and archaeological sites should be associated with the pollen events . wood should be used in archaeological structure . Finally , the evidence of inferred use of artefacts , specifically axe from contexts ( Brown : - 143 ) . Moreover , the ethnographic data suggests that the deliberate and systematic burning of vegetation is an almost universal practice among recent hunting and gathering populations ( Mellars 1976:15 - 45 ) . The occurrence of fire in economic terms is described in ( : ) ethnographically . In the place , burning is likely to have led to a substantial increase in the carrying capacity of forested environments for human populations , due to the increase of a number of herbivores and plants . , burning increase the mobility of human groups by reducing in the amount of time , effort , and energy of the economic activities . These contributions by burning forest also lead to an increase in total human population , as well as changing settlement patterns of human communities ( Mellars 1976:15 - 45 ) . Different burning regimes are illustrated in Figure ( 1994:35 - 74 ) . However , there are several limitations in ethnographic studies , firstly similar environments tend to be considered as represent better data , although the hunter - gatherers of temperate deciduous forests are remarkably decreasing ( - 195 ) . Moreover , while analogical reasoning highly applied in archaeology , there are significant differences between analogies and the substitution of an ethnographically known practice into a prehistoric context ( Brown : - 143 ) . The ethnographical studies frequently suggest that the fire clearance is often associated with the evidence of seasonal movements by hunter gatherers , because people tend to select some foraging grounds , by leaving others to recover from hunting and gathering activities . Such alternative use of foraging territories is widespread , especially among and the groups ( 1994:35 - 74 ) . Moreover , strong seasonal variability also frequently led to the idea of movement , due to the cycle of available plant resources ( Dark ) . Therefore , this section is going to emphasise on the palaeobotanical evidences of occupations and population movements by hunter - gatherer society , as well as introduce the environmental disturbance by possible plants cultivation in period . The site occupation at was traditionally interpreted as - base camp site according to the excavation by , although the remains of the bracket fungus and charred hazel nuts suggest deliberate collection in or . However , the possibility of storing plant remains led to recognised as faunal assemblages are more preferable seasonal indicators . Recently high - resolution pollen and charred plant remains from worked aspen timbers represent the macroscopic charcoal of reeds and aspen , which indicate human occupation at the both time of burning and when re - growth had occurred . Moreover , charred bud scale , catkin scales , fruits and seeds represent of burning , which is summarised in the table and 5 below ( Dark ) . Therefore plant remains suggest activity in , perhaps through to early autumn . However , caution must be employed in interpretation of these data because of the various types of plant remains possibly could have been charred after shedding from the plant ( Dark ) . According to the combination of faunal assemblages and plant remains , raised the possibility of a human presence , although it is unclear whether continuous period or short visit occupation . Therefore , in order to use plant remains as seasonal indicators , the samples should be a type produced only in certain , and also should be directly linked to human activity , as well as it should be less likely to have been stored and moved from site to site ( Dark ) . < table/>Indeed by comparison with the uplands , has more limited evidence of impact ( : - 185 ) . The pollen , charcoal and sedimentological data suggest possible anthropogenic fire occurrences in and . The evidence of anthropogenic impacts has been identified from , whereas no artefactual evidences have been recovered from ( Edwards ) . In the case of anthropogenic disturbance forest occurs , the process of girdling trees or stripping would have been possible mechanisms ( Brown : - 143 ) , therefore the burning evidence in were considered as natural caused fire ( ) . However , these charcoal records may represent the necessity of burning to keep warm in domestic fire , due to the coldest climatic evidence between 8400 and 8000BP . Figure represents pollen sites from ( Edwards 1999 : - 544 ) . Figure and represent that selected pollen and spore taxa and charcoal to pollen ratios from and . These taxa are expressed as percentage of total land pollen ( and ) . The absence of the archaeological finds in might be a function of the intensity of - orientated survey and excavation , therefore further research are required . Moreover , site of also has episodes of vegetational disturbance and charcoal alternating with undisturbed conditions . ( and ) However , ( : - 481 ) suggests that there were more complex population movements , where differences in altitude and rainfall were insignificant or , where there was a scheduling conflict between the seasonal requirements of productive resources , or special local , ecological or climatic conditions were preferred ( Clarke : - 481 ) . In addition , stable isotope analysis is also applied to gain insights into settlement patterns and seasonal movements of population by detecting food consumption from human bone collagen . Schulting and ( ) represent the stable carbon isotope results from nan in late site , which support the possibility of seasonal movements between the islands and the mainland ( 2000 : ) . In the purpose to describe pre - Neolithic plant cultivation evidences , this essay include agricultural evidence to settlement patterns . The palynological evidence of plants cultivation is identified from central northern and sites before the emergence of Neolithic communities . There are direct evidence of agriculture from cereal - type pollen and indirect evidence from pollen types associated with arable farming ( Brown : - 143 ) . Although low dispersal rates of cereal pollen tends to be difficult to identify the evidences . Moreover , the cereal pollen evidences include pollen , which corresponds to in size , morphology , or both in which case it is regarded as derived from cultivars , therefore cereal - type pollen can not always be distinguished from cultivated pollen . There is the evidence of agricultural practice simultaneously in the several traditions , although no archaeological evidence has been advanced for the indigenous cultivation in ( : ) . ( : - 143 ) have re - examined the forest clearance in , and investigate the opportunistic exploitation of some natural cause clearances , including woodland regeneration , climatic factors , wind - throw , drought , disease , lightening - strike fires , and paludification . This author summarised these opportunistic models of deforestation , which is represented in figure below ( Brown : - 143 ) . This section introduces the natural cause clearance , which also makes impact on the pollen diagrams . Moreover discuss the methodological and interpretational limitations of palaeobotanical studies . Simmons and ( : ) suggest that the potential source of fire in deciduous forest is lightning - caused fire , which tends to be occurred in spring , and especially during severe droughts period . However , the study at by ( ) indicates that the relatively low frequencies of lightning setting fire to the deciduous woods of upland . This low frequency of natural fire is also supported by the study of . ( ) , which suggests the early post glacial woodlands are identified as not fire - climax type , according to the charcoal and pollen analyses of lake sequences in . Next important mechanism of degradation in natural woodland is wind - throw , the spatial pattern of wind - throw is controlled by tree height , woodland composition and site exposure , particularly slope orientation and angle . However , the palynological effect of a wind - throw clearance may be prolonged by the delay in regeneration caused by increased grazing ( Brown : - 143 ) . Moreover , it is still generally believed that the climate became wetter and this caused changes in forest composition around the elm decline ( Brown : - 143 ) . Furthermore , Whitehouse and Smith ( 2004 : - 208 ) suggest that grazing animals are also considered as forest disturbance factors , with describing these role in natural environment , which is largely supported by entomological studies . On the other hand , and Orme ( 1983:95 - 100 ) have suggested that the possibility of forest disturbance by beaver in north western forested environment . In general , beaver dams rivulets with opening forest canopy , make available quantities of dead wood and increase in both aquatic and dung beetles , moreover it encourage aquatic plants and benefit a range of wild life . The evidences of beaver associated with human activities are represented at in , in Berkshire , and in , because these favourable position is tend to be occupied by human . The overall density of beaver is represented in ( and Orme 1983:95 - 100 ) . In order to reconstruct past environments and human activities , there are a numbers of limitations in palaeobotanical analysis , include issues of preservation , technology , as well as interpretation . There are significant chronological problems in the study of plant remains , because of pollen results are dated from available pollen data from the post 5000BP deposits ( Edwards : - 544 ) . While north - west and northern have many detailed pollen diagrams and improved fine resolution palynological studies . In other areas have been rarely conducted at a level of broad regional reconstruction ( : ) . Furthermore , archaeologists must also consider the time that palynological data take to obtain , of excavation or off - site sampling may translate into of palynological work in the laboratory ( : ) . In the preservation aspects , agricultural practices such as drainage and liming may be responsible for the lack of pollen in profiles , therefore the urgent consideration about site preservation is needed from danger by anthropogenic degeneration or destructions ( Edwards : ) . In the issues of interpretational aspects , many workers have used a variety of rather unspecific terms in order to explain vegetation change , such as anthropogenic disturbance , clearance - phases , deforestation events , and pre - elm decline deforestation . This may be partly the result of a lack of formalisation of palynological research ( Brown : - 143 ) . Therefore the understandings of past environments as well as human activities would be enhanced by the further research and methodological improvement as well as the combination with other evidences , such as sedimentology , faunal assemblages , and entomology . According to this essay , the anthropogenic forest disturbance are clearly represented at least , and , and the purpose of anthropogenic clearance forest as promotional strategies is discussed by ethnographic studies . Moreover , the seasonal occupations and movement patterns are identifiable on the records from . However , it is clear other disturbance factors have also contributed to the impact on pollen diagrams , which tend to be supported by the evidence of lightening fire , animal disturbance , climatic factors , wind - throw and plant cultivation . Therefore the careful consideration are necessarily important in order to evaluate the settlement patterns , economy and seasonality of population . This conclusion attempts to summarise the brief discussion of the extensiveness of anthropogenic forest disturbance , includes forest clearance , settlement patterns , seasonal movements , as well as simultaneous plant cultivation evidences , which are introduced with palaeobotanical evidences from . Although the degree and extensiveness of disturbance vary in region and period , this essay supports wide range of human activity on the natural environment . Moreover , the palaeobotanical evidences supports highly developed economy and occupational patterns more than previously thoughts . However , it is better to consider natural disturbance factors as well , in order to evaluate the environmental impact , which are interrelated complexly each other . Although there are the palaeobotanical limitations in methodology , preservation , and interpretation , the further research and improvement of technology will largely contribute to the clear understandings of human environmental disturbance and other interrelated disturbance .","< heading > The existing system and future aspirations < /heading > Based on the preliminary surveys of the existing IT facilities , it is clear that both organisations are using basic techniques for administrative work which are very error prone and time consuming . Efficiency and productivity can be greatly increased with electronic systems , but finding the correct software to implement a suitable system can be difficult . The management team 's aspirations have been identified during consultation , and a solution needs to be put forward in order to solve these issues , and for the transition to be successful . Software needs to be introduced that can : < list > Improve the stock control system within the charity shopKeep records of what is sold in the charity shopsProvide generic email addresses for all members of staffImprove the current website and make it secure for online donationsKeep track of staff payroll and create invoicesIntroduce a points based system for patients so care is fairly distributedProvide features to cater for the visually impaired.</list><heading > Considerations when choosing software</heading > Clearly and have many requirements that need to be met , but it is difficult to find suitable software because there are numerous factors that need to be considered before the software can be chosen . Each piece of software is different as they all provide slightly different functionality even if they are designed to do the same job ; some have many advanced features for those who are very computer literate and need the package to do a lot for them , but others are much more basic and provide a much simpler solution . The underlying issue to keep in mind when choosing software is that you are trying to meet the requirements at the lowest price possible , and this can be hard because there are many hidden ' overheads ' that can be overseen . As well as paying for the package itself , you may need to acquire a license which may need renewing , there is a charge for ongoing maintenance and support , and it maybe necessary to send staff on training courses to ensure that the software can be put to maximum use . It is important to select the correct software package for the requirements so that it increases productivity and efficiency which is the primary purpose for an investment into new software . The organisations are merging and locating on premises creating less floor space , and charity shop is closing down as it is in an unsuitable location meaning less rent is now being paid . Along with the additional online donation feature which is to be introduced , the organisation will have a fair amount of money , and can afford to buy reasonable software . It is obviously not sensible to buy the most expensive software because it is not necessarily the best or most suitable for the solution . Before searching for software it is necessary to determine how closely the user requirements need to be met , as there are many different software classes to consider . option is to use custom developed software or a modifiable package , but this would not be sensible nor would it be economical to run a ' simple ' system using software developed this way as although the solution would work perfectly , the system is not going to serve a critical function , and would therefore be unnecessary . In this instance commercial off - the - shelf software ( COTS ) would be beneficial because it can be used to provide answers to the requirements . Software of this kind is usually intuitive meaning that staff training would be minimal if necessary at all , and support is easily obtainable whether it be online or over the phone . Commercial off - the - shelf - software is readily available , rich in functionality and upgrades are available . < heading > Available Software</heading > After looking closely at the requirements , it is clear that they can be met by implementing an Office Suite . It will be more cost effective than using individual packages and paying for separate licenses , even though the trust would receive a discount for being a charity , and there may be serious compatibility issues . Office suites provide a common feel between programs with shortcut keys , menus , and graphics , they have compatible formats so documents and files can be embedded within each other ( for example a spreadsheet showing cash flow in a document for a business report for the ) , and only need licence instead of many individual ones . There are currently many Office Suites on the market that provide very similar functionality and so each needs to be analysed taking into account the considerations mentioned above . The PCs bought by and have sufficient resources to run Windows XP as an operating system and so suites such as that are Linux based and can not be used . of the biggest names in this market are , , and Lotus Smart Suite Millennium Edition . They all have a word processor , , WordPerfect and ; a spreadsheet , , , and 1 - 2 - 3 ; a database , , , and ; and a html editor , , Trellix , and respectively . WordPerfect is a suite best suited to larger companies as it has many features that exploit client - server networks which are not necessary for an organisation of this size . The database application is very complex and not user friendly for novices which many of the staff are at the trust . For this reason , many online documents are stating that makes WordPerfect not suitable as a general - purpose office suite . The support is not as extensive as that for and more emphasis is put on self - help from discussion boards setup by users . WordPerfect does allow documents to be saved in format which and do not , and this can be a useful feature when storing documents that have been scanned in order to keep a soft copy . It also boasts that it is supported by many platforms and so there are not any compatibility problems in this area . The software is therefore available to a larger audience of people so greater revenues can be obtained . This is a good selling point for and and other organisations in a similar position , because this extensive compatibility can reduce costs if there is n't any need to upgrade the operating system as well . has a very different menu structure that can be complex as there are many tabs containing a lot of detail . Training is required to use this package because it is not very intuitive , however , training is readily available . A major issue to think about is whether the word processors in and WordPerfect are compatible with because many typed documents from external sources will be in a foreign format ( e.g. .doc ) . If the word processor can not read the file due to issues concerning compatibility then it is doubtful as to whether the suites are suitable . As it happens both and WordPerfect do let themselves down here , because even if the suite component does not crash whilst importing , tables and inserted objects are lost or not editable , macros do not function correctly , colour quality in presentations is lessened , and features are lost . When selecting software , you should always look to the future and assess how easy it is to upgrade existing software and if there are any compatibility issues . users have reported that is not backwards compatible with Access 97 and problems have arisen for people that are upgrading their databases . This gives WordPerfect the edge in this field as no such issues have been reported and it may be perceived as the better option because of this . Although this may not happen to other applications in the future , it is still an issue to consider when selecting a solution . However , has many advantages over and as it offers excellent integration between all applications and programs meaning importing from one to another is smooth with no loss of data . It has a consistent , nice looking and intuitive ( graphical user interface ) and it is stable . in general is notorious for its extensive technical and user support on and offline as it is well documented ; it also has many training opportunities and downloadable add - ons and service packs . < heading > The Proposal</heading seems to be the best solution for and as it has all the necessary components needed to meet the requirements ; Access can be used to keep records of stock and its attributes , and it can create patient records and assign points to each individual depending on how frequently they visit . Professional looking forms can be created to capture client data and queries performed in order to sort and search through records by individual criterion . These can then be viewed as reports and printed off so stock levels can be identified for example . Excel can be used to provide a method for creating and maintaining a payroll , and is a useful component of the suite as it has many features that can vastly speed up previously tedious processes normally undertaken by the staff at the trust . Formulae can be used to add up totals , for example how much the staff are being paid , macros can be created to perform regular tasks , and validation techniques implemented to ensure staff are being paid the correct amounts . Word is ideal for creating typed documents such as letters to patients and staff . It has a mail merge feature for adding personalisation to documents , headers and footers for adding a professional touch to all documents from the trust , and it can create templates so that all documents have the same style . The requirements also state that all software must be friendly to users with disabilities . can also be adjusted for patients to use as it has many optional settings that cater for the visually impaired and people with dyslexia . Icons , pointers and text can be made larger and colours can be made more vivid for those who can not distinguish between low contrasted colours . Publisher is included in the suite and this will allow the trust to design professional looking newsletters to pass around on paper or in emails , and can edit html code and aid in the creation of a new secure webpage to allow for online donations . However , does have the highest price for rental but the trust does have a lot of cash at the moment and the suite does fit the requirements closer than the other available suites . It uses a common user interface in all components and the suite is fast becoming a ' de jure ' standard as it is used in the majority of workplaces and schools . This is not necessarily because it is always the most suitable suite available , it is because has become preponderant due to market conditions . < heading > Networking</heading > A client - server network is needed to create an emailing system for all members of staff . I suggest using an architecture as it is the easiest and relatively inexpensive to implement . The network would be very efficient in tasks as there is also distributed processing power at each client ; they are far from being dumb terminals . There needs to be an email server ( it is not necessary for physical server ) so that generic addresses can be formed . To provide generic addresses , a username can be created for each person and this can form the part of the address and the Internet domain name of the company can be used in the part of the email address . This network can also be used to pass information around such as newsletters , and it can allow sharing of expensive peripherals such as printers . As many records are being kept and are frequently changing , back ups need to be kept regularly . The server can act as a central back up for all of the clients on the network and prevent the need for individual back up which can be neglected by staff . A main advantage however is that software such as does not need to be installed individually on every machine , it can be split to different locations so that all can access it . The server will need a network operating system in order to operate and Window Server 2003 is the best way forward . It is sensible to stay with another product as there will definitely not be any compatibility issues and there are joint licensing agreements which can save money . Windows Server has extensive wizards that makes configuration simple for file and peripheral sharing , and creating servers with various roles ( for example , an email server ) . It ensures a secure network from the core to the furthest edges and is generally suitable for a trust of this size .",0
"The film Dantes Peak is about a dormant volcano that suddenly erupts and threatens the nearby town . Prior to the eruption are indications of such an event occurring , some of which are realistic , whilst others are not so realistic . The indicator of an eruption is greater than average seismic activity below the Cascades , at a depth of km . This is what would be expected with most eruptions . After this event , the volcano itself is monitored more closely . Seismometers and tiltmeters are set up around the volcano to monitor any seismic activity or bulges appearing on the mountain . This monitoring is what happens in the monitoring of ' real ' volcanoes . Dead animals and trees were also found , evidence of poisonous gases being released from the volcano . Although in real life this can happen , it is not a good indicator of volcanic activity about to occur , as wildlife and vegetation can die from many other causes such as disease , famine etc . The acidity of water up the mountain had increased to dangerous levels too . This is unlikely to be due to the acidity of the ' country rock ' but most likely increased volcanic activity . This phenomena is sometimes found in real life situations . Later on in the film the town 's water supply turns brown and smells of sulphur dioxide . This contamination is not what one would expect to find in real life and is therefore an unrealistic event . As it gets closer to the eruption in the film , the amount of seismic activity increases , until a powerful earthquake occurs during the eruption . This increasing seismic activity prior to an eruption is very similar to real eruptions . The eruptions of Helens ( , ) and ( ) had both seen increasing seismic activity before their eruptions . Whilst ash is falling during the film , the residents of the town are seen walking through the ash as it falls . If this was for real , the people would not be able to breathe as breathing in the ash would damage the lungs and they would suffocate and die fairly quickly . A car is also seen driving over a lava flow and manages to drive clear of it ! This would not be the case as the intense heat would melt the tyres and the engine would quickly catch on fire . The eruption of also occurs in phases . The stage being the eruption resulting in an earthquake , an ash cloud and much ash falling . The stage being the a much more explosive eruption followed by a pyroclastic flow . Many eruptions have just single eruption so the events in the film could just have been put in for cinematic effects rather than portraying real science . Here is a list of all the volcanic phenomena occurring during the film ; < list > Boiling waterUnusual animal activityIncreased levels in waterDead treesDead animalsGases coming up through the water and crater ( carbon dioxide and sulphur micro earthquakes dailyGeothermal activityGreater than average seismic activityBrown waterIncreasing emissions of gasesFalling ashLightning in ash cloudFalling trees and bouldersLava flowsDead fishSnow melting creating laharsPyroclastic flowExtensive ash column</list >","This shot breaks up a previous montage of shots . The are right of centre frame , and with the sun setting in the middle of the frame , behind some buildings , causing a slight camera flare . The lighting is darker than previously and the ironically titled ( I 'm Only Bleeding ) by provides the soundtrack . This plus use of the flare , seems to be an attempt to make clear that this scenery , unlike the previous landscapes , can not be romanticised in the same way , it is too different , too bare and ugly . A close up of a front wheel of of the bikes suggests that its rider is falling behind . The next shot reveals that this is . The medium shot to the side of the bikes shows the riders , both without helmets and without his jacket . The backdrop of a construction site contrasts with the previous splendour of the mountains . This close up / medium shot format is repeated . The next few shots appear to be an action replay of similar shot of falling behind . However after repeats of this yawns , and this yawn continues into the next shot , suggesting to the audience that these were in fact different incidents . Again this reflects the idea that they are going nowhere but also predicts that it is who will fall behind , as indeed he does . The yawn also suggests that their journey has lost its excitement . The next shot shows the travelling towards the camera , with the sky in the background as grey as the bridge they are crossing , which cuts to a tracking shot of again of the landscape , but instead of being from the biker 's point of view , the camera swings round to the left , showing that it is in fact ahead of them . They camera no longer has to keep up with their pace , they are moving slower , suggesting again a lack of excitement and a sense of lethargy . The journey is clearly coming to an end and the audience is being prepared for some sort of finale . However this slower pace heightens the shock of the abrupt death of the main characters , something which the audience is not prepared for . Here a crosscutting technique is used again , this time of a tracking shot looking out over the river and of the previous tracking shot from behind the bikes , which has been used already . Repetition of shots has already occurred and the audience is now perfectly aware that this voyage is going absolutely nowhere . Another new shot from in front of the bikes shows them passing yet another construction site , which although new , seems like it has already been shown . Some lengthier tracking shots follow , this time of new landscape which appears to be a riverbank edged with forest . The use of zoom here gives another feeling of indistinction , or pointlessness . A cut to a new medium tracking shot of the road and drives into shot from the bottom left hand corner , the camera falling behind to eventually show , who drives into shot much later . As they drive on the music fades , replaced by the sound of the motorcycle engines , the lack of the music adding to the sense of tedium . Cut to a close shot of men driving a truck , framed by the windscreen . There are clearly guns in the back window ; the driver is dressed in a white shirt and cowboy hat , the other in a black shirt with wonky teeth and an unsightly lump on the side of his face . They are clearly stereotypical ' rednecks ' . Suggesting they scare the bikers , the passenger takes a gun and points it out of the window . The next shot appears to be from the point of view of the truck as it passes close to . It cuts back to the truck ; the passenger threatens then laughs . Cut back to , still tracking , who gestures with this middle finger and then ignores them . Cut to the truck , the passenger yells at Billy to ' get a haircut ' . Billy continues to ignore them . This less than violent retaliation makes the following shots a lot more of a shock . Cut back to the truck , as smiling , the passenger shoots and the camera moves away from the truck as if falling with . The camera follows as he skids to the ground . We cut between the truck and as the driver asks what happened and then see a point - of - view shot from the truck as it passes . Then comes another shot of on the ground , followed by a fairly low angle shot of driving towards . We cut back to the truck as the killer looks out of the window . Back at the roadside , runs to , who is visibly bleeding and kneels by his side , still muttering ' I 'm gon na get 'em ' . Cut to the truck , and the killer suggests they go back , the audience presumes , to help . picks up his jacket to cover 's wounds , dropping the helmet on the way . The camera lingers on his images as he drives into the distance to get help . Perhaps to suggest that he is , unwittingly , leaving for good . There is now a long shot of the truck moving towards the camera , alternated with a shot of coming the other way . Finally passes out of frame and we cut to the truck passing us to the left , where immediately we are blinded by a flash of white then red light as a shot is fired . Almost exactly at this point , a shot of 's bike , rider - less and alight at the engine flies through the air , the wheel separating and the wreckage falling onto the grass . The camera lingers on this image briefly before a split - second shot of the bike in flames , coupled with the sound of an explosion , crosscuts with a well - paced crane shot , moving up and away from the wreckage , which burns in a ditch at the roadside . This shot continues as the credits roll . To view this ending as simply conservatism winning out over the rebels would be too negative and leave the audience dissatisfied . Luckily the viewer is saved from complete despair by the glorious explosion of the bike . You never see 's body mangled and degraded on the roadside , the audience is led to believe that something of , his essence , perhaps even his soul , is ascending with it , transcending the society which has kept it down . It also seems fitting that they should die on the road , the only place they were truly ' free ' . They are clearly not welcome in towns and even when they stop in the commune , there is a feeling of tension towards them as outsiders . Rather than further lose faith in the freedom the country has to offer , dies in the place which , in his mind , embodies this . In this way it is the ' rednecks who ensure ideological containment in narrative closure ' . Surely this is a more satisfactory ending than having him completely disenchanted and pathetic on a never - ending journey to nowhere ? < fnote > Laderman , the Trail : Visionary Rebellion and the Late-1960s Road Movie in his Driving Visions : Exploring the Road Movie ( ) pg . < /fnote > Unfortunately , this almost saintly status does lend a sense of narcissism to his counter - culture attitude . There are other factors which might also give rise to this interpretation , for instance the close ups of apparently deep in thought but looking totally blank . character ( credited as stranger on highway ) , his dialogue and 's mocking response to it ' you been saying that all day ' also suggest he can not be taken seriously because he has an air of arrogance that almost makes the audience feel negatively towards the commune he talks about before they are even introduced to it . therefore appears to offer different perspectives on 's counter - culture . This is also reflected in the sudden change of scenery in the final sequence . Throughout the film the landscape has been stunning , as the travellers point out staggering rock formations shadowed in beautiful sunsets . In the final travelling sequence the landscape has changed dramatically . This is not the they expected to find . This does not totally destroy the myth of the landscape because , as suggests ' the presence of hippies does not automatically derail the nationalistic symbolism so intimately associated with the grand scenery . "" Herein lie the traditional views to which seems to be eternally attached via the flag blazoned on his bike and jacket . However also suggests in the same article that the change in scenery at the end reflects a ' revisionist assessment of the nation ' that was going on at the time . For this to be true , to me this suggests that the film is just as confused about its stance on what should be as its main characters are . It simultaneously upholds and destroys the traditions of past and via the change in scenery , looks to its future with uncertainty . < fnote > Klinger , B The Road to Dystopia : Landscaping the Nation in Easy Rider ' ( ) in , : Routledge , ) < /fnote > Wyatt quite clearly reinforces this reading . His attachment to ' ' is made clear from his costume , his partner even referring to him as ' Captain America ' . But the removal of his jacket in the final sequence suggests an uncertainty about this previously strong attachment . He is not so keen to be associated with something he has discovered to be fundamentally flawed . Similarly he wears a very hippy - style white shirt at the start of the film , but by the end this has been replaced by a rather busy - looking , standard style shirt . The hippy lifestyle does not seem to have suited him either . He is caught somewhere in between and is not entirely sure where that is . This could be seen to show an in transition , unsure of itself and its own identity , experimental , full of change and could even be said to represent the crisis of identity faced by the over . The entire film , and in particular the ending and the character of reflects an struggling in times of change . Some sections appear to uphold a traditional nationalistic view of the country ; others seem to point to a picture of an which is not as clean and shiny as it appears in the travel brochure . It clearly points to as a nation trying desperately to move forward , but finding itself unable to leave behind the images of its traditional past , perhaps because it has used them so fiercely to define itself for so long , and can not find a sufficient image to replace it with .",0
"< heading > INTRODUCTION</heading > Many physical and chemical factors e.g. light , temperature and nutrient , can overcome seed dormancy . When a single factor is applied , the effect on germination can be small or none , but the combined effects of or more factors could be considerate . In this experiment , seeds of an important annual weed , album L. in the goose foot family ( Chenopodiaceae ) , which grows in waste and cultivated ground throughout the Isles ( Stace , ) , were used . et al . ( ) showed the effect of alternating temperatures on C. album seeds germination in the present of nitrate nutrient and light . In this experiment , tests were set up to measure the effects of these factors , alternating temperatures , light and nitrate nutrient , which are the possible main factors in determining the germination of weed seeds in the soil environment . Appropriate controls , constant temperature , darkness and water , as well as all possible combination of treatments were used to measure the separate effect of factor , and any possible interactions of or more factors . The result is a factorial experiment with different treatments . < heading > MATERIALS AND METHODS</heading > Table 1 summarises the set - up of the experiment . Each sample was a batch of C. album seeds subjected to of the treatments and each treatment had replicated samples , which gave a grand total of samples in the whole experiment . < table/>Each sample of seeds was tested in dish on top of circles of Whatman Grade 181 Seed Testing Paper . The paper was moistened either by of purified water or of M potassium nitrate solution . The dishes with seeds were either kept in clear polythene bags and exposed to light during test , or wrapped in aluminium foil for dark treatment . incubators were used , one set at constant and the other at alternating between 10 ˚C for and 20 ˚C for in a day . After , the number of germination for each treatment was counted . ANOVA ( analysis of variance ) statistical analysis was carried out on germination data by using a statistical program , and the model of analysis was set to General Linear Model . As ANOVA analysis is base on the following assumptions : the observations of any treatments are normally distributed ; the variance of this distribution is the same for all other different treatments ( i.e. 1 = 2= 3 ... = n ) . However , percentage data may not satisfy these assumptions if there is a wide range of values ( lower that or higher that ) . To correct this problem , angular transformation ( angular transform equation and raw experiment data are in Appendix 1 ) was carried out before analysis . All the data present here after are angular data except otherwise stated differently . < heading > RESULTS</heading > Seeds under 20 ˚C constant temperature , in water and darkness had the lowest germination , whereas seeds under alternating temperature , light and potassium nitrate solution had the highest germination with times increases in term of mean percentage than the former treatment ( ) . By simple comparisons of the mean germination angles between dark and light , between water and nitrate and between constant and alternating temperatures , they seem to suggest all these factors contribute to the increase in germination . However , the results from analysis ( ) paint a different picture . The factors with significant effects on germination are medium and temperature ( both have p - values < ) , but not illumination or light ( p - value = ) , even thought there were some increases in the mean angles ( and Table 4(a ) ) . The t - test results ( ) also support this assertion ( detail of t - test calculation is in Appendix 3 ) . < table/>p - values of interactions ( ) also indicate that there were no significant interactions between any factors . This is confirmed by the interaction plots in Figure ( the lines are almost parallel to each other in all the interaction plots ) and the results of t - test on factors interaction ( ) . As there were no significant interactions , the increase in germination in combination of different treatments was due mainly to the additive effects of different factors . < table/><table/><table/><table/><figure/><heading > CONCLUSIONS</heading > A 2 3 factorial experiment on the effect of different factors , alternating temperatures , light and nutrient on C. album seeds overcoming dormancy had been carried out . Results of analysis on seeds germination data show that alternating of temperatures and nitrate availability are the significant factors . Although there were some increases in seeds germination under light , but these increases were not significant . Moreover , the results of the experiment also suggest that there were no significant interactions between light , alternating temperatures and nitrate . The increase in seeds germination when or more treatments were combined was due to the additive effects .","With the expansion of through from onwards there came a development in the design and urban styles of the towns all through the growing empire . The different cultures conquered by the lead to a mixture and adaptation of local styles along with the creation , in these foreign lands , of Roman styles and town plans . In this essay I plan to compare towns from different parts of to discuss the difference in their layouts and plans , and also the modern approach used by archaeologists when excavating these sites . The towns I have chosen for my study are , on the west coast of , and Emporion , on the north - east coast of . The difference in documentation on the history of these towns varies , however they both provide a separate insight into the different styles that were to be found within . The town of was founded in B.C. to guard the coast road and sea on the west coast , and to keep a military presence in the territory of , the defeated city . It was located north of and it had one of the best harbours of the surrounding area ( Stambaugh : ) . Cosa consisted of an ' auguraculum ' cut into the limestone surface on the top of the hill , on each side . Upon this the town would be built , giving the people of the town a clear view of land and sea . They could also use the auguraculum to lay out the outlines of roads and fields within the town . The finished town was and surrounded by walls long with square towers along it . Emporion , along the coast , was also a key harbour point , taken by the from the Greeks in about 100BC . Like Cosa it was built atop a plateau , but for Emporion the religious and commercial heart of the town was characterized by its market place , a large by forum overlooked by the ' Temple Capitolium ' dedicated to the gods , and ( Kaey 1988 : ) . The temple was an overwhelming structure that greeted anyone entering from the south entrance to the town . All the elements of the temple , such as its platform , shrine or tiled roof , were strictly symmetrical , reflective of Roman design . Religious ceremonies would have been performed here bringing the townspeople together , this in tern worked with the enclosed area to the south which acted as a market place . Cosa 's centralized section of the town surrounded what was called the Forum . The streets of the town were laid out in an orderly symmetrical way similar to the design of Emporion . main streets bordered the Forum on northwest and southwest , leading up to gates in the north - eastern and south - eastern walls , and a main street linked the Forum with the northwest gate ( Stambaugh : ) . The Forum acted , like 's market place and temple , as a place where the town 's people could gather and meet within the town . The settlers at Cosa were in numbers colonists with their families from the surrounding towns and then in another 1,000 followed in the aftermath of ( Stambaugh : ) . This affected the urbanism of because only roughly a quarter of these people could be accommodated within the walls of the town , therefore families were then living on small farms and in hamlets throughout the surrounding land , or ager . This lead to smaller farms residing on the outskirts of the ager with larger farms further inwards , these larger farms becoming more regular . These numbers are much smaller , however , when compared to the population of Emporion . When the colony appeared under , it was to accommodate people ( : ) . Like the farms in it eventually saw the development of late houses which have since been discovered on the east side of the city . The style of these houses are more than Roman , this connection with a Greek style of building shows how , in Emporion , the Roman architects chose to develop the Roman sense of urban design alongside the already established surroundings . This mixture created a look different to any town in other parts of the such as in . The development of Roman complexes with the growth of its population is a common concept . In Emporion saw the expansion into grander and more ambitious areas . However in the town the changes were not expansion outside of the walls , but instead added buildings within , such as the addition of a long covered hall called a ' basilica ' ( Kaey 1988 : ) . With the development of the structure there also came the addition of forum and amphitheatre . This dramatically altered the structure of the town as there was now a large covered meeting place at which people could gather , and where the law courts and other official businesses were located . I will now compare and contrast the difference in the modern approach taken to excavation and research of these towns . The archaeological site of has been under various different investigations , the main ones happening in and concentrating on the ' atrium building V ' . called the excavation of , by in , of ' the most ambitious ' excavations of recent times ( ) . claims that the selection of [ as an excavation site ] over other better known and more popular sites represented a careful expression of archaeological aims . This is shown into the extensive work that was done into from that point on . The town 's site has been , since , a popular site for excavation and research into Roman urbanism in towns . It has proven especially popular because of its abandonment and lack of use throughout and right up into modern times . The belief is therefore that the town of would provide undisturbed evidence of the Roman era ( ) . Archaeologists consequently thought that the town would provide undamaged evidence of the vital stages in the development of Roman urban life which had long since been destroyed at other sites such as the city of and other more persistently prosperous Roman sites . If done properly and successfully it was thought that would provide the reconstruction of the architectural history of the city and its monuments , whilst also providing significant insights into the material culture of during that time . Like Cosa , Emporion is also considered an unusual choice for an archaeological excavation . Recent excavations of the sight have resulted in positive results , speaking about the sight prior to a trip there as part of his degree commented that , ' the sheer volume of material ... to emerge from Emporion during its of excavation is staggering ' ( Avery 2005 , ,   URL   newsletter / june05 / fullbright.htm ) . This statement , however , portrays a slightly distorted view of the sight . Despite being rich in archaeological evidence , the Roman period in is much less well known even to the scholarly world when compared to sites in and the rest of ( Richardson ) . Therefore there is very little documented on the excavation and study of sites such as Emporion , this makes the study of the modern treatment of this sight a difficult task . Cosa , on the other hand , provides us will well documented insights into study of various different monuments within the town . There was extensive work done in ' where samples of the frescoes were found and selected using the following criteria : the context of the building , the colour of the pigments , the macroscopic characteristics of the plaster layers and the state of conservation of the fragments ( Damiani , , , ) . Using the evidence found in the house of the archaeologists were able to decipher where the different particles had originated from , for instance by analysing the sulphuric isotopes they were able to identify the place of origin of the cinnabar ( a reddish - brown mineral , the principle source of mercury found near volcanic activity ) . Archaeologists are therefore able to reduce the number of possible sources for the material to being either Almedén in , in or Idrija in . ' Considerable emphasis is placed on the origins ' of excavated material from ) , which is why so much study is taken into the different sources of each piece which is found at the various sites . Archaeologists see investigation into a prime site such as , as an excellent opportunity to discover more about the sources from which the gathered their materials for building and decoration . From study of we can get a more in - depth look into the methods used in the ancient world thanks to the modern methods of chemical study . In conclusion a study of these very different sites coming from separate parts of has provided us with an insight into the different ways that the Roman people designed and built their cities . In you see the example of the usual town built atop a plateau and containing the usually arranged monuments that you would expect to find in the ideal Roman town . Cosa is a good example of how the built their towns when building them almost from scratch in their land of origin . However in Emporion , we see a difference since provides us with a prime example of how the town looked when affected by the settlers who were there before . Much of the urbanism and the look of Emporion , although romanised , reflected the Greeks who had a colony at Emporion before the . This comparison gives us as archaeologists an insight into the difference between Roman towns when there is a distinction in the way the towns has been affected before the structures were built . Cosa and Emporion also are good examples of the difference there can be between the levels of research and study of sites . On the one hand you can have a site like which has multiple resources on its many excavations throughout . On the other hand you could be looking at a site like the one at , which although it has been excavated numerous times , the level of documentation and sources on the site are sparse . This shows us how different the level of research and type of study in separate Roman sites can be and allows us to understand the variation further between towns that , although were within the same , were , ultimately , a world apart .",0
"< heading>1 . Introduction < /heading><quote>'If we educate a boy , we educate person . If we educate a girl , we educate a family - and a whole nation . '</quote > The above proverb was quoted by , President of , . He argues that educating girls has a catalytic effect on the economic development which includes higher productivity and faster economic growth . However , in many countries , especially in the developing countries , males get higher level of schooling than female , i.e. there is an educational gender gap . It is believed that female and male education has affected output and growth in different ways . Female education , as with male education , can improve productivity and contribute directly to the output of the economy and , indirectly , through social gains by reducing fertility and infant mortality(especially in developing countries ) , improving family and child health , and increasing the quantity and quality of children 's educational attainment . Studies using cross - country macro - level data pick up not only the direct effects of female education , but also the indirect effects not captured using micro level data . The aim of this paper is to estimate a neoclassical growth model that includes male and female education as separate explanatory variables . The average long - run effects of male and female education on output per worker are estimated for a cross - section of countries using long time averages of the data . The results support emphasis on the importance of female education in raising labour productivity . This paper follows the paper by , lorgelly and P.Dorian Owen . ( ) . ' Are educational gender gaps a brake on economic development ? ' They based their results on data obtained for a mixed group of countries for using on time averages of the data and concluded that female education contributed significantly to the labour productivity across countries . The following paper uses the same technique for a sample of countries consisting of developed and developing countries over and attempts to prove that female education plays a significant role in the overall development of the economy . Previous empirical work on this topic , the formation of the model , the data and the estimation techniques used , and the results will be reported in the subsequent sections . < heading>2 . Literature Review</heading > The cross - country macroeconomic literature seems far from reaching a common consensus on the role of female education . Some studies report regressions with positive effects of both male and female education on growth . For example , ( ) reports the above result using primary and secondary school enrolments . However , since none of the regressions use both male and female enrolments in the same equation , the results may not be significant for the study of gender gaps in education . Hill and King ( ) go step ahead and introduce educational gender gap in cross - sectional output regression . They also use school enrolments as a proxy for level of education . Their results show a positive significant impact of female education on GDP . According to them the social benefits of women 's education range from improving economic growth to increasing life expectancy in the population , to improving the functioning of the political processes . By contrast , and ( ) find that there is a significant negative partial correlation between economic growth and female secondary schooling . They use average years of schooling instead of enrolment rates . They explain the negative coefficient as a result of backwardness due to a high spread between male and female educational attainment . This in turn would mean a higher growth potential through the convergence mechanism . However , according to , ( ) , a major problem with the results of these studies is that the equations estimated are ad hoc and it is not clear how the coefficients are to be interpreted . The studies by include life expectancy as a proxy for health component of human capital . According to Knowles and , when education is not aggregated by gender it is not statistically significant in models that include life expectancy . The level of educational attainment then has no explanatory power for growth . In response to the problems above , et al ( ) re - estimate and 's equations using estimator . They obtain a significant positive coefficient on female schooling and a negative one on male schooling . They argue that female education captures the positive fertility effects and negative human capital effects , former outweighing the latter . Male education on the other hand only represents the human capital effects and therefore has a negative coefficient . Other studies , e.g. et al ( ) using panels find education to have significant negative effect . They assume that this could be due to intervals being too short to account for the effect of education on growth . They argue that cross - sectional data using time averages may be the preferred proxy in estimating the effects of human capital investment on growth . It is to be noted that thing that all the studies in this area have in common is the lack of explicit theoretical framework . This makes coefficients on variables difficult to interpret . < heading>3 . Formation of the Model</heading > The model used is a - style neoclassical growth model . Here male and female education and health capital are entered as separate factors in the production function . The equation to be estimated is :   FORMULA ( ) Where subscripts i and t denote country i and time period t respectively . Y / L denotes values of real output per worker . s ki is the fraction of real output invested in physical capital . x it is the stock of health capital ef is the stock of female education em is the stock of male education . It is to be noted that lower case letters denote quantities per effective unit of labour . n is the growth rate of labour force , g is the growth rate of technology ( assumed to be constant across countries ) and δ is the rate of depreciation , which is assumed to be common across countries and time . It is to be noted that the model assumed steady - state relationships . εit is the error term . Note that the coefficients on log ( s ki ) and on log ( n + g + δ ) should sum to . If the null hypothesis of a valid restriction is accepted then the restricted version of the equation can be used to infer values of βf , βm , and Ψ more accurately . The real GDP per worker ( ) is the dependent variable and s ki , n i + g + δ , ef , em and x it are the independent / explanatory variables . The model seeks to find the relationship between the dependent and the independent variables and to determine how significant the coefficients are , especially the female education , in determining the output per worker/ labour productivity . A significant positive coefficient on female education would imply that efforts should be made to reduce the educational gender gaps in order to have world development . It is to be noted that in cross - section estimation any unobservable country specific effects enter the error terms in estimated equations and and - type methods yield consistent estimates only if the country - specific error terms are uncorrelated with the explanatory variables . This could bias the results . An additional source of bias could result from the potential endogeneity of the explanatory variables as life expectancy , schooling levels and population growth are all likely to depend on a country 's level of output per worker . < heading>4 . Data Sources < /heading > Y / L , Real GDP per worker is taken from version . data was logged and then averaged over . s k , is the ratio of gross fixed capital formation ( a proxy for capital investment ) to real GDP . Data on ( in US $ ) was taken from and the data for Real GDP ( in US $ ) was taken from the IMF . The data was logged and then averaged over . n i + g + δ , Adjusted growth rate of labour force . The growth rate of workforce ( n ) was calculated using the employment data from ILO database . It was calculated for . ( g + δ ) was assumed equal to . ( n i + g + δ ) was logged and then averaged over . ef , average number of of schooling attained by females from primary to level was taken from . Data on average years of schooling has been widely used as a proxy for stocks of educational human capital . The data was logged and then averaged over . em , average number of of schooling attained by males from primary to level was taken from . The data was logged and then averaged over the same period . x , the shortfall in life expectancy at birth ( LE ) from . Data on life expectancy measure mortality rather than morbidity . It could be argued that when examining the relationship between health and labour productivity , data on morbidity is preferable . The data used are from social indicator 's of development . The shortfall in life expectancy is calculated as log(x ) = -log ( 85 - LE ) . The data were logged and then averaged for the period 1995 to 2004 . < heading>5 . Estimation and Empirical results</heading > The sample consists of countries including developed countries of and developing countries of and . The data was collected for 2004 for all the variables in the equation ( ) mentioned under model specification . data was logged and then averaged over the period of study for each variable . was used to estimate the following equation :   FORMULA   The results obtained are given in table in the appendix . The coefficient on female education is positive and is statistically significant , whereas the coefficient on male education is not statistically significant from . The implication could be that countries with higher level of female schooling would have higher levels of labour productivity , ceteris paribus . possible economic interpretation of the negative coefficient on male education could be that as the level of female education has a significant positive impact on GDP , large gender disparities in educational attainment associated with lower levels of GDP could mean that for given levels of female education , higher levels of male education reduce GDP . The coefficient on life expectancy is very significant and positive implying that life expectancy affects the labour productivity significantly . < fnote > According to the paper by Knowles and , Although schooling data is widely used as a proxy for educational human capital , recent work by Fuente ( 2000 ) on schooling data for a sample of countries suggests that the data may be subject to a measurement error . Sen(1998 ) argues that morbidity data may not be consistent across countries because of the subjectivity involved . In such situations , data on mortality may be more adequate . < /fnote > The coefficients on the ratio of gross fixed capital formation to real GDP and the adjusted growth rate of workforce are positive but insignificant . This could be due to the inclusion of life expectancy that makes the other coefficients insignificant . It is to be noted that when the equation is estimated without life expectancy , becomes extremely significant . The results are reported in table in the appendix . The R squared values in table and respectively showing that the model is explained accurately by the explanatory variables . The adjusted R squared values are also very high . The probability of F - statistic in both the tables is very low ( ) implying that the null hypothesis of coefficients being is rejected and the model explains the variables well . To check whether the distribution is normal , that is , whether the error term has same distribution over all i we conduct the normality test . The results are reported in figure in the appendix . The p - value is which implies that the null hypothesis of the distribution being normal is not rejected at level of significance . This means that the errors are independently and identically distributed { iid ( 0 , σ2 ) } . As mentioned earlier in the paper , the model is tested for the restriction that the coefficients on log ( s ki ) i.e. the ratio of to and on log ( n + g + δ ) i.e. the adjusted growth rate of labour force sum to . If the null of this restriction is accepted then the restricted model can be used to infer the other more important coefficients whose values we are interested in ( βf , βm , and Ψ ) . To test this restriction test is used . The restrict to be tested is c(2)+c(3)=0 . The results are reported in table in the appendix . The p - value of the F - statistic is . Even though this is a borderline case it implies that the null of the restriction is not rejected and the restriction is valid . Now , to check whether the variance of the error ( unobservable ) term is constant over all i or varies over i we conduct the heteroscedasticity test on the estimation equation . Incase of presence of heteroscedasticity using may lead to invalid inference on significance of coefficients and of tests of restrictions and therefore either should be used or measures need to be taken to correct the variance of the estimator . The results of the White heteroscedasticity test are reported in table . The p - value of the F - statistic is which implies that the null hypothesis of homoscedasticity is rejected . To correct for the variance , standard errors and covariance is used . Once this is done the t - statistics are become accurate and the model can be interpreted more accurately . The results of the test are shown in table ( a ) in the appendix . The results of the regression of estimated equation using HSCEs are not too different from the original results . Some of the p - values have marginally changed but the significance of coefficients and the signs on them are still the same . Female education and life expectancy are the only two variables that are significant as before . When a test of the restriction is conducted , the p - value of the F - statistic is much higher ( ) than before and the null is easily rejected . See table 5 ( b ) in the appendix . Table 5 ( c ) shows the results of the equation after using HSCEs and taking the restriction into account .i.e . only the male years of schooling , female of schooling and life expectancy are take as explanatory variables . Now , the model assumes a linear relationship between the dependent and the independent variable . However , a there is a possibility that the model suffers from functional for misspecification when it does not properly account for the relationship between the dependent and the observed explanatory variables . Such models may be linear is parameters but non - linear in variables . Even though can be used to estimate such equations but this may lead to biased estimations of the coefficients . To test whether a linear functional for is adequate or not we use the test . RESET adds polynomials in the fitted values to the equation to detect functional form misspecification . However , it is to be noted that the null hypothesis of the equation being correctly specified could be rejected because of an omitted variable rather than a functional form . The results of the RESET test are reported in table in the appendix . The p - value of the F - statistic is which implies that the null of a properly specified model is rejected . possible reason for this could be the non - inclusion of certain variables in the equation that affect real GDP per worker .e.g . the level of technology or the level of public expenditure on education or the quality of education , etc . It is widely believed that the educational gender gaps are much greater in the developing countries as compared to the developed ones . Excluding the developed countries from the sample and using to estimate the equation for the developing ones gives puzzling results . The coefficients on male and female education are positive but statistically insignificant although the coefficient on female education is higher than that for male education . The only significant variable is life expectancy . Results are reported in table in the appendix . of the reasons to believe that the coefficients may be biased is that data for growth rate of workforce and average of schooling was not available for some countries for the whole period and averages were take for data was available . Also , the results of the RESET test show that the model is not clearly specified and there could be a bias due to omission of certain important variables . It is to be noted that the p - value of F - statistic for the test is much higher as compared to the sample consisting of both developed and developing countries . Also , the test for heteroscedasticity shows that the null is not rejected as the p - value of the F - statistic is . The results of the test and the heteroscedasticity test are given in tables and 9 respectively in the appendix . < heading>6 . Conclusion</heading > The aim of this paper was to see whether increasing female schooling leads to higher levels of labour productivity across countries and whether educational gender gaps are an impediment to economic development . Although the existing papers using cross - country macro level data have failed to reach a common conclusion and this paper is not free from bias in the data , the results obtained support claim about the importance of female education in improving output per worker . Therefore , a reduction or elimination of the prevailing educational gender gaps would lead to overall development across countries through the convergence mechanism .","< heading>1)Describe the functions of the lobes of the human cortex < /heading > The is the thin covering of convoluted grey tissue which covers the human brain . Although thick , it accounts for of the brain 's weight due to its density and can be broken down into functional units which are known as lobes . The following diagram shows where each of the lobes is situated and their various functions are described below . < picture/><heading > The frontal lobe</heading > Known as the memory centre of the brain , this area is responsible for our autobiographical memory , language , logical thinking and abstract thought - all qualities which we associate with consciousness . This area controls a variety of "" higher cognitive functions "" including behavior and emotions and the judgments we make about what occurs in our activities . It controls our expressive language and assigns meaning to the words we choose , it is also involved in word associations . Broca 's is an illustration of what can happen when the frontal lobe is damaged resulting in an inability to express language . Another very important job of the frontal lobe is that it inhibits the limbic system ( the emotional part of the brain ) , helping to keep our behavior reasoned and appropriate . Frontal lobe damage is often found in Dementias where we see loss of memory and uncharacteristic aggressive or tearful behavior due to the lack of limbic system inhibition . In people with Down Syndrome it is not well developed meaning that they are also unable to control emotions in a way that most people would deem "" appropriate "" . Damage to this area can result in confusion , disorientation and difficulty understanding instructions and is often observed with amnesiac patients . Other effects of damage to this area are : Loss of simple movement of various body parts ( Paralysis ) , inability to plan a sequence of complex movements needed to complete multi - stepped tasks , such as making coffee ( ) , loss of spontaneity in interacting with others , loss of flexibility in thinking . Also , persistence of a single thought ( Perseveration ) , inability to focus on task ( ) , mood changes ( Emotionally ) , changes in social behavior , specifically lack of inhibition . Changes in personality can also occur , as can difficulty with problem solving . < heading > The Parietal lobe</heading > This is the part of our brain responsible for motor and sensory functions for the whole of the body . It contains the largest blood vessels in the brain and consequently it is an area very often affected by strokes and bleeds . Most strokes occur here because of the number of blockages that can occur due to large blood vessels feeding into smaller ones . Each part of the parietal lobe is responsible for a certain part of the body and the more complex the motor functions of that part of the body , the larger the area of parietal lobe dedicated to it . There are parts to , both thought to have slightly different functions . The right side is to do with visio - spacial awareness and someone with damage to this side may have difficulty finding their way around new , or even familiar , places . Damage to the left side may disrupt a patient 's ability to understand spoken and/or written language . The parietal lobes contain the primary sensory cortex which controls sensation such as touch , pressure and pain . Behind the primary sensory cortex is a large association area that controls fine sensation such as judgment of texture , weight , size , shape . Functions : Location for visual attention , goal directed voluntary movements , manipulation of objects and integration of different senses that allows for understanding a single concept . Observed problems with people who have suffered damage to the area include : inability to attend to object at a time , inability to name an object ( ) , inability to locate the words for writing ( ) . There can also be problems with reading ( ) , difficulty with drawing objects , difficulty in distinguishing left from right , difficulty with doing mathematics ( Dyscalculia ) , inability to focus visual attention and difficulties with eye and hand coordination . It can also cause lack of awareness of certain body parts and/or surrounding space ( Apraxia ) that leads to difficulties in self - care . < heading part of the cortex controls our ability to understand vision . It is situated at the back of the brain because the eyes also need to share information with other parts of the brain in order that an immediate physical response can occur if necessary , prior to the processing of information . Damage to this area may cause a person not to be able to filter out enough visual stimuli to enable them to concentrate on task . Information from the occipital lobe is what we are consciously aware of - the phenomena of deja - vu happens when another part of the brain absorbs some visual information before it reaches the occipital lobe . Not only is the occipital lobe mainly responsible for visual reception , it also contains association areas that help in the visual recognition of shapes and colors . Damage to this lobe can cause visual deficits . in individuals with damage to this area include defects in vision ( ) , difficulty with locating objects , difficulty with identifying colors ( Color Agnosia ) , hallucinations , word blindness , difficulty in recognizing drawn objects , difficulties with reading and writing and the inability to recognize the movement of an object ( Movement Agnosia ) .. < heading > The Temporal lobe</heading > This lobe is concerned with complex visual phenomena and hearing . It is the centre for unconscious visual process and perception of angles . Essentially it dictates how we see the world and make sense of it by helping us to categorize objects . It also controls our ability to make sense of what we are hearing . Sometimes in , low visual stimulation can lead to a drop in audio hallucinations . The visual field should be kept as constant as possible when dealing with patients experiencing hallucinations . There are temporal lobes , one on each side of the brain located at about the level of the ears . These lobes allow a person to tell one smell from another and one sound from another . They also help in sorting new information and are believed to be responsible for short - term memory . The right lobe is mainly involved in visual memory ( i.e pictures and faces).The left lobe is mainly involved in verbal memory ( i.e.words and names ) . Observed problems in people with damage to this area include disjointed behavior and confusion , psychosis and hallucinations . They may also have difficulty in recognizing faces ( Prosopagnosia ) , difficulty in understanding spoken words ( Wernicke 's Aphasia ) , disturbance with selective attention to what we see and hear , difficulty with identification of , and verbalization about objects , interference with long - term memory ; there may also be increased or decreased interest in sexual behavior . This is one of the areas to become damaged in and explains why sufferers have trouble remembering recent events and new people Because these lobes are on the cortex of the brain , they are often areas which get damaged due to trauma , the brain will swell and the lobes will push on the skull causing bruising and damaging the tissue . If the pressure is not relieved , the damage can be irreparable . This is why a person may recover well from a head trauma where something has penetrated the skull because this will relieve the pressure and allow the area room to swell whilst someone who may have hit their head and have no evidence of damage could die from internal bleeding . The cortex of the brain is also an area where we see the brain 's amazing ability to continue to function despite huge amounts of damage . This is thought to be due to the huge numbers of neural pathways which allow the function of the damaged part to be taken on by a healthy part and is technically known as""plasticity "" . < heading>4 ) Outline how a neurotransmitter is released from the pre - synaptic terminal and describe its post - synaptic actions . < /heading > A neurotransmitter is a chemical messenger used by brain cells ( neurons ) in order to communicate with each other and the rest of the body . There are different known neurotransmitters and these can be broken into groups or principal classes since they share some enzyme or metabolic pathway . Each neurotransmitter has a particular biosynthetic pathway . The class is made up of acetylcholine alone , the class are the biogenic amines , that are molecules formed by an amino acid losing a hydroxyl or carboxyl group . The class is made up of excitory amino acids per se which are the fastest acting neurotransmitters . The most damaging amino acid is , it is a much stronger messenger than all of the others and can overpower them , this is why parents of hyperactive children are advised to avoid giving them foods containing monosodium glutamate . Other amino acids are : ( excitatory ) , ( inhibitory ) and ( inhibitory ) . The forth group are peptides . Except for the neuropeptides , which are made in the nerve cell body and transported in vesicles along the axon to the axon terminals , all other neurotransmitters are synthesized at the axon terminals and stored in synaptic vesicles Communication of information between neurons is accomplished by movement of these neurotransmitters across a small gap called the synapse . The synapse is found mainly at the end of axons and dendrites but can also be a junction with a cell body . It consists of : a presynaptic ending that contains readymade neurotransmitters in vesicles , a postsynaptic ending that contains receptor sites for neurotransmitters and a synaptic gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic endings . For communication between neurons to occur , an electrical impulse must travel down an axon to the synaptic terminal . As the charge moves down the synapse , calcium will flood in which makes the vesicles move to the bottom of the synapse and fuse with the cell membrane . On fusion , the membrane breaks and the neurotransmitter is released . The neurotransmitter molecules then diffuse across the synaptic gap where they can bind with receptor sites on the postsynaptic ending using a lock and key mechanism , to influence the electrical response in the postsynaptic neuron . The reason that the cells communicate via a chemical messenger rather than an electrical charge is because electricity would be unsafe - cells fire in the body every , if these were electrical charges we would explode ! When a neurotransmitter binds to a receptor on the postsynaptic side of the synapse , it changes the postsynaptic cell 's excitability and makes the postsynaptic cell either more or less likely to fire an action potential . Therefore , the neurotransmitter is the messenger which binds with the receptor site to produce a messenger , also a chemical substance , the most common in the mental health field is cyclic or as it is also known . If the number of excitatory postsynaptic events ( messengers ) is large enough and reaches that cell 's threshold , they will cause an action potential in the postsynaptic cell and a continuation of the "" message . "" The diagram at the end of this question illustrates how an impulse moves down a neuron and neurotransmitters cross the synaptic gap . There is sometimes an excess of neurotransmitter in the synapse due to the fact that there are not enough receptor sites to bind to , in this case the excess will be removed , either by an enzyme released from the post synaptic neurone , or it may be reabsorbed by the presynaptic neurone in a process called reuptake . There is also a specific chain of enzymatic reactions that decompose the transmitter , either for destruction or for recycling . This is important since a synaptic signal does not subdue until the transmitter is removed from the synaptic gap . The transmitter can be degraded in the gap , or absorbed by the postsynaptic neuron or a glial cell and decomposed . Mental health problems are often the result of a breakdown in the way these chemical messages are active in the brain and as such , many drugs used in psychiatry change the properties of neurotransmitter release , neurotransmitter reuptake and the availability of receptor binding sites < picture/><heading > Describe the different routes of systemic delivery of drugs , relating your answer to how drugs access the blood stream . < /heading > There are a number of different routes for the systematic delivery of drugs into the body , each with their own positive and negative points . They are discussed below . < heading>1 . ALIMENTARY TRACT ROUTES</heading > Oral : This is a convenient , safe and economical way of delivering a drug into the system providing the patient is compliant . Most drugs are absorbed in the small intestine ( which is ft long ) , some in the stomach and some in the colon . Because the drug must pass through the gastro - intestinal tract , the onset of the drug is slower than some other methods and it is not active until it is in the bloodstream . Water soluble drugs such as paracetamol are also absorbed in the stomach . Persistent alcohol abuse can cause damage to the stomach lining and painkillers on top of this can cause bleeding . The practitioner needs to take care when giving advice on non - prescription medication . There are different drug uptake sites in the tract , some quicker than others stomach is quicker than the colon . The drug is inert until it reached the uptake site therefore there can be delays . The onset of oral meds is always slower because they take longer to get into the blood stream . Advantage : drugs active for longer Some drugs would irritate the digestive tract therefore not given orally , also , lots would not survive in tract due to acids and alkalines . is to get in contact with blood . Rectal : Can have either local or systemic effects . Systemic drug absorption from this route can be incomplete and unpredictable , especially if the patient is unable to retain the drug long enough eg . If they have diahorrea . Advantage : quickly results in a high concentration of the drug in circulation because there is < list > a rich network of capilliariesvenous blood from the lower part of the rectum does not pass through the liver ( liver filters blood for toxins and therefore gets rid of drugs)""first pass "" effect - wo n't destroy much of the drug</list > Problems : if you suffer adverse effects eg . Rectal bleeds which can be very serious due to the amount of venal blood in the area . < heading>2 . PARENTERAL ROUTES</heading>(Any route of access to blood other than the gut ) Sublingual : drug placed under the tongue ( it is designed for this and not the tract ) Area is rich in capillaries which permits rapid absorption which in turn quickens the drug action . liver and destruction of drugs by gastro - intestinal enzymes . Yields a higher dose in circulation compared to oral administration . In general , a very safe route . The practitioner must check that the drug is allowed to be given via this route since some are too powerful and can cause swelling of the tongue causing difficulty breathing . Some patients will hide drugs under their tongue to spit out later - not all are suitable . Intralingual : Injection under surface of patient 's tongue . Advantages : very rapid absorption - because of a rich blood supply . Disadvantages : the tongue may swell causing airway obstruction ( can happen very fast ) . This is sometimes used with people whose vascular access is severely compromised ( chronic IV drug users ) . This route is sometimes used by users themselves and can be VERY dangerous . ( ID ) : Injection of drugs into upper layers of skin ( make sure that needle is almost parallel to the surface of the skin).used to provide a local drug effect eg . Treatment of allergies . Only small amounts can be injected . Insert the bevel and use a twist as you go in . Rate of absorbtion is slow , limited to capillaries of dermis . E.g Lignocaine anaesthesia- has to be left to take effect before procedure can be commenced . It is better to use a larger vd syringe to give a smaller injection because you do n't have to draw up so far , therefore more control over needle as you plunge . Still need to be able to measure accurately though . Subcutaneaus ( sq / sc ) : injection performed by inserting a small needle ( , g or less ) into the fatty tissue ABOVE the muscle . Usually largest does is . Advantages : minimal tissue trauma and avoids potential damage to large vessels and nerves . Undesirable for patients who experience compromised artillory perfusions ( vascular damage)eg . Shock or peripheral vascular disease . Inserted at a shallow angle , . The needle will penetrate skin , go down into fatty layer . The fatty layer is easy to feel , it is much less resistant than skin . It is sometimes difficult to do this in older people or those suffering self neglect because neither have much subcutaneous fat . Good sites are the back , upper arms , abdomen , upper surface of legs , below shoulder blades ( best ) , also just above the backside . It is essential to make sure there is a good fat pad underneath the skin . Problems can occur if the needle gets too deep into the muscle . Intramuscular ( ) This is the most common method of injection . The drug is injected deep into muscle tissue where it is absorbed into the capillaries and enters blood stream . You must always pull back the plunger to check that it is not in the blood vessel , if any blood is evident , another site must be found . The drug seeps out across muscles into capillary walls . Doses are up to commonly given via - 25 g needle , in length . Larger doses ( ) can be given using multiple sites , it is best to spread them out . Rate of absorption depends on the physical condition of the patient . Muscular damage ( age and malnutrition ) leads to poor absorption rate , otherwise the rate is fairly predictable . Not used where there is inadequate muscle mass or decreased peripheral perfusion . The practitioner should have a good look and feel of the site , feel the muscle to check that it is adequate . Sites : deltoid ( top of arm ) , dorso gluteal ( upper outer buttock ) , ventrogluteal ( below hip ) - need to be careful of pelvis with this one , vastus lateralis site ( upper outer front leg ) . The needle should be withdrawn at the same angle and at the same rate as it went in . < picture/><heading > Intravenous ( IV)</heading > When a situation calls for a rapid therapeutic effect this is used . It is direct administration of the drug directly into the blood stream . IVs can be either or infusion . Bolus means that one dose of a drug injected into the vein all at once- any reactions to this will be much more severe and side effects are more likely . Infusion is the continuous introduction at a specified rate over a period of time - these can be stopped and saline solution flushed through if side effects begin to develop . Continuous infusion IV is a way of keeping the amount of drug available to body tissues at a constant level . Bolus IV : a rapid intervention , no barriers to cross prior to blood access . Some drugs can be given as to establish rapid therapeutic effect and this effect can be maintained by infusion eg . to treat ventricular fibrillation . Once in the vein / vessel the angle of the needle should be flattened to make sure it does not go straight through the other side . With infusion , needles can become dislodged and damage the vein . Also they can move inside the vein . Some cannulas have parts , one for infusion and for bolus at the same time . If IVs can not be continued , some drugs can be given via an endotracheal tube ( ET ) . Drugs are absorbed rapidly via capillaries of the lung . When this is done correctly , the rate of drug absorption can be the same as that of IV . It is rarely used in our setting , only as a last effort to save someone 's life . < heading > Discuss the biological basis of Alzheimer 's disease</heading><heading > Introduction</heading > In this essay I will explore the way Alzheimer 's disease damages the human brain , how this manifests itself in the sufferer 's behaviour and how this can inform practice for the mental health nurse . Alzheimer 's disease is the most common form of , accounting for of all cases ( Alzheimer 's disease ) . is a degenerative disorder of the brain which can be defined as "" global impairment of memory and other cognitive functions in the absence of clouding of consciousness "" ( ) . Characteristic features are confusion and loss of memory in the early stages followed by personality disintegration in the later stages ( ) . Statistics show that the incidence of Alzheimer 's disease is increasing ; currently , person in will develop it , increasing to in at and in at and above ( Hunt 1996 ) . The majority of useful research into Alzheimer 's disease has only been conducted during partly due to new technology that has become available ; this has led to the development of new drugs and a better understanding of the disease pathology . To obtain a diagnosis of Alzheimer 's disease , there must be the presence of , clarified by a clinical measurement tool such as ( Folstein et al 1975 ) and a slow ( sometimes even unrecognised ) onset with a uniformly and progressively deteriorating course . Other causes of dementia such as a tumour , also need to be ruled out and this should be done by a thorough physical examination , laboratory tests , psychometric tests and a complete family history from the client and their family or carers ( ) . Illnesses such as severe depression may manifest themselves in the same way as and can affect cognitive functioning , these also need to be ruled out . Even though 's computerised brain imaging techniques give us a better idea of what is happening to the brain during the disease process which has helped greatly in its diagnosis , there is still only one way to categorically prove that someone has Alzheimer 's disease and this is through a post mortem examination . In a brain which has been affected by Alzheimer 's , there will be bodies called "" neuritic plaques "" which are found chiefly in the cerebral cortex but have also been found in other parts of the brain . The number of plaques found correlates with the magnitude of the cognitive deterioration . The plaques consist of a central abnormal protein amyloid which sits out of a cell ; the waste products of the cells collect around the amyloid protein so that the cell becomes surrounded by degenerative cellular fragments which eventually cause it to die . This is something that happens in normal ageing but at a faster rate . Another feature of Alzheimer 's disease is the presence of paired helical filaments ( PHFs ) , also known as neurofibrillary tangles ( ) . These are found in both the and the Hippocampus which is why memory problems are often an early sign of Alzheimer 's . The posterior part of the hippocampus is most badly damaged and this is why sufferers will sometimes have excellent recall of events in their early life that are stored in their long term memory . These tangles are easily identified by light microscopy during a post mortem . As well as the plaques and tangles , ( ) notes other pathogenic irregularities found in the brains of sufferers : neuronal loss and deposition of amyloid . Granular vascular bodies are also found in brains during post mortem , these are an outer membrane with a small dense granule in the centre - they are found in most aged brains but more common in brains with Alzheimer 's disease . The granular vascular bodies cause the brain to appear darker than a younger brain . Other things that are noticed during a post mortem is that the cortex becomes atrophied ( shrunken ) , it can lose of its volume as the disease progresses . This atrophy is never uniform but it has been found that most damage occurs in the temporal lobe structures hippocampus and entorhinal cortex , the damage can then spread into the parietal and frontal lobes . As the temporal - parietal - occipital association cortex becomes affected , it has many consequences such as aphasia , apraxia and agnostia , all of which will now be considered in more detail . can be divided into categories , receptive and expressive . ( ) describes receptive aphasia as an inability to understand language , so although the individual receives sound in the same way , they can not interpret what it means . It is important as a practitioner to be sensitive to this when caring for someone with Alzheimer 's disease since they may have huge difficulties understanding verbal instructions and it is sometimes better to demonstrate with an action . Expressive aphasia means that there is difficulty in using language . Deterioration to Broca 's area is common , meaning that finding the words that you want to say and putting them into the appropriate order becomes very hard . Naming things becomes particularly difficult , to the point where , eventually , the speech of someone with Alzheimer 's becomes devoid of specific nouns . In the middle and later stages , problems in the temporal lobe might also cause some patients to experience auditory and visual hallucinations . The occipital lobe is also responsible for visual interpretation , most of which is spared during Alzheimer 's . However , some visual association areas are affected , making it difficult to process subtle visual cues . People 's faces are example of a visual cue that becomes difficult to recognize , probably because age and emotion cause facial expressions to change constantly , requiring a lot of interpretation ( The brain and Alzheimer 's ) . Apraxia can be explained as losing the ability to carry out particular motor tasks that were already known to the individual . ( ) identifies main types : -feeding : no longer having the skills to use cutlery or eat in an appropriate manner ; living : no longer being able to wash and dress oneself and gait : damage to the frontal and parietal lobes which eventually results in difficulties walking . is similar to receptive aphasia but in this case it is vision and not sound which is affected . An individual may perceive things perfectly but have no recognition of what they are perceiving , even if it is a member of the family , or in extreme situations , they may not even recognise themselves . The thalamus is another area that is affected , this regulates hunger and thirst - the sufferer will still have the feelings of thirst and hunger although they may not have the ability to be able to be able to feed or stop their self from being thirsty by helping themselves to a drink . Some areas of the cortex are spared , such as the limbic system which remains completely intact , explaining why we sometimes see emotional or violent outbursts by the individual suffering from Alzheimer 's disease whose emotions are not inhibited by the frontal lobe . When Alzheimer 's begins destroying the parietal lobe , sufferers become lost and disoriented , even in familiar settings . They may also begin mixing up objects , thinking that a computer is a television or that a mixing bowl is a soup pot . The hippocampus takes our immediate thoughts and impressions and turns them into memories . Alzheimer 's attacks the hippocampus , so short - term memory is the thing to fail . Eventually , new memories become impossible to make and learning is a thing of the past . Without knowing what just happened , it 's difficult for people to judge things like time , place and what 's going on around them . This confusion can accentuate the paranoia caused by an Alzheimer's - stricken amygdala . A common problem that occurs in the Alzheimer 's sufferer is urinary incontinence , this happens as the frontal lobe becomes atrophied which would normally generate impulses to inhibit the emptying of the bladder until a convenient time . The frontal lobe helps carry out purposeful behaviours and complex reasoning . When Alzheimer 's strikes the frontal lobe , victims lose the ability to plan and initiate complicated activities like balancing a checkbook . That 's why it becomes important to break processes into simple steps . This loss of processing skills makes reasoning with people who have Alzheimer 's virtually impossible . People with Alzheimer 's are not being stubborn ; their brains just are n't healthy enough to carry out the complex processes that logic demands . Frontal dysfunction ( combined with amygdala problems ) also leads to a loss of inhibition , which may cause behaviours such as undressing in public , swearing and making inappropriate statements . The amygdala regulates basic emotions such as fear , anger and craving and is affected quite early in Alzheimer 's . Once Alzheimer 's disrupts the brain 's emotional centre , a person may display surprising behaviours such as apathy , paranoia , emotional outbursts and inappropriate sexual advances . Unprovoked hostility and anxiousness might appear completely out - of - the - blue . Early in Alzheimer 's disease , changes to the brain stem begin disrupting sleep patterns . Very late in the disease , the brain stem 's deterioration can also affect vital processes like breathing , blinking , blood pressure and heart rate . However , other complications usually intervene before this happens . For instance , difficulties swallowing often make someone vulnerable to pneumonia before the brain stem truly degenerates . theory is a genetic theory which suggests that there is a higher incidence of Alzheimer 's in some families than others . Although this accounts for of all cases and this tends to be in early onset Alzheimer 's ( and Sramek ) . If siblings had the disease , there is a risk and if a parent had the disease there is a risk . There have been no specific genes identified but recently , research has focussed on a gene which makes a protein called apolipoprotein E ( ) . There are types of , , . Each person inherits an gene from each parent . It seems that people who inherit an gene have a higher risk of developing Alzheimer 's disease . Abnormalities on other genes - PS1 ( presenilin type ) , PS2 and ( amyloid precursor protein ) - have been identified as a cause of the rare inherited form of the disease , but the mechanism is not clear . ( Caton et Al 2002 ) . Researchers are still very interested in links between Alzheimer 's disease and 's syndrome , research into this began when physicians noticed that the majority of people with 's who lived into their developed degenerative brain disease remarkable similar to Alzheimer 's . People with Down syndrome always have an extra chromosome . gene on chromosome creates amyloid precursor protein ( ) . Abnormal deposition of amyloid in the brain occurs in Alzheimer 's disease . It seems the extra gene results in an excess of amyloid . Consequently , almost all people with 's syndrome over develop Alzheimer 's disease ( ) . There are also some common environmental factors that are responsible for a familial frequency such as a higher risk in people who live in high background radiation areas such as which is built on radioactive granite . Trace metal contamination is another theory proposed to explain the development of the disease . Animal studies ( ) have identified degenerative neurofibulatory tangles similar to those found in Alzheimer 's disease after rats were given aluminium salts . Post mortems have found that there is a increase in aluminium deposits in brains of Alzheimer 's sufferers . It is not yet known if a reduction in aluminium could be of benefit to patients . Most aluminium contamination is found around the amyloid proteins . Some researchers think that there could be a link between Alzheimer 's and immune reaction . They believe that as we age , the immune system may lose the ability to recognise the individuals own body and begin to attack it . As a result , we develop "" anti - brain "" antibodies which cause neural degeneration . There is to date little evidence to support such a theory . The link with multiple sclerosis is the main reason that this is being investigated as since with MS the brain becomes visible to the rest of the body and it begins to attack it . Another theory is that it may be a slow virus . This idea comes from a study of tribes in who transmitted ( Alzheimer 's disease society 1997 ) after eating the brains of their deceased tribesmen who had died from it . Another area being investigated is that of neurochemical disturbances . Enzymes related to the neurotransmitter aceytocholine are greatly reduced in the brains of individuals suffering from Alzheimer 's disease , especially in the hippocampus . < heading > Conclusion</heading > In this essay I have discussed the pathology and neurological correlation of Alzheimer 's disease and how this has informed practice . With an aging population and a climbing incidence of the disease , it is more important than ever for healthcare professionals to understand the treatment needs of this group of individuals . Alzheimer 's disease has a lot of similarities to the normal aged brain ; it seems that the aging process is just accelerated . A key area in practical patient care over has been the education of carers in different ways to communicate , whereas people in the past may have assumed that elderly people become deaf , it is now understood that Alzheimer 's patients have not lost the ability to hear , but the ability to process the audio information and so it must be presented in a way that they will understand . As a mental health nurse , this greatly changes the way therapeutic relationships are established . By understanding that normal ways of communicating may not be effective , greater emphasis can be placed on skills such as non verbal communication - essential when dealing with individuals who can not vocalise when they are in pain or discomfort . As care of the elderly moves away from its "" "" status , more money is becoming available for research into diseases such as Alzheimer 's which can only be positive in terms of informing healthcare practice .",0
"< heading > Introductions and Aims</heading > Tartaric acid , has E number : E334 , is responsible for the low acidity of wine , which is also used as a source of buffers and taste modifiers in the food industry . dioxide ( SO2 ) is a crucial additive to wines , as a preservative and antioxidant , which protects our bodies against free radicals that lead to cell damage . The aim of the practical is to analyse acidity and free and total SO 2 present in a medium dry white wine provided . < heading > Hazards < /heading><table/><heading>3.2 determination of acid strong base titration</heading><heading and Observations</heading>10 cm wine was pipetted into a conical flask Then was diluted to with distilled water drops phenolphthalein indicator were added into the conical flask A burette was filled with solution . Note the initial burette reading . Acid in flask was titrated until solution just goes permanently pink . Note the final burette reading . Titration was repeated until consistent results ( ± 0.05 cm < heading > Results < /heading><table/ > FORMULA   < heading > Calculations</heading > FORMULA    FORMULA      of wine was measured by a pH meter that was calibrated at pH 4 & 7 = pH2.7 < heading > Discussion and conclusion</heading > Since the rough and st results are identical , also under limited time available , titrations were not repeated hereafter . The wine has low pH2.7 as measured means the medium dry white wine is highly acidic , which confirms the high tartaric acid percentage calculated as . These demonstrate a fairly valid and reliable set of results , and no major errors had been observed . < heading>3.3 Determination of Sulphur Dioxide - iodine & redox titration</heading><heading > Methods and Observations</heading><table/>Positive end points observed qualitatively - blue black complex formed with starch . Iodine was in excess when all SO 2 used up by iodine , thus resulted in permanent blue black colour . < heading > Results</heading><table/><table/>Average I solution vol . required to react with free SO2 ( Vfree ) =   FORMULA    FORMULA   Aver . I solution vol . required to react with total SO2 ( Vtotal FORMULA      N.B. Wine used in the titrations are obtained from different boxes provided , as the box had been finished by the time the total SO 2 titration was prepared . < heading>(p.3 & 4 ) FORMULA Calculaions</heading><heading>3.4 Questions</heading><heading > Discussion and conclusion</heading > Under limited time , the redox titrations carried out to determine SO 2 contents in wine are not as accurate and no further repeats were possible carried out . On the other hand , they are the hardest titrations in terms of observing end points , as the blue black colour usually fades shortly . This problem has certainly affected the accuracy , reliability and validity of the results . The Averages I2 solution volumes have been calculated based on the results shown in Tables and 5 ( p. ) . Here are some possible improvements on the practical : The entire titration ( with the repeats ) should be carried by the same experimenter , in order to obtain as high consistency as possible . Both the wine for free and total SO titrations should be obtained from the same box for fair test . For total SO 2 titration ( step ) , Instead of leaving to stand for and swirling 1.0 M occasionally , it is preferred to be more specific and to set a duration of the step . It is always ideal to use a clean dry conical flask for each titration carried . This could minimise errors . Nevertheless , accurate set of apparatus were used : burette ( ± 0.05 cm ) , bulb pipette , etc . The free and total SO 2 present have been calculated below .","< heading > EXPERIMENT C - Thermal Properties C1 - Determination of the Thermal Conductivity of ( k)</heading><heading > Objectives</heading > To determine the thermal conductivity of glass using the method involving glass tubing . < heading > Introduction</heading > Thermal conductivity of a material , hence glass , is the rate of heat transfer through cross sectional area , when a temperature difference of is maintained over a distance of m. In simpler terms it is the measure of the ability of a material to conduct heat . ( unit : -1 oC -1 or W -1 m -1 oC -1 ) < heading > Results</heading><table/>Calculations ( see p.6 - 8) < heading > Discussion</heading > Water of higher temperatures ( from , a range from to   ) collected in the beaker is likely to evaporate slightly in transfer before weighing , plus there is a short walking distance between the water collection point and the weighing - electronic scale . This can be minimised by keeping the same walking pace of the same person from collection to weighing ; the same accurate electronic scale is used throughout the practical . For improvement , ideally is to have the scale placed beneath the beaker while water emerging , thus will be able to record the immediate water mass with minimum loss through evaporation . It is also possible to note the continuous increasing water mass , which surely gives a better idea of the relationship between the different flow rates at different temperatures . Beakers used may not be completely dry . It is preferred to use a different dry beaker provided for each water collection . Same person of the group carried out the same part of experiment e.g. weighing , in order to maintain consistency . T 1 ( 14 oC ) is well monitored and kept constant throughout . However , a digital thermometer can be used for more accurate temperature readings , thus human errors could be reduced . Due to the time limitation , flow rates and a repeat of each could be obtained . More repeats should be done if more time allowed as repeats increase the reliability of a practical . However , from k values ( thermal conductivity of glass ) calculated and comparing to the literature value , this suggests that a set of reliable results produced . < heading > Conclusion</heading > From Table 1 , the flow rate ( M ) increases with a lower temperature . Thermal conductivity changes with temperature . From k 1 and k 3 ( p.8 - Table 4 ) , it has decreased slightly as the temperature increases . It is consistent that the k values obtained from Equation are all less than k values from Equation 2 . This shows the slight variation of calculations using different standard equations based on the same results . ( p.8 - Table 4 ) Since the sets of glass thermal conductivity values ( k ) , which vary from to W -1 m -1 oC -1 , match with the literature value of to W -1 m -1 K -1 , I can conclude that this practical was carried out reasonably accurately that to overcome the limitations would have been accounted . < heading > Reference</heading>""conductivity "" . . , . . Reading University .   URL    URL   Lewis , ( ) Physical properties , ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- < heading > Experiment C2 - Determination of the Specific Heat Capacity of Liquid by Method of Cooling ( done by other group)SUMMARY</heading><heading > Objective</heading > To determine which liquid , water or oil , cools faster . Also the specific heat of water and paraffin oil by cooling . Specific heat capacity is the amount of energy required to raise a unit ( ) mass of material through unit temperature rise ( 1 K ) . Unit : J kg -1 K -1 < heading > Results</heading><table/><table/><table/><heading > Calculations</heading > From 's Law of Cooling :   FORMULA   N.B. specific heat capacity of water = x 10 3 J kg -1 ˚C -1 At ° C   FORMULA   At ° C   FORMULA   < heading > Conclusion</heading > From Fig . , the greater gradient of paraffin cooling line than water , and the more rapid decrease of temperature in the calorimeter suggest the paraffin oil cools faster than water . The literature value for heat capacity of oil is ~ J kg -1 ˚C -1 . The average value obtained from our practical is x 10 3 J kg -1 ˚C -1 , which shows a considerable difference . The reasons are like to be significant sources of errors within the practical . Nevertheless , reasonable specific heat values have been produced by following strictly .",1
"The concept of globalisation is an ambiguous one . Perhaps the most universal and unbiased definition states that it is "" the closer integration of the countries and peoples of the world ... brought about by the enormous reduction of costs of transportation and communication and the breaking down of artificial barriers to the flows of goods , services , capital , knowledge and ( to a lesser extent ) people across international borders "" ( , , ) . However , there are those who claim that globalisation is not as new a concept as purported . Eslake goes as far as saying that "" Globalization is the logical extension of the tendency towards increased specialization and trade which has been going on more or less continually since humans appeared on the surface of the earth . "" ( , , ) Whether or not globalisation is a new phenomenon , its costs and benefits will here be analysed and this essay will conclude in arguing that the process creates losers and winners and what is important is for those better off to protect and subsidise others . < fnote > Stiglitz , ( ) , and its Discontents , , . < /fnote><fnote > Eslake , S. ( ) , The Gains and Losses from Globalization , Address to the Congress Burswood Resort , . < /fnote > There are strands of thought to consider when concerning the effects of globalisation . Sceptics , Deregulators , Reversers and all have diverse and conflicting opinions on the causes and solutions of the process . , Sceptics believe that the international integration arising as a product of globalisation has in fact not reduced the reallocative or regulative competence of the states and that there has not been a devolution of state sovereignty to a new global order . The balance of power between different groups within countries is the soul cause of action and thus states are still able to function . Deregulators , on the other hand , contest this argument but perceive the loss of state jurisdiction as a beneficial process that allows the further allocation of resources and limits state interference . Reversers see globalisation as a constraint on public policy making and seek to reverse this effect through a process of ' Renationalisation ' , restoring national boundaries , protecting sovereignty and preserving democratic governance . Finally , advocate the creation of an effective system of global governance aimed at making politics as global as economics . Through the cooperation of states and the formulation of a multifaceted cosmopolitan democracy , the creation of a global regulatory framework that functions at the same level as economic interaction can be achieved . When considering globalisation , a phenomenon with such broad implications in both politics and economics , there is rare occasion for positive statements and often one is left considering the advantages and disadvantages of its effects in order to form a vague normative assertion . In order to ascertain an answer to the question "" Is increased globalisation a good thing ? "" a similar process must be followed . The current effects of globalisation on the world must be considered , and a balanced conclusion must be made as to whether furthering these effects would be beneficial and to whom . Therefore , what follows is an analysis of the positive and negative effects of globalisation . This is not exhaustive , as the full implications of globalisation could never fully be realised , let alone summarised in an essay of this length . of the optimistic intentions of globalisation is for the increase in the range of goods and services available to the world consumer , the increase in the distance over which such transactions can be executed , the increase in the speed with which they occur , and the decrease in the overall cost of the overall process . This has tended to lead to the evolution of individual and indeed social preferences in favour of increasing diversity in the range and origin of goods and services . Saul Eslake sees this process as "" facilitated by improvements in education and in communications technologies ... [ and ] self- reinforcing "" ( Eslake , , ) . This transnational flow is not limited to goods ; the increased flow in communication between countries and across cultural boundaries can often lead to a mutual appreciation of ' universal ' values such as freedom , democracy , human rights and private economic enterprise . < fnote > Eslake , S. ( ) , The Gains and Losses from Globalization , Address to the Congress Burswood Resort , . < /fnote > This can , and should in the eyes of Deregulators , have the affirmative outcome of a further reduction in trade barriers due to reciprocal agreements between nations , or even as a consequence of unilateral liberalisation . The fact that this process is a product of sovereign states exercising their discretion and not of imperial conquest , may suggest that globalisation is a tool by which the self - perpetuating liberal west ' educates ' other states and may be paralleled to 's theory of . Indeed , Gramsci recognised this occurrence when writing "" Every relationship of ' hegemony ' is necessarily an educational relationship and occurs not only within a nation ... but in the international and world - wide field "" ( Gramsci , , 666 ) . Though Gramsci opposed the process of , his theory concurs with 's definition of globalisation as "" the spread of free market capitalism to virtually every country in the world "" ( , , . has a more positive outlook on the end result and embraces the inevitability of the subsequent manifestation of a true world culture , encompassing cultural products , languages and images that are shaped and understood on a global platform . < fnote > Gramsci , A. ( ) , , : . < /fnote><fnote > Friedman , ( ) , The and , , . < /fnote > One of the main problems associated with this effect is the idea of a homogenised world ; whether , Westernisation or Americanisation , the idea that we will end up in a global monoculture is a dangerous one . However , despite the certain existence of this global culture , there should not be a necessity for global uniformity . The theory of comparative advantage can work in terms of culture , and as each specific culture is amalgamated into the transnational structure , it will bring with it its own specific advantages in terms of traditions , beliefs and values . It will , in fact be beneficial to be diverse and distinguishing ; the new world economy , as opposed to the current set of faintly unified national economies , will profit from an increase in prosperity , choice and range . Though states may benefit from a global culture , they may also profit from the process of specialisation and comparative advantage in an economic sense . Davies states that "" [ t]here is no principle in the whole of the social sciences the truth of which has been so overwhelmingly proved as the principle of comparative advantage . "" ( , , ) If countries specialise in what they are best at , the global industry will benefit . This is facilitated namely by low transport costs and allows companies like to produce dolls through specialised countries for less than it would cost to manufacture entirely in the . However , argues that specialisation should not be limited to countries and that internal specialisation should be encouraged as much as possible as this leads to further efficiency in the allocation of resources . This is a view shared by the , who agree that globalisation should occur between different groups , individuals and firms , not states . < fnote > Davies , S. ( 2000 ) , is Good ! , . < /fnote > It is globalisation that allows not for the trade between specialised countries , but between companies and individuals that gain from comparative advantage and best utilise resources . Many authors believe that this leads to the emergence of large cities and even firms becoming the true units of the new world economy . This emphasis on the individual over the state may have significant consequences if globalisation were to continue ; it may undermine the necessity for a nation state and promote decentralisation . The result of this may be a reduction in nationalism and its malign effects , a theory that raised during ( ) . The possible removal of the capacity for states to go to war as a result of a global economy may have caused many state elites to oppose free trade after . < fnote > Ohmae , K. ( ) , The End of the Nation State , , ; , ( ) , Cities and the Wealth of Nations , , . < /fnote><fnote > argued that international trade and integration removed the capacity for states to make war and was completely opposed to the aggressive foreign policy of Lord . < /fnote > The principle benefits of increased globalisation are dependant on the adoption and implementation of free trade throughout the world . However , it is this very process that can give rise to some of the most detrimental aspects of globalisation . Though the reduction in protectionist barriers to entry such as tariffs and quotas can further the benefits of comparative advantage , it can also leave industries within developing countries open to unwelcome competition from abroad . Though it may be said that in general , the benefits made available to consumers as a result of globalisation outweigh the hardships imposed on businesses from foreign competition , there is still the problem of the governments inadequacy in providing sufficient recompense , income support or retraining services for those negatively affected in this manner . In order to protect their internal economies , countries such as , , and maintain many of the trade barriers . However , if a country wishes to fully embrace the global market and utilise thee benefit of comparative advantage to its full extent , it must , as far as Reversers are concerned , sacrifice some of its economic sovereignty . This procedure makes apparent the fact that the democratic state willing to join the global market inevitably finds itself less able to control its own economic sphere when placed in the context of the global economy . Restraints originating from the international markets , as well as the consideration of imports , exports , foreign direct investment and other transnational variables , ensure that there is a continued reduction in the occasion and influence of collective self - governance . This became a major issue for when its membership to caused the economic catastrophe of and epitomised the dangers of devolving fiscal sovereignty to a global body . The event also showed the influence of individual investors such as , who now have the power to challenge governments . When the stability of a nation 's economy lies in the hands of of investors and borrowers , acting out of self - interest , this may be coined democracy , but their true intentions are often detrimental to the general public . This relationship between economic globalisation and democracy is furthered in works by and . < fnote > Held , ( ) , Democracy and the Global Order , , ; , ( ed . ) ( ) , , , . < /fnote > The emphasis on private over public influence in the global market can often lead to profit - maximising enterprises causing a "" race to the bottom "" . That is , multinational companies , unlike government , tend to seek the cheapest way of manufacturing products and care little for ethics . This tends to result in outsourcing and subcontracting to sweatshops in developing countries , which are therefore drained of both their natural resources and labour , preventing internal structural improvements . The lack of a global welfare state ensures that there is no redistribution of wealth and there is further polarisation between the developing and the developed countries . This concept coincides with the beliefs of and is a typical approach to the concept of globalisation , where there is an exploitative but dependant relationship between the ' core ' ( the elite west ) and the ' periphery ' ( the developing equatorial countries ) . The problem of a global elite or ' overclass ' is a serious threat to the reputation of globalisation . The establishment of world regulatory systems such as ( ) , ( IMF ) , and helps the hegemonic power maintain the aforementioned exploitative relations with the poorest countries , also often most rich in primary resources . The main policy supposedly implemented by these institutions is ' regulated trade ' which masquerades as free trade but ensures the reserves certain essential controls over the global economy . Perhaps the institution that best illustrates the existence of regulated trade and distortion is the IMF . Vastly over - representative of wealthy countries , the policies it generates often have detrimental effects on poorer developing countries . Its instruction to privatise social security while proscribing counter cyclical policies contrasts completely what developed countries do , whilst its advocacy of economic liberalisation forced financial crises throughout . Furthermore , suggests that a country 's further integration into the global market will unconditionally increase economic performance . However , there are those such as Wade who suggest that "" international organisations need to move beyond integration into the world economy as the primary goal of policy . "" ( Wade , , ) The reduction in inequality is , for Wade , a more important aspiration than a fully integrated economy , and the latter should certainly not be created to the detriment of the former . < fnote > Wade , ( ) , Poverty or Prosperity , globalization.about.com/cs/whatisit/a/gzpoverty_2.htm < /fnote > The very process of forming these institutions can be damaging to of a nation . The idea of a polity is to provide the ability for the exercise of self - governance . Therefore , in order to preserve the structure of the state , the main conditions affecting the social life of its citizens needs to be under their control . Typically , this can be maintained by the control of the economic sphere , which is assumed to depend on the expressed will of the majority as a result of policy debate by representatives of the citizens . The effective devolution of sovereignty from states to international regulatory institutions can challenge the idea of and reduce the influence of the individual citizen on the nature of the nation , placing more emphasis on generic rules and regulations set by many countries that can not match the bespoke efficacy of democratic decisions reached by individual polities . < fnote > Held , ( ) , Democracy and the Global Order , , . < /fnote > Though the process of denationalisation and global liberalisation can , as asserts , reduce the ability for states to go to war with one another , it may have disadvantageous effects . It is commonly claimed that no countries with a have ever gone to war with one another . ( , ) . However , the loss of patriotism and the feeling of Alienation that is commonly associated with the loss of state sovereignty and significance can cause other causes of conflict . Though causing a decrease in inter - state wars due to democratisation and decentralisation , the process of globalisation has caused a large increase in the inward application of armed violence in the form of intra - state civil wars . Of the major conflicts from , were civil wars . ( UNDP , , ) It seems that humankind is not willing to give up its capacity for war that easily , and the globalisation phenomenon has , whilst amalgamating states , left conflict where there was once unity . < fnote > UNDP ( ) Human Development Report , : . < /fnote > The common misconception that globalisation is replacing traditional methods of international interaction may cause it to appear threatening and unfamiliar . However , when one realises , as does , that "" [ g]lobalization is not supplanting traditional lines of social conflict and cooperation , but is redrawing them "" ( , , ) it becomes less a case of understanding a new phenomenon than making sure that the global market evolves in the right direction . The desired direction can change in the view of different groups with varying interests ; the ' overclass ' , as mentioned , seek to maintain the exploitative link between the ' core ' and ' periphery ' through the creation of elitist regulatory institutions . The egalitarians , however , state that those benefiting from globalisation should compensate those who do not gain from it , perhaps through the creation of a global welfare state . < fnote , M. in , and , M. ( ) , , . < /fnote > Stiglitz offers a resolution to the current overclass situation : voting power in institutions such as the IMF and should be less skewed ; there should be an increase in the transparency of decision making and an overall change in the approach to crisis management ; a change in the rules on bankruptcy when countries are unable to pay their national debt should be considered and there should be further concern for employment and working conditions . ( , , ) However , these conditions are fairly Internationalist and assume that politics should be as flexible as economics in the global sphere . It can also be argued from a point of view that globalisation has not undermined nationhood as a primary framework of collective solidarity , but has helped to loosen some links between nations and states for the better . Therefore , the question of whether or not globalisation is a good thing and should therefore be increased is almost entirely dependent on the point of view one takes ; whether a , Deregulator , or Internationalist , the problems and solutions of globalisation will vary . However , theme is clear throughout all stems of thought : globalisation , whether a new phenomenon or not , needs to be treated with great caution and respect , the process may create losers as well as winners and what is important is for those better off to protect and subsidise others in order to maintain equality and preserve the good name of globalisation . < fnote > Stiglitz , J. in , and , M. ( ) , , . < /fnote >","The , established following extensive deliberation under , regulates areas of reproductive medicine . The creation of new , external reproductive techniques that utilised genetics and once inseparable human constituents as reproductive components , created "" a new generation of acute and subtle dilemmas "" . Reproductive medicine ; empowering often private , commercial entities , questioned the power , responsibility and motivation of scientists and medical practitioners ; probing the limits of accountability "" between science , the state , ' society ' and capitalism "" . It raised "" unparalleled questions for law "" : its role , the protected interests , or indeed whether market - based solutions may be more appropriate than regulation . , medicine has developed "" exponentially "" ; yet regulation remains largely unchanged . I shall examine , in light of the and decisions , and the broader context , whether there is a need for review . < fnote > Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act < /fnote><fnote > Warnock Report , conducted under in < /fnote><fnote > Professor , sourced from , REGULATING HUMAN GENETICS : NEW DILEMMAS FOR A NEW MILLENNIUM , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 39 © < /fnote><fnote > SAMANTHA HALLIDAY AND DEBORAH LYNN STEINBERG , : , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 13 © ; all rights reserved . < /fnote><fnote > SAMANTHA HALLIDAY AND DEBORAH LYNN STEINBERG , : , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 13 © ; all rights reserved . < /fnote><fnote > and , Human Fertilisation and Embryology , Regulating , , , printed in < /fnote><fnote > R ex parte v < /fnote > Legal responses can be categorized as either "" pro - regulation "" ( e.g. ) , which controls , confines and operates within a highly structured scheme ; or "" anti - regulation "" ( e.g. ) , which operates "" ex post , endeavoring to compensate and adjust "" to technological advances . should provide "" legitimacy "" , promoting "" acceptable boundaries "" for developments . However , this legitimacy can "" often owe more to Realpolitik "" , than that crafted through moral reasoning , debate and consensus ; particularly when this ' legislative legitimacy ' varies between legal jurisdictions . Legal regulation questions the very fabric of morality . Since this is a diverse rather than homogenous entity , consensus on a moral , let alone legal level is improbable . Law must either convey an ideological , predictable and determinate approach or react with "" pragmatism "" , on an ad hoc basis to new issues . These considerations affect law 's response to the fundamental , "" competing ( and often conflicting ) interests "" : research and its potential benefits , versus morality and safety ; what names the "" regulatory tilt "" .   < fnote > ROGER BROWNSWORD , REGULATING HUMAN GENETICS : NEW DILEMMAS FOR A NEW MILLENNIUM , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 39 © < /fnote><fnote > ROGER BROWNSWORD , REGULATING HUMAN GENETICS : NEW DILEMMAS FOR A NEW MILLENNIUM , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 39 © < /fnote><fnote > ROGER BROWNSWORD , REGULATING HUMAN GENETICS : NEW DILEMMAS FOR A NEW MILLENNIUM , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 39 © < /fnote><fnote > Deech , sourced from SAMANTHA HALLIDAY AND DEBORAH LYNN STEINBERG , : , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 13 © ; all rights reserved . < /fnote><fnote > Deech , sourced from SAMANTHA HALLIDAY AND DEBORAH LYNN STEINBERG , : , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 13 © ; all rights reserved . < /fnote><fnote>(Emphasis original ) SAMANTHA HALLIDAY AND DEBORAH LYNN STEINBERG , : , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 13 © ; all rights reserved . < /fnote><fnote > Idea from SAMANTHA HALLIDAY AND DEBORAH LYNN STEINBERG , : , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 13 © ; all rights reserved . < /fnote><fnote > , Regulating the Reproduction business , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 193 © , : , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 13 © ; all rights reserved . < /fnote><fnote > ROGER BROWNSWORD , REGULATING HUMAN GENETICS : NEW DILEMMAS FOR A NEW MILLENNIUM , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 39 © < /fnote > Warnock recommended an independent and "" comprehensive scheme of regulation "" was required for specific reproductive technologies ; including an advisory / licensing agency to ensure : quality , protection , and safety . The HFE limits reproductive technologies and research involving embryos , placing them in "" strictly defined ethical and legal backgrounds "" . It prohibits the creation of embryos outside the body and storage of gametes without a licence ; whilst restricts licence - holder 's use of embryos . It bestows significant powers to a regulatory authority , the , which supervises the licensing process . Licenses permit clinics to provide subscribed treatment services ( e.g. ) , or to store or research on embryos / gametes . Under Schedule S3(1 ) , the can grant licences only where "" research is necessary or desirable "" , which : advances infertility treatment , "" knowledge about the causes of congenital disease "" or "" miscarriages "" ; develops "" more effective ... contraception "" , or "" methods for detecting ... gene / chromosome abnormalities "" .   < fnote > Warnock Report , sourced from , Regulating the Reproduction business , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 193 © /fnote><fnote > Aurora Plomer , Beyond the HFEA - The Regulation of Stem cell Research in the , Medical Law Review , , pp132 - 164 , © 3 , Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act < /fnote><fnote > Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority < /fnote><fnote > Aurora Plomer , Beyond the HFEA - The Regulation of Stem cell Research in the , Medical Law Review , , pp132 - 164 , © Schedule 2 S3 ( ) HFE Act < /fnote><fnote > Schedule 2 S3 ( ) HFE Act < /fnote><fnote > Schedule 2 S3 ( ) HFE Act < /fnote><fnote > Schedule 2 S3 ( ) HFE Act < /fnote > Legal intervention from a fixed perspective "" distorts "" sciences ' "" essentially fluid , dynamic nature ; "" constructing "" hard law "" that as science develops , leaves regulatory provisions behind . Regulation therefore needs to "" incorporate a degree of flexibility or open - endedness "" , to maintain "" regulatory connection "" between science and law , even though this can "" militate against predictability and consistency "" . By establishing an autonomous authority with significant , devolved power that is "" built on [ a ] consensus "" between medical regulators , clinics and scientists ; the 's scheme combines elements of these theories . Whilst the provides a fixed position , perhaps reflecting some core , minimum ethical standards rather than adopting an ideological perspective ; the is more adaptive ; and combined with the courts is prepared to purposively interpret provisions , asserting to provide a "" high degree of public accountability in the development and delivery of new treatments and research "" . The government claim to have created a "" robust and proportionate regulatory framework [ that] ... anticipates and continues to address public concerns "" . It is this notion I seek to challenge . No single regulatory framework for genetics exists , whilst the has no "" single , coherent philosophical underpin "" . Consequently , as technology has developed beyond expectation , law has become reactive and fraught with "" contradiction "" .   < fnote > Lee and , sourced from SAMANTHA HALLIDAY AND DEBORAH LYNN STEINBERG , : , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 13 © ; all rights reserved . < /fnote><fnote and , sourced from SAMANTHA HALLIDAY AND DEBORAH LYNN STEINBERG , : , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 13 © ; all rights reserved . < /fnote><fnote > ROGER BROWNSWORD , REGULATING HUMAN GENETICS : NEW DILEMMAS FOR A NEW MILLENNIUM , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 39 © < /fnote><fnote > ROGER BROWNSWORD , REGULATING HUMAN GENETICS : NEW DILEMMAS FOR A NEW MILLENNIUM , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 39 © < /fnote><fnote > ROGER BROWNSWORD , REGULATING HUMAN GENETICS : NEW DILEMMAS FOR A NEW MILLENNIUM , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 39 © < /fnote><fnote > SAMANTHA HALLIDAY AND DEBORAH LYNN STEINBERG , : , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 13 © ; all rights reserved . < /fnote><fnote > and , Human Fertilisation and Embryology , Regulating , , , printed in < /fnote><fnote > and , Human Fertilisation and Embryology , Regulating , , , printed in < /fnote><fnote > White Paper , Our Inheritance , Our Future < /fnote><fnote > , Regulating the Reproduction business , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 193 © , Regulating the Reproduction business , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 193 © < /fnote > , a reproductive cloning technique using egg rather than a cell substitution , illustrated the need to refresh law to maintain regulatory connection . was not envisaged under the , which expressly prohibited ' cell substitution ' cloning . However , and believed that as involved the creation of embryos outside the body , it fell "" within the "" , and therefore the 's jurisdiction . This imprecise , "" purposive "" interpretation implied that eggs were included within the definition of embryos ; giving effect to 's intention to prohibit cloning . Realistically , was not "" specifically "" excluded by ): it did not involve fertilisation ( replacement rather than fusion ) . The HFE defines embryos as where "" fertilisation is complete "" , which "" includes eggs in the process of fertilisation "" . However , as asserts , oocytes would never be fertilised "" because the nucleus is transferred into it "" . It was questionable whether was at all regulated . however endorsed the 's position , "" understating "" the difficulty in asserting precise regulatory parameters . was not prohibited , but licensable ; a convenient proposition which the government accepted : the was inadequate to regulate a perilous technique ; but the could side - step the issue by refusing licences . It is this sense of ' make do and mend ' that characterises recent regulatory development . Fortunately , the was later enacted ( prohibiting ) following a ruling that was unregulated . It serves as a presiding example of law introducing "" control mechanisms only after scientific excess "" ; its unhurried reaction and attempts to use existing structures to remedy issues deserving of more significant response . < fnote > Cell Nuclear Replacement < /fnote><fnote > Cloning is expressly prohibited under ( ) ( d ) HFE Act < /fnote><fnote > Human Genetics Advisory Commission < /fnote><fnote > Aurora Plomer , Beyond the HFEA - The Regulation of Stem cell Research in the , Medical Law Review , , pp132 - 164 , © , REGULATING HUMAN GENETICS : NEW DILEMMAS FOR A NEW MILLENNIUM , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 39 © < /fnote><fnote > ROGER BROWNSWORD , REGULATING HUMAN GENETICS : NEW DILEMMAS FOR A NEW MILLENNIUM , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 39 © < /fnote><fnote > Cloning is expressly prohibited under ( ) ( d ) HFE Act < /fnote><fnote > S1 HFE Act < /fnote><fnote > S1 HFE Act < /fnote><fnote > Wilmut , sourced from , Beyond the HFEA - The Regulation of Stem cell Research in the , Medical Law Review , , pp132 - 164 , © , < /fnote><fnote > Aurora Plomer , Beyond the HFEA - The Regulation of Stem cell Research in the , Medical Law Review , , pp132 - 164 , © Reproductive Cloning Act , 2001 < /fnote><fnote > As per Crane J ; R ( on the application of ) v Secretary of for Health ( 2001 ) All E.R. 1013 < /fnote><fnote > SAMANTHA HALLIDAY AND DEBORAH LYNN STEINBERG , : , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 13 © < /fnote > The forced interpretation used in illustrated the 's "" outdated "" and compromised status . The wished to select embryos to produce a child bearing suitable tissue to cure their son who suffered with . , a process which detects genetic anomalies to ensure only healthy embryos are selected for reproduction , had been commonly permitted by the . The wanted to extend this process to include HLA tissue - typing to select a suitable tissue match . The permitted this , stating that where "" is already undertaken ... the use of tissue typing to save the life of a sibling can be justified "" , albeit in "" rare circumstances and under strict controls "" . requested a , arguing the "" had gone beyond the ; "" permitting a practice that was not "" designed to help women carry children , "" which subsequently could not be licensed . < fnote > R ex parte v < /fnote><fnote > , genetic diagnosis , typing and beyond : the legal implications of the case , Medical Law International 2004 , Vol . , pp.163 - 182 , , < /fnote><fnote > Beta Thassaemia < /fnote><fnote > Pre - implantation Genetic Diagnosis < /fnote><fnote > Human Leukocyte Antigen Tissue Typing < /fnote><fnote > HFEA Statement : < /fnote><fnote > HFEA Statement : < /fnote><fnote > Acronym : Comment On Reproductive Ethics < /fnote><fnote > Judicial Review < /fnote><fnote > CORE , sourced from R ex parte v < /fnote><fnote > CORE , sourced from R ex parte v < /fnote > However , 's initial judgement highlighted an unexpected "" flaw in the act 's drafting "" : was not , prima facie , a licensable "" treatment service "" . Yet in common with practice , had been permitted , illustrating the potentially limiting effect of legislation clearly in need of revision . In an attempt to justify / secure , the court considered whether under the "" restrictive "" definition of "" treatment services "" ( "" assisting women to carry children "" ) , assisted women to carry children . asserted that under Schedule - Two embryos must be "" suitable for being placed within a woman ; "" and as guarantees suitability , it was permissible . However , judgement overcame these difficulties by using "" an approach to statutory interpretation that was not just purposive but creative "" . Following Pepper v Hart , legislation which is "" ambiguous or obscure or [ where ] the literal meaning ... leads to absurdity "" , may be interpreted in context with Parliamentary intention . Consequently , the court used a resourceful , ' back door entrance ' to secure 's use ; arguing it was envisaged under the as it had been "" universally assumed that it was licensable "" ; therefore , a contrary literal interpretation would lead to "" absurdity "" . is a necessary procedure in reproductive medicine to prevent genetic defects . Clearly considerable uncertainty exists whether it is licensable ; an extremely undesirable position . < fnote > Kay LJ < /fnote><fnote > , genetic diagnosis , typing and beyond : the legal implications of the case , Medical Law International 2004 , Vol . , pp.163 - 182 , , < /fnote><fnote > Treatment service under S11(1 ) < /fnote><fnote > , genetic diagnosis , typing and beyond : the legal implications of the case , Medical Law International 2004 , Vol . , pp.163 - 182 , , < /fnote><fnote > Under S HFE Act < /fnote><fnote > S2(1 ) HFE Act < /fnote><fnote > Schedule , HFE Act < /fnote><fnote > Schedule 2 , HFE Act < /fnote><fnote > , genetic diagnosis , typing and beyond : the legal implications of the case , Medical Law International 2004 , Vol . , pp.163 - 182 , , < /fnote><fnote > Pepper v Hart ( ) All ER42 CA < /fnote><fnote > Pepper v Hart ( ) All ER42 CA < /fnote><fnote > Court of Appeal < /fnote><fnote > , genetic diagnosis , typing and beyond : the legal implications of the case , Medical Law International 2004 , Vol . , pp.163 - 182 , , < /fnote><fnote > , genetic diagnosis , typing and beyond : the legal implications of the case , Medical Law International 2004 , Vol . , pp.163 - 182 , , < /fnote > The Court of Appeal 's responses to the 's arguments for were "" less than satisfactory "" . The firstly contested that HLA did not require a licence as it used cells from embryos , rather than embryos . In agreement , inferred that HLA and were similar ; subsequently neither fell within the "" prohibited area "" of illegal practices . This "" misses the point "" : just because testing for genetic abnormalities was not considered to be objectionable "" fails to justify tissue typing , "" as does not identify genetic defects . Fortunately , rejected the 's argument as licences can not be granted where of the purposes ( HLA / PGD ) fall outside the act . Otherwise , where had been permitted to prevent genetic anomalies , clinics would be able to screen cells for other characteristics , "" including sex "" , enabling those parents access to "" a range of tests that were forbidden to others "" ;   an undesirable outcome . < fnote > , genetic diagnosis , typing and beyond : the legal implications of the case , Medical Law International 2004 , Vol . , pp.163 - 182 , , < /fnote><fnote > Schiemann LJ < /fnote><fnote > Schiemann LJ , R ex parte v < /fnote><fnote > , genetic diagnosis , typing and beyond : the legal implications of the case , Medical Law International 2004 , Vol . , pp.163 - 182 , , < /fnote><fnote > , genetic diagnosis , typing and beyond : the legal implications of the case , Medical Law International 2004 , Vol . , pp.163 - 182 , , < /fnote><fnote > Mance LJ < /fnote><fnote > Sally Sheldon and , and , an unjustifiable and misguided distinction ? Medical Law Review , , , pp.137 - 163 , < /fnote><fnote > Sally Sheldon and , and , an unjustifiable and misguided distinction ? Medical Law Review , , , pp.137 - 163 , < /fnote > The argued could be licensed if its use was "" desirable for the purpose of rendering treatment services ; "" and to the overall provision of fertility treatments . challenged this , stating treatments should only available if necessary to "" assist women [ to ] carry children "" ; a literal interpretation of the . The court adopted the 's "" purposive "" approach . Lord suggested Schedule permitted research which develops "" methods for detecting ... gene or chromosome abnormalities , "" therefore allowing as it may assist women by preventing defects . Subsequently , claims the only difference between and was "" the desired characteristics "" that were selected ( healthy vs. tissue match ) , and that HLA "" would assist some women who would otherwise refrain from conception "" ; declaring the difference "" can not be important "" . Realistically , he "" stretched the statutory provisions beyond ... [what] ... could be reasonably justified "" , presenting an oversimplified analysis that should not , and "" could not apply to tissue typing "" ' . From this tiny , yet gauche distinction he makes an exceptionally important moral statement , taking reproductive law into un - chartered territory ; "" a dangerous step towards allowing ... parents to choose characteristics of [ their ] baby , such as eye colour and sex "" .   < fnote > CORE on < /fnote><fnote > Court of Appeal < /fnote><fnote > Sally Sheldon and , and , an unjustifiable and misguided distinction ? Medical Law Review , , , pp.137 - 163 , < /fnote><fnote > Lord Phillips MR < /fnote><fnote > Schedule , paragraph ( ) ( b ) HFE Act < /fnote><fnote > Lord MR , R ex parte v < /fnote><fnote > Lord MR , R ex parte v < /fnote><fnote > Lord MR , R ex parte v < /fnote><fnote > Lord MR , R ex parte v < /fnote><fnote > , genetic diagnosis , typing and beyond : the legal implications of the case , Medical Law International 2004 , Vol . , pp.163 - 182 , , < /fnote><fnote > , genetic diagnosis , typing and beyond : the legal implications of the case , Medical Law International 2004 , Vol . , pp.163 - 182 , , < /fnote><fnote > Sally Sheldon and , and , an unjustifiable and misguided distinction ? Medical Law Review , , , pp.137 - 163 , < /fnote > Mance 's justification of was inventive : v DHSS permits courts to hold a new scenario under legislative power should it fall within the "" same genus of facts as intended by "" . By inferring that S13(5 ) ( considers potential child 's welfare before treatment commences ) could include benefits created by the prospective child saving another ; and that treatment services must "" have regard to prospective parents and society 's concern for others "" ; he justified placing within the same genus . This was "" plucked out of thin air "" , a meaningless generality with little value , that focuses not on the child 's benefit ; but societal gain . This use of S13(5 ) is inconsistent with Parliamentary intention : it is normally used to deny treatment to inappropriate candidates . Furthermore , as the did not regard / HLA to be similar ; the judgement "" disregard[s ] the fundamentally different purpose "" of each test ; advancing unjustifiable generalisations that destroy the precision and integrity of the regulatory regime . The genus argument , whilst supported with evidence ( ) , promotes a vague and speculative stance that moves beyond the normal parameters of judicial creativity ; and is at risk of becoming a warrant for judges to promote their own moral standpoints . It is a licence to extend law on an ad hoc , and ' as needed ' basis that may lead to a slippery slope ; particularly as it has been undemocratically developed by those with little expertise , who clearly have very different ideas on why or how HLA should be justified , and even if it is possible under existing regulation . < fnote > Royal college of of health and social security < /fnote><fnote > Mance LJ , R ex parte v < /fnote><fnote > S13(5 ) HFE Act < /fnote><fnote > Mance LJ , R ex parte v < /fnote><fnote > , genetic diagnosis , typing and beyond : the legal implications of the case , Medical Law International 2004 , Vol . , pp.163 - 182 , , < /fnote><fnote > S13(5 ) HFE Act < /fnote><fnote > Idea from and , and , an unjustifiable and misguided distinction ? Medical Law Review , , , pp.137 - 163 , < /fnote > The consequences of should not be underestimated . Effectively , where is used , the can authorise the "" selection of embryos for blue eyes , blonde hair or desired sex , without reference to "" . Could this really have been 's intention : to delegate this form of ethical responsibility to an unelected regulator ? suggests that when justifies and as methods to ensure embryos are "" suitable for the purpose of being placed within [ women ] "" ( free from "" defect[s ] "" ) , suitability becomes "" equated with fitness for such purposes as the ( consumer ) parents may specify "" . It is a dangerous and undemocratic advancement , illustrating the law 's inability to evolve to new situations , and an unjustifiable extension of an "" outdated "" statute through "" constitutionally undesirable means "" . The court struggle to justify their proposition , advancing feeble explanations that are "" at odds with the ... statutory construction "" . It illustrates "" once again , the need for urgent review "" , to maintain regulatory connection and ensure issues are "" debated and legislated in the correct forum "" ; rather than placing the emphasis on the and courts to develop law . leaves this and future issues with the for "" case - by - case decision[s ] "" , prolonging uncertainty and rendering it "" unaccountable "" . It empowers the to licence HLA with "" discretion "" ; implying delegated authority to "" decide what is legally and morally permissible ; "" allowing contentious ethical decisions to be decided by a statutory regulator without opportunity for debate ; a situation which "" raises serious questions ... [of] ... legitimacy "" . It is a very unusual scenario that demands review , particularly because of the 's close affiliation with industry and science . It is at risk from "" undue influence , "" particularly when the operations are funded through licensing , necessitating ' productive ' commercial relationships . In chorus , the 's recent report suggests the must be reformed or "" abolished "" , a position welcomed by the BSC . "" Empowering competing professionals to be part of a licensing process was not particularly sound "" .   < fnote > Confirmed by the when asked by during the Hearing into Fertility Regulation , , . Sourced from Sourced from the pressure group ; online at core.org , :   URL   < /fnote><fnote > Lord MR , R ex parte v < /fnote><fnote > Lord MR , R ex parte v < /fnote><fnote > ROGER BROWNSWORD , REGULATING HUMAN GENETICS : NEW DILEMMAS FOR A NEW MILLENNIUM , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 39 © < /fnote><fnote > , genetic diagnosis , typing and beyond : the legal implications of the case , Medical Law International 2004 , Vol . , pp.163 - 182 , , < /fnote><fnote > , genetic diagnosis , typing and beyond : the legal implications of the case , Medical Law International 2004 , Vol . , pp.163 - 182 , , < /fnote><fnote > , genetic diagnosis , typing and beyond : the legal implications of the case , Medical Law International 2004 , Vol . , pp.163 - 182 , , < /fnote><fnote > ROGER BROWNSWORD , REGULATING HUMAN GENETICS : NEW DILEMMAS FOR A NEW MILLENNIUM , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 39 © < /fnote><fnote > ROGER BROWNSWORD , REGULATING HUMAN GENETICS : NEW DILEMMAS FOR A NEW MILLENNIUM , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 39 © < /fnote><fnote > Sally Sheldon and , and , an unjustifiable and misguided distinction ? Medical Law Review , , , pp.137 - 163 , < /fnote><fnote > , genetic diagnosis , typing and beyond : the legal implications of the case , Medical Law International 2004 , Vol . , pp.163 - 182 , , < /fnote><fnote > , genetic diagnosis , typing and beyond : the legal implications of the case , Medical Law International 2004 , Vol . , pp.163 - 182 , , < /fnote><fnote > and , Human Fertilisation and Embryology , Regulating , , , printed in < /fnote><fnote > Science and Technology Committee < /fnote><fnote > Science and Technology Committee Report on , < /fnote><fnote > British Fertility Society < /fnote><fnote > Lord , sourced from and , Human Fertilisation and Embryology , Regulating , , , printed in < /fnote > This ' quick - fix ' denied a proper forum ; depriving later , equally justifiable cases from its potential benefits . In , parents wished to use HLA to provide tissue for a child suffering with . However , as was "" sporadic "" rather than hereditary , was denied under as the risk to their embryos was no greater than natural conception . The distinguished because : it was wrong to create a child for a particular purpose / procedure ; whilst may create unknown health risks . Realistically , only the latter argument distinguishes from : if the potentially dangerous procedure is used to prevent a child from being born with a serious illness , the "" benefits outweigh the risks "" , therefore you might as well conduct HLA . Yet when is applied purely to use HLA , there is no initial risk ; therefore the child may be subjected to "" something harmful "" . Yet , an equally valid argument exists in support of HLA : surely the benefit for the 's potential child is "" existing rather than not existing "" ?   < fnote > Diamond Blackfan Anaemia < /fnote><fnote > , genetic diagnosis , typing and beyond : the legal implications of the case , Medical Law International 2004 , Vol . , pp.163 - 182 , , < /fnote><fnote > Sally Sheldon and , and , an unjustifiable and misguided distinction ? Medical Law Review , , , pp.137 - 163 , < /fnote><fnote > Sally Sheldon and , and , an unjustifiable and misguided distinction ? Medical Law Review , , , pp.137 - 163 , < /fnote><fnote > Sally Sheldon and , and , an unjustifiable and misguided distinction ? Medical Law Review , , , pp.137 - 163 , < /fnote > Whilst Hashmi was principally correct ; I suggest it is morally indistinguishable from . theory suggests we should never treat people as ' means , ' but surely this only applies if we treat people "" solely or merely as means "" . It is acceptable to create a child as a playmate , to "" mend a broken marriage "" , or to "" buy , buy , buy "" : most conceptions are for selfish reasons rather than to extend humanity . There are worse reasons to create a child than to save another . Whilst positively selecting characteristics is a dangerous and now real step towards ' designer babies , ' there is no reason why selection can not occur in some instances and not others : "" fundamental moral difference [ exists ] between designer and saviour babies "" . assumes that ' saviour babies ' are morally acceptable only in specific scenarios , denying opportunity for real , democratic debate ; and in paying ' lip - service ' to restraint and caution , draws perhaps an "" unjustifiable and misguided distinction "" that is "" legally untenable . ""   < fnote > Sally Sheldon and , and , an unjustifiable and misguided distinction ? Medical Law Review , , , pp.137 - 163 , < /fnote><fnote > Sally Sheldon and , and , an unjustifiable and misguided distinction ? Medical Law Review , , , pp.137 - 163 , < /fnote><fnote > Sally Sheldon and , and , an unjustifiable and misguided distinction ? Medical Law Review , , , pp.137 - 163 , < /fnote><fnote > Sally Sheldon and , and , an unjustifiable and misguided distinction ? Medical Law Review , , , pp.137 - 163 , < /fnote><fnote > Sally Sheldon and , and , an unjustifiable and misguided distinction ? Medical Law Review , , , pp.137 - 163 , < /fnote><fnote > Sally Sheldon and , and , an unjustifiable and misguided distinction ? Medical Law Review , , , pp.137 - 163 , < /fnote > A comprehensive review of the parameters , and how we regulate fertility is required ; a review that must remain ongoing . Law focuses too keenly on protecting controversial , ' head - line ' treatments ; we must redress the balance , and focus as Warnock suggested on quality , protection , and safety . It is "" illogical "" to "" single out just kind of reproductive medicine ... for such ... elaborate regulation "" . There is "" no control over the ... bulk of ... reproductive practice "" . is more likely to result in "" multiple pregnancy "" , standards of tubal surgery are "" much more variable "" , whilst Hyper - stimulation is "" certainly the most dangerous reproductive technique "" ; yet all are unregulated . "" is no more dangerous than other techniques "" , yet because it is morally controversial we loose sight of what must be our principle aim : safety . Regulating such a large area of reproductive medicine would be "" very expensive "" ; whilst it is clear the "" has been chronically short of money "" . This is the reality of medical regulation : it must be situated in context with policy , economics and resource availability . This is not a problem that will vaporise . As medicine develops new challenges confront us . Society is also changing ; and in the advent of Human Rights and liberalisation , we must face new issues , e.g. assisted homosexual conceptions . The does not focus enough on "" improving clinical standards "" . We are a developed country : no shortage of resources should prevent proper regulation of all reproductive medicine ; existing and future . Fertility is a global industry regulated in different ways and degrees . The 's and other couples , who were all denied treatment , received HLA in other jurisdictions . We must further our co - operation , and produce an extended legal regime that is reviewed regularly ; a product of proper democratic debate that operates comfortably within safe and respected boundaries . Existing regulation , limited to specific applications and supplemented "" on an ad hoc basis "" "" cannot ... adapt to evolving science "" . It is "" technology - led "" , rather than teleological , "" reflecting what scientists regard as respectable "" . When , "" commercial fortunes ride [ on ] matters of life and death "" , is this acceptable ? < fnote > and suggest law should be reviewed and updated ; , Regulating , , , printed in < /fnote><fnote > Lord , sourced from and , Human Fertilisation and Embryology , Regulating , , , printed in < /fnote><fnote > Lord , sourced from and , Human Fertilisation and Embryology , Regulating , , , printed in < /fnote><fnote > Gamete Intra - fallopian Transfer < /fnote><fnote > and , Human Fertilisation and Embryology , Regulating , , , printed in < /fnote><fnote > and , Human Fertilisation and Embryology , Regulating , , , printed in < /fnote><fnote > Unlicensed Procedure to stimulate ovulation without < /fnote><fnote > and , Human Fertilisation and Embryology , Regulating , , , printed in < /fnote><fnote > Lord , sourced from and , Human Fertilisation and Embryology , Regulating , , , printed in < /fnote><fnote > and , Human Fertilisation and Embryology , Regulating , , , printed in < /fnote><fnote > Lord , sourced from and , Human Fertilisation and Embryology , Regulating , , , printed in < /fnote><fnote > Lord , sourced from and , Human Fertilisation and Embryology , Regulating , , , printed in < /fnote><fnote > SAMANTHA HALLIDAY AND DEBORAH LYNN STEINBERG , : , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 13 © < /fnote><fnote > SAMANTHA HALLIDAY AND DEBORAH LYNN STEINBERG , : , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 13 © < /fnote><fnote > SAMANTHA HALLIDAY AND DEBORAH LYNN STEINBERG , : , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 13 © < /fnote><fnote > SAMANTHA HALLIDAY AND DEBORAH LYNN STEINBERG , : , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 13 © < /fnote><fnote > ROGER BROWNSWORD , REGULATING HUMAN GENETICS : NEW DILEMMAS FOR A NEW MILLENNIUM , Medical Law Review , , , pp . - 39 © < /fnote > N.B. As this Assignment was written important developments were pending : decision is awaiting review by on Reproductive Technologies was published on",0
"< abstract><heading > Abstract</heading > The purpose of this report is to determine the most effective method for analysing mechanisms . methods are critically evaluated by applying relevant analytical theory where necessary to build up a complete mechanism solution consisting of kinematic and data . The results are compared and the most suitable method chosen for use within the company . < /abstract><list > FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA < /list><heading > Introduction</heading > The aim of this report is to evaluate various methods used in the analysis of mechanisms , with the intension of employing the use of the most suitable method within the company . The primary requirement is to cut production cost by reducing the amount of work sub - contacted to other companies . To this end the chosen method of analysis will be used by the design engineers of the company to complete calculations regarding velocity , acceleration and force analysis for the mechanisms . The chosen analytical method should therefore meet the following requirements : < list > AccurateEasy to useMinimal training requirementsCost effectiveQuick mechanism analysis</list > The methods that will be evaluated in this report are : < list > Graphical Method - using a simple system ( AutoCAD)Analytical method based on theory ( Excel)Software package designed to model mechanisms ( Working Model)</list > In order to effectively evaluate each method for analyzing mechanisms a simple bar mechanism has been chosen , shown in Figure . For each method a detailed analysis will be done of the mechanism and the results compared from the other methods . < figure/><figure/><heading > Theory</heading > Before discussing what methods were used to analyse the various methods it is necessary to highlight some of the equations that will be used . This section is not intended to cover how the equations are derived , this can be seen either in the Appendices at the end of the report or in the reference sources where indicated . < heading > Graphical Method</heading > Below is a summary of the equations used in the graphical analysis method . Equation - Velocity   FORMULA   Equation - Acceleration   FORMULA   Equation - Acceleration vectors   FORMULA   < heading > Analytical Method</heading > The analytical analysis of the mechanism shown in Figure is divided into separate bar linkages . The bar linkage can be seen in Figure , the complex exponential vector loop equation for the linkage can be written out , this can then be expanded using the expansion and separated into real and imaginary parts to get simultaneous equations . The simultaneous equations can then be solved to determine the unknowns . The full derivation of these equations can be found in the following text , R.L.NORTON , Design of , 1st Edition : Position analysis - Ch 5 , p176 - 177 The resulting quadratic equations found by solving the simultaneous equations indicate whether the linkage is in its ' open ' or ' closed ' ( crossed ) configuration , this is indicated by real and distinct quadratic roots . It also indicates if the mechanism is bordering on stability of configurations , that is the mechanism is able change from open to closed configuration whilst running , this is indicated by the quadratic roots being real and repeated . Lastly if the quadratic roots are complex conjugates then the mechanism is said to be . The condition is a simple relationship that predicts the rotation behavior of a mechanism , is where "" no link is capable of making a full revolution with respect to the ground plane "" . < fnote > Grashof Condition , R.L.NORTON , "" Design of "" , < /fnote><figure/>The bar linkage can be seen in Figure . The complex exponential vector loop equation is then derived , and using the same process as the bar linkage , simultaneous equations are developed for the unknown values , the angle of the link DP , and the sliding link length of link CA . Below is a summary of the equations used in the spreadsheet analysis of the bar linkage . A full derivation of the nd four bar linkage can be found in R.L.NORTON , "" Design of "" , st Edition , sections - Position , 6.7 - Velocity & 7.3 - Acceleration . < figure/>Equation - Euler Identity   FORMULA   is used when a complex vector equation exists , since is splits the equation into it 's real and imaginary parts . This is known as . Equation 2.5- Theta Five ( θ5 )     Equation 2.6 - Angular Velocity Omega five ( ω5 )   FORMULA   Equation 2.7 - Angular Acceleration , Alpha Five ( α5 )     Equation 2.8 - Variable Link Length , )   FORMULA   Equation 2.9 - Linear Velocity b(t )     Equation - Linear Acceleration b(t )   FORMULA   < heading > Procedure</heading><heading > Working Model 2D software</heading > Working model is a analysis software package that allows linkages to be modelled , and then analysed using the inbuilt measuring features . < heading construction</heading > The links are modelled using simple tools . The links can be drawn as simple rectangular shapes scaled according to the mechanism dimensions , each link is assigned an appropriate name to make object selection easier when it comes to getting analysis data from the required links . Pin joints either fix links to one another or fix the link to an anchor end point , such as points O , Q , P on Figure . As well as specifying the links dimensions , the angle of the link can also be specified . This allows the linkage to be drawn according to the specified initial crank angle . Figure shows the naming convention that was used for the mechanism in working model . Note there are points for each link pin . A motor is attached to link and a rotational velocity is then specified . < figure/><heading > Simulation settings</heading > The simulation settings in working model can be used to set the step size for the analysis , in this instance the step size was set to ° . This is done by converting the angular velocity in to degrees per , then calculating the time taken for the crank to rotate ° . Working model also allows "" meters "" to be placed on Linkages and points which can measure either position , velocity , acceleration or force . It is also possible for the software to record these values after each simulation step and export this data as a tab - delimited data file . This data can then be imported into a spread sheet such as excel , for further analysis . < figure/><heading > Obtaining analysis data</heading > Any physical property can be measured in the simulation software . Meters allow the user to measure the physical property of any component of the mechanism . To measure the velocity of Link AO for example , the following sequence can be done : Select link , either by clicking directly on it , or via any of the selection windows found under the "" Window "" menu ( Properties , Appearance , Geometry ) Next click on the "" "" menu and extend the "" Velocity "" menu option . Select how the information is to be presented , either X graph , Y graph , Rotational graph , or all of the above . This data is displayed in a meter window as shown in Figure which shows the velocity in both polar and formats . The accuracy of the results can be changed in working under the menu view > numbers & units . < figure/>Measuring the position , velocity and acceleration of point C on Link BA is slightly more involved , and is described in Appendix 3 . < fnote > Posted on WebCT 08/11/04 message no . , by , Title : Point C in WM < /fnote><heading > Graphical Method</heading > The velocity and acceleration vector diagrams can be drawn to scale using a suitable system , allowing the relative values to be read off directly . In this report was used to draw the velocity and acceleration diagrams for the bar linkage . < heading > Velocity Diagram</heading > The velocity diagram for the bar linkage ( Figure ) was drawn graphically , with the velocity vector of each bar being calculated using 2.1 , this vector quantity can then be drawn to scale using the functions in AutoCAD . When vector quantities can not be calculated due to unknown rotational velocities then ( LOA ) are used . The vector quantity of the links with unknown rotational velocities can be found where their relevant LOA 's intersect on the vector diagram . To determine the vector quantity and direction for Link AO , the following procedure was used ; with reference to Equation , Velocity for link AO can be found .   FORMULA   where , is rotational velocity of link , , this value needs to be converted into radians for the quantity calculation . The rotation direction is anticlockwise using the right hand co - ordinate system where a positive rotation goes from + X to + Y. The quantity V AO can be found ;   FORMULA   Its direction is at ° to the links direction since point O of the Link AO is fixed . A complete vector diagram of the linkage can be drawn using these techniques . It is important to note here that this vector diagram and therefore velocities are relevant only at the specified input angle . Changing the angle would necessitate a rework of the vector diagram . Full working of the velocity diagram can be seen in . < heading > Acceleration diagram</heading > The acceleration vector diagram is done in the same manner as that of the velocity equation , using to draw a diagram that graphically represents the acceleration vectors of the linkage . To calculate the acceleration vector quantities Equation is used . Each acceleration vector can consist of separate components shown in Equation . Equation - Acceleration Components   FORMULA   The full working for the acceleration diagram can be seen in . < heading > Theoretical Analysis</heading > To analyse the bar mechanism using the equations derived from the vector loop equations the spread sheet package can be used . This package allows complex mathematical functions to be evaluated according to the data input into the equations . This allows the mechanism to be evaluated for any crank angle , velocity , acceleration or force by changing the initial input values . The software uses cells references rather than constant values , this allows equations to reference the contents of a cell rather than a constant value which updates each time data input into a cell is changed . Figure shows a typical screen shot from the Acceleration page of the mechanism analysis . Each cell can be assigned a name which can be used in the formulas to reference a particular cell . This makes the spread sheet easier to work on since the cells name describes what value the cell is for . < heading > Kinematic Analysis</heading > The Kinematic data for position , velocity and acceleration for the mechanism can be evaluated using the mathematical functions of excel such as , , ATAN , IF , RADIANS , functions . A description of how these functions are used can be found in the help menu in . < heading > Force Analysis</heading > The force and torques of the mechanism can be determined using inverse dynamic solutions . This uses the previously calculated kinematic analysis of position , velocity and acceleration to determine the forces and torques that provide the designed accelerations . A free body diagram of each link is produced by applying 's Law of physics to identify the forces and torques acting on the link . From these free body diagrams the force and torque equations can be determined . These equations along with the kinematic data can be put into a matrix and the unknown forces and torques can be solved for by using the inverse matrix solution . The inverse matrix solution can be seen in Figure . Since a matrix can not be divided , the inverse is found , and then used to multiply by . The full free body diagrams and force & torque equations can be seen in Appendix 4 . Figure - Inverse Matrix Solution   FORMULA   has inbuilt functions for use in matrix arithmetic , such as MINVERSE which returns the inverse of a preset matrix and MMULT which multiplies matrix together . A matrix also known as an "" array "" in is a defined set of cells . < figure/>Some examples of the name scheme can be seen below : Omega3RadCross This is the angular velocity for link or in radians for the crossed configuration . Theta51RadCrossShift This is the angle for link 5 or DP for the crossed configuration , in radians , plus shifted by ° ( necessary for the equation analysis ) . AccCAcentOpen This is the centripetal acceleration , component for point C with respect to A in the open configuration . It is also possible to plot the results of the calculations which gives a graphical representation of mechanism . < figure/><heading > Results</heading > This section displays the results found using all methods , with a comparison of the results section in . < heading Working model allows each element of the model to be measured in various ways , such as it 's X - Y components , link angle , force on link etc . shots of the complete set of results taken from working model can be seen in Appendix 5 , and are summarised in . < heading > Graphical Method</heading > The results for the graphical method were measured using the dimension command in AutoCAD . For the purpose of this report the dimension accuracy was set to decimal places . Figure & Figure show the velocity and acceleration diagrams respectively , with the quantitive values relative to stationary points O , P or that these diagrams allow measurements between relative points very easily by simply measuring the distance between the points . Since the distances are a scalar representative of the point value . < figure/><figure/><heading > Analytical Results</heading > All the relevant data calculated in the excel workbook are summaries on the sheet of the workbook , a print of these results can be found in . < heading > Results Comparison</heading > The results from the different methods have been gathered together and are displayed in . < table/><heading > Discussion</heading><heading > Graphical Method ( AutoCAD)</heading > AutoCAD software is almost an industry standard cad package marketed by . Many of seats have been sold for the software , which is used in a wide variety of applications . The software was used in conjunction with basic velocity and acceleration theory to produce Velocity and Acceleration vector diagrams with scalar lengths that represented the velocity or acceleration of the relevant link . Only a basic working knowledge is needed in order to produce the relevant diagrams . The system allows configurations to be drawn quickly and efficiently with minimum of configuration data . Link lengths and angles can be measured off easily using the inbuilt measurement tools . The simple graphical interface allows the user to create kinematic vector diagrams that accurately represent the mechanism characteristics and display it in a simple and easy to comprehend graphical layout . However the diagrams only represent the kinematic data for that specific mechanism configuration . This necessitates redrawing the vector diagrams for different system configurations . Studying the AutoCAD results summarised in indicate that the graphical method is indeed an acceptable method in terms of accuracy . This method is the least accurate of the methods , primarily due to the measurements being graphically based and therefore is only as accurate the person constructing the diagram . It is however still accurate typical to decimal place compared to the other methods . Note also that this method is unable to predict the forces acting on the mechanism linkages / joints which is a major disadvantage in terms of overall mechanism analysis as it provides no information on the likely required strength of the mechanism components . The software would require training for the employees to be able to produce the vector diagrams and the purchase of the software would necessitate a large initial outlay for the company . < heading ( Excel)</heading > The software that was used in this report was which is a component of . This means that the software is available in a vast majority of companies . The software is powerful spread sheet package that is well suited to the kinematic and Force analysis for the mechanisms . The software implements the complex vector equations to calculate the various kinematic data for the bar mechanism . These equations are mathematically modelled using the inbuilt math functions of . The software also allows data to be represented graphically with the use of various chart types ( see Figure ) . The software can also perform a complete force analysis by solving the simultaneous equations derived by applying 's nd Law to the bar mechanism . The simultaneous equations can be solved by matrix methods , which has inbuilt commands for . Comparing the result from the spread sheet to the other methods shows high accuracy . The values agree with the working model results typically to within decimal places , with the exception of the acceleration of point D which varies from the other methods value by approximately 0.945rads -2 . This variation is most likely caused by a calculation error somewhere within the worksheet . Since the values given by other methods ( working model & AutoCAD ) are very similar . Unfortunately at the time of writing this error had not been resolved . The construction of the spread sheet is very labour intensive , requiring an in depth knowledge of the theory of kinematic & force analysis . It is also prone to errors and can be long winded to find bugs in the program . However once the spread sheet has been constructed and tested the software is possibly the easiest of the methods to implement , since all that is required by the user to perform a detailed analysis of the system is so simply input the mechanism configuration data . The spread sheet can be configured to only allow input data cells to be accessible to the user . Once the input data is entered in to the relevant cells in the spread sheet the analysis of the mechanism is done instantaneously and the results can be printed out within of entering the data . This is something that the other methods are not capable of doing . < heading > Computer Software Analysis</heading > The software used for the analysis of the mechanism was . This a motion simulation package . It allows the designer to create simulations of real life mechanical systems . The software utilises a graphical user interface which is used to build up a model . The model can them be analysed with fully configurable input conditions such as external . Input conditions such as input velocity and acceleration can also be applied to the system which is then analysed by the software . Each component of the model can then be analysed by measuring the required data via the inbuilt measurement tools . This data is presented in a small results dialogue box in the window . The data output type is user selectable ( components , angular components etc ) along this the displayed units . The data can also be exported to enable data analysis outside of the software . The software is able to step through each mechanism configuration and readout the kinematic and force data for that given configuration . The resolution of the analysis is user configurable , ( i.e in the case of the bar mechanism the step increment for the driven link can be varied , as described in ) . It is advantageous to keep different files for each component being measure on the mechanism to prevent the window from becoming cluttered . The software is simple to use due to its simple user interface , the inbuilt help files provide useful descriptions of the various functions of the software in a easily comprehendible manner . An advantage of the software is that the user does not need an in depth knowledge of mechanism analysis in order to perform a detailed analysis of the system . This means minimal amount of training is required . The cost of purchasing and further training would be a major factor in the decision of which method to employ within the company . values from summarised in . It can be seen that the results vary greatly between the methods , the free body diagrams derived for the bar linkage shown in Appendix 4 have been solved using matrix solutions . Although the resultant force data is deemed to be incorrect the theory has been applied correctly , therefore the errors must results from the transferring of theoretical equations into the spread sheet itself . Additional time spent debugging the separate sections to resolve these errors would produce a powerful mechanism analysis tool . < list><heading > Sources of error within the excel workbook may include:</heading > Application of theory for the resultant acceleration of point of link BQ with respect to its centre of gravityCalculation of equivalent nd moment of inertia for link BQ . < /list><heading > Conclusion</heading > Having critically examined each method for the purpose of mechanism analysis it is the conclusion of this report that the most suitable method is the spread sheet . Provided that the spread sheet is constructed correctly , thoroughly tested and proved to be correct , this is a very effective method . This method meets all the requirements specified from the out set which were : Good accuracy Easy to use training requirements - The spread sheet requires little previous engineering knowledge of mechanisms and only very minimal training in the use of itself Cost effective - Most companies own the software as part of office , however it can be purchased as a separate module for a small initial cost . No further charges would be necessary mechanism analysis - Only the mechanism configuration needs to be entered into the configuration sheet in the workbook , from which a full and in - depth mechanism analysis is produced , all collected in the summary sheet of the workbook","In his statement in v [ 1998 ] 4All ER 513 , at , Lord tears apart the traditionaldeclaratory theory of law by suggesting that it is merely , as Lord , ' a fairy tale in which no one any longer believes ' . The declaratorytheory suggests that those who deal with the mechanics of the law have nobearing upon its form or content and are mere instruments in the path ofjustice . Their task is not to alter or significantly impact the law , forthat latter is above all individuals and exists irrespective of them . Judges , according to this theory , are not sources of law , but tools throughwhich the law is selectively applied ; their duty is restricted to selectionand application , and does not extend to law making . According to this theory , the law exists in the same form all along , and itis for the judge to identify that form and disclose it to others . Theexistence of that form is constant and remains untouched despite the manyapplications of the law by various judges in different cases . When anearlier decision is overruled , the theory reiterates , the law is certainlynot changed or deemed faulty ; it is merely made clear , and its relevance ina particular context is illustrated . Besides the direct legal implications , is if often useful to consider thewider historical and philosophical context within which a particular legaltheory has taken root and the ideas that have influenced its development . Interestingly , the position of law within the declaratory theory as a higherbody , a supreme being , the existence or shape of which is not altered by the'coming and going ' , as it were , of various judges , has significant parallelswith the "" "" , with its great insistence upon structureand order . According to , the forms are not concepts in the mind , butare existing realities apart from the mind . For this reason , truth ( and , ina sense , for the purpose of this discussion of the declaratory theory , thelaw ) is not seen as "" either mine or thine but ours , as there for all of usto behold . "" Thus , a process of externalisation of the law occurs , and , likePlato 's concept of the truth , the law begins to be perceived as existing""out there "" , somewhere , rather than in the private possession of anindividual , creating what Dr. defines as '' a distance between thethinker and the ideas he pursues '' that '' keeps him humble '' , a'humbleness ' that may be an essential element of the legal system in ademocratic setup . In the task of discovering and disclosing ' the true nature of the law ' , thejudge must impartially see the law without attempting to own it . In legalterms , this means that there must be a certain level of consistency , withlike cases being decided on a like basis , rather than being apparentlysubject to the whim of the individual judge deciding the case in question . This is a crucial aspect of formal justice , and not only enables lawyers andtheir clients to predict the likely outcome of a particular legal questionin the light of previous judicial decisions but also allows individuals toorient their behavior with regard to that rule relatively secure in theknowledge that it will not be changed by some later court . This latterpoint is a reminder that law can not be disassociated from society , uponwhich it has a very direct and constant impact . Any such anomaly in thefunctioning of the legal system will see a corresponding impact on societynot only in terms of , say , an increase in crime , for example , or a widerrange of activities being condemned by the courts as criminal , but also,(and this is perhaps more worrying for society as a whole ) , in terms of anambiguity about societal perceptions of accepted values and modes ofbehavior , possibly leading to social anarchy . In this sense , justice cannotbe subjective . To rely overwhelmingly upon judicial discretion can have diresocial consequences both immediate and short term , and these will bediscussed subsequently . The doctrine of binding precedent operates in theory to control and indeedlimit the ambit of judicial discretion . As stated by Lord Diplock in Davisv ( ) , a balance must be struck between the need on one side forlegal certainty resulting from the binding effect of previous decisions andon the other side the avoidance of undue restriction on the properdevelopment of law . I will now examine the advantages and disadvantages ofthis system . Besides promoting consistency and certainty in law , as aforementioned , thedoctrine of stare decisis has , for another advantage , efficiency , and , moreoften than not , saves the time of the judiciary , lawyers and their clientsfor the reason that cases do not have to be reargued , besides saving thecourt expenses of potential litigants . On the other hand , paradoxically , case law tends to promote uncertainty dueto the absolute number of cases that have been reported and can be cited asauthorities , and this is compounded by the ability of the judiciary toselect which authority to follow through the use of the mechanism ofdistinguishing cases . Other criticisms of the system include fixity , or thepossibility that the law pertaining to a particular area becomes ossified onthe basis of an unjust precedent , thus perpetuating previous injustices , with the example of marital rape , the possibility of which has only beenrecently recognized ( R v R ( ) ) . But by far the most serious chargeagainst a judge - centric conception of the legal system is that ofunconstitutionality , or the threat of the judiciary overstepping its''theoretical constitutional role '' by making law rather than simplyapplying it . Doubtless , the greatest threat to liberal democracy is theexistence of an entirely different class of parallel lawmakers , present atevery level and in every jurisdiction , who , without popular backing , havethe potential to take upon themselves the formidable task of legislation , with the control of a deadly tool in their hands : that of the court . In this sense it is not surprising that there have been few adherents inrecent times to a declaratory theory in an absolute form , with its tendencyto limit innovation and ignore the role of individual judges and theircontributions . As in any analysis , it is vital not to disregard thehistorical aspect ; every common law rule must originally have been made by aperson or a group of people , and can not be subject to infinite regression . The declaratory theory seems , in a sense , to provide a cover , a mask forreality , by keeping the judge within the bounds of what is technicallyacceptable while allowing him substantial power to in effect change the law . Judges , in reality , are actively involved in the reform and creation oflaw , even if it not overtly . Those who assert that judges have no place inreforming statutory provisions must realize , to use the words of , that "" [ l]aw is to be accommodated to changing facts"" . In in his speech in and , said:""No one really doubts that the common law is a body of law which develops inprocess of time in response to the developments of the society in which itrules . Its movement may not be perceptible at any distinct point of time , nor can we always say how it gets from point to another ; but I do notthink that , for all that , we need abandon the conviction of thatsomehow , by some means , there is a movement that takes place . ""As illustrated above , and considering the existence of the intrinsicself - regulating mechanisms of overruling and distinguishing that allow thelaw to modernize itself , and the relative ease with which they enable judgesto manipulate the common law to achieve the ends they desire , both in aparticular case as well as for the purpose of establishing precedent andsubsequently impacting public opinion , it must be admitted that even withinthe limited system of binding precedent , there is an inherent flexibilitythat exists . Would it not be , then , rather incorrect , or atleast a mildexaggeration , to state that case law promotes injustice , rigidity andhampers modernization of the law ? I believe that it would , and that the fewdisadvantages of case law do not outweigh its many advantages . Thus , though the theoretical position critiqued by Lord andReid is al policy , and reflects a highly sterile view of law as divorcedfrom the judge , it is certainly an exaggeration to suggest , as in the lattersection of the statement , that the whole of the common law is judge made andretains its dynamism only through judicial change , in the light of thearguments above .",0
"< heading > Introduction</heading > The use of ( IT ) in agricultural and rural businesses is increasingly becoming an issue . The use of IT in rural areas seems to have a much slower uptake than the use of IT in other industries . There is a variety of software available which is specifically aimed at . In of farm businesses were using agricultural software and IT to help run their business and record information ( Offer , A ) . At present , it is thought that of farms in the use IT in some form on their farms . The use of IT in agriculture can also be looked at from a global perspective . The has had slow development in IT usage in rural enterprises , but other less developed countries are likely to be much slower in uptake of IT . The use of IT is likely to become an issue of increasing importance , particularly with the more stringent legislation now in place requiring traceability of products and quality assurance , accurate record keeping will be an important issue . This is where greater usage of IT in agriculture should come into force . The following graph shows the uptake of computer usage on farms in the . < figure/>The graph shows that in all areas of computer usage , there has been an increase . This is the expected trend , and hopefully this trend will continue with more farms and rural enterprises realizing the need to adopt computer technology . < heading > Issues associated with IT adoption < /heading > As previously mentioned the uptake of IT in the rural sector has been slow and from a global perspective it is likely to have been very limited in less developed countries . There are a number of reasons for this limited uptake of IT in rural businesses which are : There is a lack of effective training for the software available in the agricultural industry . This is a major problem because often businesses such as farms will have limited IT knowledge anyway , and therefore will be deterred from using IT if sufficient training is not available . Many rural businesses are not aware or do not feel that there are substantial cost benefits to adopting their practices to use IT . This may not be the case in the future , because of the more stringent legislation now in place , farm businesses and other rural enterprises may see how time consuming not using IT will be . There is often a reluctance to change among many rural businesses . This is because they feel no need to change . This is an issue which needs to be addressed , but it is more often an issue with the older generations . Therefore as younger generation farmers and workers become involved in the rural sector , this attitude has the chance to be changed . In some rural areas , there may be technological barriers preventing further IT integration into the rural business . This could be constraints such as no broadband access in some areas . This therefore suggests that some rural firms may not be able to adapt to IT . There is a view that IT is not a reliable means of storing and interpreting information . There is also the cost implementation element to IT in rural businesses . These factors combined are likely to have a negative influence on the application of IT into rural and farm businesses . These factors may be particularly significant in those less developed countries . Less developed countries are likely to be much further behind in regards of IT and therefore even simple factors which are taken advantage of in the such as telephone communication may still be up and coming in rural enterprises in developing countries . Less developed countries may also face problems with initial implementation costs . The above issues are factors that need to be addressed by software companies to try and encourage greater uptake and usage of computers in the rural business sector . There are constraints faced by these companies in the , that ca n't be avoided such as the age of many farmers and the unwillingness to change and also the money restraints faced by many farmers . The issues associated with less developed countries are factors that will gradually be overcome but the progress in such countries is likely to be very slow and limited . < heading > IT in Rural Businesses</heading > The use of advanced IT software and systems within farm business is likely to depend on a variety of factors . In a farm situation , the size of the farm will be a fairly significant dictating factor in the extent of IT usage . This is because the larger scale farms will be involved in a variety of different areas and therefore more records and data will need to be stored . Smaller farms may not feel that it is economical to install new computers and software systems ; therefore it is likely to be the larger farm businesses that are more involved in IT usage . Over , surveys have been completed relating to the use of IT and the internet in rural businesses and farms . The following is a summary of some of the results . This information shows the more detailed purposes of computer use during on farms in the : of farms use computers for office management functions , e.g. record keeping of farms use computers for farm management accounts of farms use computers for tax accounts of farms use computers for payroll purposes of farms use computers for arable enterprise management of farms use computers for livestock enterprise management of farms use computers for statutory records ( Farm Business Survey 2003 ) The is likely to be a fairly good example of IT use in rural businesses . If the statistics for IT usage in a developing country were looked at , it is more than likely that the general consensus for IT use would be much lower . This is mainly due to the economical state of the country and also the lack of available resources such as computers . The information suggests that the majority of farms use computers for management functions such as keeping records of calving dates and milk yields . There is also a fairly high usage of IT for farm management accountancy purposes . The use of the more specialized software , such as software available from companies such as Farm Plan , does not seem to be used so highly in the farm business industry . However , this is likely to be a changing scenario and in the since the survey was conducted , many changes such as have occurred . These changes have meant that there are now much more stringent rules and regulations and the new agri - environment schemes will require detailed analysis of the farm business . Therefore , companies such as Farm Plan are likely to see a rise in demand for specialist agricultural software . This trend is likely to be similar across all Countries due to and related agri - environment schemes . The future trends of IT usage in rural businesses in less developed countries is also likely to increase as factors such as traceability and animal welfare are becoming issues of increasing importance worldwide . In many countries , important aspects to aid the farm business such as telecommunications are relatively new ideas and therefore the development of IT usage to the stage that the is currently at is likely to take a while . However , as the use of IT develops worldwide in the agricultural industry , it is going to be increasingly more difficult for these countries to cope and compete without similar resources . < heading > Conclusion</heading > IT is becoming an increasingly important element for all businesses . ' It affects all aspects of organizational activity and opens up many new ideas for the management of organizations ' ( Boddy , D ) . The integration of IT into rural businesses is an important aspect for many businesses in the and the trend for increased usage is likely to continue to increase . This will partly be due to the greater concern in 's society over food safety and traceability issues and also the increasing amounts of legislation that are coming into force regarding agricultural practices . The use of IT will be a practical and constructive way of managing information relating to food safety and traceability and also a useful record keeping tool for legislation requirements . IT will also become increasingly more important as the use of GPS and precision farming increases . This is likely to occur particularly on larger scale farms . There are many issues relating to the use of IT in the rural sector which will need to be addressed before all businesses adapt to using IT . The adoption of IT into the rural sector will also be much more advanced in the in comparison to developing countries and therefore this factor should be considered . This could mean that in the long term , these developing countries are at a disadvantage because they do not have the technology to compete with the developed world . The use of IT in rural businesses in the is likely to be very dependant on the scale of the business and the turnover from the farm . This is because it is fairly expensive to implement IT systems into the business and therefore it is likely that only the larger scale businesses will be interested in such systems . However , given the state of agriculture , in the future there is likely to be the merging of many smaller farms and rural businesses to try and compete successfully in the market . This could lead to an increase in IT usage , particularly of specialized software such as that which is provided by Farm Plan .","The was built shortly before but its design hardly changed for . With its very distinctive shape and sound , it can be recognized throughout many countries , and its reliability means that many old are still on the roads , advertising themselves as lasting models of economical , trustworthy and retro chic design . The was in production from . The exact designer is unknown : commissioned a car to be built shortly before he came to power that would enable all to be able to use this vehicle cheaply and easily . then designed this car - the - although a very similar design for such a car had been made by . However , was and so all his projects were decommissioned and he fled the country and 's design went ahead . The actual shape of the outside of the car , as opposed to the design of the revolutionary engine inside , was envisioned by ( an original sketch of his below ) . The design was intended to hold adults and children , and carry them at speeds of . < picture/>The models of the were slow to come into production as the factory producing them in was only small . Thus many of the first produced were for military purposes as started . Much of the design for the was inspired by another streamlined car of the time known as the Tatra ( below ) . The Tatra company later sued who had to pay out , leaving them with little money . Thus there was little money for development of the and for the design remained almost unchanged . < picture/>Post - war , a officer named Major took control of the factory producing the . He convinced to buy a large number of these , and soon the 's popularity was increasing immensely . < picture/>It was in this post - war era that the really took off : it became a symbol of freedom , rebellion and modernism . Throughout and seventies it became heavily associated with and their fun - loving and revolutionary way of life , and captured the hearts of many . They were often painted in bright colours or even with pattern accentuating the psychedelic sixties movement ( left and below ) . Heavy advertising campaigns also helped the 's success , and we still associate the with the sixty 's Hippy and everything they stood for in these times of political and civil unrest . < picture/><picture/>The Beetle was also a star . In a series of films , a white with the number on the side was a car called ( below ) who was most famous in the and , but featured in a number of other films in other countries such as and . The was also the subject of a number of Pop Art pictures which helped to boost their popularity and association with new thinking and the movement ( right ) . < picture/>Today , the enjoys a new lease of life . After dwindling sales since the and factories slowly closing down , the last original were being produced in and the final left the Factory in , , on th , since the ones were built in . However , in , designers in have been working on a new model based and the design of the original ( below ) . The mechanics are completely reworked and bare no resemblance to the , but the shape of the outside of the New Beetle is rounded and symmetrical , and has the large wheel covers that characterised the original . This New Beetle is as cool as ever were , and maintains the reliability and class status that have held for now . It maintains a retro - chic appeal and still comes in bright colours with matching interiors and a matching flower for the dashboard , again harking back to its roots . Although it is not yet as popular as the was in its heyday , it has regained its place in the and markets and is still seen as a design icon and a symbol of . < picture/ >",0
"< heading > Theory:</heading > In the same power range is typically more efficient than single - phase . In a single - phase system the power falls to times during each cycle , in it never drops to . The power delivered to the load is the same at any instant . - phase power is relayed using wires while a single - phase system uses . To transmit the same power using a system instead of a single - phase system requires of the conducting material . A phasor diagram shows that the phases of voltage / current are displaced by . The concept was originally conceived by and was proven that was far superior to single - phase power . < figure/ > FORMULA There are types of connection configurations , star '' ( or wye ) and delta '' . These configurations reduce the amount of conductors needed to convey power ( generator to end - user ) from . < heading connection .</heading > The end of each stator coil is connected to form the letter wye . The central point is called neutral and may be brought out to the end - users and may be used for earthing . < figure/ > FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA < heading > Delta Connection .</heading > The delta connection again saves on conductors as the output terminals of each coil are connected to the input terminals of the following coil . < figure/ > FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA < heading > Impedance .</heading > Impedance ' Z ' , expressed in , is the ratio of the voltage applied across a pair of terminals to the current flow between those terminals . In circuits , impedance is a function of resistance , inductance and capacitance . Inductors and capacitors build up voltages that oppose the flow of current . This opposition , called reactance ' X ' , must be combined with resistance to find the impedance . The reactance produced by the inductance is proportional to the frequency of the alternating current , whereas the reactance produced by capacitors is inversely proportional to the frequency .   FORMULA   Star connection gives a higher terminal voltage than delta connection but a correspondingly smaller output current . Comparison of the above equations shows that , to arrive at the same voltage and current levels , the phase impedance in delta must be times higher than the corresponding impedance in star .   FORMULA   < heading > Equivalent Circuit Method:</heading > The equivalent circuit method is used to simplify calculations . Below is the ' initial ' equivalent circuit ( ) for the induction motor . It shows per - phase , so the phase voltage and current are used . Any power considerations need to be multiplied by to obtain output power or total power loss . < figure/>If the current through the magnetising branch ( R c & jX m ) is significantly low compared to I ph and I 2 ' , then the equivalent circuit can be simplified further . The magnetising branch is moved to the terminals . Also the reactances are combined . Moving the magnetising branch should not affect the accuracy because the voltage across it is so low and most of the current should flow around the rotor loop . < figure/><heading FORMULA      < figure/><heading > Running Light Test:</heading><table/><figure/ > FORMULA   < heading > Core Loss Resistance RC</heading > FORMULA   < heading > Magnetising Reactance Xm</heading > FORMULA    FORMULA   < heading > Locked Rotor Test:</heading><table/><heading > Winding Resistances</heading > FORMULA   < heading > Leakage Reactances</heading > FORMULA    FORMULA   < heading > Stator Resistance Measurement:</heading > Phase to phase Resistance R ph - ph=64.1   FORMULA   < heading > Load Tests:</heading><table/><heading > Peak Torque and Starting Torque and Current</heading > FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA      < heading > Computer Simulation:</heading > Graphs , show the theoretical results . Graph shows the torque/ speed curve . It shows a starting torque of , compared to the measured 0.85Nm . The peak torque of occurs at 1145rpm , whereas the measure peak torque is 1.15Nm at . The synchronous speed is . Synchronous speed is a theoretical value that could never be achieved because the motor will always have some load however small it is . The running light test does n't give actual no load results . This is because there is a slight load from the measuring equipment , for instance the dynamometer . Graph shows the line current/ speed curve . The starting current matches that of the measured starting current . Generally that starting current is to times higher than the full load current . In this case it is times higher . This over - current , even though it only lasts for , can be a problem . The solution of this is to use a starter or wound - rotor motor . The measured results are close to the theoretical , showing that speed decreases with current . Graph shows the efficiency/ speed curve . The motor is most efficient ( ) at . Beyond this speed efficiency drops off rapidly to at . The measured values are quite close to the theoretical . Any differences between actual and theoretical results are due to friction within the motor .","( IT ) doubtlessly can contribute much to agriculture and rural development . The use of IT in rural businesses can lead to better communications and a closer relationship with customers and suppliers , improving both efficiency and profitability . Traditionally businesses communicated through the use of the telephone and mail . Technology has moved on greatly to the current day situation of more businesses communicating to both customers and suppliers through e - mail and the Internet . However the adoption of IT in rural businesses remains lower than in urban businesses . < figure/>The graph above shows the adoption of IT in rural and urban businesses depending on number of employees . It shows that urban adoption is always higher in every employee band , however the gap between them is not that different with the mean adoption index in all businesses in urban at and rural at . As the businesses become larger the adoption of IT increases . The Defra census ( ) showed that currently of rural businesses that have the opportunity to access the Internet do , yet of rural businesses have this access . < figure/>The graph above shows the percentage of rural and urban businesses that have their own website . The results show that of rural businesses have their own website compared to of urban businesses . This could be due to less internet access and the difference in markets in which urban and rural businesses operate , many urban businesses sell direct to consumers and therefore a website is beneficial in marketing , fewer rural businesses operate in this way . The results from the census show that rural businesses adoption of IT is lagging behind urban . Current factors that are hindering the advancement and adoption of IT in rural businesses are the lack of education , the size of businesses , and high cost of initial investment and the lack of facilities within the area such as the Internet . Many rural businesses are smaller than those that are urban , more sole traders and therefore the lack of education and money to invest in the initial set up are real constraints . A major sector of rural businesses is agriculture and with often the age of farmers then education in IT is an important issue . Many of these people were not brought up with large amounts of computer use and therefore are put off purchasing and using IT within their businesses . The cost of investment is an important factor to many businesses and people 's perceptions on whether IT is worthwhile are different . As these issues are overcome and the increase in Internet access improves more businesses will adopt the use of IT . helps to remove some of the barriers which geography puts in the way of rural businesses ( executive 2004 ) . More rural businesses will look to use IT in their everyday actions , with legal obligations and quality assurance needing to be met and proven , cost reduction and time management improvements . Future developments and adoptions of IT will have an increasing effect on rural businesses both in developed countries and developing countries . < heading > Adoption of IT in developing countries</heading > The adoption of information technology in developing countries could become very important . IT could be used to meet common needs in these countries rural communities and businesses , such as enhancing crop productivity , efficient cattle farm management , providing for national and household level food security , and conservation of bio - diversity . ' These governance products and services include : information about the latest seed varieties , fertilizers , pesticides and rainfall prediction ; information on various government schemes such as those on water resources management and subsidies on land development and soil conservation activities ; information about local agriculture offices and officers , crop testing and training centres ; information on milk processing , grain storage , livestock vaccination and crop diseases ; information about market prices of various crops , rates for loans , and available credit facilities ( digital governance ) . Many rural businesses in developing countries are small family run businesses on which their whole livelihoods rely , therefore the adoption and development of IT in these businesses would have a significant impact . Better predictions of climatic conditions and crop testing with knowledge will reduce the likelihood of crop failure leading to famine and the whole country in crisis . However in order for IT to take off in these countries much money and education needs to be spent on providing facilities and knowledge . The census before shows that rural adoption of IT in the is low because of education and facility constraints and this is a wealthy country therefore adoption in developing countries will be even harder . Future advancements in the adoption of IT in countries such as could have a large effect both at the individual enterprise level , as well as at the national and international level . Currently parts of are lagging behind in technology adoption within arable production , yet they are however able to produce high yields and have very large cultivation areas compared to the . This means that future adoption of IT in in this area of rural business could have a massive effect . At the enterprise level farmers could become more efficient with monitoring inputs with outputs such as precision farming , predicting climatic conditions and use of the Internet . The effects of this could mean that they are able to produce much larger quantities of corn more efficiently than the and other countries therefore creating large competition . < heading > Adoption of IT in developed countries</heading > Within developed countries such as and the IT plays a vital role in analysing performance in rural businesses . The use of precision farming has shown the uses of modern technology to monitor individual field performance per square metre compared to the traditional whole farm monitoring on a much broader scale . Computer software is used both in the tractor cab for the user , and in the office for the farm manager and agronomist . IT based decision support systems ( ) can help decision making such as when and what to plant whilst considering environmental impact , market access and industry standards . Yet because of the high investment costs and the current low prices of arable crops only limited farms that can make the economic investment justifiable have adopted precision farming software . Uptake in countries such as could be larger due to the much larger scales of arable production . This shows that in order for further adoptions of IT to take place in the future , companies need to advance and produce software that suit the smaller scale businesses as well . Other uses of IT have become more popular with the increase in rural diversification such as farm shops and Internet businesses . These rural businesses completely rely on the adoption and use of IT to be profitable . Further developments of IT in the livestock sector have also occurred through businesses such as and producing programmes for every aspect of running a livestock business , including herd records , and individual animal performance . These advancements in technology have been specialised to businesses specific needs but within a fairly large market , as with livestock . In IT advancements will play an important role in food security with emerging consumer concerns about animal welfare and diseases such as chicken flu and . It will also become increasingly important to monitor individual cow performances especially with the current increasing herd sizes and reducing labour , in order to become more economical . Other future advancements in IT could lead to better communications between what is expected by rural businesses from the government . Defra are pushing a ' Whole Farm approach ' web based system including a web portal which could save the industry a year ( Lord Bach 2005 ) . This will reduce the amount of paper work that farmers and people within the industry will have to do and ensure quicker transactions . The effect this will have at individual enterprises is reduced confusion and reduced amount of inspections by the government . < heading > Conclusion</heading > The uptake of IT in rural businesses remains less than that in urban businesses . This is due to the size of businesses many rural being sole traders , education , and the cost of set up and the accessibility of the Internet . An increase in adoption in will require advancements in these areas . Even though adoption is low overall in rural businesses uptake in arable and livestock sectors has been to achieve higher economies of scale and better analysis of individual enterprises . Further adoptions in these sectors will take place if there are advancements in IT that suit smaller businesses as well as that which is currently available to large . Uptake in rural areas is less than urban areas within the however uptake in developing countries rural areas is significantly less than that if at all . Adoption of IT in developing countries will have a significant effect on not only the individual enterprise and household level but also at the national level , potentially reducing poverty and famine . However this is unlikely to all happen within due to the size of the task , not only requiring investment but education and accessibility of facilities also . Any advancements and adoption in developing countries would have a positive effect .",0
"On an anonymous author submitted the following review of ( ) to The : < quote>""When tragedy is represented , not among heroes whose loftiness seems to make them fit for it , but among ordinary people of our own mould and time . It is too near the truth which we are familiar with to be agreeable even in fiction . "" < /quote><fnote > King , Jeannette . Tragedy in . : , . . < /fnote > Dickens perceptive remarks , outlined in a letter to , appeared to be correct . Victorian society still looked to the novel chiefly as a source of entertainment and amusement until . They did not wish to be reminded of the fears and deep - rooted instability that pervaded their society , which was fractured by social , political and scientific upheavals . The proliferation of scientific material , notably ) , which prompted religious doubt , the periodic economic depression inflicted by passed in and the passing of in , allowing the industrial middle class to vote , brought elements of the tragedy into everyday life . Why then did these influential writers , and , adopt the facets of tragedy to structure their novels ? In response to this , I will examine how the themes of gender relations , education and use of landscape are used as vehicles to write tragedy in ( ) and ( ) , focusing specifically on the final sequences of each novel . After the examination of ( ) an anonymous writer for concluded that "" novels are not novels in the ordinary sense of the term - they are really dramas . "" Therefore , it is rather fitting that one of 's earliest pen names was "" . ""   < fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Gilbert , Sandra . , . The in the . : , . pp . < /fnote > In Mill on inflicts major tragedies ; the is the loss of the fortune and the is 's inability to realise her intellectual ambitions . 's losing the mill to not only highlights the struggle of the artisan classes against the invading capitalism from the cities , but for it shows "" the change from prosperity to adversity "" integral to tragedy . However , when the principles of Goethe 's bildungsroman ( as explored in his ) are addressed , it is 's journey of personal growth that exhibits all the elements of tragedy . in ( ) concisely highlights 's dilemma ; "" this strange disease of modern life , with its sick hurry , its divided aims . "" is ' divided ' between a loyalty to her family and her ' thirst for all knowledge . "" Eliot structures the novel on what defines as the tragic "" wheel of fortune , "" in which the protagonist makes their infamous tragic error , hamartia , before trying to reverse the consequences , peripeteia , concluding in a moment of recognition , anagnorisis , accompanied throughout by sequences in the novel that evoke pity and fear . < fnote , . . : , . pp20 . < /fnote><fnote > Eliot , George . The Mill on the ( ) . , . pp . < /fnote><fnote , .op.cit pp21 . < /fnote > Eliot recognised that the language of her protagonist lacked the "" eloquent special pleading characteristic of the traditional tragic hero , "" so she used female subordination to evoke pity . Mr ' sister , , is described ' like a - smothered fire . "" Aunt Pullet unveils her hat in ' a darkened room in which the outer light entere[d ] feebly ' is suggestive not only of Miss 's room in , but also of the lady 's own spirit repressed by social constraints . Similarly , can be seen rebelling ' against her lot ' when she cuts her hair and expressing her repressed passions in the crucifixion of her doll with ' nails driven into the head . "" In many instances , her position seems similar to slavery . Mrs refers to her as ' a brown skin ... mulatter , '   a ' bit of furniture ... on which she could bestow her anxiety . "" Her subsidiary role in the family is consolidated by her aunts and uncles displeasure in her ' brown ' ' gypsy ' appearance . However , these consanguine criticisms are inconsequential compared to the fraternal dominance holds over . promises ' always to take care of her , make her his housekeeper , and punish her when she did wrong . "" According to old ' we do n't ask what a woman does , we ask who she belongs to , ' reducing women to mere chattel . Whilst , Mr views women as ' obtrusive flies . "" remarks that ' 's dark eyes remind[ed ] him of the stories about princesses being turned into animals . "" Subjected to these humiliations and the conditional rather than unconditional love shown by her family , seems to degenerate into sadomasochistic behaviour by clinging to those who impede her growth because ' the need of being loved would always subdue her . "" In fashion this ' small mistake of nature ' will not survive because she is too modern . Her anagnorisis comes when she acknowledges the social barrier between genders ; ' you are a man , and have power , and can do something in the world . "" Her female gender limits her from achieving the noble magnificence won by traditional tragic heroes . < fnote > King , Jeannette . Op.cit . pp8 . < /fnote><fnote > Eliot , George . op.cit . pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp24 . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp9 . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Bid . , . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp9 . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , . < /fnote > Eliot reinforces the reader 's pity by focusing on the inequality of education . The opportunity of intellectual advancement is reserved only for under the tutelage of Mr Stelling . According to Mr ' a woman 's no business wi ' being so clever ' so instead must attend the occasional class at Miss Firniss 's school . When she visits at Mr Stelling 's house notices the ' unsatisfied intelligence ' in her eyes . The reader 's sense of frustration in compounded by 's ' bovine ' dull intellect , on which the ' lessons had left a deposit of vague , fragmentary , ineffectual notions . "" Like , 's education ' had simply glided over him , leaving a light deposit of polish . "" These sequences of pity lead to 's hamartia , which comes at the 's party , when she decides ' this one , , she might expand unrestrainedly in the warmth of the present without those chill , eating thoughts of the past and the future . "" This decision leads her into the greenhouse with where he kisses her and their relations are changed until 's moment of peripeteia , when like Tess from   Tess of the ( 1891 ) she awakens from ' this strong presence that seemed to bear her along without any act of her own will ' and refuses to elope with Stephen , knowing full well ' the irrevocable wrong that must blot her life had been committed . ' < fnote > Bid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , . < /fnote labelled his as a ' grotesque tragi - comic conception , ' thus signalling his incorporation of tragic elements in the novel . < fnote > Sell , . D. ed . , . : , . pp1 . < /fnote > Dickens creates both Pip and Estella as orphans , vehicles that bereft of old traditions , might identify with . Estella tells ' we are not free to follow our own devices , you and I , ' they are ' the lonely ... battered slowly like pebbles into fortuitous shapes , ' as products of their turbulent society . is portrayed as a puppet ' brought up by to wreak vengeance on all the male sex . "" Despite Estella 's ' proud impatience ' and educated elegance she remains the product of Miss 's diseased mind . I am reminded of the monster in Frankenstein when Estella cries ' I am what you have made me . Take all the praise , take all the blame ; take all the success , take all the failure ; in short , take me . "" The original ending evokes extreme pity for the woman , who only learns to feel after being subjected to ' suffering . ' Other female characters in the novel are also subordinated . held a conventionally juvenile position , because she had married , ' the dim - witted remains unintelligent because she had been ' brought up from the cradle ... as one ... to be guarded from the acquisition of plebeian domestic knowledge , ' whilst Mr Jaggers housekeeper , , is told ' you have been admired , and can go ' after being forced to reveal the scars on her wrist . Even ' the wisest of girls ' is forced to conform in her marriage to . Interestingly , also stimulates sympathy for his male characters by portraying them with feminine qualities . Much like in on the Floss , ' with the touch of a woman ' provides with the female tenderness and unconditional love he does not receive from his sister . Similarly , the reader in inclined to trust 's friend Startop , who is described as having a ' woman 's delicacy of feature ... exactly like his mother . "" In contrast to these characters is , whom despite his person narration , the reader is inclined to criticise for his treatment of pitiable characters and his quickly developed hubris . Ashamed of his home , commits his harmartia by accepting Mr Jaggers proposal . He quickly bids farewell to the ' monotonous acquaintances ' of his childhood and confesses ' I was beginning to be rather vain of my knowledge . "" He revels when Mr addresses him as ' sir , ' and he immediately puts on airs and graces to distance himself from Trabb 's boy and seeks to ' make less ignorant and common , that he might be worthier of my society . "" I am critical even in his love for , in which I am reminded of Othello 's adulation of in 's Othello . It is a ' jealous ' love inspired and fuelled by social ambition . Much like the schizophrenic behaviour of Othello , has commented on the symbolic use of fire that can be traced throughout the novel and is representative of "" the criminal passions that lurk within "" Pip and link him to . It has been theorised that Pip unconsciously endorses Drummle 's victimisation of , 's revenge upon and the burning Miss . Indeed , 's moment of peripeteia occurs on the realisation that is his benefactor and he wishes ' that he had left me at the forge - far from contented , yet , by comparison , happy ! "" defends those novelists criticised for their over emphasis on pathos , arguing this "" is not a negative effect , a token of failure to achieve tragedy , but the result of deliberate emphasis on passivity , helplessness and dull monotony by novelists concerned with working these concepts into a total and new version of tragedy . "" < fnote > Ibid . , . pp . < /fnote><fnote > W.H Auden ' The Capitalist ' - classnotes < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp102 . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote , . The Violent Effigy : A Study of Dickens ' Imagination . : , . . < /fnote><fnote > Dickens . . Op.cit . pp295 . < /fnote><fnote > King , . < /fnote > To evoke the fear necessary for tragedy both and resort to the . When staying with the gypsies 's imagination strays into images of cannibalism and feels sure they will ' kill her as soon as it was dark , and cut up her body for gradual cooking . "" Eliot links past and present with the eerie legend of and the mysterious prophetic writings ' browned by time ' in the margin of a book given to her by . In contrast , shocks his readers from the very beginning . The appearance of ' soaked in water , smothered in mud and lamed by stones ' from behind the grave of Pip 's parents , awakens ' mortal terror ' in both and the reader . Similarly , tells the young that if he does not keep his promise a cannibalistic man will ' softly creep ... his way to him and tear him open . "" This traumatic experience is revived throughout the novel with visitations from similar convicts flashing the file that helped escape or the reappearance of the convicts leg - iron used to injure . The ' waxwork and skeleton ' figure of is not dissimilar to the witches in 's when she emits ghastly ' low cries ' and has ' a whirl of fire blazing all about her , ' even Pip notices the ' positively dreadful ... energy of her looks . "" Pip 's guilt prompts him twice to see illusions of Miss ' hanging to the beam . ' < fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote , . op.cit . , pp6 . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp 8 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote > often employs "" antisocial "" landscape to embellish this theme of fear . The unearthly inner landscape of , bathed in darkness and the horrific description of Miss 's wedding cake overrun with ' speckled - legged spiders , ' ' mice ' and ' black beetles . "" Even the gardens surrounding the house are unnatural , where the snow never melts and the ' grass grows in every crevice . "" However , like in Mill on the , Sattis House provides refuge and retreat respectively , for and , qualities integral to the ' antisocial landscape ' according to . Similarly , in ' ancient trees ... [are ] cut into fashions as formal and unnatural as the hoops and wigs and stiff skirts ' belonging to the inhabitants . For , is ' rather ugly , crooked , narrow and dirty,''asmear with filth and fat and blood and foam . ' < fnote > Fletcher , Pauline . Gardens and Grim Ravines : The Language of Landscapes in Victorian Poetry . : , . pp3 . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp150 . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote > Jeannette King highlights that for many critics "" the lower classes [ were ] inappropriate subjects for tragedy . Their social position deprives their fall of any wider significance . "" However , Eliot does establish elements of the heroine in . Like many of 's tragic heroes blinded by ambition , 's thoughts ' were the oddest mixture of clear eyed acumen and blind dreams , ' she is determined to ' be a clever woman . "" She is ' gifted with that superior power of misery , ' yet has strength capable of ' making out a faith for herself without the aid of established authorities . "" These qualities raise her above the humble characters being criticised and lends majesty to her suffering . On the whole , however , substitutes the protagonist of noble or majestic birth , with , a provincial daughter of nature , ideal for promoting the nostalgic longing for a rural past experienced by so many . She also replaces the happy , assimilative endings stressed in Goethe 's bildungsroman with the traditionalist cathartic death of and her brother in the flood . stresses "" the appeal of the tragedies of the past seems to be partly that they are past . Lacking the distancing effect of time , the modern would - be tragedian was required , therefore , to employ artistic devices to achieve the same distance - to veil the existence of evil in poetic form . "" Indeed , 's controversial ending has produced divergent opinions among critics as to what this catastrophic event implies . highlights some of the possibilities ; "" an androgynous reunion , incestuous orgasm , the climax of a long suicide ... perhaps sororicide , [ or ] authorial revenge . "" Whilst , sees "" the destruction of the restrictive community [ and ] the fulfilment of incest fantasy . "" I believe the description of the river at the beginning of the novel with its ' dark , changing wavelets ' is reminiscent of 's hair , equating the as one entity . Such an interpretation might prompt readings of the flood as the welling up of female anger , which destroys the barriers between female and male . In other feminist enquiries the waters have been compared to the amniotic fluid released at birth , signalling and 's return to childhood and a state of innocence . The over determined conclusion might just be the simple fulfilment of the curse that ' when the mill changes hands , the river 's angry ' symbolizing ' nature repair[ing ] her ravages . "" Ultimately , I believe 's death is more significant than 's because in killing is able to symbolically enact the death of the patriarchy that has hindered 's development . ethics dictate that the overreacher can not survive . What does become clear is the inter - relatedness of and 's lives . In a statement to publisher herself described the novel as ' the history of closely related lives . ' concurs that "" we must not ignore the declared duality of purpose . "" Indeed , perhaps the novel can be considered as bildungsromans interwoven , in which their "" simultaneous deaths mark a moment when their narratives collide for the last time . "" Indeed Fraiman states , "" if indicates the work 's nominal status as bildungsroman , 's problem ... is her inability to enter the designated mode . The novel is structured by her vain attempts to participate in the genre . "" It seems then that 's identity is not formed independently , but in response to 's decisions . Her attempts to learn and earn money by sewing are examples of her fruitless efforts to make 's her own . In life she is and 's ' Madwoman in the attic ' unable to develop and caught in a cycle of childlike behaviour . Her aspirations to are only fulfilled in death , when she is immortalised in the legend of . Unlike who returns to his roots eventually , is left ' a lonely wanderer ' with ' no home . '   < fnote > King , Jeannette . Op cit . pp . < /fnote><fnote > Eliot , George . Op.cit . pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > King , Jeannette . Op.cit . pp . < /fnote><fnote , . ' The Critics and the Bildungsroman ' in Maunder , Andrew & Yousaf , . ed . , : The Mill on . : , . . < /fnote><fnote > Ingham , . ' Past and Present in Mill on in Invisible Writing and . : press , . < /fnote><fnote > Eliot , George . op.cit . pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote , . Op . cit pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp39 . < /fnote><fnote > Gilbert , Sandra . , . The in the . : , . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote > At the suggestion of , revised his original ending for , this time opting for an optimistic tone . However , critics like felt that although the official ending was marginally happier , it was ' less consistent with the drift , as well as natural working out , of the tale . "" Indeed the original ending was praised for its ' flat tone and refusal of romantic expectation ' that the revised ending seems to fall into ; Pip gushingly confesses the truth to and 's suffering has finally ' given her a heart . "" Like , adds a cyclical element to his novel by renaming and 's son , Pip . There is a sense that the same mistakes will be repeated when sees the image of himself in the young boy and places him on ' a certain tombstone , ' the same one that had placed Pip on years earlier . In a sense , 's great expectations and ' wanderings ' were wasted dreams , similar to 's intellectual ambitions . Much like the flood in Mill on the Floss , Pip 's illness perhaps signals a moment of rebirth , after which he is able to experience his true anagnorisis when he finally accepts his place among the marshes of Kent . Accordingly , just as was unable to ' run away from her shadow , ' Estella is able to shed this shadow self , symbolic of social restraint . revised conclusion offers a brighter future , as we are reminded of 's Paradise Lost when Pip and Estella leave the ' ruined place ' of hand in hand . < fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Brooks , Peter . ' Repetition , Repression and Return : Great Expectations ' in . : , . pp . < /fnote><fnote > The Rejected Ending - class handout . < /fnote><fnote , . Op.cit . pp . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Eliot , George . op.cit . chp title . < /fnote><fnote , . Op.cit . pp . < /fnote > In conclusion , it seems both and found the facets of tragedy ideal for exploring the topics that were the cause of the doubt and fear endemic to society . They used their novels as vehicles to teach and where possible provide comfort through comedy . They were able to convey their realist views on social class , gender relations and education , whilst purging their "" yearning for an earlier society that was supposed to be idyllically integrated and morally pristine . "" Indeed , was concerned with exploring the relationship of the past to the present . She saw "" tragedy as the universal experience , "" so she opted for the traditional catharsis , or purging of emotion that and 's death delivers to the reader . In an ironic twist Eliot destroys her champion for the liberated female , perhaps too afraid to openly challenge morality and keen to restore the stability her society craved . feels "" Eliot becomes entangled in contradictions that she can only resolve through acts of vengeance against her own characters . "" Alternatively , opted for a modernist denouement that lacked finality but paved the way for a new version of tragedy , preferring to leave his readers is an emotional stasis and in doing so reserving and concealing his final conclusions on social reality . < fnote > Ingham , . Op.cit . pp . < /fnote><fnote > King , Jeannette . Op.cit . pp . < /fnote><fnote > Gilbert , Sandra . Op.cit . pp . < /fnote >","< heading>1 . Introduction</heading > ( ) is no doubt the leading market economy in the world and therefore it is clear that fluctuations in it attract interest , especially signs of slowdown . Throughout the was performing strong in terms of economy , but recently there has been a downturn . Especially was difficult , because the financial markets were suffering of lack of confidence and terrorist attacks further deepened the problem . Yet , there have not been any significant signs of recovery , even though it can be argued that there are prospects for in the . Nevertheless , oil price is a factor that can endanger the positive development in the economy and in can pose a problem in the trade deficit that the country struggles with . In addition , weak dollar might further deepen this difficulty . The uncertainty of the economy is reflected on the other economies of the world , particularly on the ones , but Euro Area has suffered from the fluctuations as well . Here , the main economic issues are dealt and the past , present and the future of the economy is evaluated . < heading>2 . Recent Economic History of the US</heading > The 1990s was a period of growth and economic boom in the . This result is partly related to the optimism that the end of created in the world economy . The was growing strongly due to emergence of new technology , which became known amongst the economists as "" the new economy "" boom . There was a sustained increase in the growth of productivity , which was largely explained by new inventions . These inventions induced massive investment and the confidence in the financial markets was high . It can be argued that there was a virtuous circle of economy in the . The gross domestic product ( GDP ) was growing fast and this facilitated a growth in investment , which in turn caused GDP to grow . As interest rates were low , high investment was made possible . The multiplier - accelerator action in the was strong and the information technology ( IT ) industry was booming until . In the IT sector experienced a heavy downturn as the stocks had been overvalued and the so - called "" dot.com "" companies were falling one after another . As the stocks of "" dot.com "" firms were rocketing up , it was clear that this development could not be long - lived , as there were no indications that there could be production growth in those firms could respond to the huge investment that was directed to the industry . These firms were , if anything , destroying wealth rather than creating it . < fnote > Greenspan ; < /fnote><fnote > Goldman ; < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote > Moreover , the extensive growth in the economy caused capital inflows and this resulted into a deficit in the current account in the as its net foreign investment was negative . The rapidly growing GDP increased the demand for imports . The consumers had more income to spend and the purchasing power of dollar was increasing . < fnote > Mann ; < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote > A factor relating to imports must be mentioned here , namely oil . The energy prices increased during and   as a result of increasing demand . Oil price reached in real terms the levels of the . This factor increased the costs of production and further widened the trade deficit . The crash of IT sector , current account deficit and increasing energy prices were inevitably leading in to a financial crisis in the stock markets . < fnote > Meyer ; < /fnote > Investors were liquidating their portfolios and buying bonds . Bond prices were increasing as a result of uncertain moods in the financial markets , leading in to increasing interest rates . As interest rate , the price of money , became higher there was insufficient investment to sustain the production . Output figures fell and unemployment started to grow . Though , given these facts , it was clear that high interest rates would keep inflation low . Not surprisingly falling income , increasing unemployment and high interest rates resulted in to cut in the consumer demand . < fnote > Blanchard ; : < /fnote><fnote > Blanchard ; : < /fnote > No doubt the strong decrease of IT sector was the main reason to the financial crisis , but the virtuous circle had turned in to a vicious circle of falling investment figures and fall in confidence . The consumer confidence fell with the financial markets . The economy was stagnating in , but there were expectations of a recovery in . As it is sadly known , the terrorist attacks against the on pushed the and the world economy into a confidence crisis . The attack had also some underlying impacts , as most of the people who died in the attacks were individuals in charge of major financial operations , impairing trading capacity of the markets . This factor deteriorated the confidence , as the functioning of the financial markets could not be relied on . Straightforwardly , the oil prices increased and the prices have remained high ever since , but this issue was not evident in . Hence , the lack of confidence and terrorist attacks caused more problems in the financial markets . In conclusion , economic in the was an unsuccessful one . < fnote > agrees with this view ( ; ) < /fnote><fnote > Meyer ; < /fnote><fnote > Greenspan ; < /fnote><fnote > Greenspan ; < /fnote><heading>3 . From crisis to < /heading > The government used extensive fiscal and monetary policy in order to tackle the problems of the crisis . The prevailing theme on the fiscal side was tax cuts , which was strongly advocated in public by the regime . On the other hand , on the monetary side interest rate controls played a crucial part . < fnote > Blanchard ; : < /fnote > The aim of fiscal policy used was straightforward . The consumer spending was to be encouraged . As consumers have more disposable income , they will spend more . This is because the marginal propensity to consume is higher than marginal propensity to save , except in some rather rare circumstances . Consumer demand has a large importance in the . It is of the GDP   and is therefore the single most important factor in the aggregate demand ( AD ) . Consumer demand recovered during the accordingly to the use of the fiscal policy . The effect of tax cut on the aggregate demand is shown on the graph below . < fnote ; < /fnote><fnote ; < /fnote><figure/>In contrast , on the monetary side , decreased interest rate known as "" Federal Funds Rate ( FFR ) "" in order to encourage spending and investment . Logically , when interest rates are low , borrowing is less expensive and consumers are encouraged to spend and investment is induced to stock markets . But this aim was arguably not easy to achieve . Throughout , the had remained flat , but from to the was dropped from . There has been argument that this action was taken too late , as the effect of decreased interest rates is not visible until a considerable amount of time , say , has passed . As a result in , the negative growth in investment was losing its momentum . Therefore , it can be argued that the monetary policy combined with the fiscal policy was to some extent successful . Though , there are limitations such as the investment growth was still negative . In the light of this evidence , it is clear that this was a turning point . < fnote > Blanchard ; : < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote > NIESR ; ( Jan ) < /fnote > The year was of cautious confidence , as the economy was performing better . Even though , it was argued that the economy "" will underpin the global upturn with GDP growth of in . "" The recovery was slow , yet it was a positive sign . Nevertheless , the net trade deficit was building up during . In spite of otherwise smooth recovery in , the net trade deficit is one of the main concerns . < fnote > NIESR ; ( Oct ) < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote > In the economy was still growing , but the concern about the trade deficit and the restrain of high oil prices was there . The oil prices were further increasing and its impact on the world economy , and the in particular , was increasingly important . However , the long - term interest rates were falling . This leads into encouraged investment , which in turn cancels part of the negative effect that high oil prices have on the output . Unemployment in the is yet at sustainable levels , but there is risk for growing unemployment figures . The government has tried to use monetary policy in terms of increasing interest rates in order to tackle with the emerging inflation , the dollar has already weakened . The trade deficit is still a problem . The increased exports to and , especially to are likely to reduce this deficit . It is unclear whether the reduction in the trade gap will be sufficient . But if it is considered whether the economic situation in the has improved since , the answer is yes . < fnote > at ( ; ) < /fnote><fnote > NIESR ; < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote > Gramlich ; < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote > Federal Reserve ; < /fnote><heading>4 . The impact on world economy and future predictions < /heading > Thus , the world economy has an impact on the , but the effect is mutual and the role of the can not be ignored when investigating the near future of the world economy . and have suffered from the depreciating exchange rate of the dollar and the impact of uncertain economy on countries has been even greater . The Euro Area is likely to grow slowly in spite of the developments in the or the world economy , but economies are vulnerable to any downturns in the world economy . The countries , in particular , have to be wary of overheating , as exports grow rapidly and there are not enough resources to sustain the supply . < fnote > NIESR ; < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote > Firstly , it is clear that the development of imports from the to the is likely to be high in . It has negative implications , as the trade deficit remains strong , and as mentioned , the economies might suffer from overheating . , as the oil prices have remained high , around $ a barrel , the risk to the world economy is greater than for the itself , as argued above , the decreasing long term interest rates offer protection for the output . Hence , it can be argued that the world economy is more vulnerable to the downturn resulting from high oil prices , rather than the . However , the is a net exporter of oil , so it would be an exaggeration to state that the oil price is not a significant factor regarding the GDP . , the politics must not be ignored here . regime has announced that its plan is to reduce growth . The implication is that the direction is downwards , but this kind of development can not be , in my opinion , described as an economic downturn . < fnote > NIESR ; < /fnote><heading>5 . Conclusion</heading > The economy has arguably gone through a strong boom followed by a rapid recession since , but there is no clear indication how the economy will perform during . There is a cautious optimism as the economic policy seems to work so far , but the danger posed by budget and trading deficits , weak dollar and high oil prices indicates that there are no grounds for confidence yet . is in a volatile state and the implications that the performance of the economy has on the world , particularly on , are not clearly seen . The stock markets show uncertainty , but the consumer confidence is recovering . Much depends on the economic policy of the government , whether they succeed in their attempts to keep inflation low and interest rates at appropriate levels . It is not clear whether the slowdown is about to end , or to get worse . The prospects for are still questionable and indicate in my opinion that the slowdown has not reached its end yet .",0
"< abstract><heading > Abstract</heading > Nowadays , a lot of scientific research domains ( such as medicine , cancer researches , aerospace , etc ... ) use some applications solving several complex mathematical algorithms . Then , these applications need a lot of computational resources to be executed . The research in computing developed some solutions supplying a lot of computational resources such as distributed computer ( cluster ) , parallel execution , etc ... Hence , these solutions can be used to execute complex scientific applications which need a lot of resources . These applications would then be executed in a parallel way . The main purpose of this project has been to develop a "" school scientific "" application using the   distributed computer called . This application , developed in C using , computes the matrices multiplication using ways ( sequential one and parallel one ) and solves a system of linear equations ( as well as the inverse of a matrix ) using the iterative method . This application enables us to understand why and in which conditions a parallel algorithm is often better than a sequential one , explaining these ways and calculating the efficiency of the parallel solution . Hence , this project involves a part of researches dealing with computing technologies ( such as distributed computing , parallel execution , etc ... ) as well as mathematical concepts using matrices and system of linear equations . Another main part of this report deals with the mathematical application which has been created explaining how such mathematical algorithms have been developed in C using . < quote > Résumé De nos jours , la recherché dans beaucoup de domaines scientifique ( tel que la médicine , la recherche contre le cancer , l'aérospatial , etc ... ) utilisent des applications qui résolvent des algorithmes mathématiques complexes et qui nécessitent énormément de ressources de calcul . La recherche en a permis de mettre au point des solutions fournissant de telles ressources , tels que les grappes de PC ( cluster ) , les exécutions parallèles , etc ... Ainsi , ces solutions peuvent être utilisées afin de permettre l'exécution d'applications scientifiques complexes qui demandent énormément de ressources de calcul . Ces applications peuvent ainsi être exécutées de manière parallèle . Le principal objectif de ce projet a été de développer une application scientifique "" école "" utilisant la grappe de PC , nommée , appartenant à l ' . Cette application , qui a été développé en C utilisant la librairie , a pour but de calculer des produits de matrices utilisant deux méthodes ( une méthode séquentielle et une autre parallèle ) et de résoudre des systèmes d'équations linéaires en utilisant la méthode itérative . Grâce à cette application , nous pourrons comprendre pourquoi et dans quels cas un algorithme parallèle est préfér éà un algorithme séquentiel , ceci en expliquant les deux méthodes et en calculant l'efficacité de la solution parallèle . Ce projet a impliqué une importante phase de recherche concernant les technologies Informatiques utilisées pour exécuter des applications parallèles ( tel que des grappes de PC ( cluster ) , les exécutions parallèles , etc ... ) ainsi que certains concepts mathématiques concernant les matrices et les systèmes d'équations linéaires . Une autre partie importante de ce rapport explique comment l'application mathématique développée au sein de ce projet a été créée en langage C utilisant la librairie MPI.</quote></abstract><heading > Introduction:</heading><heading > Project presentation:</heading > Nowadays a lot of scientific domains ( especially medicine , aerospace , fluid mechanic ( e.g. : ) , physics , chemistry , etc ... ) need more and more computational power . Indeed some scientific calculations need a long time to be executed , even on a powerful computer ( sometimes or ) . For example , such applications could use a lot of complicated formulas using a floating point which need a high precision or some genetic algorithms are used which need a long time to go throughout the generations , etc ... That is why several research groups throughout the world are developing some solutions . These solutions are getting more and more efficient and allow the scientific calculation to be executed quickly . In this project , we will present and use some technologies ( e.g. : , Cluster , distributed computing , ... ) developed for the purpose of providing a lot of calculation power for scientific application . Through some typical mathematical applications such as multiplication of matrices ( with large matrices ) and solutions to systems of linear equations ( using the iterative method , solving the inverse of a matrix ) , we will explain how these technologies work and how we can use them . Hence , this project involves the development of a mathematical application using distributed computing . < heading > Why did I choose this project ? < /heading > The time I heard about distributed computing used to solve very complex applications executing on several processors , I was very interested and intrigued and I wanted to know more about this subject . Through this project , I decided then to discover "" this world "" of distributed computing . Furthermore , has its own cluster named , so it was a great opportunity to be able to test concretely such applications on a real multi - computers system . For me , this project involves a lot of new concepts and technologies which I knew a little bit before , but I had never used them practically . I really wanted to know more about it , and I had the opportunity to use it concretely thanks to the cluster . < heading > Body of this report:</heading > This project involved a long part of theory , because some computing and mathematic concepts needed to be understood before creating an application using these concepts . That is why this report contains a long part dealing with some theoretical concepts and another main part dealing with the produced application . of all , we will introduce in details the technologies that we will use to develop a mathematical application and we will then see the reasons why a parallel solution is often better than a sequential one . After that we will present the mathematical issues and explain how it is possible to compute them in a sequential way and in a parallel way via some algorithms given in a pseudo - code . Eventually , we will explain in details the produced solution developed through this project , which solves the mathematical issues explained before . < heading > Technologies involved by a parallel and distributed application:</heading><quote>""From the highest to the humblest tasks , all are of equal honour ; all have their part to play "" , From [ Bib B ] < /fnote > In this part , we will explain in a time what is exactly a parallel execution , the reasons why we prefer to use it rather than a sequential execution ( in some case ) . Then we will introduce the "" hardware "" environment in which such parallel applications can be used . Afterwards we will explain how it is possible to create , run and manage such applications in this environment . After that , we will be able to explain which technological solution has been used in this project . < heading > Parallel application ( parallelism):</heading><heading > Generalities:</heading > A sequential execution executes several instructions one after another . As it is called "" sequential "" , it is simply a sequence of some instructions . However , a lot of scientific applications need a lot of calculation time , that means they need a lot of calculation resources ( basically CPU ) . Hence , in order to satisfy these resources requests , the parallelism notion is introduced to enable such application to be executed faster . In the general case , the parallelism is the division in several parts ( partially or totally independent ) of the program . There are different kind of parallelism : the intern parallelism and the extern one . In both , the initial program is cut in several parts , The intern parallelism : this kind of parallelism is typically the one which is used on a monoprocessor machine . Actually every parts of the program would be executed on a dedicated process or thread . Then the operating system will schedule the execution time of each part . So , when a part is running , then the others are waiting for , and every process will be executed one after another , until every process gets fully executed . The extern parallelism : this kind of parallelism is more efficient than the previous one . Indeed , this parallelism is performed either on a multiprocessor computer ( typically a supercomputer ) or on a cluster ( a distributed system , for example ) or even on a grid computing . Each part of the parallel program will be executed on a dedicated processor . Hence , each part will have its own processor and so will be enabled to use the whole power of this processor . < fnote > See section 2.3 . < /fnote><fnote > See section 2.3 . < /fnote><fnote > See section 2.3 . < /fnote><fnote > Depending on the platform architecture ( cluster or supercomputer ) , the memory will be shared between the part or not . < /fnote > However , each part comes from the same program . So they will have to be synchronized when each one will be executed . In order to do that , a procedure called has to be done . We also really have to be careful about the mutual exclusion . Indeed , if several parts want to use a global variable ( which is declared in the main program ) , a mutual exclusion system should be used . The schema below shows that how a parallel execution is performed , < figure/>As we can see on the schema ( Figure . ) , the program is executed by process until the program gets separated in different processes which are executed at the same time ( parallel execution ) . Then , these processes have to be synchronized . So , when we want to use a parallel execution , the programmer has to find a way to parallelise a sequential algorithm . Then we will be able to calculate the performance gain by using n processors in parallel instead of in a sequential way . In order to create and to use such parallel applications , we have to use some libraries which allow and manage the parallelism . The most popular are and . < fnote > Message Passing Interface < /fnote><fnote > Parallel Virtual Machine < /fnote><heading > Parallel Virtual Machine ( PVM):</heading > PVM is a tool which managing the parallelism on a distributed platform ( cluster ) . This tool works as a daemon . Indeed , to execute a parallel program which has been developed using some methods , a daemon has to be running on every nodes of the cluster . To start this daemon on the different available nodes , the following command is used ,   FORMULA   Where hostfile is a simple text file which contains the name of all the nodes needed and capable of be used An example of a hostfile could be as follows ,   FORMULA   Then the daemon ( pvmd ) would be launched on all these machines ( except if one of them is down ) in the background ( daemon ) . It is possible to have an access to the console in order to administer using several commands which show the current machines running the pvm daemon , allow adding some machines in the virtual machine , showing the different jobs which are running , etc ... To launch the console , the following command can be used ,   FORMULA   Above is a short description of , but this tool wo n't be used in this project . It has been presented because of its popularity in the "" distributed computing world "" . Actually another tool called had been used in this project . < heading > Message Passing Interface ( is a set of rules which define the way to send some messages between each process executing a parallel program . This library is known to be portable ; hence it can be used on almost every kind of distributed system . However in order to use routines , a implementation ( for example LAM / MPI , OpenMP , ... ) has to be installed on the cluster . These implementations are free for almost all of them . In this project , will be used to perform the parallelism , using the implementation LAM - MPI which is already installed on the cluster . < fnote > Local Area Multicomputer < /fnote > Before being able to launch a parallel program using on the cluster , the tool LAM - MPI has to be started on every node available which will be used . The following command line manages it ,   FORMULA   Where ' -v ' means ' verbose ' to show the result of this command and hostfile is a text file which contains the name of every nodes available ( similar file as the hostfile in the section 1.1.1 . used by ) . It is possible to stop LAM by the following command ,   FORMULA   LAM deals with the messages sent by the processes to each others . It also manages the parallelism . To compile a program using , the compiler called mpicc is used ,   FORMULA   When LAM is running , we can launch a parallel program which has been , of course , developed using methods . To execute a parallel program , the following command is used ,   FORMULA   Where ' -np ' means "" number of processors "" , n is the number of processors needed and Application is the parallel program which we want to execute . Then , the parallel application is executed and the standard output / input are used to print and read data . < heading > Performance analysis:</heading><heading > Speedup:</heading > In general , as parallel algorithm is used in order to improve the execution performance . So , it is useful to calculate something which could tell us the benefit we gain to use such an algorithm instead of a sequential one . The speedup is a number which determines how much the parallel algorithm is better ( faster ) than the sequential one . The speedup is determined as follows ,   FORMULA   Where   FORMULA   is the speedup for p processors ,   FORMULA   is the execution time of the sequential algorithm ( so , on only 1 processor ) and   FORMULA   is the execution time of the parallel algorithm on p processors . As it is natural to think ,   FORMULA   would be always greater than 1 . Otherwise , that would mean the parallel algorithm is less fast than the sequential one , and if this is the case , it is really not recommended to use a parallel algorithm . In the opposite way , we can see that the ideal value which can be obtained is p. In this case , we have a linear speedup . < heading > Amdahl 's law:</heading > It is important that to know the speedup can be determined by a law stated by Amdahl . However , this law wo n't be used for this project but it is important to speak about it . < fnote > Gene Myron Amdahl was a computer architect during the 50 's < /fnote > This law is stated on the thought which says that the speedup has to be determined by the algorithm and not only by the number of processors . Basically , a sequential algorithm can be improved by parallelising the code . However , it is possible not to be able to parallelise the algorithm anymore . So the speedup has to be determined knowing this point . Hence , only a defined part of the algorithm will be parallelised , and the other part will stayed sequential . For example , of an algorithm might be parallelisable . This law is stated as follows ,   FORMULA   Where   FORMULA   is the speedup for p processors and f is the percentage of the parallelisable part of the algorithm . In this project , we wo n't use this law . Indeed , the speedup will be calculated experimentally . < heading > Efficiency:</heading > The efficiency is simply a number ( in general between 0 and 1 ) which determines how well the processors are used when they are executing the parallel algorithm . The value is determined as follows ,   FORMULA   Where   FORMULA   is the speedup for p processors , P is the number of processors and   FORMULA   is the efficiency for p processors . If the speedup is linear , then the efficiency is equal to . These values are very useful to determine whether or not the parallel algorithm is more efficient than the sequential one . < heading > Parallel or sequential algorithm ? < /heading > For a given problem , the best way to compute it has to be chosen . In fact , in some case the sequential algorithm is more efficient than the parallel one . It is natural to wonder why . Indeed , if we have n processors , we naturally think that the algorithm will be executed faster than with only 1 processor . But it 's not necessary true . Actually , some external factors modify the thought which are the communication between the processes using a local area network ( so , some physics factor could modify the data transfer time ) , the synchronisation between the processes etc ... Hence , it is important to calculate the speedup and the efficiency in order to know whether a parallel solution is efficient or not , for a given problem . < heading > Different environment available to execute a parallel application:</heading > As we said before , a mathematical application needs a lot of calculation resources . So , such applications are often parallel and each part of the program is executed on a different processor . So , we need a platform which contains several processors to run this kind of application . Actually several platform could be used . kinds of environments exist : a multiprocessor supercomputer ( multiprocessors computer ) and a cluster . < fnote > A list of the most powerful supercomputers in the world is available on the website   URL   < /fnote><heading > Multiprocessor supercomputer:</heading > A super - computer is a single computer which contains several processors ( multiprocessors ) . That means each processors has its own cache memory ( of course , because the cache memory is include in the processors ) but the is shared among each processors . It could be a drawback because some access right has to be managed . Furthermore such a computer needs to have a large capacity of , so it gets very expensive . A famous example of a multiprocessor supercomputer is the located in . < fnote > Random Access Memory < /fnote > Below is a picture ( Figure . ) of this supercomputer , < picture/><heading > Cluster:</heading > A cluster is another kind of supercomputer . Actually this is a set of personal computer not necessary very powerful . All these computers are bound via a very high speed network ( a ) in order to manage the communication between all of them . So , the power of a cluster comes from the union of these computers . Each computer in the cluster is called "" a node "" . As each node is a single computer , each processor has its own memory . So the is not shared like in a multiprocessor supercomputer . Hence , it is consequently a cheaper solution . Each node being a single personal computer not necessary expensive , this solution can be created for a smaller cost than the multiprocessor solution . < fnote > Local Area Network < /fnote > Among the nodes is a root node which allows the users to get connected on the cluster . Furthermore this root node allows an administrator to configure the cluster and is also a data server . The root node is linked to an extern network ( usually Internet ) to enable the users to get connected via an extern connection . has its own cluster called . Each node is called where n is the number of the node ( ) . The root node is . < fnote > The name comes from the famous hero of the epic poems < /fnote > A schema ( Figure . ) explains how the general architecture of a cluster is , using as an example , < figure/>This picture ( Figure . ) is the cluster at , < picture/>On of the main advantage of a cluster is the transparency for the users . That means when a user uses the cluster , he does n't need to know how is structured the cluster , which node is currently running or not etc ... Through a remote connection ( via a Unix console ) , the cluster seems to be single computer for the user . Then , when the user wants to run a parallel application , he just has to launch it without thinking about the parallelism , the application will be executed on the different node and the result would be available for the user as if it was execute only on computer . Another kind of environment with another scale dealing with grid computing can also execute parallel applications . To have more details about this environment , see appendix . < heading > From the mathematical issues to the algorithmic solutions:</heading > As this project involves some mathematical concept , we have to introduce them before explaining how compute them . So , in this part the main mathematic concepts concerning matrices are explained in order to introduce the problem of systems of linear equations . Hence , the principles of matrices will be described as well as different methods used to solve a system of linear equations . After that , the step to compute such mathematical problems will be shown via some sequential algorithms given in pseudo - code . These algorithms will be explained and the way to parallelise such algorithms will be described . < heading > Prerequisite mathematical concepts:</heading><heading > Matrices:</heading > The problem which we will try to compute in this project will use some matrices . Matrices are a very important and useful mathematical element in computing , especially in numerical computing . In fact , a matrix is simply an array ( in general dimension but can be more ) of scalars . Here is the general for of a matrix ,   FORMULA   We can also write ,   FORMULA   If n = m , then the matrix is called square matrix . In the project , only square matrices have been used . < heading > Matrices multiplication:</heading > A matrices addition and subtraction are very simple . If A is a matrix and B another one , A has to have the same size as B , otherwise the addition / subtraction is impossible . Then , every element of the matrix A are added ( or subtracted ) to every element of the matrix B which is "" at the same place "" . Mathematically , that means , Let A and B be matrices with the size n x n such as ,   FORMULA   Then , the addition of A and B is ,   FORMULA   As we can see , this operation is very simple . The addition is commutative . The multiplication is a bit more complex but very natural . A precondition concerning the matrices dimensions has to be true to be allowed to calculate the product . To multiply the matrix A ( m x n ) by B ( u x v ) , then n has to be equal to u , otherwise the product does n't exist . The product is expressed as follows , Let A be a matrix m x n and B be a matrix u x v , then the product A by B is ,   FORMULA   Unlike the addition , the multiplication is not commutative . That means the product   FORMULA   is different than the product   FORMULA . It is even possible that AxB exists but does n't exist ; in this case , A and   B are not square , otherwise A and B are square matrices . In the appendix , is an illustrated example . Even if it seems very trial , this example can help a lot to understand the way to compute a parallel algorithm doing this operation . In fact , as we will see in another part , the "" visual understanding "" will help a lot to find a way to create a parallel algorithm . In the general case , with A and B two square matrices of dimension n , the number of simple operations Nb needed is ,   FORMULA   The detail of the equation is shown ( via a concrete example ) in the appendix ) . This function Nb(n ) is cube , that means more the number n is great , more Nb is great . Furthermore , the cube function increases very quickly , so the number of operations needed gets very great with a great n. Below is the graph of the function ( Figure . ) , < figure/>If we use a computed sequential solution to calculate the product of matrices , we can notice that the computer will have to do a lot of operation for n very great . So , a sequential solution "" will stay a long time in a loop operation "" and so this would take a lot of computational resources . That 's why a parallel solution will be done . However , more details will be given in another part of this document . < heading > Systems of linear equations:</heading > In this part , we will explain what a system of linear equations is mathematically ; afterwards we will present the method which is used to solve such systems . < heading > What is a system of linear equations ? < /heading > A system of linear equations is a set of linear equation containing several unknown variables . In the general case , such a system can be mathematically expressed as follows ,   FORMULA   As it is easy to think , we can write such a system using matrices as below ,   FORMULA   Where A is the matrix containing all the coefficients , B is a column matrix containing the results of each equations and eventually X is also a column matrix which contains all the unknown variables . Hence , using the matrices notation , the problem of system of linear equation is to solve the following equation and then to find the unknown variable ( vector X ) ,   FORMULA   When n is not too great , it is possible to find the solution solving the system "" by hand "" , which means without specific methods except using back substitution , but this kind of resolution gets very problematical and often need a long time . Furthermore , such resolution without formal method is very complex and not efficient to compute . However some more efficient methods have been found such as - Jordan method , the elimination method , the iterative method etc ... In the next part is explained of them which is called the method . < fnote > The Gaussian method is explained in Bib[D ] < /fnote><fnote>""The method is named after mathematician . "",adapted from The Jacobi method:</heading><heading > Jacobi method:</heading > The method [ Bib A ] is a method solving a system of linear equation = This method is iterative , that means the solution would be approached to a final solution after some iterations . The system will converge forward a final solution but will never reach it ( actually , a determined tolerance value has to be used as a threshold to stop the iteration ) . Hence a solution would be found after each step ( k+1 ) and if each solution is enough closed from the last one ( that would mean the tolerance convergence is reached ) , then the vector is saved as the final solutions vector and the algorithm finishes . Before explaining mathematically how this method works , some little definitions has to be defined , - Diagonal matrix : Such a matrix has non null element only on its diagonal . So , this kind of matrices can be defined as follows ,   FORMULA   - Strictly Lower triangular matrix : Such a matrix has non null element only on the lower part of the matrix ( under the diagonal ) . So , this kind of matrices can be defined as follows ,   FORMULA   - Upper triangular matrix : Such a matrix has non null element only on the upper part of the matrix ( above the diagonal ) . So , this kind of matrices can be defined as follows ,   FORMULA   As it is natural to think , we can write M = L + D + U where M is a matrix , D its diagonal , U its upper matrix and L its lower matrix . Knowing these definitions , we can define the method . We want to solve = B with X the vector of unknown variables ,   FORMULA   Hence , we have the definition of the method which is ,   FORMULA   And so , for one row ( of the result matrix ) ,   FORMULA   As we can see , this method is a good one to be computed , because it is iterative . When the system converges , we will determine if the convergence is sufficient , that means , whether we are enough closed from the solution or not . The initials values of   FORMULA   for k=0 are guessed . In others words ,   FORMULA   will be initialized with the value or . < heading > Condition to stop the algorithm:</heading > The algorithm will be stopped when the last solution will be enough closed from the previous solution . That would mean we are much closed from the "" true "" solution because it is a convergent iteration . So , we can define   FORMULA   such as ,   FORMULA   When   FORMULA   will be smaller than a given value , then the vector   FORMULA   will be the solution vector , because we consider that it is enough closed from the final and "" true "" solution . < heading > Condition to use the Jacobi method:</heading > The method uses a convergence state to find the solution . Thus , the system has to be convergent . If that is not the case , then such a method can not be used . So , the system has to follow some rules which are define below , For every element of A in = B ,   FORMULA   However , the matrix might not follow this rule and the system would converge anyway though it is not always the case . In any case , if this previous rule is not followed , it is required that the following condition has to be true ,   FORMULA   That means every term belonging to the diagonal must be greater than every other element in the matrix . Nonetheless , if this previous condition is true , the system wo n't necessary converge , but if this condition is true , that means the system might converge . < heading > Algorithms solving such mathematical issues:</heading > In this part , we will present different algorithms in pseudo - code solving some mathematic operations dealing with matrices and executing the method . < heading > Matrices multiplication:</heading > The matrix multiplication has been implemented in this project in ways , the sequential one and the parallel one . It has been implemented in order to understand how works a parallel program , how manage to run a program on a cluster etc ... It is very important because some problems and difficulties have been met and it is easier to control them with a simple mathematic problem . Indeed , knowing these problems , the implementation of a more difficult problem such as a system of linear equations can be done . In fact , if we start with a difficult mathematical problem and we also have to manage the different computing problems , it could be complicated . So , it is really easier to start with a simple mathematical problem to understand the computing difficulties . Hence , that has been done for this project , and the matrices multiplication using distributed computing is an important part of it . < heading > Sequential algorithm:</heading > The sequential algorithm dealing with matrices multiplication is very simple and straightforward . This algorithm is shown above using a pseudo - code ( Figure . ) , < figure/>In this algorithm , the multiplication A by B is implementing and the result is stored in the matrix C. Obviously , the number of line of the matrix B is equal to the number of column of the matrix A , otherwise the multiplication would be impossible . < fnote > See section 3.1.1 . < /fnote > This algorithm is straightforward and could be easily implemented . However , as we will see in the benchmarking of this algorithm , the execution time increases very quickly , exponentially . This is from a cache memory problem . < fnote > A benchmarking has been done using this algorithm on a monoprocessor machine . This benchmarking is explained in section 4.5 . < /fnote > The cache memory problem : In order to obtain element of the result matrix ( C ) , line of the A matrix is read when column of the B matrix is read . Hence , to obtain one line of the C matrix , line of A is read whereas the whole B matrix is read . The schema below ( Figure . ) shown that , < fnote > Schema adapted from [ Bib B ] < /fnote><figure/>Therefore , the matrix B is entirely read to obtain one line of the C matrix . However , when a program is running on a computer , the data needed ( variable owned by the program , array , program instructions etc ... ) are stored in the main memory ( ) and in the cache memory . An access to the main memory is longer than an access to the cache memory ; that is why the cache memory contains the last data used . Nevertheless , the cache memory capacity is not infinite and is often very smaller than the main memory . Hence , when it is full and the program , which is running , needs a data which is not available in the cache memory , then this data is inserted in the cache instead of another one . And if the program needs this other data ( which has been removed from the cache ) another time , this data will have to be loaded again in the cache instead of another one . That is called a cache miss . And these operations between the kind of memory need "" a lot of time "" . < fnote > More informations about cache miss in ] < /fnote > So , if the B matrix is to large , then it wo n't fit in the cache . Hence , there will be a cache miss for each new row of C calculated ( because B is totally read for each line of C ) . And a cache miss means obviously a time loss . So , depending on the cache memory size , the execution time of the sequential algorithm increases considerably after a matrix size limit . It is important to be aware of this "" problem "" ; it helps to understand the results obtained and then why the execution time is not linear . For example , if the cache memory is kilobytes . Let B a matrix of the size n containing integer number . An integer number fills bytes in the memory ( in general computer architecture ) . Hence , the matrix size ca n't be greater than 180 x , otherwise , the matrix wo n't fit in the cache memory and a long time will be needed because of the cache miss . < fnote > The details of the calculation are given in the appendix < /fnote > To solve the cache memory problem , it is possible to use a recursive algorithm which divides the matrix B in several parts to enable it to fit in the cache memory . Then , the recursive algorithm would be faster than the basic sequential one . However , this algorithm is not detailed in this report because it is not the main purpose of the project . Bib[B ] gives more details concerning this recursive algorithm . Using a parallel solution to solve the matrix multiplication issue ( explained in the next part ) would increase the performances and reduce the cache miss ( because several processors and so several cache memories will be used ) . < heading > The parallel algorithm:</heading > To parallelise a program , we need to see which part of the program is parallelisable . When the way to parallelise it is found , we need to check if there are some dependencies which would make the parallelism a bit more complicated . To parallelise the matrices multiplication algorithm , several ways are available . Some famous methods have been invented such as the 's algorithm . Here is explained only the algorithm which has been developed in this project . < fnote > See [ Bib B ] < /fnote > In this part , we are going to computer the matrices product A x B = , only these letters will be used . As we saw in the previous section , the whole matrix B has to be read to obtain one line of the matrix C , when line of the matrix A has to be known . To share the multiplication among several processors , we can then think to partition the matrix A and distribute each part to every processor which would be enabled to compute the product of their "" allocated "" part knowing the whole matrix The schema below ( figure . ) explains how this distribution is theoretically managed , < figure/>This schema shows that the matrix A is partitioned in several parts which are distributed among the processors . It is not necessary but it is better to partition the matrix in an equal number of rows . Hence , each processor would have the same number of row to compute . But that involves the number of row of the matrix has to be a multiple of the number of processor , that means , number of row mod number of processors = . So , each processor has a fixed number of rows from the matrix A and they also know the whole matrix B ( as we saw before , this is required to compute a part of the product ) . Then they would be able to compute a part of the result matrix C. The range of the row computed by each processor in the matrix C is the same as the range known from the matrix A. The following representation ( Figure . ) shows how the computation of the product works when the matrix A is distributed , < figure/>Now , we can write the algorithm in pseudo - code which computes it . Several ways can be taken to compute this algorithm . The following ( figure . ) is the one which has been chosen and implemented in this project . < fnote > The algorithm is executed by EVERY process . < /fnote><figure/>As we see , this algorithm is not so difficult theoretically , but some difficulties and problem can be met when it is implemented . The part of this report explains the C implementation of this algorithm . < heading > The Jacobi method:</heading > As we explained , the method has been implemented to solve a system of linear equations . The main goal of this implementation has been to find , using the method , the inverse of a matrix . Actually , compute the inverse of a matrix is simply solving n systems of linear equations with n unknown variable ( in fact , only the square matrix can be inversed ) . < fnote > See section 3.3.2 < /fnote > So , in this part is explained the algorithm solving a system of linear equation and then the algorithm computing the inverse of a matrix . < heading > Sequential algorithms:</heading > First of all , the algorithm shown here ( Figure . ) solves simply a system of linear equations . < fnote > This algorithm is adapted from ] and Bib[B ] < /fnote>(This algorithm is shown on the next page . ) < figure/>Using the previous algorithm , the equation = B can be solved , with X and B vectors . However , we want to find the inverse of a matrix . That means we want to solve n equations containing n x n unknown variables . Indeed , solving the inverse of a matrix A of dimension n means finding the matrix A-1 such as ,   FORMULA   Where In is the identity matrix of dimension n. An identity matrix can simply be defined as follows ,   FORMULA   Obviously , A has to be a square matrix ; otherwise it does n't have an inverse . So , we now want to find the inverse of a matrix using the method . That involved we want to solve the following equation ,   FORMULA   Where X and B are now bi - dimensional matrices ( not a vector like in the previous algorithm ) and B is equal to the identity matrix . Each column of the matrix X is actually column of the inverse matrix and so each column of the matrix X contains n unknown variables . There are n column so there are n x n unknown variables . Hence , to find the solution , we will actually solve several single systems and gather the result of all of them . To understand how the inverse is found , here is a mathematical illustration . The system which have to be solve to find the inverse matrix is ,   FORMULA   Where means the column i of the matrix X. The system is then ,   FORMULA   And so on . Hence , the algorithm solving the inverse of a matrix using the method is simply exactly the same algorithm as the previous one but a bit adapted in order to solve several systems at the same time . The algorithm in pseudo - code follows ( Figure . ) , < figure/>As we see , this algorithm is only an extension from the previous one . < heading > Parallel algorithms:</heading > We are going to see now the main goal of this project : parallelise an algorithm solving a system of linear equations , using here the method . After studying mathematically the method , we can admit that the calculation of each row of the matrix X can be done independently . Hence , the "" natural way of parallelisation "" can be used . This way is to separate the rows of the matrix A and to distribute them to every process . Then , each process would have a range of the matrix A and then they would solve the matrix X in the same range . The distribution of the matrix A and B is done exactly in the same condition as the parallel matrix multiplication ( see Figure . ) . Each process would have the same number of row , which means , in this algorithm , in order to make the computation easier , the number of row n has to be a multiple of the number of processes in the system . However , the vector ( see in above algorithm ) which stores the last value of the X vector is not independent . Indeed , this vector has to be known entirely whatever the row . So , each processor has to know the whole vector . However , this vector changes after a k - loop . So , it has to be synchronised by each process after each execution of the k - loop . This parallel algorithm is then composed of several steps : of all , each processor receive ( or read in a file ) the part of the matrix A which is assigned to it . Each process has a different part of the matrix A. Then , each process executes the algorithm using its own part of the matrix A. So , the method is executed ONLY in the range which has been assigned to this process . After that , each process sends to a root process , which has been designed before the execution , the matrix X which has been modified ( each process has modified a range in the matrix X ) . When the root process has gathered all the parts of the result matrix X , it has to decide whether the convergence "" is finished "" or not ; calculating the absolute value if each row of the matrix X - XPrev ( see previous algorithm ) . If the algorithm is not finished ( the system does n't converge yet ) then the matrix of the result found is sent to every processes . Indeed , they will need it to compute the next step of the method . And so on until the solution is enough closed than the user expect ( the system converge ) . The following schema ( Figure . ) shows , using an easier way , these different steps . In this schema , there are sides : root process side and single process side . The root process side shows only the steps done by the root process , knowing that the root process has to do also the different steps done by a single process . So , the root process is concerned by the both sides . < figure/>It is not included directly in the report because the above schema is better to understand how it works rather than an algorithm in pseudo - code . We have seen the parallel algorithm solving the system AX = B. However we can also obtain the inverse of a matrix using the method . The algorithm doing that would be very similar than the previous one . Indeed , as we saw , the algorithm computing the inverse of a matrix is a bit similar than the one solving a simple system AX = B , it is just an extension . Thus , we just need to modify the previous parallel algorithm to obtain the new one which computes the inverse of a matrix . So , every process would have the same number of rows from the matrix A , but would compute and solve system . They will solve n systems with n equal to the size of the matrix A and the matrix B would be equal to the identity matrix with the size n. In such an algorithm , the matrix solution X would be a bi - dimensional matrix rather than a vector . < heading > Conclusion:</heading > In this part , the mathematical theory used in this project and the different algorithms solving some mathematic problems have been explained . In the project progress , this research part has been a long part and is one of the most important because it is essential to understand all these concepts before implementing them . < heading > The implemented solution in C using MPI:</heading > In this part , the implemented solution using C and is detailed . Actually we wo n't explain again how these algorithms work ( which is already done in the part ) but we will explain how they have been translated and computed using the C language . In a time , the main structure representing the matrix in the dynamic memory is explained , afterwards the "" library "" implemented in this project called "" "" is introduced . After that the way used to implement the sequential algorithms in C , introduced in the previous part in pseudo - code , solving the mathematical issues are explained . Then the main concepts of the library will be explained in order to introduce the parallel algorithms implemented . After that , the benchmarking will be analysed explaining how the matrices generators have been created and how the benchmark programs work . The results obtained on will then be presented . Eventually , some details about the way to compile and execute these algorithms and benchmark programs on will be given . < heading > Main matrix structure:</heading > In order to represent a matrix in the dynamic memory , a structure has been created . This structure allocates to a matrix a number of row , a number of column and a contents . This structure called enables all the matrices to have the same form . In C , the contents is represented by an array bi - dimensional of integer . However , kinds of matrix structures have been created : the enables a matrix to have only integer elements and the one enables a matrix to have float elements ( useful for the method ) . The schema below ( Figure . ) shows how this structure is implemented in C , < figure/>The contents can be of the type Integer * * or * which simply means an array bi - dimensional , an array of array of or   . This structure has been implemented in the file structure.h . So when a matrix is needed in a program , we just have to include this file as an header in the program file and we are then able to declare a new matrix using this following line : "" MatrixType M ; "" . < fnote > The implementation of this file is given in the appendix 7 < /fnote><heading > Matrix tools file:</heading > In order to make easier some matrix handling and operations , a "" library "" has been created in this project . This library is contained in the files and MatrixTools.h . Thanks to this library , it is easy to manipulate a matrix structured as it is explained in the above part . Indeed this library enables the creation of a new matrix , enables to print on the screen in a format way a matrix , to read a matrix in a file etc ... Here are explained only the main functions of this library , knowing that some others functions are available but not presented here . For more details about them , see the appendix . In this appendix are also available all the signature of all these functions presented below . printStructMatrixOnScreen : Print a matrix , which is structured as explained in the previous part , on the screen in a formatted way . AllocNewMatrix : This function returns a bi - dimensional array of integers ( int * * ) . It creates an array of array of integer with a number of row / column given as a parameter . This is often used to allocate the necessary memory place for the contents of a matrix . This could be use as follows , ; M.Contents = AllocNewMatrix(M.NbRow , ) ; : This function copies the contents of a matrix in another one . readMatrixInFile : This function reads a matrix contained in a file and then creates a matrix structured ( a matrix of type ) . A file containing a matrix has to use a formal : the line contains integer numbers which are the size of the matrix and the lines following it contain the matrix ( line is one row of the matrix ) . Below is an example ,   FORMULA   Of course , several matrices can be contained in the same file , this function has to be called several time and the matrices will be created . writeMatrixInFile : This function is does exactly the contrary as the previous one . It writes a matrix , using the syntax shown above , in a file from a matrix structured using the . All these functions are also available when the matrix contains float elements . The name of the function is then the name + float : "" functionNameFloat "" . MatrixProductMono : This function computes a product of matrices using a sequential algorithm . It creates a result matrix structured using the and returns it . It can also return only the contents of the matrix as an array of array of integers , which can be useful some times . The return type has to be indicated by a parameter . IsConvergent : This function returns whether or not a matrix is convergent . This is useful before using the method because if the matrix is not convergent , the method wo n't work . < fnote > The conditions which are to be followed by a convergent matrix are detailed in the part . c. < /fnote > JacobiSeq : This function is the sequential algorithm in C which computes the method . The matrix A , B and the tolerance Epsy ( AX = B ) are given to this function which returns a new matrix X which is the solution of the system of linear equations . JacobiSeqSolveInverse : This function computes , by a sequential way , the inverse of a matrix A given as a parameter . A convergence tolerance is also given as a parameters . It returns a new matrix which is the inverse of ) . This library has to be included in every file which needs it . Actually , this library must be used to handle matrices . So , each program which computes the different algorithms in this project uses this library . < heading > The sequential programs:</heading><heading > Matrices multiplication:</heading > This algorithm is implemented in the file testMulti.c . The main function of this program is very simple . Actually , the main function just opens a file , reads the matrices in it ( using the function ReadMatrixInFile from the matrix tools file ) , and closes the file and computes the multiplication ( using the function MatrixProductMono from the matrix tools file ) . It get a new matrix from which is returned by the function MatrixProductMono and shows this new matrix . As we can see all the main functions used in this program are contained in the matrix tools file . We wo n't explain more this program here because it is easy to understand it without more explanations . We could just give some details about the creation of a new matrix ( which is done in the function MatrixProductMono ) . < fnote > The whole code of this program is given in the appendix . < /fnote > The dynamic creation of a new matrix is done as follows ,   FORMULA   The word static means "" this memory space is not only for this function , so do not delete it when the function is done "" . Hence , we can return this pointer and the main program can use it . For more details , see the code of this program in appendix . < heading > Jacobi method:</heading > This program is also composed by file . The one contains the main function when the ( which is the matrix tools file ) contains the functions computing the method . So , the main function ( in the file called ) reads the matrix A and B in a file ( AX = B ) , then check if this matrix is convergent ( otherwise the method can not be used ) using the function IsConvergent ( in the matrix tools file ) , and in that case calls the function ( in the matrix tools file ) sending by a parameter A , B and Epsy ( tolerance ) . Then , would return another matrix X which is the result of the system of linear equations . In the case where we want to compute the inverse of a matrix , it is exactly the same program but the function JacobiSeqSolveInverse ( parameters are needed , A and Epsy ) is called instead of and the matrix returned would be the inverse of the matrix . We wo n't explain more the sequential algorithm , however the code of this function is given in the appendix . < heading > The parallel algorithms:</heading > The parallel algorithms have been presented in the part . We will explain here how it is possible to implement them in C using on a cluster . Hence , the main concepts are introduced in a time then the specific MPI methods used in each algorithm are explained . < heading > Main MPI concepts:</heading > As we saw , enables the processes in a distributed system to communicate each others . This is done via messages sent through the network . In an implemented way , has to be initialized before calling any method in the program . In the same idea , has to be finalized at the end . < heading First of all , the library has to be included in the source file ,   FORMULA   This initialisation / finalisation are done as follows ,   FORMULA   To understand how a parallel program works , it is important to know that every process involved in the program ( if processors then processes ) executes this initialisation . When we launch a program using the command mpirun - np 4 ./Prog ( see section 2.1.3 . ) , that means processes are going to execute the program ./Prog . So , it is essential to be able to identify each of them . Hence , contains the identifier of the process . This number is in the range .. n-1 with n the number of processes . contains the name of the node ( or machine ) on which the process is executed and is the total number of processes . Several groups of processes may be created . However , we will use group which is called MPI_COMM_WORLD . This name is useful to identify all the process in our group . < heading > Concept of root process:</heading > It is sometimes helpful to define a root process . In general this root process is the number , but it 's not compulsory . Hence , when the root process has to do something alone , which means only this process will do it , this condition has to be added ,     For example , if the parallel application is a client / server application where the server would be the root process and the clients all the others process , then we could implement such an application as follows in the main function ,   FORMULA   Client / server behaviour would be then obtained . We will use this concept of root process to implement our mathematic parallel algorithms . Indeed , this root process will have to gather the different result from all the processes etc ... < heading > Matrices multiplication:</heading><heading > General:</heading > The parallel algorithm used to compute the matrix multiplication is detailed in the part . We are just going to explain how this has been done using . In the algorithm the following array declaration is done , < fnote > In section 2.3.1 . < /fnote > FORMULA   Using MPI , this declaration is easily implemented thanks to the variable NbProc ( initialized during the initialisation ) . Then the following function has to be done ,   FORMULA   It fills the matrix MyPartOfA with elements contained in A with the suitable range ( depending on the process number ) . This function is implemented using some variables defined during the initialisation such as and . To understand how it works , the implementation follows ,   FORMULA   The bold expression ( * ( defines the range . When each process has its own part of the matrix A , it can compute the product of MyPartOfA and , at the end , we notice that the data have to be gathered . Indeed , each process has a part of the result matrix C , but the root process must to gather all these parts in matrix C. In this program , only the root process will know the whole result matrix , so only it has declared the matrix C. All the others have only the matrix MyPartOfC. < fnote > As it is explained in the part . < /fnote > In pseudo code ,   FORMULA   With , this operation is done using the function MPI_Gather ( ) . < heading > MPI_Gather():</heading > This function gathers together values from a group of processes . The root process ( which can be any process ) receives all the parts of a variable ( an array / matrix ) from the processes ( including it ) and gathers them . The schema below ( Figure . ) explains this process , < figure/>The signature of this method is as follows , < fnote > More details about this function are available at Bib[C ] < /fnote > FORMULA   Where sendarray is the buffer containing the value sent by the process , NbElemSent is the number of elements sent , Type is the type of the sent elements , rbuf is the beginning of the buffer in which the result will be stored , root is the number of the root process ( the one which will gather ) and comm is the group of the communication ( MPI_COMM_WORLD in our case ) In our program , this is used to gather the result matrix C. Each process sends its own PartOfC and the root process receives it and gathers it in another new matrix C which contains the whole result matrix . The following instruction is so used ,   FORMULA   Hence the parallel multiplication is implemented in C using . Actually ways , both implementing this algorithm , have been done in this project . The one was less optimised because it did n't use the function MPI_Gather . It could gather the value using the simple function MPI_Send and   MPI_Recv which are the default communication functions . But it is really better to use MPI_Gather to gather the value because this function has been implemented only in this purpose , so is optimised to do that . < fnote > See Bib[C ] < /fnote><heading > Jacobi method:</heading><heading > General:</heading > The principle of the parallel algorithm is explained in the part . ( Figure . ) . We are then going to explain how it has been implemented using C and explaining some particular methods . Unlike the matrices multiplication algorithm , each processes read the whole matrix A. Indeed , it is not necessary to separate the range for each process in another matrix My PartOfA. However , in order to compute the method only in the range which concern it , a process has to define the loop range as follows ,   FORMULA   Hence each process knows from which until which row in the matrix A it has to compute it . The loops declaration will then be similar as follows ,   FORMULA   The complex part of this algorithm follows . Indeed , as we saw , the method calculates iteratively a solution . So , each process will have to calculate the solution of its own range for the k th iteration and then , send whether the solution is enough close from the last one ( convergence sufficient or not , depending on the tolerance ) or another iteration is needed . Then , each process sends the result to the root process . Hence , the root process will have to gather all these results and decide whether or not a new iteration ( k+1 ) is needed . At the same time , each process sends the solution found for its own range to every others process . So , kinds of data are sent : a variable which tell whether or not the convergence is enough and a matrix which contains the solution for the process range . Briefly , the method looks like as follows ( this code has been simplified )   FORMULA   To decide whether or not each process has reached the convergence , the root process has just to check if every Stop variable is equal to . If it is not the case then , a new iteration is needed . Has we can see in the above algorithm , each process sends the result matrix to every others process . The function MPI_Allgather ( ) does it . < fnote > It is sent to every others processes because they all need to know the whole matrix X. Indeed , this matrix X will become XPrevious in the next iteration ( k+1 ) . For more details , see section 2.3.2 . < /fnote><heading > MPI_Allgather():</heading > This function gathers data from all processes and sends it to them . So , each process sends its own part of the array and each process gathers the parts from every other process . The schema below ( Figure . ) explains this process , < figure/>More details concerning this function ( signature , attributes etc ... ) are given in Bib[C ] . In our application , the data type used is MPI_FLOAT , because the method works with float numbers . < heading > MPI_Gatherv ( ) and MPI_Allgatherv():</heading > The last function we saw ( MPI_Gather and   MPI_Allgather ) work only if each process wants to gather the same number of elements . That means the number of elements has to be a multiple of the number of processes . However , the number of elements might not be a multiple of the number of processes . In this case , the function MPI_Gatherv and have to be used . They have exactly the same role than the previous but with a number of elements not restricted as a multiple of the number of processes . < heading > Benchmarking:</heading > Some benchmarks have been done in this project in order to evaluate the parallel solutions . In this part , we present this benchmark ( how it has been done ) and we analyse the result . < heading > Matrices generators:</heading > In order to be able to test the previous algorithm , some matrices samples are needed . However for very large matrices , it 's impossible to create it by ourselves . So matrices generator have been created . The one is a simple random matrices generator and the one is a random matrices generator which produces only convergent matrices ( for the method ) . < heading > Simple random matrices generator:</heading > This program creates a file which contains a matrices generated randomly . To use this program , the following syntax is used ,   FORMULA   This command creates the file containing a matrix with rows and columns . The last parameter ( new or   save ) determines whether the matrix is added in the file or the file is emptied before writing the matrix . So , if we want to write matrices in the same file , then the parameters save has to be used . < heading > Random convergent matrices generator:</heading > This program generates also a random matrix but only a convergent matrix . To be sure that the matrix generated randomly will be convergent ( so be able to used with the method ) , on each row generated , the diagonal element ( aii ) will be always greater than the sum of the others elements in the same row . < fnote > The rules determining whether or not a matrix is convergent are defined in the section < /fnote > To use this program , the syntax is as follows ,   FORMULA   And the parameters are the same as the previous generator . < heading > Matrix multiplication benchmarks:</heading><heading > The benchmarks programs:</heading > A program which performs a lot of tests , using the program explained above , has been created in order to compare the sequential algorithm performance and the parallel algorithm performance . Here is explained how this benchmark program works and execution will be presented and the results detailed . different benchmarks programs work : for the sequential algorithm and the other for the parallel algorithm . Both execute the mathematical program n times , every time with a different matrix size and the execution time is tracked in a file . When the executions are finished , we just have to copy the result file ( which contains all the execution time ) and create some graph to analyse the performances . To execute of both benchmarks programs , the following command is used ,   FORMULA   This command would execute the benchmark program which will execute the multiplication matrices algorithm : from step means : the benchmark will start with matrices of size ( multiplication ) , then will execute another test with a matrix ( because step = + 10 ) , and so one until 1000 x 1000 . So , this command would execute exactly tests , tracking each time the execution time . Of course , each time the benchmark program run a next test , it will create new matrices using the matrix generator before computing the product of these matrices , and of course , the execution time of the matrix generator is not tracked because it 's not the purpose of the project . Only the mathematical algorithms are timed . These benchmarks programs use the system function fork ( ) to execute test and to execute the matrix generator . Some shell scripts have been created to ease the benchmark execution , but they are not detailed here . They would be explained during the demonstration . < heading > The results:</heading > Some different tests have been executed . Here is presented the result of of them . This benchmark has been executed once using the sequential algorithm and another time using the parallel way . Hence , we will be able to calculate the speedup and efficiency of this parallel algorithm . This benchmark executed the algorithm with matrices size from to with a step of . So , tests have been done . The sequential program has been executed processors on . The execution results are in the appendix . We will analyse the result drawing some representative of the performance graphs . On the graph ( Figure . ) are curves : the one is the execution time depending on the matrix size using the sequential algorithm and the one is the execution time using the parallel algorithm on processors . < figure/>As we can see on this graph , the parallel algorithm is faster than the sequential one , especially when the matrices are very large . Indeed , the parallel algorithm becomes very quicker when the matrices are larger than 400 x . However , we can notice that for matrices smaller than x , the parallel algorithm is less efficiency than the sequential one . This is because some factors ( network , communication inter processes , processes synchronisation , etc ... ) are added in the parallel way . So , to be efficiency , the parallel algorithm needs large matrices . We can also notice that the multiprocessors curve is less linear than the other one ( there is some waves ) . This can be explained because the network ( between the nodes ) is not always in the same state . That means , at one time it can be more overloaded than another time . Is it very gainful to use processors instead of for such an application ? To answer , we can draw the speedup graph ( Figure . ) and the efficient graph ( Figure . ) , < figure/><figure/>We can see on these graphs that the results are not bad at all . The maximum speedup is for an efficiency of . Furthermore , the general aspect of these curves is good because they grow up considerably . < heading > Jacobi method benchmark:</heading > The method works using a sequential way as well as a parallel way . Some tests have been done , with several matrices sizes , using either a simple or multiple ( to compute the inverse of a matrix A ) system of linear equations . However , such benchmarks ( as the matrices multiplication ) have unfortunately not been done using the method because some difficulties and some problems concerning on came and took some times to be solved . So , no graph can be drawn but we can analyse the results found . The result matrix found using the sequential way and the parallel way are exactly the same which means both works well ( the result have been checked ) . However , the execution time using the parallel way was always longer than the one using the sequential way ; at least with for all the tests which have been done ( the matrices were not larger than 500 x 500 ) . The parallel algorithm has been tested using , then processors . We could explain these results because as we saw in the algorithm , a data gather is often done . After discussing about these unsatisfactory results with my supervisor , , I have understood that the method is efficient with very large matrices ( larger than the one I used ) and with very specifics matrices ( matrices which are dense around the diagonal ) . After this discussion , I checked again if I could obtain better result using the parallel algorithm , but I did n't manage to obtain them . I have also checked again whether the matrix result obtained with the parallel algorithm was correct in order to be sure there was no mistake in the code and I realized that the matrix result was correct . So , the algorithm works but to be efficient using several processors the matrices representing the system of linear equations has to be very large . < heading > Conclusion:</heading > We have seen in this project several technologies and concepts concerning parallel mathematical applications , distributed computing etc ... A lot of these technologies are still developed and are the subject of a lot of research projects throughout the world . As we saw , distributed computing is a very large and interesting subject , but complex . That is why this project involved a lot of researches dealing with these technologies and concepts which I nearly did n't know before . The most difficult part has been the understanding part . Indeed , I had to understand the concepts dealing with the computing part ( distributed computing , parallel algorithm , Message Passing Interface , etc ... ) and the mathematical part ( different properties of matrices , method , etc ... ) . But after this part , came the practical part which involved the development of my own mathematical applications . This part was also very interesting because I could try concretely all the concepts I had read before . Work using a cluster such as was totally new for . It was a real great opportunity to be able to use it because we ca n't use such a cluster "" every day "" at home . Applications which have been created in this project gave some interesting results , such as the results obtained by the matrices multiplication program with a speedup not bad at all and promising . The results obtained , with the method application , were good because we could obtain the inverse of a matrix very quickly and using either a sequential or a parallel way . However , the performances obtained with the method application were not good in a time because the parallel way was longer than the sequential one . But after a discussion with my supervisor , I have understood that the parallel method needs very large matrices to be efficient . To conclude , this project was very interesting and I really learnt a lot about new concepts ( for me ) , thanks to it .","< heading > AMD Vacancy Details < /heading><table/>8 th , , ( UK ) Ltd 16UG , UK Dear Mr Ruiz , I am currently doing a BSc degree ( ) at . I successfully finished my first year of study and am now seeking for a work placement starting from September 2007 . In my researches for a job , I saw your placement offer on . This position directly appealed to me firstly because is a company that I consider as professional and always ahead in Technology terms . , I have known this company and even used their products ( processors ) for now . I am looking for the opportunity to perform in this capacity for and believe my background and experience will help me be an asset to your company in a very short time . My work experience has helped me build excellent communication skills , especially with company customers . I am very conscientious about meeting deadlines and completing tasks unsupervised ( or supervised ) . I am also extremely motivated by the opportunity of working with an international processor and flash memory manufacturer as it will allow me to gain an insight into working for an international company . Since , I have developed hardware and software skills by building and using computers in my leisure time . This included the use of products such as or processors . In addition , the skills I developed with my course and University degree will definitely be an asset for this job opportunity , especially with my business modules ( management ) which always help when working in teams . I have worked with other people for many courseworks in the past and fluently speak languages ( and ) . I am very interested in becoming part of after visiting your company website and reading an article on about 's involvement in building the fastest up - to - date processors worldwide . I can be reached at the address , phone number and email below . I look forward to hearing from you on the status of my application . Sincerely ,    < heading > Curriculum Vitae < /heading > < picture/ > < heading > OBJECTIVE & PERSONAL PROFILE:</heading > A Business Information Systems undergraduate student ( ) seeking work experience placement ( preferably in computing industry ) . Good hardware and software skills ( including past experience with building , installing and using processed PC 's ) . Ability to communicate easily with different type of people and to make oral / written presentations fluently in languages . Good problem solving capability and excellent team working skills as well as experience in taking lead of groups of to 6 people . < heading > summary of Qualifications</heading><list><heading>2004 - 2007 : BSc ( IY)</heading > Average Grade : subjects taken : , , Introduction to Information Systems , Business , Strategic Management , , , , ... < /list><list><heading>2002 - 2004 : AVCE in Information and Communication Technology</heading > Average Grade CC ( while learning English)</list><heading > RELEVANT Work EXPERIENCE</heading><list><heading > Jul / Aug 2005 : Summer job in Belgian Supermarket ( Delhaize ) - butchery department < /heading > Job Title : / help customers , support team by making food preparationsSkills required : Communication , punctuality , availability , follow instructionsTeam : butchers , other student assistants</list><list><heading > Jul / Aug 2004 : Summer job in pharmaceutical company s.a . < /heading > Job Title : Managers AssistantRole : Produce reports , send emails , help secretary , and investigate on competitors and produce market researches / reportsSkills required : Communication , punctuality , computing skills , good organizationTeam : other assistant</list><heading > Other skills</heading><list><heading > Languages:</heading > : Native languageEnglish : Fluent ( oral , read & written)Dutch : School and college : Basic knowledge ( : , Word , Publisher ) , use of internet , installation of software in an organized wayHardware : Building and assembling a complete PC ( including installation of ) , installing hardware drivers , find problems and replace hardwareProgramming : HTML , , , , , Flash ActionScriptMiscellaneous : use of 's Operating Systems ( Win95 to : Many of my course modules ( both University and ) involved taking part in team coursework , usually composed of to members . Work often required a leader ( to guide members and split the tasks between members ) and a good sense of organisation to meet the deadline and get the best possible grade . Group work also required good communication skills , especially for oral presentations . Examples of modules taken that involved team working : Business , Human Computer Interface or Requirements Specification . < heading > relevant leisure interests</heading><list in a Rock Band : Composed of members and rehearsal time requires a lot of organization , planning , working hard , testing , recording , etc ( especially for gigs / concerts).Computing : Playing games , building computers , learning , programming , surfing the internet : this allows me to stay aware of the latest technologies and enhance my computing skills day after day.</list><heading > MISCELLANEOUS < /heading><list > Age : 19Date / Place of Birth : th ( - Belgium)Nationality : BelgianPersonality : Serious , hard worker , highly motivated , outgoing , open - minded , organised , : Yes</list><heading > REFERENCES < /heading><list></list >",0
"< heading > PART A : < /heading><heading>1 ) < /heading > See diagrams P5.1 and < heading>2 ) < /heading><heading > Surface analysis : < /heading > A developed low pressure centre can be seen at , oW. The start of a developing low pressure system is also found at oN , , which can be seen by the ' kink ' in the trailing cold front at this point . < heading>500 hPa analysis : < /heading > A trough can be seen centred at , oW. The geopotential height contours are closer together to the south of the trough , which corresponds to a jet stream : < heading > Comparison</heading > The upper level trough lies slightly to the east of the surface low . This is to be expected as the low is nearly developed , so the upper levels and surface should line up vertically . However , the upper trough lies to the north west of the developing surface low . This , combined with the baroclinic instability at the surface at that point ( i.e. the kink in the trailing cold front ) , suggests that the low is going to develop . In the vicinity of the southern entrance to a jet stream , there is upper level divergence and lower level convergence . This results in a rising air mass , which encourages cyclone development . However , the jet stream would need to be further north for this to be an important factor at 0000UTC ( the method may have become more important later in the cyclone 's development however ) . < heading>3 ) < /heading > Please see calculation for full workings . The geostrophic wind was found to be ms -1 blowing from the south west and parallel to the isobars at that point . The surface wind was measured to be ( ms -1 ) blowing from the same direction . This result is expected as the wind is calculated at the hPa level , so it 's well above the boundary layer . Therefore there would be no friction which could cause ageostrophic winds . However , an ageostrophic wind component is normally found in the vicinity of a jet exit region . This is because air parcels decelerate in jet exit regions , so they are n't in geostrophic balance . This leads to ageostrophic motion in jet exit regions towards the area of higher pressure . The reason this is n't observed in the calculated / measured wind may be because the station is situated too far from the exit of the jet to be noticeable ( or I 've drawn my contours wrongly ! ) < heading > PART B:</heading><heading>1 ) < /heading > Please see diagram P5.3 < heading>2 ) < /heading > Please see diagram P5.4 . How the configuration has change from : The system has been accelerated along the jet stream and has moved towards ( so that the surface low is now positioned ~ oN , oE at ) . The jet stream is now positioned directly behind the cold front . This is expected as air is being pulled down from the top of the troposphere at this point and has more momentum , therefore faster winds would be expected ( jet streaks ) . Also , we know from the synoptic chart analysis that the strongest winds blow across the cold front . The upper level trough has also moved slightly towards the south east ~at oN , oW ) . The cyclone has also developed , as can be seen by the occluded front curling around the surface low . < heading>3 ) < /heading > I believe the system is still developing as the upper level trough is still situated to the north west of the surface low . However , the upper levels and surface are much more lined up ( i.e. the upper trough is much less further west than the surface feature ) . This suggests that the system is becoming fully developed / mature . Also , the geopotential height contours are still crossing the pressure contours ( so cyclogenesis ) . This is more relevant to the initial stages of a developing cyclone however . The cyclone is also now situated near the northern exit of the jet stream ; therefore it may be developing through the process discussed in question . It 's more likely however that this process happened slightly earlier in the cyclone development ( i.e. about 06:00UTC when the explosive low developed ) . Therefore , I believe the system is still developing but is about to reach maturity . < heading>4 ) < /heading > Please see diagram","< heading > Introduction</heading > This coursework is aimed at the use of binary trees . Binary trees are similar to linked lists such as stacks but rather than having "" next "" pointer they have , left and right , so each node has children . The coursework requires a postfix expression , where the operator comes after the operands , to be read from an edit box and stored into a tree . This in turn can be traversed in several different ways to get the postfix , prefix and infix expressions . As a bonus it is required for the expression to be evaluated using post order traversal . < heading > Design and Implementation < /heading><heading > Tree structure</heading > A tree is another form of storing data using pointers . It is made up of a root node , and has a certain number of children . Each child has another set of children . The children at the bottom of the tree that point to nil are called the leaf nodes . This particular tree is a binary tree ; this means it has children . These are defined as child and Right child . Functions to work on the tree are required , these include : MakeEmptyTree , IsEmptyTree , , , , MakeBTree , FreeBTree . MakeEmptyTree is self explanatory ; it will create an empty binary tree , with left and right child pointing to nil . It will return the pointer to the root node . IsEmptyTree , again , is self explanatory ; this will check to see whether the pointer to the root node is pointing to nil , if it is then there is an empty tree and will return a true , otherwise will return false . Data will return the data from the node at the pointer passed to it . LChild and will return a pointer to the corresponding child of the node passed to it . MakeBTree will take to pointers to root nodes of separate binary trees and join them into big binary tree with a new root node , which will hold data passed into function , and the sub trees as the left and right child . It will return the pointer to the new root node . FreeBTree will take the given pointer and dispose of the memory used . It will do this after disposing of everything underneath so as not to create memory leaks . < heading > Stack Structure</heading > There are stack structures in this program . will hold pointers to the root nodes of trees . This will be used to build up new trees from smaller ones . The other stack will hold numbers and is used for the post order evaluation . Both contain the functions and procedures Pop , , IsEmpty , , and . For the stack the functions and procedures are the same only different names as they have to deal with a different type of stack . Pop is used to remove the top item of data from the list , not before storing the data from this element for use . will insert a new element with new data at the top of the list . IsEmpty will simply see if the top pointer is pointing at nil , which if it is will indicate the list is empty . MakeEmpty will remove all items from the list and dispose of all the memory leaving just the top pointer pointing at nil . Readtop is similar to pop with the exception that it does not remove the memory ; it simply reads the data from the top element . < heading > Build Tree</heading > This button should work so that , given the postfix expression , a tree will be constructed in such a way that when traversed in a selected way will produce the correct ' fix ' expression . It achieves this by using a case statement on the expression individual characters . If there is a digit a new tree is created with the digit at the root node . This is then pushed onto the tree stack . If however an operator is encountered then a new binary tree with the operator at the root and the top trees of the stack are popped and made to be the left and right child ; with the resulting tree being pushed back onto the stack . After the entire string has been checked then the final tree left in the stack is the final tree , so is popped and given a pointer to the root . < heading > Traversal</heading > All traversal follows the same principle . They all use recursion , which is when a function calls itself to be used . They include a call of itself to the left child and a call to the right child as well as a process . The process in the traversal case is to print out the data at the current node to the memo box . The only difference between the kinds of traversal is the placement of the process statement . < table/>Each of these traversals , due to the use of recursion , need to have base cases . So before each call to itself there is an IF statement to determine whether the next child on the relevant side is a pointer to nil ; if not then will perform recursion else it will move on to next statement . Once it have completed it will begin to work its way back up through the recursion . < heading > Evaluate</heading > This button works using traversal . The only difference is the process is not the same . Instead of printing to the memo box this traversal will use a case statement to distinguish each character in the node of the tree . If it is a digit ' 0 ' to ' 9 ' then the integer equivalent will be pushed into the stack . If an operator is selected then it will pop the top digits form the stack and evaluate them using the operator , then push the result back onto the stack . Once the traversal is completed the remaining item in the stack will be the result , which can be popped out into a string and into the memo box . < heading > Testing</heading > To test this program I will approach each button individually . The build tree button will be tested by typing in expressions and after running , test it with the used of the traversal . This will also test the traversal . The traversal does not need to be tested as it is a straight forward recursion technique . But by using them on the tree created I will be able to see that they display the correct order , which will only be true if the tree is constructed correctly . The evaluate button will be tested by inputting increasingly difficult equations with the answer already calculated , thus meaning I can compare them and test to see if they are correct . < table/>This table shows the expressions that were input and their actual answers . Also included is the , In and Pre order traversals which all correspond to their correct equivalents . The answer is also included and matches the expected answer . The following are screenshots of the program running . < picture/><picture/><picture/ > FORMULA  ",0
"< heading > INTRODUCTION</heading > This essay will approach the subject of the climate of the period ranging , the methods in which the climate is reconstructed and the possible adaptation of Neanderthals as considered by archaeologists and palaeoanthropologists . Although this adaptation would probably have included subsistence strategies , this paper will focus on the possibility of skeletal morphology . Neanderthal anatomy and the reason or purpose for such unusual characteristics has been the subject of debate since the initial find in in in . Original propositions included the possibility of deformity but quickly altered to climatic adaptation through skeletal morphology . Since the discussions in , many scholars have reconsidered the adaptation hypothesis ; some of these proposals will be summarised and a personal interpretation proffered . < heading > CLIMATIC RECONSTRUCTION</heading > To gain an understanding of possible morphological changes in the anatomy of Neanderthals in response to the environment , one must be aware of the changing climate over the period of their existence . The climate of the age can be reconstructed through several methods ; however , remain more accurate and widely used . Although oxygen isotopes and were originally regarded as a record of the water temperature due to the elevation of the lighter isotopes into the ice sheets , they are now generally agreed as indicating how much water is locked up in the glaciers ( Aitken ) . By examining the isotopes , principally the heavier O18 , with a high - precision mass spectrometer , it is possible to identify the concentration of this isotope in the ocean , reflecting the global climate at that time ( ibid ) . These isotopes can be found in both deep - sea cores and ice cores , both of which are highly studied and provide a continuous sequence of climate record , spanning of years . Deep - sea cores are a form of absolute dating in that the substance itself can be dated rather than an associated object . The core consists of terrigeneous sediments and organic matter , accumulated at a rate of around a few millimetres a century ( Aitken ) , therefore a core of in length , as is the norm , will cover a period of . The terrigeneous sediments , formed by the erosive action of tides and currents , possess a weak magnetic field , which can be analysed to identify magnetic pole reversals ( ibid ) . These reversals take place over a period of but occur years , so can be used as a dating technique , although it must be used in conjunction with other methods ( Lewin ) . Ice cores are drilled through the remaining glaciers of the or Antarctic though concentration is currently placed on the ice cap . Information is provided on the climate displayed as layers built up with the addition of new ice . These cores can be deep and the core from was the to provide data spanning ; now a core from in is used for the same purpose ( GRIP ) . Through the combined oxygen isotope analysis of deep - sea cores and ice cores , a continuous sequence has been produced ( fig ) . Concentrating on occupation for the purpose of this essay , the Late , described by ( et al ) , falls into the earliest period , oxygen isotope sequence 6 ( OIS 6 ) . The environment was described as less cold and variable than the Late Weichsel , spanning 3 and OIS 4 , with a few spells of extreme warmth in the Early Saale ( ibid ) , OIS 6 and 7a , the period prior to the focus of this essay . < figure/>Oxygen isotope sequence , approximately 185kyr - 130kyr , was a very cold , open landscape . and describe the corridor between the and ice caps as incorporating elements of both tundra and steppe environments , including grasses and sedges amongst other vegetation ( ) . Around 132kyr the isotope - temperature relationship indicates a maximum reduction in temperature . This occurrence , described as , lasted approximately 8kyr , with the entire atmospheric shift completing within ( GRIP ) . 5e , the last interglacial , known as the , dates to BP - 118kyr . Lasting , this sequence included sub - stages of varying ice volume , resulting in relatively short periods of mid - glacial temperatures ( Gamble 1999 ) . Solar radiation led to a temperature increase of , resulting in temperatures slightly higher than , allowing the spread of dense deciduous forest and a retreat of the ice sheets , roughly to their present position ( ibid ) . The following early glacial period , spanning 118kyr , fluctuates in climate with glacial and interstadial phases . To this end , the sequence has been split into sub - divisions . interstadials identified as peat horizons in a lake core from , , known as the profile , fall in the sequence . These interstadials are separated by fossil ice wedge casts identifying permafrost conditions found between horizons . and are identified as possessing large ice volumes with summers in northern 5 - 10º cooler than ( Gamble 1999 ) . The horizons were separated by and , longer interstadials of a forested , temperate climate . Around 115kyr , the temperature decreased by a maximum of as indicated by the isotope analysis ; Event 1 as it is known lasted . The dust signal suggests a shift in atmospheric circulations completed in ( GRIP ) . Around 75kya , the eruption in may have resulted in , possibly triggering the early onset of the next sequence , 1999 ) . Eruptions as powerful as can be identified in the ice cores due to the energy of the volcano expelling ash into the upper atmosphere , allowing the transportation of particles around the globe , eventually settling in the cooler climate of the ice caps . The , OIS 4 , 75kyr BP - 60kyr , was a full glacial leading to the rapid expansion of glaciers ( Gamble 1999 ) . The profile shows increased ice wedge formation during this sequence without any significant interstadials . Deep - sea cores show higher ice volumes resulting in lower sea levels , with no major continental glaciation ( ibid ) . The core of southern produced a variable record of tree , shrub and vine pollen to herb pollen . This herb pollen identifies a colder open landscape with little tree cover in northern ( ibid ) . This evidence is invaluable as the pollen records of this period are often blank due to the types of vegetation and the arctic - style peat resulting in poor preservation ( ) . The final period of the occupation , OIS3 , known as the Interpleniglacial , dates to - 28kya , the period of focus for this paper . The ice core from central identified interstadials lasting each ( Dansgaard et al ) . Comparison with the pollen profile provided revised dates for the expulsion of icebergs into between 64.2kyr and 14.5kyr BP . This led to a significant effect on the climate of corresponding to a high ratio of herb pollen , again indicating cold , open conditions , with extensive woodland around the source lake of the core at 50 - 42.5kyr and 40.7 - 37.6kyr BP ( Gamble 1999 ) . These results produced a picture of a relatively mild climate with reduced glaciers and recent work suggests an increase in temperature of - 8º over a period of - this would have effected the vegetation within the landscape . The oxygen isotope analysis of both the ice and deep - sea cores reconstructs a fluctuating climate with extremes of temperature . The vegetation within the landscape would have altered depending on the ambient temperature and aridity . To this end , the hominids occupying the region must have adapted to survive . Whether this adaptation was physical or based on subsistence is a subject of much debate , however , this essay will focus on the skeletal evidence . < heading > PAST HYPOTHESES OF SKELETAL ADAPTATION</heading > The anatomical features of the Neanderthals have long been the subject of debate . The possibility of skeletal morphology in response to an arctic environment has been proposed and continues to be a focus for much attention . Many anthropologists have published papers and proposed arguments regarding skeletal adaptation and this section will chronologically summarise these arguments . In the physician and physical anthropologist was offered the medal , the highest award for anthropology . During his acceptance speech , proffered his opinion on the evolution of Neanderthals into human beings ( ) . Although the hypothesis of on evolution was at the time dismissed ( ibid ) and has now been disproved , he spoke of his results following examination of occupation and how the number of open - air sites had decreased in favour of cave positions . This , he thought , was evidence of a worsening climate , a thesis supported by the palaeontologist ( ibid ) . proposed the unusual features were also representative of the changing climate and the various specimens from around the world fell into alternative categories . The original Neander Valley specimen from , the fossils from ) , Le Moustier ( ) and - aux - Saints ( ) were described as a robust , primitive species , opposed to the more modern - looking examples from ( ) , ( ) and ( ) . He suggested this variable population was as a result of exposure to glacial conditions and subsistence in such environment would preserve only those suitably evolved to survive ( ibid ) . A new understanding of evolutionary processes prompted to begin work in in an attempt to explain morphology as a result of genetic isolation in addition to glacial adaptation ( ) . He identified the large - browed , stocky as synonymous with western during the early part of the last glacial period . Although there was some concurrence , there was also difference of opinion with division of sites to alternative types of as proposed by , in addition to fossils found in the intervening period . associated fossils including , , Le Moustier , , ( ) and ( the Neander fossil ) with animals adapted to cold environments ( ibid ) . Those of Krapina , Saccopastore ( ) , ( ) and ( Uzbekistan ) he concluded , dated to an earlier warmer interglacial period , preceding the last glaciation and suggested the shorter skulls would have possessed smaller brains and faces , and the limbs appeared less robust but also straighter than their later counterparts ( ibid ) . emphasized the difficulty of survival in glacial areas without proper clothing and equipment and a scarcity of resources . He speculated the isolation imposed by glacial barriers would have created evolutionary developments or restricted the gene pool ( ) , resulting in a concentration of unusual characteristics . recognized an abrupt end to the trend that coincided with the end of the early glacial period ( ibid ) , possibly following a reduction in the glacial barrier . He observed the early Neanderthals of western and western possessed less pronounced features , and a warm period during the Würm glaciation would have removed the geographical barrier allowing more modern looking humans to spread from the east to the west . , an physical anthropologist and expert on race and racial differences , compared man to non - human animals and produced evidence of man 's adaptation to the surrounding environment ( ) . had examined living races and the fossil record looking for such adaptation and had reverted to and 's rule regarding heat conservation - a generally larger body mass with shorter limbs than similar species from warmer climes ( ibid ) . , native to arctic conditions , for example , will have shorter necks and extremities and possess a heavier build ; the Maasai , however , living in much warmer climes , are taller , of slighter build with long limbs ( ibid ) . Coon saw an adaptation to cold in the fossil record , a compact form similar to the ( ibid ) , a hypothesis supported by Stringer and Gamble in . He recognised the nose as a dominant but important feature possessing a large nasal aperture , a prominent bridge , producing a pronounced mid - face . This has become known as the ' radiator theory ' following the explanation of for the need of "" warming and moistening of inhaled air "" ( , ) . He continued remarking on the proximity of the nasal passages to the blood vessels and the importance of maintaining the brains temperature in a society lacking equipment suitable for glacial conditions ( ) . Although this was seen as a step forward in the search for explanation of morphology , during the 's , another physical anthropologist , declared the radiator theory partially incorrect "" but a credible and useful attempt at understanding anatomy as a function of an environmental adaptation "" ( , ) . An alternative hypothesis regarding the forward thrust of the face was proposed by , an iconoclastic physical anthropologist . In contrast to the belief of others , suggested the dimensions of faces and teeth were as a response to tasks performed using the mouth as an extra hand ( ) . The later reduction in the features was possibly as a result of the introduction of specialized tools - the decline in use led , over time , to less powerful facial muscles and lighter skeletal structure ( ibid ) . , , a modern physical anthropologist continued the belief of in his study of prehistoric stone tools , in conjunction with an archaeologist , . believed the specialized tools hypothesised , would date to , as tools of this period were of a more specific function than previous periods ( ibid ) . This would date the tools somewhere , coinciding with the age of the Neanderthals . The ' current ' view of Trinkaus and in their publication was characteristics were indeed evidence of a harsh environment : that their compact bodies , limbs and digits were adapted to conserve heat in near - arctic conditions ; their large noses had evolved to prevent moisture evaporation in the cold , dry conditions but would also allow heat dispersal during exercise . They identified the fact that although the Neanderthals possessed the ability to clothe themselves , find shelter and create fire , their subsistence strategies were unequal to that of later humans ( ) . < heading > DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON</heading > During the process of research for this paper , it has been observed a majority of fossils derived from and few from the Near , Middle and Far East . A comparison was proposed of contemporary fossils from both the east and the west , in the attempt to prove or disprove the climatic adaptation hypothesis , however , difficulty arose in identifying fossils of the same date . The original fossil from , dating to , was chosen as the basis of comparison , due to some ' classic ' skeletal traits . As suggests faunal evidence proves the specimen and others including are contemporaneous ( ) , fossil , found on , , was introduced as the example . < specimen ( fig ) includes bones representing almost the entire skeleton . A long , low upper cranium displayed the prominent brow ridges of a ' classic ' , however , the lower cranium and mandible were missing . The robust skeleton possessed bowed long bones with large joint surfaces and well developed muscle attachments ( ) , possibly relating to a strenuous lifestyle ( Tattersall ) . < picture/>The Kebara 2 fossil ( fig ) , missing the cranium , right leg and lower left leg , was found in association with tools of the technique and burnt flint , allowing dating using thermoluminescence ( ) . There is contradiction between ( ) as they report this individual was less robust than other examples from the Near and , opposed to ( ) , when he suggests is the heaviest built fossil . At m , Kebara 2 is certainly of the tallest fossils , taller than the average European Neanderthal ( ) ; the ' classic ' retromolar gap was , in the absence , evidence of a forward movement of the mid face ; and the chin was minimal . Unusually , the hyoid bone , used for muscle control required for speech , was recovered , leading to further discussion on the communication skill of Neanderthals . Both fossils display a common skeletal trait of the ' classic ' Neanderthal : the heavy bones . At this point , partially due to the absence of many bones , the similarity diminishes . The male was tall , the specimen shorter ; the fossil long bones were straighter than the bowed examples of the individual , who also possessed larger joint surfaces ; and observation of the long bones identifies the example to be heavier , although both are more robust than those of an anatomically modern human . Evidence suggests that both the fossils of and were adapted to the cold . The fossil , in such close proximity to the glacier ( fig ) , had developed a step further than the example , from the relatively warmer climate of , reflected in his increased height . Due to the absence of the mid - face of both fossils , this paper has not discussed the possibility of the ' radiator theory ' as proposed by , however , it is considered a plausible explanation and should not be discounted . < figure/>Gamble observed the fluctuations in climate during the last interglacial ( 5e ) occurred within , suggesting hominid adaptation was less likely during the period ( ) . During this particular sequence the climatic oscillations were relatively short but when compared with considerably longer periods during other sequences , the possibility should be reconsidered . < heading > CONCLUSION</heading > The frequent oscillations in the oxygen isotope analysis of the period show a fluctuating climate of extreme to another ; temperatures fell dramatically over a fairly short period , and then rose to exceed the current climate . communities were likely to have adapted their subsistence strategies to survive , however , examination of their fossil remains provide evidence that nature intervened . The increased robusticity of the bones is evident in both the and Western fossils , although the taller stature of the remains , reflect a slightly warmer climate in . In conclusion , it is my belief that the Neanderthals did indeed adapt skeletally to survive a harsh climate , however , improved subsistence strategies must also have been implemented . Unfortunately , neither secured their future .","The use of medical technology is now an integral and more or less accepted facet of medicine in the . The use of highly technical apparatus , for example MRI scanners and life support machines , are now in common use in the practice of western medicine , and the rapid pace of medical research has meant that medical technologies , together with the possibilities and promises they bring with them , are never long out of the media spotlight ( , ) . From Dolly the Sheep , to the more recent engineering of tissue from patient 's cells to reconstruct ( and subsequently re - implant ) damaged bladders ( Chung , ) , it seems that medical science is increasingly pushing back the boundaries of possibility , and reconfiguring our understandings of the human body , and its potential for manipulation . In line with this transformation of medical possibilities have arisen corresponding social , legal and ethical uncertainties ; indeed , whilst promising various ' cures ' and ' treatments ' , when these technologies should be implemented , as well as for whom , and to what extent , raises many uncomfortable ethical dilemmas and issues . Indeed , as ( 2000 ) comments , the use of medical technology has substantially shifted our understanding of life itself , thus bioethics as a whole faces important new challenges , < quote > ... What is life ? What is death ? When does a life begin ? When does it end ? What is a person ? What is a child ... Is it better not to have been born at all than to have been born with a severe genetic defect ? How vigorously should we intervene in the human condition to repair and improve ourselves ? And when should we cease and desist ? ( , : 422)</quote > As well as the ethical issues raised by the current uses of medical technologies , the potential they appear to offer for the future , and the possible abuses of the technologies , have furthermore led to speculations around the emergence of a Huxley - esque homogenised human society , whereby human beings are mass produced ( , ) . Indeed , 's fears about a ' post human ' future , in which human life is endlessly subject to manipulation and replication , seems to echo in many of the responses to medical technologies which highlight the ' sanctity ' of human life as a value to be protected . In many instances , responses to the current uses of medical technologies merge with these perceived future risks and have led to calls for greater regulation and surveillance ( Warnock , ) , as well as education ( ) , and an increased acknowledgement of the social as well as the biological impact of medical technologies ( for example , , ) . This essay will highlight some of the ethical dilemmas and implications of medical technologies in the areas in which they have proven to be the most contentious , namely that of genetics , , surgery and the care of the critically ill . It is these areas in particular that fundamental ethical dilemmas have been raised and particular challenges levelled at our commonly held understandings of what constitutes a human being , as well as our definitions of life and death . Developments in medical technologies in these areas therefore , will be examined in order to demonstrate not only the tensions arising from their implementation and future possibilities , but also evaluating societal responses to them . Since and 's discovery of the double helix structure of DNA , ' the new genetics ' has emerged as one of the most profoundly exciting and promising fields for medical research to date ( and Gabe , ) . Scientists are now able to specify the precise location of ' faulty ' genes to demonstrate the aetiology of certain conditions and also to screen foetuses , with the ultimate goal being the total elimination of the genetic ' fault ' . Genetic screening in itself however , raises many uncomfortable ethical issues . ( PGD ) , arguably the most controversial form of genetic screening , combines technologies , ( and genetic testing ) with fertilisation taking place artificially in a laboratory , and the resulting embryo being screened for genetic faults prior to re - implantation in the womb . Currently , is used to screen for single gene disorders alongside other forms of genetic screening such as ultrasound , nuchal translucency scans ( most commonly used to screen for 's syndrome ) , amniocentesis , chorionic villus sampling and cordocentesis . Whilst some of these forms of screening are diagnostic , many predict ' risk ' , determining whether the tested foetuses have the propensity to develop certain genetic conditions . Typically , those families deemed to be at ' high risk ' of genetic conditions may be offered pre - natal screening , with the option of aborting those foetuses either diagnosed with , or at risk of developing , disabling disorders . Clearly , the ethical dilemmas these technologies bring to light , including what we deem life to be , whose lives are ` worth ` living and which lives are accorded rights , are controversial and inherently difficult to address . The very existence of these screening technologies ( with the possibility of subsequent abortion ) , may create a sense of obligation for parents , a duty to prevent a life that could possibly be hampered by pain and social exclusion , and potentially become a ' burden ' to existing family members . Indeed , in instances of genetic defects being discovered , parents may find it difficult to opt to keep the child in light of commonly held assumptions about the quality of life for people with disabilities , and also for fear of social stigma ( Remennick , ) . Medical technologies , therefore , can be seen to in some ways redefine the obligations and responsibilities involved in ' good ' parenting , so that the birth of a healthy child , rather than being a chance happening , comes to be seen as the result of the vigilance and ' responsible actions ' of the parents . Genetic information , furthermore , once obtained , can in itself be the cause of much distress and grief to parents , as they are forced to confront the resulting dilemma of whether their would - be child should live or not , based on the precarious notion of genetic ' risk ' ( Helen , ) . As ( ) points out , such knowledge is not necessarily a benefit , as it may simply pose more ethical problems , < quote > Although augmenting ... ethical , political and social issues ... genetic prediction is likely to pose new ones ... Unavoidable decisions , choices and dilemmas will arise in any or all of a wide range of personal , group and institutional activities . ( , : 328)</quote > Thus , the question of how much benefit can be gained from genetic screening , especially in light of the fact that the majority of disorders with a genetic component rely on the interaction between genetics and environmental factors , remains debatable ( , ) . As well as the involvement of difficult decisions for parents , many critics have also pointed to eugenic undertones involved in the practice of genetic screening . Indeed , the research into , and practice of , the new genetics clearly reveals an assumption on the part of clinicians and scientists of the desirability of preventing the birth of children with certain conditions or of a particular gender , and thus by implication attributing a negative value to people of that gender or those already living with that condition ( ) . Disability rights activists have called into question the automatic categorization of the lives of people with genetic impairments as ' not worth living ' and the weight given to genetics in determining whether or not a child should live ( , ) . Supporters of the social model of disability , furthermore , have demonstrated the way in which the new genetics can direct attention away from the social nature of disability , by reducing it to a biological ' malfunction ' , < quote> ... the individual affixed with a genetic label can be isolated from the context in which s / he became sick ... the individual , not society , is seen to require change ; social problems improperly become individual pathologies . ( , : 1472 - 3)</quote > Thus , whilst termination on the basis of sex ( in the absence of a sex dependent condition ) or race would be ( and in the case of sex selective abortion , are ) considered discrimination and outlawed , genetic screening has allowed what ( ) has termed a ' backdoor ' for eugenics , whereby the gradual elimination of people with disabilities is normalised , rendering people currently living with impairments in a state of ' suspended extinction ' ( Bauman , ) . As well as the ethical concerns surrounding genetic screening , the use of , ( which is often used in conjunction with genetic screening ) raises further ethical concerns in its own rights . Through the ability to relocate the site of fertilisation from the body to the laboratory by extracting human gametes , enables the implantation of embryos into women who are ( potentially ) biologically unrelated to them . The implications of this is that reproduction has now been extended to those who would otherwise be unable to conceive ' naturally ' ; infertile or homosexual couples , for example , and even post - menopausal women as in the recent case of . The public outcry surrounding 's case , however , highlights the general unease around and its ability to meddle in previously natural processes ; indeed , many have questioned whether it was ethical to allow to purchase such treatment given her age , and the potential implications for the resulting child . Indeed , the issue of the commodification of reproduction implies serious ethical debates . Although some treatments are available on the , long waiting lists and strict eligibility guidelines have meant that of cycles are state funded in the , with the majority taking place within private clinics either in the , or as in 's case , , ) . This lack of sate funding for access to technology means that it is often only a viable option for those with the finances to support it , and even then treatment can be financially , physically and emotionally draining on the couples / individuals who opt for it , especially for women whose bodies bear the brunt of the physical risks ( , ) . Given its low success rate therefore , the ethics of allowing couples to expend such huge amounts of their personal and financial resources , with all the physical risks it entails , remains contentious . has furthermore allowed for the sale of human gametes to infertile couples , and also for a particular type of surrogacy whereby the surrogate may carry a child of no biological relation to herself ( the embryo being created artificially by the couple 's own cells , and then transferred into her womb ) . The disruption to social roles that this separation of reproduction from gestation may involve raises important ethical dilemmas concerning the definition of motherhood itself , and these ethical concerns are exacerbated further when eggs or surrogacy services are purchased from poorer , less powerful women , introducing possibilities of exploitation , and potentially reinforcing existing inequalities . Thus far , the implications and ethical debates surrounding the current practice of and genetic screening have been discussed ; however , ethical debates concern not only what medical technologies can do in the here - and - now , but also their potential or future capacities . Indeed , whilst medical technologies may be used for certain specified purposes only , their capabilities may extend beyond this , raising questions of how far we should go , and what limits we should apply . such question has given rise to the phenomenon of ' designer babies ' , or the ability of parents , through the use of technology , to select ( or perhaps more accurately ) reject aspects of their offspring 's genetic make up , at a financial cost . The possibility of this practice being commonplace has caused concerns about the ethics of consumerism being extended to reproduction , < quote > The phrase ' designer babies ' implicitly compares the child to a fashion accessory or more aspect of medical technology becoming a lifestyle choice , like ' designer drugs ' for mood enhancement or body - enhancing surgery . ( and , : ) < /quote > Thus , choice surrounding reproduction has led to a concern that children may be treated purely as commodity objects , with standards and expectations to live up to , potentially leading to an increase in unwanted or abandoned children ( Lee , ) . Further concerns raised by the future of the new genetics , and reinforced by the development of cloning technology , has been that of the homogenisation of the human race , a vision articulated in ( ) , whereby human beings are mass produced on principles ( , ) . Rather than celebrating diversity and difference , the new genetics , it is feared , may lead to a world of genetically enhanced ' ideal ' humans . ( ) has drawn attention to the way in which such ' spirit crushing homogeneity ' made possible by cloning technology , counteracts human dignity and dispels the inherent mysterious value attributed to human life which explains why , as individuals , we turn out the way that we do . Thus , both in the case of cloning as well as ' designer babies ' , what appears to be threatened is the sense of mystery and chance involved in creating unique human beings , which , as argues , should be a valued condition of the human race . Societal responses to the new genetics and have been extremely varied , some regarding them as signalling a revolution in medicine , others regarding them as scientists ' playing god ' , whilst still others fearing the possibilities for surveillance and discrimination ( and , ) . Indeed , the current use of amniocentesis in to abort female foetuses ( Henry , ) and the termination of those foetuses with genetic conditions , highlight the way in which medical technologies can be used to discriminate against foetuses with genetic attributes that a society happens to devalue at any given moment . Thus , some critics have highlighted the role of education in tackling the social context in which these lives are rendered ' not worth living ' . Fletcher ( ) , for example , argues that information and education for prospective parents on the reality of living with genetic conditions prior to termination , would help to prevent people making automatic assumptions about the standard of life that people with impairments enjoy . Regulation and surveillance have also formed a crucial part of the response to the new genetics and , and its anticipated futures . In , a committee chaired by the moral philosopher was set up in order to examine the practice of embryo research and other controversial areas of the new genetics and , such as human cloning . The report resulted in the passing of of , which put in place legal guidelines surrounding the practice of the new genetics . The act prohibited human cloning , and only allows certain procedures to be carried out ( for example , the creation of an embryo outside the human body ) with a specific license , to be issued by ( HEFA ) . The establishment of a legal framework and regulatory body , in some ways offered reassurance to public concerns about the potential of new medical technologies to ' interfere ' with nature , and the ethical problems posed by this interference , < quote> ... we accept that scientists must not be unduly restricted in pursuing their research interests ... but doctors and scientists work within the moral and legal framework determined by society ... they should not depart radically from that framework . ( Warnock , : 75)</quote > Thus , the role of regulation in preventing what is often perceived as the ruthless pursuit of medical breakthroughs at whatever cost , is an important societal response to new medical technologies . As the new genetics and enable us to manipulate life at the level of the cell , advancements in new medical technologies are also being applied to the body at a macro level , through the restoration , substitution or manipulation of organs and tissues . Indeed , the current possibilities of modern medicine to transform our bodies , whether aesthetically or restoratively , has rendered our physical selves increasingly malleable and unstable ; whole body parts can be removed , replaced , reshaped or substituted , freeing us from the restrictions of our biology and launching us into the realm of the ' cyborg'(Williams , ) . The ' cyborg ' as ( ) suggests , is a postmodern ' leaky ' figure , breaching the boundaries between human and animal , human and machine , a vision of science fiction and the future , but also one , arguably , increasingly becoming a future prospect . Indeed , medical technology has the potential to transform us into cyborgs in a variety of ways , either through enhancing , restoring or substituting our body parts through various surgical techniques , and enabling us , to a greater or lesser extent , abandon our biology through artificial means . example of this possibility lies in the area of cosmetic surgery . Developments of medical technologies have meant that the potential for body refiguring and ' correction ' has expanded rapidly , rendering our bodies increasingly ' plastic ' ( , ) . in , the cosmetic surgery is a multi - million pound industry with an astounding array of procedures for sale , and of people going under the knife every year in order to aesthetically manipulate their bodies . The recent completion of a face transplant in ( and , ) , furthermore , sparked media debates as to how far this manipulation could potentially go , with the opportunity to one day buy a brand new face being cited by the media as a realistic and looming possibility . Whilst it remains uncertain whether or not such a practice as face transplantation could feasibly become commercially available , its possibility raises important questions and considerations . Aside from issues concerning what it is acceptable to do ( or not do ) to a human body , the commercial basis on which the cosmetic industry is founded also raises ethical problems . Indeed , in western societies which value ' beauty ' and dictate standards of physical attractiveness , living up to ' ideal ' body standards is often a means by which people may seek to attain happiness and success , < quote > Aesthetic surgery is composed of those surgical interventions that claim that the acquisition of an idealised or imagined body type or physiognomy is a "" cure "" for "" unhappiness"" ... surgeons operate on the body to heal the psyche . ( , : - 5)</quote > With women constituting the majority of cases putting themselves forward for cosmetic interventions , feminists have questioned not only surgeon 's willingness to operate on ( often ) otherwise healthy people , with all the risks and complications involved , but also the underlying pressures felt by women to enhance their bodies to ensure an appearance of youth , health and beauty , a pressure perhaps facilitated by the ' normalisation ' of cosmetic surgery through the media ( , ) . However , despite the growing acceptability of cosmetic surgery as an expected means of obtaining beauty for those with wealth , it could also be argued that response to the development of body enhancing procedures has been an increasing valuing of the authentic . Indeed , the media fascination with cases of plastic surgery going wrong or simply too far , with the likes of and often being listed as examples , together with the forming of a celebrity elite whose beauty is claimed to be natural as opposed to surgically enhanced represents a line of thinking in which there is deemed to be inherent value in remaining untouched by medical technologies . Indeed , there seems to be an implicit assumption in society as a whole that ' natural ' is in many ways better , thus creating a tension between the pull towards the artificial , as well as to the natural . Other societal responses to advances in cosmetic surgery and the accompanying ethical dilemmas have been varied , with feminist writers calling for a reduction in the cultural pressures on women to achieve physical beauty ( Wolf , ) , whilst others , including ( ) express concerns about the number of under - qualified surgeons willing to perform cosmetic procedures in the name of profit , and calls for greater regulation of the industry . As the case of face transplantation surgery highlights furthermore , the potential of the cosmetic surgery industry to incorporate increasingly drastic procedures has further extended these ethical debates . In such instances , questions need to be asked as to how far aesthetic procedures should go , especially in cases where women are deemed to have poor body image , as Bordo ( ) argues , whilst women may demand cosmetic procedures and make rational choices to opt for them , it is difficult to disassociate these choices from the cultural context in which they are made . Perhaps , therefore , an appropriate response to cosmetic surgery could be the placement of more resources into the task of rooting out and addressing underlying causes of people 's body dissatisfaction , and ways to combat it , rather than developing means for the "" surgical fix "" . Whilst cosmetic surgery offers us the possibility of transforming our bodies aesthetically , medical technologies also have the capacity to manipulate their internal functioning , particularly through the development of transplantation and implantation techniques . The ' harvesting ' of tissues and organs from dead as well as living donors , indeed , has challenged legal , social and physical definitions of life and death themselves , and raised fundamental questions concerning human identity ( and , ) . Lock ( ) , for example , has argued that our identity can be fundamentally shaken by undergoing transplantation ; transplant recipients are often eager to know biographical details about their donor 's age , gender and lifestyle , sometimes even developing new tastes consistent with those of the dead donor , thus revealing how our sense of identity can be heavily inscribed in our own embodiment . Heart transplants , for example , may carry particularly difficult implications in terms of identity due to the cultural understanding of the heart as constituting the very core of our emotional and physical being ( , ) . Aside from implications for identity , the transplantation of organs and tissues has also led to ethical concerns regarding the ' commodification ' of the human body , whereby organs may become disposable objects to be bought and sold , blurring the distinction between humans and commercial goods , a situation that would < quote> ... contravene the moral ethos that distinguishes humans from commodity goods or instrumental resources . Further , the commodification of body parts might encourage impoverished people to trade their only absolute asset , their bodies . ( and , : 109)</quote > Indeed , ( ) international work on the trade in human organs discovered widespread racial , class and gender inequalities in the acquisition , harvesting and distribution of organs , whereby organs have become the ' objects of desire ' for those with economic resources , and a ' commodity of last resort ' for those without . This situation , she argues , has led to a divide in global society between the organ ' donators ' and organ receivers , with the latter being treated as valued patients and the former merely suppliers of spare parts ( , ) . The exploitation of those without economic resources is disguised behind the rhetoric of ' gift ' and ' aid ' , whilst in reality the selling of body parts is often as much a desperate bid for survival as for the receivers . As notes of the women living in a slums in , < quote>]Forced to the brink by crippling debts or by the incapacity of a husband and primary wage earner , the women had sold a kidney to feed the family , the most common explanation given by kidney sellers worldwide . ( , 2001b:1)</quote > Thus , to those living in dire poverty , organ selling can be a way of ensuring survival for both sellers and their families , in world which values them only as a ' reservoir of spare parts ' ( , : ) . Aside from ' voluntary ' organ donation , the development of medical technologies has also facilitated the phenomenon of ' organ theft ' , whereby organs are taken from both living and dead individuals , to be sold for profit . Indeed , as ( ) notes , the practice of executing prisoners in order to provide fresh organs for transplantation either for high paying foreigners or members of the communist elite , is facilitated by medical technologies which , following execution , keep the prisoner 's heart beating until adjacent to the organ recipient . Similarly , as ( ) research exposed , organs are often removed without consent during routine operations , or taken after death without the prior consent of the individual or their families , typically from young , black bodies , and are then transplanted into ' older , debilitated , affluent white bodies ' ( , : ) . Such worrying practices of organ theft and issues of consent in organ donation have been brought about by technologies which allow for the commodification of body parts , and their sale in global markets . As ( ) research points out , the politics of the movement of organs and tissues ( primarily from poor , black bodies into white affluent ones ) requires stricter regulation and surveillance to prevent ' rapacious needs and desires for the body of the other ' and also a ' human refusal of mortal sickness and death at all or any cost ' ( , : ) , both fuelling the illegal trade in organs , and reinforced by the promises of medical technology . The ' Berkeley Organs Watch ' , established in , was designed for this very purpose of surveillance with a view to reducing the gross violation of individual 's rights and bodily autonomy involved in organ trafficking . Indeed , a monitoring of the social impact of transplantation technologies is crucial to uncovering the hidden exploitations they mask . As well as the current practices of transplantation medicine , future prospects , such as xenotransplantation , also raise important ethical dilemmas . Whilst the concept of using animal tissues is not in itself a new phenomenon , with th century physicians often prescribing lamb 's blood to cure fever , in , the prospect of xenotransplantation has seen a massive investment in research and bioethical commentary ( and , ) . Scientists are already able to transplant pig cells into human beings , with the hope of soon being able to transplant whole organs , and indeed , the creation of customised pigs with a decreased likelihood of organ rejection has already become a reality ( , ) . Whilst many have hailed the prospect of xenotransplantation as signalling a decrease in waiting lists for transplantation , and a break through for medical science , it undoubtedly also raises some uncomfortable moral , social and ethical dilemmas . As and ( ) note , modernity is premised on a ' cultivated distance ' between humans and animals , a distance that would be broken down by xenotransplantation , agitating questions of species boundaries and the ' natural ' order . Indeed , if allotransplantation ( human to human ) raises questions of personal identity for organ recipients , having a pig 's heart or other organ inside one 's body my heighten this discomfort further , especially given the cultural meanings assigned to pigs as being ' unclean ' animals ( , ) . The possibility of transpecies diseases in the wake of the , and its human variant , , furthermore are very real concerns with regards to xenotransplantation . Some pig viruses , for example , can be transmitted across species and the prospect of hitherto unknown diseases emerging has to be taken seriously as a major complication of xenotransplantation ( , ) . The moral implications of using animals in this way have further ramifications for ethical debates ; whilst many argue that animals have long been used in medical research and in food production , the use of animal 's organs in this way may contravene certain religious or moral beliefs ( or vegan for example ) , and therefore prove unacceptable to certain social groups on this basis . Indeed , perhaps one response to these ethical dilemmas would be the placement of more resources into stem cell research , so that organs can be manufactured , rather than moved around , and indeed , as recent developments in the engineering of bladders from stem cells suggests , such advances are on the horizon . Further to the creation , and transplantation of , human and animal organs , the implantation of artificial devices into the body has resurfaced the notion of ' cyborgs ' through machine - human couplings . There is a broad range of artificial devices and components which can be surgically placed in the body , from inert joint replacements to devices which actually take over the innate functions of the body ; pacemakers , for example , electronically regulate the rhythms of the heart whilst cochlear implants generate tiny oscillating vibrations to stimulate auditory nerves ( and , ) . The future these technologies suggest is one in which bodies are increasingly ' inhabited ' by technology , and where natural ageing is a thing of the past , with our body parts being replaced by technological devices , marking the end of ' pure humans ' ( Deitch , ) < quote > At the hyper - real extremes are those who write of a science future where cyberminds are endlessly downloaded from outdated machines into new expectant motherboards ; cryofresh freaks who seek to freeze time and reverse history . ( Gilleard and Higgs , : 5.1)</quote > Indeed , et al ( ) suggest , due to advances in biotechnology , this ' postbiological humanity ' is achievable in , heralding the beginning of a time where we will be able to endlessly change , replace and modify our bodies into different forms . Whilst this ' liberation ' from biology may seem appealing , the possibilities of ever - extending our lives and manipulating our bodies , as well as the ' technological contract ' ( and , ) such developments forge between people with disabilities and the medical profession , whereby the impaired body is subject to continual technological ' normalisation ' , raises important ethical debates , not only about what it is ethical to do to a human body , but just how far we should go . Thus far , discussion has centred on technologies which have the capacity to redefine our notions of human life and the human body . and , for example , can intervene in the creation of life , whereas transplantations and implantations modify existing bodies . A further area of medical technologies , however , concern the ending of lives , and the way in which death is reconfigured through the use of highly sophisticated equipment . Life support machines in particular have played a fundamental role in reshaping the concept of death itself . Through acting as proxy organs , death can be postponed for those individuals whose entire brains have been traumatised beyond hope of recovery , in a "" new , technically manipulated death "" ( Lock , : ) . This new state of ' brain death ' , whereby individuals may experience an irreversible loss of consciousness and yet still be biologically alive , challenges previously held assumptions about what death constitutes . Whilst in the brain death is often treated as tantamount to the death of the person , this is defined in contrasting ways by differing countries , highlighting conflicting understandings of ' death ' and ' personhood ' . for example , does not recognise ' brain death ' as biological death nor the death of the person , therefore organs can not be taken from patients in this condition , as is permitted in other countries ( ) . Such differing understandings of ' death ' ( facilitated by medical technology ) , therefore , can pose ethical dilemmas and indeed tensions between family members and medical professionals , who may perceive an individual 's condition in contrasting ways , and demand conflicting clinical approaches . Tensions between the individual 's and/or the family 's wishes and that of the medical profession , are often at the centre of ethical issues involving the care of the critically ill , and many concern the use ( or withdrawal ) of medical technology . As medical technologies have the capacity to restart and maintain organs ( thus keeping the patient alive even if their body is failing ) , this raises profound questions as to when and for how long this technology should be implemented . Issues of ' quality of life ' are fundamental to ethical debates in this area , as was highlighted by the high profile media cases of both , a young child born prematurely and who suffered substantial lung damage , and baby , a baby boy with type I Spinal Muscular Atrophy . , due to her intensive care needs and poor prognosis , was issued with a ' Do Not Resuscitate Order ' ( DNRO ) , so that in the event of respiratory arrest , she would not be revived . Similarly , doctors fought to defend their belief in the ' intolerable ' quality of the life of baby MB ( who could not breathe unassisted and required continual intensive care ) and subsequently their right not to treat him . In both instances , the families insisted that their child had some quality of life that was worth protecting and sustaining , and went to court to uphold this belief . In the case of baby , Judge ruled in favour of the parents in ( the , ) , whereas the family lost the battle to have 's DNRO removed in , as the judge deemed her improvement to have been minimal . As these cases illustrate , the existence of the technology to keep children like baby and alive , present new and challenging ethical dilemmas , in terms of when this technology should be implemented and when it should be withdrawn , to ' allow ' those to die whose quality of life is deemed to be intolerable , or who are already perceived to be socially dead , a practice often referred to as ' passive euthanasia ' . Thus , through the use of medical technologies , death 's boundaries and definitions are fundamentally challenged , through either postponing or even preventing death altogether through the use of life support systems . Ethical debates arise , however , in the decisions regarding when and for how long these technologies should be used ; decisions often monopolised by the medical profession . However , as the case of baby MB exemplifies , it is possible to override such medical dominance , through legal action , and indeed , perhaps one societal response to life support technology could be the increased involvement of independent judgements from courts of law , to consider not only the wishes and views of the family , but also the perceived quality of life for the individual , and the implications for and opinions of , medical staff . In conclusion , the new medical technologies have reconfigured ethical debates in dramatic ways . However , there appears to be distinct differences between ethical issues concerning the future of medical technologies , and how far they should be allowed to go , and ethical debates surrounding their current usage , both warranting differing societal responses . There has been much speculation , fear and ' science fiction accounts ' in the media ( , ) , concerning the direction in which the new medical technologies are taking us . The completion of the rough map of the human genome , research into ectogenesis ( foetal gestation outside of the womb ) , as well as the possibilities of face transplants and xenotransplantation , all point toward a future in which human beings will be freed of the constraints of the body ( disease , disability , ageing and even death ) , to be artificially designed , produced and maintained by medical technologies . However , the degree to which this vision is a realistic possibility is still largely contested , with various responses to such developments indicating not only potential technological problems with this future , but also social , ethical and psychological debates . The threat to human identity , whether this be physically through the introduction of animal organs , or morally through a loss of our ' inherent dignity ' which distinguishes us from other living species ( ) , have provoked varying societal responses . ( ) , in response to the test tube baby , for example , imposed strict legal frameworks on doctors and scientists , on what can ( and can not ) ethically be done to human embryos , thus preventing the ruthless pursuits of medical breakthroughs at whatever human cost . Public debate may also be a useful forum to discuss the futures and ethics of such technological advances , together with greater surveillance of illegal research practices . Aside from the futures of the new medical technologies , their current use has also reconfigured ethical debates , raising profound questions as to when a life begins , when it ends , and what we deem a ' worthwhile life ' to be . Genetic screening , transplantation and the use of life support machines , whilst in many instances alleviating human suffering , also force us to question whose lives are deemed worthy of living , and how far we should intervene to prevent or prolong such lives . In the light of such dilemmas , many disability rights activists have called for greater information and the education of parents on the reality of living with genetic conditions before termination is carried out in cases of genetic defects , or even the abandonment of genetic screening altogether , in order to concentrate on the disabling effects of society , not the impaired individual ( ) . Furthermore , the complex ways in which the new medical technologies reinforce pre - existing inequalities and divisions , perhaps warrants further sociological input into this area . The procurement or theft of organs from those in developing countries for transplantation into affluent ( usually white ) bodies and the ability of infertile wealthy couples to purchase eggs from younger and often poorer donors , for example , reveals the way in which new medical technologies allow for the exploitation of the relatively powerless , whose organs become ' commodities of last resort ' ( , ) ; class , gender and racial inequalities come to be reinforced through the very implementation of new medical technologies therefore , disguised under the rhetoric of ' gift ' and the saving of lives . Any examination of the ethical debates surrounding the new technologies , therefore , needs to take into consideration their implications for marginalised groups and existing inequalities . Medical technologies emerge out of the social , economic and political context of a society , and their existence as well as their implementation is invariably shaped by this context , thus opening up spaces for social , as well as medical and technological research .",0
"< abstract><heading > Abstract < /heading > In this paper I argue that the multiple processes of globalisation are regulated and appropriated by the system of transnational capitalism to achieve its stability and growth . The system has a hierarchical structure consisting of a core , semi - periphery and periphery . This hierarchy is essential to the existence and growth of the structure . To maintain this hierarchy the core tries to use every opportunity made available by the processes of globalisation to achieve its maximum growth . However , I apply the theories of dependency to establish that this increasing development of the core involves the increasing underdevelopment and dependency of the semi - periphery and periphery of the system . Thus , I argue that the core uses the processes and forces of globalisation not only to achieve its own growth , but also to ensure that the other categories maintain their position in the hierarchy . It is in being so regulated by the core of the that globalisation becomes a neo - colonial move . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > The term globalisation refers to a multitude of processes that widen and deepen "" the international flows of trade , capital , technology and information within a single integrated global market "" ( Petras and Veltmeyer ; p. ) . It is these processes of globalisation , which operate at various levels of the global world , that ( TCS ) tries to regulate and appropriate to further its own ends . At the core of this system are the transnational corporations ( TNCs ) and a whole network of national and international institutions that support the operations of these corporations ( Sunkel and , , p. ) . The also comprises of a semi - periphery which consists of the dominant classes of developing and underdeveloped countries , while the periphery of this system includes the remaining population of less - advantaged countries . < fnote > Inspired by the intermediate category of the semi - peripheral nations in 's theory of the world system . In both cases the semi - periphery interacts with the core and periphery , enjoys a medium level of power and income . However , my category of a semi - periphery refers to the dominant elites of the developing and underdeveloped countries , while Wallerstein speaks of semi - peripheral nations . < /fnote > The is based on the aim of profit - maximisation . To attain this aim the core must attain the highest level of growth possible , which necessarily results in the dependence of the semi - periphery and periphery on the core . This goal makes it essential for the core to regulate the dynamics of globalisation to ensure maximum advantage for itself . It is in being so regulated to achieve the ambitions of the core that globalisation becomes a neo - colonial move . In this paper , I apply the perspective of dependency to analyse this - regulated globalisation , for the former enables a complex understanding of the relations between the core , semi - periphery and periphery , which are essential to the regulation and appropriation of global processes by the . Since dependency theory developed and enjoyed its in and , I have also discussed the relevance of using this approach to attain a critical understanding of the present phase of capitalism . The argument is divided into parts . The part is an illustration of the role the plays vis - à - vis globalisation , while in the part the perspective of dependency has been applied to analyse this - regulated globalisation . The part of the argument examines the validity of the perspective of dependency , and is followed by the conclusion where I bring together the observations made in the preceding sections , to prove the claim the title of this essay makes . < heading > and Globalisation</heading > The processes of globalisation operate at multiple levels , and at each level the tries to ensure that these processes serve to achieve its aim of profit - maximisation . In fact , components of the operate at the transnational , international , national and socio - cultural levels to enable the achievement of this goal for the larger system . I illustrate this in the following discussion . At the heart of the are the TNCs . These are the central institutions because the most important decisions , with respect to what to produce , where in the world , etc . , are taken by them ( Sunkel and , p.71 ; and ; ) . These corporations operate on the free market ideology . The processes of liberalisation that characterise the phase of globalisation , as well as the enhancement in technology and in modes of transport and communication , that globalisation enables , are made optimum use of by the TNCs to achieve the aforementioned goal . This is illustrated below . Central to their strategy for achieving this agenda is the enhanced mobility of capital . This allows TNCs to move the processes of production to areas where the costs of production are much lower ; thereby drawing these less developed areas into the structure of transnational capitalism , the implications of which I analyse in the section of the argument . Capital mobility enables TNCs to bid for the lowest labour , social , and environmental costs , leading to a "" downward levelling "" of the minimum standards for the same ( Brecher and Costello , ; ) . While these low protection standards enable the TNCs to earn big profits , the detrimental impact they have on the host country is obvious . TNCs usually carry out the key technological processes in their home countries while the labour - intensive processes of production are subcontracted to their subsidiaries elsewhere ( new international division of labour , analysed in ) . This is precisely what happens in the electronics , information technology and telecommunications industries where , , and transnationals subcontract the labour - intensive operations of reprocessing and assembly to export processing zones in the , , and other developing countries . These subcontracted processes contribute of the total value of the product ; thereby resulting in not much profit for the subcontractors , though it yields great profits to the TNCs from cheap costs of production and from the "" royalties and R&D ( research and development ) costs "" that these corporations incur ( Tujan , ) . TNCs also maximise profits through "" price manipulation "" . They determine the "" CMT ( cut , make and trim ) "" of the supplier as well as the latter 's share in profit . On several occasions these prices are lower than even the costs of production . This unfair expropriation of surplus from the subcontractors eventually results in the exploitation of the workers . Also , workers are very often robbed of job security and do not even enjoy the benefits offered under "" various schemes like agency hiring , short term contracts , and casual hiring as piece rate workers , trainees , apprentices "" etc . Also , the risk of losing their jobs prevents them from forming unions and thus , from securing the "" benefits mandated by law "" or gained otherwise through collective bargaining "" . Even where unions continue to exist they are marginalised . , for instance , keeps its union in control by "" replacing the majority of the work force with contractuals "" ( Tujan ) . The global policies of liberalisation and deregulation have also led to a global free trade market . Free traders advocate the removal of all barriers to trade on the principle of ' comparative advantage ' that is supposed to benefit all . ' Comparative advantage ' implies that every country must specialize in those activities in which it is most productive , and then trade it to its own best advantage . However , this leads to unequal exchange between countries "" ' selling capital - intensive ( thus cheap ) products for a high price and buying labour - intensive ( thus expensive ) products for a low price . This imbalance of trade expands the gap between rich and poor ' "" ( Smith in Shah , ) . Brecher and Costello argue , that with the increased power and reach of the TNCs the implications of "" comparative advantage "" have worsened still . They say that though "" or can set up the same car factory with virtually the same productivity in , , or [ ... ] ' comparative advantage ' leads production to move where "" the advantages of "" cheap labour , poor environmental protection , and low social costs "" are more readily available ( Brecher and Costello ; ) . Free trade based on such "" comparative advantage "" , then , does not lead to benefits for all but to profits for the TNCs alone . Thus , one sees how the TNCs pull disadvantaged economies into the exploitative structure of transnational capitalism , to maximise their own profits at the cost of the latter 's growing dependency and underdevelopment . However , the TNCs do not achieve this end all by themselves . Instead they are enabled and supported by international institutions like the IMF , and , that also constitute the core of the . These institutions of global governance help by regulating the dynamics of globalisation to create a global environment conducive to the strengthening of the . However , in the discussion below I have restricted myself to illustrations that sufficiently elucidate my argument . As discussed above , TNCs get their bargaining power from the presence of a huge number of weak economies . Most of these countries suffer from a major debt crisis which has been further accentuated by ( SAPs ) dictated by the IMF and , ; Tujan ) . The SAPs have been succeeded by the more ' democratically ' formulated . However , since the SAPs have been in the picture for longer than the latter , examining the former 's impact might be more beneficial . Some of the general conditions imposed by the SAPs on debtor countries are as follows : reduced government spending to reduce demand for capital inflows from abroad ; liberalisation of imports to enhance the efficiency of local industries ; export - oriented production for earning the much - needed foreign exchange ; privatisation of state enterprises ( Brecher and Costello , ; Shah 2005 ) . Each of these conditions enhances the bargaining power of the TNCs by rendering the poor more vulnerable and dependent than before . Reduction in government expenditure , for instance , has the foremost impact on funds spent on health care , education and other welfare activities . Reduced government expenditure on education ensures that the future citizens of the country shall remain jobless , or shall have to suffice with low - paid jobs ; this leads to increasing desperation and dependence on whatever the TNCs and IFIs have to offer . Reduction in health care expenditure has even more devastating impacts . According to Ann- , a research associate with , "" cutbacks in health budgets and privatization of health "" have eroded advances that these countries had made before their governments ceded the power of economic decision - making to the IMF and , in order to qualify for their loans in ( , ) . This has resulted in the spread of AIDS and in the reduction of life expectancy by ; thereby rendering a large part of the population unfit for labour - intensive work , which is what most of the population is compelled to do due to lack of education . Thus , the vicious circle reproduces itself , aggravating the problem of underdevelopment and dependency in these regions , which the TNCs exploit to make profits . The SAPs also force countries into export - oriented production . However , according to about fifty developing countries rely on or fewer commodities for of their export earnings , while of those countries rely on the export of commodities for of their total foreign exchange earnings ( ) . It is this production of commodities that prevents export - oriented production from yielding benefits to the respective countries , since commodities are cheaper than the expensive products imported by these countries for their survival ; thereby leading to trade deficits and consequently , to dependency . Thus , the very purpose for implementing SAPs in underdeveloped and developing countries gets undermined , for these programmes cause the reproduction of underdevelopment and dependency rather than leading to much improvement in the condition of these countries ; thereby , creating fertile ground for the expansion and strengthening of TNCs . However , while the IMF and help the TNCs in an indirect way , by creating conditions conducive to their growth , the advocates the interests of the , more directly . The ( like the TNCs ) is based on the free - market ideology and is more powerful than the , for it has "" a legal and institutional foundation , backed by a dispute settlement system . Countries which do not abide by the trade rules are taken to court and can eventually face retaliation "" ( Kwa , ) . "" notorious example of how the upholds corporate power is the TRIPS agreement , which corporations are using to deny poor countries access to low - cost generic versions of patented medicines . "" For instance , produces generic versions of AIDS drugs which imports for a fraction of the price it would pay for the patented drugs . But this has created an uproar in the pharmaceutical industry which has used the TRIPS agreement to challenge this practice ( Yu , ) . The global services sector provides another fertile ground for the TNCs to earn massive profits . "" In , the value of global exports of commercial services [ monopolized by the TNCs ] reached , a increase from . "" This led the and to aim at using the agreement to further open up the services sector of Third World countries , for earning greater profits ( Yu , 2005 ) . Therefore , it is established that international institutions like the IMF , and the , do use their power for global governance to enable and better the functioning of TNCs , which are central to the system of transnational capitalism . However , the contribution of national actors , to this transnational system , can not be ignored . In fact it is precisely this connection between the national government , TNCs and international institutions , that the previous example alludes to . Since the TNCs are transnational institutions , they may or may not have home country ( since mergers and acquisitions are characteristic of this phase of capitalism ) . Yet , they rely on all the government(s ) that have a stake in the former 's development , for the furthering of their ambitions . Countries with the maximum stakes are usually the countries , that also have the greatest sway in the decision - making processes of international institutions . This makes alliances with these national governments highly essential to these transnational corporations . Governments of these countries ( though not all people necessarily ) also benefit from alliances with their TNCs , as is evident from the example on , mentioned above . Thus the governments of rich nations and the TNCs enjoy a relationship of mutual benefits ; each exploiting the opportunities provided by globalisation ( and international institutions of global governance ) to ensure the growth and stability of the . Other national institutions , like educational institutions also support the by producing staff members for all the above - mentioned institutions that constitute the core of the ( Sunkel and , ; ) . For instance , in his critique of the americanisation of , points out that most economists at the bank , irrespective of their nationality and other qualifications , possess a postgraduate degree from a university ; thereby implying the crucial role educational institutions play , in the process of ideological reproduction , which is much - needed for promoting and justifying the existence of the ( ; p.14 ) . "" [ , newspapers of worldwide circulation , news agencies , multinational advertising companies and television networks "" , also share with these educational institutions "" the task of elaborating and diffusing the vision of the world that promotes the interests of the TNCs "" ( Sunkel and , ; ) . The discussion till this point establishes the role the ' core performs in ensuring the stability and growth of the system , through the manipulation of institutions and global processes at the transnational , international and national levels . However , it is not just the dominant but also the dominated , that help to sustain the system that defines their subordinate status . Here I am referring to what Sunkel and call "" transnational culture "" . They define it as the "" cultural feature of the dynamics "" of transnational capitalism that has led to "" the creation of a homogenous market for consumption goods and services on a worldwide scale "" ( Sunkel and Fuenzalida,1979 ; p.73 ) . Not only does it cover the dominant elites in the developing and underdeveloped countries ( mentioned above as semi - periphery ) but is also seen to impact the periphery ( through the use of mass media , etc . ) , leading to their "" partial adoption of these new consumption patterns [ , ] and [ to ] the distortion of the existing ones "" ( Sunkel and , ; ) . The relevance of these patterns , with regard to the dependency argument , is obvious , and shall be elaborated upon in the next section of the essay . The discussion carried out in this section thus establishes how the various components of the enable the channeling of the dynamics of globalisation into the rapid growth of the core , and as an obvious corollary , into increasing the dependency and underdevelopment of the semi - periphery and periphery on the core . It is this channeling of the dynamics of globalisation by the , into securing maximum profits for the core , even at the cost of increasing the dependency of the other categories on the core , that makes globalisation a neo - colonial move rather than a set of free - flowing processes . < heading < /heading > It has been indicated in the previous section that dependency and underdevelopment of the semi - periphery and periphery of the are essential to the latter 's survival as well as to the definition of globalisation as a neo - colonial move . Thus , in this section I elucidate this necessary facet of TCS - regulated globalisation using the theories of dependency . Central to a dependency analysis of the is the structure of the system . As has been mentioned above , the is divided into a core of TNCs and other national and international institutions that support it , a semi - periphery that includes the dominant classes of the developing and underdeveloped countries , and a periphery that includes the remaining people of the less advantaged world . Incorporation into this structure is itself the most crucial reason for the dependency of the semi - periphery and periphery on the core ( Frank 1971 ; p.34 ) . < fnote > It is important to mention here that even though dependency theorists like ( neo - marxist ) and and ( structuralist ) , whom I specifically focus on in this paper , do not speak of a specific category called the semi - periphery , these dominant classes of the developing and underdeveloped world are discussed in their works too . When speaks of the major metropolises in the less developed world which are also satellites to the metropolises in developed countries ( Frank ; pp . ) , and and single out the members of the "" transnational community "" who are based in the developed and underdeveloped countries ( Sunkel and ; p. ) , they are alluding to a stratum of people whom I have categorized as the semi - periphery of the . < /fnote > This incorporation is followed by the assignment of different tasks that constitute the production process , to the strata of the . This is called the new international division of labour . It is this that prevents the independent development of the semi - periphery and periphery , and increases their dependency . However , this dependency and underdevelopment is not the result of this division of labour alone , but is aggravated by the consumption patterns followed by the strata of the , which eventually lead to the formation of a vicious circle of dependency and underdevelopment in the less developed countries . I elaborate on this in the argument that follows . The decentralized process of production , that marks the , is controlled by the TNCs . In the new international division of labour the latter carry out the crucial "" tasks of technological and scientific innovations , overall strategic planning , and financial and manpower management "" ( Sunkel and ; pp.74 - 5 ) while the periphery is assigned the tasks of actual production . Members of the semi - periphery , however , hold an intermediate position in the form of owners of means of production , the bureaucracy , and the likes . Though Gunder wrote in about the "" international monopoly corporations "" , his analysis still holds ground and gives crucial insights into the relations of production shared by these corporations ( both then and now ) , with the semi - periphery and periphery of the respective systems of capitalism . According to , the "" international monopoly corporation "" made huge profits on relatively lower investments . This was because these corporations subcontracted various tasks of the production process to their subsidiaries ( "" medium and small manufacturers "" ) in the "" satellite economy "" , while retaining full control on the processes of production and allocation of profits ( Frank 1971 ; p.327).This obviously led to the corporations ' appropriating profits disproportionate to their investment in the production process , which in turn led the subcontractors to expropriate the share of the workers , resulting in a chain - like fashion of exploitation , as puts it . This expropriation of surplus is what led to the dependence of the periphery on the core and confined the "" satellite economy "" to an extraverted development . As the illustrations in section one prove , these observations stand true for the TNCs as well , though was analysing monopoly corporations . However , it must be noted that there is no semi - periphery here ; for the subcontractors mentioned in this case were only small and medium manufacturers and not the "" ' great bourgeoisie ' "" , with whom these monopoly corporations carried out their next deals of capitalist expansion ( ; p. ) . < fnote > In 's scheme of affairs this refers to the economy of a peripheral country . < /fnote > In the these corporations formed "" mixed enterprises "" with the industrial and / financial groups and the government of ( satellite country to here ) . In these enterprises the actual contribution of the corporations was the "" technological package of patents , designs , industrial processes and the like , while they did not have to bring in much capital by virtue of accepting a "" junior partnership "" in the enterprise , initially ( . ) . However , these organisations soon moved on to take full advantage of their technological monopoly , direct and indirect power over international institutions that funded the increasing balance of payment deficits in , and their financial strength , to extract a greater amount of profit from these "" mixed enterprises "" than their partners . By these attempts to expropriate more and more profits from the enterprise , these corporations ( the core ) forced the "" ' great bourgeoisie ' "" ( semi - periphery ) to increase "" the degree of exploitation of its petty bourgeoisie , workers , and peasants "" in order to squeeze out some extra profits ( periphery ) . In this process members of the semi - periphery antagonised those of the periphery who could have helped it fight a political battle against the unfair appropriation of surplus by the core . This forced the semi - periphery to ally with the core and endure its extraverted development in the expectation of reaping some long - term benefits from the alliance ( Frank 1971 ; pp.328 - 333 ) . By expropriating large amounts of surplus from especially the "" ' great bourgeoisie ' "" , the corporations deprived the economy of the chance for greater capital accumulation and investment , which in turn would have led to a more independent development of the economy . The deficits that this led to combined with the need for infrastructural development that was fast rising , compelled to accept loans from international financial institutions ( IFIs ) like the IMF and ( IBRD ) . This , argues , enabled "" the incorporation through investment finance of economy into the structure of metropolitan capitalism "" . And the conditions the IFIs forced governments to accept along with this investment finance ( discussed in ) plunged the economy into even deeper crises ; thereby , creating the need for renewed and greater dependence on these institutions ( Frank 1971 ; p.339 ) . Thus , establishes how international monopoly corporations as well as the IFIs absorb the workers ( periphery ) , "" ' great bourgeoisie ' "" and government ( semi - periphery ) of developing and underdeveloped countries , into the structure of monopoly capitalism ; thereby , using them for the growth of the corporations and the consequent strengthening of the system that enables this growth in the place . This dependency analysis can certainly be applied to the to gain a theoretical understanding of its workings , as discussed in the previous section . However , with reservation . Though the role played by governments of core countries is implied in the work of , he does not build much on it in his work . Thus , I shall use Wallerstein 's world - system theory to bridge this gap , later in this section . < fnote > Though Wallerstein 's world system theory is not part of mainstream dependency theories , it is often bracketed with it , especially due to the similarity of his core - periphery and semi - periphery paradigm with 's model of a chain of metropolises and satellites . < /fnote > I shall now analyse the through the structuralist school of dependency theory . Even though most of the surplus generated in the production process is appropriated by the core , a part of it does remain with the less developed country itself . However , instead of being saved and used towards increasing capital investment , this surplus is used for the "" rapid diversification of the consumption habits of the ruling classes through the import of consumer products from the developed countries . It is this "" ' consumption dependence ' "" , according to , that leads to the increasing underdevelopment of the less developing and underdeveloped countries ( in Hunt ; p. ) . For , these consumption patterns lead to an increase in the imports of consumer products , which in the absence of "" capital accumulation "" and "" technological progress "" , are paid for by expanding traditional exports and increasing exploitation . Also , domestic production units may be established for these consumer products , which leads to a massive infiltration of TNCs into the domestic economy , and the impact of that has already been established above . However , these production units may also create jobs , though for the middle classes with the requisite technical know - how , while the masses get increasingly marginalised . This reduced purchasing power of the masses has a negative impact on the growth of the domestic market and on the scope for further investment ( in Hunt ; pp.208 - 9).This weak growth of the domestic market further disables it in the face of foreign competition ; thereby leading to a vicious cycle of underdevelopment and dependency . "" ' Consumption dependence ' "" is also the result of certain socio - cultural features of the . The formation of a "" transnational community "" and "" transnational culture "" ( Sunkel and ; pp . - 3 ) , mentioned in section one , help to accentuate this kind of dependence , and the problems it leads to . Sunkel and define the "" transnational community "" as consisting of all those people who possess such specialised knowledge as makes them indispensable to the production processes , and also such control over the TNCs and international institutions as allows them to appropriate the maximum profit from these production processes . All members of this community , belonging to the , and Third World , share a common culture that includes consumption patterns , lifestyles , worldviews etc . , which then explains the "" ' consumption dependence ' "" . Yet the transnational community is spatially divided ; for , the top - most officials of the transnational institutions would stay in the developed countries , where the main headquarters of the core institutions are situated , while the elites living in the developing and underdeveloped world ( semi - periphery ) , would perform the roles of "" administering and implementing "" the global strategies formulated in these headquarters . Due to these "" spatial patterns "" national and local resources are allocated to the formation of a "" nucleus of modernity "" , wherein modern towns and cities are developed while the older sectors decay ( Sunkel and ; p.75).Though this "" transnational nucleus "" is not excusive to the developing and underdeveloped countries it has more serious implications for the same , since the gap between pre - existing societies and this nucleus is very large in these countries ( Sunkel and ; , . While on the one hand the interaction of the "" transnational nucleus "" ( semi - periphery ) with pre - existing societies ( periphery ) renders the latter aspiring for that lifestyle , the growing gap between the leads to dissatisfaction between classes and consequently to social unrest . In such times the role of the state is key to resolving the problem . However , the bureaucracy ( semi - periphery ) , which constitutes a part of the transnational community and thus has special interests in maintaining the semi - periphery 's growth at the cost of the periphery , uses its global and local influence to prevail on the government 's decisions . It promotes the "" transnational nucleus "" as the right start for the development of the whole economy ; for , eventually profits are bound to spill over into the periphery as well ( Sunkel and ; p. ) . However , as discussed above , this kind of dependent development leads to greater marginalisation of the masses and slackens the growth of the domestic market by reducing the purchasing power of these masses ; thus contributing to the vicious cycle of dependency and underdevelopment . The state of core countries also play a crucial role vis - à - vis the dependency of the semi - periphery and periphery of the . Wallerstein 's theory of the world -system proves this . His model of the world economy , is marked by a single economic system , and several political systems . These political systems are divided into the categories of core states , semi - peripheral states and the periphery . He argues that though overtime exchange became unequal due to the operation of "" different wage levels "" in different states , its unequal nature has been "" reinforced by political interference on the part of strong states on weak ones "" . This hierarchy between the core states and peripheral ones is necessary to the reproduction of capitalism as a system ( Wallerstein in Hoogvelt ; p. ) . The significance of this analysis is that it merges the political with the economic ; thereby confirming a convergence in the interests of the and core states . Also , this alliance gives the above - mentioned definition of the term "" neo - colonial "" , strong political overtones . Thus , this section has argued that by their very incorporation into the and the consequent division of labour , the semi - periphery and periphery get locked into a circle of dependency and underdevelopment which further strengthens the core ( as established in ) and leads to the stability and growth of the itself . It has analysed the economic , socio - cultural and political nature of the relationships the core , semi - periphery and periphery share with each other , and has established how "" transnational integration "" ( between the categories ) , by worsening the degree of exploitation of the periphery , leads to "" national disintegration "" ( Sunkel and ; ) . Thus , while the previous section focussed on elucidating how the various components of the enable the regulation and appropriation of the processes of globalisation to achieve the end of profit - maximisation , this section applied the theories of dependency to explain how those attempts to develop the core are sustained by the development of dependency and underdevelopment in the semi - periphery and periphery of the . < heading > The Relevance of a Dependency Analysis</heading > A dependency analysis of the offers a useful understanding of the system . The main reason for this is the critical nature of the analysis it offers ( Cardoso 2001 ; p.80 ) . Unlike the problem - solving theory of modernisation , dependency theory seeks to define the underdevelopment of the less developed countries as the effect of "" the same historical processes that enabled the development of the developed countries in contemporary times ( Hoogvelt ; p. ) . This vision of the world as system , allows dependency theory to offer a more complete and yet critical account of the dynamics that sustain the . Dependency theory also does away with the claims to neutrality that neo - liberalism makes . This is significant to our project of establishing globalisation as a neo - colonial move . This ideology of neo - liberalism is predominant in the and allows the core to exploit the semi - periphery and periphery ; justifying it through neutralising terms like ' free - market ' and ' comparative advantage ' . Most of the literature on globalisation sees "" transnationality "" as having led to the demise of the nation - state ( Kiely ; p. ) . However , the analysis provided by the application of dependency theory above , shows that the transnational system of capitalism can not sustain itself without the support of international and national institutions , which help to regulate the forces of globalisation , that operate at various levels . Thus , by asking for a re - investigation of accepted ' truths ' , dependency theory does not just critique but also offers some new and constructive insights into the true nature of the system . Finally , it is interesting to note that the theories of dependency emerged in and , in as a critique of capitalism . The theory lost currency in the post - cold war period but is being revived and reformulated now . This is because once again the is being seen as an imperialist power and "" warfare state "" , as had named it in ( Frank 1971 ; p.325 ) , using both the media of war and transnational capitalism to establish its supremacy in the world . The perspective of dependency acknowledges the relation between the political and the economic and thus offers a useful interpretation of the current scenario . < heading > Conclusion < /heading > The system of transnational capitalism has a hierarchical structure comprising of a core , a semi - periphery and a periphery . And the paper has argued that this hierarchy is essential to the survival of the . Therefore , it tries to maintain this hierarchy by ensuring , both the rapid growth of its core , and the dependency and underdevelopment of the semi - periphery and periphery on the core . The application of dependency theory has proved that incorporation into the structure of the itself begins the process of underdevelopment and dependency in the semi - periphery and periphery , though the complex relationships shared by the categories of the further reinforce this process . I also elaborated upon the internal structure of the core itself and the role each actor plays in sustaining the . The core comprises of the TNCs , supported by international and national institutions , and these actors use their power at the transnational , international and national levels respectively , to channel the multiple and multi - levelled processes of globalisation into not only the rapid development of the core , but also into strengthening of the core 's power and control over the semi - periphery and periphery of the system . It is in being regulated by the core of the to achieve such ends , that globalisation becomes a neo - colonial move .","The element of consideration is a requisite component of a contract as governed by the common law principles encompassed by the English Law of Contract . It is inherent to the element of exchange through bargaining in contracts , and is needed to validate contracts when found in conjunction with a legitimate offer , acceptance and an intention of the parties to create legal relations . has always been somewhat of an unclear , problematic doctrine , often being left to the courts to decipher in individual cases - a point clearly illuminated by this investigation in question . Traditionally , consideration 's definition is translated into a model of mutual benefit / detriment , as expressed by , J in the case of v. : "" A valuable consideration , in the sense of the law , may consist either in some right , interest , profit , or benefit accruing to one party , or some forbearance , detriment , loss , or responsibility , given , suffered or undertaken by the other "" . < fnote>[1875 ] LR Ex , < /fnote > Looking at consideration in the context of the case of v. , the sufficiency of consideration given by a particular party is contested by the other party over the issue that arose as to whether or not good ( sufficient ) consideration can be given by party simply promising to perform their existing contractual duties . came to a significant conclusion in this case that such performance could constitute consideration when it conveys a ' practical ' benefit to the promisor . This somewhat revised the orthodox legal position on the matter . < fnote > and Nicholls ( Contractors ) Ltd [ 1991 ] 1 QB 1 , < /fnote > Traditionally , the courts had maintained the rule that in situations where contracting party , A , promises to pay an additional sum to fellow contracting party , B , provided B undertakes to perform their existing contractual obligations to A , B 's return promise does not provide sufficient consideration , and that if one party promises to modify their obligations without fresh consideration being provided in return , the promise to vary the original agreement is gratuitous and hence unenforceable . The case of v. classically represents these rules . It was held that a captain was not bound by his promise to pay additional sums to his crew , after the desertion of sailors , if they would complete their voyage as contracted , due to the court concluding that the crew offered no fresh consideration for the captain 's promise . Arguably , the captain enjoyed some ' practical benefit ' in the form of his crew working harder , under greater pressure due to lack of crewmen , and that this could amount to consideration . However this idea was dismissed , the court concluding that the sailors "" had sold all their services till the voyage should be completed "" . Lord Ellenborough placed the most importance on deciphering the legal obligations of the remaining crew , deciding that they had not done anything more than what they were already legally obliged to do under the contract , hence no consideration . The position of the courts was hence established , strengthening the importance of investigating benefits / detriments under contract as a matter of law , rather than as ' factual ' or ' practical ' . < fnote>[1809 ] 2 Camp , 6 Esp < /fnote><fnote > As quoted from Lord Ellenborough - exclusively from 's report [ 1809 ] 2 Camp 318 - 's report has been chosen as authority , after recognition of its distinction over the less reliable report made by Espinasse . Several sources induced this decision , backing 's reliability over Espinasse . < /fnote > The case of v. furthered the authority of this rule . The courts position thus seemed unambiguous . had obtained a judgement for the sum of £ 2090 19s to be made payable in instalments at an interest rate of by . Later , at ' request , a new agreement was made that prolonged the time allowed for debt - payment despite not mentioning any further requisite interest payments . Beer sought to recover this interest after refused to pay it . agreed that there was a - sided benefit being obtained by the new agreement ( had a longer time to pay at no added interest ) and that this agreement should fail for lack of consideration from . < fnote>[1884 ] 9 , < /fnote > How so was it then , that in v. , consideration was deemed sufficient in the form of a promise to perform existing contractual obligations ? We must look at the details of the case . The plaintiff had entered into a subcontract with the defendants , who held the main building contract which itself contained a time penalty clause , to carry out carpentry work in a block of flats for an agreed price of £ . The plaintiff then ran into financial difficulty due to the agreed price being too low for him to operate profitably at . Consequently , a new agreement was made under which the plaintiff would be paid ( £ per completed flat ) . The defendants were wary of incurring the penalty clause that was likely to take effect if they were to try and find a suitable replacement for the existing carpenters . After the substantial completion of more flats , had only received a further £ . He subsequently left the site and sued for remaining payment . judges unanimously agreed to uphold the decision that had awarded the plaintiff £ for such substantially completed work . Crucially , here the judges emphasised the importance of ' practical benefits ' that accrued due to the re - negotiation of the contract - i.e. the assured avoidance of the penalty clause and the mutual benefit enjoyed due to the creation of a system of payment reconciling the haphazard original agreement . It also remained largely uncontested that the original agreed amount of pay owed to the sub - contractors was too low . Lord defined a newly revised legal position , essentially stating that in situations when of contracting parties runs into difficulty and is potentially unable to fully perform their contractual obligations , a new agreement can be legally binding if , through a promise to pay additional sums to the party suffering difficulty , the other party obtains some practical benefit or obviates a disbenefit . Good consideration can be in the form of such promises in these situations , provided the new agreement is not induced by fraud or economic duress . < fnote > It should be noted that the additional sums promised to the plaintiffs were likely to be less than the agreed damages that the defendants would have to pay if substantial delays occurred - Adams and : "" Understanding Contract Law "" , Ch . , p. < /fnote > It is arguable that this rouses ambiguity in the scope of consideration as it appears to contest and hence distort the traditional stance of the courts . On appearance it seems to be in direct contrast to the ruling in v. . was only doing what he was already contracted to do , as were the sailors in , and yet the promise to perform his pre - existing contractual duties was construed as good consideration in the new agreement . Essentially , the court has become ambiguous in the sense that it , on the basis of v. , it now appears to concern itself more with the realism element of the contract and the true intention of the parties - the ' practical ' benefits / detriments seem more significant to the judges than those existing legally . It is a shift from the traditional , pragmatic approach , placing the law in its more modern context - "" a decision inspired by modern market - individualism "" . < fnote > Adams and , Ch . , p. < /fnote > However , the court itself saw the decision as not to overrule the principle established in v. but more to "" refine and limit the application of that principle "" . This seems fair as it is perhaps inevitable and useful that such a long - established precedent relating to such a vexed area of contract law should be placed into a modern arena to be tried and tested . The case of v. was obviously very different to v. , thus it was distinguished by the court . The ' practical benefits ' enjoyed by the defendants , post re - negotiation , made it unconscionable that such a contract should not be upheld for lack of consideration . Furthermore , it is worth noting that cases from the 's , v. and v. had also established a precedent suggesting that performance of existing legal obligations can constitute good consideration in a contract . In Ward , the performance of the pre - existing duty of a mother to care for her child was deemed sufficient consideration for the father 's promise to pay her £ 1 per month to do so . In v. , having deserted her husband , a wife 's promise to ' maintain herself ' ( as already bound to do ) during their separation was construed as being good consideration for his promise to pay for said upkeep . < fnote > , in reference to v. < /fnote><fnote>[1956 ] 1 WLR 496 , Court of Appeal < /fnote><fnote>[1957 ] 1 WLR 148 , Court of Appeal < /fnote><fnote > largely thanks to the liberal approach adopted by Lord Denning < /fnote><fnote > Lord Denning : "" ... a promise to perform an existing duty , or the performance of it , should be regarded as good consideration , because it is a benefit to the person to whom it is given "" . < /fnote > To conclude the discussion , a powerful argument exists suggesting the law has become more ambiguous in relation to the scope of consideration due to the ruling in v. . The courts now seem unpredictable . It is still unclear as to whether they will continue to affirm the traditional approach established in v. and v. and only focus on the construction of consideration from a legal benefit / detriment model ( as approved in the more recent case of ) , or whether they will further embrace the modern benefit - led , policy - sensitive theory of consideration that recognises the significance of ' practical / factual ' benefits / detriments accruing in contracts . However , it is also arguable that perhaps the law has not been made as much ambiguous as it has been re - defined to account for a more modern species of case , extending existing principles established in cases such as v. and v. . < fnote>[1995 ] 1 W.L.R. ; [ ] 2 All E.R. 531 , CA < /fnote >",0
"< heading > Chimpanzees can use signs , but do they have language ? < /heading > Experiments have shown that chimps can use signs ( Fromkin et al , ) . To determine if this means they have language it is necessary to define language . Language can be described within a set of design features ( , ) . I will look briefly at each feature in turn . . Duality . Sign , and spoken , language require gestures and sounds to be formed in a grammatical sequence using a combination of different elements . Individually these gestures and sounds have no meaning , it is the way in which they are combined that makes them meaningful . For example : ' Wants for walk a go ' . This is a possible sequence but it makes no sense unless it is uttered as , ' wants to go for a walk ' . It is not necessary to learn this sequence in order to use it . The knowledge of the rules of our language allows us to choose the correct sequence . This combination of a limited number of meaningless sounds to produce any number of meaningful utterances is known as duality ( , ) . . Displacement . The notion of displacement enables us to communicate how we felt or what we would like to do . It removes us from the here and now and allows us to discuss ideas not related to our present situation or placement . . Open - endedness . This means we can understand things which are completely new , things we have never heard before . If we heard , ' The now speak ' , we would n't necessarily believe it but we would understand it . . Spontaneity and stimuli . We can respond to any remark in any number of ways . When we say , ' wants to go for a walk ' , we could respond by saying , ' Take him ' , or ' So what ? ' it is our choice . We could respond with ' G reen cheese ' and although it makes no sense in this context it is still available to us as a response . Thus , whatever stimulus provokes us we are not restricted in our response . and have been taught to use a limited number of signs ( Fromkin et al , ) . Washoe combined signs to create ' you drink ' or ' gimme flower ' . Nim produced signs to utter ' play me Nim ' . Nim was recorded using a - sign sequence which simply repeated his - sign sequences ( Fromkin et al , ) . Although these utterances could be said to have some meaning they have no syntactic structure . The chimpanzees are unable to form their signs in a meaningful sequence . Neither did they show the ability to communicate outside of their immediate needs or to use their signs to create new combinations which could be described as open - endedness . Nim rarely signed spontaneously , of his responses were spontaneous ( Fromkin et al , ) . He reacted to stimuli by responding to his trainers rather than creating a meaningful sequence of signs of his own . To conclude , in defining language by the creativity which is duality , displacement , open - endedness , and spontaneity , we are assigning it solely to humans . In no experiments have chimpanzees displayed all of these features so I conclude that chimpanzees do not have language . < heading > Children 's reading and writing has to be learned in contrast to their speech . < /heading > By the time the normal developing child reaches school age he is able to comprehend and produce his own language in such a manner as to be communicatively viable . His development will continue but the basics of his sound system and his vocabulary are formed by now . The child is aware that the sounds he hears have meaning but he is unlikely to be aware of the segmental nature of those sounds . Small differences in the sounds will convey meaning without the child needing to know what these differences signify . It is only when a child is learning to read and write that he becomes aware of these sounds as separate words or syllables . and ( ) make this point of children 's understanding of the word ' word ' where , until they learn to read , children have difficulty separating the meaning of a word from its linguistic entity . For example they will identify noun phrases as ' words ' , such as ' the big man ' . Similarly a long word could be ' train ' because of the image the child has of a train . In learning to read the child is learning the arbitrary nature of words and will come to understand that they do not have a direct relationship to what they represent . ( , ) The child has to learn the symbols which represent the sounds he knows before he can read and he has to learn how to form those symbols in order to write . He also has to make the connection that what he reads he can also write and that the represent the sounds he understands ( , ) . As we use spoken language for many different purposes , so we use reading and writing . Children do not automatically associate the writing of words on paper as conveying a message and need to be taught this association in terms of the sounds they make being represented by the characters on the page . At the same time they need to learn the motor skills needed for writing , how to hold the pen , how much pressure to apply , how to position the paper , and even how to move the pen and paper but not themselves . They also need to be made aware of the functional use of writing , who they are writing for and why . ( ) notes that writing is an integral part of the learning process and not separate from it . When children learn to write they are forming individual characters and come to understand that in sequence those characters represent the sounds they know . This helps them to realise the arbitrary nature of words and they come to understand the association between reading , writing , and speaking . In this way we can see that the ability to use the spoken language does not automatically confer the ability to read and write . Reading and writing are skills which require a combination of a variety of skills and are separate from , though inexorably linked to , the innateness of the human ability to use spoken language . < heading > Naturally occurring speech errors provide a window on the adult speaker 's language processes . < /heading > The natural errors adults make in their speech often go unnoticed by the speaker . When they are noticed they often cause amusement to both speaker and listener who little realise their errors are not random . Errors appear to follow a pattern which can provide an insight into how language is processed . By analysing naturally occurring errors we can identify units of speech production as psychologically real . errors occur in all units of production ; sentences , phrases , words , morphemes , syllables , phonemes . They may appear as exchanges , substitutions , reversals , movements or mis - selections and show us the advance - planning nature of speech production ( Fletcher , ) . For example reading list becomes leading list suggesting a phonemic awareness in planning which has gone wrong resulting in this consonant anticipation occurring . We find that consonants never exchange for vowels and we get fill the pool as fool the pill in vowel reversal ( Fletcher , ) . This suggests that consonants and vowels are separate and real units in planning . In a phrasal exchange we get I got into this guy with a discussion for I got into a discussion with this guy . Perhaps the speaker meant to say I got into this discussion with a guy . This still indicates pre - planning and an awareness of syntactic organisation , but the error is now a word exchange . It also shows that by defining target we may be limiting our conclusions about what errors are occurring . We also see syllable exchanges like thirth and forth for and forth and cluster exchanges like stee franding for free standing ( Garman , ) . In selecting a morpheme we may apply an error but we will still apply the correct phonological rule to that error . This is seen more clearly in you have to square it facely for you have to face it squarely where the morpheme ly has not moved with its stem . The awareness of syntactic organisation is highlighted by phrasal exchanges where noun phrases always exchange with noun phrases and verb phrases with verb phrases . Syllable exchanges too maintain their structure , an initial syllable exchanges with an initial syllable , a medial with a medial , and a final with a final . Tip of the tongue phenomena provides an insight into how we store and retrieve language . We may recall the meaning of an intended word but not its form . As a result we begin a search during which we will most likely retrieve information such as the initial letter or sound , the ending , the syllable formation or structure , or any suffixes . This suggests that these different units are stored in different parts for retrieval in a procedure which is sometimes interrupted . The search may result in the word being found or it may need to be revealed . This suggests that we have distinct levels of processing in language retrieval and so in its production ( , ) . To conclude , naturally occurring speech errors provide a window on the adult speaker 's language processes by showing us the points at which the system breaks down and thus allowing us to see how and where the breakdown has occurred ( Garman , ) .","< heading>1 . Introduction</heading > This essay begins with brief descriptions of approaches to investigating males ' and females ' ways of talking , the variationist 's and the language and gender approaches . It then concentrates on language and gender by discussing the theories of deficiency , dominance , and difference and considers the concepts of language as a gendered system and communicative competence where they provide an analytical tool for investigating these theories . Exampled are investigations and resulting suggestions for differences found . Also considered is the relatively new post - modern , or social constructionist , perspective . The focus is on due to space restrictions . < heading>1.1 Variationist approach</heading > Variationism concerns itself with structure and form concentrating on the co - relation between a linguistic variable and or more social variables . Variationists ask ; < quote>'Do males and females use standard and non - standard speech forms in the same way ? ' ( Baxter , 2005 ) < /quote > Labov 's ( ) study of non - standard and Trudgill 's ( ) study of Norwich speakers showed that women consistently use more standard forms than men and men use more vernacular forms than women within the same social class . Trudgill ( 2000:73 ) says this is ' the single most consistent finding to emerge from sociolinguistic work around the world in . Variationism is primarily quantitative and looks at pronunciation , vocabulary , and grammar . < heading>1.2 Language and gender approach</heading > The approach of language and gender is mainly concerned with identities and how identities are constructed through language . The methods used are qualitative and look into semantics , style and register rather than structure and form so that the focus is on meaning and the question asked is ; < quote>'Do males and females use the same language differently ? ' ( Baxter , 2005 ) < /quote><heading>2 . The theories . < /heading><heading>2.1 . The deficiency theory . < /heading > Early work in language and gender by ( ) was based on intuition and personal observation rather than empirical research . focussed on social structure by suggesting women speak a different and inferior language as a reflection of their inferior status in society , something she termed ' woman 's language ' ( ibid : ) . The word ' deficiency ' reflects the perception that this language is deficient compared to men 's whose language is the norm from which women 's language deviates . While Trudgill ( ) suggested that women 's use of standard speech forms reflected their status consciousness 's ( ) theory suggested women 's language showed subordination . She suggested that women were encouraged to use a softer version of male language to reflect their femininity and she described a set of features of woman 's language which reveal their linguistic behaviour as submissive . Holmes ( : ) , using 's terms , characterises the features as ; < list > lexical hedges - ' sort of ' , ' kind of ' . tag questions - ' you 're going , are n't you?'rising intonation on declaratives - turning a statement into a question eg : ' she studies at Reading?''empty ' adjectives - ' divine ' , ' adorable ' . precise colour terms - ' lilac ' , ' cerise ' . intensifiers such as just and so - ' I 'm so glad you came ' . ' hypercorrect ' grammar - using Standard and precise pronunciation . 'superpolite ' forms - ' would you mind ' , ' I 'd appreciate it if ' . avoidance of strong swear words - ' fudge ' , ' oh darn ' . emphatic stress - ' I had a brilliant time ' . < /list > Subsequent research based on these characteristics was flawed by inappropriate interpretations of 's features - her intention was for them to be regarded collectively and modelled as a function for communicating women 's inferior status , not to be used as arbitrary items to be observed individually . Laboratory based research was unnatural so data did not reflect actual language in use ( Holmes , 2004 ) . Results were interpreted statistically , answered no questions and gave no explanations . Empirical research based on 's features of ' woman 's language ' was conducted by ) who suggested a better term would be ' powerless language ' . They investigated language variation in courtrooms by analysing speech of witnesses and discovered that while some women used language as ( ) described some , typically expert witnesses , did not . They also found that men 's language varied in the same way , those of lower social status used more ' women 's language ' , so relating ' powerless language ' to social structure . These findings have been challenged in other research which will be discussed below . < heading>2.2 . The dominance theory . < /heading > The interaction between language and gender and the role power plays in that interaction can be seen in the dominance theory . Like the deficiency theory it too is based on unequal power relations but it focuses on men 's oppressive linguistic behaviour rather than on women 's linguistic inadequacies . and ( ) discuss empirical studies undertaken by and West ( ) which focussed on interruptions made in conversations . Their research showed more interruptions occurred in mixed - sex conversations than in single - sex ones and that it was nearly always men who did the interrupting . They argue that interruptions are a way of controlling conversation and of working out power relations so reflecting a framework in which men 's domineering behaviour is the issue not women 's subordination . Challenging O'Barr and Atkins ( ) , West ( ) conducted research into doctor patient interaction which showed male doctors interrupted their patients more often than female doctors and used interruptions to control the interaction . Female doctors were interrupted as often or more often by their patients than they themselves interrupted . This suggests that gender does have a relationship with power and status contrary to the perception of ' powerless language ' ) proposed . The dominance theory is explored further below within the concept of language as a gendered system . < heading>2.3 . The difference theory</heading > This theory challenges the previous by denying dependency on unequal power relations and viewing males and female 's different communicative styles as a sign that they belong to different sub - cultures ( , ) . Tannen ( : ) has developed this theory saying ' women speak and hear a language of connection and intimacy , while men speak and hear a language of status and independence ' . Arguments against Tannen 's ( ) approach criticise her focus on miscommunication between the genders saying that this ignores studies which show the different speaking styles do allow men to dominate and therefore there is a power dimension involved ( Mesthrie et al , ) . ( ) says it is social arrangements which have separated the genders from early childhood providing each with a different speech style . She too criticises the absence of the power dimension pointing to the principle that although all varieties of a language are linguistically equal there remains a belief that one may be better than another which is based on social factors and enhanced by institutional prejudices not the least of which are power - based . The suggestion of different speech styles relating to men 's and women 's ways of talking will be discussed below within the concept of communicative competence . < heading>3 . The concepts</heading><heading > 3.1 . Language as a gendered system . < /heading > This concept can be viewed against the background of linguistic features highlighted by ( ) . The structuralist theory of linguistics as proposed by states that language determines reality but says that for women does not express or name their feelings . Consequently women 's reality is determined through male language and is systematically gendered through grammar , vocabulary , and pronunciation . She points to an androcentric - male centred - principle which assumes everything in the world is male unless proven otherwise ( ibid : ) . Consequently most of the semantic space of language is occupied by males . There are linguistic features on which focuses to show the bias in favour of men in both syntax and semantics . < list markingSemantic derogationLexical gapsThe false generic he and man < /list><heading>3.1.1 Linguistic marking and semantic derogation</heading > These features are similar although linguistic marking is a less extreme form of semantic derogation . The former refers to terms which mark the female as an exception or deviant where the male form is either generic or neutral . For example ; all animals that bark are called dogs but only female dogs are called bitches . This is also seen in feminine and masculine forms of words for people . For example ; actor / actress , manager / manageress , duke / duchess . ( : ) point out that these terms may refer to ' female ' ( actress ) , or ' wife of ' ( duchess ) . Where actress marks the feminine form the unmarked form actor signals either men or humans in general . Spender ( ) says that there is a systematic basis to linguistic sexism which is not accidental but rule governed and that rule is to do with the pejorative nature of words used for and about women . For example bitch is used as a derogatory term for females . Many feminine forms have become equated with deviance , such as queen for   transsexual or used with reference to prostitution , madam , professional , courtesan , hostess . Spender ( ibid : ) points to work by ( ) which showed not only that there are more words for males than females but also that those words are more positive . This inequality extends to the large number of words for females which suggest sexual promiscuity compared to those for males , serving to devalue women in society through language . ( : ) example the use of mother and father as verbs when they investigate words for women and men . Compare ; She mothered the children in the village for with , He fathered the children in the village for . While mothered suggests nurture , fathered suggests virility . It is interesting to note here that in response to the type of variationist studies undertaken by ( ) and Trudgill ( ) mentioned above ( ) argues that woman 's behaviour is associated with avoiding being seen as ' lower class ' rather than with the desire to be seen as ' higher class ' , and that desire is closely related to the association of the lower class with sexual promiscuity . This emphasises the double standards imposed by society on men and women where prestige is awarded to promiscuous males but shame to promiscuous females . < heading>3.1.2 Lexical gaps</heading > The problem for women expressing their feelings by naming is highlighted by the concept of lexical gaps . The existence of lexical gaps exposes a narrow frame of reference for women making it difficult to articulate meanings for which names do not exist . Spender ( : ) refers to the term sexual harassment which allowed women to name a problem they knew existed but which only became real by its naming . She also uses this concept to point out the ' negative semantic space ' which exists for women in traditionally male professions . The use of lady doctor for example where the term man doctor is simply not used . Or , as ( : ) put it , ' it seems more usual for people to be presumed male until proved female ' . < heading>3.1.3 False generic he and   man</heading > The influence of the false generic he and man is summed up by Holmes ( 2001 : ) who examples an experiment which asked students to choose pictures to relate to chapter headings in a sociology textbook . Where the headings used the generic ' man ' , as in ' Social Man ' and ' Industrial Man ' , students were more likely to choose a male figure than when the headings were non - specific as in ' Society ' or ' Industrial Life ' . and ( : ) example comparisons between dog and man to highlight the bias which results in the use of man to mean male human rather than to be used generically to mean human . Compare ; The dog next door has given birth to a puppy , with , The man next door has given birth to a baby . Where dog is acceptable here man is not . < heading>3.2 . Communicative competence < /heading > The concept of communicative competence was introduced by linguist in and can be defined as having knowledge of a language and having the ability to use that knowledge effectively . Hymes related communicative competence to a sense of appropriateness of language use which people learn in order to function in the world . Knowing when and when not to speak , what to talk about , how to talk about it and how to apply this in different circumstances contributes to the concept of a linguistic repertoire which allows for the multifunctional nature of language use . That is , speakers acquire a repertoire in which they use different styles for different purposes ( , ) . Language and gender theorists ( ) and Holmes ( 2001 ) agree that males and females have different conversational goals where males tend to be more competitive and females tend to be more co - operative . ( ) relates this to a different understanding of what is expected of them resulting in different interactional strategies . and ( ) argue for a cultural approach to the different styles , as does Tannen ( ) discussed below , and they highlight tendencies of style compared to the other as follows ; Asking questions . Women are more likely to use questions as a way of maintaining conversational flow . Minimal responses . Women 's responses are seen to encourage flow and signal support while men use these to show agreement and are often slow to make them or do not make them at all . Tag questions . Women use these to facilitate flow while men use them when they are uncertain . Compliments . Women give compliments on appearance while men compliment actions . Interruptions . Men interrupt more than women , as evidenced in ( ) study discussed above . Inviting contact . Women use names and the pronouns you and we more often than men encouraging others to speak and acknowledging the existence of others in a conversation . Topic control . Men use more mechanisms for introducing and developing topics ( , ) . Men make more judgements and declare their opinions more than women and also challenge others more . 's ( ) investigations into cultural speech preferences were undertaken in varying contexts and led to the approach which perceives gender differences as being like cultural differences . Highlighted is the fact that children interact with their peers of the same gender long before they interact with each other as males and females . In this way they learn to share a speech style with little or no awareness of the style being used by their opposite gender . The issue of gender being perceived as binary in this manner is looked at briefly below . ( : ) sums this up saying that the genders communicate cross - culturally and any misunderstandings will be systematic and predictable . < heading>4 . Post - modern approach</heading > The theories discussed above are not confined within strict boundaries and each may influence the other . While the dominance and difference theories predominated through there is a perspective variously referred to as dynamic or social constructionist ( , ) , or post - modern ( , ) . For clarity this essay will refer to it as post - modern because it will be referring mainly to ( ) who favours this use . A point made by is that neither the dominance nor the difference theories allow for the diverse nature of gender . can no longer be viewed as binary . This shift relates not just to theoretical changes but must be linked to social changes as gender is no longer seen only as a male / female construct . Although this may always have been true it is only relatively newly acknowledged and the argument is that this concept requires new approaches . ( ibid : ) points to research into the language of drag queens by ( ) , and of telephone sex - workers by ) where features of 's woman 's language emerged in the construction of subjects identities . Other researchers , ( ibid : ) mentions , ( ) and ( ) , amongst others , have focussed on gendered performances within specific groups or individuals and have shown speakers to change their position -influenced by the potential perception of themselves which they portray to others . ( ) suggest that the performance of gender can not be seen only as a negotiation of relationships between genders but also within genders . Men and women construct and deconstruct their identities as they resolve issues of participation in the various contexts in which they interact , same sex or cross - sex . They refer to ' communities of practice ' which they define as ' groups whose joint engagement in some activity or enterprise is sufficiently intensive to give rise over time to a repertoire of shared practice ' ( ibid : ) . A final aspect ( ) discusses is economic globalisation which sees men and women sharing more communities of practice . Her own research uncovered a ' feminized ' ( Cameron , ) style among call centre workers suggesting a recognition of women 's speech style as empathetic and so desirable in terms of the situational context of a customer relations interaction . < heading>5 . Conclusions</heading > The theories of language and gender discussed focus on the interactional and multifunctional nature of language and , with the exception of 's ( ) original intuition based work , contextualise gender through actual language use . The differences between men 's and women 's ways of talking have been seen to be systematic but the explanations for these systematic differences can not definitively be said to conform to only a hierarchal dominance position or only to cultural differences The post - modern approach suggests that the identity people create for themselves through their language is not fixed by a set of social variables which is adhered to for life , but maintains a fluidity which relies on a perception of language within a multifunctional framework and allows an identity to be constructed and deconstructed as people move between communities of practice . The social change which has seen 's generation of males and females more similar to each other than in earlier generations in terms of clothing , education , job prospects , and general life choices , has been recognised in the shift of the focus of study from the qualities which identify a man and a woman to social practice . The result has been cultural explanations of language use balanced with interactionally focussed data and explanations . The conclusion is that as the roles of men and women in the modern world become even more multi - functional and even less gender - defined , communication will become more flexible and it will become more difficult to separate gender from other social identities . Maintaining presupposed categories of gender and linguistic behaviour will not allow for the diversity of expression these roles demand so that the interweaving of theories is inevitable and new theories will continue to emerge .",1
"A key factor of the presentation of the narrative voice is ' how writers and readers imagine each other- the difficult balance of identification and differentiation involved in the process of communication or understanding . "" Thus the narrative voice is crucial to the art of communication with the reader . Another role that the narrative plays is to strengthen the structural boundaries of a piece of writing . In the hope of illustrating these points , I have chosen to look at Part II of 's in order to illustrate the role of narrative in relation to the audience , and of Emma , in terms of narrative as relates to structure . < fnote , preface , ' Reading , writing and romanticism ' < /fnote><fnote > All page references and quotes refer to the edition publication , , < /fnote > The ' growth of scientific attitudes in meant that poets were no longer ' society 's bardic representative , giving back to his fellows a heightened version of their own beliefs and aspirations , ' as had been the case for . Whilst previously the tradition of the form- short , relatively simple poetic structures dealing with everyday or commonplace occurrences - had to a large extent sufficed , now poets were increasingly ' interested in certain aspects of human behaviour which eluded control by the rational powers . "" Romanticism grew into a new genre and focused on the theme of Nature , ' particularly those aspects ... which transcended or escaped the ordered patternings of mathematical form . ' is a perfect example of this , as himself described it as ' a poem of pure imagination . ' < fnote > John Beer , Introduction ' Coleridge : Poems ' , < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote > From J. Beer , ' : Poems ' , < /fnote > The study of 's work led to the idea that ' there existed in the universe a threefold correspondence between nature , the human heart , and the divine . "" In , nature plays a key role in the unfolding of the events , as can be seen in Part II with 's frequent references : ' Sun , ' ' sea , ' ' mist , ' ' wind , ' ' breeze , ' ' fog , ' and ' sky . "" Similarly , the ' Human Heart ' significant , as can be seen in own crippling guilt and the reaction of the shipmates , who ' would fain throw the whole guilt ' on him . The ' Divine ' is perhaps the most significant of all , leading some , including , to argue that the sun in can be seen to represent God ;   it is certainly true that the is linked to the in 's own words : < fnote > Ibid , pg 1 < /fnote><fnote > All quotes from , Part II , The Rime of the Ancient Mariner . < /fnote><fnote > , , line , Part II , The Rime of the Ancient Mariner . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , pg < /fnote><quote > Nor dim nor red , like God 's own head , The glorious Sun uprist:</quote><fnote > , lines , Part II , The Rime of the Ancient Mariner . < /fnote > Similarly , it is this ' Sun ' which appears with every change in the ship 's fortunes throughout Part II : both good weather and bad is issued in by the rising of the sun , and as things grow hard on the ship , the sun goes from ' glorious ' in line to ' bloody ' in line , showing the punishing nature of this ' divine ' sun . The pace of the narrative changes dramatically with the changing fortunes of those on the ship . With the opening of stanzas and , the narrative is fast paced , created by the use of predominantly monosyllabic words . As the ship enters , repeated alliteration and uplifting words such as ' flew ' and ' burst ' generate the image of the ship racing through the waves . However , with the sudden ' becalming ' of the ship comes a different sound to the narrative altogether ; slow assonance in ' The bloody , at , ' the repetition of ' dropt , ' and the infertile rhyme of ' speak ' and ' break ' create a sense of lethargy that echoes that of the shipmates . This use of repetition continues through , reinforcing this feeling of lassitude and weariness until the mention of the supernatural in the poem , with the ' slimy things ... upon the slimy sea . "" refers to as ' a poem on delirium , confounding its own dream scenery with external things , ' and this delirium can be seen in the 's increasingly delirious visions of ' death fires ' and green burning water . < fnote > , lines and , Part II , The Rime of the Ancient Mariner . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , line . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , lines and . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid pg , lines and . < /fnote><fnote > J. Beer , pg , : Poems , , < /fnote><fnote > S.T Coleridge , lines and , < /fnote > was known to hold ' contempt for the reading public . "" Indeed the ' consistency with which denounced the reading public has lead to conclude that he was incapable of a generous engagement with his audience . "" This contempt can be seen in the repeated and stressed morality of the poem . ' The implied philosophy of [ is that ] men act evilly because they do n't know what they 're doing . "" It is this ignorance that criticised in the novel - reading public : < fnote , ' case study ( I ): , ' Reading , writing and romanticism , < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote > J. Beer , : Poems , , < /fnote><quote > The habit of receiving pleasure without any exertion of thought , by mere excitement of curiosity and sensibility , may be justly ranked among the worst effects of habitual novel reading.</quote><fnote > From , ' case study ( I ): , ' Reading , writing and romanticism , < /fnote > Therefore it can be argued that found it difficult to connect with his audience , and thus used his narrative form to instruct and condemn . In Emma , on the other hand , is not known to have any such contempt for her audience , which can be said to be the ambitious middle classes . Instead , the purpose of 's novels is to delight her reader with subtle use of humour , irony and satire , all of which can be seen in chapter 41 . That is not to say that she does not have a strict moral code , as argues : ' what happens in Emma ... Is the development of and everyday , uncompromising morality which is in the end separable from its social basis . "" This ' domestic and moralising fiction which is highly patterned ' is particularly visible in chapter in which the word game played by the characters is a direct instruction from Austen to the reader on how to read her novel and in particular this scene . The first word to be discovered in the scene is the word ' blunder ' which obviously and superficially relates to blunder by almost revealing his and correspondence . However , it is a theme central to the plot : blunders with 's feelings , and when she insults . Mr blunders in his proposal to Emma , and blunders in her feelings for Mr. . Therefore we can see that this scene is highly structured , with Austen using the game to heighten the irony . It is also interesting to note the positions of the characters as they engage in the game : Emma and , the liveliest characters in the novel , are the protagonists in producing the game : ' no one seemed so much disposed to employ as their selves . "" Miss is drawn in almost against her wishes , and Mr Knightly is ' so placed as to see them all . "" This can be said to be representative of their characters and behaviour throughout the plot- and being enthusiastic , quiet , and Mr Knightly overseeing the whole affair . ' The responses of the characters to each other are orchestrated in conversations which combine incongruity and complexity of feeling with the greatest possible clarity . "" This careful structuring of the narrative- using the character 's voices to further the plot- is one of Austen 's strengths in Emma . She ' promotes intimacy between her readers and characters by creating characters who are intimate with each other and whose speech reflects this intimacy . "" The novel is ' outstandingly face - to - face ; ' rather than the bold supernatural of 's work , ' its crises , physically and spiritually , are in just these terms : a look , a gesture , a stare , a confrontation . ' < fnote > The Jane Austen Handbook ed . , , < /fnote><fnote > , pg , The country and the city , , , < /fnote><fnote > J. Fergus . Pg , and the novel , , < /fnote><fnote > Pg , Emma < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote > J. Fergus . Pg , and the novel , , < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote > , pg , The country and the city , , , < /fnote > This scene in is deeply significant to the narrative of the novel , as many truths are revealed within it , and it is representative in style of the novel as a whole . In this excerpt we are given the real hint of and 's attachment with his blunder over the carriage . We are also shown 's irony at its best as Mr. and discuss and 's relationship , with Emma insisting that Mr. , the more sensible of the , has made the idea of an attachment up . ' There is no admiration between them , I do assure you . "" of the silliest characters in the novel , and Mr. are also present in this scene , and are vital for 's development of the narrative . These foolish characters ' flatter the reader ' by including in the joke of poking fun at them , and are used critically to highlight the intelligence of other key characters , specifically Emma and Mr. . < fnote > Pg309 , Emma < /fnote><fnote > J. David Grey , pg , , , < /fnote><quote > The typical components of 's comedy are the comic heroine ; the animating powers of mind and triviality , stupidity , and actual or potential immorality ; a clear set of values ; the use of speech and conversation for satirical and witty effects ; a distinctive and habitual irony ; and the movement toward rational love and fitting unison.</quote><fnote > R.M Polhemus , pg , , , < /fnote > All these elements can be seen in this chapter of Emma , and it is this set of guidelines which ' give tension to her art . ' < fnote > Ibid < /fnote > Therefore it is clear that the differences in the way poems and novels organize their stories lies mainly in the narrative structures . Whilst both and use dialogue to further their plots , the wider scope of the novel allows greater use of the tools of irony and satire , whilst 's work relies much more on the supernatural . Both works are deeply psychological , with 's emphasis on the damaged psyche with the mariner , and 's on the psychology of everyday life . ' She provided the emphasis which only had to be taken ... into a different social experience to become not a moral but a social criticism . ' < fnote > , pg . The country and the city , , , < /fnote >","< heading > A taste of things to come</heading > Identifying definition of community is extremely problematical as it is subject to such a wide range of interpretations . Can it be identified by geographical location , inclusion in certain social or cultural groups , or shared interest ? ( Clarke ) . Also with education , what constitutes education differs enormously based on the situation or requirement eg academic achievement or learning how to bake a cake . So finding a standard definition or system that suits every circumstance and perspective is far from easy - it will vary depending on a multitude of criteria . This essay tracks community education from its roots in where it had a cosy yet paternalistic feel , through radical changes which challenged traditional methods and thinking . It also considers the explosion of the education ethos of 's learning society , and discovers how collective learning can still take place in an environment that encourages a more individualistic approach . By studying the different and varying initiatives that have been used across time it examines their impact and successes of them as well as questions whether progress is really being made towards using community education to transform lives at a macro level . < heading > Knowledge</heading><list><heading > Key words : community learning programmes , integrational , social , paternalistic , non - academic</heading></list > is considered to be the founder of community education when , during his as Chief Education Officer , he introduced what were quite radical changes to the education system . of his main concerns was to provide an educational service to rural areas which equalled that in the towns - "" to change the whole face of the problem with rural education "" ( Rée 1973:31 ) . He believed everyone should have equal access to learning and was keen to preserve community life , which he felt was disintegrating as villages left rural areas to seek work in the towns . The ' village college ' , was opened in in and provided reading rooms , recreational and sport facilities , meeting rooms for local groups such as and scouts and offered classes - it was to be the focal point of the community . ' reforms were driven by his early experiences in education and based on his interests in religion , science and the arts . The retention of religious education in the new education system was a major debating block as control for education was wrestled from provision . The influences of ' ideals in mixed sex and class education and national curriculum can be seen in 's educational arrangements . Whilst there must be plenty of praise for the work undertaken by and his transformation of the educational system , the situation can be viewed as paternalistic or controlling society by being controlled by the establishment . Radical education grew out of the Enlightenment . Expanding human nature via analytical and scientific thought challenged moral and religious values ( and liberalism - ' education for its own sake ' ( Johnston ) ) which underpinned traditional models of education ( in ) . Since most early education was provided by the the idea of ' people 's knowledge ' - where the focus is on making up ones ' own mind - was considered radical and threatening to the social order ( in ) . Early radical educators included and , these were later replaced by tutorial and residential colleges such as Ruskin and . The age of "" really useful knowledge "" was born . The aim was "" to help working class people understand their world and the institutions that affect their lives "" ( in : xiv ) . However , of the key points raised by is who produces the knowledge and for what purpose ? confirms the hegemonic nature of education by stating "" is not intending to teach the most useful knowledge but to teach only that which might be profitable to the unproductive "" ( Lovett : xxi ) . Despite this argument , the focus of radical education was to find collective and co - operative solutions rather than individualistic ones . Another important institution in the education arena was , which held a liberal approach to education by encouraging equality of access to learning through communal readings , discussion groups and newspapers . Education was seen as part of the political movement , the focus being on non - academic learning . < heading > Community Empowerment and Liberation</heading><list><heading > Key words : community power , liberating , democratic / against establishment , choice , dialogical , participation</heading></list > The 1970s saw a growth in educational initiatives to increase community participation in learning eg community centres , community schools , , neighbourhood centres and community development projects ( Lovett ) . In the midst of crisis of mass unemployment and changing skill requirements education is seen as the solution to return economic health to the nation . The difference from the traditional model is to encourage the working class to take control of their own education and to link that education to a process of social and community action ( Lovett ) . However , this is no easy task , but a new link had been made . case studies for consideration are those of ( ) project in - 1968 ( Lovett ) and ( ALP ) in - 1979 to 1984 ( Crowther et al 1999 ) . The project used action research to investigate educational inequalities in an area which had approx inhabitants , with high unemployment , bad housing , low wages and semi or unskilled workers . The overall aim of EPAs post was to redress imbalances of inequality in disadvantaged areas , positive discrimination becoming the new buzz word . Early in the research it was identified how difficult it was to establish a ' one size fits all ' proposal for change due for instance to the conflicting views of the area by the residents . Those occupying neat houses had a good sense of community and did not relate to the depravation label . The project identified the need for the working class to be included in the political arena in order for them to be represented and bring about change , this could only be brought about by radical education which would replace the traditional middle class system that existed . The project met many obstacles along the way and used reflection and further action to work towards the aims of the project . Based on the work of , the in used reflection and action ( praxis ) as the basis for the project . 's work in and questioned the use of education by the state to control the people , was critical of the ' banking system ' of education and acknowledged the value of life experiences not just academic knowledge . The introduced a student centred approach using way relationships ( dialogical ) to encourage collective and cultural learning ; so that knowledge gained could be used in everyday lives . The findings of the project added a word of caution in that this method of working needs to be introduced slowly as learners felt the method was unstructured when compared with traditional methods - time for them to adjust needs to be allowed . Although the work of is considered ground breaking , there are criticisms that it is not substantial enough , is vague and could therefore be misused , is not clear enough when dealing with certain issues eg cultural requirements and in the dialogical process could the most vocal become the new oppressors ? ( Allman in ) . However , changes in community can also affect changing roles eg the position of women . The POWER project established in is a good example of how groups of women changed their lives by establishing , and eventually running , education programmes . The results , which provided great strides forward for the participants in terms of personal development and community involvement , still left them excluded from the decision and policy making arena that determined their environment ( NIACE 2000 ) . When attracting the working class into education consideration needs to be given to the language and cultural barriers that exist ( in ) . A small example of this is shown in McGivney 's research where participants in education activities sponsored by the , did not relate such informal learning as writing workshops and discussion groups to learning or education ( McGivney ) . < heading > The Learning Explosion</heading><list><heading > Key words : individual empowerment , academic / economy , progressive , active citizenship , voice</heading></list > Globalisation , competing market forces , new technology and an emphasis on maintaining economic stability in a world which appears increasingly more ' risky ' , has promoted the ethos of ' lifelong learning ' and a drive towards ' learning societies ' . As a result , new ways of including ' communities ' that are excluded due to inequalities eg education , gender , race , age or geography ( Johnston in Field and Leicester 2000 ) have become a focal point . As well as individuals being encouraged to take responsibility for their own ' employability ' , and reduce their dependency on the state , active citizenship ' is being promoted . By valuing skills and experience other than academic achievement and an introduction of a multitude of initiatives attempts are made to include excluded groups in decision - making processes eg community projects , neighbourhood regeneration schemes and community education provision , thereby increasing their involvement . ( ) believes in a staged process towards citizenship that can be brought about via education . Growing social and economic inequalities and a decline in social cohesion , resulting in increased crime rates , evidences social exclusion and has prompted an explosion of education as the solution ( in in Field and Leicester 2000 ) . This means that community educators are being presented with new challenges to identify educational needs that are learner rather than subject driven . Central to the discussion on community education is the issue of participation and how to widen participation ( Johnston in Field and Leicester 2000 ) . is an initiative funded by the to encourage adults ( ) back into learning - mainly with the view to improving their employment prospects . During learners attended courses , which last , and can be accessed via colleges , community centres , libraries , supermarkets or even pubs . However , in have gone on to further learning ( website ) . This seems to have missed the aim of widening participation and does little to promote collective learning or encourage using learning to transform lives . It could , however , be a small starting point for some on the road that leads to improved confidence and self discovery , or eventually challenge traditional ( academic ) thinking . By supporting each other through dialogue , soliciting partnership interaction and starting with their own experiences in challenged the oppressive role of women in society . Their work is a shining example of how voice can be used to make collective changes at both a personal and political level ( Thompson ) . Amongst all the rhetoric of the ' learning society ' and the numerous government initiatives to promote learning and active citizenship via education , it is difficult to sometimes see how community educators can find the flexibility to meet the needs of the target groups . Johnston ( ) believes success can be achieved within the confining policy parameters by linking theory to practice , linking institutional and community based actions , creating new alliances , building on small victories and continuing to use praxis . ( lecture notes ) sees building relationships and providing learner centred programmes as key to success . < heading > The challenges of The identification of definition of community education is problematic in that the concepts of both community and education have such diverse components - "" elastic and flexible "" as described by in Field and Leicester 2000 ) . Both elements are affected by time and space as well as economic climate and political opinion and can be representative of a dominant group . It can be seen , therefore , that community education has had many guises and varying successes . From of , a cosy feel to community education was developed , which provided a somewhat paternalistic and controlling environment - albeit in the best interests of the people involved ? With the advent of radical educators , traditional concepts were challenged and replaced with education for liberation from oppression by using praxis as a key tool ( Freire , in ) . Peoples lives could be changed by themselves for themselves , but still within the confines of policy dictates . ( Lovett ) . Notwithstanding the wealth of models of community education ( ) already in existence and with the recent learning explosion prompted by golobalization , economic instability and increased market competitiveness the provision of community education has become diverse and fragmented ( Johnston in Field and Leicester 2000 ) . Added to this 's concept of providing education to meet learners ' needs , the potential for educational initiatives is vast . Whilst this offers a wealth of opportunity in some respects , can it ever collectively be sufficient to challenge the systems it sets out to change ?",0
"< heading > Referral information Source of referral and a summary of key information</heading > was referred to the fracture follow up clinic at   hospital on   after being seen at on   following an ankle injury < heading > History All relevant information gathered from the patient about the presenting illness , co - existing problems , current treatment , significant past medical history and the social and family background . The patient 's view of the nature of the problem and their expectations for treatment.</heading><heading > Presenting Complaint</heading > Right ankle injury with persistent pain . < heading > History of presenting complaint</heading > attended on   after injuring his right ankle whilst playing football in the garden . The patient described an inversion injury to the right ankle which immediately became painful and swollen over the lateral malleolus . The most severe pain localised was described as being over the lateral malleolus .   had a decreased range of movement in the ankle joint ( dorsiflexion , plantarflexion , eversion and inversion ) . and felt unable to weight bear on the ankle immediately after the injury .   was provided with crutches and a below knee plaster of paris cast at A&E. < heading > Past Medical History</heading><list><heading > Medical</heading > Fracture left radius asthmaNo anginaNo epilepsyNo No previous surgery</list><heading > Social History</heading > lives with his parents in   and is currently employed in a temporary office job . The patient does not smoke and drinks units of alcohol per week . < heading > Allergies</heading > There are no known allergies < heading > Medication</heading > No medication < heading > Family History</heading > Father suffers from hypertension No other significant family history < heading > Systems Review</heading > Cardiovascular system No chest pain , orthopnoea or PND . No oedema No shortness of breath or cough . No wheeze or haemoptysis . Gastrointestinal System No nausea , vomiting or significant weight loss . No dysphagia , no change in bowel habits . Genitourinary System No change in urinary frequency , no incontinence . Central Nervous System No headaches , blackouts or visual disturbances . < heading > Analysis of history The most likely single cause of the presentation , other possible causes and reasons for these choices . The findings to be looked for on physical examination to help decide the cause.</heading > The mechanism of injury suggests that   has sustained an acute traumatic inversion injury to his right ankle . Injuries around the ankle joint can damage the bones , ligaments and soft tissues and the mechanism and force of the injury determines the extent of this damage . A sprained ankle is a common inversion injury with twisting of the weight bearing foot . The lateral ligament of the ankle joint is more commonly injured as it is weaker than the medial ligament . The lateral ligament is composed of parts : < list > the anterior talofibular ligament ( flat weak band)the posterior talofibular ligament ( thick fairly strong band ) the calcaneofibular ligament ( a round cord ) . < /list > During an inversion injury the fibres of the anterior talofibular ligament are the to be damaged , as they are the weakest component . The mechanism of 's injury would suggest damage to the lateral aspect of the ankle joint as this was described as being the site of most severe pain and swelling immediately after the injury .   may have sustained a strain or tearing injury to his lateral ligament . On examination , a ligament is more likely to be a strained if bruising is light and torn if bruising is severe . The anterior talofibular ligament extends anteromedially from the lateral malleolus to the neck of the talus . On examination pain may therefore be felt over the anterior part of the ankle joint where the ligament has its attachment . In severe sprains following an inversion injury , the lateral malleolus of the fibula may also be fractured . This is supported by the fact that   felt unable to weight bear on the limb immediately after the injury . The ankle rules suggest that if the patient is unable to weight bear immediately after the injury or at the time of x - ray , there is an increased risk of a clinically significant fracture and an unstable injury . However this is not diagnostic . If the malleolus is pushed off it usually fracture obliquely , if it is pulled off it fractures transversely . Weight bearing on the joint should be assessed on examination . Clinical examination may help to determine whether there is any bony deformity in 's joint . Any asymmetry to the contour of the ankle joint may indicate that an underlying fracture has become angulated or displaced .   does not remember hearing any significant noises when he injured the ankle to indicate that a fracture might have occurred . There is no previous history of trauma to the right ankle to indicate any weakness in the stability of the joint . The entire length of the fibula should be examined for tenderness to rule out a more proximal fracture . Examination of the joint above and below the injured joint should also be conducted to rule out any concomitant injury . The limb should also be examined for any signs of neurovascular deficit . < heading > Physical examination Highlight the findings most relevant to your clinical problem solving by underlining them</heading><heading > General Examination < /heading > On examination   was lying on the bed and looked comfortable and alert at rest . There was a below knee plaster of paris cast on the right leg and crutches at the bedside . There was no finger clubbing , jaundice , anaemia , clubbing , cyanosis , oedema or lymphadenopathy . < list><heading > General Observations</heading > Pulse - 64 regularBlood Pressure - 140/76Respiratory Rate - 14 pmTemperature 35.9 C</list><list><heading > CVS:</heading > No scars or deformities . I + II + 0 JVP →</list > RS : Clear vesicular breath sounds < list><heading > GI:</heading > Abdomen soft and non tender , Bowel sounds normalNo masses or organomegaly.</list > CNS GCS 15/15 < heading > Musculoskeletal Examination</heading><heading > Look</heading > The plaster of paris cast was removed . There was a general swelling of the ankle joint with bruising over the posterolateral aspect of the foot and around the lateral malleolus . No obvious scars , blisters or damage to the skin . No obvious bony deformities or muscle wasting . < heading > Feel</heading > On palpation the right ankle was warmer than the left . There was tenderness over the anterior and lateral aspect of the ankle joint with localised severe tenderness over the region of the lateral malleolus . There was no tenderness over the medial aspect of the joint , the forefoot , calcaneum or calf . No loss of sensation or evidence of ischaemia to either leg . The posterior tibial pulse could be palpated on the right leg . No tenderness over proximal tibia or fibula . < heading > Move</heading > Decreased range of movement , no crepitus felt on movement . Pain elicited on dorsi and plantarflexion of the foot . < heading > Gait</heading > had an antalgic gait but was able to partially weight bear on his right ankle with the use of a crutch in the left hand . Knee Joint examination - No abnormalities detected . < heading > Analysis of history and examination Reasons for your choice of the cause of the patient 's problem(s ) and any other cause that still needs to be considered at this stage</heading > The findings on examination are supportive of a fracture to the distal fibula .   was able to weight bear on the ankle suggesting that the fracture is stable , however this will be confirmed on x - ray . Tenderness was also elicited on palpation of the anterior aspect of the ankle joint line . This would suggest that the anterior talofibular ligament has also been damaged . No tenderness was palpable over the metatarsal , proximal fibula or the knee joint suggesting that there are no concomitant injuries at these points . Ankle fractures are classified according to the Lauge Hansen and the Danis Weber classification systems : system is based on the suspected mechanism of injury . In each category the injury begins in a specific anatomic location and progresses sequentially about the ankle creating the injury described . The mechanism of   injury would be classified according to ) category : SE I - Disruption of anterior tibiofibular ligament oblique fracture of the distal fibula originating near the level of the tibial plafond SE of the posterior tibiofibular ligament or fracture of posterior malleolus SE IV - Oblique fracture of medial malleolus or rupture of deltoid ligament The examination is consistent with an SE II fracture of the lateral malleolus of the right ankle as there is localised tenderness over this area . There is no tenderness posteriorly or medially to indicate an SE III or IV fracture . classification system is based on the level of the fibula fracture : Type A - fibula fracture below tibiofibular syndesmosis Type B - fibula fracture at level of syndesmosis Type C - fibula fracture above syndesmosis Both classifications can be confirmed by radiological examination . < heading > Acute Management</heading > This should involve analgesics for pain , immobilisation and patient comfort . Swelling is usually rapid and severe and so the acronym should be used ; , Elevation ( above the level of the heart ) and Compression , to reduce the swelling . This protocol was observed in the initial management of 's injury and on examination there was a moderate general swelling over the ankle . If the swelling is not managed in the initial stages , definitive treatment may have to be delayed so that the swelling can subside . Most decisions on treatment for ankle fractures are based on the radiological examination . The patient should be advised not to weight bear on the ankle until definitive treatment is initiated . Ligament damage can also be assessed on x - ray by looking for any widening of the tibiofibular or medial joint space or tilting of the talus . < heading > Formulation of the patient 's problem(s ) Encapsulate this in physical , psychological and social terms ( the triple diagnosis)</heading > is a male who has sustained a SE II injury to the right ankle . mobility is obviously impaired and he is reliant on crutches to mobilise at present . It is unlikely that   will require a significant time of work to recover as his current employment does not require a lot of weight bearing . Psychologically -   did not appear to be affected psychologically by the injury he has sustained . However recovery from the fracture will require patience on his part so that the bone and soft tissues are given adequate time to heal and he may feel apprehensive about putting weight on the ankle joint initially . currently lives at home and feels that he will be well supported by his parents during his recovery . It is important that his parents encourage him to mobilise gradually . < heading > Management Use the framework of RAPRIOP to structure your proposed management . to the guidelines to the writing of portfolio cases for the details of the issues to be addressed under each heading.</heading><heading > Acute management in A&E</heading><list><heading > Investigations and observations</heading > General Observations - HR , BPX - Ray right ankle joint ( , lateral and oblique views ): < /list><picture/><heading > Prescription / medical intervention</heading > Analgesia : Co codamol - compound analgesic ( paracetamol and codeine phosphate ) - for moderate to severe pain steroidal anti inflammatory drug used to reduce pain and inflammation Immobilisation : Below the knee plaster of paris cast was applied to the leg in < heading > Reassurance and explanation</heading > Mr , the results of your x - ray show that there is a fracture of your fibula - the bone running on the outside of your leg from the knee to the ankle . You have not broken anything else and will not need an operation to repair the bone . Are you able to stand on both feet using the crutch in your left hand ? - YES Now use the crutch in your left hand to take some of the weight and see if you are able to take a step with your right foot . - YES There is no need for you to have a new plaster cast fitted , you can use the crutches to get around and put weight on the ankle to a level that is comfortable for you . We will review the ankle in in our outpatient clinic . Do you have any questions ? < heading > Referral and team working</heading > Referral to the fracture follow up clinic on following the injury . Referral to the outpatient fracture review clinic in time . Referral to physiotherapy after   has been seen in the follow up clinic if movement of the joint is limited . However range of motion and strength returns quickly in young patients , and referral to a physiotherapist may not be necessary . < heading > Advice and Prevention</heading > should be encouraged to rest the ankle in order to reduce any further damage .   should also aim to elevate the leg above the level of the heart and use ice indirectly ( i.e. wrapped in a towel ) over the ankle joint in order to reduce the swelling . Many of the problems associated with ankle injuries are due to the presence of blood and oedema in and around the joint . This restricts the range of motion of the joint and can act as an irritant causing excessive synovial reaction . As well as ice , compression and elevation , it is important for the   to avoid factors which will promote blood flow and swelling , e.g. hot showers , heat rubs , alcohol , excessive weight bearing . After   is seen in the follow up clinic he should be encouraged to aid his rehabilitation at home by performing calf stretching and strengthening exercises and exercising the range of movement of the ankle joint . As the fibula is involved in maintaining the stability of the ankle joint , balance training and proprioception are also an important part of rehabilitation . < heading > Outcome A description of the progress of the patient as far as possible . This should include consideration of further issues to be resolved . Where appropriate you should contact by telephone patients who have been discharged home.</heading > The patient has been issued with a follow up appointment for time to be seen in the fracture review clinic . < heading > Evidence based care and issues for research A brief consideration of the evidence base required for the diagnosis and management of the patient 's problem(s)</heading > The ankle is a weight bearing joint which can withstand forces of times an individuals body weight during walking and running [ 1 ] . The fibula itself bears up to individual 's body weight . Ankle ligament injuries occur frequently and if associated with fractures have a prolonged healing period [ ] . Management of fractures can be divided into operative and non - operative . The choice between the depends on the type of fracture , its stability and the patients age . The fracture is classified as being stable or unstable - a stable fracture requires minimal splinting whereas an unstable fracture may require reduction and internal fixation . Fractures above the level of the tibial plafond are assumed to include an injury to the syndesmosis . These fractures are very unstable and a syndesmosis screw is usually required to stabilise the injury . When reviewing x - rays of ankle injuries it is important to check for the most commonly missed foot and ankle fractures ( mnemonic ): < list metatarsal baseLateral process of the talusOs trigonum or posterior malleolusAnterior process of the calcaneusTalar dome < /list > In the case of , the x - ray confirmed a Weber B / SE II fracture to the right lateral malleolus . The fracture was not displaced and was therefore classified as stable . In the past such fractures have been managed using casts or braces . However , it is now thought that unconstrained movements of an isolated lateral malleolus injury do not lead to abnormal joint kinetics . Therefore , many of these fractures are now managed without a cast and with immediate weight bearing when comfortable for the patient . A comparison of conservative methods of treatment for isolated SE II fractures of the lateral malleolus showed that treatment consisting of immediate weight - bearing and mobilisation resulted in earlier rehabilitation than immobilisation in a plaster cast [ ] . The same study found that there were no reported complications associated with early mobilisation of the SE II fractures and no difference in the pain experienced by the groups [ ] . These findings were supported by another study in which patients were treated with an elastic bandage and immediate weight bearing [ ] . However , both studies contained groups of a small size and so further evidence is needed to confirm such findings . Early mobilisation reduces muscle wasting in the leg promoting a quicker recovery . The fracture should be reviewed and x - rayed after to ensure the fracture has not become displaced . < heading > Commentary A commentary on issues of health care delivery , ethical issues or disability relevant to the patient and/or problem</heading > In the case of a fracture , most patients would expect to be placed into a plaster cast to enable the fracture to heal . However this is not always the case as has been highlighted by Mr . It is important to explain to the patient the reason why the fracture does not require a cast . The fibula obviously plays an important role in the stability of the ankle joint and the mortise structure . However , should a section of bone be required for transplant to another region , the fibula is often the bone of choice . It is also to have an idea of the type of lifestyle the patient leads . If the individual is unlikely to be able to rest the fracture and then a cast may help to improve healing by preventing excessive movement of the injury which could lead to non union . < heading > Impact on your learning Describe what you have learnt from this case</heading><list management of ankle injuries with suspected fracturePresentation of fractured fibulaClassification of ankle injuries Methods of treatment for closed fractures of the fibula</list >","< heading > Referral information Source of referral and a summary of key information</heading > was admitted to   hospital on the   for a right elective total knee replacement carried out on the .   has suffered with osteoarthritis of the right knee for but stated that the she has been experiencing increased pain in her right knee over the past 3 - 4months . < heading > History All relevant information gathered from the patient about the presenting illness , co - existing problems , current treatment , significant past medical history and the social and family background . The patient 's view of the nature of the problem and their expectations for treatment.</heading><heading > Presenting Complaint</heading > Pain in the right knee which has increased in severity over and decreased mobility . < heading > History of presenting complaint</heading > stated that she has suffered with pain in the right knee from arthritis for and uses a walking stick to mobilise .   stated that until recently she has been able to cope with the pain . The pain was described as being a dull aching pain which has increased in severity over with occasional sharp shooting pains .   rated the pain at ( being the worst pain ) with occasional episodes of increased severity . The pain is situated on the medial aspect of the right knee and does not radiate . There is no associated morning stiffness and the pain does not wake   during the night .   did not report any locking of the knee or giving way .   reported that the knee feels stiff after sitting and that mobilising aggravates the pain .   is unable to walk comfortably on the flat despite the use of a walking stick . The pain is most severe when walking up stairs or an incline . There is occasional swelling of the right knee and   feels unable to put weight onto the knee due to the pain .   has used analgesic cream in an effort to relieve the pain but stated that this only had a mild effect . In   she had a Depo Medrone injection to her right knee , which was unsuccessful in relieving the pain . < heading > Past Medical History</heading><list><heading > Medical</heading > AnginaAtrial Fibrillation ( paroxysmal)Polymyalgia RheumaticaOsteoarthritis right knee and shoulder jointHypertensionMild mitral regurgeRestless leg syndrome ( epilepsyNo DVT / PENo MINo Stroke</list><list><heading > Surgical</heading > Right thyroid lobectomy 1990Varicose Vein stripping post operative nausea and vomiting</list><list><heading > Allergies</heading > PenicillinCodeine ( violently take aspirin based medication due to mg sparing diuretic used for the treatment of 's oedemaAtorvastatin 10 mg OD Statin ( HMG inhibitor ) prescribed for 's high cholesterolPropafenone 300 mg arrhythmic used for 's paroxysmal atrial fibrillationRamipril mg used to treat 's hypertensionPrednisolone 2.5 mg used for 's Polymyalgia RheumaticaPrednisolone 5 mg used for 's RheumaticaParacetamol 1 g analgesic , used in the treatment of mild to moderate painWarfarin Anti coagulant used for emboli prophylaxis due to 's atrial fibrillationGTN spray used for the treatment of 's angina</list><heading > Social History</heading > is a retired cleaner who lives on her own in a bungalow .   has daughters who live nearby .   is self - caring in terms of managing her personal hygiene and general cooking . However her current mobility status means that she is unable to shop for herself and she requires the assistance of her daughter for such activities . However ,   stated that both of her daughters now have their own families and she does not like to bother them with such tasks .   has never smoked and does not consume alcohol . < heading > Family History</heading > No significant family history < heading > Systems Review</heading > Cardiovascular System   has angina for which she uses a GTN spray and hypertension . No orthopnoea or PND . Occasional oedema No shortness of breath or cough . No wheeze or haemoptysis . Gastrointestinal System No nausea , vomiting or significant weight loss .   suffers from constipation and has taken medication which has had no effect . Genitourinary System No change in urinary frequency , no incontinence . Central Nervous System No headaches , blackouts or visual disturbances . < heading > Analysis of history The most likely single cause of the presentation , other possible causes and reasons for these choices . The findings to be looked for on physical examination to help decide the cause.</heading > The most likely cause of 's right knee pain is osteoarthritis ( and this was indeed her diagnosis ) . Osteoarthritis is a disease of the synovial joints characterised by loss of articular cartilage and periarticular bone response ( osteophytes , bone cysts , subchondral bone sclerosis ) . By of all people have some degenerative changes in the weight bearing joints [ 1 ] and the prevalence of increases with age . can affect many joints with the hip and knee being the major cause of disability . < list><heading > Symptoms of include:</heading > Joint painGelling ( stiffening and pain after immobility)Joint instabilityLoss of function</list > described of the above characteristic symptoms of ( highlighted ) supporting such a diagnosis . ' symptoms have been getting progressively worse and this is another salient feature of . Symptoms of are generally worse in knee although both knee joints can be affected . Signs to look for on examination to support a diagnosis of are tenderness on palpation of the right knee joint , crepitus of the patellofemoral joint on movement and a limitation of the range of movement . The knee joint may also be unstable with evidence of effusion and wasting of the quadriceps muscles . Palpation of osteophytes along the joint line may be possible . There may also be a varus deformity of the leg depending on which compartment of the knee joint if most affected by the arthritis . Differential Diagnoses : Referred pain from the hip joint - Although   describes the pain she feels as being related to the knee it is vital that the hips are examined . Pain from the hip joint can radiate to the knee as both joints have the same nerve supply . e.g. arthritis ( ) - RA is a systemic inflammatory arthritis involving small and large joints . Pain and stiffness is worse in the morning and can last for compared to where the post rest pain is of shorter duration . On examination the knees are painful , swollen ( due to synovial thickening ) and warm to the touch . Bow - leg , knock knee , or flexion deformity may occur .   did not report pain in any other joints making this a less likely diagnosis . On x - ray the bone appears osteopaenic compared to where the bone is sclerosed .   does not report any non articular manifestations associated with e.g. - scleritis , vasculitis , subcutaneous nodules Gout and Pseudogout - gout is characterised by recurrent attacks of acute synovitis . It affects mainly the peripheral joints e.g. toes , ankle and small joints of the hand but can affect the larger joints such as the knee . Signs to look for on examination are redness , a hot joint on palpation , swelling and gouty tophi around the joints ( especially the olecranon and in the pinna of the ear ) . In an acute attack , the onset is very sudden and so this is an unlikely diagnosis in   who has had symptoms for . Pseudogout more commonly affects the knee but is usually asymptomatic and therefore an unlikely diagnosis in . of giant cell arteritis causing postrest stiffness and weakness . The pain is usually most severe around the pelvic and pectoral girdles with the tenderness arising from the muscles rather than the joints making this an unlikely diagnosis for . However , she has been diagnosed with this condition and so it should still be considered as a possible cause for her pain . Trauma - fracture or damage to the ligament or cartilage of the knee joint - This is an unlikely diagnosis for   as there was no history of trauma and 's pain has been chronic and progressive in nature . < heading > Physical examination Highlight the findings most relevant to your clinical problem solving by underlining them</heading><heading > General Examination < /heading > On examination   was lying on the bed and looked comfortable and alert at rest . There was a single walking stick at the bedside . There was no finger clubbing , jaundice , anaemia , clubbing , cyanosis , oedema or lymphadenopathy . No evidence of gouty tophi or rheumatic nodules . < list><heading > General Observations</heading > Pulse - 83 regularBlood Pressure - 145/77Respiratory Rate - 18 pmTemperature C</list><list><heading > CVS:</heading > No scars or deformities . I + II + 0 JVP →Palpable peripheral pulses bilaterallyNo peripheral or central cyanosis</list><list><heading > RS:</heading > Trachea central Clear vesicular breath sounds with equal expansion No chest wall deformities</list><list><heading > GI:</heading > Abdomen soft and non tender Resonant PercussionBowel sounds normalNo masses or organomegaly</list > CNS GCS 15/15 < heading > Musculoskeletal Examination</heading><heading > Examination of knee joints</heading > Look : The right knee appeared to be swollen when compared to the left knee . There was a varus deformity of the right leg . There was no obvious muscle wasting , bruising or other skin discolouration . Feel : On palpation there was no temperature difference between the knees and there was no palpable effusion on either knee . There was tenderness over the medial joint line of the right knee and some tenderness over the inferior pole of the patella . No loss of sensation or evidence of ischaemia to either leg . Move : Right Knee Flexion approx , no hyperextension , palpable crepitus and pain on movement . Tight medial collateral ligaments . Anterior and Posterior cruciate ligaments intact . approx , no hyperextension . No pain or crepitus on movement , collateral and cruciate ligaments intact . < heading > Examination of right Hip joint</heading > Look : No obvious swellings , deformities , bruising or scars Feel : No temperature difference compared to left hip joint . No tenderness on palpation Move : Good range of movement with no pain elicited . < heading > Gait</heading > displayed an antalgic gait , reducing the stance phase duration for the right leg . < heading > Analysis of history and examination Reasons for your choice of the cause of the patient 's problem(s ) and any other cause that still needs to be considered at this stage</heading > The examination supports a working diagnosis of osteoarthritis in 's right knee . Classical signs of were elicited on examination - joint line tenderness on palpation with crepitus and pain on movement , varus deformity of right leg . Flexion was also limited in the right knee .   displayed an antalgic gait due to the pain she experiences on walking . On examination there was no redness or swelling of any other joints and no temperature difference between the knees . There were no gouty tophi or rheumatic nodules present on examination and there is no known family history of such conditions . Such findings make the diagnosis of gout or rheumatoid arthritis less likely . No abnormality could be found in 's hips ruling out the possibility of referred pain from the hip joint . There is no recent or past history of trauma as a possible cause of pain in the knee . Radiological examination will confirm the working diagnosis of . signs to look for are : < list of joint spaceOsteophytesBone cystsSubarticular sclerosis</list can be graded according to the severity of cartilage damage , however this is only possible during arthroscopy or at the time of surgery : Grade - Softening Grade 2 - Fibrillation Grade 3 - Fissures Grade 4 - Denuding < heading > Formulation of the patient 's problem(s ) Encapsulate this in physical , psychological and social terms ( the triple diagnosis)</heading > is an elderly lady who has been admitted for an elective total right knee replacement .   is slightly anxious about the surgery but is keen to have the operation in order to reduce her pain and improve her mobility . Physical - 's independence is limited by the pain she experiences from her right knee . Despite   having a stick to assist with walking and the pain being most severe when climbing the stairs , she feels unable to walk comfortably on the flat for fear of aggravating the pain . Social -   is close to both of her daughters and sees them as often as possible . The decrease in 's mobility has meant that she has had to rely on her daughters for help with shopping etc . Psychological -   has suffered with pain from her right knee for over . Until recently ,   stated that the pain was bearable . However over the pain has increased in severity and   was obviously concerned over the effects on her mobility .   also stated that she can feel low on occasion as she feels like a burden to her daughters who both have their own family commitments . < heading > Management Use the framework of RAPRIOP to structure your proposed management . to the guidelines to the writing of portfolio cases for the details of the issues to be addressed under each heading.</heading><heading > Investigations</heading><table/>Comment : The time and are increased in 's results due to her warfarin use at the time of blood tests . The was repeated prior to the operation after her had been stopped and was found to be acceptable at ( normal range = - 1.2 ) . The low is a concern not only for the surgeon but also for the anaesthetist as it can influence the type of anaesthetic to use e.g. There would be an increased risk from using an epidural / spinal anaesthetic due to the increased risk of bleeding if the vasculature around the spinal canal was damaged during administration . < table/ > : Infection Screen nose and groin - no MRSA : Urine microscopy and culture - no growth X - Rays : Both knees , chest , c spine and right shoulder < picture/><picture/>The x - rays showed that   has osteoarthritis affecting her right knee and right shoulder . An x - ray of the c spine was taken to rule out pathology here which could have affected the anaesthetic . Knee - the x - ray clearly shows a loss of joint space in the medial compartment of the right knee with bone sclerosis and osteophyte formation . Early arthritic changes are also visible in the left knee . : No significant findings < heading > Reassurance and explanation</heading > the x - rays that we took show that you have osteoarthritis of the right knee and shoulder . Osteoarthritis is a degenerative disease of the synovial joints in your body . Normally , the ends of the bones are covered in a layer of cartilage which stops them from rubbing together . In osteoarthritis , the cartilage begins to wear away , this process can be likened to in a pan , in the initial stages of the disease , the ' Teflon ' or cartilage begins to soften , after a while it starts to flake off , it then starts to crack and finally wears away completely . This wearing of the cartilage means that the ends of the bones rub against each other causing the pain that you are experiencing . The initial treatment for osteoarthritis consists of weight loss to reduce the load on your joints , gentle exercise , heat treatment and anti - inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen . If these methods fail , the next step is to inject steroid into the joint . However , you have found that these methods of treatment are no longer relieving the pain and that your mobility has decreased . This indicates that your osteoarthritis is quite advanced ( and your x - rays confirm this ) making you a suitable candidate for a total knee replacement . This will involve us replacing your joint with a stainless steel and plastic prostheses with the aim of improving your mobility and relieving your pain . After the operation we will see you in the outpatient clinic to monitor the range of movement you have and the function of the joint . As with all surgery there are risks involved but I will explain these all to you should you decide to go ahead with the operation . Are there any questions ? Comment : Risks of surgery - infection , bleeding , scaring , poor wound healing , damage to surrounding structures , , rejection of the prosthesis leading to fibrosis and anaesthetic complications . < heading > Prescription / medical < heading > Pre - Op</heading > IV antibiotics with induction of General , Local anaesthetic and block . Pre prep in anaesthetic room , tourniquet used to minimise blood loss during procedure - 300mmHg . A medial parapatellar approach with an anterior midline incision was used to access the right knee joint . Osteoarthritis was evident in all compartments of the knee : < list > Medial Compartment Grade IVPatella Grade IIILateral Compartment Grade II</list > The was intact and retained . A femoral component , tibial component and a small patella prosthesis were used . Neutral alignment was achieved with 0 - 130º range of movement and normal patella tracking . The tourniquet was released after min and homeostasis was achieved . < heading > Routine observations < /heading > Pulse - 73 regularBlood Pressure - 136/68Respiratory Rate - 16 pmTemperature saturation on / O 2</list><list><heading > Post Operative medication : < /heading > PCA - Morphine Sulphate ( mg in mg - Phenothiazine used prophylactically for post operative nausea and vomiting Cefuroxime mg IV - second generation cephalosporin for prophylaxis of post operative infection.</list><list > Routine MobilisationRecommence Warfarin   PMDrain out in hoursRoutine bloods and X - Rays tomorrow</list><heading > Observation</heading > was transferred to recovery and then back to the orthopaedic ward where she received regular monitoring of her oxygen saturation , heart rate , , RR , temperature . The drain was also checked and contained 500ml at 18.15pm on day of operation . During surgery the urine output may be decreased due to the release of hormones such as ( for water conservation ) . Monitoring of 's urine output following surgery is a good indicator of recovery .   appeared to be a well - nourished lady and should not require any dietary supplementation . It is important to observe the wound site for any signs of infection following surgery or any indication of dehiscence so that prompt action can be taken . It is vital that 's is restarted on of the operation to prevent any complications from her atrial fibrillation e.g. atrial thrombus . < heading > Referral and team working</heading > Physiotherapist - to encourage early mobilisation GP - details of operation and monitoring on discharge Orthopaedic outpatients - for review on discharge - post operative home help as   is self caring , possibility of meals on wheels during 's recovery period redress the wound if needed and monitor for signs of infection , bed sores etc . Occupational therapist -   may require further walking aids to assist with her mobility in the immediate postoperative period . < heading > Advice and Prevention</heading > Follow the advice of the physiotherapists On discharge from hospital exercise the knee gently - try not to remain seated for long periods of time If the wound becomes red or swollen or begins to weep contact your GP < heading > Outcome A description of the progress of the patient as far as possible . This should include consideration of further issues to be resolved . Where appropriate you should contact by telephone patients who have been discharged home.</heading > is recovering on the orthopaedic ward of   hospital < heading > Evidence based care and issues for research A brief consideration of the evidence base required for the diagnosis and management of the patient 's problem(s)</heading > The knee joint is one of the commonest causes of disability from with the medial compartment most commonly affected . The pain and limited movement experienced by patients with imposes a huge physical disability to the individual . This can reduce a patient 's quality of life and lead to further morbidity . The main principle in the treatment of is to treat the patients symptoms and disability and not the radiological appearance of the . The aim should be to alleviate pain , improve function and decrease disability . The patient should also be educated about and its management . Treatment : Non - pharmacological - Initially management is focused at weight loss with strengthening and exercise of the muscles surrounding the knee joint . This helps to improve the stability of the joint and reduce the pressure placed on it . Pressure on the joint can also be relived through the use of walking aids . Pharmacological - Initially , simple analgesia should be prescribed to reduce the pain associated with . Once these prove to be ineffective , should be used intermittently . If the pain is still severe , intra articular corticosteroid injections can produce short - term improvement in joint pain [ ] . A gradual decrease in the effectiveness of such injections indicates an increase in severity of the disease . Limited evidence has shown that intra articular glucocorticoid injections into the joint reduced pain for compared with placebo [ ] . However , studies have also shown that overuse of corticosteroids can lead to progression of the disease [ ] . Hyaluronic Acid injections may offer a longer more durable response with improvement in pain and function when compared to Corticosteroids [ ] . The public sector has been overwhelmed with publicity regarding the effectiveness of in the treatment and prevention of osteoarthritis . Previous reviews have shown that taken for decreased pain and improved function in people with [ ] . However , poor quality of trials and publication bias has questioned the reliability of such information . Further research and clarification in this area is needed and may help to optimise future management of . Surgery - is indicated in patients who are not gaining any benefit from non operative management . ) Tibial Osteotomy - can correct the varus deformity of medical compartment and adjust the line of weight bearing so that the healthy compartment takes more weight . The operation is not always effective and the patient normally requires a at [ ] . This option was not indicated for   due to the presence of in the lateral compartment of her knee ( even though at present this was not the main source of her pain ) . ) Low Femoral osteotomy - for patients with a valgus deformity of and wearing of the lateral compartment . ) Hemi arthroplasty - Lateral and Medial components of the knee joint are replaced ( femoral and tibial surfaces ) . ) TKR - All compartments of the knee ( medial , lateral and patella ) are replaced . The articulating surfaces are replaced with metal and plastic prostheses to provide a low friction interface . Evidence has shown that provides patients with pain relief , increased function and an improvement in quality of life [ ] . The surgery performed on   was a tricompartmental . A review of tricompartmental prostheses identified studies of different prostheses in people [ 8 ] . Good or excellent outcomes were reported in of these people [ 7 ] . The pain   felt was primarily due to osteoarthritic changes in the medial compartment of her right knee . Unicompartmental knee replacements are possible , indeed found that unicompartmental knee replacements were more effective than tricompartmental replacement at follow up [ ] . However , 's x - rays showed osteoarthritic changes both at the patella and the lateral compartment of the right knee . A total knee replacement was therefore more suitable for   in order to prevent the need for future surgery to the remaining degenerative parts of the knee . In the healthy knee , acts as an anterior constraint for movement of the femur on the tibia providing the knee joint with posterior stability . A total knee replacement aims to reproduce movements of the knee and the stability of the joint , therefore retaining the will obviously assist with this . At present the decision to retain the depends on its degenerative status , the type of implant used or just personal preference [ ] . A possible area for research would be to investigate the advantages / disadvantages of retaining or sacrificing the in a total knee replacement . < heading > Commentary A commentary on issues of health care delivery , ethical issues or disability relevant to the patient and/or problem</heading > Approximately 30,000 are carried out in and and it is estimated that the need for all joint replacements will increase by approx over [ ] . One of the main reasons for the prospected increase is the growing size of the ageing population . It is thought that the average total knee replacement lasts for , however this depends on a number of factors relating to the patient including their age , level of activity and weight . arthritis is slightly more common than hip arthritis , in women over the incidence is per [ ] . It is estimated that per people in the general population would benefit from total knee replacement , however many of these individuals are not referred for surgery despite per 1000 having extreme disability [ ] . The management of waiting lists is major political issue ; current thinking suggests that a standardised priority assessment criterion for common elective procedures such as total knee replacement should be introduced [ ] . Patients will be prioritised according to a clinical scoring system , which will prioritise patients according to the pain and disability associated with their knee arthritis [ ] . Complications of total knee replacement are as for all forms of surgery but also include : Patellofemoral complications - including patellofemoral instability , fracture patella , failure of patella component , patella clunk syndrome , and extensor mechanism tendon rupture . These are some of the most common reasons for re operation . Aseptic loosening - Loosening of the prosthesis occurs at a rate of approx of patients at . The aetiology is not fully understood , loosening of the prostheses leads to mechanical instability and ultimately failure of the prosthesis . Arthrofibrosis - excessive scar tissue formation causing restriction of knee movement . This occurs in less than of patients and the aetiology is unknown . Conservative management includes anti - inflammatory medication , physiotherapy , and reassurance . In severe cases the joint may need to be replaced and if this fails the joint may need to be fused [ ] . It is therefore important that patients are informed of the possible complications of surgery so that they are able to make an appropriate informed decision . Surgery poses risks at any ages but in the case of   who also has significant co morbidity , the risks are increased and it is important that   understands this . < heading > Impact on your learning Describe what you have learnt from this case</heading><list > Examination of the knee jointPathology and presentation of osteoarthritisRadiological features of OsteoarthritisManagement of knee osteoarthritisScrubbed for theatreSizing prosthesis according to x - ray</list >",1
"Sex and the City boasted huge popularity during its production in the show was seen by many as a platform for the discussion of contemporary sexuality and women . The protagonist Carrie spends each episode looking at the problems of young single successful women , problems which usually focus around sex . Sex and the City appears to represent the post feminist view that women could now have it all . The women in sex and the city are financially independent , can go out and enjoy being women in the public sphere , and are able to compete with men in careers , relationships and finances . This was the old feminist ideal of the independent women however these women were sexy .   < fnote > Connell in Segal : < /fnote><fnote > Richardson D in and . : < /fnote > Since the beginning of the feminist movement sexuality has been closely linked to women 's freedom from domination . The idea that a wife should consume , but does not require sexual gratification from her husband was championed throughout . However Sex and the City portrays a contemporary view of consumption sex , to be enjoyed by women as much as men . In Sex and the City sex is consumed like the rest of culture , the women seek sex like a pair of shoes and then discuss whether their needs were met amongst friends . On a more basic level the women also consume sex through sex toys the explosion of popularity in the ' rampant rabbit ' vibrator was closely linked to sex and the city . In episode ' critical condition ' Samantha even uses a vibrator as a last method to get 's baby to sleep . This consumption sex is further discussed by , sex is now a market choice to be chosen and sampled . < fnote > Connell in Segal : < /fnote><fnote > Dr Influential writer on sexuality in women and children : 1813- 1875 < /fnote><fnote > Weeks J in Segal : < /fnote > The dual model of women as or whore is something which in many ways Sex and the City aims to challenge but also a typology which many of the episodes draw upon . This dichotomy draws upon the patriarchal perception of women as mother protector , or whore . Classically those women who are seen as whores are on the outset of society . Through portraying the women 's active sexuality sex and the city challenges the dichotomy of whore or loose women , as their sexualities are contrasted with their rich lifestyles and attraction by men . However even the program itself questions the full extent these women can avoid the labelling of loose women , throughout the series the women 's sexuality is questioned and in episode ' running with scissors ' Samantha is asked by a potential sexual partner to perform an aids test confirming her position as a loose women , as well as briefly highlighting the role aids and STIs have played in the controlling of contemporary women 's sexuality . < fnote > Richardson D in and . : . < /fnote><fnote > Edwards in and . : < /fnote><fnote > Richardson D in and . : < /fnote > One of the main themes in Sex and the City is the power of the successful , independent women . The women in the program are young single and portrayed as having it all . They have the perfect division between work and life . Out of the main characters only has problems in balancing her work and private life , and this is only temporary after the arrival of her baby . The other women all do jobs which overlap with their social lives , meaning they can still enjoy their social lives . Many feminists have claimed this does not reflect the realities many contemporary women face struggling to balance career and family , within a patriarchal society . Within Sex and the City the only character who portrays this is , and whilst 's character struggles briefly after having her baby she is ultimately helped by her housekeeper and the baby 's father . < fnote > Arthurs 2003 : < /fnote><fnote > Segal L. in The Guardian 2004 < /fnote > For the women in Sex and the City independence not only comes from power of social status but money , they do not need men to finance or care for them . It appears that the any thought of marriage or the sexual contract is inexplicable to these women . However rather than spending each episode discussing the triumphs that they can achieve , these women spend each episode , seasons falling in love and out of love with men . Whilst the ever optimistic is the only character who considers marriage as a goal , all the women appear to be mapping their lives through men . The programme certainly does not support the view that marriage or men will help solve the girls problems , it is 's perfect marriage failing that shows the viewers that even in the perfect husband there are still major flaws . However as the voice of Carrie in episode ' All that glitters ' explains although dream has fallen apart ' little girls in their mothers pearls ' will still look at the photo shoot of the happy couple and desire to live their life . In this sense Sex and the City is recognising the historical femininities which influence contemporary culture , but also recognising that this ideological life is rarely as it appears . Being single is also portrayed as problematic in episode ' bay of married pigs ' where is mistaken to be in a lesbian relationship , through this she gains career opportunities unavailable to her when she was single . In ' the baby shower ' however the girls are not enviable of the women who has just given birth but return to the city with relief . The women 's friendship at many times proves to be an alternative for heterosexual dependence as they rely on each other for support , even financially , however this questions the extent of their independence as they are replacing heterosexual dependence for the dependence of friends . < fnote > Bunting in The Guardian 2001 < /fnote><fnote > Weeks in : < /fnote><fnote > Arthurs J. 2003 < /fnote > The women in sex and the city do not face the problems of choosing a career over marriage . In episode ' bay of married pigs ' , being single is portrayed as a problem , this theme is carried throughout until in the final series finally realises she 's meant to be with her true love ' Mr Big ' and and also end up with the men who they have been on and off with throughout the series ' . The message is clear here whilst it is ok to be young free and single ultimately a woman needs a man in life . Something which many critiques claimed is not comfortably juxtaposed with the undercurrent themes of the rest of the series of being the independent woman . < fnote > Giddens A , : < /fnote > The males within sex and the city prove an interesting reading into the gender dynamics . There are key males in Sex and the City who could be explained as alfa males . Mr Big is desired by Carrie the central protagonist throughout the series , with the series ending when they finally get together . Mr Big is successful and businesslike as the sex and the city website claims ' There is an elusiveness to Big that most women have encountered at some point in time ' as his name suggests he is the ultimate man who supports Carrie throughout even offering her the money to buy her apartment , which she refuses . Another key male in sex who fits the alfa male typology is Trey Macdougal , the man marries , and also has her own alpha male in the character of . A self confessed womanizer even Samantha struggles to exert power over . All these males portray the image of the successful male who exerts his power through patriarchal systems . Another source of male in Sex and the City are the homosexual males the best friends and confidants and prove to be sounding boards for the women 's problems as well as explaining some of their own . < fnote > URL   - HBO Sex and The City < /fnote><fnote > Richardson in and . : < /fnote > Historically the city and the public space has always been a male dominated sphere . Within sex and the city the women dominate their public sphere , this is perhaps most notable in the character of Samantha who dominates her world and controls those around her within her role in PR . However whilst these single girls frequent the city , the city sphere is portrayed as being a hostile place for married women . Those women who are married as portrayed in episode ' a women 's right to shoes ' retire from the city and the city girl 's life , to suburbs such as ' . These women no longer spend their time and devotion on themselves represented in the shoes of this episode , but have ' grown up ' and devote their time to their family and children . This questions the view that these women are completely free in their situations , or whether upon marriage they are still confined to the existing power relations within marriage .   < fnote > Weeks in Segal L.1997 : < /fnote > Along with exercising power in the public sphere these women are able to exercise power over their own sexuality , the women want sex and they go after it . However both in sex and within the public sphere many problems everyday women face are hidden . Despite having fluent sexual partners throughout the series ' very little mention of contraception is made . None of the women have any contact with sexually transmitted diseases , they also have no encounters with rape despite the fact that this lifestyle can lead to a new burden of choices and mistakes . In many ways this generation are the beneficiaries of the feminist movement they are able to enjoy the privileges gained through careers , and equality within the public sphere . These women exert power over their domain they can financially support themselves . If money controls the power in relationships these women have equal standing in their relationships and equal bargaining . < fnote > Week in : < /fnote><fnote > Giddens A. : < /fnote > Sex and the City is by no means a perfect embodiment of the feminist dream and it is not meant to be . These women are in charge of their own lives they work hard and can then afford to play hard . Whether sex and the city has transformed the normative feminine subject is highly debatable . The women in Sex and the City showed women and girls that it was ok to have fun , be selfish and enjoy yourself . Issues which were bought up throughout the series gave women confidence in what was acceptable to discuss amongst friends . The differences within the characters also gave women someone to relate to whether it is who embodies the little girls dream , or fiercely independent Samantha these women show the troubles of everyday life and all its imperfections . If we are to analyse the power and position of the women in sex and the city it has to be said it does ignore many of the problems of real life . These women are all rich and successful and yet except the occasional episode with we never see them struggling with work or balancing being sexually abused , ' it 's soft vanilla feminism ' , touching on the issues but not being able to explore them deeply . Sex and the city reinforces the woman 's need to be adorned but not for the pleasures of a man the women in sex and the city adorn themselves to fulfil their own desires as well as expressing their own independent status . However many have criticised its obsession with consumption .   < fnote > Segal L in The Guardian 2004 < /fnote><fnote > Hertz in The Guardian 2004 < /fnote > Sex and the city showed powerful independent women . It highlights contemporary issues of money , sex and power , these women are able to exercise control over their relationships , finances and social life , and however they still desire a man . The series also questions whether this autonomy of control will continue after marriage . The women are also subject to underlying patriarchies within their world , for example of loose women . The public sphere is open to them and they belong to the city but only as long as they are single , once married these girls will move to the suburbs to live as wives and mothers . Within their sexual demands these girls are most certainly free but the price of this is hinted throughout , even the tagline ' knows good sex ' is seen as a source of embarrassment amongst the protagonist when walking the streets of . The program also ignores many of the problems of balance everyday women face in trying to balance it all . These women appear to have it all but below the surface there is still doubt about whether being single and free is the life a woman can last forever or there comes a time to move on , as the last episode makes clear to develop the next stage in life , that with a partner . Their current stage in life is still in many ways being controlled by the men around them , as the series indicates their next stage of life will be , although it appears these women are truly independent . < fnote > Fraser N. : < /fnote >","took up great media and governmental concern towards . From onwards many of these new religious movements had being throughout the headlines due to their development and independent scandals . In particular a few key events such as the massacre pushed the followers of these movements into the headlines . To consider what is meant by a ' new religious movement ' perhaps the best definition is that of . A new religious movement is religious because it loosely follows beliefs chiefly followed by religions such as life after death , and may possess a deity or prophecy like many religions , and new because it has arisen in . < fnote > Barker E. in and < /fnote > Since many of these new religious movements have come into the public 's knowledge there has been widespread condemnation of the movements and their leaders . To such an extent that those groups which traditionally fall under the umbrella of new religious movements are now defined by most of the population and the press as ' cults ' . However those groups which fall under the heading of new religious movements are so diverse that any generalisation applied to them will not be true of all the movements . < fnote > Barker E 1989 : < /fnote > From the outset of the movements coming to the public 's attention there has been a strong connection between the movements themselves and those against them . As a response to these new religious movements a number of anti cult groups have arisen . In of the main groups which arose against new religious movements were a parents association which not only serves parents of cult members but had membership from religious pastors , ex cult members , journalists , and teachers . Another anti cult formed in this period was formed by a business man whose sons had spent time in new religious movements . Because of the founders connections the trust became closely linked to many anti cult movements . The new religious movements have also prompted a backlash by psychiatrists in particular scientology that sees one of its main roles to rid the world of the influence of psychology . Due to this backlash from psychiatry the new religious movements have often been accused of brainwashing their followers and using other psychiatric tools against them . The new religious movements also pose controversial towards the medical industry . Many people believe that scientology claims to act as a form of medical healing but does not possess a license . Scientology is certainly the main of these religions which claims to possess medical healing , various raids on scientology premises in led to the confiscation of many of the auditing meters . < fnote > Beckford.1985:225 . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid : < /fnote > One of the other reasons for the controversy surrounding new religious movements is the role the media plays . Despite the media coverage few people have direct contact with a new religious movement . New religious movements can be unwilling to give views to the media , largely because of the bias against them which exists in the press . Due to this most people knowledge of new religious movements comes through the media , or in more recent times the internet . The internet however can not be trusted to give accurate information as often dummy sites are created by those people against new religious movements claiming false beliefs ; the idea is to give these movements bad publicity . The role of the anti movements is to make the movements seem as threatening to everyday people . Those movements against the new religious movements aim to construct the movements as devious ; this is done through a variety of ways . The media is one of the key ways of doing this , the press construct these movements to make it appear that potentially everyone is in danger from them . < fnote > Beckford . in and Creswell : < /fnote > The narratives formed in the press also cement the new religious movements as controversial or dangerous within the public 's mindset . This was perhaps most evident within the press ' response to the movement during the siege . The press used images and film from past cult movements such as to remind the public of the cult narrative and so set the in the public mindset as dangerous and disturbed . This reconstruction of the cult narrative becomes so intense that even the labelling of a group as a cult is attached to so many negative connotations the public instantly views the group as a threat . Perhaps the strongest evidence to support this is the work of and who conducted a public opinion survey in following on the opinion on cults . of the people interviewed displayed negative views towards a ' spoof cult ' invented by the interviewers . < fnote > Jones C & Baker G in Lewis J ( ed ) : < /fnote><fnote > Beckford & Cole : < /fnote > One of the key arguments against many religions by rationalists is that religion causes violence and so if religion was to decline there would be less social conflict . Where as violence in religion is often constructed through wars and social conflict . Violence within new religious movements often takes different forms . For example in the case of the Waco tragedy violence was between the religion and the state . However new religious movements are also often constructed as violent towards their own members in the case of and Heavens gate , these religions have required death from their followers . Whilst many of the followers believed this was for the religion critics have used these examples to support new religious movements as dangerous and potentially violent . Another way new religious movements have been constructed as violent is through direct action Scientology is perhaps one of the best examples of this as it has encouraged its followers to attack works by psychologists , and promoted hate campaigns against other new religious movements . Scientology directly supports the persecution of anybody not following their beliefs this is often directed at psychologists due to the direct confrontation between the groups . < fnote > Beckford . . in and Creswell : < /fnote > Another way these new religions have been constructed as controversial is through the idea of brainwashing . This is often propagated throughout the media and is one of the key themes apostates of these new religious movements often depict when being interviewed . The idea behind this is that these religions prey on young minds that have no history of religious following or what is required from religious belief . Once committed to the religion many of these followers submit all their time towards their new beliefs . This can involve the splitting up or the loosing of contact with family . It is through this brainwashing dichotomy that many of the family groups against new religions operate . The view widely publicised by the government and the media is that these individuals can not have made the rational choice to join these organisations therefore they must have been brainwashed in some way .   < fnote > Barker 1989 : < /fnote > The view of these new religions as brainwashing and kidnapping innocent people to become their followers is closely linked to the link with many of these new religious movements and xenophobia . In particular many of the movements which arrived in were closely linked to philosophies for example the unification church or the ' moonies ' as it became known was created by from and drew on teaching . Scientology also includes a basis from Buddhism and Hinduism . This foreign nature was seen as threatening too many people in the West who viewed these new religious movements as deeply suspicious . New religious movements have however always been constructed as dangerous and suspicious . Movements which receive widespread acceptance such as and witnesses where regarded with fear and mistrust when founded . < fnote > Ibid : < /fnote > In many ways as the new religious movements have gained popularity and celebrity followers they have become more controversial . The media have publicised stories of fraud and exploitation from these movements so within the public narrative these new religious movements are becoming closer to the world of politics or business than religion . There has also been a wide publication of how these movements have exploited their followers particularly financially . As the leaders of the movements appear to be getting richer apostates are leaving the movements telling stories of lost inheritances and jobs as they have poured their life into serving the movement . In ' exposing ' new religious movements the critics are attempting to remove the label ' religious ' . For example many people claim that movements like Scientology are exploiting their status as a religion to gain tax benefits when really they are more like a company . To the journalist the new religious movement is ideal for creating controversy . The unknown element as well as the science fiction connections many of the movements have means they easily create scandalous stories and can be constructed as a public threat . ' Atrocity tales ' of the evils of cults attract readers . However these movements are only interesting to the journalists when conflict is involved which means that much that gets portrayed to the public is of a scandalous nature . contrasts this view of the media with that of researchers who are more likely to research a movement which does n't involve scandal or after the scandal is gone . This creates a much wider view of religious movements but one which the public will rarely see . Unfortunately for the new religious movements the anti cult movements have a close relationship with the government and the journalists so even when objectivity is aimed at , the bias is usually clear in the articles construction . < fnote > Barker 1989 : < /fnote><fnote in and Creswell : < /fnote > The role of new religious communities is seen as especially problematic in the where there has been a history of suspicion towards communities living outside society . This is also linked to the strength of many ' traditional ' religions such as and within the . Many of these new religious movements have special tax privileges because of their religious status ; and the idea that many of their followers are quitting their jobs to devote themselves to these movements poses a threat to the government . This is mirrored in where many religious movements are seen as a security threat by the government , and are under surveillance . < fnote > Beckford in and Creswell 1999:103 < /fnote > The position of the leaders within these new religious movements is also seen as controversial . The leaders are often descried as charismatic and usually the subject of media attacks . of the reasons for the focus on the leaders of these movements is because as in the case of it is often the leaders who are seen as responsible when tragedies occur . Within a religious organisation these leaders can have great control over their followers , in some situations the leaders words can pronounce every aspect of somebody 's life . However not all the leaders of these religions use their authority to control their followers and not all the followers consistently follow the leaders , many will happily disobey commands they consider foolish or excessive . < fnote > Barker 1999 : < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote > The new religious movements can be considered controversial in many ways . For most it is the existence of something which does not conform to the norm which arouses suspicion . The existence of charismatic leaders , and the reported contact with religious movements give the public a perception of something which is violent , a possible threat to themselves and society as a whole , in some ways foreign and preying on those most susceptible and crucially preying on those people who are key to society the young and the educated . The controversy surrounding new religious movements can not be examined without looking at the role of the media , the media is how people gain their information about such movements and so ultimately how the power over the publics perceptions . Many scare stories are published in the media around new religious movements which only increases their controversy . The other main factor for the spread of the controversial information about new religious movements is the spread of the anti cult movements , these movements are usually strongly connected to the government and the media and so chiefly control what the public knows about new religious movements . The combination of the media and the anti cult groups has successfully created a collective narrative for all religious movements as threatening and corruptive . It is because of this collective narrative of ' cults ' that what makes new religious movement controversial ultimately is applied to all religious movements whether similar or not .",1
"< heading > Introduction</heading><figure/>The th century house of , north ( fig ) , was that of a monastery ( Wise ) . Following frequent structural alteration , the abbey was abandoned as a religious house , a consequence of the dissolution in , and was "" integrated into secular society "" ( Wise : vii ) . excavated in , the site has been investigated sporadically over and has produced a wealth of skeletal evidence ( fig ) . Following skeletal analysis of osteological collections representative of individuals recovered from ( fig ) , this report will identify evidence of pathology including dental disease , trauma and joint disease . In addition , where possible , age and sex determination and height estimation will be proposed . < figure/><heading > HA G07 : Partial maxilla and mandible</heading><picture/><picture/><heading > Preservation</heading > Identified by the sharp edges of the break and therefore an absence of healing , postmortem damage has resulted in only partial preservation of the maxilla ; the entire mandible is represented , although damaged . Postmortem loss of the calvaria transverses the anterior surface at the level of the levator anguli oris attachment ( ) , beneath the zygomatic bone . The anterior nasal spine displays postmortem breakage at the base of the nasal spine ( fig ) . A fracture to the palatine process of the maxilla aligns along the groove for greater palatine vessels ( fig ) ( ) ; further postmortem breakage is present at the transverse palatine suture and the tuberosity of maxilla . The entire mandible is represented and measures a maximum of mm wide and deep . A fracture runs from the left angle of mandible , transverses the mental fossa and terminates at the origin of the missing left mandibular canine , resulting in a broken edge measuring . In addition , there is partial postmortem loss of the alveoli at the socket of the left mandibular and incisors and canine , and cortical bone loss distally from the left mandibular molar to the region of the left incisor ; this has resulted in the remaining teeth of the left mandible becoming separated from the alveoli . Both the condyle processes of the mandible are fractured , resulting in a loss of on the medial aspect of the left and an almost total loss above the pterygoid fovea of the right . Cracks on the line of the absent mandibular molars towards the ascending ramus probably originate from post - excavational drying of the bone . < figure/>Dental representation together with ante-/postmortem condition is displayed in figure . The enamel of the molars of both the left maxilla and left mandible was damaged postmortem . An area measuring 3.26 mm has been chipped from the mesial bucchal cusp of the molar of the left maxilla . However , the mandibular molar has undergone significant postmortem modification as the mesial buccal cusp has been chipped in addition to both the lingual cusps , with a maximum enamel removal of mesio - distally . < heading > Description of lesions</heading > Significant lesions are present on both the maxilla and mandible . A large occlusal dental caries of the right molar of the maxilla reduced the occlusal surface of the enamel , resulting in the decay of the primary and secondary dentine down to the pulp cavity ; the surface of the resulting void measures ( bucco - lingual ) x 8.82 mm ( mesio - distal ) . The adjacent molar has a smaller occlusal fissure caries measuring ( bucco - lingual ) x 8.83 mm ( mesio - distal ) x approximately 2 mm deep . Interproximal caries is evident in several locations . The and premolars and molar of the left mandible show minimal interproximal neck caries ; the premolar and molar on the mesial and distal surfaces , and the premolar on the distal surface only . The incisor of the left maxilla displays interproximal neck caries distally , towards the canine . Calculus is present throughout at various degrees of formation . Using the recording method of ( ) , light calculus was found on the left buccal and lingual surfaces of the teeth of the mandible with a medium degree on the maxilla . In contrast , a medium degree of calculus is evident on the right lingual surfaces of the mandibular teeth with considerable calculus on the buccal surfaces of both the mandible and maxilla ( figs ) . The medium - considerable degree of calculus on the teeth of the right maxilla and mandible is consistent with reduced use due to the presence of caries on the and molar of the left maxilla , therefore an avoidance of the area while chewing . < picture/><picture/>Dental attrition is extensive and varies in degree ; different scales have been used during interpretation due to a molar wear pattern inconsistent with the scale favoured by et al ( ) . The incisors , canines and premolars belong to grade of the scale recommended by Buikstra et al ( : ) ; the molars , however , fall under the category of classification of ( : ) . The unusual occlusal wear pattern of the right maxilliary incisor could suggest unusual activity , possibly industrial , requiring repetitive use of the teeth ; however , the severe molar caries present in this specimen represents an individual in great discomfort who probably chewed their food with their incisors to avoid the pain induced on the posterior teeth . Unfortunately , due to the loss of some of the mandibular incisors , it was not possible to take either interpretation any further . The degree of dental disease has resulted in periodontal disease and the resorption of alveolar bone . Although the resorption varies throughout , generally the degree falls within a slight - medium classification ( ) . The disease evidently began with the molars with antemortem loss of of the mandibular molars , resulting in remodelling of the tooth socket and profile of the bone ( fig ) . Alveoli remodelling of the and left mandibular incisor sockets provided further evidence of antemortem tooth loss . Periodontal disease interpretation of the maxilla proved difficult due to the postmortem loss of the molars ; however , as the left mandibular molar was lost antemortem , evidenced by alveolar remodelling , further disease was suggested . Surprisingly , despite extensive caries , calculus and periodontal disease , apparently no abscess formed in the remaining alveoli . No dental hypoplasia was recorded suggesting an absence of extended periods of illness during the developmental process of the teeth . < heading > Age at death and sex determination</heading > The unequal tooth wear on the right mandibular molar together with the attrition of the remaining molars suggests this individual fell in an age range of - 45 at death ( ) . The mental eminence was examined for sex determination resulting in tentative suggestion of a female gender due to a minimal projection of ( Buikstra et al 1994 ) ; this interpretation is reinforced by a slight mandible with flat goinal regions and a fairly short , narrow ramus with a delicate coronoid process , all indicative of a female ( Brothwell ) due to less defined muscle attachments than that of a male . However , these findings are inconclusive due to the absence of diagnostic elements such as the frontal bone of the skull or the pelvis . Following this interpretation , examination of figure revealed this skeleton has been sexed as male . < heading > Conclusion</heading > Following a relatively healthy childhood during the development of the teeth , this individual died suggested by dental attrition . Considerable yet uneven attrition , including unusual patterning to the remaining incisors , suggest an activity requiring the use of the teeth or more likely , use of the incisors during mastication to avoid the painful molars to the rear . Antemortem tooth loss resulted in alveoli re - absorption in the region of the molars and mandibular incisors . Postmortem damage to the fragile facial bones has resulted in much reduced facial anatomy , however , caries of the right maxillary molar , accounted for the considerable calculus on the teeth of the right maxilla and mandible ; due to the pain involved the individual would have avoided use of the right side of the mouth , therefore the process of chewing would not remove food residues and plaque , eventually resulting in calculus . Serious periodontal disease , as a consequence of considerable caries and calculus , was probably as a result of a diet rich in sugar , therefore , possibly indicating a high status . < heading > HA 23 : Right scapula and arm</heading><picture/><heading > Preservation</heading > The right scapula ( fig possesses extensive postmortem damage . The coracoid process is absent resulting in a maximum lateral width of , measured from the glenoid cavity border . The acromion has been broken postmortem at , with an additional fragment of present but detached . The subscapula fossa is also broken , 755 mm from the glenoid cavity with a separate length of , resulting in a maximum width of . There is a post - mortem fracture of the neck of the right humerus . As will be discussed later in this paper , evidence suggests the individual was of an age that the epiphysis should have fused ; however , post - depositional damage has resulted in the loss of the lesser tubercule and greater tubercule . Postmortem breakage of the right radius resulted in the remaining bone measuring mm . The right ulna , measuring , displays a postmortem distal transverse break at from the styloid process . Additional bone has broken from the distal right ulna postmortem , as a majority of the coronoid process has been lost . The bones of the wrist and hand are absent . < picture/><picture/><heading > Description of lesions</heading > The scapula displays no evidence of healed fracture or joint disease , although an absence of the left scapula within the assemblage does not allow comparison of dimension and therefore restricts interpretation of possible atrophy . Lateral epicondylitis ( tennis elbow ) is suggested by a blastic lesion , additional bone growth , on the lateral epicondyle of the humerus ( fig ) . As the origin of the common extensor tendon ( ) , alone this could suggest excessive , repetitive use of the forearm , infection or impact to the joint ( ) . However , there is a blastic lesion of the medial epicondyle ( medial epicondylitis ) and an osteophyte ( bone spur ) is present ; this may be as a response to tendonosis , degeneration of the soft tissue , possibly through overuse or age related wear and an attempt by the body to redistribute weight on a damaged joint ( ibid ) . In addition , minimal eburnation on the capitulum of the humerus corresponds to similar wear of the right lateral margin of the radius ( figs ) ; a porous surface to the joint in the region of the trochlea is probably natural in origin . The presence of osteophytes and eburnation of the distal humerus , is evidence of osteoarthritis ( Roberts & Manchester 2005 ) , albeit of an early stage due to minimal modification . A healed simple fracture of the right radius from the distal postmortem break resulted in separate fragments ( Buikstra et al 1994 ) ; healing produced a blastic lesion and consequential thickening of the lamellar bone . Further osteoblast activity between 1191 - 706 mm from the styloid process of the right ulna , resulted in increased bone thickness to a maximum of 156 mm when measured from the styloid process ; the presence of lamellar bone is evidence of a healed simple fracture . The partially aligned , well - healed , oblique midshaft fracture of both the radius and ulna ( fig ) suggest a parry fracture ( a defensive action ) either against impact with , in this case , a blunt instrument due to a lack of blade injury to the bone , or accident . There is no evidence of cloacae and therefore it appears the fractures healed cleanly without infection , although this can not be excluded without x - ray as the exudate may not have collected to the point of eruption . < picture/><heading > Age at death , sex and height determination</heading > The poor preservation of the bone assemblage and quantity of data restricts age determination to that of epiphyseal union . Union of the medial epicondyle of the humerus reaches completion by ( Flecker 1942 , cited in ) . The et al classification ( ) can tentatively age the individual to or over , due to the fusion of the distal humerus and proximal radius . The post - mortem break of the acromion suggests the individual had passed the late pubescent onset of the union and can therefore once again be aged to beyond ( ) ; therefore , the individual is a sub - adult or adult . Although osteoarthritis could develop in a young adult as a result of trauma or disease , the presence of osteoarthritic lesions suggests either repetitive manual labour of a young adult or a person of greater age ; without further skeletal evidence , a more precise age is difficult to determine . Due to a lack of diagnostic skeletal elements , sex determination is restricted to a tentative suggestion of the male gender due to the robustness of the bones and development of the muscle attachments ( Mays ) . The acromion , the origin of the deltoid muscle , the tuberosity of the radius , the insertion of the bicep by way of a strong tendon , and the supinator crest of the ulna ( ) , are well developed indicating strong muscles of both the upper and lower arm . Further methods , such as bone articulation or weight , could be adopted in the attempt to confirm the sex , however , this should be attempted during a population study rather than that of an individual ( ) . The height of the individual can be estimated based on the length of the long bones . The almost complete humerus is the most reliable , providing a male height estimation of ; however , the damaged bones of the arm suggest a height range ( Trotter ) . Due to the proximal break to the humerus and distal damage to the radius and ulna , the estimations have been combined to provide an average measurement and therefore a suggested minimum male height of . Alternatively , if the remains are those of a female the average suggested height would be a minimum of . Later examination of the location map of the graves of ( fig ) revealed the individual to be male . < heading > Conclusion</heading > Post - mortem damage resulted in limited data regarding the scapula and distal radius and ulna . The muscle attachments suggest this individual was male and the epiphyseal union suggests he was over . Traumatic injury , overuse or age related wear to the elbow , resulted in lateral and medial epicondylitis . The presence of osteophytes and eburnation to the distal humerus , is evidence of osteoarthritis , further suggesting overuse , an older individual , or both . Examination of further joint surfaces or dentition is required for a definitive conclusion of age and joint disease .","< heading > Introduction</heading > Allowing for the rapid growth of the brain during of life , the open sutures and thin bone of an infant cranium results in a malleable material also susceptible to influence through congenital condition , disease or intentional modification . Should the skull of the baby be fused and immobile , the infant could not pass through the narrow birth canal of the mother . Upon delivery , the skull is often elongated but returns to a natural profile within ( McPherson 2004 ,   URL ) although the cranial sutures remain open to a certain degree into adulthood . For , the temporary condition of the infant skull has been exploited for aesthetic , cultural or possibly religious purpose ; adults through the use of deforming apparatus , such as bands and cradle - boards , artificially modified the cranial vaults of their children or those in their care ( : ) . Possible examples of this practice have now been identified to in , ( Trinkaus 1982 & 1983 ) and eyewitness accounts have been recorded since the time of . Hippocrates , following witness of a people with deformed heads living on the shores of the ( Knox 1863 : ) , in the areas of ( ) stated the unique heads of the "" Macrocephali "" were achieved by the application of bandages and devices to the crania of the neonates to elongate the profile ( : ) . The purpose in this case was apparently of status identification as recognised the longest heads were those of the most noble individuals ( ibid ) ; a similar stimulus could be found in upper - class women who would have their feet bound to restrict the growth both by length and width ( ) . Other influence for the adoption of this practice may possibly include as an ethnic marker ( ) or religious observance ( Hrdlička ) . In other cultures , the modified skull has become one of aesthetic pleasure ( ; ; Trinkaus ) ; there is record of the disappointment of a woman with mild deformity in , , that her mother had not pulled the bandage tighter , therefore increasing the modification ( : ) . When observed by an outsider , the affect is often displeasing and results in descriptions such as "" a very ugly deformation of the head "" ( 1966 : ) . The method of modification , the final shape of the head and the decision on how long the deforming apparatus remains in place may be dictated at various social levels ; by the ' tribe ' , the family or by the opinion of the midwife ( Hasluck 1947 : ) . For whatever reason cranial modification is undertaken , the practice is worldwide and spans prehistory through to historic periods . The methodology involved in cranial modification in addition to ethnographic and archaeological examples will be provided within this paper . Pathological conditions can result in various forms of modification from mild , benign deviation from the mean to severe deformation incompatible with life . It has long been recognised that a child sleeping on a resistant surface may lead to occipital - parietal flattening ( ; ) ; possible examples have been recovered including an asymmetrical female with mastoid deformity from , , ( ) . The Classical Greek author Pliny reported a "" monstrous birth "" was considered a portent ( : ) . Physical characteristics were at the time thought to have occurred due to sights , sounds or thoughts at the time of conception ( ibid ) . Synostosis or premature fusion of sutures of the cranium will lead to various degrees of deformation dependant on the quantity and location of the sutures involved ( Resnick ) . Some genetic conditions can result in cranial deformity and chromosome disorders incorporate many symptoms and/or deformities occasionally including modification of the skull , for example Trisomy 13 and 's syndromes ( ibid ) . In addition to such conditions , there is evidence that diet can factor into cranial deformity ; vitamin and/or mineral deficiency or alcohol abuse may result in conditions including ( ; ,   URL ) . The conditions and severity of pathological cranial deformity are vast , some of which will be addressed within this paper . When examining human remains for pathological conditions , differential diagnosis should be considered . To accept an initial interpretation may result in evidence being overlooked , misdiagnosis and neglect in considering an alternative condition . This paper will describe the process undertaken during artificial head modification and pathological conditions resulting in a similar appearance ; through the examination of ethnographic and archaeological evidence , similarities in cranial shape and size will be identified and possible differential diagnosis will be examined . < heading > Considerations</heading > Upon recovery of crania displaying values deviating from the average human skull , several points must be addressed . , care should be taken to ascertain whether the deformity is intentional or unintentional ; determination between unintentional cradle - boarding and head - binding can be difficult ( Anton : ) . In addition , characteristic similarities suggest pathological conditions could be mistaken for intentional modification and such occurrences should be avoided . Hominid species other than Homo sapiens resulted in misinterpretation during early work , for example Knox ( ) description of a skull recovered from , . Prior to the classification of the species , was correct when he described the skull as round with prominent brow ridges and having "" the resemblance to the chimpanzee , but not a gorilla "" ( : ) and suggested the cranium was not deformed "" by mechanical means or otherwise "" ( ibid ) ; however , misinterpretation did occur upon the examination of the long bones ; the robustness was attributed to retained foetal characteristics ( ibid ) . The recovery of a lone abnormal skull from a cemetery of average crania suggests a benign origin rather than intentional modification ( : ) ; conversely , recovery of both artificially modified skulls from the same cemetery as unmodified crania may suggest the presence of distinct cultures within the region ( : ) or alternatively , a race that has desisted in using such methods . Finally , differences between individual cases of artificial modification need to be carefully considered . Defining factors include the duration and position of the deforming apparatus on the cranium ( ; Trinkaus ;) , the tension and material density of the bands ( ; ) , unintentional movement and the width of the band ( Özbek 2001 ) , and the healing response of the bones of the individual ( Stewart 1941 : ) . These elements will not only affect the shape produced but the level of deformity visible in the adult ( Trinkaus 1982 ) . The degree of resulting deformation has been graded by different authors using various terminology ; in this paper , for the purpose of clarity , the grades of unmodified , modified and extremely modified have been adopted . < heading > Artificial cranial modification</heading><quote>""History informs us that in very ancient times a belief prevailed that by mechanical means applied to the head of the infant , another form might be given to it than that intended by nature "" . ( : 271)</quote > The frontal flattening with excess curvature of the occipital bones of remains recovered from the upper levels of Shanidar Cave , , suggest artificial cranial modification has apparently been undertaken since ( Trinkaus 1982 ; ) . Similar treatment has been identified throughout the world and in geographical regions with the adoption of artificial cranial deformation , the occurrence rate appears to be high ; in analysis of skeletons from , and , displayed evidence of modification by the use of cradleboards ( Tiesler   URL . mesoweb.com/features/tielser/media/headshaping.pdf ) . The flat - headed race identified by extended from the ancient shore of the to central ( ) ; this may suggest migration of modified individuals ( ) and/or adoption of the fronto - occipital deformation practice by observers . The motivation behind the practice varied and apparently included symbols of status , aesthetic pleasure ( ) , religious symbolism ( ) and possibly tribal identification ( 1966 : ) . An unintentional combination of multiple factors can be recognised ; although attributed to aesthetics , the Greeks and preferred round heads , while would flatten the forehead and increase the height of their naturally large crania ( Hasluck 1947 : ) , coincidentally providing a cultural marker . The process of modification begins soon after birth , possibly immediately following the postpartum bath , usually by a woman , most commonly the mother or another person present at the birth ( ibid ; ) . Evidence suggests in some cultures the practice is a custom involving predominantly female children , possibly including the people of , , based on tentative sex determination of children ( Özbek 2001 ) , however , others have an even divide between the sexes , such as the prehistoric ( et al ) and some civilisations (   URL ) . In groups where both sexes have undergone modification , variation can still be seen ; examples recovered from suggested the females underwent head - binding for a longer period than the men due to the greater deformity seen in the specimens ( : ) . < heading > Head - binding</heading > The act of binding was possibly significant in the early life of the child ; anthropomorphic figurines musical instruments used during rites suggest the process of head - shaping was perhaps commemorated ceremonially ( fig ) ( Tiesler 1999 ,   URL   shaping.pdf ) . Symbolic meaning may explain the burial of an individual with in - situ deforming apparatus including a child from , ( fig ) ( Ubelaker 2000 ) and the occasional adult ( ) . < picture/><picture/>The process of head - binding appears similar worldwide ; bands of various material encircled the head of the neonatal infant , evidenced by the remains of the infant ( fig ) , occasionally with the addition of small boards or hard pads ( de la Vega ; ) . The position of the bands did not dictate the final shape . The tightness of the band , which appears to have been adjusted daily ( ibid ; ) , and the overall length of time the apparatus remained in place would affect the appearance into adulthood ( ) , however , minimal deformation would be visible after only one day ( ) . Some children would be head - bound until the desired shape was achieved , for or until they could walk ( Trinkaus 1982 ) , ( ) , or until the child possessed the ability to remove the band ( ; Trinkaus 1982 ) . The people of would ' paint ' the infant 's head with a black mixture of charred magas wood and water prior to the application of the band ; this was said to make the binding more effective ( ) . Following any initial preparation , all cultures apparently began the head - binding process with a band encircling the head , from the frontal bone at a level above the orbit , over the parietal region to the occipital bone ( ) . The ears were carefully flattened against the head ; the band would cover the entire ear of an infant or just the tips of an older child ( ) . The band itself was of various materials although can be identified as flexible due to a lack of flattening ( Trinkaus 1982 : ; ) ; the cultures of would generally use a bark - cloth bandage , a strip of which was removed from the loin cloth of the men , however , man wore a silk loin cloth , having obtained the fabric while working as a labourer in Rabaul ; this too was utilised for the bandage of his child ( ) . < picture/>A Chalcolithic infant from , , of only was identified as having undergone modification with the use of band ( ) ( fig ) . Additional bands were often added to the phase single band as the child grew or when the head reached the desired volume , often after the child reached ( ibid ) . Individuals who have undergone multi - band modification can be identified through the bulge that developed between the bands ( ) and included the Poroi who occasionally secured a band beneath the chin and over the crown to shorten the face ( Hasluck 1947 ) . An example of the dual - banding form of modification , recovered from ( ibid ) , displays the intra - band bulge . The infant , , was apparently head - bound with bands passing over the frontal bone and lower portion of the parietals and occipital ( fig ) , resulting in a superior - posterior projection of the superior portion of the parietals and upper part of the occipital : the circular form of modification , also known as circumferential or type , ( fig ) ( ibid ) . These infants provide valuable evidence of the stages children underwent during the process of modification . < picture/>The preferred shape of the modified cranium would differ from region to region . Within the culture of the , the people of the various regions would shape the heads of their infants slightly differently ; in the region , the resulting profile was oblique ; in the highlands , an erect shape (   URL ) , again although possibly unintentional producing a cultural marker . Within the city of , , internal variation rather than indicating social status , identified the integration of individuals into society ; , B and C of a housing complex revealed a predominance of mimetic and oblique shapes ; conversely , Patio D , on the periphery of the site apparently inhabited by outsiders , showed a preference for the erect type ( ibid ) . and ( ) state when categorising artificial cranial modification , to name the deformed bone or to which pressure is applied is insufficient . The overall result is dependant on the position of the apparatus above or below the greatest angle of the bone , together with individual growth patterns and diet ( ibid ) . Within this paper , in addition to the practice of cradle - boarding , forms of binding will be discussed . The apparatus and spatial arrangement used during each method of modification will be described and graphic examples provided where possible < picture/><picture/>Fronto - occipital flattening ( et al 1992)/anteroposterior deformation ( type ( ) , the most common form of modification ( ) , produced flattening of the frontal and occipital bones and bulging of the parietals , producing a tri - lobed ( ) appearance ( fig ) and a taller , wider face . The overall rounded appearance of the various bones affected by this deformation suggests the apparatus employed were flexible bands or a specially designed headband ( fig ) , restricting growth at the anterior - posterior area and also in the region of the sagittal suture . , between , employed the fronto - occipital flattening method of deformation on both men and women , although with a high degree of asymmetry ( et al ) , as did the people of , ( fig ) ( ) . < picture/><picture/><picture/>Circumferentially deformed skulls , including the ( ) and circular ( ) types were produced through the elongation of the frontal , temporal squamae and portions of the parietal and occipital bones without lateral bulging , with compensatory superior - posterior bulging of the upper occipital ( ; ) . This form of modification , probably through the use of bands ( ) , produced a long , narrow superior appearance ( fig . An extreme example of this form of modification was that of a female , , from , ( fig ) ( ) . found a reduction in the dimensions of the foramen magnum in deformed crania , long x broad , to that of undeformed examples , long x broad ( : ) ; evidence suggests this form of modification restricts growth of the foramen magnum and could result in the constriction of the spinal cord as will be discussed later in this paper . < heading > Cradle - boarding</heading><picture/>Through localised pressure on the posterior cranial vault , the securing of an infant to a cradle- board ( fig ) produced a cranium with either unilateral or bilateral flattening to the occipital or lambdoid region ( et al ) and have been used by the people of to produce their characteristic flat heads ( Hasluck 1947 ) . Growth restrictive pressure in the region between the frontal and occipital bones induced by the use of a cradle - board results in fronto - occipital reshaping and compensatory growth of the parietal in a mediolateral direction ( et al ) . The cradle - board , use of which was widespread throughout the south - west ( et al ) , may also have produced compensatory posterior lateral growth ( et al ) . Care should be taken on examination of presumed artificially modified skulls as mild although frequent pressure on the occipital bone from a cradle - board could result in values equal to hyperbrachcephaly ( ) . < picture/>Occipital or lambdoid deformation resembles that of accidental occurrence ( ; ) , such as infants sleeping with their heads on a resistant surface , for example the Navahos , or with the assistance of apparatus in ancient , ( ) . The appearance is that of a fronto - occipitally shortened but broadened skull with a high forehead ( ibid ) and vertically elongated occipital ( Ubelaker 2000 ) . An extreme example such as that found in a south - west cemetery must display intentional modification opposed to unintentional deformation due to the severity of the deformation ( fig ) . Children have been reported remained strapped to their cradle - board until they were ( ) and developmentally there seems to be little or no affect on the child through the use of a cradle - board ; this may be connected to the belief of some , including the Navahos , that cradle - boarding and the immobility induced ( Hudson 1966 ) , produced a strong child , a plausible explanation when considering the affects of isometric , resistance , exercise ( Hudson 1966 ) , alternatively that it encouraged straight growth ( et al ) . The Songish of , , adopted the cradle - board and pads as the apparatus utilised during cranial modification ( et al ) and may have held similar beliefs . cradle - boards allowed movement ( Hudson 1966 ) and therefore did not provide similar resistance ; future research into skeleto - muscular development of children displaying evidence of cradle - boarding may identify a difference between the tribes and examples . Contraindications against the use of artificial cranial modification have been suggested to include the increased risk of cerebral disease and/or mental retardation ( ) . A trained nurse who had worked in the prior to a transfer to the Arawe district , known for the practice of head binding , noticed an increased incidence of meningitis , cerebral malaria and severe headaches amongst the cranially modified individuals . In contrast , a medical missionary of similar experience in the same regions had not noticed the correlation and did not attribute such disease to head - binding ( ibid ) . However , excessive tension of the deformer could cause necrosis of the bone and continued use beyond the synostosis of the sutures may result in constriction of the brain ( ) , therefore , the opinion of the nurse should not be dismissed . Despite evidence that the cranial volume can be reduced slightly by modification , in the case of bilaterally modified crania when compared to non - modified ( et al ) , early work in the field identified artificial cranial modification and the resulting shape change of the brain did not apparently affect mental function ( ; ) . Although the profile of the brain is modified , all areas are present and undamaged and therefore , normal activity remains unaltered , evidenced by the elaborate carvings and painted designs produced by the people of ( ) . Studies on the affect of artificial head modification on the shape of the bones of the base of the cranium or those of the face have produced inconsistent results ( et al ) and the sutures of the skull are apparently not affected anatomically but spatially ( ) . Extreme modification would be expected to affect the bones of the cranial base and face ( Hrdlička ) and upon analysis of the Ancon series , data showed considerable shape change to the cranial base and lower facial bones , however , similar examination of crania from showed little significant change to the face ( ibid ) . This difference can be explained by the adoption of the cradle - board opposed to the use of a headband . There is however , evidence that modification can affect the size and location of foramen of the skull ( ) ; pressure on the spinal cord as a result of the relocation or distortion of the foramen magnum has been linked in pathological conditions such as achondroplasia , dwarfism , to apnea and sudden death ( Resnick 2002 : ) . Cradle - boarding in its nature appears to have little or no affect to the face . Modification is apparently restricted to the occipital or lambdoidal regions with asymmetric size difference without affecting the cranial base or face ( et al ) . Hippocrates considered over time the artificially altered cranial shape had become an inherited characteristic , in addition , with the increased contact between populations the practice was eventually rendered obsolete ( ) . Missionary influence further reduced the occurrence of modification . Contact with outside influence caused fathers working away from their villages to reconsider their actions ; on their return they would articulate their opinions to the women of the village , who having little outside contact would prefer to remain with the traditional methods . The fathers considered the cranially modified children would possess reduced intelligence ( ) ; the opinion of decreased mental ability , argued by several authors ( ibid ; ) , has been discussed elsewhere in this paper . Finally , colonialists in the area of may have discouraged the use of the artificial modification due to lower frequency in the area than similar ethnic groups ( et al ) . During more recent historic periods of cranial modification , although continuing during , governments have not interjected , however , the practice reduced in frequency ( ) . < heading > Pathological and congenital conditions</heading><quote conditions and neoplastic diseases are both well - known problems in modern medicine ... Based on skeletal material , both congenital and neoplastic diseases appear to be less frequent in archaeological populations ( and congenital conditions causing deformity have in the past included proposed causes such as God 's wraith and imagination , however , hereditary or accidental illness and narrowness of the womb ( , th surgeon , cited by ) are not unacceptable suggestions ; as previously discussed , constriction within the birth canal does cause temporary deformation . Burial practices may suggest the relationship within society a sufferer of deformity may have experienced ( ) as pathological conditions can produce a variety of deformities from the mild benign deviation from normal to extreme deformities incompatible with life . Some of these deformities could be mistaken as various forms of artificial cranial modification therefore , some forms will be briefly discussed here and examples provided where possible . Craniosynostosis , the premature fusion of or more sutures of the cranium , results in deformation of the skull , and includes plagiocephaly , asymmetry caused by the unilateral premature occlusion of sutures ( Resnick ) . , an abnormally elongated skull as a result of premature fusion of the saggital suture ( fig ) ( ; ; [ sp ] , nd ,   URL   11005.cfm ) , has in the past been common among ( Hrdlička ) , without affect on the face or cranial base ( et al ) . Also known as sagittal craniosynostosis , this condition may have limited the artificial cranial deformation of the type on a male recovered from , , ( fig ) ( ) ; this may also explain the bulge anterior to the crown , however , dual - bands could equally be the origin . In opposition to craniosynostosis , there are archaeological examples of adults with unfused sutures , including the frontal , parietal and occipital bones of an pygmy female from ( Flower ) . < picture/><picture/>Congenital hydrocephaly , possibly induced by multiple vitamin deficiency ( ) , can be difficult to differentiate from trauma , infection or tumour induced ( ) ; however , a true example was recovered from a Middle Saxon Christian cemetery at , Essex ( Putnam ) . The partial adult male was recovered without the vertebrae , therefore , it was not possible to confirm if the individual suffered from spina bifida , a common association with hydrocephalus ( ibid ; ) . Hydrocephalus can be a symptom of chromosome disorders such as Trisomy 13 ( Knowles ) , however , of the additional associated conditions including blindness , mental retardation and cleft palate ( ) , only the latter would be visible in the archaeological record . , the absence of the cranial vault , has a mortality rate at birth , although some sufferers may survive for ( ) ; this condition is commonly associated with vertebral abnormalities ( Knowles ) including spina bifida ( ) . Ethnicity may be a key to increased occurrence of this abnormality in and populations ( ibid ) . An example was described by an mother who recalled her many children all of which , died at or soon after birth , all except one ( Hasluck 1947 : ) . With echoes of the opinion that the parents hold a bearing on the appearance of the child , she blamed their father 's evil life for the fact they were all "" born with their heads open "" ( ibid ) . The survivor was born at the end of , with the assistance of an doctor with ; the doctor was able to sew up the deformity ( ibid ) , although no mention was made of the life span of the child ; when examining medical examples one wonders how a child could survive such affliction , despite medical intervention ( fig ) . < picture/>Although there are numerous conditions resulting in various forms and severity of cranial deformation , constraints restrict the detail in which they may be covered in this paper . The attempt has been made to describe the forms of similar characteristic to artificial modification and those discussed in historic text . < heading > Differential diagnosis</heading > Post - depositional distortion , when occurring in children , may result in soil seeping through the open sutures into the cranial cavity causing bulging and therefore a hydrocephalic appearance ; analysis of the entire cranium should clarify the situation ( : ) as hydrocephalus occurs in individual with open sutures . An example of misdiagnosis was recovered from , near in . This unsexed child , affectionately known as , was considered to have suffered from hydrocephalus , however , this has been revised to that of post - depositional pressure causing distortion to the cranium ( pers . comm . Dr , , ) . Post - depositional deformation can also mimic scaphocephaly , premature closure of cranial sutures producing a long and narrow skull ; examination of the sutures and the fact such damage usually manifests as asymmetric ( : ) should therefore , be obvious as inadvertent damage ; the small amount of subterranean pressure is unlikely to produce the more severe forms of modification ( Trinkaus 1982 ) . The asymmetric appearance of post - depositional damaged crania ( ) could result in an incorrect diagnosis of plagiocephaly . Conversely , premature multiple suture closure can result in a clover - leaf deformity ( ; ) and due to the similar mis - shapen appearance , possibly a misdiagnosis of fronto - occipital flattening . Such deformity can result in hydrocephalus and retardation ( Resnick ) . , defined as a cranium in circumference at full growth ( McPherson 2004 ,   URL ) , has several causes ; these include infection , severe malnutrition or drug use ( ibid ) , atelencephaly , congenitally deformed bones of the skull ( Siebert et al ) opposed to absence such in anencephaly , and cretinism , caused by a thyroid related hormone imbalance and iodine deficiency ( Manchester 2005 ) . The latter condition is triggered in - utero when the expectant mother fails to maintain normal thyroid stimulating hormone ( ) levels ( hypothyroidism ) , affecting the iodine uptake ( ) ; as cranial growth is triggered by the development of the brain , retardation is not inevitable but common , especially in this form . and artificially restricted growth of the cranium may cause confusion during examination . An alternative form of modification will confront archaeologists of the future . Children are now undergoing modification with the use of orthotic devices to correct certain deformities , including unintentional parietal flattening causing plagiocephaly due to their supine sleeping position . Recent research and a belief babies should sleep on the backs to reduce the risk of sudden infant death syndrome or cot death , resulted in an increased incidence of flattening of the parietal bone ( Resnick 2002 : ) . Although this should be a temporary condition while the skull is still malleable the child will turn while sleeping , therefore reducing the pressure on area of the skull , the device can be applied into of the child 's life , applying pressure to the area of abnormal growth while allowing normal development ( et al 2000 ,   URL ) . Early cases have shown correction can take as little as 7.5 months ( fig ) ( ibid ) , however , radiographic , imaging or post - mortem analysis could identify evidence of the medical modification induced on the cranium . < picture/>Several pathological conditions bear similar characteristics to artificial modification and differential diagnosis should , therefore , be carefully considered during skeletal analysis . In many cases examination of the axial skeleton will clarify the situation through recognition of additional symptoms ; in contrast , a lack of additional pathology may suggest the presence of artificially modified crania . < heading > Conclusion</heading > Artificial cranial modification has been practiced for for a variety of reasons . For a period of time , spanning to , the head of the newborn infant would be bound with flexible bands alone , with the addition of small boards or pads or the child could be strapped to a cradle - board . Dependant on the position and apparatus used , the resulting modification may be minimal and possibly invisible under the hair , as in the case lambdoid deformation of the male recovered from a cemetery , to severe deformity including the fronto - occipital flattening such as practised by the . Deliberate modification was one practiced by the community and continued for generations for the purpose of ethnic marking or aesthetic pleasure . The same grades of modification can be seen in pathological conditions ; under these circumstances , the individual may have been a social outcast , possibly reflected in their mode of burial . During examination of unusual skeletal data differential diagnosis should be considered as artificial modification and pathological conditions could manifest with similar deformity . Medical advancement has now created a modern form of modification for a therapeutic use ; despite the medical benefits , this treatment could unfortunately cause some confusion to future archaeologists .",1
"< heading > Anthropometry - Height , Weight and Circumstances</heading><table/><heading>1 . What are the limitations of a measurement of BMI ? What does it not tell you ? < /heading > BMI is a simple method to indicate whether a person is underweight or overweight . However the method can not tell us further information about other ' body composition to make a further precise conclusion of healthy or not . According to Ursula , "" is an imprecise measurement of fat - free and fat mass "" . It further explained "" the weight changes are not related to the changes of the fat mass "" . of the good example from , is athletics increase the weight by muscle to over BMI 25 ( suggested unhealthy ) , however , his body fat mass is low . Furthermore , is not precise in some areas such as different age groups and racism . Teenagers usually have higher muscle ratio to fat ; while aging people are in contrast , but the remains a stable value during the age changing . people should have lower value to achieve the "" overweight "" level , some would suggest BMI . < heading>2 . What does the waist : hip ratio not tell you about the distribution of body fat ? < /heading > The storage of body fat mainly located at the abdomen and hip , therefore fat body shapes , android ( apple shape ) , gynoid ( pear shape ) and ovoid ( fruit box shape ) called . However , fat tissue also store at other parts of body , like the thigh , the trunk and surround the internal organ . Moreover , Waist : Hip ratio is a measure of the central fat distribution ( centralized obesity ) , but it does not measure the blood lipid , ( with blood glucose , insulin level ) which now consider as a stronger indication of the health rather than using the waist : hip ratio . Recent study from ( ) implied that "" the fat location is still in controversies "" ; and correlation study among the waist : hip ratio , waist circumference and to fatness , the is "" less dependent on fatness "" . < heading Measurement < /heading><table/><heading>3 . Comment on the reproducibility of the measurements and what steps could be taken to improve reproducibility . < /heading > Skinfold measurement is a fair good reproducible method to predict the body fat except visceral fat . It is because the instrument required is comparatively cheap and easily to train to use . Furthermore , ( ) implied skinfold measurement is slightly better than in estimating % body fat in their study . To improve the reproducibility , we could increase the number of measurements from times to times , eliminate the largest and the smallest data , then take the average of the remaining data . Moreover , use trained testers and each measure times , remove the largest and smallest from measurements and take the average . The relaxation of the patient , technique of the tester are also an advanced . < heading>4 . What would be the advantages and disadvantages of making skinfold measurements at sites rather than the triceps measure only ? < /heading > sites or even sites skinfold measurements greatly increases the accuracy , because fat tissue can varies in different parts of the body . Imagine a labor who usually use his right hand to carry luggage , result the fat mass reduce . Increase the sites of measurement should reduce the bias on single site measurement . However , skilled and trained tester is very important , because when the measurement is not accurate at sites , the larger bias gained at last . The formula to calculate the final fat mass is also important , it could compare the answers by using different formula . < heading > Bioelectrical Impedance</heading><table/><heading>5 . How does a measurement of body fat by skinfolds differ from that measured by bioelectrical impedance ? < /heading > The body content is simply divided into main components , fat and non - fat content . The non - fat content is mainly composed by water . When electric flow through the body , the resistances of fat and non - fat content are different , through the processing , calculates the fat mass content . The non - fat content could be increased by high water content in body . Therefore , intake or excreting water affects the water content in body , which influence the fat mass prediction . On the other hand , skinfold is a prediction measurement , which mainly influenced by the tester technique ; however , is mainly affect by the water content in body . < heading > Energy requirementsCalculate and ( measured or prediceted ) multiplied by your PAL . < /heading > FORMULA   < heading>6 . How does your ( indicating your energy requirements if you are in balance ) , compare with your estimated daily energy intake ? < /heading > My data estimated by is lower than formula predicted one . A general estimation of male adult recommend consume - 2500 kcal daily , which varies between physical activities , racism and his basal metabolic rate . Assume my from is more accurate ; the from formula prediction had a standard error kcal of male group . Thus the formula is based on particular racism group , it could be generated from western diet people , therefore the bias occurs . Moreover , the PAL value is important and it influences the final energy value . In contrast , from the BIA could be influenced due to the water content of user varies time by time , and finally estimate a inaccurate basal metabolic rate . < heading>7 . What particular adipose tissue deposit(s ) is waist circumference measuring and how valid is the measure ? < /heading > After meal , activation of insulin leads to synthesis of fatty acids and for further fat storage . The adipose tissues for storage are mainly "" white "" form , which there are lots of fat cells located at the abdomen . Waist circumference ( WC ) measuring is mainly at this site of white adipose tissue . There are several studies suggesting and providing evidence to show the simple way of anthropometry - waist circumference is the best method to indicate the health or risk of disease(s ) among waist circumference ( WC ) , waist - to - hip ratio ( WHR ) and body mass index ( BMI ) . of the study by ( ) compared , and methods to investigate the intraperitoneal and posterior subcutaneous abdominal adipose tissue mass in men . There are totally sites to examine , which are , , ASAATM and PSAATM . men were joined the study , of them are over - weight and the other are obese . This study used ( MRI ) to generate a group of data , as a standard , comparing the data with , and by statistic methods and generate the final results . ( ) stated "" correlational analysis suggests that in men who are on average overweight - to - obese , waist circumference is a better predictor of the distribution of adipose tissue among several fat compartments in the abdominal region "" . Thus had a stronger correlation in ASAATM and PSAATM than WHR ; while also had a stronger correlation in and . Finally , showed it is the best among anthropometry methods by using MRI to make a standard reference for statistic calculation . In addition , ( ) claimed that "" WC could be a surrogate marker of the distribution of adiposity in the abdominal region in men . "" WC is particularly providing a better result in overweight or obese groups , however , other age groups , even other racism groups require more study to give a certain result . is a very simple and cheap method , which the bias is very low and does not require training to start the measurement ; ( ) also claimed that is "" reliable "" .","< abstract><heading > Summary</heading > For module it is a requirement that the Dimensional Analysis laboratory is carried out . This laboratory is concerned with fluid mechanics , and more specifically analysis of fluid flow in a V - notch weir . Dimensional analysis is a necessary requisite because of the complex nature of fluid flow . The objective of this report is to show that .   FORMULA   where Q= volumetric flow rate in m 3s -1 , and h = the depth of fluid over the V - notch . This being done by using a V - notch weir layout ( outlined in the report ) . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > This laboratory was designed to test derived formula for flow rate empirically : its objective is to assess the accuracy of the formula , . via empirical means . Eq .   FORMULA   ( where Q= volumetric flow rate in m 3s -1 , and h = the depth of fluid over the V - notch . ) Substituting k=5/2 gives . . Eq .   FORMULA   Taking logarithms will lead to   FORMULA   Therefore , if . is correct then the gradient of a graph depicting Eq . will have a gradient , k , of . This report will determine a value of k. The theoretical implications impact upon the design of dams and weirs . The V - notch method of determining flow rate was used because it is accurate and simple , leaving little room for human error in carrying it out . After completion of the practical laboratory it was concluded that the value of k calculated in this laboratory , , was incorrect due to inaccuracies in taking down the results . < heading > Theory</heading > Eq . was derived from application of dimensional analysis and the Buckingham Π theorem , following the process set out in pages to the end of Appendix 1 . The Π theorem is key in dimensional analysis . It states that if there is ' a physically meaningful equation involving a certain number , n , of physical variables , and these variables are expressible in terms of k independent fundamental physical quantities , then the original expression is equivalent to an equation involving a set of p = n −k dimensionless variables constructed from the original variables . For the purposes of the experimenter , different systems which share the same description in terms of these dimensionless numbers are equivalent . '1 In this experiment the relevant dimensions were length , time and mass . 1 URL   < heading>3.0 Apparatus and Methods</heading><picture/><picture/>Fig . is a picture of the equipment used and is a schematic of the apparatus . Initially the pump was turned off so that new fluid flowed and there was a state of equilibrium whereby the water in the tank was still and at a level just below the V - notch . At this point the scale ( on the side of the blue tank ) was set to by moving the submerged hook to the same height as the water . This set a reference point for height difference , h : it was then measured relative to this point . The pump was then switched on and water flowed at a rate determined by the how far the valve was opened . This discharge rate , Q , was calculated by equating the height difference in the manometers to the corresponding value for Q on a graph . readings were taken . < heading>4.0 Observations and Results</heading><table/>The manometer reading and h were calculated by a manometer and gauge ( respectively ) which had a minimum m division so the above figures have an accuracy of ±0.0005 m. < heading>5.0 Analysis and Discussion of Results</heading > The graph produced by the results has a gradient of , which is not close to the expected value of . From the graph it is evident that the gradient is closer to at the beginning of the experiment . This enforces my belief that the inaccuracies arise because the readings taken were averaged over a period of time and not instantaneous as the readings diverge more from the expected gradient as the flow rate increases . These inaccuracies render the results as a whole not especially useful , but the earlier results are more indicative of what one would expect . In the class results were varied , however some came closer to the expected results . This could be because other groups used a slower flow rate . < heading>6.0 Recommendations</heading > In order to improve the reliability of these results a high resolution , low shutter speed camera could be used to ensure that results are instantaneous , rather than averaged over a period of time . < heading>7.0 Conclusions</heading > The results are not sufficiently good to lend weight to . . However the analysis supporting . is rigorous and it seems that errors in the results can be attributed to human fault rather than flaws with . .",0
"< heading > Introduction</heading > The aim of the experiment was to determine the total acidity of vinegar . The titration in the experiment involved standardisation of . This was because was hygroscopic and absorbed carbon dioxide so could not be used as a primary standard . was standardised against potassium hydrogen phthalate . < heading > Method < /heading > For details of both methods see practical schedule . No alterations were made to the method . < heading > Preparation of standard sodium hydroxide solution . < /heading > The sodium hydroxide was titrated against 25ml of potassium hydrogen phthalate and phenolphthalein indicator . The alkali was added until a permanent faint pink colour end point was reached . From this experiment the molarity of the sodium hydroxide was calculated . < heading > Determination of the total acidity of vinegar . < /heading>25ml of the vinegar sample was pipetted and diluted up to 100ml in a volumetric flask . The M sodium hydroxide was then titrated with 25ml of the diluted vinegar sample and a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator was added . The pH of the vinegar samples were determined using paper . Also barium chloride and silver nitrate solution were added to diluted samples of vinegar and observations were recorded . < heading > Results</heading > Preparation of standard sodium hydroxide solution . < table/>Three titre within ±0.1 ml .   FORMULA   Determination of the total acidity of vinegar < table/><table/><table/>pH values of the samples of vinegar < list > Sample : pH 2.5Sample 2 : pH 3.0Sample 3 : pH 1.0</list > Results of diluted vinegar sample tested with:- < table/><heading > Calculation</heading > Standard of hydrogen phthalate ≡ Sodium hydroxide on a basis But ml ≡ ml potassium hydrogen phthalate So is weaker by   FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA   Then 1 litre of 1 M NaOH ≡ of 1 M CH But 0.089 , so of M ≡ of M CH ≡ g 1 litre of M ≡ × = g of CH 3COOH For sample the titre was     g came from 25ml of the diluted sample ( total volume of 100ml ) so 25ml of undiluted sample has     Undiluted sample has   FORMULA   in Therefore in 100ml   FORMULA      For sample the titre was     g came from 25ml of the diluted sample ( total volume of 100ml ) so 25ml of undiluted sample has     Undiluted sample has   FORMULA   in Therefore in 100ml   FORMULA      For sample the titre was     g came from 25ml of the diluted sample ( total volume of 100ml ) so 25ml of undiluted sample has     Undiluted sample has   FORMULA   in Therefore in 100ml   FORMULA    FORMULA   < heading > Discussion</heading > The results for the total acidity showed that all the vinegar samples varied in acidity . Sample had the strongest acidity at , and then sample with and sample was the weakest with acetic acid . Vinegar samples and 3 would meet the legal standard because for both fermented and artificial products the minimum amount of acetic acid is m / Sample did not meet the legal standard as it contained m / V acetic acid . The pH of the vinegar sample ranged from pH . Sample had the lowest of . This sample was also the gave a positive creamy white precipitate with silver nitrate solution . This suggested that the sample may have been contaminated with a mineral acid . Mineral acids , i.e H and have a high dissociation constant . i.e. HCl → H+ + Cl- ( lots of H+ ) ( This reaction is reversible but the forward reaction is favourable . ) However , organic acids , i.e. CH 3COOH have a poor dissociation constant . i.e. CH ← CH 3COO- + H+ ( less H+ ) ( Also a reversible reaction but the backward reaction is favoured . ) Since the = -log [ H+ ] , mineral acids have a low pH between 1 - 2 , whereas organic acids have a higher between pH 3 - 4 . Sample therefore was contaminated with a mineral acid , HCl as the test for chloride ions is silver nitrate and it was positive . The effect of relatively large amounts of phenolphthalein indicator on the results obtained would be change volume of solution so titration value would be slightly inaccurate . It may also be because indicators are either weak acids or alkali so you are changing the concentration of the vinegar . If the vinegar were more strongly coloured the end point may be determined by using a pH meter ? Sources of error The main sources of error were in determining the end point of the titration . It was very difficult to get the exact end point because the colour change happened very quickly , in just one drop","< heading > Background and Objective</heading > Trypsin inhibitors are proteolytic enzyme inhibitors , found in plant foods and extracted from defatted soya bean meal . ( ) inhibitor is a factor that causes inhibition of pancreatic tryptic activity . Inactivation of trypsin inhibitor by heat treatment is advantageous because it increases the protein quality of legumes and soybeans , and therefore nutritional value . ( , ) This study determined the trypsin inhibitor activity of soya bean meal pre and post heat treatment using a colorimetry method . ( , ) . The method relied on the reaction below :   FORMULA   < heading > Results</heading > Trypsin inhibitor was detected in all the samples except the standards . The percentage inhibition was greater for the heated samples at than for the unheated samples at . However the difference between these percentages is very low at . The unheated sample had an absorbance of when measured at nm and was lower than that of the heated sample at . The lower the absorbance value , the lower the yellow intensity as less was broken down during the reaction and this suggested a higher level of trypsin inhibitor . The sample blanks for both the unheated and heated sample had lower absorbency values than for their sample . The sample blank with the unheated extract had absorbency at and the value for the unheated sample was twice this amount at when measured at nm . The amount of pure trypsin inhibited by the unheated sample was mg / sample where as the heated sample had a higher amount of trypsin inhibited at mg / sample . The yellow intensity in the samples were caused by the and trypsin reacting together to produce p - nitroaniline and this gave an indication to the amount of trypsin inhibitor present . < heading > Calculations < /heading><heading > UNHEATED</heading > Change in absorbance ( ) due to trypsin inhibition / ml diluted of unheated sample :   FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA   D = dilution factor = change in absorbance S = sample weight = constant figure based on the weight of pure trypsin inhibited per ml .   FORMULA   < heading > HEATED</heading > Change in absorbance ( ) due to trypsin inhibition / ml diluted of heated sample :   FORMULA    FORMULA      < heading > Discussions and Conclusions</heading > The expected result should have shown that heat treatment of the defatted soya bean extracted inactivates or reduces trypsin inhibitor and therefore reduces trypsin inhibitor activity . However , this was not shown in experimental results as the unheated samples had a slightly lower percentage inhibition at than the heated sample at . As the difference in the percentage inhibition was minimal at , this result may have been due to experimental error . Possible causes for the experimental error or why these results were obtained include inadequate heat treatment or the samples may not have been heated for long enough for the inhibitor to be inactivated . The yellow colour obtained increased in intensity when the absorbance was high . This was because there was more broken down and a smaller amount of trypsin inhibitor present . The reproducibility of the results may be difficult as the results did not correspond to literature trends and the extent of heat treatment is quite difficult to control . However the method is mostly appropriate for this analysis and replicates taken in absorbency values ensure that the results are reliable . The literature value for trypsin absorbency with no trypsin inhibitor is approximately 0.400 ( Liu , ) . The experimental value obtained was at nm and close to the literature value . The range of absorbance for the difference samples should have varied and and the majority of the data obtained did lie within this region . The trypsin inhibitor in the reaction reduced the and trypsin to produce p - nitroaniline . Trypsin inhibitor inactivation by heat treatment is important because trypsin inhibitor works by blocking the enzyme trypsin from digesting the protein . The trypsin inhibitor in soyabeans needs to be inactivated as it allows for increased protein quality and prevents growth inhibition , so it is safe for consumption .",1
"< heading > Introduction</heading > This report will examine ; what contaminated land is and how it becomes contaminated , the impact contaminated land could have upon Spectrum Petrochemicals , what assessment methods need to be deployed to ensure our sites ( oil refineries , tank farms and retail petrol stations ) are not contaminated , and if they are some possible remedies . < heading > Historical Pretext</heading > The major incident that highlighted how industry can contaminate land and how it should be cleaned up , was the "" "" . This arose when company purchased the incomplete canal and placed of untreated organic waste substances into it . Subsequently the land was purchased and houses and a school were built upon it . In , flooding caused the water table to rise bringing contamination from the chemical drums to the ground water level . This contaminated the land and the population of suffered severe sickness as a result . When declared a state of disaster it was found that many of the contaminating chemicals were toxic and carcinogenic . It cost in total to remediate the contamination in the Love Canal region . The effect the contaminated land had was profound on the community it affected and provided a startling wake up call to industry , illustrating what could ( in extreme cases ) be the result of their contamination and the possible cost of remediation . This started a trend in industry taking a pro - active role . The incident set many precedents that were later laid down in law . < heading In the many Environmental acts have been passed , the most relevant to this report in . In Part II of the 1995 Environment Act it states : < quote>""Contaminated land "" is any land which appears to the local authority in whose area it is situated to be in such a condition , by reason of substances in , on or under the land , that -   ( a ) significant harm is being caused or there is a significant possibility of such harm being caused ; or ( b ) pollution of controlled waters is being , or is likely to be , caused</quote > It is also defines : < quote>""Harm "" means harm to the health of living organisms or other interference with the ecological systems of which they form part and , in the case of man , includes harm to his property . < /quote > The implications of this legislation and guidance over it are provided by : < quote > Not all land affected by contamination is "" "" . Land is only defined as "" "" if there is a "" Significant Pollutant Linkage "" . < /quote > This means there must be significant evidence that there is a ) Significant contamination present ( e.g. carcinogen ) , b ) A receptor ( e.g. Human ) , c ) a pathway that links the ( e.g. water supply ) . For example benzene is released a by - product of a chemical process , this is released into the ground . Hypothetically it finds its way into ground water , which is then collected , processed and redistributed for drinking water- this is the pathway . The receptor is the person who drinks from a tap the benzene contaminated water . The legislation is primarily administered by the local authorities , who identify which land is contaminated . plays a secondary role by administrating "" special sites "" , which are designated "" special sites "" by the local authority . Examples of special sites are : land owned by refining sites . If after investigation the relevant authority found contamination on a site , the authority would give a remediation notice . A remediation notice states what has to be done to remediate contamination and the time scale to do this in . The outcome of the guidelines regarding the legislation is ) the polluter pays for the clean up of contamination . ) Clean up is done to a "" fit for purpose "" level - i.e. for public use the level of remaining contamination would be less than if it were an industrial site where personnel wore protective clothing . ) The "" fit for purpose "" level is based upon a risk assessment of the site , which uses the Significant Pollutant Linkage "" theory . ) It places the emphasis on a company to take a proactive role in keeping land from contamination . < heading > Water Cycle Model</heading><picture/>The "" Significant Pollutant Linkages "" model in many cases requires a water pathway linkage , thus a good model of "" the water cycle "" ( See figure ) is needed to understand the possible effect of contaminating soil . Surface water passes through unsaturated zone topsoil to the aquifer - groundwater . This water can not penetrate the zone of low permeability ( i.e. clay or chalk ) , thus the groundwater goes into the stream . If it could penetrate the low permeability zone it would reach the lower aquifer . Below the lower aquifer is bedrock . Hypothetically if contamination was allowed to flow through the system , it would ( in large enough quantity ) contaminate the groundwater and the stream . The significance of this is , on average of the 's drinking water comes from ground water . By contaminating the groundwater you are potentially contaminating the drinking water . This is specifically important to our company since many of our sites ( refineries and tank farms ) lie near to estuaries , rivers and canals . If any chemical contaminated the soil at our sites , it could be transported by groundwater to either a ) a drinking water treatment plant or b ) an estuary , river or canal where it would damage the ecosystem there and also possibly get transferred into the drinking water . < heading > Risk Assessment Structure</heading > The risk assessment procedure applied to our sites would enable a full evaluation of what , if any remediation of the types of site need - to make them "" fit for purpose "" - in accordance to guidance from the UK Environment Agency . Since most sites are over and run down due to under investment , a broad spectrum of results would be expected . The risk assessment would take the following outline : < heading > Stage I - Pre - site investigation</heading><heading > i ) Historical Review</heading > A historical review of the site would give a good background knowledge , thus guiding a site investigation . The location of the site is key to a risk assessment - i.e. whether the is site accessible to the general public , or site personnel . Also whether it is close to rivers , estuaries which would lead to concern about polluting the water and a possible linkage to the drinking water . Another factor is what the site was previously used for , since most of our sites have been operating for , a full risk assessment when purchasing the site would probably not have been undertaken then . Contamination may be still left from previous uses , as well as accumulation over , which we know there has been a shift from producing leaded to unleaded petrol . If this is not investigated prior to a full site investigation , it could throw up anomalous results with our preconceived model of the site . < heading > ii ) Preliminary Hazard Assessment</heading > Before going to the site , the possible chemical hazards can be considered and examined on concepts : Mobility , Persistence and Toxicity . The mobility of a substance investigates how soluble the chemical is , and how well it sorbs to soil , thus concluding whether it can use water as a solvent pathway , or whether it will just deposit in the soil . If a compound is persistent , it means it is unlikely to biodegrade quickly , and thus is probably unreactive , meaning it will remain in the environment for a long time . Although if it is volatile it may vaporise . The toxicity of a compound is the dosage required , if the chemical reached a receptor ( i.e. human ) to cause harm . < heading > Stage II - Site Investigation</heading><heading > i ) Preliminary Site Investigation</heading > The preliminary site investigation covers the whole site , encompassing all areas to help identify "" hot - spots "" of contamination . This is a type of reconnaissance , ensures a complete picture is acquired , but saves money by not doing an in - depth investigation of whole site . Also this allows the theoretical model ( of pollutant - linkages ) to be modified . The key to success at this stage is , having a multi - disciplinary team- allowing all aspects of the site to be covered in the appropriate specialist areas and have quality assured laboratories - so that results are totally reliable and repeatable . < heading > ii ) In - Depth Site Investigation</heading > If the results correlate with the historical background and the theoretical model , the next step is to take further readings from the site , that are a ) to a higher degree of accuracy , b ) concentrated in hot spots to further define any linkages , c ) check the data is conclusive enough , and gives further clarification to the theoretical model . < heading > Stage III - Comparing Field Results to Critical Values</heading > If the measured concentrations of the found compounds exceeds intervention "" Soil Guidance Values "" ( from UK CLEA ) , then the problem must be remedied , either by treatment or careful monitoring . This is dependant upon the dosage received by receptors - based upon refined theoretical model of site . < heading > Stage IV - Remedies of Contamination</heading > Based on a theoretical "" Significant Pollutant Linkage "" model , dosages of each of the pollutants can be calculated . When compared to acceptable reference intake values ( UK CLEA ) , the decision to take action or to monitor the situation is taken . There are in essence types of remediation , ) on site , where any contamination is either contained or treated ; ) removed from the site and either treated or destroyed . < heading > Theoretical Risk Assessment of our Company</heading > This report will now examine the possible outcomes of a risk assessment of our sites , ( considering all varieties with stated assumptions ) . It will focus on contaminants chemicals ; benzene and lead ( see Appendix A for complete Chemical Hazard Assessments ) . Both of which ( or were ) component parts of petrol . is "" Highly toxic and carcinogenic , if mobile in water poses great risk to public health "" and lead is "" Quite toxic - if repeatedly exposed . Not very mobile , but if found in groundwater could prove to be hazardous "" . The theoretical risk assessment will look for significant pollution linkages considering stage 1 and 4 of the risk assessment , and then summarise the remedial possibilities of any proposed possible risks . The full theoretical assessment can be seen in . < table/><picture/><picture/><picture/><heading > Conclusions and Recommendations</heading > The Love Canal incident and subsequent legislation has meant industry has had to adopt a pro - active approach to maintaining and remediation of any of its contaminated sites . The deterrent to this is the "" polluter pays principle "" , in which industry and individuals are held to account for their contamination , thus encouraging a pro - active role . Contaminated land is not considered contaminated unless a significant pollutant linkage is found . If diagnosed such , it is administrated by or ( only for special sites ) who would serve remediation notices stating the remediation required for the site and a timescale . As a consequence , must check to see if our sites are contaminated and have significant pollutant linkages . The fact that most of our sites are over , run down , and previous uses were probably industrial would also imply that contaminated land could be an issue for . I suggest the following action : A preliminary and historical assessment of each site , this would eliminate immediately ( with relatively low cost ) , which sites were contaminated and which were not . ( See Stage I ) A full site investigation should take place on all sites that from preliminary investigation were seen to pose possible contamination threats . ( see , III and IV ) If many sites were found to be contaminated from the full site investigations , then by prioritisation , the worst contaminated sites must be remedied . The remedial costs per site are estimated as the following : < list > Land Farming to removed deposits : £ 1 - 5kSoil Vapour Vaporisation of Benzene : 1 - 100kPump and Treat of dissolved : 5mFor a hanging wall : > Ongoing pollution could be stopped by modernising facilities and using less potentially contaminating processes . This would require capital investment , but would give long term financial benefit ( less remediation costs in the future ) .","Tense is often viewed as a matter of time . It is used to describe time and therefore has the same qualities as time i.e. a past , a present and a future . In , this expression of time is a property of a verb form . In this essay I will discuss the possibility that it is not as simple as this . Tense could in fact be a matter of syntax . It could be a grammatical feature that is independent of time . is "" the way in which words are arranged to show relationships of meaning within ( and sometimes between ) sentences "" ( 1997:94 ) I shall discuss whether it is possible to have a future time without a future tense . This will lead to discussion of how many tenses there are in . There are main approaches to tense in the language : The traditional view , the functionalist view and the structuralist view . I will define and discuss each of these in turn . I shall look at the relationship between tense and time . The scope of time can not be covered by tense markings . For example , you can not pinpoint where a pair of sentences such as the following would be on a timeline :   FORMULA    FORMULA   We therefore can not see tense as a relationship with time in this way . These examples may leave us asking ' when ? ' To give information about time we could say :   FORMULA   In this case , the verb did gives the tense marking and the adjunct on gives the information about time . This shows tense as a separate concept from time . It shows it as a grammatical marking , which could therefore be a matter of syntax . The verb in the Verb Phrase ( VP ) always carries the tense . This is , as Berk points out , "" a matter of form , not meaning "" ( Berk 1999:100 ) I will now look at the main approaches to tense . The traditional view comes from a model . There is a past tense , a present tense and a future tense . Traditionalists see tense as having a very close relationship with time and as more of a temporal concept than a grammatical concept . However , grammar does not support this view . Future time is not generally indicated in the verb form itself . The argument that the future is not a tense is based on grammar . Without auxiliaries , the future tense is the same as the present tense . Since future can not be indicated by the verb in a sentence ( without using an auxiliary ) , some argue that it is not a grammatical tense . Tense is form driven and therefore there are tenses in , the present and the past . This is called the view . I will now show examples of formation of ' future tense ' in to explain the points made by structuralists . The simple future uses will or shall or going to plus the base form of the verb that describes the action . For example :   FORMULA   The future can also be formed from the present simple or the present progressive , for example :   FORMULA   ( present simple )   FORMULA   ( present progressive ) It can also be formed by will be / have or shall be / have plus the - ing form of the verb . It is also possible to form it from will / shall have plus a past participle .   FORMULA   ( will + -ing form )   FORMULA   ( will have + past participle ) Structuralists think that whereas the time expressed by these sentences may be future , the grammatical tense of the verb is either present or past . The tense of the sentence will affect how the sentence is formed , with relation to the Verb Phrase ( VP ) . For example , in a sentence without an auxiliary , e.g. liked the film , the tense of the sentence is the head . The VP must agree with the tense of the sentence . This can be shown in a simple diagram : < figure/>In this diagram , the verb has to agree with the tense ( past ) and therefore the verb is formed with a past tense inflectional morpheme . As says "" Tense inflection on a verb is in complimentary distribution with auxiliaries "" ( ) . Either one of these can express the tense of the sentence . Tense is a matter of syntax when we see how the meaning of time relations can be changed with the changing of syntax . These examples illustrate that :   FORMULA      This example shows how the rearranging of VPs in a sentence can affect the meaning . The meaning that is altered in this example is how the events are sequenced . In example . The pot is dropped before the apology is made . In example , the apolgy is made before the pot is dropped . By swapping the VPs , the syntax is changed and therefore the timeline is altered . Some linguists argue that the structure of time - relations is deeper than this surface - level analysis . They are often called functionalists . The functionalist view is that tense is meaning - driven . Functionalists believe that tense is not just the grammatical state of the verb . It is related to peripheral concepts also . For example , , a logical semanticist , proposed that there are many tenses in and to assess these things must be taken into account , time ( S ) , Event time ( E ) and Reference time ( R ) . This can be shown in a simple sentence :   FORMULA   Speech time , Event time and Reference time can be in any order and may occur together . Timelines can be made from the sequences . The timeline of for example 9 would look like this :   FORMULA   There are a maximum of combinations of orders . Reichenbach drew from these to propose a basic set of tense forms . These basic tenses are , according to , "" syntactic constructs "" ( 1990:41 ) . looks at 's views and suggests that tense has deeper connections to syntax . He says that the syntactic constructs of tense are ordered by "" linearity and associativity ... A point linearly to the left of another point is considered temporally earlier "" ( 1990:41 ) . Taking these assumptions , then proposes that the syntactic representation of a tense is more than that required for understanding the time it suggests . Tenses from the Reichenbachen theory are individuated syntactically , not just temporally . I will now discuss syntax in more detail , focussing on an example from use of the past tense . Berk raises the point that past tense verbs relating to an action represent activities occurring in the order in which they are mentioned in a text . For example , when predicates are joined with and we can often say that they are in sequence . The following example shows this :   FORMULA   We presume that I put the key in the lock before the door opened . This can work even with examples that are less obvious in sequence , and examples that have an obvious gap in time between the predicates . Berk uses the example :   FORMULA   ( Berk 1999:114 ) This temporal ordering is also true of some passages containing many sentences . I have taken an example from a fictional book .   FORMULA   ( From ' The Lovely Bones ' by . ) Some past tense verbs do not have this obvious time line . When actions continue over a long period of time , the predicates are not ordered temporally , for example   FORMULA   It is not only the order of the sentences that shows the temporal ordering of events . If a progressive or stative verb follows a past - tense verb , we assume that the progressive was occurring before the past - tense verb . For example :   FORMULA   We assume that the window was open before I went over to it . The order of sentences is not necessarily the temporal order . This shows that word order is not the only thing affecting temporal - relations . Tense is definitely affected by context , and the context will affect the syntax used . For example "" Actor , , dies of heart attack "" is written in present tense but when seen as a newspaper headline we assume that it means the event has already happened and is therefore in past time . The present tense can be used to express many different things . Berk ( ) summarises these . Habitual action can be expressed with the present tense , along with states , truths , Planned future events , , Performatives and Historical events . Comrie attempts to explain these uses of a tense to express a different time than usual . For example present tense grammatically representing past time in narrative discourse .   FORMULA   says : "" apparent exceptions to the use of a given tense as defined by its meaning can be accounted for in terms of the interaction of the meaning of that tense with independently justifiable syntactic rules of the language in question . "" ( ) This implies that these differences are a matter of syntax , therefore making tense systems a matter of syntax . This all shows how the traditional view may not be as clear - cut as it appears . As stated above , we have no future tense as such , but this does not mean we have no concept of future time . Tense and time can also be separated by looking to other languages for evidence . has no grammatical tense system but this does not mean that the speakers have no concept of time in their language . They have words to express past , present and future , and they understand time as well as any other speaker of a different language . Other languages such as mark tense on a different word class such as the adjective . In an tribal language , , endings expressing time can be used on nouns . These are just examples of a different tense marking . The fact that they do not mark the verb for tense does not mean that they have no tense system . Their system of marking a different word in a sentence works just as well . Romance languages comply more with the traditional view of tense . On most verbs there are markings for past , present and future time . Word order may change according to tense in some languages . The word order we use to convey a past event is different from that of other languages . language adds a time marker to the end of a sentence . For example , to say "" I ate "" you would sign "" I eat "" and then add the sign for "" finished . "" In many pidgin languages , particles replace tenses as time markers . In some languages , the word order and grammar for each tense may be the same but the phonology may change . For example , in the tone - language , , present tense is indicated by a low tone and past tense by a high or high - low tone . Other languages also show a difference of tense system from speech to writing . In , the simple past tense does not occur in speech , only in writing . However , this does not mean that they can only convey this concept if they write it down . These are just some of the differences in tense marking across languages . It shows the variation in how time relations are conveyed . is just one of the factors affecting tense . In this essay , I have discussed the main approaches to tense . , the slightly archaic traditionalist view that there are tenses ( past , present and future ) . Linguists generally reject this view . the structuralist view that there are tenses ( past and present ) and the future tense is made up of combinations of these with auxiliaries . Finally , the functionalist view which is dominated by 's theory of speech time , event time and reference time . These make up several combinations to give the tense of a sentence . The functionalist view is concentrated on tense as a matter of syntax and sees tense as having a deeper structure than the surface grammar shows . It is all to do with where these points are located in the sentence , which shows how they are related to each other in time . I have also discussed the weak relationship between tense and time . This has led to the discussion of other factors affecting tense and how tense in turn affects these factors . For example , how other languages cope with or without different tense systems but all maintain the same concept of time and how context affects how tense is used to convey a different time than expected ( for example when the present tense is used to express a past event in narratives ) . The functionalist view seems to be the most widely accepted throughout the literature . It is generally agreed amongst linguists that tense and time have a weaker relationship than many people think . The structuralist view goes deeper into the structure of tense and suggests that it is not necessarily just grammar that creates tense , but syntax and meaning as well .",0
"< abstract><heading>1.0 Summary</heading > The objective of this exercise is to find , by experimental means , the moments of inertia of steel discs . These values will be compared to those found using a known theoretical relationship . Estimates of errors incurred ( by simplifications or otherwise ) shall be made and their effects described and accounted for . The method used involves a falling mass turning an axle by unravelling a string as it descends . The torque generated shall be applied to the disc , which starts with angular velocity and acceleration . The falling mass will be timed on its journey over a fixed distance . With measurements of the time taken , distance fallen , radii of discs and applied torque , the moment of inertia of each discs can be calculated . The main conclusions drawn from this experiment will refer to the moments of inertia of the discs and the accuracy of those results . Their accuracy will be evaluated by comparing experimental results to theoretically derived values , and after scrutiny of the errors incurred . < /abstract><heading>3.0 Introduction</heading > There are strands to the purpose of the experiment . They are , firstly , to understand how the linear and rotational versions of 's law relate and , , to gain experimental experience about the 2 nd moment of mass . The objectives of the experiment are ; < list > to obtain ( by experimental methods ) the moments of inertia of given discs;to assess the accuracy of those results by comparing experimental values with those derived using a known theoretical relationship.</list > Consideration will be given to the accuracy of the quantities measured following objective one , and the impact errors have on the moment of inertia calculated . The conclusions drawn will refer to the moments of inertia calculated from experimental results and the accuracy of those results in comparison to those calculated using mechanics theory . < heading>4.0 Theory</heading><figure/>The illustration left shows the steel disc and falling mass arrangement with the quantities that are important in the experiment . From basic motion equations :   FORMULA   ( 1 ) ( where v is velocity and is angular speed ) Differentiating with respect to time gives   FORMULA   ( where is angular acceleration ) Therefore   FORMULA   ( 2 ) Now using the constant acceleration equation   FORMULA   it can be shown that with initial velocity   FORMULA   ( ) 's law states that   FORMULA   This law in angular terms converts to   FORMULA   ( where T is torque , I is inertia and angular acceleration - ' a ' from the diagram ) On inspection of the diagram , it can be seen that   FORMULA   and therefore , using ( )   FORMULA   ( 4 ) Using ( ) in ( ) gives   FORMULA   hence   FORMULA   Now , given that the mass ' M ' in the diagram falls much more slowly than it would do purely under the force of gravity , a good approximation of mg is   FORMULA   ( 5 ) Rearrange ( 5 ) to give   FORMULA   ( 6 ) Using ( ) a good approximation for the moment of inertia of each of the discs can be obtained . The theoretical formula this experimental approximation will be compared with is   FORMULA   ( 7)2 Where M is the mass of the disc and R is its radius . With this knowledge it is possible to devise a method to gather experimental data . < heading>5.0 Apparatus and Methods</heading><heading>5.1 Apparatus list</heading><list > Stopwatch30 cm rulerLight string ( long)Masses - 20 g , g , g & g mass hanger3 steel discs ( all of uniform thickness )   radius - 63.5 mm radius - 75 mm radius - 0.696kgWooden stand/ support ( see diagram and description on the next page)</list><heading>5.2 Description of setup</heading > On side of the main support is a metal drum with a helical groove on its surface . The string is wound into the groove with a maximum of revolutions . end of the string is attached to the mass and the other is fixed to the drum at the end furthest from the support . This drum is free to rotate and is on a shaft which passes through the support and then turns a cog . On the other side of the support from the drum is a shaft with a fixture for a steel disc whereby a threaded section of shaft goes through the centre of the disc allowing it to be attached using a wing nut . There is a cog concentric with and attached to the shaft with the steel disc on . The cogs are the same size so no change in rotational speed takes place when they mesh . The falling mass attached to the drum causes the drum to rotate , driving the shaft and cogs , and hence turning the shaft with the steel disc attached . The diagram below shows this arrangement < figure/><heading>5.3 Reasoning behind Methods</heading > The mass was dropped from the same height for each reading . Given that time or distance is the measured variable , it is wiser to fix distance since one end of that distance can be a surface which the mass strikes , providing visual and audible information to stop the stopwatch . If time were elected to be fixed then some method of viewing exactly where the mass had reached after the control time would need to be devised . This is more complicated than the former method . person positioned the hanging mass with reference to the ruler , which was placed against the vertical support , by viewing them perpendicularly in an attempt to minimize any error due to parallax . The disc was clamped to the support , by hand , to ensure ( near ) initial rotation . The stopwatch was started upon the release of the steel disc and stopped at the instant when the mass struck the work surface . The same person who released the disc with one hand started the stopwatch with their other hand . These tasks were combined since the simultaneity of those events is more likely to be achieved if only one person is involved . The height from which the mass fell was made as large as possible but not so large that the mass hanger was in contact with the drum . Neither was it so large that the string was displaced from the grooves in the drum . The height used was . A relatively large height is favourable because the time taken for the weight to fall will increase as height increases , thus making time measurements easier to take accurately ( it reduces the error in percentage terms ) . A short distance , and hence short travel time , would mean starting and stopping the stopwatch in quick succession which is more prone to error . In order to collect a wide range and sufficient number of results all possible arrangements of the masses were used . This allowed different masses to be experimented with ; , , , , , ( all in kilograms ) . For each mass readings were taken . This number compromises between a need for many results and the need to record a large number of accurate measurements in a short space of time . Since the cogs on the steel disc 's side of the support merely translated the torque from the drum 's shaft to the disc 's shaft , the distance ' little r ' shown on the diagram on page is equal to the radius of the drum . The drum has a small radius ( < 10 mm ) and the accuracy of its measurement is important . To obtain a precise measurement of the radius , the string was fully wound around the drum in complete revolutions . The distance along the drum that the helical string occupied was measured with a ruler and named ' x ' . The linear ( unravelled ) length of those revolutions was then measured , again using a ruler , and named ' y ' . The triangle below shows how x , y and r are linked . < figure/>Where n is the number of revolutions on the drum . Using that triangle , r can be calculated as follows   FORMULA   so therefore   FORMULA   ( 8) With this information about the size of r , all the quantities that equation ( ) requires ( m , g , r , t and s ) are known and so an experimental value for I can be calculated . < heading>5.4 Possible causes or error</heading > In the model and with the manipulation of the results some simplifications have been made and they are summarised in the table below . < table/>All of the simplifications cause error in the calculated value of the moment of Inertia . Most of them cause errors that decrease the calculated value of ' I ' . So it is likely that the theoretical value of ' I ' will be higher than the value calculated from experimental data . < heading>6.0 Observations and Results</heading><heading>6.1 Results</heading > The results found from the discs are shown below . < table/><table/><table/><heading > Estimates of Errors</heading > In order to assess the accuracy of the final value of the moment of inertia calculated , some estimate of the errors of the measurements must be made . An estimate of the error in each of the measured quantities and justification for that estimate follow . Disc radius Estimate of error in measurement : ±1 mm In percentage terms ; Worst case scenario ( small disc ) ±<2 % Average case ( medium disc ) ±<1.6 % The disc radius was measured using a ruler with divisions in . Care was taken when measuring but accuracy greater than to 1 mm can not be assumed . Time Measurement Estimate of error in measurement : ± 0.15sec In percentage terms ; Worst case scenario ( fast drop ) ±<7.5 % Average case ±3.75 % Every effort was made to time each experiment accurately but human error is inevitable . An error of is a reasonable assessment of the reactions of a person timing such an event . Release height of mass Estimate of error in measurement : In percentage terms : All cases ( 300 mm drop ) Care was taken to view the mass hanger perpendicularly to the ruler to eliminate parallax as much as possible when positioning the mass for release . Using a ruler the accuracy of this positioning could not be within 1 mm and it would not be prudent to ignore the affects of parallax completely so an error estimate of is reasonable . < heading > Qualitative Observations</heading > Some vibration was unavoidable under the conditions in the lab . Vibrations were only noticeable when one 's hand was in firm contact with the support frame and so the affects are likely to be negligible . < heading>7.0 Analysis and Discussion of Results</heading><heading>7.1 Analysis</heading><heading>7.1.1 Analysis of calculated values</heading > Equations ( ) and ( 7 ) were used to calculate experimental estimates and theoretical values for the moments of inertia of each of the discs . The results of those calculations are shown here . < table/><heading>7.1.2 Analysis of graphical representation</heading > Graphically , an estimate of the moment of inertia can be estimated by plotting m ( mass ) against t -2 ( inverse of time squared ) . The gradient of the line on that graph equals   FORMULA   ( 9 ) And therefore   FORMULA   These graphs are shown in . The line from which the gradient is measured is the bisector of the estimates of reasonable maximum and minimum gradient lines . This procedure is the fairest way of measuring the true gradient of a line of best fit through the data points . < heading>7.1.3 Analysis of errors</heading > An estimate of the accuracy of the figures in the table can be made using the estimates of the error in the individually measured quantities in section . Errors in equation ( ) are < list > 's ' ± 0.5%'r ' ( therefore r implies error = 2.56%)'t ' ( therefore t implies error = 14%)</list > With these , the uncertainty in the gradient can be estimated as the sum of the errors of its erroneous constituents . i.e. + + 14 = . Hence a reasonable estimate of the error in the moment of inertia calculated from experimental data is ±17 % . < heading > Discussion</heading><heading>7.2.1 Consistency between observations and theory</heading > The impacts of the errors chosen to be ignored generally lowered the value of the moment of inertia calculated . The expectation was , therefore , that the value for ' I ' calculated from measured values would be lower than that found using a theoretical relationship . As the table on the previous page shows , this is indeed the case and the deficit is of the theoretical value . Hence the results are consistent with my prediction . As discussed in section 7.1.3 the errors in measurements amount to ; these may contribute to some of that gap as well as the assumptions and simplifications . < heading > Improvements to the method</heading > In order to reduce errors the method for timing the falling mass could be improved . Light gates could be positioned a set distance apart and the mass dropped such that its path activated each light gate . A computer could process the response from the light gates and a much more accurate time measurement could be achieved . This would reduce the error associated with time measurement to very close to . As described in on page , there is flexibility in method such that either the distance the mass falls is fixed and the time taken for it to fall that distance is measured or the time for which the mass is allowed to fall is fixed and the distance it travels in that time interval is measured . The former method was used but a completely new strategy could produce better results . In order to reduce the error associated with the inaccuracy of the measurement of the disc 's radii a better measuring device could be used . Callipers would be more accurate than a ruler . This simple device would decrease error to the order of ; in percentage terms . These alterations to the method together have the potential to reduce the estimated error from to . < heading > Correlation between different parts of the experiment</heading > The individual discs showed calculated values of the moment of inertia of , and 74.2 as percentages of the value produced using the theoretical relationship . These percentages have a spread of and so it is fair to say that there is good correlation between the different parts of the experiment . The small spread is testimony to the consistency of the method employed . It should be noted that where parts to an experiment exist , a strong correlation is not as persuasive evidence for consistency as when many parts can be compared . The estimated values for ' I ' using equation ( ) were used as an indicator of correlation because the numbers derived from the graph contain higher error . The extra error in the graphically derived values is the result of error in the line of best fit and gradient calculations made from it . < heading > Possible further investigations</heading > In the experiment both objectives were achieved so further work would require new objectives to be set . As an interesting test , the discs could be tested on an industrial machine to get a more reliable measure of their moments of inertia . Further comparisons could then be made between those values and ones found in this experiment . < heading>8.0 Conclusions</heading > The experiment showed the discs to have moments of inertia : The accuracy of these numbers is good . They are all within of the value found theoretically .","< abstract><heading > Abstract</heading > Over a period of , a mock Participative Rapid Appraisal ( henceforth PRA ) was performed by groups of students each comprising individuals , group posing as the representatives of a village community from and the other as NGO workers . This experience and information found in literature provide the basis for an examination of the effectiveness of 's . An analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of the PRA technique concludes that its implementation offers an effective methodology but that its success is influenced enormously by the competence , experience , creativity and even good fortune of its organisers . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > Canaan Banana , the former president of , is quoted by in his article entitled , "" The irrelevance of development studies "" as follows ; < quote>""Whereas an armchair intellectual of rural development , lost in the labyrinth of misty theories and postulations , can afford to oversimplify matters and get away with it , a practitioner of rural development , that man or woman in the constant glare of various vicious shades of rural poverty and suffering , can not . "" [ > The emphasis puts on involvement in the development process as being indispensable for a successful development practitioner is the same idea that is central to the PRA technique . PRA is intended to achieve a synergism between the scientific , anthropological and social knowledge and the rural , cultural and historical knowledge of the practitioner and indigenous people respectively . < heading > Strengths of the PRA technique</heading > The PRA methodologies are vast ; its own philosophy demands and encourages high flexibility . A PRA should not follow a manual rigidly and all relevant data should be used where it is rational to do so . The technique cross checks itself by , ideally , triangulating ( i.e. using ) different data collection procedures in order to minimise the risk of misinterpretation via the extraction of a trend from imperfect data collection method . It is also self - critical , reflective and relaxed for reasons ; firstly , in an attempt to appreciate not only what is being said or seen but also what is not being said or seen ; and , to determine sources of error and mitigate against them . The emphasis on participation from the local people whom the development concerns is instrumental in a and is supposed to empower them . Many of the activities are done with villagers or solely by villagers , giving them the opportunity to learn . The villagers are also ' empowered ' to some extent by their proactive participation . On a more fundamental level , 's can use many modes of data capture and benefit from the respective strengths of those different modes . For example , face to face interviews provide the opportunity to assess body language and tone of voice whereas direct observation techniques , especially unobtrusive ones such as satellite/ aerial photography or recording , minimise the bias inherent in any person . This information was found in reference . < heading > Weaknesses of the PRA technique</heading > The numerous methods of eluded to previously can be seen as a double edged sword since enormous demands are placed on the organiser to judge which techniques are most appropriate to a given project at a given time with the given resources . The wealth of choice of method could confuse a 's cause . In the wide context of method choice ( for whatever purpose ) , says , < quote>""methods are but a means to an end and , important though they are , they are not an end in themselves , nor should they be used , as they have been , to determine the end or define the nature of the problems to be investigated ....... The danger is that knowledge is then reduced to mere perspectivalism "" , , Mass Communication Research Methods , , , p11.</quote > The success of a development project can rely very heavily on the creativity and competence of the practitioner . Their attitude also has the potential to be highly influential . For example , an impatient PRA practitioner could prevent the conception of many good ideas from local people to whom the appraisal 's techniques may be alien and thus it would not be a fully participatory enquiry . The quality of data collection is of course very important and whilst the PRA technique should use only good and fair data collection methods there is the risk that data collection processes will be biased or insufficient and fall short of being meaningful . There is also the risk that a data collection method could be abused . Given the volume of data collected in 's these risks are exacerbated by people 's tendency towards complacency when tasks have a long duration . Hierarchies in unfamiliar societies , possibly with unwritten and unspoken codes of conduct , can be difficult to detect , negotiate and understand . Their existence could affect the degree of participation actually achieved by a and , consequentially , the true depth of coverage of any particular may not be as deep and unbiased as its administrators believe . The PRA technique is vulnerable to such cultural idiosyncrasies to which outsiders are , through no fault of their own , oblivious . The worst case repercussion could be an exaggeration of power imbalances or inequity already embedded in the society via exploitation of the PRA by those with more control . A further weakness of is that it demands that some proportion of local people give up substantial amounts of their time which may not be feasible . < heading > PRA in practice</heading > The short mock PRA described in the abstract serves as an experience of the technique in action . The appraisal was limited mainly to face to face interviews during which some diagrams and maps were drawn . The interviews themselves followed the favoured technique in that they had no rigid structure . The records made from those interviews were poor because they were often unstructured , messy and sometimes incomprehensible . They are shown in appendix A. No attempt was made to collate the information recorded logically leaving the information fragmented and dislocated . This rendered much of the interview discussion worthless . When the pretend NGO representatives made suggestions for particular developments they were met with firm , almost fierce , objections from the village representatives who felt that the proposal did not offer the best solution or , as some said , any improvement . These objections were not from a few isolated villagers but were supported by much of the village cohort . This in itself does not refute the effectiveness of since effectiveness should be measured by the level of success of the implemented proposals rather than their popularity amongst villagers prior to their instigation . However , it seems unlikely that very unpopular proposals would be more successful than popular ones . < heading > Conclusions</heading > The PRA technique encompasses almost every possible method for determining the best course of action for any given development scheme . It also demands that trends should be checked and checked again . It attempts to give some power to the local people in the decision making process in the hope that this will encourage a more enthusiastic , thoughtful and effective participation from them . These strengths give it the potential to be a very powerful tool . However , given the complexity and range of its constituents and the importance of their correct application it is also very difficult to use . Nor is the technique immune to the effects of the attitudes of those who use it . The opposite is more realistic ; a is a volatile procedure highly sensitive to style of its facilitator .",1
"The theory of the firm is based upon the assumption that all firms seek to maximize profits regardless of the market in which they operate . The implicit assumption in the question is that the ultimate long term goal of the firm is that of survival and in the short run firms have to pursue profit maximization . This essay supports the case that , to the extent firms face fierce competition and threat of hostile takeover , they can be observed to maximize profits for survival . However where there is separation of ownership and control , firms might decide to pursue other non - profit maximizing goals like those of sales and growth maximization and are still able to survive . A few caveats highlighted in this essay are that in reality it may not always be possible or desirable for firms to maximize profits and that profit maximizing firms may not necessarily survive . < fnote > In this case we would take survival to mean staying in business < /fnote > Firms are defined as complex entities with types of members . ( ) Workers who are largely paid fixed wages and are told what to do ( ) Managers ( Agents ) who are responsible for making decisions on what to produce , for whom and how it is produced ( ) Owners ( Principals ) who fund the firm 's investments and bear the financial risks associated with the business . Economic profit is the income that is remaining for the owners of the firm after paying for the factor of production that they utilize , and its calculation is shown in the following equation : cost Insofar as both decision making and the analysis of firm 's behavior are concerned , the focus is more on expected profit than on realized profits . Managers are primarily interested in the present value of the expected stream of profits . ( , pg198 ) < fnote > Principal- Agent conflicts which explain the alternatives to profit maximization aims of the firms would be examined in greater detail in later part of the essay < /fnote><fnote > Total revenue= Sum of payments firm receives from the sales of its output , ie : TR = Price x total expenditure on the inputs used to produce outputs where expenditures are measured in terms of opportunity cost . ( Factor price , technological possibilities , production characteristics are held constant ) Accounting profit differs from economic profit in that it is an ex post concept based upon past transaction and historical fact . Unlike economists , accountants do not include opportunity cost in their calculation of profits . < /fnote > Profit maximization occurs where cost ( MC ) = revenue ( MR ) . Referring to figure below , beyond output level x * , MC > MR , firms can raise profits by cutting back their production . Conversely where MR > MC , by increasing its output firms can raise profits . Thus long run equilibrium is established at the profit maximizing level of output , x * where MC = . < figure/>However the marginal output rule by itself is insufficient to determine firm 's output choice for survival . If for every choice of output level the firm 's average revenue ( AR ) is less than its average economic cost ( AEC ) the firm 's maximum profit is obtained by shutting down . Hence other than producing at the profit maximizing output where MC = , it is only viable for firms to continue its operation if at this output level is also greater than AVC ( average variable cost ) . < fnote > AR= Total revenue/ total output < /fnote > According to , firms that do not begin with profit maximization in mind will eventually do so as non - profit maximizing firms are driven out of the market . In general , behavior resembling something other than profit maximization is most likely to surface in firms where profits are expected to be ample enough to please stockholders , thereby opening the door for other considerations to influence managerial decisions . In highly competitive markets where profit margins are thin , security is shaky and ability of firms to absorb losses is weak , there exists ( as 's thesis maintains ) a fierce struggle in which only the fittest will survive . Therefore market forces allow little room for discretionary actions that diverge from the goal of profit maximization . < fnote > Armen Alchian , "" . "" ( < /fnote > Moreover if the current management fails to maximize profits , someone else might be able to get control of the firm through a hostile takeover . Under a good management , the firm 's profits could be increased and the resulting stock price would be Vh ( h for "" high "" ) per share . If corporate raiders ( good management ) can purchase the company at a price less than Vh per share , they can make money by taking over the company . Statistical analysis of takeover bids suggest that "" existing managers can squander of the firm 's value before the threat of displacement becomes truly serious "" ( Rosen , , ) Nevertheless , the threat of hostile takeover would induce the incumbent management to maximize profit rather than risk being overthrown . < fnote > Hostile takeover occurs when a group of investors purchases a controlling interest in a company against the management 's wishes and advice to the current stockholders < /fnote > Next we will examine the antithesis to the proposition put forth in the question . In the case where there is a divorce between ownership and control of the firm , the principal- agent conflict might surface and firms might choose to pursue other non - profit maximizing goals for survival . The principal - agent conflict arises because the principal ( owners ) hires a party , the agent ( managers ) , to perform some task ( managing the firm ) on his / her behalf . Ownership gives a person a claim on the profits of the firm and the greater the firm 's profit , the higher the owner 's income . Therefore owners ( shareholders ) of the firm would seek to maximize profits . On the other hand , managers involved in the day - to - operations of the firm might choose to maximize their individual utility . Managers derive utility from prerequisites like big offices , many subordinate workers and expensive meals ( , ) . Left to their own devices , managers might have the firm spend heavily on these items at the expense of profits . Fanning ( , ) found that when group took over the company , the firm was spending $ per year to have a butler deliver a peeled orange each day to one of its executives . In the case where all competing managers fail to maximize profits then there would be no pressure for firms ( specifically managers ) to pursue profit maximization in order to survive . < fnote > The proposition refers to the case that firms need to maximize profits in order to survive . < /fnote > Nevertheless sometimes it is difficult to separate manager 's amenity maximization from profit maximization . A corporate jet can be a profit maximizing response to the fact that a top executive 's time has high opportunity cost but it could also be viewed as an expensive executive toy . It is also argued that even without the external control mechanisms ( competition ) internal control mechanisms exist to align the management 's desire for greater prestige with owners ' aim of profit maximization . Stock options bring a confluence between utility maximizing aims of managers and profit maximizing aims of shareholders . Managers are attracted to maximize profits as their wages increases with it . Profit maximization is only worth pursuing if the firm gets to keep the profit . However if stock options are used there could be a risk of 's Law which states that to control is to distort because managers might focus on policies to boost the share price of the company instead of striving to maximize profits . In addition another disadvantage of using stock options is that if overall the stock market goes up , the executives may be able to reap the benefits without having made improvements in the company 's actual performance . This is detrimental to the long term survival of the firm . Due to the importance of the experience curve effects , many firms have targets relating to sales volume and market share . ( ) hypothesized that a manager 's prestige is attached to the size of his company 's revenue or sales . Thus instead of maximizing profits , firms might opt for constrained revenue maximization . Referring to figure below the firm achieves maximum revenue at output ( where MR=0 ) . However the firm achieves equilibrium at Xc where the output level is greater than that of the profit - maximizing level ( ) but is less than because managers must provide a minimum level of profit to satisfy shareholders . Once profits ( ) reach acceptable levels , some firms are inclined to place higher dollar sales ahead of higher profits as the main object of concern . < fnote > According to the research done by ( ) , the experience curve effect is manifested when as a result of increased activity ( more experience ) , workers become more efficient . Thus cost of production is lowered and this could lead to lower prices which could translate into greater profits and improved market dominance . < /fnote><figure/>Profits maximization is not the only means to secure the ends of survival for firms . Growth via greater market penetration offers a firm a stronger , more secure market position vis - à - vis competitors , suppliers and customers . Growth by diversification into a wider range of products also free firms from too much dependence on or a few products and serves as a hedge against the possible demise of bread - and - butter products . If product or phase of a firm 's operations slows down and becomes unprofitable , the firm can still survive and even grow on the strength of its other activities . Furthermore in the new knowledge economy where additional units of software are produced at almost negligible cost , falling MC means maximum revenue approximates to maximum profits . Growth may provide economies of scale ( decreases MC ) and prevent take - over in some circumstances . Therefore short term neglect of profit maximization to maximize growth may help firms secure a stronger market position . We shall now move on to examine the caveats to this question . , as E.Boulding and astutely pointed out , a firm could maximize profits and still not survive . This occurs when there is an inadequate cash flow , shrinking market and takeovers by acquisition - minded firms . In crisis situations when the firm 's long run existence is at stake , survival objectives can take precedence over profit objectives . Increasingly firms have been observed to allocate a larger budget to marketing their products as either being "" environmentally friendly "" or "" does not abuse child labor "" at the expense of their profit margins . This is because with greater emphasis placed on corporate social responsibility ( ) consumers may boycott firms with irresponsible or unethical code of conduct . Therefore though these firms may be maximizing their profits , without the support of the consumers , ultimately they would not be able to survive or even if they do manage to stay in business they would not be able to survive well enough to ensure their continual existence . < fnote > , "" major economists "" , and , Routledge,1999 < /fnote > , some firms might even find it advantageous to avoid maximizing profits for the following reasons : ( ) they fear the profits would attract competition from firms which have the potential to enter the industry ( ) fear of provoking anti - trust actions ( ) the belief that holding profits down to "" satisfactory "" levels will restrain union wage demands and will promote stronger public relations . Moreover , it is not always the case that maximum profit is required for survival . To quote , ( chairman of the , Koppers company , Inc ) , "" a profit is reasonable when it provides for the survival of an enterprise . Survival is possible when profits are sufficient to perform their life - giving functions which are to pay investors for the use of their savings and to increase the productive base of an enterprise so that it can remain a useful entity . "" The reasonable level of profit need not be the maximum profit . The final caveat to the question is that even if firms recognize that profit maximization is important for survival they might are unable to maximize profits . It has been proposed that decision makers typically do not exhaustively sort through every possibility in search of the most profitable alternative because the search process , given market uncertainty and imperfect information about demand , costs , competitive responses of rival firms and future economic conditions , will be too time - consuming and cost more than it is worth . It is impossible and impractical for the management of to choose the prices and quantities of of cars ( different models with various options ) that are sold in different markets around the world . Thus according to , "" Administrative theory is peculiarly the theory of intended and bounded rationality of the behavior of human beings who satisfice because they do not have the wits to maximize "" . < fnote > Firms are unable to maximize profits due to market imperfections < /fnote > In conclusion , there is a case that firms must maximize profits in order to survive under the following circumstances : ( a ) competitive forces are relatively intense and the threat of hostile takeover is palpable ( b ) large groups of firms are involved and nothing has to be predicted about the behavior of individual firms ( c ) alignment of management goals with the profit maximization goal of owners . Nevertheless , as the saying goes "" all roads lead to "" . Therefore profit maximization is but of the plethora of available paths leading to firms ' survival . This essay has examined the other alternative strategies of sales and growth maximization which could also ensure the survival of firms . Lastly , as the caveats highlighted , in reality , more often than not , it is not necessarily the case that firms must , want to and are able to maximize profits in order to survive .","< heading > Introduction</heading > The aim is to be able to establish the number of living bacteria in a foodstuff and to know how to select an appropriate method for enumerating bacteria . Total counts and viable counts of bacteria can be taken when looking enumerating bacteria . The methods used in this experiment are looking at the viable count which only looks at the living cells present . < heading > Method</heading><list><heading > DILUTION OF SAMPLE</heading>90ml MRD and g minced beef were put into a stomacher in a for min = -1 dilutionSolid particles allowed to sediment , transferred to glass universal bottleUsing pipette , ml transferred into = -2 dilution4 more tenfold serial dilutions madeMixed thoroughly and samples were all labeled</list><heading > Pour plate with melted PCA</heading>1ml of each dilution ( -6 ) was added to petri dishes . Before the sample was removed from each dilution , it was taken up and then released several times to mix the sample . The molten agar was then added and mixed . < heading > Pour plate with of each dilution ( 10 -4 ) was added to petri dishes , followed by the agar and allowed to set . VRBGA agar was then added as an overlay and the lids tilted to avoid condensation < heading of each dilution ( -6 ) was spread with a spreading rod < heading > MPN</heading>1ml of each dilution ( 10 -4 ) was added to bottles containing tubes < heading > Results</heading><heading > Pour plate with melted count</heading > Only 10 -6 was counted as there were too many colonies present on the other diluted plates < table/ > FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA      < heading>95 % confidence limit</heading > FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA      < heading > Class results</heading><table/><heading>95 % confidence limit</heading > FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA      < heading > Pour plate VRBGA count</heading>10 -4 diluted plate had large clumps of growth instead of an even growth due to poor mixing and could not be counted -3 had sufficient colonies to count < table/ > FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA      < heading>95 % confidence limit</heading > FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA      < heading > Class results</heading><table/><heading>95 % confidence limit ( for chosen dilution of > FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA      < heading > Spread plate colony count</heading><table/>There should be a tenfold difference between the dilutions and this case shows that it is quite close . -6 has a suitable count so this shall be used Only 0.1ml was used so the result needs to be multiplied again by a factor of to bring it up to 1ml so there are colonies from .   FORMULA    FORMULA      < heading > Class results</heading><table/><table/><table/><heading > Conclusion</heading > For the pour plate using melted , the only countable plates were the -6 dilution samples . This shows that there were more bacteria present than anticipated and more diluted samples would have given a lower count and may have been more accurate . The colony count for this part of the experiment gave a mean of . When comparing this with the class mean of , there is a clear difference . The class results are likely to be more accurate as a whole because there were more samples which can even out error . The class results give a much smaller confidence limit as a percent value due to the larger amount of duplications and the effects this has in finding a more accurate result . The spread plate also used agar but gave a higher colony count . This is possibly due to the method used , as the same dilutions were spread on the plates . Pour plates may cause less growth to occur as organisms under the agar may not have sufficient oxygen . It is also possible that there were small colonies under the agar that were not counted , as it is more difficult to clearly identify them when they are suspended . The pour plate used was selective for and inhibits growth of certain other bacteria . The colonies were purple / pink in colour and some had halo 's around the colony . This is caused by the glucose present in the medium being converted to acid , and the bile salts in the medium precipitate away from this . The colonies of or more were counted . Due to poor mixing the -4 dilution could not be counted as the colonies were all grouped together but the -3 plate gave a sufficient count . Comparing the individual results for this against the class results , it can be seen that a very low colony count was obtained . The average class colony count was over times more . This could have occurred because the agar was at too a high temperature when the sample was first added and may have killed some of the bacteria cells . This is where the precision of class results shows , due to there being more duplicate plates , anomalies are leveled out . The test is selective for coliforms . If coliforms are present they grow and produce acid from the glucose in the medium which can cause a colour change to a more yellow colour . Gas is also produced which can be seen as a gas bubble in a tube . For the individual results , the tubes in every bottle showed a gas bubble . The high number of positive tubes for the presumptive coliform count by the method , shows that there were more coliforms present than expected . There was no benefit in this case to work out the as it would n't demonstrate anything to us . The class results show a wide variety in the results and give a most probable number of coliforms which is a broad range and does not appear to be very accurate . This is not generally an accurate method . < heading > Questions</heading > When a colony count is referred to as a total viable count , from the name it is assumed that each colony is formed by a single living organism and by counting the number of colonies will give the number of viable cells present . Sometimes cell clumping can occur and pairs , chains or clusters of cells will form a colony instead . When referred to as colony counts or colony forming units the allowances for this occurrence are incorporated in the name as it does not assume that each colony is formed by a single cell , instead addresses them as units . colonies on a spread plate from 0.1ml of the -1 homogenate So in there are colonies   FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA   So the lowest level of contamination is bacteria per g , in g of mince A pour plate has an advantage of achieving a good mix of the bacteria . For aerobes the results could be affected in a pour plate , as the bacteria present at the base of the plate will get less oxygen than those on the surface . This could be a disadvantage as the growth can appear to be at a lower level and not give a true count . Only viable counts can be achieved for pour plate and spread plate methods as only the living bacteria can form colonies The number of duplications has a big effect on the precision of a count ; the more plates then the more precise the results are . This can be seen when comparing the results for pour plate melted individual ( using duplications ) and class results ( using duplications ) , the confidence limits as a percent were much smaller for the class results indicating that they were more precise . The larger the count of bacteria , the more precise the results are too which can be seen when comparing the individual counts for melted and . The had a colony count of and a confidence limit of and the had a much smaller colony count of and the confidence limit was much higher at . Enterobacteriaceae are negative rod shaped bacteria . They are a large family including E.coli and and normally inhabit the intestines . They are facultive anaerobes and can be grown on violet red bile glucose agar as they ferment glucose . Coliforms are also gram negative bacteria and are aerobes and facultive anaerobes . They are found in human and animal faeces , and within the environment such as in the soil and vegetation . They are oxidase negative . The term presumptive count refers to the colony count but as it is not known whether all the colonies are the organism trying to be isolated , the count is only presumptive . Tests can be carried out to identify the growth such as gram staining and examination under the microscope , looking for negative rod shaped bacteria in the case of the , and also looking for gram negative when looking at the coliforms . Coliforms and are also oxidase negative and so can be identified from oxidase positive bacteria using this test . ferment glucose and so the oxidation fermentation test can be used to see if the colonies ferment glucose . There are many tests that can be carried out to confirm that the colonies and growth are and coliforms . .",0
"< heading>1.0 Introduction</heading > Internationalizing and expanding has become an integral part of multinational organisations with many implications on their strategies . Businesses strive for survival , growth and profitability ( , ) . This is also true for ( see Appendix A ) which , expanding into the market , developed a market entry strategy ( , and Appendix B ) focusing on an ethnocentric approach with high levels of standardisation throughout the . Its unit in will be a hotel at the beach in targeting its loyal wealthy customer base . High individual service and luxurious facilities shall exceed customers ' expectations while these discover the culture ( see I for positioning on 's model of service offer ) . Under consideration of the 's origin and the business environment in , the management has to design a HR strategy which ensures a consistent level of quality in order to highly satisfy customers and the financial goals . People are the key assets in service industries ( and , ) while often providing a competitive edge ( , ) . Within the hospitality industry organisations have to tackle problems which are somehow different compared to other branches ( , ) due to services and products which frequently are intangible , perishable , heterogenic , simultaneously produced and consumed , and inseparable ( , , and , ) . It is therefore imperative that a strategy is going to be developed which not only ensures organisational success but also satisfies employees ' and customers ' needs . The following report thus reviews the business environment under consideration of geo - graphical and cultural factors influencing people management approaches . Subsequent recommendations and justifications of appropriate people management strategies are outlined including a strategic orientation as well as procedures and policies for resourcing , rewarding , training and equal opportunities and diversity issues . < heading>2.0 often have neglected the external business environment a business operates in focusing only on internal functions ( Go et al , ) . The industry is vulnerable to a variety of economic , ecological , geopolitical and meteorological factors , and over - reliance on it can be dangerous for a country . Events of this kind represent the extremes of a recurrent uncertainty in an industry which is characterized by the seasonal nature of many of its activities and by important fluctuations even during normal periods ( ILO , ) . The following text will examine 's business environment regarding the development of suitable HR strategies . < heading>2.1 Political and Legal environment</heading > 's political stability improved within which increasingly attracts foreign investors ( , ) . In contrast bureaucracy and corruption are still major problems when dealing with agencies and local authorities . Hence obtainment of work permits for expatriates can be difficult . Success here can be increased when proof of benefit for community can be established and when foreign exchange remains within the country ( McGee , ) . The judicial system however is overloaded and inefficient as well as corrupt which brings some level of instability for the business ' legal environment ( , ) . 's approach to equal opportunities is somehow marginal compared to the where businesses have to respect several directives such as the Sex Discrimination Act among others ( HCIMA , ) . Generally one can say that 's ( 1984:271 ) believe that more feminine countries have a more developed legislation favouring socially and economically weak members is not applicable for , having few directives , and the in contrast being more masculine while having a large labour legislation ( et al . , ) , although ( ) believes that the 's legislation is not effective . < heading>2.2 Cultural behaviour and approaches to work</heading><quote>""Culture is a lens through which we perceive the world surrounding us ; it is a sense - making process , a frame of reference that guides our actions and thoughts "" . ( , 1990:210)</quote > Culture hence influences people in their behaviour not only at workplace ( , and , ) but also influences managerial decision making ( . , ) . Organisations hence have to carefully identify a country 's norms and values in order not to risk failures . ( ) in his research within defined dimensions describing people 's behaviour : power distance ( PD ) , uncertainty avoidance ( ) , individualism/ collectivism ( IC ) and masculinity/ feminism ( MF ) . A comparative graph of the and is shown in has to consider however , that due to a lack of primary data , has been pooled with other countries and hence been judged as a region showing similar behaviour . Hofstede therefore has been criticized by authors such as Pizamal . ( ) who argue that cultural consistency will not be apparent where different national or ethnic cultures exist . is reported to score higher on the compared to the ( 64:35 ) ( , ) . Hence people in consent to hierarchies . They accept that power holders are entitled to privileges and expect to be told what to do . In comparison , people in the value relations between employer and employees as more pragmatic , bargaining is dominant and flat organizational structures are pre - dominant . Simons ( ) stated that ' command and control ' strategies are not useful anymore . Given the cultural background , however , expatriates have to exercise the power given to them directing subordinates to ensure success . There is however a tendency of 's present generation to ask for some form of empowerment in order being able to question some practices without fear of intimidation ( , ) . Uncertainty avoidance is "" the extent to which members of a culture feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations "" ( , ) . The has a index of while is at ; hence both are in the lower medium range . People in tend to be more loyal to employers , consequently less likely to change working place . They also ask for more rules and regulations in order to reduce uncertainty . Organisations therefore will find lower employee turnover rates and likely will experience less difficulty of employees accepting rules and procedures which ensure a more consistent service delivery . The individualism/ collectivism index differentiates between cultures where on one side "" ties between people are loose "" and on the other side where "" people ... are integrated into strong , cohesive groups "" ( , ) . Implications for organisations are that in countries with a high individualism index such as the ( ) , employees need to have time for their family while at workplace they need a challenging job which leaves them enough room for own decision - making . Empowerment for example would be a good management approach . conversely is a high collectivist culture where people value good physical conditions and training in order to improve their skills . Generally , believes , that individualism is correlated with national wealth . Poor countries such as tend to be collectivist ( ) . Managers have to carefully recruit while keeping in mind the existing workforce because best results are achieved in harmonious groups . femininity index describe the extent to which a culture supports the traditional masculine model of male achievement , control , and power . Countries with high masculinity emphasize gender differentiation while countries such as having a low masculinity index male and female are more equally treated . , having a low masculinity index ( ) provides a competitive advantage for service industries as identified by ( ) . Although there are differences in the cultures of and the , there is still a strong affiliation between the countries ( , ) due to the colonial history . Expatriates will therefore have fewer problems to adapt to the culture , if at all , as stated by who believes that expatriates in general adapt very well ( ) . Furthermore , criticism on 's assumptions exists . ( ) believe that one can not apply national data on an individual where variances in adherence may exist . Nyambegera ( ) reminds that 's sample might not be valid for work related issues discussed in this text . < heading>2.3 The labour market and demographic trends</heading > Trade unionism in the hospitality industry traditionally has been low compared to manufacturing ( , , , ) adopting a unitary approach of people management ( , ) . Increasing trade union representation in ( see Appendix F ) momentarily leaves employers the freedom to communicate with employees directly without pressure from collective bargaining , too . This might change however in future due to recent developments ( see Chune , ) . Although 's culture is seen by ( ) as highly collectivist , the high PD index implies that employees will accept rules and regulations set up by the organisation . Firms hence will not face to much opposition regarding employment parameters . Within there has been a huge shift from the formal to the informal sector , in representing of the working population ( , ) earning lower wages while suffering higher risks to get redundant . The author also reports that of children within the age of are involved in child labour which is not surprising referring to 's work where he identified a high PD index ( ) hence children being expected to work hard and to start at an early age . It is further stated that people join the labour market with an unemployment rate of in partly explaining high poverty rate of in ( Chune , and , ) . has a large and relatively young ( majority ) labour market available ( , and see Appendix F ) with an unemployment rate at currently ( Chune , ) and a literacy rate of for men and for women ( , ) . Before in , black in were excluded from academic studies and were limited to rural and industrial manual education . At the time of independence , black then rapidly started to receive academic and higher technology education and training which supposedly should help to establish a better life ( , ) . The authors though report that several reforms have been introduced by the government since then , however universities did n't manage to apply a vocational curriculum which involved a human resource development for the private industry . To sum up , stated that "" no amount of education and training will be sufficient to provide gainful employment without specific government policies aimed at creating an enabling environment for business and industry to expand "" ( : no page given ) . steps towards a brighter future are made by the government ( , ) , which hopefully enhances people 's skills and knowledge . In the meantime organisations have to step in with training and support activities . Adopting the ' Investors in People ' standard would definitely satisfy employees and customers , hence providing organisations with a competitive edge which of firms in the already have achieved ( , ) . < heading>2.4 Social Issues</heading > HIV is an important factor to consider in . Although a slight decrease in HIV prevalence has been observed , in there were still infected by the disease ( , ) . As there are risks for employees as well as for the organisations , ( ) suggest that training and continuous observation by management are crucial in order to allay worries and doubts . Companies also should set up health and safety policies and inform staff on how to handle HIV issues , and to point out responsibilities in order to increase productivity and employee morale ( ILO , ) . In general one can say that is a country with large poverty and people have to cope with threats such as HIV , and corruption . Until the country gains in stability and sets off to improve the current situation , foreign organisations have to carefully design strategies using experience and technology while incorporating locals and their knowledge in order to secure success . For further issues and a weighted environmental business environment refer to Application of people management approaches and strategy definition</heading > is seen as a tourism country with of GDP derived from a fast growing ( in ) tourism industry ( ILO , ) which demands for a human resource strategy which considers a most likely increase in staff needs in future . This and the factors seen above shape the structure of the tourism labour force , subsequently making it difficult to maintain high permanent staffing levels . There is a generic tendency to operate on the basis of a core staff and to employ the labour needed for day - to - operations under atypical contractual arrangements ( ILO , ) . The design of an ideal strategy to perform effectively hence is "" a daunting task "" ( et al , ) and needs to be controlled and monitored continuously in order to stay ahead of environmental changes . Furthermore , it is important to incorporate local community as much as possible so that locals have a positive view of tourism and in order to gain their support ( ILO , ) even though this might create difficulties and obstacles ( , ) . This will be done as stated in the 's mission statement . < heading>3.1 Nature of Hospitality industry and requirements on human resources</heading > Although Levitt ( 1973:2 ) believes that there is no real difference between manufacturing and service industry , one has to acknowledge some differences , which make services unique ( , 2002:2 and ) . Service has been defined by as : < quote>""an activity or series of activities of a more or less intangible nature that normally , but not necessarily , take place in interactions between the customer and service employees "" . ( 1990:27)</quote > Intangibility and the degree of customization hence are important factors to consider when designing HR strategies . Employees , the main assets of an organisation ( and , ) therefore need different levels of training for different types of service business as identified by various authors ( i.e. , , and , - 90 ) . Appendix I shows location on 's model of different service offers . As stated in operates within a highly customized service which needs full utilization of labour resources and extensive training in order to ensure consistent high quality service delivery . A strategy reflecting these circumstances hence has to be developed . < heading>3.2 Strategic Orientation of people management in Kenya</heading > Organisations have choices with respect to staffing questions . These are based on HR concerns , strategic concerns related to the firm 's flexibility to make strategic changes and on keeping a global perspective vs local needs ( ) . As seen in ( 2004 ) adopts an ethnocentric approach ( see Appendix C for comparison of centricities ) . This is generally true for the human resource strategy , too . Not only is it common for organisations at early stages of internationalization to follow an ethnocentric approach ( Dowling et al . , ) , but also when a lack of qualified 's is apparent and when there is a need to maintain good links ( communication , control , coordination ) to the parent company . This is especially true for , offering luxury products and services to a wealthy , loyal , and demanding customer market , which need to be monitored and kept at a high standard . However , the long term focus of the organisation is to train and educate 's , so they can run the unit within . A move from an ethnocentric towards the ' ideal ' ( , ) geocentric approach is intended in order to take advantage of the best resources and to ensure consistent procedures and standards within all units of the brand ( , ) . This change is also needed due to high costs and risks of failure of ( , ) , when expatriates are used . Research identified that multinational organisations in are not as effective as in their home countries ( , ) . reminds us of several problems related to a geocentric approach such as constant availability of managers as well as enough resources to plan and prepare these exchanges ( ) . is aware of these issues and faces them with long term strategies and efficient and recurrent managerial training i.e. compulsory field trips and graduate training programmes . Additionally , there is evidence that in practice there is no single used orientation in a global environment . Organisations rather have to adapt to local needs and circumstances in order to ensure business success ( , ) . A polycentric approach would not fit due to the high standards the organisation aims to deliver and due to a lack of skills and knowledge of 'S although it would reduce costs and increase continuity in foreign subsidiaries ( Dowling et al . , ) . < heading>3.3 People management approaches</heading > Within there has been a shift from ( PM ) towards ( HRM ) as a reaction to increasing national and international competition , pressure to deliver higher quality services , the need for decentralisation and a performance related organisation culture ( , , , , and , ) . Guest ( ) as well as ( ) further believe that effective use of employees will provide organisations a competitive edge . developed differences ( , see Appendix J ) where PM broadly can be described as managing the contract of employment while HRM is the management of employee performance ( , ) . ( ) further differentiates between ' hard ' and ' soft ' HRM , following the map and model of HRM ( Price , ) . ' Hard ' HRM focuses on employees as resources which are controlled by management aiming to find "" the right number of the right employees in the right place at the right time "" ( , and 2002:65 ) . ' Soft ' HRM values employees through involvement , motivation and leading rather than managing ( , ) hence employees deliver a competitive edge through pro - activeness , commitment and participation ( Rose , 2001:97 ) . adopts a ' hard ' approach and follows a ' best fit ' strategy adopting PM and HRM practices to manage 's ( see also Appendices E and G ) . Although generally focuses on a fully integrated strong HRM approach , it has to adapt for 's in in some parts in order to respect cultural differences . Higher PD index for example implies for more structured hierarchies as well as the index requires to provide employees in with more guidelines . The question of convergence and divergence of strategies is important for organisations . The Group generally emphasizes on convergence as it provides the firm with a universal identity ( , ) explaining the core aims of the business . Although has been identified to be managed by the ' clerk of works ' model due to its colonial history and premature industrial development ( , ) the will focus on standards applied in the while adapting to local needs ( see Appendix G ) . < heading>3.3.1 Resourcing</heading > The Group in general has a relatively flat organisation structure in the with empowered employees . This however is not possible in due to the above identified labour market conditions and cultural behaviours identified by ( ) . A more structured , hierarchical approach is adopted for with the aim to flatten the structure and to standardize it according to the standards within period . There are groups of employees which have to be considered : domestic front - line employees and expatriate managers from the . Hence the will have to design people management strategies . In general an HRM approach is adopted for its expatriate managers who will take responsibilities in senior positions . Although organisations often can not afford investments in human capital ( 1994:12 ) it is important for the 's success in to value its key employees . Sisson ( ) identified a trend in the from collectivism towards individualism which means the employee - employer relationship should be more on an individual base , which would better embrace people 's cultural aim for individualism identified by ( ) . Labour markets in the and are very different in respect of unemployment , education level and wage level . Goldsmith et al ( ) explain that hospitality organisations recruit from different labour markets to fill their positions at various levels . Managers , mainly high skilled , experienced workers represent the primary labour market and are often recruited internally , although Riley ( ) believes that there is no qualitative difference between external and internal labour market . Front - line , seasonal , part - time and/ or low skilled worker forming the labour market usually are recruited externally and within the domestic market . See . ( ) for definitions of labour markets . In the case of , management will be recruited internally ( see also ) from divisions and will run the new unit for . In this time local staff will be trained in order to run the business in long term . This is conform to the 's entry strategy explained in ( ) focusing on a short term ethnocentric approach and a long term geocentric approach . 's will be recruited from the labour market due to a lack of primary labour market candidates . With the aim to recruit a harmonious workforce due to collectivistic culture in the will have a core group of front line employees and operational managers and then will recruit peripheral staff to cover peak periods due to the seasonality of tourism in . This number however is aimed to be as low as possible in order to minimize the problems of training , failure and costs . A further issue which has to be addressed by the organisation is the problem of the cultural understanding of the 's of needs and wants of the 's exclusive customer market . Training will be necessary to overcome this problem and to ensure consistent service quality at the same standard as in the . Managerial operative staff will be recruited from local universities , especially from university . It is seen as important that some managerial posts are already delegated to 's which will boost their motivation and the 's positive image . < heading>3.3.2 Rewarding and Motivation</heading><quote>""Take care of your employees and they will take good care of your customers and your customers will return "" ( , 1985).</quote > Hospitality services are different as identified before . Measuring productivity therefore is somehow problematic . Rewarding employees in relation to customer satisfaction further can be felt as unfair , as different cultures , attitudes and beliefs might clash at the service encounter hence leading to unsatisfactory appraisal and reward management . Fairness of appropriate rewarding is also based upon other factors such as a country 's economy , internal and external relativities and different levels of fairness perception . International organisations need good knowledge of employment and taxation laws and employment practices of foreign countries ( Dowling et al . , ) . Expatriates will have a large bundle of rewards as stated in as they are key to success . Extrinsic rewards such as basic pay , pension and share options will all be paid in the home country currency due to unstable conditions and a low exchange rate in . Health insurance and medical help as well as education and other allowances for the expatriate 's family among other benefits will be provided locally or organised by the headquarters . On the other side intrinsic rewards such as autonomy , job satisfaction or recognition will be ensured through the HRM strategy as explained before . culture reflects a demand for predictable rewards based on performance ( Nyambegera et al . , ) . These rewards contrary to implications of 's high collectivism index ( , ) should be awarded individually due to low predictability of group performance ( , ) . Research further identified that prefer being shareholder of the firm they work for . Extrinsic rewards such as time based compensation , shares and social benefits such as health insurance or medical care are important for due to their poor economy and will boost motivation . In the manufacturing sector , foreign owned companies are known to pay higher wages than locally owned organisations ( , ) . The will position itself at the top end of the firms , paying competitive salaries firstly to attract skilled staff which can deliver high levels of service quality , to retain them because competitors might lure them away and hence profit from the training provided and to establish a - class image . Low M / F index however would indicate that tend to emphasis intrinsic rewards . Nyambegera ( ) for example believes that some form of empowerment would be valued by employees ; however the product offer , the educational situation and the ethnocentric approach impede such implementation at least within . The company then again will emphasize individual recognition and a community feeling . Regular leave on public holidays will be admitted so staff can celebrate with their relatives in respect of the collectivist culture . As a driver of motivation , ( ) identified social relationship as an important factor . Not only is there a demand from hospitality services for team work , with each individual playing an important role due to high personal contact time . The collective culture furthermore expects some level of recognition of the employer to support the community and the firm 's workforce . Employees receive wages and benefits in order to pay daily expenses such as food and housing . Health and safety as well as to some extent predictability can be provided by the employer and the government . Satisfaction of social needs however , can not be paid for . This is the level of 's hierarchy of human needs . He states that only unsatisfied needs can motivate . Due to the fact that 's economy is rather poor compared to the , the majority of the workforce struggles to satisfy the levels of 's hierarchy . An organisation such as which believes in the value of its employees hence has to provide an environment where the levels have to be satisfied , namely physiological , safety and social needs . < heading>3.3.3 Equal opportunities and diversity management</heading > People are different ( Price , ) and the nature of the hospitality industry demands for a diverse workforce in order to meet the needs of a diverse customer market ( et al . , ) and to remain competitive through provision of high service quality ( ibid:372 ) , which is especially important for luxury providers such as . Equal opportunities are driven by legal requirements ( , ) aiming to reduce discrimination of minority groups by provision of a ' level playing field ' ( et al . , ) where people contest on equal terms . This however is seen by the latter as treating the symptoms instead of the grounds of discrimination . A better approach therefore is diversity management which is integrated into organisational strategy ( and , ) , concentrating on the individual rather than on a group and going beyond the recruitment process . perfectly summarize as a < quote > "" ... challenge of meeting the needs of a culturally diverse workforce and of sensitizing workers and managers to differences associated with gender , race , age and nationality in an attempt to maximize the potential productivity of all employees "" ( as seen in et al . , 2002:369)</quote > Companies with an ethnocentric focus normally should have a standardized approach to managing diversity ( et al , ) . There are however large differences between labour markets in and the ( Appendix F and Carpenter et al , ) . The 's strategy reflects these differences as stated in its mission statement ( Appendix A ) . While in the and it adopted a diversity management ( ) approach based on the method ( and , ) in order to reflect cultural , ethnical , gender and demographic differences and to attract the best workers ( HCIMA , ) , in the general policy has to be adapted for several reasons . The young labour market mainly exists of unskilled workers ; hence managerial positions have to be filled with expatriates in order to ensure success . Although there is not much equal opportunity ( ) legislation in yet ( Appendix F ) , the company implements an approach with an aim to adopt practices of the approach to diversity management in future with the change to a geocentric approach . Black identified that economic development is linked to demand for higher labour standards ( ) hence with an improvement of the business environment ( increase of skill level and diversity ) the will adjust its strategy accordingly . Training nevertheless will be available to all employees equally and adjusted according to their backgrounds because of the understanding that people are the main assets ( and , ) and hence have to be valued and cared of . Recruitment for non - managerial jobs will reflect an approach in order to form a diverse workforce which is especially important in sub - Saharan countries representing multi ethnical groups ( et al . , ) although they show a discernible national pattern ( , ) . The former authors emphasize that neglecting ethnic diversity will have severe impacts on organisational success as well as on a country itself ( 2002:1087 ) especially in conjunction with corruption as can be seen at neighbouring countries having civil wars . hence aims to be proactive , utilizing and maximizing employees ' potential ( and , ) in order to gain a competitive edge ( , ) at the same time not discriminating any group . < heading>3.3.4 Training and employee development</heading > Despite its importance for organisational success in an industry heavily relying on human assets , training is not yet integrated in organisations ' strategies ( , ) and often neglected ( 2003:20 ) . Organisations learn through managers whose task is to contribute to the incremental and discontinuous organisational leaning ( Pedler et al , ) . The HR literature further suggests that training is a vital component to unlock the underlying potential of employees ( , ) . ( ) defines main components of training : knowledge , skills and attitude . however will differentiate between 's and 's as these groups need different approaches to training due to their differing culture and educational skill level . Expatriates will be trained already before their move to , throughout their stay and through a reflective seminar in order to recall problems and difficulties for future learning ( see also ) . Areas of training include the most important , although not widely implemented ( Dowling et al . , ) area of cultural awareness as well as language training ( Swahili ) which is not imperative for , yet enhances a deeper understanding of the culture and facilitates communication with local poor people . Technical knowledge has to be obtained by managers before leaving into a foreign country , however specific job related factors will be solved through personal assistance through headquarter . 's who have a slightly higher index ( , ) need a more basic though more intense training in order to teach service skills to boost their self - confidence in being able to fulfil the required tasks . Dowling et al . remind us of the paradox of ' the expense of cheap labour ' ( ) meaning low wages , but intense training costs which applies to . Training itself has to be well structured and has to provide clear structures for in order to enable them to perform effectively due to their mentioned index . ( as seen in ) stated that experimental training such as on the job training , manuals and supervision will be the most effective methods . Due to the high luxury and individualized service nature offered by the , management has to ensure upfront that its ' staff is well trained . Important therefore is a thorough induction ( et al , 2002:219 ) which will be mandatory for each employee . There will be no difference in training between core and peripheral staff as it is in the ' flexible firm ' model ( , ) . Due to the high index and high collectivism in , the will emphasize on group work , role plays , experiential and well designed manuals which will provide employees to feel more confident acquiring new skills and knowledge . Content of training will be health and safety with high emphasis on HIV as well as service skills and culture . Due to the intention of a future independent management by 's the further enters into a corporation with in , which runs a hospitality management degree ( , ) , hence educating competent young managers which after successfully completing their studies will take part in a graduate programme in the unit to prepare themselves for future higher positions within the unit . Employees from the core staff will also have the chance to develop a career within the unit . Support and training will help to acquire necessary skills . < heading>4.0 Some of the assumptions this report is based on such as 's cultural dimensions are heavily criticized ( , ; . , ; and , ) . Due to the scope of the report however , the author can not go deeper into this discussion . Furthermore the author is biased due to a strong belief in HRM models , valuing people and proactively taking care of their well - being . This might have influenced the decision making process on which approaches to use for . In general however , has a huge potential for the future . Political change alongside with , although slow but steady , improvement of economy and the rich resources of people and nature the country has will make life better in a yet so called Third World country . International investments and job developments will help the population to improve their status quo . Organisations however , have to bear in mind the social and cultural environment they operate in . The design of human resource strategies has to integrate local community and their well - being in order to receive not only governmental support but also collaboration of groups and of each individual . Expatriates will only succeed when equipped with cultural sensitivity alongside with technical skills and knowledge . This is the task of organisations to train , motivate and to support their staff . Regarding development of 's the author suggests close cooperation with schools and universities , following best practice examples such as or hotels in order to get the most out of their staff and to gain a high reputation within the country . hence could proof that it is dedicated to perform better than industry in general as identified by ( ) . To sum up , there are   "" no universal solutions to organization and management problems "" ( , ) when organisations expand into new cultures .","< heading > Introduction and Aims</heading > This is an example of nucleophilic acyl substitution ( at a carbonyl carbon ): A nucleophile ( Nu :) ; phenoxide ( PhO- ) an electron rich species that usually reacts with an electron deficient species i.e. electrophile . An acyl group R - C = O ( R can be alkyl / aryl ) A substitution mechanism that leaving group ( LG ) ; chloride ( Cl- ) is replaced by Nu : The reaction between an unknown phenol A and an acid / acyl chloride ( benzoyl chloride ) was investigated in this experiment , in order to identify the unknown phenol A from the melting point of the crystalline derivative produced . Here is the mechanism diagram : < heading > Hazards</heading><list > Avoid skin contact phenol A - toxic , wear glovesBenzoyl chloride ( C 7H 5ClO ) - irritant , always keep in fume ( aq ) - corrosiveEthanol ( C 2H 5OH ) - highly flammable , avoid sources of ignitionGood laboratory practice always applies esp . use of glass tubes and burner in measuring melting point.</list><heading and g unknown phenol ( brown solution ) in 2 M NaOH ( aq ) was dissolved in a stoppered boiling tube . The solution turned to dark orange brown , looks similar to iodine solution , after addition . In a fume cupboard , C 7H 5ClO was added from burette , stoppered and shaken vigorously for / until precipitate becomes granular . The solution turned from dark orange brown into red orange . White / pale yellow precipitates formed . Meanwhile , the boiling tube became warm , which indicated this is an exothermic reaction . All crude product was filtered off using a buchner funnel at water pump Any lumps were crushed and washed well with distilled H 2O crude product was collected and weighed product was recrystallised with minimum hot C 2H 5OH , until solution run down was clear ( clear light brown solution observed ) . Left to dry . was dissolved in ice cold C 2H 5OH . Filtered . Purified solid was removed from mother liquor at pump and dried . Purified solid was placed into a labelled specimen bottle and dried in desiccator over fresh anhydrous until next practical session for testing its melting point . < heading > Testing Melting Point</heading > Either end of glass tubes were sealed using a burner amount of purified solid was tapped down into the tubes Tubes then were placed into the holes of a melting point thermometer . Switched on . The purified solid in tubes were observed down the magnifying glass installed . The melting point was noted from the thermometer attached once the purified solid started to melt . < heading > Results and Calculations</heading><table/><table/ > FORMULA   Percentage Yield < heading > Discussion</heading > The average melting point of unknown phenol A is calculated as 98oC , which is the nearest to the one of m - nitrophenyl benzoate - C13H9O4N ( ) . This slightly higher value , difference of oC , than literature melting point shows some impurities were likely to be present thus to increase the melting point . This is due to some sources of errors : The main source of error is probably transfers of chemicals e.g. at the beginning , g unknown phenol was transferred from the bottle to a weighing boat to be weighed , then to the boiling tube . Collecting all possible crystalline product from the filter paper after filtration is always hard . A spatula is suggested to scrap off all product , this however increases the amount of impurities ( filter paper material ) . Thus the melting point of phenol A is affected . For measuring melting point of phenol A , triplicate glass tubes of purified solid were prepared , which increases reliability of results . A melting point thermometer was used to measure melting point , which is heavily dependent on the experimenter 's judgement . It could result delay in noting melting points of the samples while reading off from the thermometer manually . It is possible to also use an Electrothermal - electronic melting point thermometer , thus to compare sets of values obtained from both thermometers . This surely increases the validity of the results . Vigorous shaking and mixing of unknown phenol , ( aq ) and C 7H 5ClO can be achieved by using an electric mixer . This enables a more efficient and controlled step . It is good laboratory practice to have rinsed the apparatus e.g. glass rod and edge of the funnel with minimum C 2H 5OH , in order to obtain all product formed . Accurate apparatus is used e.g. 3 - burette ( calibrated to cm ) was used to obtain C 7H 5ClO. The percentage yield is calculated as , which shows a relatively low yield of crystalline . In other words , a relatively low efficiency in preparation , which could be explained by other possibilities : not all of the crystals crystallised from solution in recrystallisation . The reaction did not even go to completion in shaking ( Step ) . < heading > Conslusion</heading > From the minor difference of the melting points between the literature value and the experimental results , the unknown phenol A used is m - nitrophenyl benzoate ; C13H9O4N. < heading > Questions</heading><heading>2 . ) Principles of recrystallisation:</heading > According to is ' a process of repeated crystallisation in order to purify a substance or to obtain more regular crystals of a purified substance . ' Thus Recrystallisation should result in a purer sample . There are main steps : < list > dissolving solute in the appropriate solventperforming a pressure filtrationobtaining crystals of the solutecollecting the solute crystals by pressure filtrationdrying resulting crystals</list>1 . )",0
"< heading > Aim:</heading > To investigate how the boiling point of Cyclohexane varies with pressure . < heading > Introduction and theory:</heading > The temperature at which the vapour pressure is equal to 1atm is the normal boiling point of that liquid . At some temperatures the energy of molecules is great enough for bubbles of vapour to form - the liquid boils . However at any lower temperature the bubbles collapse as soon as they form because the atmospheric pressure is greater than the vapour pressure inside the bubbles . Hence the boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapour pressure equals the external pressure . When varying pressure ; if a lower pressure is exerted on the liquids surface , less kinetic energy is needed to form bubbles and hence the temperature of the boiling point is less than for a higher pressure . Boiling point therefore depends on applied pressure ( pressure increases with temperature ) The Clausis - Clapeyron equation relater the temperature dependence of the vapour pressure of a liquid to the heat of vaporisation and can be used to find this figure . ( dIn p / d ( 1 / T ) = -ΔHvap / R ) . Troutons rule states that for most un - associated liquids , is roughly independent of temperature ; this is found by , being roughly equal to b. This is found to be true for most un - associated liquids other than those with extremely strong intermolecular forces , eg . bonding . < heading > Saftey / precautions:</heading><list > Chemicals : Cyclohexane ( Flammable)Electrical : Vacuum pump ( avoid getting mains connection wet ) , Heater . Other : vacuum apparatus ( wear safety glasses)</list > Appropriate lab wear must be worn including lab coat , gloves and goggles . All Chemical work should be carried out in a fume hood . < heading > Procedure:</heading > To begin the apparatus are set up ; the boiling vessel ( pump ) , condenser and ballast flask are connected ; in turn this is connected to a pressure gauge and the pressure gauge to the vacuum pump . Both taps on the pressure gauge are tightened and the pressure gauge switched on ( the reading was 1000 mbar ) . Cyclohexane ( 70cm3 ) and pumice granules were placed in the boiling vessel and the joints lightly greased . The pressure was adjusted to mbar ; and the tap connected to the closed pump . The water supple to the condenser was turned on , . And the thermometer greased with glycerol . The Cyclohexane was then heated until boiling freely and the temperature at this point recorded . Pressure was then adjusted ( by opening pressure gauge to pump tap ) in steps of mbar and using a viewer the temperature taken when the liquid boiled freely . < heading > Results:</heading><table/><figure/>A graph of pressure against temperature was plotted ( graph ) , it can be seen that as the pressure increases ; the temperature of the liquids boiling point also increases . A graph of Inp against / T was plotted ( graph ) , from this graph we can obtain a value of ; by working out the gradient and inserting this figure into the - Clapeyron equation . < heading > Discussion:</heading > Our value for -ΔHvap = , in comparison to a literature value for the -ΔHvap of cyclohexane = . From our experiment cyclohexane appears to obey Troutons rule . Troutons rule states that for most un - associated liquids , is roughly independent of temperature . From our results we can gather that the normal boiling point of cyclohexane at mbar = oC.","< quote > "" ... I , the Emperor , am with you , my subjects ... and we are bound together with everlasting trust and respect for each other , not simply according to myths or legends . Nor is it on the basis of a fictitious belief that the emperor is the living god , and the nationals are superior to all the others who are destined to rule the whole world one day ... ""</quote><fnote > Officially called "" "" , translated by myself . In the original text , an honorific form of person pronoun which only the emperor was allowed to use was employed throughout the script , and for the person the form to address the lower class than the speaker was used . Hence my insertion of ' the Emperor ' and ' my subjects ' after the and pronouns respectively , since does not have equivalent forms . The original text ( in ) can be obtained from , "" Tennô no "" < /fnote > The statement above is the so called ' ( Declaration of Humanity ) ' , which was issued under the name of the Emperor of , , and published on the newspapers on , after experienced the utmost loss in . To our modern perspective this piece of comment merely seems to be claiming what is totally unnecessary to be reassured , or it may even scare us with its tone of determined self - respect and arrogance . For the contemporary citizens , however , this declaration was truly an unexpected upset , which utterly overturned their strong belief that the emperor was a living god and that therefore the most honourable virtue humans could possibly obtain was to fight for him and die for him . The same sort of contrariety between our viewpoint and that of the ancient might hinder our understanding of the similar institution in , namely the imperial cult . In fact , many of the modern scholars are sceptical about the probability of the imperial cult as a religious entity and choose to understand it as fundamentally political , through which the state manipulated its subjects and the subjects attempted to gain diplomatic advantages . But before we hurriedly draw our conclusion on where to place the imperial cult in our understanding , there are problems we must consider . , our essential hesitation towards the idea of imperial cult may be largely influenced by what calls a ' christianised ' view of religion . , we should carefully consider if the modern scholars are right in putting ' politics ' and ' religion ' on opposite ends of the spectrum when they try to grasp the idea of the imperial cult . On this point , it might help to analyse the imperial cult which was a fairly recent phenomenon flourished from the end of 19 th century until , which seemingly possessed political and religious characteristics simultaneously . In this essay , as such , we shall begin with the attempt to clarify and to remove fixed ideas of religion shaped by the prosperity of , and then move on to examine the Roman religious system in order to see if the imperial cult in any respect as a religious institution could have been cultivated there . Finally , we will briefly look at the imperial cult , with a view to exploring if we are truly able to distinguish political and religious elements of the system so clear - cuttingly . < fnote > Price 1984b , p.9 < /fnote > First of all , let us consider the influence of on our understanding of what religion is . Price and repeatedly argue in their writings that the tendency of is to pre - require the individual participant 's psychological involvement as the essential condition for the authentic religion , and to neglect and deny the religion as a ' public cognitive system ' , central importance of which is the act of conversation with ' another world ' through a means of ' dialogue ' , such as sacrifice and prayer . In other words , the christianised perspective narrows down the definition of religion so as to exclude any forms of rituals which do not embrace a mental dimension . This concept of religion , more or less , certainly obstructs and blurs the question if the imperial cult should be understand as religious or political , by shifting the focus of question to the psychological dimension as to whether the participants of the cult truly perceived the emperor as divine . < fnote > Price 1984b , p.9 - 10 < /fnote><fnote > Gradel , p.5 < /fnote > In addition to this , I suppose , contributed to a large extent in spreading of the idea that god is a fundamentally monotheistic entity . Here I will discuss examples , in which this monotheism might be seen as alienating the Roman religion from us and thus severing our sympathy to it . The notion predominant in is that God has to be ever - present both in time and space , which may lead us to reject the capability of the Roman religion of incorporating new deities whenever they found it necessary as sacrilegious . In contrast , however , it is quite natural thinking for the under their polytheistic religious system to regard that there are countless gods in the world and there must be , therefore , some gods who have been living in a foreign land and have never revealed themselves to the yet . In other words , polytheism always has an extra space for a potential unknown deity to join their community . As puts it , the polytheistic gods are not ' of all men ' , but rather concerning only their worshippers . < fnote > Scheid , p.154 < /fnote><fnote > Gradel , p.49 < /fnote > Another example is the idea that the god is almighty and sovereign . This presupposition can be seen in 's use of the statements , for instance , that no ever prayed to the emperor in the time of sickness or shipwreck . He argues that this fact could be used either to support the argument that the imperial cult was essentially political and not religious , or to prove that the cult was ' of a higher spiritual type ' which does not require the give - and - take relationship between the worshipping and worshipped . From the polytheistic point of view , however , this argument completely ignores the characteristic of polytheism that under this system a god is not supposed to aid the humans in every situation . It is , therefore , not surprising at all that the did not cry out to the emperor concerning their health or personal sufferings simply because the emperor was supposedly linked more to politics , warfare and statecraft , and this incident alone should not lead us to think that the emperor has a peculiar position among the deities in . < fnote > Price : , p.91 < /fnote > Next , let us turn to the analysis of the Roman religious system with a view to assessing whether the imperial cult as a religious entity was at all acceptable in Roman society . of all , as we have already seen partly in the previous section , their essentially polytheistic religious thinking was the central key to understanding the nature of the imperial cult . In fact , to a degree polytheism may be one of the preconditions for a form of human cult to be able to exist in the state level . The pre - war society , which successfully cultivated and nurtured the imperial cult , also embraced the polytheistic religious view based on the belief in ' Yorozu no kami ' , literary meaning gods . < fnote > Jinjya - Honcho ( ) , translation of this pages available , however , as the contents of the site and site differs in many ways the source texts referred to in this essay do not necessarily appear on the version . page accessible from their index page ( URL ) < /fnote > Under this system , because of its ability to include an almost unlimited number of gods into its religious system , the nature of the gods can be very ambiguous , even to the level that deity could include anything which is beyond a human being . The classic example of this fluidness of the concept of the divine can be seen in , where St. Paul and Barnabas received the divine respect from the public following their performing a miraculous healing of a lame man in Lystra . An interesting incident can be found in history as well , in which the death of a political authority who had been demoted from the position in the central government to the regional just before he died , was associated with the series of unexplainable calamities and natural disasters that happened in the capital and the honour of apotheosis was given to him by the people who thought that the cause of disaster was the fury of the dead . From this respect , we could probably argue that the only type of god unacceptable for polytheism is the one which tries to eliminate the other deities , such as the God . < fnote > NT Acts < /fnote><fnote > Jinjya - Honcho < /fnote > Outside this polytheistic view of religious matters , there were several other traditions rooted in and its empire which may justify the imperial worship . To begin with , , who was the to be granted the numerous divine honours and to be apotheosised , was able to claim his divine descent from Aeneas , the son of Venus , although ancestral divinity was not peculiar to the emperors but was widely believed for the kings and great men in general both in and . , there was a stream of philosophical thinking which claimed that all the major gods were once human , called ' ' , based on the Greek account on the gods ' origin written by Euhemerus and translated into by . In addition to this philosophical concept , there existed a popular mystic belief among the that the best men were promised an immortality after death , which reduced the distance between divine and mortals significantly and which made all men ' at least potentially divine ' . < fnote > Weinstock , < /fnote><fnote > Beard , North and Price , p.54 < /fnote><fnote > Taylor , p.51 < /fnote > Thirdly , the traditionally worshipped ' the divine in man ' under aspects : the Genius which was perceived as a guardian spirit of the paterfamiliae , and the Lar or which was probably interpreted as some sort of spirits of dead ancestors . On which divines to worship at the level of the house cult in each household other than these deities , the paterfamiliae had the authority to choose . In this respect , we may able to argue that the imperial cult was a phenomenon that came out from a natural discourse , in which the members of the state at large worshipped the divinity of its head , the paterpatriae , and whatever deities he decided to incorporate into his community , as opposed to that the members of the individual household worshipped the Genius of the paterfamilae . < fnote > Taylor , p.49 < /fnote><fnote > Scheid , p.148 < /fnote > So far we have been looking at the supporting evidences for the imperial cult as a religious institution , but there were of course several factors which talk against the statement and tempt us to assess the cult as rather more political . The political advantage for the rulers to become a god to legitimise and strengthen their regime had been recognised long before the imperial cult by , partially under whose advice and partially under his father 's influence the Great successfully encouraged the establishment of his own cult among his subjects . Fundamentally political motivation for instituting the imperial cult may , moreover , not only come from the ruling side wishing to gain some sort of political control by imposing , licensing and manipulating the cult , which can often be observed particularly in Western provinces of the empire , but also from the ruled side who voluntarily adopt the form of cult to flatter to their rulers in order to gain diplomatic advantages , which is said to be essentially a phenomenon of the cities . < fnote>1284a : ' But if there is man ... of superlative virtue ... we may reasonably regard such a one as a god among men - which shows , clearly , that legislation too must apply only to equals in birth and capacity . ' < /fnote><fnote > Hopkins , p.209 < /fnote > There is also linguistic evidence which may suggest the hesitation of the and its subjects in placing the imperial cult in exactly the same importance and religious significance as their traditional cults . In the term divus , as distinguished from the traditional gods deus , was used as official terminology from onwards to refer to the deceased emperors and members of their family . In the Greek speaking , sacrifices were made for the living emperor on many occasions but predominantly they were described as the sacrifices ' on behalf ' of the emperor , rather than ' to ' the emperor . These linguistic ambiguities might exemplify the tendency of the and their subjects to avoid elevating the imperial cult as a religious institution so high as to displace their traditional pagan deities . < fnote > Price:1984a , p.83 < /fnote><fnote > Price:1980 , p.32 < /fnote><fnote > Price : 1984b , p.147 < /fnote > But now we have to go back to our question posed in the section : are we right in presupposing that ' religious ' is an antonym of ' political ' ? In other words , is it really impossible for the imperial cult to be religious as well as political ? In the rest of my essay , I shall briefly investigate the pre - war imperial cult and its characteristics in order to reach a conclusion if religion and politics are really incompatible with each other . Unfortunately we do not have enough space here to conduct a detailed examination on how the imperial cult came into existence , but thing noteworthy here is the fact that it was started by elites , not only with a purely political insight but actually with a high level of mental involvement in the ideology as well . By the time placed itself in the middle of the warfare in the cult had already acquired highly political characters and was reduced to a mere political tool for the authorities to ensure an absolute loyalty from their subjects , however , at least it was initially promoted by the elites who actively came to a conclusion that the notion of the divine emperor is credible and trustworthy after much logical thinking and academic research on the topic . For example , , a philosopher in , studied the , a mythical statement by the most influential of the local gods proclaiming that the imperial family is his descendant , as a mere political ideology which was used to rule the people . After the long - time study of the concept and history , however , he changed his opinion totally and came to believe this as a religious ideology , and began to proclaim that should overthrow the form of government of that time and reconstruct the central government as emperor - oriented . < fnote > For all the names which come up in this essay was written in the style , that is , the surname comes before the fist name . < /fnote><fnote > Kirihara < /fnote > After the old government had collapsed and those who strongly believed that the divine emperor should gain the supreme political authority over the country occupied the high positions within the new government , the imperial cult emerged and was established through highly political means such as a constitution and educational doctrine . The former constitution , which was enforced in , clearly indicated that should be ruled by the emperor and his direct descendants ( ) , who is holy and should not be violated ( ) . In prior to this , the Imperial Rescript on Education was also promulgated under the name of the emperor , which stated that the citizens were obliged to devote themselves to helping the emperor who rules the country according to the divine will , particularly in the time of crisis . Nevertheless this extremely manipulative and therefore political aspect of the imperial cult coincided with , interestingly enough , the passionate belief in the emperor 's true divinity held by those who initiated these utilisation of political means . The record shows that , of the people who contributed in the production of a draft for both the constitution and the educational edict , chose every single word with an extreme caution because he acknowledged that any mistake or contradiction would be attributed to the emperor himself as dishonour , which would be an irredeemable sin . < fnote > Tamura ' Dainihon ) ' < /fnote><fnote > Tamura ' Kyoiku ni kannsuru ( The Imperial Rescript on Education ) ' < /fnote><fnote > Ito < /fnote > In spite of this forceful and premeditated imposition of the cult on the citizens , or maybe rather because of this , the cult was quickly spread out all over and accepted by its inhabitants with great enthusiasm . This may seem slightly strange that highly political stratagems could stir up a religious sensation among the people . In reality , however , if one wishes to establish the cult as largely a political institution so as to manipulate and ensure stable loyalty of his subjects , it is not enough just to force reluctant people to participate in the cult unwillingly but you have to derive the active involvement and truthful respect towards the cult out of your subjects . Another important factor , other than political propagandas and cruel oppression of opponents of the cult , which might have helped the people to absolve the cult into their everyday life , is the fact that this belief in the emperor 's divinity could provide a means of self - respect with the worshippers . As we can see in Ito Hirobumi 's Commentaries to the former constitution of which he himself was responsible for overall editing , he declared that ' was established at the time when the heaven and the earth became separate ' as a comment to the position of the emperor . This statement clearly shows that the emperor 's divinity is not only the matter of the nation , but it is expanded to the creation of the world as a whole . It may be argued , from this notion , that divinity of the emperor not only elevated the emperor himself high , but also encouraged his subjects to regard themselves as a chosen nation , directly reigned over by the lord of lords . < fnote > Colegrove , p.644 < /fnote > Whatever the crucial factors were , the imperial cult successfully took firm root in society . Hence the people 's truly painful reaction mentioned at the beginning of this essay , when the end of the cult was officially announced under the name of the emperor . At the same time , however , nobody would totally deny it , I suppose , that the imperial cult was in many respects highly political . In this sense we may be able to conclude that to ask whether a form of state cult is essentially political or religious is misleading , since politics and religion are not always inversely proportional to each other : they can coexist side by side , and thus a cult can be both largely political and religious simultaneously . The attempt to investigate the character of a cult under the clear - cut categories of authentically political and genuinely religious entities is , therefore , just like trying to navigate a foreign city using a map of the world . Unless we switch the map with an appropriate road map , that is , we choose the right criteria , we would never get to our destination of assessing the nature of the imperial cult accurately .",0
"The Collins English Dictionary defines the word ' doom ' as to condemn to death or a terrible to fate . Although many still live in , proving that as a race they have not been eradicated , their culture and significance have been eroded to such a degree that they can be deemed to have suffered a terrible fate as a people . For several millennia prospered on the continent of without interference . In , however , they came into contact with and within they had effectively been wiped out . It can not be denied that it was the settlers who caused the demise of the peoples . But was it inevitable ? Could they have survived the presence of explorers and settlers on their shores ? This essay will argue that they were ultimately doomed but not , however , from the outset , in that they could have taken measures to ensure their own future and push the settlers from their continent , as it was impossible for the cultures to co - exist . A vast array of factors combined to cause the demise of the , all of which will be given close attention in this study . These include diseases , missionaries promoting , the superior technology and weapons at the disposal of the colonists and trade between the peoples . These all had devastating effects on the and meant that in the long - term they were doomed , particularly due to the dependence that developed out of trade with the . However , had the actively and forcibly resisted settlement on their land from the start , it is highly likely that they could have prevented their downfall . The colonists were almost utterly dependent on the for survival in of settlement . Without this life support , it was they who would have been doomed . of the most devastating factors in the eventual demise of the Native Americans was that of disease . In terms of resistance to disease , was a virgin land through which pandemics were able to sweep . Once the disease - bearing arrived , there was massive devastation , accounting for of deaths . Any survivors were significantly weakened when facing colonization . Through a series of calculations , estimates the population to before contact . This number is huge considering that ' by only about one quarter to million survived ' . Disease was the prime factor in this massive population decrease . Indeed , it has been described as ' the greatest catastrophe in history , far exceeding even the disaster of of medieval ' . Sickness made conquest far easier for the settlers . < fnote > , : in ( , ) , p. < /fnote><fnote > Noble , Born to Die : Disease and New World Conquest , ( , ) , p. < /fnote > Smallpox was the most lethal pathogen introduced by to in terms of the number of casualties . As with the vast majority of diseases brought to by the , were susceptible . states that the population of probably numbered per cent of the population , indicating how vulnerable the were to disease . This was noticeable to the explorers who came to settle here during the and found that of was almost entirely deserted . The most terrifying aspect of disease was that it wreaked most harm before there were even settlements in depopulation during far exceeded that of later times . "" It was often transferred by explorers and fishermen and was spread by themselves . Deadly illnesses devastated and even before they came into direct contact with foreigners . Many fled to escape disease but unwittingly helped to transfer it . The area from to has been described as an ' epidemic region ' since disease spread unmitigated along the coast as tribes interacted frequently , giving reason as to why so many of the estimated eighteen million were killed by disease . Noble estimates that of were killed by foreign infection . Disease was also transferred during trade between and and when traded among themselves . Many who fell ill but did not die directly from disease , were physically unable to fetch food or water , or even tend crops , so died anyway due to starvation or dehydration in combination with the fever - generating pathogen . Also the practice of visiting sick relatives and friends only helped to spread the disease further . < fnote > Dobyns , , p. < /fnote > Other diseases which claimed the lives of were measles , influenza , bubonic plague , diphtheria and typhus . Amazingly , ' A serious contagious disease causing significant mortality invaded peoples at intervals of and , on the average , from . Many of the epidemics were continentwide . "" The fact that , especially during , visits to were sporadic was accountable for this . After a disease such as smallpox had affected the population , which had gained a degree of immunity as a result , it might be decades before the same disease struck again , meaning that that the population was at great risk , particularly the younger generations who lacked resistance . This was devastating to the survival of the Native . Disease also weakened who were more liable to succumb to other , normally less deadly , infections . < fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote > Disease undermined faith in the superiority of themselves over the and in their Gods . They saw epidemics as divine punishment for human transgressions . As the did not seem to be afflicted on such a scale , they concluded that ' the God about whom the talked in fact possessed greater power than their own ' . Many even blamed clergymen for the disease that was afflicting them in such great numbers . They believed missionaries were able to control sickness and health . This had grave consequences - ' Alien disease did more than decimate the native population ; it effectively prepared the way for subsequent phases of contact by breaking native morale and , perhaps even more significantly , by cracking their spiritual edifice . "" Another way in which disease affected was that technical skills , leadership , and the group 's corporate memory were lost when adult members died , especially elders who possessed the least resistance . Disease and its consequences could even lead to the dissolution of whole tribes - ' the demographic losses combined with the psychological shock and cosmological confusion ... cause[d ] the collapse of aboriginal cultures . ' < fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote><fnote > Calvin Martin , of the Game : - Animal Relationships and ( , ) , p. < /fnote><fnote > Dobyns , , p. < /fnote > Thus , disease was hugely important in leading to the eventual downfall of the . It killed and had huge psychological effects which were extremely difficult to overcome . argues that , ' numbers did not merely become thinned ; biological disaster struck . "" The remainder were greatly weakened making foreign conquest far easier . < fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote > However , despite the enormity of the effects that disease had on the population , they still far outnumbered the colonists for and were in a far superior position , from which to assert themselves and overcome the settlers if they so wanted . Disease had not wiped them out by any means - ' In each colony , of colonists faced of . "" The colonists were utterly dependent on the for survival . For example , they were taught how best to use the land and cope with the conditions of with which they were completely unfamiliar - ' The would not have survived , let alone thrived , had not assistance reinforced the umbilical cord that connected each colony to its respective imperial systems . "" The colonists were often in perilous positions , as starvation and ill health constantly threatened . On many occasions , particularly at the settlement of , it was the who helped the to survive and overcome periods of famine - ' Out of kindness ... tribes supplied the inept settlers with corn , bread , fish , and meat . '   < fnote > , : The rise of in , ( , ) , p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote><fnote > , After Columbus : Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America ( , ) , p. < /fnote > Another reason which , many historians have argued , led to the demise of the population was the gradual erosion of Native culture and religion , mainly due to the work of missionaries who attempted to convert ' heathen savages ' into through civilization . Although there were massive variations throughout the colonies , some areas experienced a great deal of success , particularly in eastern with the ' praying towns ' . Here left their tribes to live in a - dominated world . Many ' used to revitalize their lives in a world growing more and more unfriendly ' . There was a strong focus on children , who , thought , could be converted more easily ' early in their development , before the hereditary stain of "" savagery "" became indelible ' .   < fnote > , from Country : A Native History of ( , ) p. < /fnote><fnote > , The and the : Essays in the Ethnohistory of Colonial North America ( , ) , p. < /fnote > Probably the most successful attempt at Christianization was ' the experience in , where superior numbers , wealth , and skills brought them of bona fide converts before ' . Natives were baptized by . The success of the Jesuits was down to a vast knowledge of culture , and they were able to undermine and supplant the local shamans . They were also able to capitalize on the fascination for print , arguing that doctrine was immutable and not subject to change , as was the case with the spoken word . This fascination for print and technology meant many saw as stronger than their own religion - ' The fact that was the religion of the white man , who , with his impressive technology and greater success at manipulating life to his advantage , was believed to have recourse to a greater Power ( manitou ) than the . "" argues that conversions were bona fide as many ' turned to because that world religion satisfied new emotional needs and intellectual hunger ' . Evidence of a committed belief in can be seen in a primary source written by , who was taken captive by in during Queen Anne 's War , in which were frightened by the prospect of going to Hell - ' They told me that an had died ... and the dead rose and informed them that at his death he went to hell ... They said the were frightened and very melancholy . "" declares religion to be highly important in the demise of culture , as , in certain areas , they seemed to be giving up on their age old world views in favour of the form of religion - Christianity . < fnote > Axtell , After , p. < /fnote><fnote > Martin , of the Game , p. - 59 < /fnote><fnote > Axtell , After , p. < /fnote><fnote > , ' in ( eds ) , among the : Accounts of Captivity and Redemption , ( , ) , p. < /fnote><quote > By accepting the material culture , the natives were thus impelled to accept abstract culture , especially the religion . The result was that their own spiritual beliefs were subverted as they abandoned their implements for those of the white man . Native spiritual beliefs ... were no longer necessary as a source of definition and theoretical support for the new - derived material culture . < /quote><fnote > Martin , of the Game , p. < /fnote > Thus , religion can be seen to be important in the demise of culture . Although there were a significant number of conversions to , it is imperative not to over - emphasize the point . Many historians argue that accepted into their lives only to a certain degree , and still held true to their original spiritual beliefs . That is , they merely incorporated as another element of their religion . Often this was undertaken to curry favour with settlers who treated them more like humans and less like savages after their ' conversion ' . Indeed , in < quote > were remarkably resourceful in adjusting to new conditions , especially in using elements of religious culture for their own purposes [ as they ] ... accepted the missionaries ' offerings in just the amounts necessary to maintain their own cultural identity ... They took what they needed for resistance and accepted only as much as would ensure survival.</quote><fnote , The and the , p. < /fnote > Many Natives converted for incentives such as political and military alliances , guaranteed land , economic aid , and trade advantages . This can be seen by the coastal of southern who converted en masse , but still preserved their ethnic identity . ' The ensured the survival of native culture by taking on the protective coloration of the invaders ' religion . "" As mentioned earlier , many converted because they felt that was more powerful than their own religion . However , this often had negative connotations - ' the Micmac came to associate and civilization in general with their numerous misfortunes , together with the fact that they never clearly understood the message but always saw it in terms of their own cosmology . '   < fnote > Martin , of the Game , p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote > Despite claims to the contrary at the time of settlement , Native religion was an important obstacle to overcome - ' The traits within culture that resisted change should be emphasized ... The and most serious obstacle was native religion . "" The religion was bona fide itself and more than capable of explaining , predicting and controlling the world emotionally and intellectually . They did not , therefore , need to convert to . In some areas , conversions were virtually non - existent - ' The religion ... spread only very slowly through tribes . "" Also , the language barrier meant it was hard for missionaries to convert substantial numbers of . Each tribe had its own language or dialect that was subtly different from its neighbours ' , intensifying problems for missionaries . In general , there was much indifference to . Any genuine converts were still not fully accepted into colonial society no matter how ' civilized ' they were . Overall , ' At of effort , both the and the were forced to admit that they had largely failed to convert the native to religion and culture . ' < fnote > Axtell , The and the , p. < /fnote><fnote > Helen C. Rountree & , of and ( , ) , p. < /fnote><fnote > Axtell , The and the , p. < /fnote > The superiority of technology , particularly in relation to weapons , has long been considered an important factor in contributing to the demise of . even goes as far as to say , ' The and most important source of the white man 's power in native was his superior technology . "" It was not uncommon for to literally worship guns and knives that came into their possession ; such was the feeling of admiration towards these objects . were often in awe of technology . The most noticeable and immediate affect of guns was a psychological advantage due to the roar created when firing as well as the physical destruction they could cause - ' time would soon show how lethal lead balls were and how horribly they shattered bones and tore tissue . '   < fnote > Axtell , After , p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote > Whenever the sought to impose their will in they used firearms . study of the Catawba tribe of shows their reluctance to engage in warfare with the in order to defend themselves - ' Speeches were poor weapons for mounting a defence of one 's homeland . "" Evidence of strength in battle can be seen ' in a battle in , Englishmen cut down Pamunkeys on their home ground ' and , more generally , in King Philip 's War where the were ruthless in killing ( the local tribal population ) as well as in the significant losses incurred by the Native in the Anglo - Powhatan Wars in . Direct military confrontation with powers was considered suicidal . were always likely to come off worst in a traditional battlefield sense . < fnote > , The ' New World : Catawbas and Their Neighbours from through ( , ) , p. < /fnote><fnote > Axtell , After , p. < /fnote > However , far too great an emphasis has been placed on weaponry and technology in their conquest of . Despite great admiration for technology , ' had a terrific superiority complex , not only at contact but long after ' . They preferred their own lifestyle without the many complications that they believed the brought upon themselves . Natives ' very soon realized that were ... seriously flawed in their character and culture ... The idea that the native stood in rapt , prolonged awe of has been exaggerated ' . Despite the psychological advantage of guns , as well as their enormous capacity to inflict injury , they were less reliable in many other aspects . bows were far more accurate and were able to operate in all weather , unlike guns which were rendered useless in rain . Also arrows from bows could be fired at a much faster rate than guns , which were often slow and cumbersome to reload . The were also forced to learn many battlefield tactics from the , indicating Native military superiority . < fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote><fnote > Martin , of the Game , p. < /fnote > The Native Americans were notably stronger in this sense , particularly during of settlements which were often at the mercy of the . < quote > The Native ... had superior military power owing to their skills and knowledge of the terrain . The were forced into dependence on allies to defend their colonies ... The ability to create these alliances alleviated the 's tenuous position but did not reduce their dependence . secured the colonies against external and internal foes ... At any time , native peoples could have destroyed the plantations and entire . [ They would have been unable to resist ] ... the powerful confederacies.</quote><fnote , , p. < /fnote > This can be seen when the chiefdom inflicted heavy defeats on exploring parties in , forcing them to reconsider further exploration and abandon notions of settlement . If the wanted to survive and prosper they needed to maintain positive relations with tribes . They were forced to seek Native assistance when at war with other tribes and even other powers . The , and all fought for control over the and united with Native tribes in alliances . However , intertribal warfare led to the downfall of in the long - term , the causes of which will be discussed later . ' The Creek , , and did not come to fear the as much as they feared one another . No army could come against them . ' < fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote > As stated above , the inflicted serious damage to the but the reverse was also true . In the early stages of colonization in , 's Confederacy was so powerful that the , despite their superior weapons , needed to make peace just to remain alive . They could easily be defeated and even wiped out altogether . For example , in on killed colonists out of a total of in a single surprise uprising whilst also confiscating arms and ammunition . The also had means other than violence to endanger the colonists , such as starving them out . These were often extremely successful ventures . For example , the attempt on the colonists in meant that ' after , cadaverous survivors remained from the nearly ' initial population . The colony was close to extinction , and its inhabitants had even set sail for when new settlers arrived intercepting their ships . Had they not arrived in time and the colonists abandoned , the incentive to come to would have decreased considerably , thereby hindering the settlement of in and putting the in a much greater position of strength , making their demise far more unlikely . < fnote > Axtell , After , p. < /fnote > Having analysed and discovered that although disease , and superior weapons all had significant effects on the demise of , they were not crucial . It seems probable that the could have survived and overcome these obstacles . So what caused them to be doomed ? Trade was undoubtedly the single most essential factor . It had a number of important side effects which triggered the downfall of the Native . Initially , ' The flow of merchandise began as the tiniest of streams ' but trade with the grew enormously with devastating effect . < fnote > Merrell , The ' , p. < /fnote > One of the items which developed a taste for was alcohol . It had a disastrous impact on tribal structure and culture . It often ignited conflict within individual tribes and led to countless deaths through accidents . Alcohol was blamed as a ' prime cause for the soaring death rate of the natives . usually resulted when the got hold of a quantity of liquor , as the inebriates usually tore into each other in spectacular drunken brawls ' . Many also developed a dependency , despite efforts from both sides to limit Native access to it . As it was such a precious commodity , there was great competition between tribes to obtain it . This ignited intertribal conflict as in the ' scramble for precious cargoes competition replaced comity at the foundation of every encounter ' .   < fnote > Martin , of the Game , p. - 64 < /fnote><fnote > Merrell , The ' , p. < /fnote > A similar pattern also emerged over the struggle for weapons , as an arms race of sorts developed almost as soon as the set foot in . These destructive weapons were much sort after among , but due to reluctance to trade guns to they were in relatively short supply . When they did reach Native hands , the impact they had on intertribal warfare was dramatic , as ' the firearms gained through access to warped relations among peoples even further ' . Frequent battles developed between tribes over which was to be the chief trading partner of the power located in the region - ' The rising tide of contact , competition and conflict in ... pitted native against native for access to the ' technology and its attendant spiritual power . "" This led to a huge increase in intertribal conflict , perhaps the most significant legacy of trade with the . The region in which trade had its greatest impact in terms of wars between was in the : < fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote><fnote > Axtell , After , p. < /fnote><quote > Trade infected the : it set in motion a gruesome series of wars that engulfed the region . For , virtually every group of people in the lay threatened by destruction in these wars . Huge areas become depopulated , of died , and more were forcibly relocated to new areas in the South.</quote><fnote > Gallay , , p. < /fnote > The powers all used in their battles which ultimately led to their downfall . They could be considered as pawns in a wider game . were killed in conflicts such as the and Yamasee Wars . For the most part , they lost their lives in these battles , not because they were fighting directly against but because they were fighting each other . The fur trade also had a hugely debilitating effect on . This is the topic on which chooses to focus - ' the trade was a disaster for the tribes involved : severe cultural disruption and often physical dislocation were commonplace . "" The demand for goods , particularly alcohol and weapons as mentioned above , was the prime cause of the over - hunting of furbearers . The fur trade became crucial in obtaining weapons , tools , and other basic commodities of everyday life . The side effects , though , were huge , causing permanent changes in the habitat and psyche . The most obvious change to the ecosystem was the unrestrained slaughter of certain game , especially the beaver . This had significant side effects , such as increased soil erosion ' which destroyed complicated habitats and made scarce the deer , fish , and fowl that exploited them ' . These had long been important food resources for . The use of hunting equipment only caused to exert even greater pressure on the resources of the area - ' The function of the within his ecosystem now changed from conservator to despoiler : certain game animals were heavily exploited while others were virtually exterminated . "" The fur trade also altered the leadership structure within tribes because skillful young hunters were able to trade the most with meaning that they had greater power and influence , undermining the traditional age and kin - based headship . < fnote > Martin , of the Game , p. < /fnote><fnote > Richter , Facing East from , p. < /fnote><fnote > Martin , of the Game , p. < /fnote > As time elapsed , the became increasingly dependent on trade with the . goods became necessities , not luxuries - direct replacements for traditional Native items rather than raw materials from which to fashion something else . Long - established Native skills were eroded meaning that further tools and goods had to be bought as they could no longer be made . For example , ' they employed weaponry - when skills with the bow and arrow were lost , they could not be reclaimed . "" The dependence of the on trade gave the a significant degree of control over them . This was the turning point in the destiny of the people . They were at the whim of the Europeans - ' Increasingly [ the ' ] ... dependence upon trade and their dangerous proximity to settlements ... threw them ever more firmly into the political embrace of the . "" It was a dangerous path to tread , and ' it became clear that native independence was a thing of the past ; when could trade or leave it were over . Trade was king . '   < fnote > Gallay , , p. < /fnote><fnote > Axtell , The and the , p. < /fnote><fnote , The ' , p. < /fnote > During the latter stages of , the no longer had such a desire for Native goods , of which they had already acquired a great deal . This is signified by wampum becoming almost worthless . The , as explained earlier , were still , though , highly dependent on goods . The only commodity that the wanted and the had was land . More often than not , the were forced to trade it away . The , for example , ' were now "" dependents on , rather than partners in , business , "" historian concludes . "" And that business ... was strictly land development . "" ' Clearly , therefore , the dependence on trade led to their downfall , because as demands increased , they were forced to trade away ever more precious commodities . < fnote > Richter , Facing East from , p. < /fnote > Had the chosen not to embroil themselves in trade with the , and instead banished them from upon their arrival by force , it is highly unlikely that they would have been doomed - ' They chose not to conquer the because they perceived that they gained less by conquest than by trade . "" This was ultimately the wrong decision and led to their demise . As they became dependent on trade , which certainly did not occur at the outset , their fate also became dependent on needs - the were intertwined . < fnote > Gallay , , p. < /fnote > With the in a perilous position , it was merely a matter of time before their demise . Since were dying in wars and many were willing to trade land to the , the frontier was moving ever further westwards . A vicious circle developed . The more land acquired by the , the more settlers arrived , putting ever greater pressure on the . Livestock , including horses , cattle , pigs and chicken , which were introduced by the , also had a hugely detrimental effect on the way of life . They trampled crops and ' gobbled everything that deer , elk , moose , or bear might have dined on ' . These were traditional staples of the food supply , but were decreasing in numbers due to livestock . This ' sudden injection of civilization into this balanced system initiated a series of reactions which , within , resulted in the replacement of the aboriginal ecosystem by another ' further undermining the existence of the Native . < fnote > Richter , Facing East from , p. < /fnote><fnote , of the Game , p. < /fnote > It became a question of numbers , a struggle which the were always likely to lose after the deaths of of their peoples from disease and wars . < quote > During the the political barriers that had restrained settlement ... gradually disappeared ; colonists began to move in . Soon the , who up to this point had had very little contact with the except through trade , were confronted with several small but rapidly growing settlements on prime land that the considered to be theirs . < /quote><fnote > Richter , Facing East from , p. < /fnote > There was gradual but steady encroachment by the colonists due to a lack of precisely defined boundaries . Indeed , frontier settlers were more of a problem than the actual colonial administrations . This can be seen in 's where led a group of settlers against Governor in the over a perceived ' lax ' policy towards . Increasingly , land was set aside for cultivating crops on which the settlers subsisted , as well as for growing tobacco when its profitability was realized . Natives were increasingly placed on reservations surrounded by settlers . This cut them off from resources and made their way of life untenable . Many were forced to give up their reservations as a result , further giving the advantage to the . argues that , ' The eventually lost the contest for territory , not because of military victories by the but because they were flooded out by hordes of squatters . "" This process gave increasing power to the over the , the beginnings of which can even be seen with in . Previously , the had very nearly wiped out the colonists in . On settlers were killed , but by this time , the colony was too strong to be severely affected , as the population probably numbered around ten thousand . The lesson that was learned , but too late , was that the should have struck earlier to rid themselves of the . < fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote > Therefore , in conclusion , there was a vast array of factors which led to the demise of the , the most important of which was not in effect from the outset . Factors include disease brought to by , the erosion of Native culture and religion through the spreading of and the superiority of technology , in particular , weapons . However , they have all been over - exaggerated in explaining the downfall of the Native tribes . outnumbered the colonists for in despite disease ; did not make as great inroads into life as has been previously claimed ; and technology , although superior , did not always give them considerable advantages when in battle with . Trade was undoubtedly the single most important factor . To be precise , the turning point at which the became dependent on trade with the was the defining moment in the demise of the Native . It led to intense intertribal conflict , the erosion of the Native culture and ecosystem , and even the trading of land to colonists . Perhaps , one could argue , that trade was the most powerful weapon that the were able to wield - more powerful than disease , and weaponry . It was not an obvious threat and this was the key to its destructive capabilities , leading ultimately to the downfall of the - ' trade had triumphed . ' < fnote > Merrell , The ' , p. < /fnote > This turning point marked the beginning of the end for as ever greater numbers of settlers arrived , exerting greater pressure on the land available . It tipped the balance against the who were unable to recover . ' In many yearned to destroy the and drive them from the continent ' but by this stage it was too late . They should have acted sooner , but made the wrong decision in choosing trade over annihilation . Had the crushed the upon their arrival in , instead of choosing to tolerate them , they would not have been doomed at all . < fnote > Richter , Facing East from , p. < /fnote >","< heading>1 . Introduction</heading > The power produced by a wind turbine is dependant upon several things : the wind speed incident on the turbine , the turbine characteristics , and the load on the turbine . The efficiency of the turbine at extracting power from the wind can be described in terms of a coefficient of performance , C p ; a dimensionless number . The value of Cp of the turbine will vary with wind speed , but it is better to compare it to another dimensionless number , λ , tip speed ratio . A graph of Cp against λ will show the performance of a wind turbine at a range of wind speeds .   FORMULA   ( ) Where P w is the power extracted from the wind ( W ) , ρ is air density ( kg m -3 ) , A is the area swept out by the wind turbine blades ( m ) , and V is the free stream velocity ( ms -1 ) .   FORMULA   ( ) Where ω is the rate of turbine rotation ( Hz ) , R is the rotor radius ( m ) , and V as before . Another turbine characteristic is C q , which is coefficient of torque .   FORMULA   ( ) Where Q is the torque exerted by the rotor ; ρ , R and V as before . C q is equivalent to C p divided by λ . The objective of the experiment is to investigate the characteristics of a small wind turbine at different wind speeds and for varying electrical loads ( resistances ) on the generator . < heading>2 . Methodology</heading > A Rutland Wind Charger was positioned in the exhaust flow from a wind tunnel , and connected to a circuit containing variable resistors . An ammeter was connected into the circuit , and a voltmeter across the resistors . Measurements of current , I ( A ) , and voltage E ( V ) , could then be used to investigate the generator characteristics at different wind speeds and loads . The rotation rate of the turbine was measured using an optical tachometer . Free stream wind speed in the tunnel was measured using a pitot tube . A hot wire anemometer was used to measure wind speeds at the turbine . Using these measurements , C p was approximated by ( 4 ):   FORMULA   ( 4 ) Where ΔP is the pressure difference as recorded by the manometer connected to the pitot tube ( Pa ) . Tip speed ratio is approximated by ( 5 ):   FORMULA   ( 5 ) Plotting ( 4 ) against ( ) will give a representation of the C p - λ curve of the turbine . Since torque coefficient is equivalent to ( ) divided by ( ) , an approximation to C q can be obtained from ( ( ):   FORMULA   ( ) The experiment is set up so that several measurements of I and ω can be made by varying the resistance and so the voltage across the circuit at a certain wind speed . The wind speed is also altered several times , and a set of current and rotational speed readings taken at each different wind speed . In this way , graphs equivalent to C q - λ curves can be made for each wind speed ( each pressure difference ) , by plotting I against ω . This graph will give an indication of how the turbine reacts to changing loads at constant wind speeds . The pitot tube pressure difference is equated to wind speed by ( 7 ):   FORMULA   ( 7 ) A generator characteristic for the turbine can be obtained by plotting I against ω for each different voltage set , which gives an indication of how the generator responds to changing wind speeds at different loads . < heading>3 . Results</heading > Appendix 1 contains tables of the data recorded . The wind tunnel is designed for experiments to be performed within the square working section , however the wind turbine was too large to fit within it ( gives the exact measurements ) . Instead , the turbine was placed within the exit air stream . The air stream outside is less controlled , and so there will be more turbulence : the air flow reaching the turbine is likely to vary across the turbine cross section , and be slower than the air flow within the wind tunnel working section . < table/>During the experiment recordings of wind speed at several places across the area of the rotor were made in order to investigate this . Figure shows sets of readings taken at a low and a high wind speed at places in front of the rotor . < figure/>Recordings of wind speed at the central part of the rotor were also made at each pressure difference in order to compare speeds inside and out of the wind tunnel . Figure shows how the wind speed measured at the turbine compared to the wind speed within the wind tunnel , as obtained from ( 7 ) using the pitot tube pressure difference . The wind speed at the centre of the rotor increases linearly with the wind speed inside the wind tunnel , and so the wind tunnel pressure differences Δp , measured by the pitot tube , correspond to increasing wind speed very well for qualitative analysis . < figure/>Figures 3 , and show the Cp - λ curve , generator characteristic , and torque coefficient obtained for the turbine . < figure/><figure/><figure/><heading>4 . Discussion</heading > The optical tachometer required positioning behind the turbine to obtain results . The tachometer was handheld , and so there will have been some influencing of the air - stream near the turbine by the tachometer operator . Figure shows that wind speed across the rotor cross section varies by quite a large amount . The sets of data for the different wind speeds both show the same sort of decrease in wind speed towards the edge of the rotor disk . The bottom of the rotor appears to experience the greatest decrease in wind speed from the central value , while the top has the smallest decrease . The left and right hand sides of the rotor both experience decreases in wind speed . The reason for the different wind speeds at different locations is likely to be due to changes in the air flow as it exits the wind tunnel . At room air temperatures and pressures , air flow is very turbulent , and so turbulent entrainment of ambient air from outside the wind tunnel exit region is likely to slow the outer regions of the air flow . The continuity equation , ( 8) , shows how the wind speed at the tunnel exit will be lower then the speed within the tunnel . Past the tunnel exit , turbulence , entrainment , and further expansion of the stream tube of the air flow will further slow the air .   FORMULA   ( 8) Using values from table and tunnel wind speeds as used in figure :   FORMULA    FORMULA   This is an interesting result , as the recorded wind speeds at the turbine are higher than these calculated values of wind speed at the tunnel exit . It could be that there is some error , either in the measurements of ΔP or wind speed at the turbine . A polynomial regression line of order fitted to the curve in figure gives an equation : C p = 2×10 -9 λ4 - 5×10 -7 λ3 + 4×10 -5 λ2 - 0.0012 λ + 0.0131 , similar in form to other C p approximations for other wind turbines ( , ( 2 ) ) This graph shows how C p peaks for a certain value of tip speed ratio : this is the limit , a physical constraint which is a consequence of the balance of forces which must occur as the wind stream acts upon the turbine . The exact shape and peak of the C p curve depends upon the free stream wind speed , and the characteristics of the turbine itself . The maximum value of C p that can occur is . Since we have used an equivalent to C p ( 4 ) , we can not obtain the true maximum value of C p for this turbine . Figure is proof , however , that the turbine being tested has a power coefficient response similar to that of other turbines . Figures and 5 are best considered in unison , as they show how the turbine responds to changes in free stream wind speed and electrical load . Both wind speed and load have an affect on the current in the circuit and the rotational speed of the turbine . From figure it can be seen that increasing wind speeds lead to increased rotational speeds and an increased current . Figure shows that increasing voltages ( higher loads in the circuit ) lead to smaller currents in the circuit for the same rotational rate , following Ohm 's Law : E = , where R is the circuit resistance . This can be looked at alternatively ; higher loads at the same wind speed lead to a decrease in current but an increase in rotational rate . For a higher voltage across the resistors , a higher rotation rate is needed to produce the same current . For a constant load , increasing wind speed means increasing rotational rate and so increasing current . For a constant wind speed , increasing load means a decrease in current and increase in rotational rate : the faster the turbine must turn in order to provide the required voltage / current . Figure shows that higher wind speeds ( greater values of ΔP = DP ) give higher rotation rates of the turbine , and higher currents produced in the circuit , however the relationship between current and rotational speed is not linear for changing loads at the same wind speed . As the load in the circuit is increased ( voltage increases ) , current and rotational speed both increase at for most of the wind speeds , but as load continues to increase , the current in the circuit drops while rotational speed continues to increase . In order to produce the maximum power , a balance between load and wind speed must be found ; the power output is equal to the current times the voltage , but current and voltage are also bound by Ohm 's Law . Increasing the circuit resistance causes a decrease in the current for a given voltage , and so an increase in the rotation rate of the turbine . In practice , many wind turbines make use of this fact , and use resistance control to affect wind turbine speed so that the frequency output of the turbine generator remains constant . Resistor control can also be used to ensure that the power output of the turbine is at a maximum for a given wind speed . Figure can be used to compare the measured performance of the turbine with its expected performance , as reported by the turbine manufacturer . The manufacturer provides a curve of charge provided by the turbine into a 12V battery against wind speed . The manufacturer presents results from ms -1 , however this experiment only had a range of wind speeds ms ( as measured at the turbine ) , which is equivalent to the straight line portion of the manufacturer 's curve . As such , the experimental results match quite well except in terms of magnitude ; the maximum current produced by the turbine at about 15ms -1 for is from the manufacturer 's graph , but from the experiment . However , the manufacturer states that the expected performance curve is for ideal , non - turbulent conditions , which are unlikely to have been achieved in the experiment . The resistive load for charging a 12V battery could also have been smaller than the load imposed in the circuit during the experiment .",0
"< abstract > Since the times of the early ancient Greeks , the state of the universe has puzzled humankind . It 's only in that we have begun to unravel this mystery , with solid evidence . This paper reviews the evidence which has led to why physicists think that the universe is expanding . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > Firstly , it is important to clarify what is meant by the term ' ' ; define the as ' All matter , energy , and space that exists . '   < fnote>'Universe ' , Dictionary of Physics , . < /fnote > In the 's Sir postulated the universal law of gravitation , consequence of this theory was that all bodies , including stars , planets and galaxies , would attract each other , resulting in a Big Crunch ! As this had not happened , no plausible explanation could be found and to counter this paradox it was posed that the universe must be infinite in space , and contain an infinite number of evenly distributed stars , to produce an over all gravitational balance . Early in the 's , , a philosopher , postulated if the universe was infinite , with an infinite numbers of evenly distributed stars , then surely there would be a constant amount of light reaching from all directions , and so the night sky would be ! The fact it was n't as bright as day implied that if the universe was static ( which due to 's law of gravitation it was thought so ) , it must be finite , which contradicts that law . Again at the start of the , when was formulating his general theory of relativity , his equations lead to a universe that is expanding or collapsing . Einstein ignored this and attempted to solve this paradox with the introduction of the cosmological constant , this was an antigravity force that stopped the universe collapsing under gravity . The cosmological constant would later become known as 's biggest blunder . < heading > A New Truth</heading > It was also at this time , that larger telescopes were being made , ; took measurements of the spectra of large abundance of faint objects , which would later be found to be galaxies . Also it was observed that the spectra of all these objects were slightly red - shifted . In , made simple assumptions ; the universe looked the same in all directions , and it looked like this from any point . These assumptions are not strictly true , but the universe does look more or less the same in all directions . From these statements alone showed that universe should not be static , and even predicted what found . In , an astronomer , opened our eyes and showed us our galaxy was not alone . It was in after this that took many measurements of these galaxies , measuring the shift in the spectra of galaxies , which is known as ; For objects that emit waves , in this case light from stars , when the object is in a frame of movement it receives light at a higher or lower frequency , depending on which way it moves ( See Figure ) . < figure/>Using the spectra - shift data of these galaxies , calculated their speeds and found that most galaxies were receding from us . Hubble plotted the recessional speed of these galaxies against the distance from us , he found a direct linear relationship , which we now know as Hubble 's Law , expressed by ;   FORMULA   where H 0 is the constant , v is the recessional speed of a galaxy , and r is the - galaxy distance . This may seem to suggest that the is at the centre of the universe , but 's assumptions suggest that all galaxies are moving apart , there is no real evidence for this , and it is more on the grounds of human modesty . Hubble concluded if all galaxies are moving apart the universe must be expanding . It was also proposed that if the universe was expanding , then it must have been smaller at the previous point , which presented the notion of the Big Bang theory . In this Big Bang model , there must have been a massive emission of energy as the universe expanded and surely some of this energy must still be present . In physicists working at , accidentally came upon a relic from the universe 's early beginnings . They found a microwave noise in their instruments that was constant in all directions , day and night , and at different times of , this meant that the radiation was constant at different positions in the solar system , from this they concluded that the noise must be coming outside our galaxy . Their conclusion seemed to be correct , the temperature of this radiation accurately corresponded with the one predicted by the Big Bang model with the current rate of expansion . This was a temperature of , but if this radiation had a constant temperature it would present problems for the clustering of matter , there should be small fluctuations in this radiation . This radiation was named cosmic microwave background radiation , . A satellite was launched in the to collect data on the , and analysis of this data in showed there were small variations in its temperature . These variations correspond to the clustering of matter in the universe . < heading > Summary</heading > After a series of paradoxical arguments , since the beginnings of modern science , the Expanding Universe Theory does seem to be well supported by the evidence produced since the 's . Most important of this evidence is 's law , and the correspondence of , in the Big Bang model . Although it is important to note that we are trying to predict ideas based on massive extrapolations ; we can only base our understanding on the part of the universe that is visible to us , and we only have a very small time scale to judge on i.e. we have only been observing the stars for around four millennia , the universe is estimated to have been around for !","< abstract > Throughout history , methodologies occur repeatedly in the pursuit for scientific knowledge , these are Rationalism and Empiricism . But what do these philosophies involve and which philosophers supported them . This essay aims to identify the key features of these philosophies , their problems and the contributions of the titled philosophers to these ideas . < /abstract><heading > Rationalism and Empiricism</heading > Rationalism is a philosophical view that was originally developed by , and is often known as rationalism , as its creator was . Rationalism states that all knowledge , including scientific , can be obtained using reasoning and deductive logic , after the initial establishment of a self - evident truth . Such a self - evident truth may be a mathematical axiom , for example ; when parallel straight lines are crossed by a , then the opposite interior angles are equal . From this and similar foundations everything we observe around us could be logically deduced . < fnote > Cushing , p.7 < /fnote > In contrast to this view , was Empiricism , or Empiricism as it became know due to of its large contributors and , both of whom were . Empiricism states that all knowledge can only come from experiment and sensory experience . It is considered the basis of modern science , but is not without flaw . Alongside the doctrine of Empiricism , is induction . Induction is a process of reasoning , from specifics , such as particular facts to generalised rules . Here is such an example taken from Cushing ; ' from the fact that all men in past ages who have ever existed have died , we might induce the general proposition that all men including those still alive and even those yet to be born , are mortal . '   < fnote > Cushing , p.9 < /fnote><heading > Rene Descartes</heading > Descartes established rationalism in the 's . To extract knowledge using this philosophy would begin by taking apart everything he could hold as untrue , such as things that he observed ; he used the example of dreaming , he said that your mind sees things in dreaming that are often quite untrue , and this implied we can not trust our senses . then attempts to establish a self - evident truth , and from this he uses a method of logic deduction to advance his knowledge . In his works ' published rules for which he believed man could obtain certain knowledge . Below is an example of his work ; < quote > "" Rule II   Only those objects should engage our attention , to the sure and indubitable knowledge of which our mental powers seem to be adequate . Science in its entirety is true and evident cognition ... Thus in accordance with the above maxim we reject all such merely probable knowledge and make it a rule to trust only what is completely known and incapable of being doubted . ... Consequently if we reckon correctly , of the sciences already discovered , Arithmetic and geometry alone are left , to which the observance of this rule reduces us . ...   In the subjects we propose to investigate , our inquiries should be directed , not to what others have thought , nor to what we ourselves conjecture , but to what we can clearly and perspicuously behold and with certainty deduce ; for knowledge is not won in any other way . "" < /quote><fnote > Cushing , p.12 < /fnote > From these rules , initially arrived at a single truth , this was that he could deny his own existence and yet he would still exist , and is the origin of his most famous quote ; ' cogito ergo sum ' . Also from these rules and the processes of logical reasoning attempt to prove the existence of God . < fnote > Wilkepedia , , p.2 < /fnote > There is a clear and inherent flaw in rationalism , its stems from self - evident truths . Rationalism begins by making an apparently obvious statement that is held true without question . The former example is ideal ; of parallel straight lines crossed by a , to make the interior angles equal . For everyday purposes this most certainly is true , but in when Einstein introduced his general theory of relativity , he found that geometry held true . This implied that human knowledge could not be discovered from logic and deductive reasoning alone , and to some degree all human knowledge is imperfect . Even Descartes in his later works , such as Discourses on the , conceded that deductive reasoning alone could n't provide man with all knowledge . < heading > Francis Bacon</heading > lived around era , he was and key to the development of empiricism , hence the term Empiricism . was able to study at trinity college , from ; he studied the works of , and believed that his method of deducing data from self - evident axioms had led to little scientific advancement . published a works titled ' which translates as ' new logical works ' . In these works published a number of that were rules for man 's role in science and how we could make the most of science , including the technique of induction . Below are a few of his key aphorisms ; < quote > ' Man being the servant and interpreter of Nature , can do and understand so much and so much of as he has observed in fact or in thought of the course of nature . Beyond this he neither knows anything nor can do anything . ' < /quote><fnote > , , Aphorism 1 < /fnote > In the above statement is saying that man is but an observer of nature and so can only make judgements on what he observes and can not presume beyond this . goes onto say ; < quote>'Those who have handled sciences have been either men of the experiment of men of dogmas . The men of the experiment are like the ant , they only collect and use ; the reasoners resemble spiders , who make cobwebs out of their own substance . But the bee takes a middle course it gathers its material from the flowers of the garden and of the field , but transforms and digests it by a power of its own . Not unlike this is the true business of the philosophy ; for it neither relies solely or chiefly on the powers of the mind , nor does it take the matter which it gathers from natural history and mechanical experiments and lay it up in the memory whole , as it finds it , but lays it up in the understanding alternated and digested . Therefore from a closer and purer league between these faculties , the experimental and the rational ( such as has never yet been made ) , much may be hoped . ' < /quote > In this aphorism attempts to explain his ideal scientific method , is analogous to the bee , which collects the natural material , manipulates it in its own manner , and then uses it for its own purposes . now identifies the induction process ; we must collect our experiences and observations together and analyse these , then act on the most evident facts . continued by saying that we must make small steps from fact to axiom to law , using the inductive reasoning method . However there was still a problem presented by this method of science , and became known as the problem of induction . The problem of induction occurs in moving from specific instances to general cases , and how and when can this be done . < heading > David Hume</heading > David Hume born in was a philosopher , economist , historian and essayist . He was a passionate empiricist who was well aware of the problem of induction . Hume puts forth his view on empiricism in his works ' An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding ' , here he discusses idea of causality , where he stated that no events could be connected , but there could be an association and also how sensory data must precede theory and hypothesis . Here is an extract of Hume 's work on causality ; < quote > ' All events seem entirely loose and separate . event follows another ; but we never can we observe any tie between them . They seem conjoined , but never connected . ' < /quote><fnote > Cushing , < /fnote > Hume continued by applying these ideas to the inductive scientific method ; < quote > ' Even after instance or experiment where we have observed a particular event to follow upon another , we are not entitled to form a general rule , or foretell what will happen in the like cases ; it being justly esteemed an unpardonable temerity to judge of the whole course of nature from single experiment , however accurate and certain . ' < /quote><fnote></fnote > After Hume had proposed the problem of the inductive method , he then postulated possible justifications , the was a matter of logical necessity ; the future must resemble the past , but then Hume pointed out the we can perceive an incoherent future , which is not connected to the past . Hume concluded that nothing requires the inductive method to be logical . Hume postulated that induction has worked successfully in the past and so should work again in the future . Hume concluded that this postulate was circular in nature and so is no true means of justification . < heading > Karl Popper < /heading > Karl Popper born in , was a philosopher educated in , and focused in the areas of science , sociology and politics . In the area of science , 's philosophy was that of critical rationalism , understanding that scientific progress came from human imagination , and the need to solve problems . Popper was not satisfied with the inductive method and realised the inherent problems mentioned above . In his book titled , Popper discusses the importance of a good scientific theory , being one that can risk being falsified , this is known as falsification . Below is an excerpt from < fnote > This was taken from Cushing , p.37 - 8 < /fnote><quote>""I therefore decided to do what have never done before : to give you a report on my own work in the philosophy of science , since the autumn of when I began to grapple with the problem , ' When should a theory rank as scientific ? ' "" < /quote > Popper then goes onto say that any truly scientific theory will make definite predictions that can be experimentally tested with the possibility of being falsified . If the null - results are observed , the theory has been falsified and is rejected . If the theory shows the correct results , it will be accepted until such a time that it conflicts with experimental evidence and is falsified . Popper used the example of ; < quote>'With 's theory the situation was strikingly different .   Take typical instance - Einstein 's prediction , just then confirmed by the findings of 's expedition .   's gravitational theory had led to the result that light must be attracted to heavy bodies ( such as the sun ) , precisely as material bodies were attracted . As a consequence it could be calculated that light from a star whose apparent position was close to the sun would reach the from such a direction that the star would seem to be slightly shifted away from the ; or in other words , that the stars close to the would look as if they had moved a little away from the , and from one another . '</quote><fnote > Making reference to the theories of , Freud and Adler < /fnote><fnote > Referring to 's trip to view a solar eclipse , and the curvature of space . < /fnote > Popper concluded with the following statement ; < quote>'One can sum up all this by saying that the criterion of the scientific status of a theory is its falsifiability , or refutability , or testability . ' < /quote><fnote > Cushing , p.38 < /fnote > And on , we seem to find this philosophy of science the most practical , in terms of scientific progress . < heading > Conclusion</heading > In conclusion we have seen the neither rationalism nor empiricism , can dominate as theories for scientific knowledge alone . Currently the most progressive philosophy in science seems to be that of a hypothetico - deductive method , which has the possibility of being falsifiable . However often because a model is found to be falsifiable does not mean it is refuted often it is modified to explain the new evidence . This process of modification raises the question ; Is what we observe in science , the truth or just a convenient mathematical model that represents reality ?",1
"Georg Simmel separates social form from social content in order to provide an explicit distinction that allows for the constructive study of sociology . The analysis of social form is built on 's premise that ' a collection of human beings does not become a society because each of them has an objectively determined or subjectively impelling life content ' ( Levine 1971 24 ) . The importance of the social form aims to provide a firm basis to the study of society and the discipline of sociology thus allowing objective and concrete analysis to be made . This separation attempts to allow one to formulise and structure social theory and society respectively and the complexities of social form in themselves are arguably to such an extent that this explicit separation is warranted . The ideal of sociation therefore is built on the basis of social form and how individual 's come together to form a society . However , problems in this division can be argued for . Social form and social content can be seen as inseparable and the standing and usefulness of social form can be jeopardised through manipulation . They can additionally be seen as too constraining on the individual and the discipline of sociology . The separation is useful as arguably it upholds the basis of sociology and allows for social science disciplines to argue their position as not purely subjective . Social forms thus instigate ' sociology to be a science that describes social phenomena and classifies them into homogeneous categories ' ( Moscovici 1993 237 ) . The externality and empirical character of social forms , allows the discipline to classify and formulise forms and establish social theory . Social forms can be seen as stable and concrete and allow for the sociologist 's deeper understanding of society because they can be assessed objectively . Moscovici for instance formulise social forms into anonymous and nominated action . This formulisation provides a firm basis for the discipline and is noted by , ' to move from 's pages to current work in the study of small groups , motivation , roles , status and human interaction is not as difficult ' ( 1959 ) . The use of social forms allows sociology to remain a discipline in its own right , the explicit division distinguishes it particularly with psychology , which argues focuses purely on social content . Simmel remarks upon this distinction as focussing the discipline on , society , and that ' there is a science , that is peculiar to society , because certain specific forms [ ... ] derive directly from the reciprocal actions of the individuals and groups and from social content ' ( cited in Moscovici 1993 237 ) The ability to do this sets sociology apart and instigates its presence within the field of the sciences , remarks on its ability as ' a science that describes the facts that are produced by society and not only , within the framework of society ' ( Moscovici 1993 238 ) . Forms thus justify sociology as having a clear and embedded purpose , and the discipline sharing features that attribute it to the field of science . < enote > Moscovici in ' Definition of Anonymous Action : little or insignificant acion , ' we collect them by a scrupulous obsination of physical and spiritual states ' to ' become an object of our attention or reflection , it must affect us personally , or impinge upon on of our preoccupations ' p.245 < /enote><enote > Moscovici in ' : ' an official existence and conform to a pattern ' , ' ranked in order of importance ' p.245 < /enote > The complexity of social forms in themselves is reason for their explicit separation from social content . Their complicated nature is important , as they are not limited as simply interaction between individuals , their intricacy and multi dimensional aspect strengthens 's theory of their importance and their basis as our understanding of society . They can not be argued as a simplistic explanation of society 's foundation . Their intricacy is noted by in that ' the total meaning of the world as a whole radiates from every single point ' ( ) . The art of conversation reflects their complex nature in their own right . Conversation in its own form , for example it is said to exhibit ' all the fortuitousness and exchangeability that characterise all means as compared to the fixed ends ' ( Wolff ) . The dynamism of forms is reflected in social forms ability to create other forms . argues ' if the elements of social structure are not independent of each other , then it must be possible , within limits , to determine from a number of them something about the rest ' ( in Wolff ) . In this instance , it can be seen that forms not only stem from one another but establish patterns within themselves , and are interdependent . remarks ' what does become actual does not find expression at random from the totality [ ... ] the action displays a pattern ' , thus the complexity form and this characteristic of patterning can be directed back to ones need to understand society through them and ability to objectively assess them ( Tenbruck 1959 73 ) . A final illustration exemplifies their complexity ' life attains a more highly differentiated and more self conscious expressions in those cases where it contradicts and even destroys artistic forms ' ( Simmel ) . Social forms can become both abstract and autonomous and this is illustrative in their complexity . instance is fashion , which is argued by as always standing ' as the watershed of the past and the future and thus [ ... ] gives us a strong sense of present - ness ' ( Frisby ) . The discipline of science and example of art provide interesting illustrations . Science is considered to have ' become a value in itself ' ( Frisby ) and art is understood by society as ' wholly separated from life ' ( Frisby ) . argues that the development of these forms has led to their autonomy ' in the sense that they are no longer inseparable from the objects which they formed and thereby made available to our purposes ' ( Wolff ) Social forms arguably gain their own character and create consequent ramifications ; remarks that the institution of law , stems from simple social forms although now is considered to have ' supreme values ' ( ) . The judicial system is characteristic of placing clear ramifications on society if it is not abided by . An extension of the autonomy and independent power of forms can been seen in their ability to constrain individuals , argues that the form of sociability requires ' the reduction of personal poignancy and autonomy ' ( Wolff ) in order to create a society or gathering . . The notion of society must be considered a powerful concept and the use of abstraction is indicative of how it can not be limited to personal social content . The structure of social form has the dual function of providing a clear understanding for the individual on what is the basis of society , and how society operates . For example , the power of forms is reflected in that they establish a framework where ' the individual sees[s ] himself confronted with rules of his own making which have outgrown him ' ( Elzhorn ) . argues that their structural character is important in that ' these forms [ ... ] encompass the flow of life and provide it with content and form [ and ] freedom ' ( cited in Elzhorn ) . The importance of both the concrete nature of forms and the complexity of social forms is summarised by in The Conflict of Modern Culture and Other Essays , in that they uphold ' frameworks for the creative life which , however soon transcends them ' ( Simmel ) . considers carefully the ability of forms to structure social space and argues that where is not specific enough on fulfilling a solution to this problem , 's social forms specifically structure social space through ' the exclusiveness or uniqueness of space , the boundaries of space , [ ... and for example ] distance and the movement of space ' ( Frisby 1992 104 ) . Social forms are accredited for ' bringing together of otherwise independent elements around a particular space , ( the religious communities focus around a church ) ' ( Frisby 1992 105 ) . An illustration of the structure provided by social forms is 's use of ' the picture frame is so far as framing has a similar significance for social groupings as for works or art ' ( Frisby 1992 104 ) . Social forms are thus very useful in the formulisation and ordering of society for sociologists , in for instance , forms of institutions , and moreover the structuring of society for the individual who operates within it . The problems of social content support how the complexity , structure and apparent distinct nature of social forms warrant their explicit separation . Simmel justifies the usefulness of the distinction arguing that the same cause may create a multiplicity of effects . For instance , ' political interests can be achieved through an alliance just as well as through conflict ' ( Moscovici 1993 248 ) . Therefore it is hard for one to differentiate the different forms in which our content may take , ' in accord with our purposes , we give those materials certain forms and only in these forms operate and use the elements of our lives ' ( Wolff ) . 's example additionally shows the subjectivity of contents which arguably renders them inadequate for social analysis . argues that the focus on social form is important because it breaches the difficulty of individualisation , forms ' make individuals what they are and cause them to seek contact with others and thus to arrange their conditions reciprocally ' ( Moscovici 1993 248 ) . This is a useful distinction because through understanding social forms regards their use of part of how individuals become a mass society . Simmel continues to extend this arguing that due to the individual nature of content they therefore have little meaning without interaction , as it is interaction in which this content is expressed and what forms a society . The context in which was studying is important to the distinction he establishes between social forms and social content . This separation is helpful in ones understanding of modern concepts , including our comprehension of the metropolis , the proliferation of communications and the notion of modernity . Social forms attempt to rectify the growth of a truly individualistic culture and help in the ones ' interpretation into a largely impersonal society ' ( Elzhorn ) . Simmel writing on the metropolis rationalises the objective nature of forms and the subjective nature of social content in that content becomes a ' retreat from excessive external stimuli [ which are social forms ] ' ( Frisby ) . Social forms in the metropolis not only have an objective and overwhelming nature but are vital in the ordering and understanding of this milieu . To order the complicated world of the metropolis one has to put aside the personal social content of each individual because ' the relationships and concerns of the typical metropolitan resident are so manifold and complex ' and thus they require to be organised through social forms ( Levine 1971 328 ) . The proliferation of communications is characteristic and recognised as a large part of modern society . It provides an interesting illustration of the usefulness of social forms as a theory , especially towards understanding modern society 's dynamism and cosmopolitanism , remarks that ' new and rapid modes of communication aided in the diffusion of ideas and made possible the emergence and sustenance of new forms of social life ' ( Elzhorn ) . To summarise therefore social forms are essential , especially in the metropolis , on ' how individuals actually experience modernity in everyday life ' ( Frisby ) . However , the distinction made by between social content and social form can be argued as severely problematic . It can be argued that social form and social content are inseparable . For instance , argues upon the difficulty to separate these areas noting that ' in every given social situation , content and societal form constitute a unified reality ' and agrees that ' form and content can not , in practice be separated ' ( Tenbruck 1959 72 and 1959 ) . extends on the problems of the explicit distinction noting , ' his distinction between immanent and objective form retains the dichotomy between individual and structure as the primary means of differentiating individual from institutional form ' [ ... this ] is what I have previously argued against ( Rawls ) . further deepens this arguments eluding to the impracticality of the explicit nature of the separation , noting ' a person is never merely a collective being just as he is never merely an individual being ' ( Levine 1971 261 ) . continues to argue against of the foundational premises of 's distinction , in that he questions whether the premise of such as separation can be empirically validated , noting it is validated ' if and only if the same content can actually be shown to exist in various and different forms and if the same forms can be found to contain different contents ' ( 1959 70 ) . The social content in the individual can not be seen as explicitly isolated from society 's social forms , it can agued that social forms are too influential over the individual and that ' he derives his own values and improvements from this collective ' ( Wolff ) . The affect on the individual by social forms must be noted , as they can be seen as too dominant and thus stifle ones individuality . Social forms can been seen as having the adverse affect , of not providing a solution to the individualisation of society , but as oppressing any individualism whatsoever . provides the example of the family as an ' extension of ones own personality ' ( Levine 1971 262 ) . The argument is importantly continued by in that he ascribes functions to social forms which exemplify the problem of their over dominance , ' on the one hand they function as entities with an individual character [ ... ] while on the other hand , [ ... ] they function as higher order complexes ' ( Levine 1971 265 ) . Whilst argues that social forms ' can not and are not meant to- account for interaction itself- they are operative in it , they account for its patterns ' , the dominance of social forms is arguable and their affect on individual 's , contents and resultant social form is debatable ( Tenbruck ) . Wolff additionally brings our attention to this problem remarking on the individual 's ' certain faith or feeling , which assures us that the intrinsic norms of fragments or the combination of superficial elements do possess a connection with the depth and wholeness of reality ' ( Wolff ) . Social forms can not only be seen as dominating the individual and their personality but can be further recognised as constraining their freedom of interaction . Thus if social content can not be expressed freely through social form , then the explicit study of social form is jeopardised . argues that ' by studying social form of interaction wishes to ascertain the extent to which the range of individual human conduct is restrained ' ( Tenbruck 1958 cited in Elzhorn ) . An interesting example of the constraints of social forms is the use of language , it is no mere accident of linguistic usage that even the most primitive sociability [ ... ] places so much emphasis on form and "" good form "" ' ( Wolff ) . The development of patterning , which allows for the hypothesising of social forms , can be argued as indicative of how social forms are constraining on ones freedom of interaction . Wolff remarks on the resulting affect noting that , ' stylised expression occurs among equals ' ( Wolff ) and notes within ' sociability ' ' all other objective forms are subjugated ' ( Rawls ) . Arguably social forms establish expectations and thus conformity upon the individual . notes that ' man is constituted by [ sociability 's ] specific character [ ... ] but only in a certain reservedness and stylization ' and that he is expected ' to function as part of the collective ' ( Wolff 1950 48 & 54 respectively ) . Thus their use is further jeopardised in that if one and society is to be understood through social forms such constraints should be lifted . The ideal of sociation seemingly is built upon positive interaction and reciprocity both for society and the individual , notes this premise , ' sociability , if one will , creates an ideal sociological world in which the pleasure of the individual is closely tied up with the pleasure of other ' and remarks on 's ' methodological presupposition ' ( Wolff and ) . However , the ideal of sociation and society can quickly be jeopardised in that the individual through their own agenda and social contents has the innate ability to manipulate social form to their own ends . argues this can additionally happen naturally , ' permutations of human experience yield deviant patterns : forms of individuality ' ( Wilson 1974 1520 ) . Hypothetically if this was to be extended across society the true basis of society would therefore not be known . Social form would simply become ' a deceptive lie when it is guided by non sociable purposes or is designed to disguise such purposes ' ( Wolff ) . Wolff ascribes such action as ' social games ' and notes that ' to the person who really enjoys it , its attraction rather lies in the dynamism and hazards of the sociologically significant forms of activity themselves ' ( Wolff 1950 50)Rawls continues to argue that this ideal is restrictive , ' sociablity is a very limited category for and sociable relations are clearly distinguished from all sorts of relations ' ( Rawls ) . The fragility therefore of the true nature of social forms brings one to question their usefulness in our understanding of society . A classic criticism of 's social forms is that they are too restrictive upon the discipline itself . remarks that other scholars have commented that the ' program is deemed classificatory , formulistic and altogether too narrow to accommodate sociology ' ( Tenbruck 1959 61 ) . adds another perspective to this argument against forms attacking their stability and autonomy , the social becomes less organized , as moves to a level of rationalized [ ... ] forms ' ( Rawls ) . continues to remark that such criticism returns to the foundational argument of the discipline , ' the issue over sociology as a "" general "" , as opposed to a "" special "" social science ' ( 1959 62/3 ) . Simmel clearly establishes his stance on this issues noting that he rejects ' sociology as a general science ' , yet this foundational argument still remains a case in point and results in posing the question of whether sociology should as that sociology should only be a discipline that ' deals with phenomena only in so far as they are truly collective phenomena ' ( Tenbruck 68 & 69respectively ) . provides an interesting argument against the explicit separation of social form and content in a modern context . argues that there is now an overriding tension between the individual and the collective remarking that modern culture is thus moving in separate directions , ' towards a levelling of individuals and values and the production of even more comprehensive social circles and , on the other , the development of the most individual aspects of human subject ' ( 1992 76 ) . Once again this returns to the dominance of social forms and is exemplified in the blasé attitude reflected in metropolitan life , in that the ' individual mind can enrich the forms and contents of its own development only by distancing itself still further from the [ objective ] culture ' ( cited in ) . A distinction must be recognised , our understanding of social forms attributes them into a fluid definition based upon the interactions between individuals , however , patterning and the apparent growing autonomy of social forms results in an tension between fluidity and rigidity within their definition . Sherman remarks that notes this duality , ' life can express itself and realize its freedom only through forms , yet forms must also necessarily suffocate life and obstruct freedom ' ( Simmel cited in Sherman ) This argument links to the inability of a strong and complete definition of social forms and due to this difficulty they can be deemed useless in that they can be interpreted in a multiplicity of ways spanning from interaction between individuals to the notion of the . Whilst the classic criticism of social forms is that they are too narrowing for the discipline it must be noted that they seemingly cover and indefinite areas and that there is little restriction , in terms of the external and empirically understandable world , of what they can encompass . < enote > The attitude : Individuals in the metropolis become immune to all the external stimuli and social forms around them to allow the creation of space for their own thoughts and personality to develop within themselves . < /enote > In conclusion , whilst key criticisms and observations about the failings of social forms are valid and important in ones consideration of their use , the explicit separation provided by is useful as a social theory . Social forms provide a comprehensive way to understand the basis of society and are complex enough to not be disregarded out of turn . Whilst all social theory has its restrictions social forms fulfil essential functions , they are detailed enough to understand the complexities of society and bring individuals together into a collective , whilst they additionally strengthen the purpose and basis of the discipline of sociology .","Associations are greatly important in theory because their existence is argued as a fundamental characteristic in distinguishing a democratic state identifies association as the paramount feature which establishes democracies as an advanced state , in comparison to aristocracies and their existence is considered as upholding the functions of this type of society . Associations act to maintain democracy once it had emerged , especially resolving the initial problem of isolationism , which considers inherent in the transition to democracy . Moreover , associations play an essential role in encouraging and nurturing political participation in society through the collective activity , whilst maintaining the identity and importance of the individual . Their presence is identified by as greatly important through as they maintain the importance of public opinion in shaping the direction of government and act in areas of life that are considered beyond the requisite of government . At the foremost associations are important in theory in establishing the advanced position of a democratic state in contrast to aristocratic societies . Associations are used to illustrate how the rigid hierarchical system of an aristocratic system results in structural and repressive development of ones identity and likewise hinder the development of other positive social results . For example , notes ' in the earlier situation the individual was wholly absorbed by and remained orientated toward the group ' ( Simmel 1964 151 ) . The multiplicity of associations available to the individual in a democratic society thus allows flexibility in the development of a person 's identity . Associations provide the opportunity of it being shaped in many different directions . recognises associations as important because they uphold the importance of the individual whilst maintaining a sense of society through their collective activities . notes how associations readily uphold the importance of the individual , noting that ' the mere fact of multiple group affiliations enabled a person to achieve for himself an individualised situation in which the groups had to be orientated towards the individual ' ( Simmel 1964 151 ) . Thus associations are in stark contrast to hierarchical systems which arguably repress the individual and firmly place them within a social group or class . Moreover , identifies additional positive affects , such as equality , created by associations , ' there in fact exists a necessary relation between associations and equality ' ( Heckter and Horne 2003 321 ) . More so the electoral system can be seen as a prime example of where a collective sense of society through association is created , and Horne note it ' brings together in a permanent manner a multitude of citizens who would have always remained strangers to one another ' ( Heckter and Horne 2003 ) . 's identification of the positive results of associations for both the individual and society thus reasserts the archaic position of aristocracy . Individualism is identified as a key characteristic of a democratic state and establishes associations as maintaining this key feature . However , the importance of associations is extended through their role in stopping the rational development of democratic societies , in an extreme form , emerging as an alienated and thus dysfunctional society . Associations are noted as encompassing the vital role of maintaining a sense of society and collective activity whilst not stifling the development of the individual . The development of isolationist societies is rationalised as stemming from equality , whereby inherent self interest consequently leads to individual alienation and then barbarism ( Simmel ) . notes the effect of extreme individualism commenting that , ' isolation robbed man of that contact with others , that mutual co - operation , that feeling of involvement and personal responsibility ' ( Lively ) . However , argues that this initial isolation found to be characteristic of a democratic society is removed through a natural emergence of association , as people identify their self interest as similar to one another and therefore start to act together as it is recognised as being collectively beneficial . notes ' private interest is never contrary to the general interest ' ( ) . Thus 's rationalisation for the apparent natural emergence of association , in the pursuit of self interest , has the affirmative affect of creating a sense of society and a provision for both collective and self interests . notes that ' the free institutions which the inhabitants of possess [ ... ] remind every citizen , and in a thousand ways , that he lives in society ' ( and Phillips 1945 105 ) . The natural emergence of association is reaffirmed by who notes , ' the individual citizen can accomplish something , particularly in the public sphere , only to the extent that he joins with others and acts collectively ' ( Poggi 41 ) . Associations therefore have the twofold affect of stopping the extremity of alienation within a democratic society and maintaining the sense of the individual and the society in which it functions . Associations not only stop the development of alienation but additionally emerge as a replacement for previous powerful aristocratic individuals . Their importance is noted in that ' if individuals can not create some artificial substitute for them , I see no barrier against any sort of tyranny ' ( Mayer 1962 cited in ) . Moreover , they stop the extension of equality leading to tyranny , as notes , ' it is clear that if each citizen , [ ... ] does not learn the art of working with those like him to defend [ society ] , tyranny will necessarily grow with equality ' . ( Heckter and Horne 2003 319 ) . Associations therefore seem fundamental in breaking a process whereby democracy falls between the existence of an aristocracy and a tyranny . and Horne , note how associations both act as a replacement for functions provided by aristocrats and stop equality leading to tyranny , noting that ' just as the aristocracy had incidentally protected general liberty in the defence of their own ' liberties ' , so the new association could prevent the extension of state power in expressing or defending its own viewpoint or interest ' ( Heckter and Horne 2003 ) . Thus associations have come not only to be characteristic of democratic society but to epitomise it and form the distinctive characteristic that distinguishes them from both aristocratic and despotic forms of society and stops any movement towards these forms . Associations actively continue to uphold the democratic state , because they are instrumental in facilitating collective action on behalf of the common concern of its individual members . describes this process as the ' science of associations ' . For example , notes ' many citizens possess the moral qualities and technical skills required to organise voluntary groupings , which pursue in an orderly fashion the various interests shared by particular sections of the citizenry ' ( Poggi ) . Associations therefore hold an especially important political role as they act as a fundamental way of pressurising government and limiting it . They act as a device where ' every kind of opinion and grievance [ can find ] expression in voluntary bodies , which sought to achieve their ends by persuading a sufficient volume of support to put pressure on the government or the public conscience ' ( Lively ) . continues to argue that associations not only facilitate a collective and united voice on certain political issues but , particularly in a federalist system , emerge de facto as political bodies . notes in ' a democracy , [ ... ] it centralizes governmental affairs and entrusts administrative affairs to locally constituted public bodies ' ( Poggi ) . establishes that governments inherently attempt to expand and thus ' the formation of permanent groupings that encompass large numbers of like - minded individuals ' ( Poggi 47 ) leads to associations becoming ' de facto agencies for the conduct of public affairs and thus limit the expansion of governmental activity ' ( Poggi ) . Associations therefore act as not only a device where political opinion is expressed but as a viable alternative for some social functions , that would otherwise be undertaken by government , And thus lead to the threatening of a democratic state . Thus through the political function of association they have the dual affect of strengthening a link with government as well as maintaining the independence of the individual . The distinction made by between civil and political associations establishes this dual function . Hall summarises this twofold distinction noting that ' civil associations have to do with the private economic interests of the individual , with commerce and industry ' whilst political associations have to do with a ' certain number of individuals who have undertaken to "" cooperate in a stated way in order to make these doctrines prevail "" ' ( cited in Hall 1995 143 ) . The individual therefore is maintained through their ability to participate in both types of association . The distinction is vital as civil associations are noted for particularly maintaining the autonomy of the individual and their independence from government . For example the existence of ' autonomous local public bodies provide one of the means whereby citizens [ ... ] achieve common purposes ' ( Hall 1995 143 ) . Their importance however is closely linked to the existence of political associations , as Manent comments ' individuals are more inclined ' to join political association , which appear to them to be without danger because they risk no money in them ' ( Manent 1996 116 ) and their separation from civil association results in them being ' considered as large free schools where all the members of the community go the learn the general theory of association ' ( Manent 1996 116 ) . Hence civil associations facilitate and support political associations and visa - versa ( and Horne 2003 324 ) . The distinction between types of association and the distinctive affects they create is important as it upholds both of 's key features of democracy , the individual and the social grouping , allowing both independence and autonomy whilst allowing collective political participation . The political importance of associations can be extended further as they result in the spread of authority and stop government failure ; and their success upholds an argument for limited government . on the issue of government failure questions ' what political power could ever carry on the vast multitude of lesser undertakings which the citizens perform everyday with the principle of association ' ( and Phillips 1945 108 ) . 's support of a federalist system in Democracy in presents the importance of associations as additionally creating a key combination of political participation , a sense of society as well as spreading governmental authority . comments ' if the object be to have local affairs of a district conducted by the men who reside there , the same persons are always in contact and they are , in a manner forced to be acquainted and to adapt themselves to one another ' ( and Phillips 1945 103 ) . Political associations are thus particularly important as they once again refute any attempts of a few individuals to possess the majority of the authority , and maintain the sense of social unity and political participation through this political function . argues associations play an important role as a mark of civilisation , and function in nurturing skills and characteristics within individuals that contribute to society as a whole . The civil and political association distinction and the distinctive affects provides instance but moreover notes ' voluntary groupings offer the citizens a training ground in which to practice participation and acquire the skills of leadership ' ( Poggi ) . Simmel continues to remark on the importance of associations in reinforcing diversity within society noting that , ' the number of different social groups in which the individual participates , is of the earmarks of culture ' ( Simmel 138 ) . Associations are marked by as nurturing the social responsibility and citizenry in that the greater the participation of an individual in different associations the more ' likely [ they are ] to be aware of [ their ] citizenship ' ( Simmel 138 ) . The multiplicity of associations accessible to the individual is arguably a mark of civilisation because they can adapt easily and accommodate the demands of society . Associations is have a significance in creating culture and civilisation because they fulfil an inadequacy found in the government , to meet the diversity of the specific needs of different individuals ( Simmel ) . Thus the role of associations plays an important social and cultural role , and upholding ones awareness of their citizenry and adjoined responsibilities . In conclusion , associations are identified by as fundamental within society for numerous reasons . They allow abstract comparison with other types of states , notably tyrannical and aristocratic , and are essential in his analysis of the advanced position of democratic societies . Associations ' characteristics of individual choice , and the combination of collectivist and individuality they encompass results in them epitomising this democratic state . Associations are fundamental in maintaining political participation and political vitality in society through particularly maintaining the importance of the individual . They not only function on a political level but are vital in the upholding social and cultural diversity . Overall , associations are given such great importance by because of their adaptability , whereby they function as a moderator between the autonomy of the individual and the importance of collective groupings . regards associations with such importance because this feature facilitates and upholds the key features of collectivism and individuality which attributes as the most important features of a democracy .",1
"The nature of the mind and its relation to the body ( or matter in general ) is a subject which bares witness to much debate . Since the writings of early philosophers such as and it had been suggested that there are elements of the mind or soul which possess certain characteristics which are not shared with the extended world . This has led to much disagreement over the subject and given rise to many competing theories , each contending with its own problems . such popular theory is that of Substance Dualism . The fundamental claim of the Dualist is that the mind and matter are separate substances that are intimately related . This notion arises out of various claims about the different properties which can be attributed to each substance . For instance , it is commonly accepted that matter is extended . It occupies a place in space . Dualists claim that as the mind is not extended , there is no place in space in which the mind can be located , it must be a different substance to that of matter . Dualists also point out differences in the epistemological nature of the mind compared to those of the material , as well as differentiating between the qualitative aspects of the mind and matter . Dualism has encountered various problems and criticisms in its development , which has led to many competing versions . This essay shall focus on particular version ; , which is considered by many to be the most influential form of substance dualism . ( ) dualism is most clearly argued for in his ' Meditations on . Within the text he argues from several different initial premises in order to clearly illustrate his position . He distinguishes between what he holds as different substances , the extended material world is made up of substance , extended matter , and the mind is made up of a different substance , thought . Descartes goes on to argue that each of these substances mutually exclude one another . There is no object which can hold extension as an attribute whilst also holding thought as an attribute , therefore minds are necessarily distinct from bodies and other material objects . He begins his argument for dualism using what is commonly coined his ' method of doubt ' , in which he calls into question the existence of everything which he has previously taken for granted . The result of this doubt leads him to dismiss the existence of his body and the external world using the idea of an evil deceiver . It appears to that there is only one thing which he can attribute necessary existence to ; < quote > "" At last I have discovered it - thought ; this alone is inseparable from me . I am , I exist - that is certain . "" [ 1]</quote > Descartes maintains that it is impossible to call into doubt the existence of his thought , and it must therefore exist necessarily . The existence of the body , and extended matter in general can however be called into doubt . His conclusion is that , as it is logically possible for his mind to exist independently of the body , it follows that it is possible for the body to exist independently of the mind . Therefore the mind and the body are entirely distinct . This argument from doubt has been the subject of strong criticism . Most notably from a contemporary of ; . Arnauld pointed out that reasoning is invalid . He uses the example of a particular man 's understanding of a triangle , and illustrates that just because this man is able to call into doubt a particular property that this triangle may hold , does not entail that this property is non essential . The conclusion drawn from this example is clearly drawn out by ; < quote > "" I may be able to doubt that I have a body , I may think I can imagine myself still existing without a body , but I can not validly infer from this that having a body is no part of my essential nature . "" [ 2]</quote > This points to an important distinction between logical possibilities and empirical possibilities . Although has identified a logical possibility , the conclusion he has drawn does not represent , as he has shown it , an empirical necessity . Descartes responds to this criticism by denying a similarity in the example , but accepting the point intended . The distinction between the attributes of mind and body is further highlighted by investigating the ' oneness ' of the mind as compared to the divisibility of the body . This also is an argument directly forwarded by ; < quote > "" ... there is a great difference between the mind and the body inasmuch as the body is by its very nature always divisible , while the mind is utterly indivisible . "" [ > Once again this argument is aimed at demonstrating the different properties which mind and body possess in order to enforce the dualist stance . Many contemporary philosophers have dismissed this argument on the grounds that it no longer stands true in the light of modern psychology . It is commonly accepted that the mind is made up of a variety of faculties ; the understanding , the will , the sensory faculties etc . However , denies that just because it is possible to identify different functions of the mind , it is also possible to divide the mind into parts ; < quote > "" ... these can not be termed parts of the mind , since it is one and the same mind that wills , and understands and has sensory perceptions . "" [ 4]</quote > Here Descartes seems to be implying that , although the mind is capable of different functions , it is always the same indivisible mind which performs and is the conscious subject of these activities . Although the concept of a simple , unified and singular ' I ' has a certain intuitive appeal , many scholars have taken issue with it . Possibly the most devastating comes from the studying of empirical psychological phenomena . Experiments using brain bisection operations have shown some interesting results which seem to contradict the dualists claim that the mind is not divisible ; < quote > "" Under certain laboratory conditions , ' centers of consciousness ' seem to appear in patients who have had this operation""[5 ] < /quote > The results of procedures such as this have led philosophers such as Nagal ( ) to conclude that the concept of a unified consciousness is misleading , it is more probable that thought processes are in actual fact a result of "" complex interactions of several distinct subsystems "" [ ] . However , arguments from a physiological perspective have so far failed to prove that , although there seems to be some form of external empirically verifiable division in the consciousness , the patients awareness of oneself as unified has been damaged in any way . Even if we are to accept the notion of an indivisible mind , it still fails to account for the claim that mind and body are completely independent . If we are to argue from a monist perspective we could easily claim that , although consciousness is indivisible , it is still coherent to claim that it is an indivisible property of an extended material substance . The indivisibility argument thus fails to prove that the mind is a separate substance from that of the body . However successful the dualists attempts are at responding to the criticisms that monists throw at the model , there is argument against dualism which has received the majority of attention . If we are to accept that the mind and body are truly distinct substances , then a big issue arises when we attempt to address the problem of interaction . It is commonly accepted that the extended material world is causally closed . Every event which occurs is caused by and can cause some other event within this causally closed universe . The problem comes when trying to establish how the mind , as an immaterial substance , can causally interact with the extended world . It is clear in the execution of an action which began as a simple thought , it is possible for me to interact with this causally closed off world . This seems to directly contradict the entire thesis which the dualist is trying to present . In order to address this question the dualist either has to concede to the monist , or try to argue that the mind and body do n't in fact interact . In questioning what the strongest argument for substance dualism is , the only response can be to ask what the strongest criticism is . The problem of interaction has stifled all dualists , and never has there been a response which sufficiently addresses this issue . But despite this , it seems there remains a strong element of intuitive appeal . The initial analysis of the various attributes which mind and body possess does seem to lead to the conclusion that they are distinct substances and , despite the fact that Descartes rational approach to understanding the mind often brings about conclusions which are n't necessarily entailed by the premises , it is still possible that these conclusions are valid . By questioning the various properties of the mind as compared to those of the material world , has highlighted an important distinction . It follows that the strongest argument for substance dualism lies in our own intuitions about the way in which the mind differs from the body ; the very fact that we can question what the essence of the mind is and then compare it to the material world illustrates that there are some fundamental questions about our very nature which need to be addressed .","< heading > Exercise AEstimation of the gross energy content of foods using the bomb calorimeter</heading><heading > Abstract</heading > The bomb calorimeter is use to estimate the gross energy content of digestive biscuit . The estimated value for the gross energy content is than compared with the nutritional value given on the package of biscuit . < heading > Introduction</heading > The enthalpy change ( ) during a chemical reaction depends only upon the initial state of reactants and final state of product . ( Fig.1 ) < figure/ > FORMULA As the states of initial reactants and final products are the only important factor of a chemical reaction , the site of reaction does not affect the energy change of the reaction . Therefore , the enthalpy change for the enzymatic oxidation of glucose with human body is the same as when glucose oxidized in the air . The oxidation of glucose is exothermic ; the enthalpy of product is relatively low than that for the reactants . ( Fig.2 ) Heat is liberated in an exothermic reaction . < figure/>In a laboratory , the amounts of energy contained in food samples are determined with a bomb calorimeter   ( fig.3 . ) The whole apparatus is sunk in a water bath of known volume and temperature . The food is ignited electrically and burns explosively in the excess of oxygen supply . The heat liberated during combustion , which known as gross energy value , is represented by the temperature rise after completed combustion . The data can be used to calculate the energy liberated in joules , which then being converted to calories , the nutritional literature energy value . It is marked that the conditions for the experimental measurement of gross energy is differ to a small extent form those defined by physical chemist for the determination of enthalpy of combustion . < figure/><heading > Method</heading > Details of method using the adiabatic bomb calorimeter are listed in the schedule . < heading > Results</heading > The adiabatic bomb calorimeter is calibrated using benzoic acid , the standard gross energy of benzoic acid= 26.452KJ / g < heading > Benzoic acid standard</heading > FORMULA      which is then converted to Kcal per degree   FORMULA   < heading sample ( Digestive biscuit)</heading > FORMULA   Energy content of content of one Biscuit = Energy content of Biscuit * weight of Biscuit   FORMULA   < heading > Discussion</heading > According to the nutritional value table shown on the packet of digestive biscuit , the calorie given per biscuit is Kcal . This differ form the estimated value in experiment by ( 73.0)= 5.8 Kcal . The possibilities for the differences are : Although dessicator was presented in the container for keeping the biscuit , the biscuit have been exposed to open air during the preparation time , absorption of moisture may increase the estimate gross energy value due to the high heat capacity of water . Due to the fact that human body does n't not absorb nutrients as much as the actual amount present in the food , food company tend to give the estimate absorbable amount of nutrients on the package . < heading > Reference</heading > Mary . E.Barasi , Human nutrition , a health perspective ( ) , Teachmetuition ,   URL   ( 5/03/04 ) * Calorimetry , ,   URL ) * < heading > Exercise BAssessment of food intake , nutrient composition and energy balance . < /heading><heading > Abstract</heading > Assess of food intake and activity was taken over a period in this studies . Amount of nutrients uptake was estimated using databases , which was then compared with the energy expenditure . < heading > Introduction</heading > Most people maintain their body weight within very narrow limits . However , weight may change in case of an energy imbalance and it is likely to occur gradually and over long period of time . Energy uptake is regulated by a number of different factors , including physiological , psychological , social and environmental factors ; all of those interact in a complex way and thus it is difficult to control . Energy output refers to energy needed to maintain physiological and biochemical activities ( as basal metabolic rate ) and also the physical activities , which can be written as the equation as below . ( Fig.1 ) < figure/>However , it is not necessarily to maintain this equilibrium in a day - to - basis , human body has the ability to overcome this problem . Surplus energy are stored as fat in the adipose tissue , which can be broken down to provide when it is needed . The actual energy balance equation can be written as below . ( Fig.2 ) < figure/><heading > Results</heading><table/><table/><table/><table/><table/><table/><table/>The initial BMI of the person study was , which is in the category of underweight . During the study period , the total energy expenditure exceeds the total energy intake . Energy has been drawn form the fat in adipose tissue to target organ in which energy is needed . < heading > Discussion</heading > Due to the fact that the person study is under the underweight category , it is essential for her to maintain a balanced diet to avoid excess weight loss . Although the person study has gained during the period , it can be refer as negligible . Possibilities for this error are : inaccurate measurement of weight due to the weight of clothing . On the other hand , although human body has the ability to store energy as fat as an energy back up , it is still very important to maintain a balanced diet overall . Dietary excesses are contribute to obesity , heart disease , bowel disease , etc . in contrast , dietary deficiencies are contribute to starvation , marasmus , kwashiorkor , etc . it is very important to maintain a suitable uptake of vitamins and minerals in basis , as the human body has a uptake limit of vitamins and minerals . The excess intake of vitamins and mineral will just go though the alimentary canal and eject with faeces . and large amount of vitamin/ mineral intake will cause vitamin/ mineral toxicities . People suffer form very serious disease in the deficiency of vitamins and mineral , for example : scurvy ( deficiency of vitamin C ) , anemia ( deficiency of vitamin A ) .",0
"My essay intends to explore the friendship between and his friend ( pseudonymous for ) , during that the writer spent in . was a businessman that wanted to improve his , and was his teacher . In this way begun a lifetime relationship , based on mutual respect and sympathy , but broken by the premature death of in a car accident . On hand , this reciprocal friendship inspired , who described his friend as of the ' character ; on the other hand , thanks to , 's novels were successfully published in before than in . has been considered the writer who introduced Freud 's psychoanalysis theory in the Literature , and often his work has been studied under the eye of 's model . of all , my intention is defining the time and the place where this friendship was born , and , I consider in which way helped . < heading > The beginning of the friendship</heading > and met the time in the in . < fnote > Italo Svevo 's real name is . < /fnote > Svevo was a businessman , manager of an anti - corrosive paint for ships company owned by his wife 's family , with factories in , Murano , and . Since , used to travel to for business , but also for pleasure . It was his wife who suggested he 'd take private lessons by Professor , an teacher , well - known as "" Professor "" . In , an free port city at that time under the control , was not only a teacher , but also a journalist for the local newspaper ; there he wrote several of his novels for and main part of . < fnote>""Zois "" is the transliteration of the name in the dialect < /fnote > Between the men there were of difference , but the friendship that began was not only humanly , but also artistically related . , the only artistic contact that the writers received was each other 's company . Not only did give lessons to and an introduction to , but also a deep and unconditional encouragement to keep writing , highly appreciated by his old friend . and shared the idea that a writer need to be highly satisfied by his work , not thanks to the success or the audience . Nevertheless , both hardly fought to be appreciated by the public . "" What is surprising is that never realized that literary ' success ' is produced in literary circles ; that a writer had to go to or Florence to seek success by cultivating celebrated or influential men of letters . "" As matter of fact , was not a very courageous man , unable to leave his established life to follow his literary dreams . At the same time , his nature wanted to be always approved and encouraged by others , and this is why , after the ruinous critics on his novel , he decided to give up his literary aspirations . For , was a sort of alter - ego , somebody that had the courage of doing what he could not do . Their friendship was a sort of father - son relationship , where the father was played by . < fnote > Gatt - Rutter , < /fnote > Only after , let read his novels , vita ( A life ) and à(As a Man Grows Older ) , he was happily surprised about the prose , so much to say that some pages could not have been better written by the greatest novel masters . was so amazed that that day he could not leave , and so he accompanied him to his house , telling him about his bitter literary experience so far . < fnote > Livia Veneziani , < /fnote > In , in an article for della , wrote that did not recognize what an excellent novelist they had in . It was generous , but vain . ' There is no unanimity as perfect as the unanimity of silence ' , told after that , and found he could not disturb the silence . < fnote > Gatt - Rutter , 1988:231 < /fnote > They shared so many thoughts that each one took something from the other , not just in style characterization or irony , but also some of their book characters look like the friend . Moreover , in the close society , they always had to keep in mind their own position as a rich businessman and as an teacher . < heading > Italo Svevo and his literary works</heading > was the language for . His father wanted for him a business career , so he was fluent in , , and . In everyday life , he used to speak dialect . 's writing was devoted to the literary Florentine language , as taught . Living in a city as cosmopolitan as , it was an ongoing pity his ' scriver male ' in . This was something that affected his literary career all along , especially because it was almost always the criticism moved against him in reviews . But mostly , critics nowadays agree that it was a sort of ' polymorphic use ' of language , because was a man with a real passion for the language uses and a devote student . < fnote>'Bad writing ' < /fnote><fnote > Vanvolsem , < /fnote > His characters use to speak a language that in some way reproduce their own intimate dialect . He shared this love for languages with , who was always very curious about dialects and their expressions : he loved speaking , the language spoken in his household even after he moved away from . < fnote > Debenedetti , , in ' La coscienza di ' , < /fnote > Under the pseudonymous of , novels had been published , and every time at the author 's expenses . In , in published "" Una vita "" . The book was printed in copies , paid by the author . The title of the novel was ' Un inetto ' ( A useless man ) , but the Treves Publisher judged it too ugly , and refused to publish it , against the warm recommendation of Mr Dall'Oro , an editor . Subsequently , changed the novel 's name and offered it to the effective publisher . The book received quite good reviews , especially one in the della Sera , an leading newspaper . After that , an inexplicable silence surrounded the book , with 's great disconcert . In "" "" come out in episodes on the newspaper , and then was published by in copies , again at the author 's expenses . The newspaper also produced a review , that stressed on "" youthful naivety of language and style and found the title baffling and inappropriate , but appreciated 's observation of the inner working of mind . "" The novel receive a total of reviews , all negative but one , that just wanted to excuse him for writing in a too way . < fnote > Gatt - Rutter , ; review by < /fnote > After the flop of , accepted to work for the Veneziani Painting industry , owned by his wife 's family , and since that moment his life was a sort of compromise , except on paper . Writing became for Svevo a way of escaping reality , especially the one that other people had sewn on you . At the same time , it was impossible to stop writing down notes , comments and letters , where he could fix the world around him . Indeed , was a very curious observer of human being , with a great sense of wits , and more importantly , he started to have interest also in psychoanalysis , thanks to his skills . This innovative knowledge is highly reflected in his last novel : La coscienza di . < heading>'La coscienza di ' , and the Svevo 's affair</heading > Svevo wrote his novel in . For the time , could not find a Publisher , so he published the novel at his expense . , a publisher from , who opened a bookstore in and was interested in publishing authors , agreed with to published copies of the book . However , after having read it , he sent a contract for copies . Obviously , was deeply upset with such a criticism , but reckoned that the work was really good , and he offered to copyedit for some linguistic mistakes and small cuts needed for fluency . He also thought a way of publicizing the book , with a paid review on a newspaper . La coscienza di appeared at , priced , with a really bad marketing timing . Indeed , it was the wrong season , because critics could not have the time to read it before , with a negative effect on the public . The book had reviews in , but none of the critical opinion leaders read it . These reviews were not sufficient to make the book a success . In this mood , very close to desperation , asked to help him . After having left Trieste in , moved to , where he became a member of the most world famous literary circle , with acquaintances as Pound , Gide , , . Finally , he was recognized as a literary master , thanks to and the Portrait . The was published in , and critics unanimously agreed to consider the most original living writer . The contacts between the men had always been quite active . always remembered to send cards for major festivities , with a mix of , and language . < fnote > Carteggio , < /fnote > Svevo sent a letter with a copy of the book in the , discouraged by his last work deception . , sincerely impressed by the novel , reassured his friend : "" Perché si dispera ? Deve sapere ch'è di gran lunga il suo migliore libro . "" < fnote > Ellmann , : "" Why are you so discouraged ? You must know that it is by far your best book "" < /fnote > Now was able to break the silence about his friend . In the answer , he suggested a list of people of his entourage , to whom had to send the book mentioning 's name : , , , and . himself spoke with and , telling them that "" the only modern writer who interested me was "" . < fnote > Idem < /fnote > The st of , wrote to that read his novel and he liked it so much to plan writing a review for . also wrote to , an friend of his , for a review on the . But there were not any reviews . wrote again to , and he received it , he wrote again to , pressing for the review and the translation of for another journal . In , went to for business , but we do not now if he met there , because the writer had an eyes surgery operation . was so involved in other different projects to take care of it . The 10 th of , there was a review on a Trent newspaper , libertá , by , an intellectual associated with the literary journal   La Voce . He was slightly pleased by the novel , but his review did not change anything . there was another review on Il popolo di Trieste , against the prejudice , very strong in , that could not be considered an writer because he had not an writing style and because of the chosen subjects for his novels . To reply to that , Pasini wrote another article on libertá , , revealing that everyone in Trieste tried to dissuade him from reviewing 's novel . Without any news from , bitterly started to believe that did not exist at all , and made fun of him . in , absentmindedly opened a letter from and began reading it loudly when his voice failed . It was a letter in from , which called him ' Stimato Signore e ' , and about his propaganda of 's novel amongst the Princess literary circle . thought that the letter was a fake and checked the information on before believing it . Then , without any delay , he answered that he would send him a copy of his previous novels . < fnote > Carteggio , ' Esteemed Sir and Master ' < /fnote > After a month , on the th of , without any answers , wrote to him again . replied immediately , a bit less enthusiastically this time , but suggesting publishing also an extract from Senilitá . The writer let know that some of his friends compared his novels to Proust 's that only the title was wrong , but the material would surely appear on the journal in . However , could not wait until . He felt old and without time to waste ; so he tried to push for an early launch . On , the newspaper sera published an article about by , in which there was the statement that people did not know that amongst them was living a fine author . Without even thinking about it , was preparing the ground for the ' Svevo affair ' . < fnote > Gatt - Rutter , < /fnote > In , and his wife went to , to meet the artists in a dinner organized by . found himself in his youthful dream . His behaviour from now on would be that of a sixty - four - year - old - baby , unable to wait for the natural way of things : he felt too old to wait , and was afraid to not live enough to see success . Comnène persuaded him to sign a contract with literary agency for the translation and the publication abroard of his novel . Then , 's article was chosen to be published on . was a well - known critic , in as exile , however he often returned to , because of his collaboration with a cultural circle in , directed by , editor of Il convegno . joined of the meetings , telling an astonished group of intellectuals that , before leaving , during at the Pen club in honour of Pirandello , told him that had not realized yet that they had a great novelist among them . Obviously , nobody knew about , but after that , wanted to publish an article about him immediately . Among them , there was , the one who had found the books before everybody else , thanks to a friend . Beating on time also the , he wrote ' Homage to Italo Svevo ' , which was published in the issue of , followed by ' Introducing Italo Svevo ' on . Montale was quite amused by the modernity of 's world and writing , so close to contemporary men 's spirit and psychology . Writing these articles , he cleared the way for the understanding of in . From the 30 th of , newspapers reported how the discovery came thick and fast . published an issue about on the st of , written by , which called him the ' Italian Proust ' , and emphasized his isolation as writer in the literary tradition . was leading 's fame through the critical storm , still divided but at the same time afraid of looking ignorant in front of the enthusiasm . The rivalry only helped 's cause . With his sense of wit , called this new interest in his works as the "" miracle of "" . < fnote , forewords as the edition of , < /fnote > According to many critics , 's readership was raised only after his death , in and also aboard , but the success of esteem that he received in the , placed him in the literary consciousness . At the same time , was always mindful that this was the ' effect of the whim of a great man ' , that was . Now could consider himself as an ' almost famous ' novelist . But this was not enough for being published in . On , was again in , discussing with and about the new edition of all his novels . surly , he also met , who introduced him to the Publisher Adrienne Monnier , his new acquaintance . On the th he was in , where set an appointment at to see Mr Dall'Oro , who , after the episode in , hoped to publishing the new edition of . But once more , Treves refused the novel . After that , other publishing houses as , and also Cappelli refused to re - print , not trusting the readership 's interest . Only in , the small Publisher re - printed the novel in copies with an expenses contribution by . On , as a dream come true , was celebrated as writer , at the Pen club in , surrounded by his friends , , and others . On , died in a car accident . After 's death , his wife asked to write an introduction to the edition of . He refused , adducing that he never wrote on other work . In a letter to his brother Stanislaus , remarked that the relationship with was quite formal , that he had visited him only as a teacher , that had always snubbed his wife . < fnote > Ellmann , < /fnote><heading > Conclusion</heading > What is the truth about 's refusing ? Were and truly good friends ? Did help as a revenge on his behaviour during his poor Triestine years ? Or against 's snob wife ? It is really hard to say . Many critics are debating if it was a real friendship . It is true that their letters always show a certain formality , but also a deep respect , for the man and for the writer behind him . Without , had never had the opportunity of shining in the or even the literary scene . In of his last interviews , said : ' We travelled a long way together and is to my mind the novelist to introduce the technique of the interior monologue ... He was the novelist with whom the generation born at the dawn of can identify . ' < fnote > Ettore Settani , ' Ritratto di Italo Svevo ' , della Sera , 08/08/1949 < /fnote >","< abstract><heading > Abstract</heading > Previous research has been divided as to whether there are links between birth order and personality . Additionally , few studies have established causal connections . The correlation between birth order , personality and parental treatment was investigated in eldest siblings , youngest siblings and middle / only children . Each participant was asked to fill in a structured questionnaire . Participants were required to rate how extroverted they perceived themselves to be and to indicate the level of parental overprotection and emotional warmth shown to them by their parents . Generally the findings were inconsistent with the experimental hypothesis . A significant relationship between birth order and personality was not found . Neither is it true that birth order is strongly correlated to parental treatment . The claim that differing parental styles explains personality differences was not supported . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > Birth order refers to a person 's rank by age amongst his / her siblings and is a topic that has generated substantial research for . However , a definitive theory explaining its effects has yet to gain general acceptance . Regardless of this , many beliefs surrounding birth order have been produced . A popular assumption is that eldest siblings are typically responsible , conventional , authoritarian and achievement oriented while youngest siblings are thought of as more sociable , adventurous , dependent and peer - oriented ( , ) . Besides this , birth order has also been said to influence intellectual abilities , academic achievement ( Mojoribanks , ) , economic success ( , ) and even romantic relationships ( Schilling , ) . It is a topic that is frequently mentioned in parenting guides , and has resulted in the coining of terms such as "" middle child syndrome "" , which are commonly used in conversation . It therefore comes as no surprise that there have been many attempts to empirically verify the effects of birth order . Previous studies on the effects of birth order have produced conflicting conclusions . Some show that birth order is related to certain personality characteristics while others do not . An investigation by ( ; cited by , ) reported a higher level of extroversion amongst youngest siblings as compared to eldest siblings . Sociability - a major component of extroversion - was also found to be highest in last - born children ( Segal , ; cited by , ) . According to ( ) , youngest children are unlikely to be successful in a competitive situation against their siblings because of their younger age and relative weakness . As a result , youngest siblings develop alternative methods of getting their way , such as adopting a more adaptive and agreeable attitude which enhances their social skills . The lack of a competitive spirit also allows youngest siblings to be less anxious and reserved , thus promoting an extroverted personality . Conversely , Snow , and ( ) reported sociability to be highest in only children and lower in last - born children than - born children . Similarly , Sulloway ( ) showed extroversion to be more prevalent in eldest children than youngest children . Yet other researchers have found no significant effects for personality traits across birth order categories ( Guastello and Guastello , ) . The connection between birth order and familial relationships has also been explored with enthusiasm . This is because birth order may influence how parents treat their children , and this in turn tends to cause differences in personality and social behaviour ( , ) . After all , parental style has been strongly associated with a child 's characteristics ( , ) . An example of this is provided by and ( ) who suggest that birth order affects socialization because eldest children are socialized by adults while youngest children receive less attention from their parents and are socialized by their older siblings instead . Thus , firstborns are more achievement oriented due to increased adult influences while lastborns are more independent of authority because they are peer - socialized . Another argument is that eldest children are more controlling in later life because parents tend to view them as stronger and more capable and therefore allow them more control in relation to their younger siblings ( , ) . Although many reports propose that development is affected by socialisation differences due to birth order , only a handful of studies have investigated parental behaviour towards children of different ordinal positions ( Rothbart , ) . Some researchers such as ( ) , who explored the relationship between birth order and depressive symptoms in early adolescence , have utilised parenting style as a mediating factor but most others like ( ) have only looked at birth order and either personality or parenting in isolation . This study seeks to distinguish between the conflicting conclusions that have been drawn from preceding research . In addition , it goes beyond merely establishing a correlation between birth order and personality by exploring parental treatment as a causal link between these variables . The experimental hypothesis in this case is that birth order has an effect on personality because parents treat their children differently according to their ordinal position in the family . Unlike previous studies such as that of Sulloway ( ) , which investigated a combination of personality characteristics , this research concentrates solely on extroversion/ introversion . The degree of extroversion people display is assumed to be influenced by their upbringing . It is also assumed that the effect of parenting style on personality is stronger than other environmental factors that may render the results insignificant . Based on research by ( ) and ( ) , it is expected that youngest siblings will be more extroverted than eldest siblings . It is also predicted that eldest siblings will be more overprotected and perceive less emotional warmth from their parents . < heading > Method</heading><heading > Participants</heading>83 university students ( 40 men and women ) were recruited to participate in the study . The sampling method used was an opportunity sample of volunteers . participants were eldest siblings , were youngest siblings and participants were neither eldest nor youngest siblings . All participants were unaware of the hypothesis of the experiment in order to preserve the validity of the results . < heading > Materials</heading > A structured questionnaire comprising sections was used ( see Appendix A ) . These sections were : test ( et al , ) , the Big Five personality test ( , ) , and birth order assessment questions . test consisted of questions with scales ( ) to measure perceived parental rearing behaviour . Of the scales , only Emotional Warmth and Overprotection were used . The questions were based on a rating scale of and scores for mother and father were determined separately . The section of the questionnaire ( the Big Five personality test ) contained a list of human traits and required participants to indicate how accurately each trait described them , using a rating scale from . Participants were required to complete the entire Big Five personality test but only questions relating to contributed to the data analysis . The final section of the questionnaire required participants to indicate the number of siblings they have , as well as their respective ages so that birth order could be determined . < heading > Design</heading > A within subjects design was used in which all participants were given the same set of questions . The independent variable in this experiment was the birth order of each participant whereas the dependent variables were the scores obtained by each participant for the Big Five personality test and test . The conditions in this study were the questions related to extroversion/ introversion and parental treatment . There was a control group consisting of participants who were neither - born nor last - born in the family and therefore were expected to obtain non - extreme scores on both tests . < heading > Procedure</heading > Participants were administered the questionnaires individually under controlled conditions without the influence of other people . The researchers explained that the study was about personality traits and parent - child relationships ( but with no mention of the hypotheses ) , and told the participants that they would be required to complete a questionnaire . Participants were then reminded that they had the right to withdraw from the study at any time . Confidentiality was also assured . The study only commenced once participants had given their written consent ( see Appendix B ) . After the participants had completed the questionnaire , the purpose of the study was explained to them . Extroversion scores were then obtained by subtracting the ratings given by participants for introvert traits ( see Appendix C ) from their ratings given for extrovert traits ( see Appendix C ) on the Big Five personality test . This was done to establish how extroverted participants assessed themselves to be . The degree of perceived by participants in their parent - child relationships was determined by calculating the average rating given by each participant for the corresponding questions of the s - EMBU test ( see Appendix D ) . Finally , the information that was gathered was used to form correlations between birth order , parental treatment and extroversion/ introversion . < heading > Results</heading > Descriptive statistics for personality are given in . < table/>Table shows that the degree of extroversion according to birth order is not in the direction predicted . - born children seem to be more extroverted than last - born children and children who are neither nor last - born seem the least extroverted . This does not conform to the expected personality inclinations of all birth order categories . A - way analysis of variance ( ANOVA ) was performed to investigate birth order differences in extroversion / introversion . Preliminary assumption testing was conducted to check for normality , missing values , outliers and omogeneity of variance . There were outliers in the youngest child birth order group with extremely high and low z scores on extroversion ( see Appendix E ) . However , these outliers did not significantly affect the results of the ANOVA and so were retained during data analysis . No other serious violations were noted . A - way indicated no significant difference in extroversion / introversion due to birth order , .10 ; p>.05 . In other words , there was no significant relationship between birth order and an extroverted/ introverted personality . Descriptive statistics for parental treatment are given in . < table/>Table shows that perceived emotional warmth and overprotection is not entirely consistent with the hypothesis that parents are more overprotective of their child , and show more emotional warmth to their last child . As previous studies suggest , mothers tend to be more overprotective of their eldest rather than youngest child and are also more emotionally warm towards their last - born child . However , fathers seem to display directly contradicting behaviour . They are more overprotective of their youngest child , and more emotionally warm towards their eldest child . Interestingly , both parents seem to be most overprotective of their children who are neither eldest nor youngest in the family ( this includes ' only ' children ) . Prior to analysis , the raw data was screened to ensure adherence to test assumptions . A positive relationship between the cell standard deviations and means of the raw data was found and thus a square - root transformation was applied . With the transformed variable in the variable set , there was found to be no relation between cell means and standard deviations ( see Appendix F ) . All other assumptions were fulfilled . A - way revealed that mothers are not significantly more overprotective of any particular offspring , F(2,80)=1.38 , p>.05 . Neither do they show significantly more emotional warmth towards their youngest child , F(2,80)=0.74 , p>.05 . Likewise , fathers are not significantly more emotionally warm towards their eldest offspring , , p>.05 . However , birth order does appear to have a significant effect on how overprotective fathers are of their offspring , F(2,80)=3.85 , p < .. . For this particular experimental design , a multivariate analysis of variance ( ) produced results that were identical to those obtained when a - way was carried out separately on each measure of parental treatment ( overprotection - mother , overprotection - father , emotional warmth - mother , and emotional warmth - father ) . This is most likely to have occurred because only independent variable - birth order - was involved . The relationship between personality and fatherly emotional warmth is illustrated in Figure . < figure/>A Pearson 's correlation showed a weak positive but non - significant correlation between personality and motherly overprotection , r(81)=.02 , p>.05 ; a weak negative but non - significant correlation between personality and fatherly overprotection , r(81)=-.12 , p>.05 ; and a weak positive and non - significant correlation between personality and motherly emotional warmth , r(81)=.13 , p>.05 . The only significant correlation was between personality and fatherly emotional warmth , r(81)=.24 , p<.05 ( see Figure ) . In addition , the data were analysed by multiple regression , using as regressors , motherly overprotection , fatherly overprotection , motherly emotional warmth and fatherly emotional warmth . The regression was a very poor fit , , and the overall relationship was not significant , F(4,78)=1.70 , p>.05 . With other variables held constant , personality scores were positively related to motherly overprotection scores , t(78)-.57 , p>.05 ; negatively related to fatherly overprotection scores , t(78)=-1.09 , p>.05 ; and negatively related to motherly emotional warmth scores , t(78)=-.85 , p>.05 . The effect of fatherly emotional warmth was the only one to approach significance at p=.05 with a positive relationship with personality , t(78)=1.98 . p>.05 . < heading > Discussion</heading > Generally , the findings were inconsistent with the experimental hypothesis that birth order is a predictor of personality due to differences in parental treatment . The results showed that birth order does not significantly predict extroversion/ introversion . With the exception of fatherly overprotection , neither does it affect how parents treat their children . In addition , the data did not support the claim that overprotection causes introversion . In line with previous research , emotional warmth shown by fathers was found to encourage extroversion . However , motherly emotional warmth had no effect on personality . It was expected that youngest siblings would be more extroverted than eldest siblings . Nevertheless , the statistical data did not show such a relationship between birth order and personality . Instead , the results of this study are more in correspondence with et al 's ( ) research which found that birth order has no effect on social competence . reason that might account for this is that the measure of extroversion used in this study incorporates both sociability and assertiveness . The problem with this is that sociability is a trait usually associated with youngest siblings while eldest siblings are typically found to be assertive . Thus , both birth order categories would show a similar degree of overall extroversion and a null effect on personality ( Sulloway , ) . It might also be that just as the findings indicate , birth order has little to do with the extroversion/ introversion of an individual . Research suggests that at a young age , last - born children tend to be reserved because they are easily intimidated by their older siblings and are at a physical and intellectual disadvantage . However , it is possible for these birth order effects to diminish with age ( , ) . In time , the age - gap between siblings becomes less exaggerated , allowing youngest - siblings to gain self confidence and a sense of equality . Moreover , as individuals become more exposed to other environmental factors , the effect of birth order on personality is weakened . As all participants were university students , any birth order effects which might have been present in childhood may have been greatly minimised . In line with previous literature , mothers tend to be more overprotective of their - born child than their last - born child . This is because parental inexperience causes parents to be more anxious about their children ( , ) . Thus , new mothers are more fearful about their child 's safety and tend to be more overprotective of - borns . As more experience is gathered , mothers become more permissive . Also , by the time the youngest child is born , mothers have to divide their attention amongst more children and therefore are forced to be less anxious and overprotective in order to efficiently care for all their children . As expected , mothers are also more emotionally warm towards their youngest child . It is theorised that this is because parents are more strict and tough with the child but easy - going with the later and younger children ( Price , ) . As parents adopt a more relaxed stance , children find it easier to identify and relate to their parents and so perceive their parents to be more emotionally warm . In contrast , fathers are more overprotective of their youngest child . It is possible that mothers are more involved in the caretaking aspect of their children and therefore while mothers are too busy to continue being overprotective by the time the last - born child comes along , fathers continue to display overprotection . It might even be that the overprotective attitude is transferred from the eldest child to the youngest child . As the eldest child becomes capable of looking out for him / herself , fathers become strict with the youngest child instead . According to the empirical data , both parents are most overprotective of children who fall neither in the eldest child nor youngest child categories . At this seems puzzling as most people expect the middle child to be the least overprotected , but it is necessary to note that in this study , middle children and only children were put in the same category . Considering that there are more only children than middle children in the ' other ' birth order category , it makes perfect sense that the ' other ' children are the most overprotected . When there is only one child in the family , it is only natural that parents will invest more in him / her and also be more anxious about their child 's wellbeing . Also , ( ) claimed that the only child experiences all the effects of being a - born but to a greater degree . If more only child participants had been obtained , it would have been beneficial to split the ' other ' group into categories : only children and middle children . The reason for this is that there are obvious differences between only children and middle children which may affect results significantly . This is most likely to be why the participants in the other birth order category did not obtain non - extreme scores as was initially expected . Hence the other birth order category is not very valid as a control group . A multiple regression revealed a very weak overall relationship between personality and parental treatments . This may be taken to reflect the true correlation between these variables in the real world . Alternatively , the results of the multiple regression may be attributed to experimental noise . As mentioned above , there are several reasons this study may lack sensitivity and thus a stronger relationship may have been discovered if better experimental conditions were in place . A negative relationship between fatherly overprotection and extroversion was found . The more overprotective fathers are , the more introverted their children turn out to be . It is theorised that the parental inexperience and anxiety associated with overprotective parents instils greater anxiety in children ( , ) . Thus , children with overprotective fathers have a tendency towards being anxious , reserved and subsequently introverted . Children who are overprotected also lack the opportunities to learn social skills which may result in a more sociable and extroverted personality . Putallaz ( ; cited by , ) reveals that children with authoritarian parents have poorer peer relations . The reverse is true for motherly overprotection . In other words , the more overprotective mothers are , the more extroverted their children tend to be . It could be that children are able to rebel more successfully against their mothers and so the more authoritarian mothers are , the more inclined their children are to rebel . However , this relationship was found to be very weak and can probably be disregarded altogether . The potential weaknesses of this study are the small sample size as well as restricted sample population . The results obtained in this study may not have been a valid representation of the population as a whole . Generalisations based on overly small samples often lack strong validity . The simplistic design of this study may also have affected validity . Due to minimal resources and restricted availability of research methods , the only measure of personal characteristics and parental treatment used was a basic questionnaire . In addition , some shortcomings of the Big Five personality test were detected in the course of data collection . Many participants were unclear on the meanings of the words used in the personality test and had to ask the experimenters for definitions . This occurred fairly frequently and suggests that the questionnaire may have been an inaccurate measure of extroversion in this study . Participants may have become frustrated as they struggled to understand the words included and therefore may not have been very careful when giving responses . A superior design of this study may be drawn up using a more in - depth and suitable questionnaire consisting of more dimensions of assessing the investigated characteristics . Alternative methods of research that do not involve self evaluation could be used . A few examples are observational methods , interviews involving participants ' family or friends and also task based experiments . Ultimately , it seems that generalisations about birth order effects can not be made . Personal characteristics seem to be mainly determined by individual differences and other factors rather than birth order . There exists some relationship between birth order and parental treatment but is insufficient to explain birth order effects . Therefore , even if birth order was found to influence personality , it may be inferred that parenting style is not the only mediating factor affecting extroversion . Further , better designed research is needed to establish other causal factors . The weak relationship between personality and parental treatment also reveals that factors other than primary socialisation are involved in determining an individual 's personality . In conclusion , birth order is not a predictor of personality and its effects can not be explained solely by parental treatment .",0
"< heading > Introduction < /heading > In this essay I will concentrate primarily on the area of learning disability and look into the provision of , access to and experience of health care for this particular group of people . I will refer to the notion of equity being achieved for this group by services in . Equity is ' the state , quality , or ideal of being just , impartial , and fair ' ( , ) I will focus on areas : the experience of learning disability , the history of health services for people with a learning disability and inequalities in health services for people with a learning disability and developments made . People with learning disabilities need good access to NHS services , and may also require extra support , as summed up by ( , ) ; ' People with learning disabilities need to have equal access to primary care , community and hospital services and in addition will need support to use these services . They will also require very specialised services to meet some of their mental and physical needs . ' < heading > Experience of learning disability</heading > People with a learning disability often look or act in a different way to other people . This can lead to them having some kind of social stigma . ( , p.31 ) describes how , in a social situation ' with an individual known or perceived to have a stigma , we are likely to employ categorizations that do not fit , and we and he are likely to experience uneasiness . ' For the majority or doctors and other health care professionals , working with a person with a learning disability should not be an issue if they have an understanding of learning disabilities and the extra needs this group may have . However , a proportion of them may not know how to act in some cases . This may be problematic in the instance of delivering a good and equitable service to this group . People with a learning disability are known to have much greater health needs than the general population . This is due to the likelihood of them having or developing general health problems , sensory impairments , mental health problems , epilepsy , cerebral palsy and other physical disabilities . ( Lindsey , ) . Baggott ( ) talks about people with learning disabilities being one of the groups that uses the health services most heavily . Other groups mentioned are the elderly , children , people with a mental illness or disability , and people with a physical disability . These groups require a wide range of social care and support , and extra practical assistance and advice in health care provision . They may have more complex health needs and many may be vulnerable or dependant . The author goes on to say that it has been long recognised that these groups require special attention but there have also been long standing problems in developing an adequate network of services . ( See following section on history of health services for people with a learning disability ) Health and the experience of health should take into account more than just physical and mental well - being . ( cited in and Pickering . p. ) states that ' health and disease can not be defined merely in terms of anatomical , physiological or mental attributes . Their real measure is in the ability to function in a manner acceptable to himself and the group of which he is part . ' This is an important point , and relates to people with a learning disability who may have degrees of social difficulties . This social stigma which is apparent in society today , can lead to have an impact on the well - being of a person with a learning disability . It is often noted that it is not the persons condition which disables them , but society itself which inhibits a persons choices , abilities or physical access . ( Oliver , ; , ) . However , some authors argue against this saying ' there is a tendency within the social model of disability to deny the experience of our own bodies , insisting that our physical differences and restrictions are entirely socially created . While environmental barriers and social attitudes are a crucial part of our experience of disability ... to suggest that this is all there is to it is to deny the personal experience of physical and intellectual restrictions ... ' ( , cited in , . p.38 ) The social model mentioned maintains that the state of health is socially constructed and ill health is brought about by social factors . The author above is arguing that this model puts all responsibility on society , which in fact , is not the case . Experiences of healthcare for people with a learning disability can often be quite negative or confusing . For example , in the case of primary health care , dental practices or GP surgeries may have unhelpful waiting times which can cause problems for people with a learning disability who may be unable to understand the system in place . Following on from this , a GP may find this group difficult to work with due to service users who have little or no communication or limited knowledge about health issues . This can be a problem for both the service user and the GP if the latter has no skilled support . A particular issue in this area is that of informed consent . If the patient does not understand the details of a necessary procedure , they will be unable to give their informed consent which can lead to many problems . ( , ) Another issue that can increase inequalities between groups is the issue of health promotion . For people with a learning disability , access to health - enhancing behaviours such as fitness activities and healthy eating awareness , may be limited by money issues or availability , or poor access to services . ( , ) also states that ' the current emphasis on health promotion may not be filtering through to the services delivered to people with learning disabilities . ' ( Cited in , ) An example of an experience of health care for people with a learning disability is described in a recent article entitled '' Getting on ' with cancer ' . ( Tuffrey - Wijne and , ) They state that in people with a learning disability die of cancer ( et al , ; et . Cited in Tuffrey - Wijne and , ) and information about cancer should be given in a format they can understand . Patients who have a learning disability often find it difficult to access mainstream information materials , and they are often not given enough information about their condition from those around them , or not given information in ways they can understand . Health professionals need to appreciate the needs of a patient with a learning disability and be able to try to communicate information in ways they can comprehend . The experience of being told you have cancer is worrying for any patient , but for a patient who finds it hard to understand what is happening to them , it can prove a very traumatic experience . The article goes on to describe the development of a new cancer information book aimed at people with a learning disability which uses a story and pictures to help patients understand their condition . < heading > History of health services for people with a learning disability</heading > In , attitudes towards people with a mental , physical or learning disability were what would be seen as abysmal . ( ) argued that it was necessary to ' control this wandering population of mentally defective persons , who are many of them dangerous , morally and physically , and criminal in their characteristics . ' ( Cited in Brigham , ) Up until , people with learning disabilities were seen as a threat to society . They referred to them as ' idiots ' and admitted them to institutions , workhouses , prisons or lunatic asylums . Institutions were built between the 's up to the 's . The purpose of them was not so much for specialised care for this group , but to separate them from the rest of society . It was a form of social control and the implementation of social classification systems which resulted in these institutional buildings being built specifically for the reason of segregating these groups from society and controlling them . Until those who lived in long - stay institutions were detained under . ( DoH , ) Conditions were often very poor and residents often experienced emotional , physical or sexual abuse . ( Brigham , , , and Walmsley , 2000 ) paper ' for issued in , talks about the general acceptance up until the 's that people with learning disabilities were better off living with other people with disabilities in segregated institutions , rather than with their families in the community . It describes how the terms ' mental deficiency ' and ' mental sub - normality ' reflected the underlying attitudes of this time . The was implemented on , but in its early stages , failed to focus on people with a learning disability . Services for people with a learning disability were far from equitable before . Provisions of health and care services were poor , if not non - existent in , and the experience of learning disability at this time was appalling and unjust in terms of social systems and quality of life . Services for people with a learning disability have changed rapidly since then . Poor standards of care for institutionalised patients in the 's and became increasingly evident , as a series of cases showing maltreatment of patients in long term hospitals proved . Pressure from parents at this time also became an important influence on the drive for change . ( Robb , ; , , cited in , ; , . ) The set an agenda for focusing on increasing provision in the community for people with learning disabilities and therefore reducing the number of places in hospitals . It emphasised the importance of health services , social services and other local agencies collaborating more effectively . ( DoH , ) Community care began to be implemented in and 's . Community care makes it difficult for society to ignore the needs of groups such as people with mental illness or a disability . The term ' learning disability ' was officially used by , then Minister of Health in . It was adopted by in . The term replaced previous ones which now seem negative , such as ' mental handicap ' and ' mental sub - normality ' . ( Lindsey and Russell , ; , , Felce and , ) < heading > Inequalities in health services for people with a learning disability and developments made</heading > Northway ( ) Talks about ' equal rights ' and ' equal access to health care ' and what it means when these principles are put into practice . The author talks about equality and every individual being treated in the same manner . For example , in the case of an appointment in a GP surgery or a hospital setting , a person with a learning disability would be treated the same as any other patient . This would mean , however , that no provision of accessible information would be given for the patient with a learning disability , and no extra time for the appointment . Therefore this service is equal in terms of formal delivery , but results in outcomes poorer for the person with a learning disability . Providing treatment that is the same can , in some situations , actually result in inequality . A solution for this predicament is to provide different types and levels of support which take into account the individuals need . This is particularly important when promoting improved access to generic health care settings . The relationship between generic services and specialist support within these services should be carefully considered . The is traditionally geared to the provision of acute services , and services for people with mental illness or disability or the elderly were referred to as ' services ' in the 's and 's due to low - status , lack of resources and sometimes poor quality service . ( Means and Smith , . Cited in , ) Lindsey and Russell ( . p. ) state that ' in there has been a major change in the views of professionals . There is growing awareness that people with learning disabilities can express their own views about the impact of their disability on their daily life ... there have also been major changes in the way that services are provided ' . The authors talk about how there has been a shift from institutional to personalised care and there are many services now available including day services , residential services and respite care services . People with learning disabilities are being seen more as individuals with individual needs , and a range of services are now available for them . This means that services are more equitable in the cases of provision of and access . However , experience of health care can still be a problem , as mentioned in the ' experience of learning disability ' section regarding the access of primary health care . Difficulties with access to healthcare can include lack of understanding of the process of consultation and problems in the waiting room , and problems with reading letters , instructions on medication or telling the time . Communication with the health professional can be problematic and people with learning disabilities may need extra time and extra help , for example visual aids , to enable then to understand . ( Lindsey and Russell , ) The white paper ' for , recognises that people with a learning disability need support to access health care and describes the role of a new healthcare facilitator . This is a professional within a team who works specifically to improve access to health services for people with a learning disability . Previously , the and Community Care Act focused on ensuring equal access to services , but failed to specify this in terms of services for people with learning disabilities , meaning this group was more likely to become a low priority , not on the basis of need , but due to limited specialist provision from health care services . ( and , cited in and Pickering . p. ) This can be seen as an example of ' inverse care law ' where those whose needs are greatest , get the least . As mentioned previously , there are increased health risks and health needs for people who have a learning disability . An example of a recent development to improve services and the experience of healthcare for people with learning disabilities is the introduction of NHS Trusts as part of the NHS and Community Care Act . Learning disability trusts were set up in order to have an organisation to concentrate solely on this particular group . They meant that decisions could be made faster to improve the service and they had control over their finances . It was also felt that those working closely with people with learning disabilities are in a better position to understand the care and support they need . ( ) The NHS learning disability trusts provide respite services , residential homes , home support and community development services and have multidisciplinary teams to give a high - quality service . The teams include community nurses , occupational therapists , physiotherapists , dieticians , psychiatrists , psychologists , social workers and speech and language therapists , among others . A specific example of improved experience of healthcare for people with a learning disability is the access to respite services for children and young people with a profound multiple learning disability and complex health needs . These services provide beds , specialist equipment and a multi professional team trained specifically to work with this group . The staff get to know the children and young people well and can offer advice and support to their families . They also often attend hospital appointments and other appointments with the parents , to give them advice and support . These kinds of services are designed around the needs of the individual children and their families and provide a high - quality service in the case of the access , provision of , and experiences of health care for this particular group . ( ) < heading > Conclusion</heading > In this essay , I focused on looking at provision of , access to and experiences of health care in for people with a learning disability . I have looked at the experience of learning disability ; the history of health services for people with a learning disability ; and inequalities in health services for people with a learning disability and developments made . In the experience of learning disability section , I looked at health and social issues for this group . I discussed social stigma experienced by them and the extra health needs they may have . In terms of equitable services for this group , I discussed how they may have problems accessing health care due to lack of understanding of health services or health issues , and how they may need skilled support to gain fair access to services . I also looked at the experience of illness and how it can be confusing and traumatic for a person with a learning disability to face an illness . In the section on history , I looked into the past when people with a learning disability were not understood and were institutionalised to be segregated from society in . I discussed the inequity of treatment of this group up until when government papers were released to improve services . In the last section about inequalities in health services and developments made for this group , I talked about how there have been changes in in the attitudes of professionals towards people with learning disabilities , and also in the development of services for them . Provision of , and access to services has improved , but there are still problems in the experience of healthcare and specialist support is needed . This support is being implemented in the case of NHS Trusts and other services available . In general , services for people with learning disabilities have developed and improved significantly over . Provision of , access to and experiences of healthcare for this group have become more equitable , although services are still improving , and some issues still remain .","The post - war era signified a need for fundamental change . Not only was the global economy in tatters , but international relations were incredibly strained . The system of international institutions ; the IMF , and , contextualised against a fixed exchange rate sought to rebuild the international political economy . Signed and ratified during , The agreement committed member states to peg their currencies , via the exchange rate mechanism , to the dollar which was fixed to the value of Gold , held constant at ounce . Members were committed to maintain par values within a margin of the fixed rate , aided by the IMF , initially set up to bridge any temporary payments imbalances.(Grabbe , O. ) Despite the intentions and aims of the system to create a stable global economic environment , the system collapsed within of its inception . Discussed throughout political economy literature are the possible contributive causes of the breakdown . Whether the demise of the system is perceived as a consequence of inherent structural weakness ; as embodied in the functional ineffectiveness of the founding institutions , or operational dysfunction ; characterised by the unanticipated emergent asymmetrical arrangement which embodied extensive periods of deficit , uncertainty and speculation , not only shapes our perceptions of the inevitability of the failure , but also our interpretation of the role this tumultuous period has played in the formation of the contemporary global economic structure as we know it . By investigating the interlinked web of contributive causes of the Bretton Woods breakdown , before discussing the various ways in which events post , have been shaped by the consequences of the preceding era , this essay aims to address both the inevitability of the breakdown and the long term consequences of such a development . A number of scholars attribute the failure to a functional deviance from the envisaged structure as founded in the charter . Contrary to intention , the founding Institutions lacked sufficient power , credibility and authority to carry out their attributed responsibilities . The , in particular , fell short of its role as ' manager ' of the system , failing to acquire "" the veto power over parity changes on which negotiators had insisted "" ( McKinnon . . p.17 ) and hence contributed to the "" redundancy problem "" ( Eichengreen , Bal . . ) . This situation arises due to the inability of N countries in a system to pursue independent exchange rate policies because such a system only contains N-1 exchange rates . The lack of an independent source against which to measure exchange discrepancies enhances the risk of exchange rate conflict . As an independent but collectively representative body , the IMF was to help solve the problem . However , where Governments were required to obtain IMF approval before changing their exchange rates in practise it lacked sufficient authority and credibility ; "" was far from alone in failing to secure the funds advance approval for an exchange rate change ... the IMF was less an enforcer of rules than a repository for the understandings on which international monetary collaboration was based . "" ( Eichengreen , Bal . . p.30 ) Furthermore , extensive dollar outflows , due to the dollar as the ' key currency ' in the system , eclipsed the "" meagre resources of the IMF "" in its role as finance facilitator and exchange crises manager ( . ) . Contradictory to the idea of equality which founded the system , this development highlighted an emergent asymmetry in the international economy . As an economically dominant power , the utilised this advantage and took on a new role as an international hegemonic power . As hegemon , the possessed the power to "" make and enforce the rules for the world political economy "" ( . . ) and hence , actively promoted the development of new institutions , which facilitated co - operation and dramatic economic growth in , increased its military and foreign aid expenditure and aided the emergence of based multinational corporations . On the one hand , these actions helped to generate prosperity and hence the confidence to participate in the liberal economic system . However , on the other , each of these factors contributed to a significant outflow of dollars and the development of a deficit so extensive that it is often attributed as the ultimate factor in the demise and breakdown of the system ( . ) . Pushing for greater co - operation , aid to in the form of the plan , was contingent on greater political and economic unity ( . ) . However , the extensive aid flows were synonymous with increasing military expenditure abroad , contextualised by the development of the atomic bomb , which led to the militarization of , and the outbreak of ( Lairsonal . ) . Further exacerbated by the avoidance of political leaders to utilize domestic tax increases to offset the mounting balance of payments disparity , the persistence and magnitude of the deficit began to decay the confidence necessary for stability of the system . Cutting back on military spending , even if it may have helped decrease the deficit , was not an option given the political context . Such a policy may have led to the weakening of the vis - à - vis other major rising powers ; "" US Governments did not want to hear that their position was weakened by the dollar . "" ( , 's , referring to and presidencies . In Beams , N. 2001 ) . Of central importance to these administrations was the "" freedom of ... foreign policy from the constraints imposed by weaknesses in the financial system . "" ( ) Implicit in the dollar outflows was the rapid accumulation of dollars abroad , which in turn led to significant uncertainty . In theory , such accumulation should not cause problems , but given that the value of currency was based on its full convertibility to gold , at $ per ounce , the accumulation of dollars only represented a diminishing ratio of gold reserves to the levels of dollars held and hence reduced convertibility ( ) . Speculative flows pre - empt ' runs ' on currencies , which occur when it is uncertain that the currency will retain its par value . A ' run ' on the dollar would have been detrimental not only to the whole system , but to the role as hegemon ; as noted by ; "" We will not be able to sustain in the 's a world position without solving the balance of payments problem "" ( in . . p.80 ) The emergent asymmetry allowed the to postpone adjustment measures to maintain international credibility by persuading foreign central banks and member states to finance its external deficit by retaining dollar holdings ( Helleiner . ) . However , this behaviour soon prompted a backlash from allies who came to resent the privileges associated with the dollar as key currency . Foreign dollar holders were faced with little policy manoeuvre , forced to retain dollar holdings and expand domestic monetary supplies . Converting dollars back for gold was not an option as it would have undermined the system , given the diminishing ratio of gold stocks . "" Some Governments objected that the was in effect asking them to accept a paper - dollar standard ... Countries , especially the increasingly perceived to be abusing its seignorage privileges as issuers of the key currency of the system "" ( Helleiner . . p.90 ) . * * * Against the backdrop mounting deficit was the establishment of the free trade area , ( . ) a slow growth rate of exports compared with imports ( Strange . ) and the rapid expansion of the international capital market , exacerbated by development of Multi - national based companies . This rapid development of international industry which required the access to high levels of capital fostered the emergence of the euro dollar market . For resourceful bankers in , faced with domestic capital constraints , the dollar glut represented a large and regular supply of capital to those willing to borrow . Thus the Eurodollar market represented free and unrestricted capital flows , essentially undermining of the underlying goals of the system . ( ) Growing to times the size of the deficit by the 's , the market was large and powerful enough to overwhelm Government intervention reinforcing the growing recognition that "" the system of pegged exchange rates was ill - suited to withstand the pressures brought to bear by the increase in capital mobility "" ( Eichengreen , Bal . . p.29 ) . also sought access to the Eurodollar market in the face of increasing capital constraints ( ) . Mutual demands for such access represented a growing alliance between the bankers and , signalling an important transformation from the early post war years , where the groups had remained divided over the issue of such financial liberalism , to the "" emergence of a new supportive of a more liberal approach "" ( Helleiner . . p. ) . However , also found the market beneficial for their cause . As early as the 's , was informed that the market "" provided a good way of convincing foreigners to keep their deposits in dollars , thus stopping drain "" ( Dillon . , in Helleiner . : ) . The existence of the dollar market meant the foreign holders of dollars would be more likely to continue such possession thereby easing the pressure on the currency ( Beams . N. 2001 ) . Unlike the international economy of where foreign currency accumulation was an expression of goods and services trade , the Eurodollar market was largely disconnected from trade . Players in the Eurodollar market recognised the significant profitability in the participation of Eurodollar lending where just a few dollars could circulate the system and expand to may times the original credit ( et al,.1997 and Strange . ) . Furthermore , the markets rapid expansion significantly increased the difficulty for national authorities to maintain fixed exchange rates , as it broke down the "" insulating wall within which authorities tried to maintain a desired money supply and level of interest rate "" ( Strange . . p.176 ) Technological progression , which dramatically altered the costs and scales of the communication system , undoubtedly played a significant role in influencing the transformation of exchange markets . New technology allowed even small economic units to participate in instantaneous and communicative systems on a global scale facilitating "" a shift in the power relationship of states and markets "" ( . . p.101 ) . Capital flows became increasingly hard to stem : in the 's for example , found the only curtailment of speculative flows was the prohibition of all international phone calls ( Helleiner . . p.103 ) . States faced little choice ; They had to facilitate inevitable economic forces that if not embraced , would crumple the careful institution of national economy ( et al , . p. ) . By , the pressure hit breaking point . Following a series of revaluations by member states such as , and in , devalued the dollar with respect to gold in a last ditch effort to save the system ( McKinnon , R. . p.17 ) . However , these measures were futile ; by the announced the suspension of dollar convertibility into Gold , effectively terminating the agreement ( . . p. ) . According to some scholars , it was the conflict Governments faced between attending to domestic economy on the one hand and the pressure to embrace the emergent international capital network on the other , which ultimately caused the breakdown ; "" It required too much in terms of the co - ordination of national policies . Countries were more and more committed to domestic growth ... while at the same time technological forces that were driving economic growth required internationalization of the goods market , but also of capital "" ( ) . Overcoming this tension became the main focus of post failure discussions in . The creation of an ad hoc forum within the IMF , officially on Reform of , or , provided the initial platform for debates ( . . p.120 ) . However , according to ( ) ; "" The outcome of the was , in effect , a decision to learn to live with the non - system that had evolved out of a mixture of custom and crisis over "" ( cited in Braithwaite et al .   URL ) . A conflict which emerged between the interests of the failed hegemon , and the rest , characterised the rest of , shaping the search for a new international economic order . The main concerns of the and were that floating exchange rates lead to rising employment levels , uncontrollable inflation , skyrocketing interest rates and debt crises ( , al . . p.95 ) . Furthermore , these countries were worried about the loss of political sovereignty over their domestic economies as was experienced under the system ( Kraus , in , . p.795 ) . Exacerbating these worries was the growth of multinational companies who encompassed the "" potential to evade the influence of many Government policies "" ( . . Cited in , . p.794 ) Therefore , the changing economic climate engendered a "" control gap between the aspirations for control over an external range of matters and the capability to achieve it "" ( and . In , . p.795 ) . In order to prevent "" the disruptive capital movements that were the single most important cause of the breakdown of the system "" ( . In Helleiner . . p.103 ) , and consistently argued for increased and co - operative capital restrictions on the basis of traditional welfare economics . "" Is it reasonable that such speculative movements should influence the flow of international trade , and hence the jobs of of persons throughout the world ? We are convinced it is not "" ( , 's finance Minister . In Helleiner . . p.101 ) The IMF supported this view recognising not only that the stood alone in its stance , but that disequilibrating capital movements were the "" main factor making it virtually impossible for officials of large industrial members to maintain par values on their currencies "" ( Helleiner . . p.103 ) The however , was forceful in its pursuit of a floating system . Where instability had fostered growing scepticism of traditional economic approaches , its failure ultimately signalled a shifting dynamic towards a neo - liberal stance . Economic freedom became the goal as managed money became the "" fundamental cause of instability "" ( , L. In Crain , B. . p.58 ) and the reason for crises ; "" ... efforts made to sustain that regime had to fail because they could not accommodate any of the avenues by which real exchange rates could adjust to relieve dollar overvaluation "" ( , L. In Crain , B. . p.58 ) Furthermore , 's found such capital controls increasingly cumbersome and interfering ( Helleiner . . p. ) . The also believed that a framework would preserve policy autonomy in the face of growing external and internal deficits . Therefore , capital controls were directly counterproductive to their strategy of "" using international markets to force a major adjustment to the system "" ( , . cited in . . p.113 ) . arguments countervailed and misleading interpretations of liberal capital flows as "" disequilibrating "" . The believed that capital flows were not necessarily negative ; perceiving capital movements as an indication of domestic economic inefficiency . Therefore , such flows would prompt improvements to domestic economic structures through the adoption of better suited more sound fiscal and monetary approaches and hence restore basic market equilibrium ( IMF , . In Helleiner . . ) . The persistence of opposition to controls and the predominance of the financial market , effectively killed the initiative ; "" the relative size of the economy , the continuing prominence of the dollar and the attractiveness of financial markets all gave the indirect power via market pressure to change the range of choices open to others""(Strange , . In Helleiner . ) . In short , "" no change could be made in the structure of world finance without the consensus of the "" ( , . In Helleiner . . p.109 ) The phoenix which rose from the failed discussions was the Monetary system ( ) created in . For following the collapse of , most countries were signatories of an agreement to maintain stable exchange rates known as in the Tunnel "" . While under this system , a currency could fluctuate on either side of the fixed parity , with a maximum variation of . The aim was to provide relative stability against a backdrop of potential international monetary chaos ( Navigator ) . By , this system was replaced by the , encompassing an Exchange Rate Mechanism ( ERM ) . With the Deutsch - mark as unofficial leader in the structure , the system collapsed following a series of currency crises . None - the - less , these developments formed the foundation on which , and currency union of the was later formed . This period was also characterised by the pursuit of states to maintain their exchange rate parity according to "" what an appropriate dollar exchange rate should be in terms of their domestic currencies "" ( McKinnon . . p.28 ) The dollar , which had remained centrally important to the emergent global economy due to its firm establishment as a universally recognized and interventionist currency ( McKinnon . ) , continued to affect the international economic structure . Throughout the 's , the supply of world money fluctuated in converse relation to the strength or the weakness of the dollar . In addition to the oil price shocks of the 's , world inflationary shocks were attributed to dollar weakness , indicating "" a high and rising degree of interdependence "" ( Bordo , al . . p.237 ) . This emergent economic structure , characterised by the fluidity of capital around the world facilitated by the strength of the dollar , is a close analogy to current global economic configuration which emphasises liberalization of Capital . Current data illustrates just how this change has affected the economy . Before , of all transactions were accounted for by trade , and by capital flow . , despite a vast increase in global trade , that ratio has been reversed with of transactions accounted for by financial flows , not directly associated with trade in and services "" ( US Congress . In Kelly . ) Furthermore , according to Crain ( . p.58 ) , the flexibility of the floating system has had significant positive impact , allowing "" the gap between domestic savings and investment to be closed "" and non - inflationary expansion of the economy , effectively pulling "" the world out of recession "" . This would not have been possible under the "" straight jacket of fixed exchange rates "" as would have come under severe deflationary pressure and any fixed exchange rate system would have collapsed ( . p.294 ) From the evidence submitted throughout this essay it is indicated that the inception of agreement itself engendered inevitable collapse . Whether the conscious decision of the to pull out when it did signalled a pre - mature ending to the era is open to debate . However , by , many held the view that the financial system was clearly insufficient ; unprecedented levels of financing from the IMF , in the form of Special Drawing Rights ( 's ) and the central banks failed to prevent devaluation of the pound and later , the dollar with respect to the value of . ) . It appears that ultimately , it was the ill - fated combination of economic , political and technical developments which contextualised the era such as ; the inability to deal with changing currency parities which resulted in often unrealistic exchange rates ; inherent structural deficiencies , reflected in the unprecedented asymmetry of the system and authoritative deficiency of the supporting Institutions , such as the IMF , which led to the breakdown of the agreement . However , the emergent consequences , such as increased global trade facilitated by decreases in average tariffs from in to the current figure of ( . . p.66 ) , the development of , and the restoration of sovereignty over domestic monetary policy , are undoubtedly advantageous , and have together have contributively created a much more stable international economic system .",0
"Now moving on to the exciting developments in our wonderful field over . My area of interest is still functions of a real variable and 's discovery that arbitrary functions can be represented in series of sines and cosines is , in my opinion , a magnificent piece of mathematics . We are living in an interesting time for mathematics and I feel our profession is really taking off . My advice to you would be to continue your work on pure mathematics but also consider applied mathematics which the are becoming more concerned with . Base yourself in if you can as I feel the focus of mathematics is shifting there . Continuity is an intriguing subject at the moment . Cauchy has given us his definition although only for continuity at an interval , not on a point - something you could consider perhaps . I have a reservation about one piece of 's work however . Abel commented in that there were flaws in his binomial theorem and described it as "" a theorem that admits exceptions . "" Abel quotes the series   FORMULA   as a counter example which as I am sure you can see from Fourier 's work , is copies of the function y = x/2 between - π and π and discontinuous at all odd multiples of π . Perhaps Cauchy does not think this relevant to his theorem or possibly he is only considering continuity on an interval , in which case the theorem is right . Cauchy uses this binomial theorem to prove that   FORMULA   with his belief that if you have a series of continuous functions then the series defines a continuous function . I advise you to have a look at this . The genius of Cauchy can be seen in not only the rigour he has brought to mathematics , but also what I think is the most significant mathematical development of . Cauchy has destroyed the foundations of calculus . He discovered that had used a flawed argument at the start of his account that every function admits a series expansion . Cauchy was more careful and restricted it to functions which , with their n derivatives , are continuous within the interval [ 0,h ] . Previously we mathematicians thought our task was to capture the fact that every function could be expanded as a series in the most rigorous way . Cauchy has shown that it is possible to define a function that does not agree as a series . He uses the example   FORMULA   . This is not identical to , but all terms of its series are . Cauchy has given us the question of how , if at all , can a function agrees with a representation of it . Think about this and its possible ramifications for Fourier series . It is something I will be working on . I urge you to have a close look at 's journal , the of its kind in and an example of mathematicians trying to raise the standards in that country . You will be fascinated by 's work on the solvability of equations by radicals . Did you know he has succeeded in showing that the general polynomial equation of degree can not be solvable by radicals ? Look at the exceptional changes in our field in recent times and enjoy this mathematical age we are living in .","< list></list><heading > Introduction</heading > It is possible to gain a detailed understanding of an engines performance by studying its cylinder pressure vs. crank angle data . From this data may engine parameters can be monitored including : < list timing ( variationEngine lossWork done</list > Using high speed data acquisition systems with pressure transducers mounted inside the cylinder head it is possible to closely monitor the pressure inside the cylinder during combustion . This report details the testing and analysis of data obtained using this system on a engine . < heading > Aims</heading > To use pressure crank angle data to investigate the combustion process in a engine . < heading > Procedure</heading><list><heading > The equipment used for testing of the engine consisted of:</heading EngineCADET PC based engine test systemDynamometerFuel flow mass meterAVL Indimeter - Data logging system</list > The engines operation was controlled via the CADET control system . The engine was operated under the conditions shown in . was used to log pressure variation in the cylinder during the combustion process . < table/>For each operating condition , the following parameters were recorded . < list > ( kw)Torque ( Nm)Fuel consumption ( g / s)Ignition timing ( ° BTDC)Cylinder pressure / crank angle ( bar/ ° )</list><heading > Theory</heading><heading > Pressure Crank angle Data</heading > A piezoelectric transducer can be used to measure changed in pressure within the cylinder . The transducer can be mounted within the spark plug and is able to measure the changing pressure within the cylinder during combustion due to its fast response time . Measuring the crank position from a toothed flywheel allows pressure vs. crank angle diagrams to be drawn . < heading > Determining Start and End of Combustion ( the cylinder pressure vs. crank angle data it is possible to determine the and by plotting a graph using . Equation - Polytropic process PV n = As the piston rises in the cylinder , the volume decrease , and hence the pressure increases . If this process is a polytropic process then plotting n produces a constant value , in 5.1 . However if the gas being compressed is suddenly ignited as in the cylinder then the pressure no longer rises according to the polytropic process and , hence the gradient changes . The is when the gradient begins to change ( around 7 ° ) and the is when the gradient flattens ( approximately 26 ° in 5.1 ) . < heading > Analysis Equations</heading > Equation 4.2 - Indicated Mean Effective Pressure     Equation 4.3 - Thermal Efficiency   FORMULA   Equation 4.4 - Mechanical Efficiency   FORMULA   Equation 4.5 - Co - efficient of   FORMULA   < figure/><heading > Results</heading > All data and relevant plots can be found in , below is a sample of some of the results obtained from testing . < table/><figure/><table/><figure/><figure/>Crank Angle < heading > Discussion</heading><heading > Engine performance analysis</heading > Using the data obtained from the AVL Indimeter , and the equations in section 0 it is possible to calculate : < list ( IMEP)Thermal EfficiencyMechanical Efficiency</list > These results can be seen in , and in . PV diagrams of the data show that higher peak pressures are attained with at higher speeds , this is due to the higher inlet velocity and hence greater turbulence ( tumble for high speed engines ) in the cylinder , this ensure better mixing of the air / fuel mixture . Also note how ignition timing is varied to ensure peak pressure occurs close to . The pumping work of the cycle can be seen on the diagrams , and is less at higher engine speeds indicated by the increase in mechanical efficiency in . < heading > Ignition Delay & Flame growth</heading > Ignition delay can be defined as the time delay between the spark and the flame nucleus becoming big enough so that the combustion is enhanced by the turbulence within the cylinder . Initially the flame nucleus is small and combustion is laminar , as the nucleus grows the combustion becomes turbulent and flame propagation is enhanced . The ignition delay period is approximately time constant . Ferguson states that ignition delay ( in degrees of crank angle ) for an engine is in the order of ° for a rich burn , and ° for a lean burn case . < enote > FERGUSON . , "" thermosciencs "" , , John Wiley & Sons , , p256 < /enote > To ensure homogeneous burning of the air / fuel mixture and therefore good flame growth the induced turbulence & swirl / tumble within the cylinder head is critical . Once combustion starts the flame propagates throughout the mixed gases within the cylinder , typical burn rates for gasoline are m/s . < heading > Ignition Timing</heading > Combustion takes a finite time , therefore ignition is advanced to . This means there is a pressure rise and the compression work increases ( negative work ) . Higher pressure at leads to higher pressures during expansion and hence an increase in positive work . Therefore there is an optimum ignition timing that is a compromise between these effects . Plotting ignition timing against torque produces a curve similar to that shown in Figure . The minimum advance is more critical than maximum advance for max torque and so is generally quoted , this is known as ( Minimum advance for ) . By retarding the ignition by a few degrees from maximum torque the nitric oxide emission are greatly reduced , this also reduces the engines octane requirements . < enote > FERGUSON . , "" thermosciencs "" , , John Wiley & Sons , , p336 < /enote > At part throttle the combustion rate is slower due to lower intake velocities and reduced turbulence , this leads to partial combustion . Therefore the ignition timing is advanced to ensure complete combustion , ensuring clean emissions . This can be seen for ¼ throttle in 5.1 . < figure/><heading > Engine Knock</heading > Engine knock occurs due to the air / fuel mixture autoigniting , this autoignition produces shock waves which produced the "" knocking "" sound . of the reasons the autoignition temperature is reached is by too high a compression ratio . This limits the thermal efficiency of an IC engine , since thermal efficiency is a function of compression ratio which in turn is limited by autoignition of the air / fuel mixture . Pre - ignition leads to higher peak pressures , and this in turn can cause pre - ignition , Figure shows the pressure vs. crank angle graph during knock . Advanced ignition timing also is a cause of engine knock since the heat transfer from the flame front raises the temperature of the unburnt mixture to the point of autoignition . This is more of a problem at lower engine speeds due advanced ignition timing and their being more time for autoignition precursors to form . To prevent knock the ignition timing needs to be retarded , which leads to lower peak pressures . Modern engines use knock sensors which measure the pressure or vibration variations within the cylinder , when knock is detected the ignition is retarded . < figure/><heading > Cyclic Cylinder Pressure Variation</heading > The COV can be calculated using , and was calculated for and over the cycles that were recorded by the AVL Indimeter for each engine operating condition listed in . The results can be seen in Table 5.1 . shows the pressure variation between cycles during testing . It can be seen that between these cycles the pressure variation is approximately 4 bar . The cyclic variation in peak pressure or occurs due to a multitude of reasons , including variation in turbulence in the cylinder , mixing of the gases , air measurement inaccuracies , dynamics waves between cylinders , exhaust gas residues . If the cyclic variation could be removed then performance gains of could be achieved . < enote > STONE R , "" "" , , , , < /enote > The COV of the peak pressure is often used as a measure of engines overall performance since it is easy to measure , however is a better indication of overall engine performance , at sufficiently high levels of COV the driver would become aware of fluctuations in engine output , which is clearly linked to the imep . < enote > FERGUSON . , "" thermosciencs "" , , John Wiley & Sons , , p181 - 183 < /enote><heading > Mass Fraction Burn Rate</heading > The Rassweiler and equations shown in Appendix 1 can be used to determine the mass fraction of air / fuel burned . The Mfb against crank angle determines how energy is released during combustion . A slow burn rate will have a shallow gradient and will burn over a larger crank angle , a fast burn rate will have a steep gradient and a small crank angle . High efficiency can be obtained from a fast burn rate which has a step gradient on the Mfb graph , however to obtain this the inlet velocity needs to be sufficiently high , and the turbulence within the cylinder enough to ensure complete mixing of air/ fuel . Therefore the Mfb is restricted by inlet geometry and combustion chemistry . Graph shows the method plotted against the function for rev / min and throttle . < heading and Withrow Method</heading > This is a technique for calculating the Mfb developed by and Withrow in . "" This method is based on the assumption that , once combustion commences , the change in pressure , ΔP over a crank angle interval , Δθ , is the sum of parts : the pressure rise due to piston motion , ΔPv , and the pressure rise due to combustion , ΔPc "" . < enote > BALL . J , RAINE , . C.R , "" Combustion analysis and cycle by cycle variations in spark ignition engine combustions "" , , Part D , Vol < /enote><heading > Weibe Function</heading > The function is a purely mathematical model which can be used to estimate engine performance , such as efficiency & emissions . The model enables the development of combustion chamber , injector design and ignition timing . The constants , ' a ' and ' m ' can be varied to match that of a particular engine , but are a=5 and for a typical engine . The effects of varying the constants can be seen in Figure , which shows that varying constant ' a ' varies the slope , varying ' m ' changes the length of burn , and has a greater effect on the Mfb . Plots of the and Withrow method function for all engine conditions test can be found in . For low engine speeds and load the burn rate is slow due to reduced intake velocity and cylinder turbulence , values of m and a are higher and lower respectively . At higher engine speeds and loads , burn rate is increased with m and a values being lower and higher respectively . The limitations of method for calculating Mfb are : < enote > CHEUNG . M.H , . , "" Evalutation of - zone burn rate analysis procedure using production pressure data "" paper , < /enote > The method is usually used with constant polytropic index The mass burn profile automatically goes to unity The method does not account for crevices which are potentially a significant source of unburned hydrocarbons , & hence incomplete combustion The heat transfer is not explicitly accounted for The method does not give information about the temperature of the cylinder gases , which would be useful for many aspects of engineering performance . From the Mfb graphs in it can be seen that for most of the operating conditions tested it is possible to model the Mfb using the function accurately to the found using method . < figure/><heading > Conclusion</heading > Using cylinder pressure against crank angle data it is possible to examine the performance of an engine . From just these simple measurements a detailed understanding of the engines characteristics can be achieved . Mathematical models of the combustion process can be produced using the function , which have been shown to closely match those found using method . This function is able to make accurate predictions of the Mfb of a particular engine design enabling the engineer to design engine parameters to meet specific combustion requirements ensuring more efficient and powerful engines . A deeper understanding of some of the practical limitations of the engine design has been gained . The significance of ignition timing on the engines performance has been discussed , looking at the on - set of "" knock "" in the engine and its prevention . Successful modern engine designs have to balance many variable parameters in order to attain high power output & efficiency whilst meeting the increasingly stringent emission regulations . A detailed analysis of the Rover engine has been produced using data obtained from engine tests using the CADET and AVL Indimeter systems . Performance data for the engine has been produced and accompanies this report .",0
"< heading > Herodotus and Egypt</heading > The sheer bulk of material written about and has , unsurprisingly , constrained me to focus upon a particularly narrow aspect of scholarship , namely the veracity of his historical methods and his relationship with his predecessor . I have intended to produce a broad sweep of the most important literature on this topic over time from to the present . < heading > Commentary</heading > Debate concerning the veracity of ' historical methods and his relationship to his predecessor has been raging at least as far back as . It would be almost impossible to comment upon both aspects separately as both are interrelated . I shall provide a general sweep of the various schools of thought from down to . There are arguably main schools of thought concerning our inquiry . The is relatively recent and the other have been in competition with each other for a considerable length of time . The essential arguments of the older schools have remained unaltered over time , though in some cases slight details have been revised . school argues that is telling us the truth and that the details of his account can be matched to corresponding evidence . They frequently attribute inaccuracies either to genuine misinterpretation by , or alternatively genuinely innocent or deliberately construed misinformation by his sources . I have managed to trace this school back to and at the turn of , though it is probable that the school is older . < fnote > Sourdille < /fnote><fnote > Wiedemann 1890 < /fnote > The other school , named the ' Liar school ' by , advocates that either created wholly fabricated accounts , due to the fact that he never went to , or similarly he copied and adapted passages from . The oldest scholar I have found who claims that was fabricating his account is who states that ' The majority of the statements made by about matters are now known to be false , and ... there are many in which we can trace a deliberate intention to deceive ' . It is clear that already some scholars had begun to suspect ' motives in . < fnote > Kendrick - Prithchett < /fnote><fnote > Sayce < /fnote><fnote > Sayce , quoted by : < /fnote > In my research I have found a greater number of scholars occupying over the course of time . It is possible that the choice of books that I have made has had an effect on the statistics . Fortunately I have found evidence within the literature that suggests this phenomenon is not merely an unbalanced selection . Both Fehling and comment that the ( then ) current trend was to take a more skeptical approach to , while or so has taken a ' more favourable view ' of ' veracity . < fnote > This term has not been found elsewhere in my reading , but I feel that it aptly qualifies this particular school of thought . < /fnote><fnote > Fehling 1991 : < /fnote><fnote > West : < /fnote><fnote > West : < /fnote > Having mapped out the progress of both schools of thought from , it seems that from the 's until the 's , was outnumbered by at least by . From the 's and 's onwards the numbers have evened out somewhat , quite possibly due to the emergence of a ' school ' that has gathered pace ever since . This school shall be introduced once we reach the period of its emergence in our chronological sweep of the literature . The concept that was the source of much of ' account seems to have been present in 's work in the and was quoted ' with approval ' by , writing in . Heidel developed the arguments further stating that some passages were a convenient fiction told in a witty manner by , which was then adapted by , ' who was not only gullible but malicious ' . < fnote > Meyer 1892 and , cited by : . < /fnote><fnote > Heidel 1935 < /fnote><fnote > Moyer < /fnote > One of the most influential publications from was by Fehling in , ' whose forceful indictment of ' veracity is not easily refuted ' . In a review of commentaries on , Fehling states that particular passages within , namely on in this case , he ' would call a free creation ' . The other prominent members of , according to , are and West . Other members of the school mentioned by are Swain , who according to West was ' the to venture in this direction ' , i.e. that ' Theban Priest passage was an invented fiction on his part ; and , who ' emphasizes the weaknesses of traditional views ' of . < fnote > West 1978 : , Cf . Bowden , who has more or the less the same opinion of work , which makes the opposite case by refuting 's arguments along with many others such as . < /fnote><fnote > Lloyd < /fnote><fnote > Fehling 1991 : < /fnote><fnote > Kendrick - as cited in Bowden : . < /fnote><fnote > Armayor < /fnote><fnote > West 1978 , , and and b < /fnote><fnote > West : < /fnote><fnote > Swain 1941 < /fnote><fnote > West : < /fnote><fnote > Erbse < /fnote><fnote > West : < /fnote > We now encounter a problem . So far our sweep has let us to believe that 's publication has more or less overturned the arguments of the opposing school . Now turning to , we shall discover that this is not the case and in effect a scholarly stalemate is perceived , especially by members of the school . has had many members ; I have traced the school back as far as , who produced a highly influential work on the voyage of . His work was believed by this school for a great length of time and glaringly obvious errors , according to , were only rejected in by his commentary . Yet a crucial point is that Lloyd did not reject outright that ever went to , nor does he openly reject the order of 's reconstructed itinerary , but states that the time of the year was wrong . Lloyd is not the only scholar to have taken 's account as a valid reconstruction ; his work was accepted by members of from in to Lloyd in . Both and 's works heavily influenced the scholars of the following decades such as . < fnote > Sourdille < /fnote><fnote > West 1978 : < /fnote><fnote > Fehling 1991 : , West 1991b : < /fnote><fnote > Spiegelberg < /fnote><fnote > Lloyd < /fnote><fnote > Waddell : passim < /fnote><fnote > Griffiths : : < /fnote><fnote > Zakbar : < /fnote > Moreover , the belief that based his account of on historical examples of culture , which he had encountered , is still advocated by members of this school . In Obsomer interpreted the campaigns of in Asia Minor as a misinterpretation of the conquests by , a proposal that West refuses to accept . Moyer in argued that ' passage concerning was ' a peculiar mirage constructed by the for their own needs in the Late Period of their history ' . There are , however , a smaller number of scholars now occupying this school as the school of thought has taken precedence over both of the original schools . < fnote > Kendrick - Pritchett and Bowden 1995 < /fnote><fnote > West 1991b : < /fnote><fnote > Moyer : < /fnote > This school was initiated by the work of in , which has profoundly altered the status quo of the debate . He argued that ' ethnographic passages inform us more about ideals of what it was to be Greek . However , the point must be made that was preceded by , who had written a chapter concerning , in which similar arguments to were expressed but not as explicitly as his successor , who was to be the main founder of the school . as I shall address it , has had seemingly more adherents than the other schools in . A current trend is to abandon the ' futile and infertile ' arguments over ' veracity in favour of studies , which focus on ' internal coherence in his ethnographic accounts . The main followers of this type of approach are , , Hall and more recently . < fnote > An translation was provided in . < /fnote><fnote > Froidefond 1971 < /fnote><fnote > Moyer : < /fnote><fnote > Cartledge quoted by Moyer : < /fnote><fnote > Burkett reviewed by , focuses more generally on the attitudes of modern scholarship . < /fnote><fnote > Cartledge reviewed by . < /fnote><fnote > Hall reviewed by Lewis 2000 . < /fnote><fnote > Vasunia reviewed by . < /fnote > It appears that the current state of affairs has enjoying a numerical superiority over . Yet there are adherents for both of the older schools . The irony is that the tide may well have turned against . Their attempts to overturn what they have deemed overly favourable interpretations by , have been seemingly made obsolete by , which argues that both of the older schools are outdated and no longer worth pursuing in the intensive manner , which was undertaken by past scholars . For many modern scholars , ethnographic coherence is far more important than the practically impossible task of determining whether passages originate from or .","This essay shall examine the evolution of the goddess Isis in the , and Roman environments in an attempt to ascertain whether or not she can be categorized as being strictly , or Roman . In a similar manner ; an attempt will be made to determine if Isis can be seen as an old or a new deity . The examination of her evolution over time shall be divided into a number of categories which are : < list > Her appearances and depictions in , and Roman art wherever possible . Her titles that were used in the and - Roman periods . Details of the rites performed on her behalf.</list > My sources for the investigation comprise of both classical texts by writers such as in conjunction with sources such as and . I shall attempt to analyze the sources in chronological order to aid any patterns of evolution found . I shall begin with the elements ; depictions and accounts of ( or as she was known in native ) . The account of the evolution of in shall be kept short as it serves only as a common element of comparison upon which I shall base my discussion of her depictions in the - Roman world . My small selection of extracts from the various texts is by no means exhaustive . of the reasons why Isis became as popular as she did throughout the ancient world was because , as remarks , she was able to absorb the attributes of a multiplicity of deities . Even within itself , absorbed a number of goddesses before her cult spread throughout the . provides a list of the various attributes which she came to hold in : < fnote , and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt , Page . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , pp146 - 148 . < /fnote><list ( or in Egyptian).Mother and Protector of Horus ( Heru).Mother of the Pharaoh . Goddess of Cosmic Associations . Great of Magic : ' Ur Hekau' . Mourner , sustainer and protector of the deceased.</list > Over the course of History , the imagery of did change and it is well worth observing the following transitions in her image . I have provided a number of images of Isis from from varying time periods ; in order to show her gradual transformations that resulted in a template , which the Greeks and incorporated . Image A is from and depicts Isis as suckling Here she has the double crown of and the vulture head dress . Image B is older than A and is the oldest of all the selection provided here ; dating to circa in . has the characteristic crown on her head which also is the symbol used to spell her name in . and D are both Amulets portraying again shows the crown unique to , from the Saite Period ; while Image D shows Isis with the solar disk and cow horns that she acquired from during . This is dated to the Third Intermediate Period . Finally the most recent image of the selection , E   depicts Isis with both crowns and is dated to the Roman period . < fnote > Oakes and , , Page . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , Page 289 . < /fnote><fnote > Isis is depicted on the left in Image B. < /fnote><fnote , Amulets of Ancient Egypt , Page . < /fnote><fnote , and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt , Page . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , Page . < /fnote><picture/><picture/><picture/><picture/><picture/>From the images from alone it is clear that evolved at least in terms of portrayal . Now let us briefly examine references to Isis in a sample of texts again from a variety of periods in Pharaonic Egyptian History . According to is mentioned times in most of the references concern as a protectress alongside Nepthys such as the example in PT , . < fnote , and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt , Page . < /fnote><fnote > For a complete list of the occurrences of Isis in the Pyramid Texts see , Page 320 . < /fnote><fnote , , Page . < /fnote > She is mentioned times in and in particular Isis claims to be ' a protection from fear ' perhaps the later ideas of as the saviour goddess can be linked to theology . Isis ' protective role seems to be of a primary importance as she is described in a similar way to in , BD 69 ; where she has ' saved me from my enemies who would harm me ' . < fnote , , . < /fnote><fnote > CT 775 from , . < /fnote><fnote , 70 . < /fnote > In the Bremner - Rhind Papyrus , is called ' Mistress of the , who came forth from . This is a title that seems to have been continued in the - Roman descriptions , which are examined later in the investigation . Now a selection of the elements of has been summarized briefly ; let us use them to compare and contrast the - Roman interpretations of . beginning with the Greeks ; Isis was identified with both and who both wandered the earth . Io gave birth to her son by the and who searched for her daughter Persephone . The identification with both Io   and is confirmed by : < fnote > A proper study of the aspects of would require a study in its own right . < /fnote><fnote > March , Dictionary of Classical Mythology , Page . < /fnote><fnote > Herodotus , the Histories II : . < /fnote><fnote > Herodotus II : . < /fnote><quote>'The statues of Isis show a female figure with cow 's horns , like the Greek representations of ' ( II : ... at ... a vast temple [ is ] dedicated to , the equivalent of ... '(II : 59).</quote > Even from this early stage in Greek History in ; had been associated with divinities . also provides us with insightful information about the spread of during his era : < quote>'Even at Cyrene women think it is wrong to eat heifer 's meat , out of respect for Isis , in whose honour they celebrate both feasts and festivals . ' ( IV : 186).</quote > We must of course be aware that this could be a case of Interpretatio Graeca on the part of but after all this was probably the case for the extracts from Book II . If what he says is true then by ; had already begun to spread across the . We also know that had come to have a temple built for her at in due to a Greek inscription : < fnote > Jones , 189 - 90 . < /fnote><quote > ' ... on which to erect their temple of Aphrodite , in the same way as the have erected their temple of Isis ' . State Decree < /quote > It is interesting that Aphrodite is mentioned here because we have an image of Isis - Aphrodite ( Image F ) which dates to circa . < fnote , and Goddesses of Ancient Egypt , Page . < /fnote><picture/>One of the events that probably enhanced the popularity of the goddess in the long term was 's conquest of . Alexandria became of the most important cities in the ancient world and according to : < fnote > Arrian , The Campaigns of Alexander . < /fnote><quote>' ... he himself [ Alexander ] designed the general layout of the new town , indicating ... what gods they should serve- the gods of and the Isis ... '(3:1)</quote > So how did the Greeks perceive Isis ? Some of her attributes are given to us by . Dillery comments that was generally associated with the invention of writing and language in general . This is not as such a truly attribute but similarities of and the power over words can be seen in one of the myths ; namely of Ra . For this reason it is not a radically new attribute conferred upon Isis and this may even be evidence that Isis remained very much the same as she spread across the . < fnote > Dillery , , and the Heliconian Muses , Page . < /fnote><fnote > Gahlin , Egypt : Gods , Myths and Religion , pp . < /fnote > From the Life of Aesop we find that had the title ' Isis of the many names ' '  ' . Further evidence provided by ( namely from of the goddess ' Aretologies from dated to ) , in which proclaims that : < fnote > Dillery , , and the Heliconian Muses , Page . < /fnote><quote > ' '.</quote><quote > ' I bestowed the languages to the Greeks and the Barbarians ' . < /quote > The reason for conferring such an attribute seems to be that was associated with ; in the ) who was the god of writing . According to Plutarch she was also called ' First of the ' as well as . This appears to be because the associated with the constellation , which was thought by the Greeks to be or Nemesis . < fnote > Plutarch , Moralia V : De Iside et Osiride : . See also Dillery Page 275 . < /fnote><fnote > Plutarch , Ibid . < /fnote><fnote > Dillery , Page . < /fnote > So to summarize ; the Greeks associated her with the as well as a goddess who not only invented writing but language in general and gave it to both the Greeks and the so called peoples . She was also associated with which perhaps seems rather a new concept ; if we consider that in Ma'at was the personification of justice . < fnote > Gahlin , Egypt : Gods , Myths and Religion , Page 212 - 3 . < /fnote > However ; it seems that the most commonly widespread myth concerning Isis was the Death of Osiris and this is probably of the main sources for the - Roman perceptions of the goddess . In fact the myth recorded by , in my opinion , can show that any new attributes of Isis were thought by the Greeks and to be her original ones from . So in their minds ; little had changed about Isis from her worship in to her cults established in the . This I hope to demonstrate throughout the remainder of this essay . < fnote > Ibid , pp . < /fnote > I shall now focus the discussion on the rites and festivals performed on behalf of Isis . As this seems to form the best means of transition from aspects to aspects ; as the rites are similar in both . Furthermore we have sources for the festivals performed over several different periods and focusing on before completing the analysis would rather disturb the fluidity of a chronological based method . Let us now return to who provides an account of the so called ' Festival of Lamps ' which seems likely to have precedents for the processions described in the novel by Apuleius . The events at the Festival in Busiris and at ( probably on a national scale ) are as follows : < quote > ' ... it is here that everybody ... when the sacrifice is over , beat their breasts : in whose honour , however , I do not feel it is proper for me to say [ Osiris ] ... At , on of the sacrifices , everybody burns a great number of lights in the open air ... The festival is called the Festival of Lamps ' . ( II : - 2).</quote > I have attempted to find a similar festival within the official calendars of and although I can not find a mention of the Festival of Lamps ; I have found an entry that reads : < fnote > Draco , shall be my reference work here . < /fnote><quote>'Landing of , the Upper and Lower Ones at Abydos ; loud weeping and wailing by , her sister over Un - Nefer [ Osiris ] in ' . < /quote><fnote > Draco , 36 . < /fnote > It is by no means a match but I feel it is a strong candidate for one . Now let us compare the description given to us by Apuleius : < fnote > Apuleius , the Golden Ass , Page . < /fnote><quote>'There was also a large group of both sexes with lamps , torches , candles and every kind of man - made light to do honour to her from whom springs the stars from heaven . '(XI : ) . < /quote > Could there be a greater match between the accounts of and ? Personally I feel that they both describe the same rite ; perhaps the mythological reasoning behind the cases is different but the ritual actions are seemingly identical . There is also another festival which I shall mention here which is known as . This was celebrated on and the details of the ceremonies are provided in ' account . Essentially a procession lead down to the sea where a boat made in style was loaded with offerings and cast out to sea . comments that Isis of all the deities had a direct interest as she was the patroness of all sailors . also mentions that was associated with at in . was based on ' wanderings in search of which again is found in the myth recorded by . It is clear to see that the later rites associated with are in fact based on this myth . < fnote > It seems that I do not have the necessary space to describe them all in full . < /fnote><fnote > Turcan , the Cults of , Page . < /fnote><fnote > Apuleius , the Golden Ass , pp . < /fnote><fnote > Turcan , the Cults of , Page . < /fnote><fnote > Williams , and a , Page111 . < /fnote><fnote > Turcan , the Cults of , Page . < /fnote > So far we have found evidence to show that the Greek perceptions of ; which can be considered as ' new ' ones ; were based on an myth . Now let us turn out attention to the perceptions of . We have a variety of opinions from both Roman sources and scholars ; we shall begin with writing in the Third Century AD : < quote>'Now he [ ] has abandoned his whole ancestral way of life , has embraced alien and barbaric customs ... Instead he makes obeisance to that creature [ Cleopatra ] as if she were an Isis ... '(L : 25).</quote > In fact it seems we have a debate between scholars concerning the popularity of . Goodman states that the worship of Isis came from higher ends of society ; but contends that she was generally held in disrepute by the more respectable citizens . source about the public standing of the cult of is from a statue in which was set up by a Roman Senator . So I would be inclined to agree with . < fnote > Goodman , , pp - 8 . < /fnote><fnote , , pp - 9 . < /fnote><fnote > Beard , North and Price , Religions of Rome II , pp - 1 . < /fnote > Other sources concerning the Roman perceptions of ( namely her attributes ) are and also a papyrus from in . Here are some of the attributes recorded in the account of Apuleius : < fnote > Apuleius , The Golden Ass , Page . < /fnote><quote > ' ... I , mother of the universe , mistress of all the elements , born of the ages , highest of the gods , queen of the shades ... representing in shape all gods and goddesses ... '(XI : ) . < /quote > We also have sources that reinforce the account of which come from . The is provided by and is a prayer to Isis by a certain ; an priest of BC . It was inscribed at the temple of Isis in in the Fayum . It reads as follows : < fnote > Walbank , , Page . < /fnote><quote>'The call you and the tribes of the , and the call you indeed the mother of the gods , and the Greeks mighty - enthroned , and and , but the Thiouis , because in your own person alone you are all the other goddesses named by the peoples ' . < /quote > Here we have Isis once again essentially addressed as '  ' and the next source expands on this theme . Also found in , a papyrus from seems to be a longer version of the passage found in . The implications show that not only were these titles attributes of the but also those who worshipped Isis in . The papyrus is believed to predate Apuleius , being written in ; whereas Apuleius wrote at . < fnote > Grenfell and , , Page . < /fnote > The final aspect of this section is to examine the representations of Isis in Roman art . I have provided the images and then a Greek one earlier with which we may compare the following images . Image G   is a depiction of an Isiac ceremony from circa . Image H   depicts Isis on the left with very attire and a pair of cow 's horns .   < fnote > Beard , North and Price , Religions of , Page . < /fnote><fnote > Apuleius , the Golden Ass , front cover , from the Temple of Isis at Pompeii dated to . < /fnote><fnote > Although it may be hard to see the horns from this smaller copy of the image . < /fnote><picture/><picture/>We have seen that the iconography of changed considerably over time from the sample of images I have presented . She has evolved from the Isis with the crown to the infamous Isis with the solar disk and cow 's horns ; which she acquired from in . She then was as we saw in the image of Isis - Aphrodite and then Romanized with only the cow 's horns signifying her identity . In terms of her attributes , we saw that as spread across the , she seemingly acquired new titles and was associated with a whole myriad of other deities . To mention a few she was assimilated with , , Aphrodite , Dike , Hermes and Astarte . So was Isis an old or new goddess ? We can contrast the attributes from with those from . Still in the Roman Period Isis is addressed as the wife of and mother of Horus ; as well as the ' Mistress of the ' . Not to mention her funerary qualities are still expressed as ' queen of the shades ' . < fnote > Grenfell and , , Page . < /fnote><fnote > Apuleius , The Golden Ass , Page . < /fnote > I believe that although the details in her iconography were adapted , the general identity and attributes of the goddess remained the same . From the beginning in she was known as ' Mistress of the ' and this title continued down into the account of . Her festivals performed in and may not have been identical to those in but they were all based on the Death of Osiris Myth from , recorded in . However to use such terms ' old ' or ' new ' is not a valid procedure ; as not only are such terms relative in usage but they are also force us to create a direct contrast that in the case of Isis and her ' evolution ' does not apply . As the evidence shows she hardly changed at all . Regarding the question of whether was , or Roman ; it would be fair to say that her origins and surrounding mythology was generally ; but it is misrepresentative to make such a simple statement . Such a question is dependant upon the worshipper ; a Roman would have seen her as , but a native who witnessed the methods which the Roman worshipper used would not agree . It would perhaps be advisable to dispense with all these terms , old , new , , altogether . It would be more precise to narrow the focus down to particular period . For instance ' how was during the Hellenistic Age ? ' would be more suitable to determine the national identity of the goddess . Even then the beliefs seem to have changed slightly since times to the and ; so using these terms is a hindrance . In terms if her evolution ; I would agree with Potter 's   comment on bearing the last few points I have discussed in mind : < fnote > Potter , "" "" , in ; A Companion to the Hellenistic World , Page 425 . < /fnote><quote>'Indeed , the cult of remained as recognizably an cult , as the cult of remained a recognizably one ... ' < /quote > Therefore I would conclude that although evolved over the course of time in terms of iconography ; absorbing various national identities ; she essentially remained the same in many core aspects .",1
"The agricultural sector is amongst the most dangerous working environments within industry . alone , fatalities occurred as a result of farming or a farming related accident ( , ) , coinciding with the national average of deaths / year over . These figures indicate the significance of the health and safety topic within the farm environment and the need for managed practices in order to decrease fatalities and injuries alike . Legislation and guidelines , together with how these rules are implemented in practice is of key importance in order to achieve a safer working environment and the success of this largely relates to the communication and relationship between the body setting the rules and those working with them . < heading > Accidents < /heading > The nature of farm work can be deemed the reason for the high fatality rate . Those working within the industry are exposed to a variety of dangers including machinery , livestock , chemicals and disease as common working practice ; hence the slightest lapse in concentration can have devastating results . Linked to this , it may be suggested that the general downturn in returns from agricultural commodity prices in has tempted farmers to cut corners when working under pressure and not give thought to their safety , or those around them . The table below shows the main causes of accidents within the sector for , not surprisingly showing machinery as the major cause . < table/><heading > Health and Safety legislation < /heading > Following increased awareness over of the dangers posed by working within industry , much legislation now exists surrounding health and safety . These policies all relate to the need to protect the employer , employee and others from harm through legally binding regulations . 1974 is the basis for legislation within industry , stating duties of employers and employees alike . < quote>""The purpose of this Act is to promote and encourage high standards of health and safety at work . "" ( Source : , 2002)</quote > For the employer this means : < list > Ensuring that equipment is safe to usePreparing instructions , information and training for the workersEnsuring workers and visitors should not come to any harmEnsuring that produce and equipment is safe , when using storing and transporting . ( Source : , 2002)</list > Employees equally have an obligation , that is to have the responsibility of not harming themselves or others by what they do . In many situations this point may be deemed common sense , especially on farm when using heavy machinery or handling livestock . < heading > Health and safety - CEDAR</heading > As both a commercial and research establishment , has many employees of varying tasks , going around daily business exposed to many forms of harm . With many areas of health and safety to cover management needs to be organised in order to meet all legislation for the protection of all staff . As discussed above , this may be deemed a complicated task on a farm generally , due to the nature of the work , but especially in regard to the number of employees and visitors on site at any one time . As a business , the farm is required to comply with 1974 as an initial form of legislation , not to mention the many other forms of legislation applicable - including and Personal Protective Equipment Regulations . Organised management will allow an understanding throughout the hierarchy of how responsibility is divided up and should allow reliable communication channels between levels . A possible health and safety structure is shown below , whereby each level answers to the level above and relays to the one below . Feedback should operate throughout the hierarchy to allow practical evaluation , and any problems or gaps to be reported . < figure/>The C principle is a diagrammatic form of how an organised management system should function is order for health and safety principles to be implemented successfully . The 5Cs can be related to , in terms of how health and safety issues can be managed . < list > Competency and training : CEDAR requires all new staff to take telescopic handler test - safe use of machinery . Co - operation and consultation : information pinned up for all employees , employee for heavy jobs such as picking up cow in cubicle yards in order to prevent strain . Consultation - risk assessment done before any possible harming job , identifying risk to the employee . Communication : Employees know whom to report to should a problem occur , whether that is the line manager , farm manager or university health and safety board . Control : Enough people are allocated for a job , rather than cutting corners with a single employee . Risk assessments = planning - identifying which machinery / tools are required and without one , the job does not go ahead.</list > From the above principle it is clear that provided that necessary training is provided and effective communication exists that control of health and safety is manageable , and no corners are cut , hence can boost a major accident proof record . A written risk assessment is also included in the above principle , as this is simply a careful look of how to prevent harm occurring from a risk . This is done by observing the possible risks from work - for instance at and a job involving roof mending , falling from a height would be the risk , implementing the correct features such as netting or a harness are the safety features to prevent harm from occurring . A risk assessment is a legal requirement since the introduction of , and covers the employer should an accident occur , provided necessary and reasonable planning has been put into action to minimise harmful possibilities and outlines any safety equipment required . When writing a risk assessment steps should be considered : < list > Look for hazardsDecide who might be harmed and howEvaluate the risks and decide whether the existing precautions are adequate or whether more should be doneRecord your findingsReview your assessment and revise if it is necessary(Source : HSE , ( HSE)</heading > The HSE inspects and informs farmers in regard to health and safety within agriculture . Many information sheets are available in regard to the various specific health and safety legislation throughout the industry , providing advice and information on topics such as ' handling and housing cattle ' , an issue relevant to . The HSE website states how increasingly this advice is becoming an ever more important tool to implemented health and safety , as farmers tend to seek advice , rather than just shy away from continued red tape within the industry . < quote>""HSE has found that farmers welcome and respond well to more advice and less red tape . "" ( Source : HSE , 2005)</quote > Similarly , another source states how just quoting facts and figures of fatalities does not show someone working within farming the safe way to go around a job . < quote>""The accumlation of statisitics about a problem does not necessarily represent adequate knowledge about potential remedial characterisitcs or correctable factors . "" ( Source : Murphy,1992)</quote > Therefore the information sheets offer a reliable alternative source of information . < heading > Cattle handling < /heading > There are main areas in regard to health and safety management for the issue of cattle handling : < list > Employment of a competent stocks personEnough staffing to give assistance when neededProviding the necessary physical handling equipment - crush , race , telescopic attachmentAdvising / providing the required personal protective equipment - overalls , steel toecap boots , gloves < /list > Unlike with chemical storage , whereby spillage caused by a split bottle could be a manufacturing problem and is unavoidable , cattle handling requires knowledge and understanding of the animals together with common sense . At , the appointment of the competent stocks person to handle the cattle , which are essentially an unknown quantity to someone with limited experience or with little common sense , can be deemed as a preventative method of reducing the risk of harm . On the other hand , the bunded floor to deal with spillages in the spray store may be deemed as a cure method to an accident , or an unknown leak . Understanding cattle in regard to the design of the handling facilities is an important issue in regards to health and safety management . At , the availability of a crush and race allow working with the cattle with less risk , as they are contained in a fenced area rather than open housing . A stocks person would therefore have very little contact with the animals once they are in the race and only touch the animals with protective gloves under the practices employed . Management may however have to give greater planning towards stock cattle as they are not so regularly compared to the dairy herd and extra provisions for their handling may be needed , for example taller fences , or a heavier duty cattle crush . The above measures taken by the management in regard to handling infrastructure at coincide with guidelines within the cattle handling information sheet . < quote>"" ... you should ensure your equipment and systems of work are capable of dealing with it ... "" ( Source : HSE , and safety management in this area appeared successful with the conversion of a room into a secure , bunded , temperature controlled chemical store . This meets Environment Agency legislation in regard to storing pesticides . < quote>""Keep pest control products in a dedicated store of an appropriate size and design , sited so that any spill or leak can not escape to pollute ground or surface waters . "" ( Source : Netregs , 2005)</quote > The following model can be used in regard to chemical storage at . < heading > Accident Prevention</heading><list><heading > Accident Prevention:</heading > Eliminate : Chemicals are part of the intensive farming system at , without becoming organic , or contracting out spraying , chemicals will be required on the farmReplace : Substitute chemicals for less harmfulIsolate : Isolate chemical in a spray storeControl : Conversion of building to chemical store for the control of hazardous substancesPersonal Protective equipment : Provide face mask , body cover and gloves as a last resortDiscipline : Risk operator - spraying qualifications by not following correct practice.</list><heading > Conclusion</heading > The farm environment poses many risks . The risk assessment visit to flagged up some of the main issues surrounding the management of health and safety and the need for careful planning and organising in order balance legislation against working practices . Current management practices have been discussed and appear successful , is major accident free to date . The visit outlined the importance of the risk assessment as a health and safety tool , flagging up possible causes of harm before a job has been undertaken and this is vital to the overall management system . Management can however only do so much , and have as many mechanisms in place to prevent harm occurring , but it is up to the individual in many cases to think for him or herself in order to limit the risk .","is ( ha ) rural estate located west of around the village of in . The estate is family owned and is a good example of diversification in agriculture , whereby ' not all eggs are in basket ' and income stems from a range of sources . Based on an integrated management and sustainable practices these sources include cropping , livestock production , farm property development and perhaps most crucially to 's success , a farm shop which sells home produce - a vital link for the farm to the customer both locally and nationally . The farming system also includes conservation measures to address environmental issues . < heading > Summary of Manydown activities</heading><list > mainly combinable crops on flinty chalk loams - mainly wheat and barley as seed crops , as well as , linseed and grass seed . . Beef - 180 head closed suckler herd . . Sheep - 850 ewes North Country Mules crossed with or rams3 . , sows and boar.4 . Poultry - killing free range chickens / week in own facilities at . of the dwelling houses are rented out.2 . Redevelopment has seen a tennis and fitness centre , light industrial workshops and offices builtEnvironmental issuesPolicy : < quote>""To maintain and develop a balanced and integrated farming system encouraging wildlife flora and fauna . ""   URL < /quote > Conservation headland strips , rotational hedging , wild bird strips , field margin management and beetle banks . Table 1 : Manydown activities < /list > This largescale operation , as table suggests , requires a larger number of employees than a conventional farm - 22 full and part time . , 's director suggested how there is a successful farm team at because there is a lot of flexibility amongst workers . This allows for multi - tasking to take place by staff and should help any problems with sickness within the workforce . The beef production unit is organised in such a way that the beef production manager lives next to the unit , meaning that he is involved with the unit and that the unit is always manned in the event of any problems such as calving issues occurring . < heading > Beef Production < /heading > Beef production at is favoured as part of the livestock production due to its popularity within the farm shop but also because livestock farming suits the soil type on the farm . The soil , typically that of , is a flinty clay loam over chalk meaning limited fertility creating higher costs and problems for large scale arable farming on the estate . Therefore the viability of many combinable crops is limited if the whole estate were to go into cropping . Much of the land is grade and not the easiest to work , so beef production seems to offer an attractive alternative . Various considerations have to be taken into account when choosing a beef production system , as ( ) summed up . < list > Financial resources . These include cash flow requirements and the capital availability;physical resources , e.g. the area and quality of grassland available , field structure and the availability of water;date of birth of claves - or spring;type of cattle - pure dairy , dual purpose or beef , or crosses.(Source : p The Agricultural Notebook : th edition , edited by R J Soffe ) < /list > The head beef herd is a key source of income for and is geared up for farm shop production . The farm shop , when set up in was primarily set up for the sale of beef and this has now seen expansion to lamb , free range chickens and black pig bacon and sausages all produced on the farm . The homebred beef herd has seen major breed development over with increased favour for in order to meet customer preference . The original combination of cows crossed with Saler bulls has increasing seen crosses to meet this demand . This is an innovative example of producing what is demanded , not just what it is necessarily easiest to produce and as the farm directly sells its own produce this is vital to successful business . It could be suggested that are also used due to the breed 's meat to fat ratio and growing rate . As a closed herd , meaning that no new stock is bought in from markets etc , has managed an organised system to provide a constant flow of produce through the shop throughout . In relation to beef , cattle are slaughtered and at the other end of the scale , calving is spread out throughout , and autumn , in order to keep a steady flow of beef stock maturing and finishing throughout . Steers and heifers are killed at respectively . The cattle system is geared to including both indoor housing and outdoor grazing . Winter housing occurs , as on most farms , due to unsuitable field conditions outdoors in the wet and so that the cattle do not loose condition and the ability to gain weight by using a greater degree of feed energy for temperature regulation . Summer grazing is based on ( ha ) of permanent pasture . Feed is a mixture of forage and concentrate with silage and cracker feed as well as milled rapeseed making up the majority of the diet . Following the increase in demand for meat and the strive at for new ideas , a recent stem has been the creation of a pedigree beef herd was established in . Originally comprising of cattle from successful bloodlines , the cattle , has bred these animals with the idea of creating a centre point to their own commercial herd in future generations . The aim of this specialist smaller herd is for to breed its own bulls with this successful bloodline and become sufficient as unit for future meat production . The website states this aim and relates to the importance of knowing the whole production process when selling through the farm 's own farm shop and obviously by controlling all aspects of the rearing process this is more so the case : < quote>""We believe we are the only business who are able to control the process naturally from conception to consumption . "" ( URL ) < /quote > In conclusion the beef unit is an important part of the estate . It was because of the beef that the farm shop was originally set up and since has seen great expansion . It appears in regard to livestock production as a whole that has an efficient organisation in that the company produces and markets home grown produce . This has proved very successful and built up a widescale cliental base , including through mail ordering . Much of the success from beef production and the farm shop as whole is related not only to quality , but also the confidence that a reputable farm shop gives the consumer - that is the produce has been home grown and hence that person does not mind paying a little bit extra for this . There is also the public perception that is a well managed estate and deliverers sustainable farming practices which promotes the companies success .",1
"< heading > INTRODUCTION</heading > Pepper v Hart - The taxpayers were teachers at who could educate their sons at the school at the normal fees . The question raised was the precise amount of tax to be paid for the benefit received . held the cost for the employer , i.e. , school was the average cost and gave a ruling in favour of the school ; and reversed the opinion deciding in favour of the taxpayers i.e. , the cost of benefit was the marginal cost ; and for doing this it relied on parliamentary debates , or . The ratio laid down in the case was reference to would be permitted only under the following circumstances : where there is an ambiguity or obscurity as to the meaning of the legislation or when the literal meaning leads to absurdity ; and the statement is the statement of a minister or other promoter of the bill ; and the statement relied is clear .   < fnote > Pepper v Hart [ ] AC 593 @ < /fnote > The importance of the case lies in that , the court had to decide if they could have recourse to in deciding a case , and if did , would it infringe Art . of ) , i.e. , "" the freedom of speech , and debates or proceedings in the , ought not to be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of . "" ( The judges ruled out any infringement of Art . 9 ) < fnote > Taken from of v Johnson - Smith [ ] 1 QB 522 @ < /fnote > Hansard is defined as "" The name by which is customarily referred to "" . It is not the understanding of the individual Members of on the present state of law of , but the words , which provide evidence of the purpose of the legislation . It is one of the extrinsic aids to statutory interpretation , now widely considered after this famous decision . < fnote > Oxford Dictionary of Law , , , Pg 210 < /fnote><heading > APPROACHES TO STATUTORY INTERPRETATION</heading > Statutory interpretation is the process by which the courts attach meaning to a particular statute in a case before it . There are rules of statutory interpretation : - Literal Rule - The courts uses the actual words in the statute and gives meaning to it irrespective of the result produced . The courts construes the statute as a whole to give effect to the legislation . This can be used only if literal meaning leads to absurdity . Mischief Rule - If there is any mischief in the common law , which the statute intended to remedy , the courts will give effect to it . Though they are referred to as rules , they are only guiding principles . And they have to be used in the order of priority . There are approaches to interpretation : Literal Approach - This approach suggests , the judge , unless under rare circumstances , should use only the words of the statute to give meaning to it . Purposive Approach - This approach suggests the judge can look at words outside the statute to give effect to the true intention of the legislature . The Law is said to use the literal approach to interpretation . But now , for matters concerning ( ) legislation and also the domestic legislation designed to implement Community legislation purposive approach is adopted . < fnote > The English Legal System , Slapper & Kelly , Seventh Edition 2004 , Pg - 194 . < /fnote><heading > USE OF HANSARD < /heading > The courts never permitted using as an aid to interpretation until as it was thought to be unreliable . In the case of , Lord Denning MR , wanted to change this and dissented the view that parliamentary material should not be used and said it would throw light on the matter if used . < fnote>[1979 ] AC 264 < /fnote > But when the case went before Lord reversed the judgement and said that use of parliamentary material did not promote clarity and was unreliable and hence not to be used . This was the position on until the decision in , which allowed reference to as an aid to interpretation . reversed its earlier decisions in v , Black - Clawson v Papierwerke Waldohf - Aschaffenburg AG , and v Johnson . < fnote>[1993 ] AC 593 < /fnote><fnote>[1968 ] AC 58 < /fnote><fnote>[1975 ] AC 591 < /fnote><fnote>[1979 ] AC 264 < /fnote > Lord Browne- , delivering the leading judgement in the case said : < quote>""I suspect most , cases references to Parliamentary materials will not throw any light on the matter . But in a few cases it may emerge that the very question was considered by in passing the legislation . Why in such a case should the courts blind themselves to a clear indication of what intended in using those words ? "" < /quote><fnote > Pepper ( Inspector of Taxes ) v [ ] AC 596 @ 634 - 5 < /fnote > This suggests that in case of any ambiguity , instead of giving a wrong interpretation of Parliamentary intention , the court can have recourse to parliamentary debates . The courts have , after all to give effect to the 's intention . But this has to be construed very strictly and used only in the cases set out above and when the other internal aids fail to give meaning . < heading > ARGUMENTS AGAINST THE USE OF HANSARD</heading > But there is major drawback of the use of addressed by almost all the judges and other critics time and again , which is that the use of greatly increases the cost of litigation . While I accede to this view I feel that since parliamentary materials are to be used only in limited cases as set out in the decision it will not lead to increased costs in all cases . But this is not always true as can be seen from a multitude of cases where lawyers have tried to use but in vain . There are cases where was used even when there was no ambiguity in construing the statute . < fnote>'Pepper v , , Johan , , pg @ < /fnote><fnote > R v Warwickshire County Council , Ex Parte [ ] AC 583 < /fnote > Another drawback , as argued by the commentators is that by using the words of the ministers , they may get the power to make laws . This goes against the separation of powers between the and the Judiciary . It is also thought of as encroaching upon the judicial functions .   < fnote>'Pepper v Hart and its , , , Law @ < /fnote><heading > USE OF HANSARD AFTER PEPPER V HART</heading > The cases where was used were , Ex , a case that came before immediately after . But there were cases where could not be used since they did not satisfy the requirements .   < fnote>[1993 ] AC 583 < /fnote><fnote>[1993 ] AC 593 < /fnote><fnote > R v Secretary of for the Environment , Transport and ) [ ] 2 WLR 15 ( HL ) ; R v Deegan [ 1998 ] 2 Cr App R 121 ( CA ) ; Director of Public Prosecutions v Bull [ 1994 ] ALL ER 411 ( DC ) < /fnote > In Three Rivers District Council v ( No.2 ) it was held that the rule on must be relaxed in order to give effect to some particular . Held , it could be used to determine the purpose of the statute . Similarly , in the case of v , HL considered for the time if parliamentary material could be used to ascertain if a statutory provision was compatible with the . But it was held that it was not appropriate for the court to use here . < fnote>[1996 ] 2 All ER < /fnote><fnote>[2003 ] 4 All ER 97 < /fnote><fnote > European Convention on Human Rights < /fnote><heading > CONCLUSION</heading > In conclusion I submit that though as an aid to interpretation has proven itself useful , in most cases a plain reading of the statute will suffice . Another important aspect to be noted is the ministers have to now take greater care to see that what they say reflects the purpose of the Act and this involves greater time and money for the since it has to look at all the notes and see to it that it does not include unnecessary material since the court may rely upon these in future . Not only this , the use of may not prove to be useful ; and in many , in fact most occasions the courts have refused to use it since it does not shed any light on the matter .","< heading > Introduction</heading > In this study I will consider non - violent alternative globalization movements and civil society organizations as social movements . I will focus on movements from the which challenge - in different ways - the very concept and nature of international law through their pragmatic struggles . These case - studies aim at grounding the propositions I want to make in order to improve the efficiency of civil society activism . I mean to sketch general features applicable to a theory of social movements from the study of concrete cases . The section assesses theory developed by . The draws lessons from the original structure of and of the network in order to identify the most desirable way to organize social movements at a global and local level . The proposition , based on the ' transcalar ' use of law in the struggle and by the anti - sweatshop movement in , offers a set of strategies and methods that can make the work of social movements more effective . Finally the proposition identifies the legal skills developed by in its struggle against a hegemonic and neoliberal conception of private property in . < heading > A conceptual approach of law and civil society activism : a critical assessment of the ' Subaltern Cosmopolitan Legality ' theory < /heading > The aim of this proposition is to shed light on the prospects and possibilities for social movements which work for the betterment of life in deprived communities of the and of the . is the resistance against the inequalities produced by a differential of power in a globalized world . It focuses on the resistance from below , by grassroots movements . I consider social movements as the representatives of . How does this conceptual framework account for the challenges to law that social movements create ? It encompasses a criticism of the dominant thoughts , goes beyond the liberal internationalism of international law , and transcends the constraints of jurisdiction . < fnote > Rajagopal ( ) < /fnote > Social movements have the potential to reinvent international law , challenge it , and democratize it . What is the role of law in regulating the power relations in everyday life and what are the impacts of everyday experiences on law ? The study of social movements draws from the critical approach to liberal theories of international law , human rights and justice . The study of social movements enables to challenge the dominant legal framework because their resistance is based on a re - appropriation of the authorship of the definition of legality : they act at the border between legality , illegality and non - legality . They link ' everyday forms of power , struggle and institutional politics , including at the national and global levels ' . is being reshaped in the way social movements use law at every level , depending on what they want to achieve : the local laws are challenged by the use of regional agreements and supranational institutions , international scrutiny and solidarity is called on the local struggles through the use of international legal instruments and NGOs . < fnote > Ibid . < /fnote > But international law remains focused on institutional actors and practices . This is precisely where a social movements ' perspective clashes with the hegemonic conception of law . argues that the various social movements in the Third World challenge international law in ways . , they have their own conceptions of modernity and development that conflict with those of international law . It is a new way of thinking law : how to write resistance into international law ? They use the language of human rights as the legal tool and ' discourse ' of resistance . It is at the same time part of the dominant legal discourse , but also the strongest asset social movements have in order to achieve their resistance . They propose alternative human rights , different from the ones on which the state focuses , but without conflicting with the state . While the mainstream approach is characterized by a dualist position : either statist or anti - statist , social movements go beyond this duality . Social movements move international law from its institutionalist and formalist realm and propose new definitions of democracy . The neoliberal property rights regime is being rejected by the re - appropriation of resources by the local and by a redefinition of the concept of property which instead of being exclusive becomes inclusive and shared . , the global international system is not appropriate and is being transformed at the local level . A social movement perspective brings theoretical challenges to international law . Social movements are identity - based . There is not one definition of social movements since they encompass a plural reality , various actors with various motives and methods of resistance based on different ' political cultures ' . This inherent plurality is precisely the challenge to the reductive , universalist and rationalist character of international law . For example , the feminists have shown that the distinction between private and public in the liberal theory was not relevant . < fnote > Ibid . - 8 < /fnote > Finally , instead of the unified political space produced by liberal internationalism , social movements propose ' cultural politics ' where identities are related to ' survival strategies ' . < fnote > Ibid . < /fnote > What does this new definition of the political mean for international law ? Social movements ' reveal the limitations of a liberal world order based primarily on individual autonomy and rights , and a realist world order based primarily on state sovereignty ' . < fnote > Ibid . < /fnote><heading > The most desirable approach for social movements on the ' law and civil society activism ' : the case of at a global level and the network at a ' glocal ' level as new types of union with a non - centralized , non - exclusive and non - homogenising structure</heading><heading > The World Social Forum</heading > is the expression of a counter - hegemonic globalization within which a subaltern cosmopolitan legality which will change legal perspectives is being forged . According to , can not organize specific collective actions in its own name in order to preserve its comprehensiveness and inclusiveness . It is not an event , nor a conference , nor a party , nor a NGO , nor a social movement . It has no ideology . Its structure does not correspond to any modern model of political organization . It is ' a forum that facilitates the decisions made by the movements and organizations that take part in it ' . < fnote > Santos ( : - 6 ) < /fnote > To borrow and 's framework , is a place where the ' singularity ' of each organization and movement , its uniqueness and the ' commonality ' of their main struggle - which aims at challenging hegemonic globalization - are intrinsically linked . Indeed , within , social movements do not have to be identical to work together . Differences are respected and are not a basis for exclusion . < fnote > Hardt and ( : ) < /fnote > Seattle was the coherent global protest but social movements did not unite under a centralized entity ; they were linked together in a network structure . Should social movements concentrate more on the organization of a world forum , with a concrete , feasible program and agenda ? Is that necessary in order to be heard and acknowledged ? < fnote > Ibid . < /fnote > One has to wonder whether the coherence of social movements is desirable . In setting a specific agenda , the risk is that the movement should lose its insurgent nature and spontaneity ; that a top - down structure should emerge , provoking the bureaucratization of the forum . The most dangerous pitfall to avoid is the recuperation of the movement by the hegemon . This can only be avoided by rejecting any structure , organization , language used by hegemonic globalization actors and institutions . For example , social movements can be recaptured by the hegemonic discourse through the confusion that persists between them and NGOs . According to , NGOs do not equate to social movements since NGOs are ' institutional actors who derive their legal identity from the national systems where they are incorporated ' . Confusing NGOs and social movements narrow the potential of radical change of the latter . It reproduces the liberal categories applied to reality . ' NGOs are formed by - language - speaking , cosmopolitan local activists who know how to relate to western donors ( who provide most of the NGO funding ) and write fundraising proposals , while social movements activists do not often have this power ' . < fnote > Rajagopal ( : ) < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . < /fnote > There is a ' Western bias in the NGO world ' since they are dependent on foreign funding , which gives a certain authority to the donor . Growing in size implies a managerial and bureaucratic shift in the structure of the NGO . As a result they lose their flexibility and ability to innovate . < heading > The Zapatista network</heading > The Zapatista solidarity network analysed by Olesen is an example of infrastructure that challenges the confusion of social movements and NGOs . It is an original form of network created after the indigenous ( EZLN ) uprising in on , in response to the trade agreement . The Zapatista solidarity network 's first aim was to call for a peaceful solution to the conflict between the army and the . The network relies on international solidarity as a protection against the national authorities . Its ' information circuit ' strategy is based on the production , gathering , processing and distribution of the information that will be consumed abroad through the Internet . Communication is the main tool of because it is physical communication at the local level between the peasants , indigenous people and members of the network , and also mediated communication at a global level with any individual , NGO or social movement which is interested for various reasons in the struggle . This horizontal and decentred network does not depend on a hierarchical authority . Leadership positions rotate , giving the impression of a ' vacuum of authority at the centre ' . < fnote > Olesen ( ) < /fnote><fnote > Hardt and ( : ) < /fnote > This type of centrality distinguishes between core , peripheral and transitory actors . The movement has never sought secession from the state of nor political power , nor sovereignty . Network relationships and democratic practices define a type of life in common that the movement wants to share with the world through messages of solidarity . < heading > The strategies and methods that can make the work of civil society organizations more effective : the anti - sweatshop movement of and struggle and their ' transcalar ' use of law</heading > Can the un / re - thinking of law occur within subaltern cosmopolitanism and under what conditions ? What are the most effective strategies ? Different aspects of law need to be conceptualized in order to identify the best strategies . Santos distinguishes dimensions of legality . Legal mobilization includes legal , illegal and non - legal actions . The local , national and global scales are important in so far as mobilization is often ' transcalar ' . The ' rival legal knowledges ' ( indigenous people , peasants , women , minorities , religious groups ... ) should be conceptualized and included in the struggle against the official state and regulatory law . The legal temporal dimension is composed of contrasting time frames ( the instantaneous time of financial capital , the long - term temporality of colonialism , and the longest duration of ecological deterioration ) . All these dimensions need to be considered in order to frame social movements ' strategies . < fnote > Santos ( : - 1 ) < /fnote > According to , social movements have an eclectic , opportunistic and strategic attitude towards international law and institutions when they can use it at the local scale . < fnote > Rajagopal ( : ) < /fnote > This section will examine examples of the ' transcalar ' use of law as a strategy for social movements to achieve their aims . The ' transcalar ' use of law designates an opportunistic approach of the different levels of law ( local , national , regional and international ) and the use of their conflicting nature by social movements in order to achieve their demands . , the anti - sweatshop movement in , , analysed by is an example of the use and role of law in counter - hegemonic globalization . The movement has framed its struggle within a legal and human rights discourse . The counter - hegemonic legal strategies of the anti - sweatshop movements compete with the hegemonic use of law by transnational corporations as a way to maintain their dominance . It is an example of the ' transcalar ' use of law by workers rights movements where national labour laws ( hard law ) , ILO conventions , corporate codes of conduct ( soft law ) and social clauses in bilateral and regional agreements overlap and conflict . < fnote > Santos ( : ) < /fnote > Social movements and their targets compete in their use of ' plural legal fields ' as they shift among different scales and types of law . < fnote > Ibid . < /fnote > Social movements use hard and soft law in a pragmatic and opportunistic way . They call for the softening of corporate - friendly regulation such as TRIPS and for the hardening of social regulations at the same time . They want to improve the regulatory capacity of the state and enforce the powers of international organizations like the ILO . The case , in in , shows how social movement strategies compelled to enforce its code of conduct by joining the , a voluntary monitoring system of TNCs created by the administration . < fnote > Ibid . < /fnote > At the local level , anti - sweatshop movements sue contractors in the countries where they produce . At the regional level , they campaign to include labour clauses into regional trade agreement such as and at the global scale , they lobby at the . Another example is given by 's study of the role of law in the struggle which involved ( ) and . It is a transnational resistance which involved displaced people , local and foreign NGOs , settled abroad , against Western and local corporations , , governments , the state and federal governments . Various levels of laws were involved such as global institutions and foreign investment laws , national constitutional norms and local , customary and informal rules . It is difficult to judge what the role of law has been over a period of of struggle . was in favour of the in ( by allowing them to contest the height of the dam ) but then in favour of the hegemonic actors in ( by allowing the height of the dam to be increased ) . < fnote > Ibid . < /fnote > The used private and regulatory law concerning the environment and the displacement of people in the stage of the struggle . International law and transnational coalitions served at moving away from the equation . Finally , constitutional law became a crucial ally of the proponents of the dam as allowed its construction . The emancipatory or regulatory character of law is not a given fact but depends on the context . The outcomes of certain strategies can never be foreseen because of the complexity of the dynamics between different levels of legality , of the political contexts and of the nature of the actors . < heading > The legal skills that should be developed by social movements to counter neoliberalism : the case of use of juridical actors and institutions in Brazil</heading > Social movements should appropriate legal skills in order to change the hegemonic law that enhances neoliberalism . Social movements should adopt the language of law as it keeps its own communicative , popular , local and emancipatory language . They should include more juridical protagonists and experts in their struggle to gain a social legitimacy in the interpretation and shaping of the law . They should not see courts of law as something intrinsically outside their struggle but incorporate them into it . is not regulatory or emancipatory in itself but it is the dynamics between the different levels of law at play , the spatiotemporal contexts and how they are used that define the nature of law , which in turn shapes the opportunities of social movements . The 's struggle proved its ' ability to convert movement energy into juridical energy ' . It used the skills of various juridical actors in order to defend its claims and bring legal change . The main obstacles to the acquisition of legal skills by social movements are the contrasts between movements and juridical temporalities , logics , languages , methods and aims . Social movements expect outcomes on the short - term , their action is locally situated and often illegal ; they need to be exposed to the public opinion through the media in order to be protected from local authorities ; they use a popular language , pragmatic methods and have emancipatory claims . < fnote > Ibid . < /fnote > The focused on the illegal occupation and redistribution of private agricultural lands in . The 's collaboration with juridical actors changed legality in practice by the enforcement of existing laws ; created challenging interpretations of rights and had them institutionalized through jurisprudence ; and challenged the juridical temporality by reducing it to that of social movements . < fnote > Ibid . < /fnote > It was distrustful of any juridical actors and institutions for fear of being dispossessed of their claims and struggle . At the same time , it was impossible to keep their action outside legality : the occupation of land and its claim was entirely embedded into a juridical issue . That is why in , the movement developed a ' sophisticated reactive juridical strategy ' . Their main legal skill consists in the concentration of legal talents and resources . It is therefore well - organized , structured and relies on an extensive network . < fnote > Ibid . < /fnote > For example , ( RENAP ) works with the and makes the link between the action of the movement and the juridical sphere . The network helps the movement by constitutionalizing progressive laws and spread new doctrines . The publication of the RENAP 's review contributes to the diffusion of the claims of the movements but also of the legal skills developed by these lawyers among the broader national community of lawyers . < fnote > Ibid . < /fnote><heading > Conclusion</heading > The proposition aimed at underlying the importance of the ' Subaltern Cosmopolitan Legality ' theory as the main framework within which social movements should think themselves and their relation with the hegemonic legality . The proposition advocated for the organization of social movements in a coherent but fluid way at the same time , which would enable them to challenge the pervasiveness of neoliberalism through its comprehensiveness and inclusiveness . The proposition pointed at the transcalar use of law as an effective strategy . The proposition suggested that social movements should interiorize juridical actors and institutions as of their skills . I would finally conclude by saying that the aim of social movements is to achieve global reform without being recaptured by the neoliberal ideology .",0
"< heading > Introduction</heading > The law on corporate manslaughter is undoubtedly an area in our present system which is subject to much criticism especially with the increasing number of death occurring in the workplace . According to an article by , "" there are still around avoidable deaths in the workplace "" . Indeed , this makes us ponder about the effectiveness of our present law especially that some recent statistics ( as at ) showed that companies have been convicted of manslaughter so far . As we shall see , the debate is mainly about how to attribute fault to a corporation and how effectively the law has overcome this problem or is there any scope for reform of the law . < fnote > URL . < /fnote><fnote > URL . < /fnote><heading > The Present Law</heading > According to the present law on corporate manslaughter , the only way of convicting a corporation is through the identification principle . Under this technique , those who control the company are considered as embodying the company so that their mind can be imputed to the company itself . It is a question for the jury to decide who can be regarded as the directing and controlling mind of a company . In brief , the main issue for the courts is how to attribute to a company the acts and states of mind of its employees for corporate criminal liability to arise , provided that these acts and states of mind satisfy the prerequisites for manslaughter . When a corporation is found guilty , the punishment is in the form of a fine because a corporation as such is not physical and thus , can not be imprisoned . < heading > Liability for manslaughter under We shall now consider whether or any individual might be guilty of manslaughter under the present law . The step is to assess whether each employee might be individually liable , then consider whether their act and state of mind could be imputed to the corporation . It is important to bear in mind that the death resulted from the acts of various individuals so that it is also necessary to consider issues of causation . Criminal liability for the individuals will be of gross negligence manslaughter because there is no ' malice aforethought ' and the single test devised by the in will be used . there is the need to establish whether the defendant was in breach of a duty of care towards the victim . Then , the next step is to see whether that breach of duty was the cause of the defendant 's death and finally , the last step is whether that breach of duty amounted to gross negligence . The test for gross negligence as per Lord LC in the same case will be "" whether , having regard to the risk of death involved , the conduct of the defendant was so bad in all circumstances as to amount in the jury 's judgment to a criminal act or omission "" . < fnote>[1995 ] 1 AC 171 . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid at , , Principles of Criminal Law , edition , at pg . < /fnote > Considering Sid 's case , the question for the courts might be whether as a scaffolder he had the duty towards any eventual user of the scaffolding to ensure its stability and safety . On the assumption that Sid was in breach of a duty of care towards the victim , his case might fail on causation purposes since 's swinging the jib of the crane into the scaffolding might be regarded as a novus actus interveniens . . Thus , Sid 's conduct may not in the place satisfy the actus rea for manslaughter . As for the mens rea of manslaughter , he may not have the required knowledge about safety standards such that the risk of danger would have been obvious to him . In conclusion the courts might not find his conduct so gross as to amount to a criminal act . It can rather be said that it is who had the responsibility of ensuring that the scaffolding complied with the safety regulations since it is his signature which is required on the form . As for , it can be argued in his favour that since he did not have the duty to operate the crane in the place , he could not owe a duty of care . However , it can be counter - argued that by volunteering to do the job , he has also voluntarily assumed the responsibility of driving the crane in a safe manner . Hence , a legal duty of care arises . But though he might be in breach of a duty of care which caused the death , his inexperience might pose a problem for the courts to establish whether his conduct was grossly negligent . Being inexperienced , he can not be expected to perform the job like one who is trained and experienced . In the case of the death of in , farm owners were convicted of manslaughter for leaving a potato loader in the control of a trainee , who was crushed to death after the equipment was hit by a lorry . The "" heard that "" the JCB should not have been under the control of an untrained with very limited experience of operating such a large , potentially dangerous piece of equipment "" "" . Indeed , it is 's fault for failing to check 's qualifications . Besides , it should have been obvious to him that may not have the required skill for the latter is only an apprentice carpenter . Moreover , being inexperienced might mean that was unconscious as to the fact that he was manipulating the crane in a dangerous way , and therefore any risk of harm might not have been obvious to him . < fnote > Stone and [ ] QB 354 . < /fnote><fnote > URL . . < /fnote > On all grounds , seems to be at fault . Based on his relationship with the victim as the site manager supervising his activities , a breach of duty of care can be established . He owes a duty of care towards , just as any other worker , to ensure his safety and health , and has undoubtedly failed to do so . He had knowledge that there were insufficient clamps and nevertheless instructed the scaffolder to carry on with the work . He even gave his approval that the scaffolding complied with the safety regulations without even inspecting it . Moreover , he omitted to check 's qualification and did not take any action when other workers reported to him the way in which the crane was being dangerously operated in a very unpredictable manner . This clearly shows his indifference to the risk of harm in the workplace . His conduct clearly falls far below what is expected of him as a site manager making him individually liable . Since 's conduct can potentially satisfy the prerequisites for gross negligence manslaughter , it is now necessary to consider the possibility of whether his conduct might be attributed to the corporation . Being the site manager , he is obviously well placed in the hierarchy of the company . In , it was held that the ' branch manager ' was "" not part of the "" mind "" of the company "" because supervision of the details of operations in a retail shop is not part of the function of higher management . This defence could be potentially applied to a ' site manager ' case . Besides , there is clearly the existence of an obvious individual within the company against whom proceedings can be brought . The court will be reluctant to find corporate fault as the act was committed by another person . Indeed , is the one who negligently failed to supervise the work properly and should therefore be solely liable . < fnote>[1972 ] AC 153 . < /fnote><fnote > Law Com No 237 ( 1996 ) , para at pg . < /fnote><fnote > Lord in v Natrass [ ] AC 153 , Com No 237 ( 1996 ) , para at pg . < /fnote><fnote > Birmingham & . Co [ ] , Com No 237 ( 1996 ) , para at pg . < /fnote > As far as the managing director is concerned , it is unlikely that the courts will find him liable because his conduct may not satisfy the prerequisites for manslaughter . of all , he had no knowledge of what was happening on the building site though he visited it on occasions . His site manager failed to report him any of the problems occurring in the workplace . For corporate criminal liability to arise , the managing director must also be guilty because he is the directing and controlling mind of the company . As said in the case of R v HM Coroner for East Kent , ex p , "" it is required that the mens rea and actus rea of manslaughter should be established not against those who acted for or in the name of the company but against those who were to be identified as the embodiment of the company itself "" . Since , it is unlikely that will be found guilty , corporate liability in this circumstance may not arise . < fnote>[1989 ] 88 Cr App R 10 , Law Com No 237 ( 1996 ) , para at pg . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid note . < /fnote><heading > Critics of the Present Law</heading > The identification principle has been greatly criticised for being narrow in its scope as seen through its application in . It depends on fault to be found at the individual level , and then even if a blameworthy individual can be identified , he / she must be the controlling mind of the company for corporate liability to arise . Besides , the more complex the management and the bigger the company is , the greater the difficulty to apply the principle . Indeed , the case where prosecution for manslaughter resulted in the conviction of a company was in the case of Kite and OLL Ltd which was a - man company . Although the limited scope of the identification principle can somewhat be said to be partially supplemented by prosecutions for breach under 1974 , the problem is that ( HSE ) would only press charges in extreme cases that they believe represent a blatant breach of the Act . And consequently of workplace deaths resulted into company prosecutions . These are the main reasons that led to Government proposals to introduce a new offence of . < . < /fnote><fnote > Winchester Crown Court , , unreported . < /fnote><fnote > CMV Clarkson & HM Keating , Criminal Law Text and Materials , edition , at pg . < /fnote><heading > Recommendations</heading > The Law Commission recommended the creation of a special offence of corporate killing similar to the offence of killing by gross carelessness . Its main idea is to adapt the test for killing by gross carelessness to corporations . Thus , under the new proposals , emphasis will be laid on "" management failure "" and on how the company 's conduct fell far below what could be reasonably expected . For the new corporate offence , it is not required that the risk should have been obvious to the defendant or that he was capable of appreciating the risk ( unlike the individual offence ) . < fnote > Law Com No 237 ( 1996 ) , para at pg . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , para at pg . < /fnote><heading > Liability for manslaughter under the new proposals</heading > Under our circumstances , the courts may find concurrent liability- on one hand , the site manager and on the other , the corporation . would be guilty of the individual offence for the reasons already mentioned before . As for the corporation , the crucial question would be whether there has been a failure to ensure safety in the management / organisation of the activities of the company . Some of the points that the courts may take into consideration while answering this question might be whether there was an adequate system of checks and control on the building site . 's negligence might be unintentional due to excessive workload . The company should have perhaps employed additional supervisors , each responsible for a group of tasks . In this way , inadequate clamps could have been anticipated for if there has been someone monitoring the stock of materials . Moreover , the courts might consider the provision of substitute / replacement workers in case of absence or illness . In our case , there seems to be only one crane driver so that his absence will temporarily slow down the activities . The company should have taken measures beforehand for such eventualities . The courts might also take into account the provision of safety belts or safety nets for users of the scaffolding . It is likely that may be found guilty for not providing such equipment . Therefore , under the new offence , the courts will look at how safely and properly the activities of the company are being conducted as a whole rather than , as at present , try to pinpoint a blameworthy individual whose conduct can be attributed to the corporation . < fnote > Refer to pg . < /fnote><fnote > Law Com No 237 ( 1996 ) , para at pg . < /fnote><heading > Evaluation of the new proposals < /heading > As it can be seen , the new proposals are greatly advantageous in the way that it avoids the difficulty encountered with the identification principle . It focuses on corporate fault through its test of management failure falling far below the appropriate standard rather than finding individual fault which can be attributed to the corporation . Since a lot of emphasis is stressed on management failure , this may encourage companies to devote more financial resources to provide a safer working environment than they normally would . Another merit is that these proposals may discourage companies from shielding behind individual employees whose conduct caused the harm by putting all the blame on them . This is illustrated by in its hypothetical example of the lorry driver who causes death by dangerously driving in the course of company 's business . The act in itself does not involve management failure . But under the new proposals , the corporate may nevertheless be liable if the driver was required to work excessively long hours or was doing so to earn overtime , and consequently was overtired , and the company has failed to provide a monitoring system to ensure that this does not happen . Indeed , the new recommendations make it easier to convict corporations . As it has been criticised by in the case of the collapse of platform in killing men , "" the current state of the corporate killing law hampered the member 's families fight for justice "" . < fnote > Law Com No 237 ( 1996 ) , para at pg . < /fnote><fnote > http : URL . . < /fnote > However , one might question the fact that the new proposals might be too harsh on companies . They do not guarantee that companies will escape liability even if all the necessary precautions and measures have been taken to ensure safety in the workplace because nothing is being said about what the appropriate standard expected of the company should consist of . This is a jury question and all will depend on how they interpret the words . Moreover , corporations might be forced to devote huge amounts of financial resources beyond their capacity to cater for all possible eventuality of danger in the workplace , and this is not realistic . The harshness of the new law might discourage the formation of new companies or even lead to closure of existing ones . Consequently , in the long run this may have a huge impact on the economy . < heading > Conclusion</heading > Therefore , even if the Government is attempting to rectify the loopholes of the present law , it can be seen that the new proposals also engender new problems . Hence , at times it is necessary to ask ourselves whether corporations should be in the place capable of being liable for manslaughter . Besides , if companies are found guilty , they will only be required to pay large fines to the victims ' families . Perhaps , it is better to have corporations liable for only a breach of duty of care towards its employees to ensure their safety and health in the workplace and consequently pay damages to those affected by the breach . The result will afterall be the same . In this respect , the law of tort might be more appropriate to deal with corporate harm - doing than the criminal law .",""" Suffer any wrong that can be done you , rather than come here ! "" These words were exclaimed in of as a clear warning to all potential litigants stepping into the old . This was noticeably fitting at a time when the was infamous for its interminable and dreadfully protracted proceedings . But to what extent was this phrase in an accurate depiction of the grinding process of law and its attendant injustices ? This essay will seek to analyse and interpret the realities of law with respect to during a paternalistic and philanthropic Victorian era . Moreover this analysis shall be conducted within the context of ; this will provide a unique insight into the workings of the law , particularly trusts , although there might have been some resentment by against the . Thus a brief introduction regarding the work of and the particular time period in which it was written shall be provided . It is also important to interpret this particular question through an objective perspective by reference to modern articles . This will help to shed some light on the work of , specifically within the period from , by locating arguments within a different sphere from that during writing of . By referring to this essay shall also provide an intellectual discourse regarding the practice of ; this necessitates an examination concerning the reality of the workings and carrying out of the law in the by utilizing primary and secondary sources . In addition the case of which was supposedly an inspiration for the writing of v Jarndyce by will be discussed . It provides an example of the various cases related to wills and trusts which were in abundance during 's time . Furthermore the main pre - occupation of the in was in relation to administration of estates and private trusts , albeit there were other matters such as bankruptcy and business cases being heard . Equity played a considerable role in the regulation of trustee 's duties towards beneficiaries , and essentially contributed to the development of the trust concept . Equity was the essential component of the . It is also imperative that this essay analyse the institutions and personnel involved in the , who were responsible for the adjudging of cases . In particular the established role of the Lord Chancellor including the sham Lord Chancellor Mr. will be examined . In addition we shall also explore the legal themes surrounding the solicitors in Mr. and Mr. . These characters , although fictional depictions , are particularly valuable in highlighting both the strengths and deficiencies of their counterparts in reality . Ergo the purpose of this essay is to interpret central aspects related to the work of the old ( ) - the law , practice , institutions and personnel - by referring to and his elucidation of these various aspects through metaphorical illustration and character portrayal . < fnote > Dickens , , Bleak House , ed . Bradbury , , : , , . < /fnote><heading > Bleak House in ? < /heading > was writing in a tumultuous and paradoxical period that consisted of strife and wealth . Although there was a general wave of economic development in , this only served to endow the rich with more riches , and to perpetuate poverty and suffering among the poor . It was the beginning of the 19 th century and industrial development was at its peak bringing along with it many socio - economic and demographic changes . Hence as commentator writes , "" By , the law was struggling to catch up with a rate of change which was accelerating ... "" This meant that the rapid industrialization far exceeded any proposed advancement or reform of law , which necessarily led to a disproportionate legal system . The latter was not adapted to the changes in society and as such could not cope with the amount of litigation put forward in the courts ; . This dire situation is reflected in 's which was an illustration of the injustices , delay and expense of the law in . It is apparent in the writings of that vehement protestations of the law and personnel involved in the work of are boldly voiced out by the author . Even when the reader sees a glimmer of hope with a chanced discovery of the long - lost will , they are left disappointed to realise that the whole estate in question has been absorbed in costs . The litigation proceedings have been in vain but in retrospect the only good that has come out of the judgment is its finality , though that brings with it dissatisfaction and despondency . Therefore it seems that the proceedings put forth in the are but a vicious cycle . himself was no stranger to the mechanisms of the as he was personally involved in litigation concerning a plagiarised version of his novel , . It must have been an extremely disheartening experience for . It is no wonder that he subsequently wrote as an exposition of the ineptitude and corruption of the law in , which had by then crystallized into hardened principles much like the common law . Many commentators have also asserted that the fictional case of v Jarndyce was loosely based upon the real case of , in which "" ... the case was not concluded until after it started . "" Although was an extremely protracted case highlighting the delays of the , it was by no means the only case with such an appalling record . Hence the case of v Jarndyce must have been based upon an amalgamation of cases litigated in the , and in relation to different subject matters . But wills and trusts certainly form the chief constituent of 's fictional case and little is known except that "" It 's about a Will , and the trusts under a Will - or it was , once . It 's about nothing but Costs , now . "" The fact that not much is known lends to a sense of mystery and a certain degree of legitimacy , as accurate criticisms can not be launched against a case that is so ambiguous . However it is recognized by commentators that "" the fiction , however is built on a secure bedrock of fact ; the voluminous testimony and submissions made by 's contemporaries to a series of parliamentary inquiries on the legal system furnish ample backing for much of his ' bill of complaint ' on such scores as delay and expense , procedural technicality , and inconclusiveness of outcome . "" But there is still the issue of credibility . Although does not furnish v Jarndyce with the complete facts and legal issues much accustomed by lawyers and jurists , it provides a unique insight into the law , practice , institutions and personnel involved in the work of the old . This is possible by looking through the lens of the myriad characters , and also from an observation of the various interwoven linguistic intricacies in . < fnote > Harding , , A Social History of Law , ; , , . < /fnote><fnote > McConnell , , ' , New Law Journal Vol . , No . ( ) , p.423 . < /fnote><fnote > Op.cit . note , p.118 . < /fnote><fnote , and , Patrick , ' Continuity or Change in in the and ? ' The Journal of British Studies , , ( ) , p. . < /fnote><heading > The Melody of Law in the Old Court of Chancery</heading > One of the purposes of this essay is to emphasize the law of trusts within the work of . It is the underlying theme that flows beneath the analysis and assessment of in relation to the during the Victorian era . Before the implementation of of the old was recognizable as a court concerned with equity . "" Equity 's procedure allowed the court to consider cases in a more - dimensional way . "" It was the only jurisdiction competent in dealing with equity unlike its more rigid common law counterpart . Thus equity 's flexibility allowed trusts to evolve into a sophisticated concept that was extremely protective of the beneficiaries ' interests . Indeed trusts and equity were and still are complementary with one another . Without delving into a lengthy historical account of how equity developed in , it is important to note that the 's role was to administer justice for individuals through the tools of morality , equity and conscience . According to , the equity of was chiefly concerned with remedying any wrongdoing to the plaintiff according to discretionary and moral attitudes of the Lord Chancellors . equity was however starting to build a foundation composed of organized principles and rules enunciated in reported cases , albeit there was still a discretionary element involved . It can therefore be seen that the gradual hardening of equitable principles had begun even in the earlier part of . of the main areas of practice which was influenced by this change was trusts law . "" ... roughly from , courts developed doctrines that sharpened the distinctions between trust and other legal arrangements . "" Many trusts principles that are now fossilized in the minds of lawyers and law students such as certainty of objects , and the elaboration of the rule in ( ) concerning termination of a trust by consenting sui juris beneficiaries were determined by in . Even the fictional case of v Jarndyce appertained to a trust under a will , and the determination of who should inherit was a crucial matter . But of course the crux of was its arguments concerning the delay and procrastination of the . Indeed "" ... has a far broader public for its much darker persona , thanks to and . "" 's novel is filled with linguistic descriptions of the inexcusable practice of and the persons involved such as solicitors and the Lord Chancellor . It is surely contradictory that the establishment of as a jurisdiction dealing with equity and remedying injustices is the same place that produces hardship and anguish . "" In the supremacy of equity had been established as a means of escaping the common law jurisdiction , but by , because of the backlog of administration in , escape was often sought in the other direction . "" The other direction was ; the same jurisdiction where individuals previously wanted to withdraw from . Hence it seems apparent that both courts had their deficiencies which needed to be remedied . was not solely concerned with the law of trusts and there were other subject matters such as bankruptcy , debts , and property disputes although trusts overlapped with the latter to a significant degree . "" The most important uses to which the trust was put in this period were perhaps in connection with settlement of landed estates and the safeguarding of the property of wealthy married women from the common law rights of their husbands . "" Although this statement depicted the function of trusts in the to it can equally be applied to period . However it is important to highlight that the use of trusts was also utilized by farmers , tradesmen , professionals and even charities ; trusts were no longer limited to the landed classes . was also aware of this fact . Mr. in was from , who we can infer from limited information , was a beneficiary under a testamentary trust established by his father , a farmer , who was certainly not of the landed classes . Thus the law of trusts extended its hand within various circles , which implied that the delays and injustices of were known to almost all stratum of society . The article written by and provides a deeper understanding of the identity of litigants to a chancery suit , and they effectively divided the identity of parties into major categories such as gentlemen , minors and widows . This essay has therefore relied on the statistical evidence submitted by and to support the argument that the use of trusts was not solely limited to an exclusive category - gentlemen ( gentry ) . But caution must be noted regarding the fluidity of self - ascriptions as was highlighted in the aforementioned article itself . It is clear that does present a certain degree of usefulness with respect to the law although not readily apparent on the surface as a whole . Although there are no clear signposting of trust issues in the novel itself hints at this theme throughout the book ; the use of characters that embody the trust theme such as Mrs. , who is involved in a charity concerning the cultivation of coffee and education of natives . Charities are themselves a form of trust ( charitable trust ) - "" the trust is the legal form most widely adopted to provide that institutional structure . "" The Victorian society was much concerned with philanthropy , morality and religion . Hence charities fulfilled these aims and benevolent purposes ; individuals could satisfy their altruistic needs . This in itself is indicative of the dominant air of patriarchy in those times . However it is to be acknowledged that charities played a vital role in supporting the welfare of the needy in Victorian society . "" The enactment of re - established a deterrent system of state poor law , imposing conditions on those who sought relief . "" Ergo help could be sought from charitable institutions but only by the ' deserving poor ' as expressed by . This was yet another lamentable scenario . From creating the ruinous case of v Jarndyce , to a sad figure of Mr. , and to the disillusioned , cautions the reader against entering . The use of trusts in these cases were not in itself harmful but coupled with the interference of the , trusts were turned into creatures of despair and destitution . This is in direct contrast with the statement by who expressed trusts as a magnificent and ingenious concept ; "" ... nobody had any idea of the magnitude of the juristic feat which lawyers had accomplished when they invented [ the trust ] concept . No one had any idea of the large space which that concept has filled , and still fills , in our public and private law . "" The fact that the trust concept was lauded as a pinnacle of 's success was sorely diminished by harsh realities in practice . < fnote > Lobban , , ' Preparing for Fusion : Reforming the Nineteenth - Century Court of Chancery , Part I ' , Law and History Review Vol . , , para . . ( online ) URL :   URL   ( Accessed ) . < /fnote><fnote > Cross , and , : , ed . , : Butterworths , , p.128 . < /fnote><fnote > Alexander , , ' as a Legal Category , , Law and History Review Vol.5 No.2 ( ) , p.304 . < /fnote><fnote > Saunders v ( ) Beav < /fnote><fnote > Haskett , , ' , Law and History Review Vol.14 , ) , p.245 . < /fnote><fnote > Watt , Gary , Trusts and Equity , 2nd ed . , : , p.7 . < /fnote><fnote > Op.cit . , p.136 . < /fnote><fnote > Op.cit . note , p.43 . < /fnote><fnote , , Trusts Law : Text and Materials , : , 2005 , p.878 . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . p.885 . < /fnote><fnote > Holdsworth , , Essays in Law and History , eds . , and , , : , , p.179 . < /fnote><heading > A Stark and Bitter Reality in Practice</heading > Focusing on the trust concept we find that the law did not necessarily correlate with the practice . "" The creation of the trust and its effective management was both personally and legally a matter of conscience . "" This statement applies to the role of the trustee . But on closer inspection this phrase ; specifically the words "" legally a matter of conscience "" should surely apply to . The Lord Chancellor and Master of the Rolls were the persons , who adjudged cases and produced final judgments according to equity ( encompassing conscience ) . However the law does not correspond to the reality of litigation in the , where it can be said that the conscience of the Lord Chancellor and Master of the Rolls were not bound . As aforementioned , by rules and principles of equity were beginning to harden . Thus the reality of practice was that judgments were being ' churned out ' according to established precedents and not according to conscience . This is reflected in where the character Mr. exclaims that "" [ t]here never was such an infernal cauldron as that , on the face of the earth ! Nothing but a mine below it on in term time , with all its records , rules and precedents collected in it ... "" and also at , "" , which knows no wisdom but in , is very rich in such Precedents ; and why should one be different from ? "" But this was not a necessarily disagreeable thing since criticisms which plagued the early modern that justice ; or rather equity varied according to the length of the Chancellors foot could now be diminished in its counterpart . There could not be any allegations of unrestricted subjectivity , which was paradoxical considering that it was subjectivity that lent equity a sense of authority over the law . Subjectivity did not mean unfettered discretion but a sense of doing what was right according to the conscience and morality of the individual Lord Chancellor or Master of the . The actual practice of the old which was slow and protracted invited the criticism of authors such as . This opinion is equally shared by that , "" [ p]erhaps the best - known condemnation of the unintelligible character of law is found in Bleak House . In , armies of bizarre lawyers consume exchanging and debating documents filled with arcane legal terminology , whereas the voices - indeed , even the participation - of the litigants themselves are unimportant and unwelcome . "" The sense of prolonged litigation is clearly highlighted in the above statement . But to what extent was the logjam in attributable to the system itself . Were the deficiencies in the exaggerated by and his contemporaries ? Although there were some accurate criticisms regarding the practice of , due recognition has to be given to the law reformers who sought to remedy the defects . It was not always clear what the root cause of a particular problem was . This was because of the fluctuating statistical information and methods used to calculate the turnover of cases in . For instance acknowledges in his article that "" [ i]n the era of Lord 's chancellorship , the figures for the number of bills filed in could thus be used as a weapon to defend or attack , depending on where chosen by the speaker for comparison . "" The fact that the underlying problem was not aptly detected meant that reform was slow - going . Maybe a main problem was never to be discovered , maybe because the weaknesses that plagued were a combination of different factors . Factors such as a lack of personnel , indecisiveness , flourishing industrial economy , a separate jurisdiction of law and equity , and mounting administration suits could have all played a part . This is a clear thread running across articles in relation to the reforming of the . might have been biased against as he had been involved in a copyrights case , which could have motivated him to formulate certain normative opinions . It is apparent when reading that an intense dislike of the can be felt from the strong and opinionated words that are employed . When the solicitors Mr. and Mr. express their reverence for , a hint of sarcasm by can be detected through these characters e.g. when Mr. opines that the established law of equity in is a great system , "" O really , Mr Jarndyce ! , prejudice . My dear sir , this is a very great country , a very great country . Its system of equity is a very great system , a very great system . Really , really ! "" seems to be mocking through Mr. 's exclamations ; the latter states the word ' great ' repetitiously as if to convince himself about the superiority of equity and to banish all self - doubts . This same theme of mockery continues to be imbued within the character Mr. , who later in the novel asserts "" that this has been a great cause , that this has been a protracted cause , that this has been a complex cause . Jarndyce and has been termed , not inaptly , a practice . "" If this be so , the numerous real cases that relied upon as inspiration for must have been the ' zenith ' of their times . This seems highly unlikely with cases such as proving the contrary . The case of was supposedly the foundational case on which wrote the story of v Jarndyce in . According to the article by , the case of begun in when ( ) died in , and continued until which was by all accounts a lengthy and costly affair . It attracted litigants from numerous countries such as , and , and was in this respect a remarkably international case . Also it bore a striking resemblance to the fictional case of v Jarndyce , or was it the other way around ? The truth of the matter is that there was never a clear - cut distinction regarding whether fiction followed practice or vice - versa . quotes a solicitor who "" wrote in reminiscences of his own professional involvement in inheritance disputes [ that ] , ' reality and fiction tread upon each other 's heels in a perpetual circle . ' "" This illuminates the truth that should not necessarily be employed as a primary source in interpreting the reality of practice . It can prove useful as a supplement in an analysis of the real cases and maybe that is all . < fnote > Stebbings , , in Victorian England , : , , p.3 . < /fnote><fnote > Op.cit . note , pp.143 - . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . . < /fnote><fnote > Op.cit . note , p.6 . < /fnote><fnote > Slusher , , ' Runic Wisdom in Njal 's Saga and Nordic Mythology - Roots of an Oral Legal Tradition in , 33 ( ) , p.33 . < /fnote><fnote > Op.cit . note , para.18 . < /fnote><fnote > Op.cit . note , p.949 . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . p.975 . < /fnote><fnote > See Polden , , ' Stranger than Fiction ? . Part : , 32(4 ) Common Law World Review ( ): - 247 . < /fnote><fnote > Polden , , ' Stranger than Fiction ? . Part : The Business of Fortune Hunting ' , 32(4 ) Common Law World Review ( ) , p.342 . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . p.346 . < /fnote><heading > Institutions and Personnel < /heading > The aspects of institution and personnel overlap to a certain extent and therefore are encapsulated as a whole . The former has been interpreted as ' how is organised ' , thus it is clear why the aspects are not mutually exclusive . From there were a long succession of Lord Chancellors and Master of the Rolls . It would be a wasteful exercise to list all of them . Ergo a selection of Lord Chancellors will be discussed in relation to the question of reform of . The was essentially a composition of the Lord Chancellor , Vice - Chancellors ( created in ) , the Master of the Rolls who "" in ... had become a judge in ... "" , Masters in , clerks and the clerks ; the latter exercising an administrative function . There were also the solicitors and barristers who were involved in the work of the by handling the affairs of their clients . was especially skilled in creating a vision of a dark legal profession by focusing on Mr. and Mr. ; they are the fictional embodiment of the personnel involved in the work of . Their depiction is meant to capture the reality of the real persons involved , who were for most of their part portrayed as carrying out malicious schemes . expounds that "" [ i]t is a mark of [ Dickens ] genius that these specters are believable to the reader not merely as archetypes of a discredited profession , but also as malevolent shades : phantasms , rendered all the more terrible by their fully formed and horrifyingly realized human shapes . "" During Lord 's period of chancellorship , was inundated with arrears and it is not surprising if the false Lord Chancellor , Mr. in was modelled in part upon his practices . "" was notorious for the scrupulous hesitation with which he approached any decision , however marginal or insignificant . The slightest doubt over the law or the evidence in a case could be enough to produce a lengthy adjournment for re - consideration , research and re - argument . "" However it seems unlikely that created Mr. based upon a single Chancellor for it would be unforgiving to pile the blame on person . Also acknowledges that "" ... there may [ be ] discrepancies in sources used to count cases . "" This indicates that the actual practice of Lord and even succeeding Lord Chancellors are shrouded in ambiguity . With respect to the personnel involved in the work of the old , mainly concentrates on solicitors and the Lord Chancellor . Therefore is not particularly helpful in shedding light upon the rest of the personnel such as the Vice - Chancellor and clerks . does mention them in passing but there is no real substance compared to the main persons . The relationship between the Chancellor and the Master of the may have been the trigger for all the costs and delays . As observes , "" no decision of fact was final : it might always go back to the Chancellor . It was therefore precisely in those areas where it had developed a unique function - settling complex transactions between multiple parties - that the structure of the court made it chronically inefficient , particularly in administrative suits . These cases brought the largest amount of money into the court , and they generally took up the least proportion of the judges ' time : but they gave the court the bad name it had acquired . "" This is clearly highlighted in . The case of v Jarndyce involved many suitors and the case itself had been in existence for , which meant that costs and interests would have dramatically increased . This then brings us to the next issue of ' costs in the cause ' . This dreaded matter was well dramatized in where it was stated that "" for Costs is the only power on earth that will ever get anything out of [ the property ] , or will ever know it for anything but an eyesore and a heartsore . "" Also is the fictional embodiment of the suitor who spends excessive amounts on a protracted cause , and eventually ends up with nothing or very little . "" Suitors in Chancery had to pay fees at every step in the procedure : which were for the most part appropriated by the officers themselves . "" It was a much known fact that cases were prolonged as long as possible , in order for clerks and the masters to incur fees . The question of costs was illustrated in when describing the work of , "" [ d]rafts that he requires to be drawn , are drawn by special - pleaders in the Temple on mysterious instructions ; fair copies that he requires to be made , are made at the stationer 's , expense being no consideration . "" It is an unfortunate ending for Bleak House that "" ... the whole estate is found to have been absorbed in costs . "" This ending serves as a warning to all about the self - serving personnel of and "" the carnivorous character of law "" However it is to be reminded that not all personnel bore a resemblance to the sombre characters painted by in . Lord was one of the numerous exceptions . Holdsworth explains in that there was a controversy between and Lord regarding litigants who were placed in prison for contempt of court , who were abandoned and subsequently died . But from an objective viewpoint which Holdsworth indeed possesses , he carefully observes that Lord enacted an Act of that ended the abuse of these prisoners . Holdsworth also corrects the assertion made by , who stated in the preface that everything written about the in Bleak House was nothing but the truth . Indeed Bleak House does not expose the whole story . Although law reform was slow , developments were gradually enforced . We should not be blindsided by the exquisite literary virtuoso of from recognising that was a tale of from around the late 's and ( during research and writing ) to ( when it was published ) . Ergo it only attempts to provide an illustration of that particular time - frame . It was a narration of the hardships experienced . Its attack on the at least prompted some positive transformation upon the work of in , reflected by the culmination of . < fnote > Op.cit . note , p.151 . < /fnote><fnote > Raffield , Paul , ' A Discredited Priesthood : The Failings of Common Lawyers and Their Representation in Seventeenth Century Satirical Drama ' , Law & Literature , Vol . , No . ( ) , . < /fnote><fnote > Underhill , Nicholas , The Lord Chancellor , ; : , , p.166 . < /fnote><fnote > Oldham , James , ' , Law and History Review Vol . , ( 2004 ) , para.6 . ( online ) URL :    URL   ( Accessed ) . < /fnote><fnote > Op.cit . note , para.10 . < /fnote><fnote > Op.cit . note , p.120 . < /fnote><fnote > Op.cit . note , para.11 . < /fnote><fnote > Op.cit . note , p.159 . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid . p.975 . < /fnote><fnote > Kelley , , ' , Nineteenth Century Fiction Vol . , ( ) , p.262 . < /fnote><fnote > Holdsworth , ,   A History of Law Vol . XV1 , eds . , and , , : and , , pp.43 - 44 . < /fnote > In conclusion , was indeed a force to be reckoned with . Its study is made even more interesting with the inclusion of ; a book so well - known to law students and lawyers . The case of v Jarndyce is so engrained in their legal minds that many a student or lawyer would be forgiven for attempting to find this fictional case in the Reports , or from similar sources . However there were numerous cases that resembled v Jarndyce and the case was such example . Indeed it is sometimes difficult to ascertain whether fiction followed practice or vice - versa . The fact is that is extremely useful in understanding and interpreting the law of equity ; particularly the trust concept within the context of a burgeoning Victorian economy . Trusts were increasingly used by the middle classes and were no longer an exclusive law concept employed by the gentry and landed classes . This was illustrated in through the unfortunate character of Mr. , who had a cause involving a will ( testamentary trust ) from his father ; a farmer . Equity was a crucial concept of the . Thus it was paradoxical that the old in dealing with the issue of trusts and other cases invoked injustice , although equity was the paramount consideration . It has been argued in this essay that the discretionary element in equity produced hardship and inconsistency , but similarly organised precedents could also produce the same result . As such a balance needed to be sought . Therefore a continuous effort to speed up reforms was required of the Lord Chancellor , and who was portrayed as a sinister and shady character in . It is no wonder that Mr. ( false Lord Chancellor ) came to such a cruel end by ' spontaneous combustion ' . It was as if was taunting the real Lord Chancellors . This is of little surprise since we know that there was a controversy between and Lord regarding persons imprisoned for contempt of court . The interpretation of the law , practice , institutions and personnel involved in the work of the old borrows its ideas from not as an ultimate authority , but as a supplement . No matter how brilliant or innovative was , let us be reminded that it was a controversial work of fiction . It is no substitute for the crucial and decisive authority of case law , statutes , statistical evidence and scholarly articles . Credibility still remains an issue in relation to .",0
"The celebrated and influential historian and teacher ( ) acquired many titles both during and after his life . Perhaps none is so contentious as ' the father of scientific history ' . This enquiry can go no further without defining the meaning of ' scientific history ' . Consensus was neither reached in the time of Ranke nor is held at present , as notions of ' science ' independently and together with ' history ' have been in continuous development . proposes a useful discussion on whether history is a science . He acknowledges that the scientist and historian are similar at the foundational level to the extent that they both desire to explain , and are involved in a fundamental process of question and answer . ' Scientists , social scientists and historians are all engaged in different branches of the same study : the study of man and his environment , of the effects of man on his environment and of his environment on man . "" But distinguishes the disciplines . Science deals with the general , and history with the particular . Science gives general inexorable laws , while only general tendencies can be identified in human history . History , then , is not a science . Therefore , an utterly ' scientific historian ' does not exist . As convincingly argues , a ' scientific ' method of history is not enough to render history a science in itself . As an historian , can strive towards , but never achieve , a scientific ethos and methodology . So ' scientific history ' concerns only the degree of ' scientificity ' ( meaning acting along the lines of scientific rationality ) used to produce ' history ' . < fnote > E. H. Carr , What Is History ? ( , ) , . < /fnote > Another problem arises in distinguishing true Rankean thought and method from posthumous interpretation . Although produced well over volumes of historical writing , not one was primarily concerned with his philosophy of history . The scarcity of convincing writing on his own scientificity , and 's deviation in practice from his own precepts ( his high literary style suffused with metaphor , for example ) , immediately encouraged other historians to interpret his thought and method variously . The and schools , for example , have created paradoxical legacies for Ranke . Georg Iggers suggests , ' what himself had thought , was , in a sense , less important to the development of historiography than was the image of Ranke in the historian 's mind . "" However , the purpose of this enquiry is to attempt to place 's true thought and method in context with the development of the field of ' scientific history ' . < fnote > Unlike and , who wrote systematically on their philosophy of history for example . However , was explicit in his work der romanischen und germanischen bis ( ) , in an appended section entitled neuerer ( Critique of Modern Historical Writing ) . also delivered lectures such as ' On the Relation and Distinction Between History and ' ( ) . His published philosophy was subsequently supplemented by the discovery of private papers . < /fnote><fnote > , In ( , ) , . < /fnote><fnote > Georg Iggers ' article details the immediate divergence in interpretation of Rankean thought and methodology in and . historians understood 's idealistic roots , and recognised him for striving to understand ' tendencies ' . They were largely concerned with his spiritual and philosophical legacy , and represented ' the antithesis of a non - philosophical empiricism'(18 ) . Whereas historians in the saw as ' concerned with the establishment of facts , particularly in the political and institutional realms ' , ( ) and did indeed hail him as ' the father of scientific history ' . , ' in and Thought ' , History and Theory , 2 ( No . ) , pp . . < /fnote><fnote > Iggers , ' , . < /fnote > So , a complex analysis of the scientificity of 's philosophy , approach , and methodology of history will be offered . The themes of 's personal , academic and political background ; his approach of objectivity , historicism and intuition , his methodology of primary source authentication in addition to his teaching methods and literary style will be examined . It will be argued that 's foundational belief in an all - knowing and active God determined that his philosophy of history was in the Lutheran tradition , and was , therefore , not ' scientific ' . Moreover , 's approach was not wholly ' scientific ' and , indeed , he was not the historian to offer the practice of ' objectivity ' or historicism in any case . In addition , was neither the pioneer nor the epitome of ' scientific ' methodology . However , 's favoured position in the state , eminence in the academic world , and the scholarly and literary appeal of his work brought him exceptional fame during his career , and made him a legendary figure thereafter . had an unprecedented platform then , which saw him become associated with previously introduced ' scientific ' elements of history . He was also an innovator , as so does to a certain extent deserve the reputation as ' a father of scientific history ' . 's religious , academic , and political background profoundly influenced his ' scientific ' philosophy , approach , and methodology . It produced his particular unconscious and conscious subjectivity , which he persisted to deny existed in his work . experienced a religious upbringing in the mystic tradition . God , for him , was the guiding hand of history , so his calling was ( after a spell as a schoolmaster ) to learn God 's plan for humanity - to be an historian . As a , knew he could only decipher God 's will by understanding history , through the study of historical documents rather than doctrine . He received his academic training in theology , and also in philology ( the study of ancient languages and texts ) and linguistics at . was a theological historian at heart , who , paradoxically , claimed to use ' science ' for his purpose . He was , indeed , not the figure with such a philosophy . ( ) is such example . defended history as the search for ' truth ' , meaning the determination of God 's divine plan , and suggested some undeniably ' scientific ' methods .   < fnote > ( ) was an epic defence of history as a discipline at a time when it was under attack from Pyrrhonists ( sceptics ) for being subjective and fictional . He distinguished divine , natural and human history , offered a method for determining which sources to consult ( universal to the particular ) , instructed historians to be critical or past histories for purpose , subjectivity and methods , dwelt on the usefulness of histories to government , and complied a comprehensive ( if neglecting medieval works ) bibliography of historians from to recent writers . , History : A Very Short Introduction ( Oxford , ) , . < /fnote > Next to religion as an inherent influence on 's life and works was politics . Born at a defining moment in history , a time of awesome statecraft , politics infiltrated 's life from his innermost thoughts to the materiality of his career and wallet . loved his country as a romantic and conservative patriot . He shared the partiality to monarchical rule and authoritarian government . rejected the Enlightenment philosophy of progress , including liberty and democracy . He was primarily concerned with the political , over economic , social , or cultural . He was an inflexible . A ' scientific ' historian would not allow preference for political and history to eclipse the need to consider other factors ( ' variables ' ) and unique history of the other continents . not only had a personal preference for studying the political , he was obliged to produce works on politics due to the nature of his patrons . In , men achieved power through their relationship with the monarchy and state institutions , and energetically cultivated this relationship . Once he reached in , his research was largely bankrolled by the state . His training in the civil service and personal standing provided him with access to the state archives . Although his personal philosophical purpose was concerned with God , his working philosophy was necessarily political . His body of work was amassed for the benefit of the state . With such deep influences of religious conviction and involvement with the state , 's philosophical motivation to produce history can hardly be construed as ' scientific ' . However , his approach was of considerable ' scientific ' character . ' Objectivity ' and historicism were the main elements of his approach to history as a discipline . , ' objectivity ' . In order to discover God 's plan for humanity through understanding history , believed he needed perfect ' objectivity ' . He put himself through the conscious process of shedding his preconceptions of the past , present , and future , each time he began work in the archives . Thus believed he approached historical documents with a completely open mind . Yet , an historian with perfect ' objectivity ' can not exist , because humankind studies himself . , historicism . Though historicism had been practiced by lawyers since the earliest schools of jurisprudence , was another after ( ) , who applied the notion to historical research . He fervently believed that it was not the place of the historian to judge the past , only to understand . believed that his commitment to objectivity and historicism would best place him to understand wie es eigentlich gewesen . Translation of this euphemism has proven problematic for scholars of Ranke . While some interpret the phrase to mean aimed to discover how history "" really "" was , it is more accurate to translate to how it "" essentially "" was . 's superficially ' scientific ' intention to precisely recreate the past as it "" really "" was , is actually a deeply philosophical one . He looked for "" essential "" truths , with intuition rather than reason . < fnote > combined historical studies with jurisprudence . He advised that witnesses and documents should be treated with dispassion , but as suspicious . Sequences of events should be established by balancing conflicting accounts . Arnold , History , . < /fnote > While objectivity and historicism provide an apparently ' scientific ' approach , intuition , or historical imagination , was then required to actually recreate the past . was confident that if he detached himself utterly from his own values and preconceptions , and immersed himself deep enough into all possible sources , he would attain perfect empathy with his historical agents and so understand the past in its own terms . The necessity of historical imagination seriously compromises 's claim to a ' scientific ' approach . One can not reconstruct history to the extent that the historian penetrates inside the head of an historical agent , and it is arrogant to argue otherwise . However , so long as the historian recognises that perfect empathy is impossible , through study or imagination , striving for perfect empathy is both a useful and ' scientific ' approach , nonetheless . is most convincing as a ' scientific historian ' with respect to his methodology . He aimed to examine every source ( ' experiment ' ) , forensically . Ranke used an unusually wide variety of sources for a historian of his age , including diaries , memoirs , letters , hand accounts of eyewitnesses , and diplomatic dispatches . He immersed himself in state archives with a fetish - like energy , to gain a complete insight into the past . His priority on primary sources was ' scientific ' , and was a very significant contribution to the historical discipline . Such was 's commitment to the ' truth ' that discovering so much as one more historical document that altered his argument would prompt him to revise his entire thesis . For example , in asked for return of manuscript of book , as he had found a document that required him to revise a chapter . 's method of analysis was ' scientific ' too . He used sophisticated linguistic analysis and corroboration , for example , to authenticate sources . Yet , was , of course , not the to employ such a method . Linguistic analysis was famed by ( ) work on , which he proved to be a forgery in . To ensure that he spread the gospel of his ' scientific ' treatment of sources , inculcated other scholars with his ' professional ' methodology . presented his works in such a way , adorned with footnotes and appendixes , which later historians could elaborate upon to enhance the accuracy of his studies . As makes abundantly clear , was not the inventor of the footnote or scholarly appendix . But he was their most talented and influential patron , and popularised their use . He introduced the seminar as a laboratory to teach engagement with sources , proposed gobbetts as experiments , and further popularised the academic journal and conference . < fnote > , ' The Footnote from to Ranke ' , History and Theory , ( ) , pp . . < /fnote > However , there are serious flaws in 's self - proclaimed ' scientific ' methodology - primarily , what can be described as his general narrow - mindedness , and also his compromising of interpretation for artistic style . 's ideal was that one day history would only be written using only the most authentic of immediate sources . Only then did he believe it possible that ' truth ' could be determined . 's total reliance on primary sources , let alone on official documents , was excessive and certainly not ' scientific ' . had the passion and commitment of a antiquarian , but these individuals were more ' scientific ' in their expansive definition of an historical source . Perhaps the Annales school is an unfair comparison , as they worked well over after Ranke . Nevertheless , like him , Annalistes such as ( ) aimed to examine all possible sources , but they strove with unprecedented innovation to identify new types of historical evidence . might have stringently authenticated every primary official source he encountered , but he did not have a similarly systematic method for interpreting them . An author of such sources himself during his career , was too blind to examine the potentially less sincere purpose of other authors . Finally , certainly not a criticism of as an historian , but of him as a ' scientific ' historian , involves his brilliant literary style . passionately describes and applauds 's style of writing , but argues that this style reduced the scientificity of 's work . Gay waxes lyrical with praises such as ' establishes his characters with the precision of a novelist . "" In addition , he argues , not neglecting explanation , the dramatist plants information early in his works so that he ' is free to devote all his space to narration , undistracted by explanation . "" Yet , where , in 's reading , was there room for interpretation ? < fnote > , Style in ( , ) , . < /fnote><fnote > Gay , Style in History , . < /fnote><fnote > Gay , Style in History , . < /fnote > In conclusion , was a Great Man of historiography , in the Rankean sense , but a contradictory figure . did not believe history was a science . The scenario of ' all things being equal ' does not exist in history as it does with science , so one can not write inexorable laws for history to predict the future . believed that history was unique , having only general tendencies at best , and so refused to identify general laws . Further , he did not quantify his findings , or test hypotheses . Yet , he certainly saw himself as an innovator ( and even the saviour of the historical craft ) and along with most of his contemporaries , asserted that he had a ' scientific ' philosophy , approach , and especially a ' scientific ' methodology of history . Notwithstanding the significant alteration in the definition of ' scientific history ' over time , 's image as ' the father of scientific history ' was misleading from the outset , and can now be judged as inaccurate . His philosophy of history was that it was ultimately determined by God . 's approach of striving for perfect objectivity and empathy was undermined by personal faith in his ability to intuitively understand the past . His methodology for working with sources was significantly ' scientific ' , but was also artistic in its style . In his time he was the closest to the concept of a ' scientific historian ' , but as new disciplines of social science developed to augment historical analysis , he was superseded by more ' scientific ' figures . was , then , essentially not a ' scientific ' historian , although he undoubtedly dramatised the role of ' scientificity ' in historical work . < fnote > Great Men only temporarily affected history , or in this case historiography . < /fnote > In any case , 's contribution to historiography was far more impressive for its synergy of religious connection , ' scientific ' approaches and methods , and artistic flair in addition . The influence of ' scientific ' philosophies , approaches , and methodologies on ' history ' are important and desirable for the discipline for as long as ' scientific ' innovation increases knowledge and understanding of the past . But if ' history ' becomes so ' scientific ' that it becomes passionless , it becomes unreadable , and loses all usefulness .","The rise and fall of had the most profound of consequences for the lands and people . Sacrificed by their allies and in a futile attempt to avoid war by ceding substantial territory in of 29 , full occupation was really only a matter of time . Beginning on , official occupation of and endured until . dominance over the region was one of the darkest periods in history , and leaders had only limited scope to protect their nation and its population . ( ) and ( ) were of the best - placed figures to fight for the survival of their republic and its people during the occupation . was the politician and diplomat who had been a leader of the independence movement , and became the President of the republic . He resigned on , and became leader of the government - in - exile in during the Naxi occupation . Meanwhile , the celebrated legal mind reluctantly accepted the position of was ' successor , who became President of and . was recognised as the figurehead , with his role being to fight for the legal continuity and territorial integrity of the republic after the war , while was more concerned with protecting the population during occupation , all the while subordinating his actions to direction as part of his foreign policy strategy . The complexity and difficulty of the situation for these men can not be overstated . Geopolitics far greater than the power of a republic threatened to thwart every effort made by the outstanding political tactician that was throughout . The blood of of was potentially the responsibility of , and to a more immediate extent , , with every word written or spoken by him under the auspices of the inside the Protectorate . It is certainly not the place of the author to seriously judge either of these men in their unenviable struggles . Yet , their strategies and actions can be evaluated with respect to whether they interpreted the needs of their people well , and their success can be considered too . The following enquiry will be primarily concerned with , and ' ' people will be taken to mean ethnic , who were by far the majority of the 's population . Diaries and memoirs , of official meetings , accounts of conversations , letters and memoranda , and communist reports and despatches , from , , , , and political figures will be used to determine the strategy and success of Edvard Beneš and in protecting the interests of the people under occupation . < fnote > The First Republic consisted of the territories , , , and and was in existence . In the interwar period , per cent of the people were so - called ' ' . < /fnote><fnote > In his radio address on , ' aware that his presence represented at that time an insuperable obstacle to 's good relations with ' took the immediate step of exile . ( Mastny , The Under Rule : The Failure of National Resistance , ( , ) , . ) When the Protectorate was created encouraged the Protectorate government to remain in office firstly to ensure the survival of a army , to provide ready administration in the event of a collapse , and to prevent the communists filling a power vacuum . So did , therefore , legally resign as president of the republic . As suggested , achieved an impressive propaganda coup by convincing the Allies that he was rightful leader of a postwar republic . ( Extract from 's diary , . ) < /fnote > Both and began their roles as protectors of the republic and its people on shaky ground . at once faced a struggle to acquire recognition as a president - in - exile , because he was the living reminder of the and betrayal at . However , he was energetic and made himself not only visible , but also useful , to the Allies . The legal anomaly that he was not actually the president was not so much overcome as overlooked , depending on how far Benes was in favour with , and at any one time . By had secured and recognition of a national committee , and had also overseen the establishment of a army in . Once had installed himself as principal diplomat for the republic , his principle objectives were to acquire official diplomatic recognition of his government - in - exile , to be followed by confirmation by both the and powers of the legal continuity of the republic after the defeat of , which included the repudiation of the settlement . In addition , needed to create a meaningful place for himself in the future world order to ensure the long - term survival of an independent republic , which had had previously proved so short - lived . He would do so through being a useful source of information for anxious powers , an impressive diplomat and mediator , head of potential armed forces , and head of security apparatus willing to supply the Allies with intelligence . < fnote > It ' was legally difficult to reconcile ' claim to uninterrupted presidential continuity and constitutional permanence with his own resignation in , the selection of a new president , the formation of a new government , and important consitutional changes . ' ( , ' in , and , ( ) , . ) < /fnote > Although was tireless in his campaigning , major diplomatic successes were usually decided by decisive events in the war . It was only in the aftermath of the fall of , in , that a provisional government and parliament were recognised . The , at this point , still refused to agree to future territorial arrangements . Similarly , when entered the war in a treaty of mutual assistance was signed with the provisional government , which finally afforded with full diplomatic recognition . The repudiation of was ' next important objective . It was Molotov for who was to indicate that this would be realised . In a conversation in the commissar assured that did not recognise or anything that had happened to the republic since . < fnote > Letter from Halifax to ( ) . < /fnote><fnote granted recognition , but again did not confirm frontiers . appointed an ambassador to . < /fnote > On the other hand , the main example of these powers responding to the ' leader 's initiative was the repudiation of , which resulted from . was acutely aware that the Protectorate government would be a liability to his diplomatic efforts if it were perceived to be a tool of the , full of self - serving quislings . Once had decided that 's collaborationism was worrying the Allies , he settled on a dramatic gesture of resistance against the occupiers was needed to vindicate the . On assassins , who had been supported by an underground network in and the Protectorate , attacked the leader in , who died . In addition to ensuring that every participant and underground assistant to the assassins was killed , the completely destroyed the towns of and . It was these heavy recriminations against the in its aftermath , rather than the actual gesture of assassination , which convinced to officially repudiate in . The price that required of his people in order to ensure the territorial continuity of the post - war republic was certainly higher than he had predicted , but he would have been willing to pay it nonetheless . < fnote > , : The SS "" Butcher of Prague "" ( , ) , . < /fnote > Thereafter , had to continuously prove that the republic deserved to emerge as a viable entity after the war . He devoted himself as mediator for , especially after the breakdown in their relations with in . Representing was certainly in the national interest . increasingly moved towards a confederation - a powerful bloc . However , coldly neglected this alliance once it was clear the disapproved . More ambitiously , aspired to be the bridge between and East . Convinced that would emerge from the war as a moderate great power , shifted his allegiance more towards . effectively was the dictator 's champion to , particularly during his visit to . His advising about the and was rewarded by the president agreeing to the transfer of the population out of the post - war republic . was valued in too in . After working hard to persuade , was able to enter into the - Czechoslovak Treaty . saw himself as the broker of entry into a future stable balance of power in , but the pact was more important to him and the people because it contained the implication that there would be no possible communisation and Sovietisation after the war . For all of his foresight and efforts , was too optimistic about there being room for him and an independent republic in the new world order . < fnote > Correspondence includes letter from Beneš to Sikorski ( ) , the - Czechslovak Declaration ( ) , letter from Beneš to ( ) , and the - Czechoslovak declaration ( ) . < /fnote><fnote > Dispatch from Eden to Sir ( ) . < /fnote><fnote > Report from Beneš to Government - in - Exile ( ) . < /fnote><fnote > The - Czechoslovak Treaty was signed on . It promised mutual military and other support during and after the war against , prohibited either party from entering into separate negotiations with , committed to independence and non - interference in internal affairs , and developing economic relations . < /fnote > Beneš ' diplomatic manoeuvres were undoubtedly impressive , and it is difficult to imagine any man being more successful than he in achieving his objectives . However , his tireless efforts resulted in serious failures too . The most grave was , of course , his failure to prevent communists from gaining a following and power during , and especially in the aftermath of , the war . Once entered on the side of the Allies on , the communists in , the government - in - exile , and the underground did achieve a substantial degree of unity in their resistance to the , but politically they were antagonistic . Fierlinger reported to the exile government on that ' Some pseudo - liberal regime will not have the support in that is expected . "" By , , was assuring Fierlinger that the post - war government would be a "" popular front "" , with a radical social and economic programme . ' By the time visited at , the communists there were ready to welcome him as the head of the state and the official representative of the movement . "" Yet , his positive feelings towards were too great an influence on . Mastny is particularly critical of his naivety . He did not test sincerity to the state . His secretary regarded the treaty as ' greatest misinterpretation . ' did misread 's psyche , place too much trust in his assurances , and misinterpret his real intentions . "" Another painful example of ' powerlessness was the affair over beginning in . By , despite being treaty - bound to non - interferece , the began to see the communist leader as replacement . In a letter to Fierlinger on , was essentially resigned to recognising as the future government . The loss of indicated that policy had swung more to the East than had envisaged . The participation of communists in the post - war government was also in excess of his expectations . < fnote > Letter from to ( ) . < /fnote><fnote > Skilling , ' , . < /fnote><fnote > Mastny , Under Rule . < /fnote><fnote > Edward Taborsky , President : Between East and , ( , ) , . < /fnote><fnote > In , began recruiting volunteers in Sub - Carpathian Ruthenia . This ran contrary to the treaty of mutual assistance , threatening the right to form their own army . At the same time , there were local meetings in areas of recruitment whereby some were demanding incorporation of their territory into . At a communist party - organised provincial congress demanded that they be allowed to leave the republic . This made a mockery of the borders , and set a dangerous example to the . ' Although deeply disturbed , was inclined to think that these events were happening without the knowledge of the government ' ( Skilling , ' , . ) and communists claimed no prior knowledge , and moved by Gottwald to reassure the , himself acted decisively with a letter to . ( ? ) The substantial effort to reassure convinced him of the good intentions of the . confirmed his support for the Czechs , but suggested that the issue of sovereignty should be addressed at . was adamant that he should not lose the territory during the war to save face , yet he expressed that he was perfectly willing to give them the territory afterwards as a gesture of friendship ( he had motioned this willingness in the talks of ) . < /fnote><fnote > Letter from Beneš to Fierlinger ( ) . < /fnote > In addition to his work for the future people , ' strategy and actions affected the during the occupation directly too . was ' inclined , in his broadcasts from , to discourage active resistance at a time when it would have involved useless sacrifices . "" advised the army not to irritate the in case there were reprisals against the Protectorate government or people . Instead he favoured gathering intelligence as a bargaining tool as well as for protection of the population , an undetectable strategy of sabotaging communications , and passive resistance of working for the war effort . However , aware that the communists had supported active resistance from the outset , and sensitive to their criticism of him , by himself encouraged to directly oppose their occupiers . By pressure from and , was seriously advocating resistance in the Protectorate . Only when it was evident that the would imminently collapse did he envisage the underground taking to the streets , seizing official positions and re - occupying the country . The final uprising for lasted with lives lost , in order to demonstrate that the did not intend to passively await liberation , which was , nonetheless , liberated by on . were tortured or murdered during the occupation - far more than the government - in - exile had expected . was disturbingly willing to sacrifice lives for his foreign policy aims . < fnote > Skilling , ' , . < /fnote > On the other hand , 's main influence was on the experience of the people inside the Protectorate during the occupation , rather than over international diplomatic issues . Charged by to keep the people ' in as good condition , as possible ' , walked a political tightrope to protect the standard of living , property , and lives of the people with some success . 's efforts were often , in fact , with the support of Reichsprotektor ( in office August 1943 ) . So arguably was the more successful protector of lives than Hàcha . Neurath and had a mutually respectful relationship , and where possible responded with compromise to some of the very numerous written and personal appeals to reduce the restriction of civil liberties , terrorism by organs , and to temper Germanisation policies . Of course , there were other influential who overruled the politicians . Head of the security apparatus was the principal threat towards the people for Hàcha during 's time in office . < fnote > Letter from Beneš to Hacha ( ) . < /fnote><fnote > For example , met on to ensure that the Czechs would not be subject to military conscription for the . Neurath was in full agreement with the sentiment , recognising the higher importance of wartime production to the . ( Aide - memoire of the President for a conversation Neurath and ( ) . ) Another example is when wrote to Neurath on as part of a campaign against the introduction of language rights in the Protectorate . Neurath slightly compromises in his reply to by agreeing that language can be used for administrative announcements in communes . ( Letters between Neurath and Hàcha ( ) . ) < /fnote><fnote > Almost from the outset , and his colleagues in the Protectorate government knew that their lives were at risk with in charge of security apparatus . In a letter dated , made it clear that activity by ' will be prosecuted and punished by me with the greatest severity . ' This punishment was not for the individuals involved alone , but political , economic , and social leaders of the Czechs would be held ultimately responsible too . ( Letter from Frank to Hàcha ( ) . ) < /fnote > Part of 's task involved keeping the favour of leading , and in this he excelled . By gaining their confidence , was able to pressure them into treating more considerately . believed to be a collaborator . While appearing the collaborationist host to during the propaganda minster 's visit to in , at the same time appealed to him on behalf of the people , complaining about the many arrests and the closure of the university . Encouraged that had taken him to his heart , resolved to do what he could for the old man .   < fnote > If the Czechs are treated with friendly consideration , ' all the will follow the lead of President . ' ( Extract from Hermann Rauschning , Hitler Speaks : a series of political conversations with on his real aims ( , [ ] ) . < /fnote><fnote > Extracts from , , ( , [ and ] ) . < /fnote > Hàcha was a brave , and clever man to have achieved the successes above , and it seems grossly unfair to brand him as ineffectual , or as a collaborator with the . However , his efforts came under increasingly severe limitation by various and from himself . 's displays of loyalty to the regime do appear damning , but were enacted for fear for the lives of . Each ostensibly action acutely embarassed , and he threatened to break with . was overly sensitive to the effect 's actions had on the Allies , and was unrealistically critical of . did consider the drastic move of resignation on several occassions during his time as president of the . The followed the response to the and student demonstrations . However , made it clear that he would interpret such a move as provocation , and convinced him that his resignation would damage the cause . < fnote > Mastny cites the example of the Protectorate government 's response to the fall of . They appeared in panic , and politicians apparently tried to outdo each other in gestures of loyalty , such as 's hospital train gift to , dismissal of the government 's central committee and promise to reconstitute it with more "" actively loyal "" members , his offer to take the loyalty oath , and his radio speech congratulating army successes . ( Mastny , Under Rule , . ) < /fnote > However , the greatest obstacle to securing concessions for the treatment of was , who replaced Neurath in . spent a great deal of energy convincing that himself and his government colleagues were not part of the resistance , instead of devoting all his time to campaigning for the . and , many of his colleagues and friends were arrested ( including the Prime Minister ) and shot or sent to the concentration camps . In the new climate of terror not only risked his own life , but the probablity that the would simply dismiss the Protectorate government and leave nothing in their way to reign terror over the Czechs . Instead he embarked on a policy of collaboration , designed to spare the people further bloodshed . However , it should be noted that in 's response to , he only pledged his and his government 's sincere commitment to collaboration , if was supportive of important initiatives suggested by the government . < fnote > In a conversation with pledged his career if necessary to save his colleague , alluded that he considered suicide , but religious belief prevented him . Hàcha pledged to Feierabend that ' I shall stand up for you with all the strength I can [ including resignation ] . ' Feierabend replied by emphasising that it was the President 's duty to think of the fate of all and to forget about unfortunate individuals like . replied , ' How do I defend the nation if I do not defend its finest representatives ' ? ( Extracts from , Political Memoirs ( , ) . ) In addition , was poised to resign after the arrest of ( arrested on , after 's appointment ) . However , on the same day that he would have sent the letter , ( Letter from Hàcha to ( unsent ) ( ) . ) received word from , who imposed martial law and made it clear that he expected the Protectorate government to redeem Elias ' betrayl of the with more enthusiasm . As a result of the discovery of ' double - game wrote to on . He confronted the president with precise evidence of his secret communications . responded in short on , dismissing his relationship with as being only vague . He pretended ignorance as to whether the Count was going to communicate with , and flatly denied meeting him at all . This was a strong and defiant stance from . ( Letters between Heydrich and ( from ) . ) < /fnote><fnote , , . < /fnote > The situation worsened following the assassination of . called Hàcha to the Reich Chancellory for Heydrich 's memorial service and threatened the deportation of every if there were any more acts . At this point ' collapsed like a pricked balloon ' . At the same meeting and his colleagues promised to stamp out pro- activity . As a result of the meeting the president oversaw the arrangement of a huge rally where the organisers arranged an appeal for complete co - operation with . After surmised this attitude as being ' 100 per cent ' . Of course , this was a massive misjudgment and exaggeration , but it is clear that 's hands were now more tied than ever with regards to helping the people . He could only strive to protect his colleagues such as and Feierabend in the underground . < fnote > Extract from Rauschning , Hitler Speaks [ ] . < /fnote > In conclusion , and had the most unenviable of tasks during the occupation . Fighting for the survival of the republic and its people fell heavily on their responsibility . should be afforded greater admiration for his diplomatic skill and unrivalled contribution to the sheer existence of a post - war republic , but his eventual powerlessness towards once the communists provided a viable alternative government to his exiled one , severely tempers the significance of his accomplishments . Meanwhile , deserves more thanks from the people for protecting their very lives in the immediacy . was , perhaps , too willing to sacrifice people for a greater good , which did not come to pass . The republic was relatively the most peaceful of the occupied territories throughout the war , and its population experienced a markedly higher living standard than the itself . Yet , this had more to do with the population being so instrumental to war production for the , rather that the ability of their president to temper . Perhaps could have been more use to the people if he had been more confrontational with the , but this would have been suicide - itself a message to international leaders , but one which they probably would not have reacted strongly too . His death would have been a symbolic martyrdom , but most probably a futile action , as he would have been replaced by someone even less irritant to the occupying regime , and therefore less of a protector of the people . The author is ill - qualified to weigh and 's achievements against each other , but would argue if pushed that legal existence , even of many , can never carry more weight than the physical existence even of a few . It is so important to examine cases such the actions of and because they are an interesting case of a sophisticated interaction between exiled and occupied government stuctures . More generally , inquiry raises fundamental moral questions about the politics of war , nations , and of humanity .",1
"< heading > Introduction</heading > ,   university accommodation decided to split its service in parts : residences , and . Since then , this process improvement has not been independently assessed to see how far it satisfies customers . In this paper , we will describe , analyse and evaluate the service quality of   Staff and accommodation services . This will show us areas of investigation or improvement for the service . For this purpose , we will use the original SERVQUAL tool , developed by and al ( ) , to assess its "" validity "" in such environment . < heading > Background</heading > In the search for competitive advantage , universities not only build on their education but also on the extra services like accommodation . We were interested to study the Staff and as visiting lecturers and mature students are a strategic segment for the universities . The ( Staff and ) service concept can be clearly defined with the following statement from managers ( other excerpts in ): < quote>""Provide our customers with an economical , secure and enjoyable environment in which to live by providing excellent customer service , whilst maintaining and improving the quality of our product .   a smooth move to the university from [ all ] applicants Minimise time spent to look for accommodation in the private sector""</quote > The includes properties : one / bedrooms , bedrooms and bedrooms ignored in this study . Demand outstrips supply : applications per house . Current tenants are from nationalities . The average length of stay is one academic year ( ) and tenants are spread with single , couples and families . Staff and students represent of tenants and the rest are visiting academics who stay . < heading > Methodology</heading > The questionnaire consists of questions , points scale , grouped into the dimensions : tangibles ( questions ) , reliability ( ) , responsiveness ( ) , assurance ( ) , empathy ( ) . It was developed from discussions with current tenants to insure the questions were clear enough and covered main housing issues . The questions were worded positively to suit with findings and suggestions from the literature ( et al , ) . The questionnaire can be seen in appendix . tenants were given the questionnaire by hand , with guidance about the way to fill it : e.g. difference between expectations and perceptions , scale spread . They were chosen to represent the diverse demographic profile : diverse locations , staff or students , families with or without children , singles or couples , length of stay . forms were given to any couple because only one was linked to the university with studies or lectures . We assumed that needs might be different . Within , completed questionnaires were returned representing all the subgroups listed above . questionnaires were rejected for suspicion about the quality of filling : questions skipped ; same marks for all . The models proposed by and al are the most widely verified and applicable instruments used to analyse the data . However , we simplified it and did not consider using the weighted dimensions or the alpha coefficients . Yet , we emphasized the tangible aspects with more questions in the questionnaire to follow comments from customers about the relative importance of this dimension for the accommodation service . Data from questionnaires were entered onto a spreadsheet . Quality scores were obtained as Q = P - E , i.e. subtracting expectations from performance ratings . Expectation or perception scores were simply the arithmetic mean of all respondents . Despite having questionnaire forms , managers decided to share their views and handed filled questionnaire . To collect management views , we arranged an hour interview with the very helpful managers , who provided a wealth of information ( see Appendix 2 ) . Similarly , tenants were invited to comment on the questionnaire , about their experience during their stay . < heading > Findings</heading > ' < heading > Gap analysis</heading > Tentatively , we have separated the customers into groups : which is the main customer and is linked to the university with studies or lectures and the other which accompany the partner . Except for couple , masculine persons were those who were linked to the university . To simplify , we call those groups male and female . < heading > Gap 1 : Customers ' expectations versus managers ' perceptions ( of their expectations)</heading > Generally , managers were unable to assess customers ' expectations . For the tangibles dimension , a gap of .9 separates the expectations ( see table ) and shows that customers expect much more than managers pointed . This gap is mostly due to the difference in the "" house shape "" , "" telecommunications "" and "" internal security "" variables where both segments ( male / female ) have expectations of to points higher than managers ' ( see appendix ) . This might denote the high need to feel secure , rather inside than outside , while keeping in touch with the outside world . The high expectation for the house is probably not surprising , given that people move from abroad and expect to live in the best condition to offset the stress of change . < table/>Conversely , the managers overestimated the customers ' expectations about the empathy ( see table ) . For example , the "" personal attention "" factor is points higher than customers actually ticked ( see appendix ) . Managers probably assume that most foreigners would need that personal care from due to temporary change situation , having to relocate twice within in general . As previously for the tangibles , the groups do not differ for the empathy ( less than .1 of difference ) . < heading > Gap : Customers ' expectations versus customers ' perceptions</heading > The customers ' expectations were slightly higher than perceptions in dimensions : tangibles ( ) , reliability ( ) and responsiveness ( ) - see table . For the tangibles , all variables are unfavourable but tenants show that they expect more for the "" telecommunications "" and their "" security "" ( see Appendix 4 ) . The female group shows a significant gap for the telecommunications . That might be because they stay inside the house more than their partner , who goes to the University for studying or lecturing . As stated for gap , managers did not expect the "" telecommunications "" and "" security "" factors to have high priority and probably did not invest or communicate on them . The gap is less strong for reliability and responsiveness where customers show they expect more dependability and promptness , although this is not a high priority in their list ( see Appendix 4 ) . < table/>Conversely , slightly lower expectations than perceptions for empathy and assurance can be explained by the overestimated empathy expected by managers . They might tend to put more efforts to satisfy the tenants who are not really expecting such personal attention . That increases their high perceptions of the service for these dimensions . < heading > Gap 4 : ( Managers ' perceptions of the ) service delivery versus external communications ( that influenced customers ' expectations)</heading > This gap shows the difference between the customers ' expectations and managers ' service delivery . The gap is wider for reliability and tangibles than for other dimensions ( see table ) . < table/>Once again , the "" telecommunications "" factor has a huge impact on the tangibles while the reliability gap is highly based on the "" neighbourhood "" and "" promised services "" elements ( see Appendix 5 ) . However , the groups do not show any discrepancy between their expectations for these factors . < heading > Managers ' expectations versus managers ' perceptions</heading > This gap is not supported in the literature but , as an auto - assessment of managers , can be interesting to investigate and can show how far managers are aware of the gap , of the quality they are delivering . < table/>Clearly , managers are aware of the reliability dimension ( perhaps for other reasons than tenants ' ) but do not spot the gap in the tangibles , where they believe they are delivering slightly more than expected ( see table 4 ) . Given that the managers are conducting a survey every academic year , they could have been directed to the reliability gap by the tenants ' answers . In summary , the gap analysis shows the following areas of improvements : -The telecommunications factor seems to be the utmost point to focus . It is unclear however which item of the factor is causing the gap : internet , intercom , TV , telephone or another unlisted variable . - The security perception of the houses is in priority . Yet , looking at customers ' comments ( see Appendix 6 ) , none identified any item of the telecommunications as a bad experience . However , the security was mentioned pointing at "" aggressive swans , geese and ducks in for the children "" . Regarding the security , comment addressed the "" alarm which is spread in all blocks of the area even though it only concerns building "" . That shows that gap analysis solely is not enough to uncover the cause of customer dissatisfaction and need to be adjoined to for example . < heading > Evaluation of methods and findings < /heading><heading > Methodology limitations</heading > As for any methodology , the one used to assess customer satisfaction of the is biased by some factors : -We have chosen not to use the reliability coefficients ( alpha ) and assess the correctness of the test structure as suggested by ( ) . Instead , we assessed the questions qualitatively to insure they were easy to understand and covered the dimensions of . -The dimensions were not weighted to understand their relative importance . That was deliberate to decrease the burden of filling the forms and have an acceptable number of respondents ( out of questionnaires ) . The measurement of service quality would probably be more accurate with weighted importance of dimensions , with areas of improvement being factors of high importance and low performance . -The sample is not large enough to create more segments than we have used in this study . It would have been interesting to consider segments such as staff , visiting academics or students . Another segmentation could have been single / couple / family or bedrooms property . -All gaps have been aggregated by using means of answers or groups . However , the answers are rather homogeneous within any item : either of answers ( or more ) are point from the mean or differ by points maximum between the higher and the lower value . -We noted that there was very similar questions in the perceptions list which were ( differences shown in bold ): < quote > a/ Are you pleased with the location , number and quality of services around the flat / house ( university facilities , parking , schools , shops , hospital etc ) ?   b/ Are you pleased with the number and quality of services around the flat / house ( parking , school , retail , hospital etc ) ? < /quote > Systematically , respondents rated the question point lower than the question , except persons who spotted the error . A quick look at the literature did not help to understand this phenomenon but that shows how small the difference between consecutive scales is . The question was cancelled . - Being tenants ourselves , we clearly can not identify the impact of that status on the trend of answers . -Finally , most of the tenants are from areas out of existing locations managed by the . A quick check shows that the spread of property sizes , in the locations chosen , belongs to the higher set of bedrooms ( properties out of ) . Thus , these areas are representative of the entire property population . < heading > Findings limitations</heading>-The SFAS team has no direct management control on all aspects of the service whatsoever ( maintenance , internet , post , external security etc ) . -On a - points scale , we did not find sufficient literature telling what is or is not the "" acceptable "" gap . Therefore , we consider all gaps during the discussion of findings . Yet , drawing from Modelling literature on the normal distribution , we do know that there exist an interval around calculated means which includes the mean of the entire population . In an ideal study , we should have ignored any gap which does not go beyond that interval . -The questionnaire could not be used to assess all gaps from the gap model ( Zeithaml et al , ) . However , we could still conclude on the main gap between customers ' expectations and perceptions . < heading > SERVQUAL limitations</heading > From the outset , there has been no thorough evaluation as to which tool is better for this piece of work . The idea was to use SERVQUAL , one of the most renowned tools for service quality assessment and analyse how it fits to this study . SERVQUAL has undoubtedly had a major impact on the business and academic communities . However , it has got many limitations listed by scholars among which we experienced the following : -It allows to measure service quality trends rather than an absolute level of quality . -It is based on the quality of questions that can not help to pinpoint an improvement area precisely -Given the number of nationalities ( ) , following questions should be considered seriously : How do cultural factors influence customer evaluation of service quality ? How can service quality measurement questionnaires be designed and adapted in order that they suit and provide accurate reflections of a local environment ? ( Xiande et al , ) < heading > Conclusion</heading > This paper assessed the usefulness of SERVQUAL for this context . The gap and segmentation analysis directed us to unexpected findings , neither from the management survey , nor from the customers ' comments . Further research is required to disaggregate the telecommunication variable and assess the core reason of customer dissatisfaction . Yet , service quality assessment is an ongoing process which needs to be done regularly to spot the trends in customer satisfaction .","< heading > Introduction</heading > With increasing competition in their home market , companies often strive to seek growth opportunities abroad . Establishing alliances with local partners is a common route of expansion , with joint - ventures as the favoured form of alliance ( Lial . ) . In this paper , we will analyse reasons why companies choose to establish International Joint Ventures ( IJVs ) , the advantages of IJVs over other alliances forms . Given the high "" failure "" rate of IJVs , we will discuss the means to increase the likelihood of a successful outcome . Our focus will be on IJVs established in the and by countries in unless stated otherwise . < heading > Definitions</heading > Scholars disagree on many definitions and we will provide the definitions used for our report . International Joint ventures can be defined as legally and economically distinct organizational entities created by or more parent organizations that collectively invest capital and other resources to pursue certain strategic objectives ( . ) ; parent is headquartered outside the venture 's country of operation ( . ) . IJV Performance : Scholars disagree on the variables associated with performance ( . ) and are unclear about what an indicator of performance is ( "" output "" ) and what a determinant of performance is ( "" input "" ) . Employee satisfaction is often used as an indicator of a high performing organization ( output ) but others classify satisfaction as a cause of performance ( input ) and still others state that it is neither an input nor an output.(Anderson ) . For this paper , we will consider , like many executives , any package of inputs and outputs defined by a partner to evaluate its performance , which is similar to the objective and subjective measures of performance ( Glaisteral . ) . Success and failure : ' IJV success ' is the accomplishment of the parent firm 's strategic goals from the venture ( ) . "" Financial and objective measures may fail to adequately reflect the extent an has achieved its short- and long - term objectives "" ( Geringeral . ) . Despite poor financial results , liquidation or instability , an may have been meeting or exceeding its parents ' objectives and thus be considered successful by or all of the parents . Conversely , an may be viewed as unsuccessful despite good financial results or continued stability ( . ) . ' IJV Failure ' in the literature often means its dissolution . Even when the is acquired by partner , it has ' failed ' . For this paper , we will use that broad definition as long as this acquisition was not part of the goals of the partner analysed . Trust is Trust is the mutual confidence that no party to an exchange will exploit another 's vulnerabilities ( , ) . < heading > Why companies enter over other forms</heading > Alliances can come in a bewildering number of forms - including acquisitions , mergers , joint ventures , keiretsus , consortiums , minority holdings , technology transfer agreements , market development contracts , or other types of inter - organizational dependency that often stretch across national borders ( Fedoral . ) . Our purpose is not to contrast and compare each alliance with IJVs but to provide some key rationales and advantages of IJVs over any other alliance type . There are many reasons why companies may engage in IJVs . We will group those reasons in groups : Strategic and Economic . Unless the reason is also the implicit benefit expected from the firm , we will analyse the advantages for each reason . < heading > Strategic reasons</heading > Complementary of resources and assets ( firm - specific factors ): Firms can set IJVs because of the lack of specific resources or assets strategic to their expansion . formed an with with assembly lines in the but plant design and product engineering are under 's responsibility ( . ) . Smaller firms who have developed a new technology or patent , sometimes venture with larger firms who have the distribution and/or manufacturing capabilities ; Hence , providing each partner with a potential increase of , or access to , the overall market ( Beauchampal . ) . Parents engage in IJVs for the potential of learning from each other , about manufacturing processes , technologies , market and so forth . On hand , building competitive capabilities from scratch is not always feasible because key resources can be controlled by local competitors ( mining rights , suppliers etc ) and it is costly . On the other hand , acquisitions are also costly and do not guarantee complete transfer of competitive assets . Those reasons make the more attractive to the foreign firm . is also attractive to local firms which can extend existing capabilities to cover a wider product line without full investment in production facilities ( . ) . However , firms cite the access to technology ( better transfer with IJVs ) and to foreign market ( . ) . Country - specific factors are probably the major reason for firms to set up an . , for example , is an important market ( population of ) and has attractive resources ( inexpensive and highly educated workforce , natural resources ) . In general , a firm is more likely to cooperate with "" indigenous "" firms when the economic , political and cultural systems of the foreign country differ from the local country ( . ) . < fnote > For example , the country is the world 's largest producer of oil and largest steel producer . ( Fey ) < /fnote > In , personal relationship ( guanxi ) binds of into a social and business web and heavily influences social behaviour and business practises . The can use their "" guanxi "" to promote products through sales - force marketing ( . ) . However , guanxi alone can not ensure venture success at all and is not a substitute for basic organizational fundamentals . Trade barriers mitigation and macro - economy : In , the firms built several IJVs with firms , hoping to mitigate the future trade barriers by investing in the with local allies , e.g. . From in , import restrictions protected of manufactured goods in . For the , the trend was a clear signal [ to invest locally ] ( . ) . Moreover , in some sectors , several countries like or governments may have strict rules ( ' the stick ' ) for foreign investment , giving no choice other than setting IJVs ( Hall ) . Access to local markets might require local equity participation . Moreover , through incentives ( ' the carrot ' ) , the government encouraged IJVs setup to conserve foreign exchange , increase efficiency and create jobs ( . ) . < heading > Economic reasons</heading > Reduce costs for better competitiveness : In , many managers considered that the - IJVs made good business sense . Faced with seemingly unbeatable foreign competition , many companies decided that it is more profitable to delegate complex manufacturing to their partners : e.g. ) can produce a small turning machine for $ in the ; the same machine produced and shipped by the with ( company in ) cost ( . ) . To reduce costs currently , there is also the opportunity for IJVs to mix and assemble bulk materials shipped [ from high to low costs ] , for final distribution . Also , government special incentives helped firms opening IJVs ( . ) . Developing new products and penetrating new markets are too expensive for a company to always go it alone . For example , ( computer firm ) could not develop mainframes without . ) . Costs or risks sharing confer benefits through joint projects in areas characterized by extremely high development costs and uncertain demand or short product or technology life cycles ( Jeongsukal . 1991 ) . These economic rents can be the result of risk reduction , economies of scale and scope or production rationalization ( . ) . Market value of partners : IJVs formation has a positive and significant impact on the market value of the parent firms , ( Jeongsukal . 1991 ) . Can we still suggest that some companies engage in IJVs to exploit those benefits ? Most probably , the financial market shows interests in the potential economies of scale . Parents forming joint ventures in the identical and related - complementary categories reported higher gains in abnormal returns than those forming other types of ventures ( Jeongsukal . 1991 ) . Despite these expected advantages from IJVs , the failure rate is important . Depending on studies , failure rate is ( Seungal . ) . To benefit from advantages , we will need to understand the actions required for a successful outcome . < heading > What to do to increase likelihood of success ? < /heading > Not only IJVs are caught in the competition but they also deal with parents ' intervention and conflicts . To increase likelihood of success , parent firms need to work out the following areas linked to the lifecycle . < heading > Parameters independent from lifecycle</heading > Paramount importance of Trust : Parents need to spend time building and consolidating [ the right ] trust . Trust and time are positively correlated : collaboration length between partners leads to superior overall performance and in particular to risk reduction , export sales and profitability ( Luo ) . Parkhe ( ) suggests different levels at which trust must be built : organizational , functional and individual . In successful alliances , trust is often touted as a prerequisite , a necessity , an absolute must ( , ) . In , trust proved to be that had the greatest ability to differentiate between IJVs with good or poor performance ( ) . The reverse is also true : a major contributor to failed alliances is lack of trust ( Parkhe 1998b ) . Developing trust reduces risks ( Dasal . ) and facilitates conflicts management . Knowing what you [ do n't ] know : companies often underestimate their ignorance : cultural differences , language barriers , infrastructure , institutional and legislative differences , different consumer preferences , and so forth . Together , these points are called the "" liability of foreignness "" ( Vermeulen ) . Due diligence must be done to find evidences for all important assumptions . < heading > Before IJV setup</heading > Partnering skills and experience : Partnering skills require the "" ability to cope with constant compromise and give - and - take that successful IJVs require ; the ability to sit back and let someone else be in the driver seat , when necessary "" ( Vermeulen ) . These skills can be learnt even though prior experience between partners is not necessarily a predictor of 's success ( ) . However , for some IJVs , experience is key ; in the venture , made sure it was responsible for all the marketing from the plant , where its experience elsewhere in the world has proved crucial ( ) . Another example , , not used to share control over its manufacturing plants , was forced to wind down its IJVs both in and ( Vermeulen ) . Alternately , local partner 's market and international experience are both found to have a favourable influence on the 's risk reduction , market development and accounting return ( Luo ) . Partner selection : Selecting the right partner appears to be an important variable in the formation and operation of IJVs , since the specific partner chosen helps determine the mix of skills and resources , operating policies and procedures , and overall competitive viability of an ( Geringer ) . Partners strategic , organizational and financial attributes are all crucial to performance ( Luo ) . Foreign investor can not , nor will it need to , find a local partner possessing superior attributes in all of the above . The importance of specific attributes within a category is dependent on what the foreign company wants to pursue from the venture . To paraphrase with an example , "" The [ ] market is a pond full of hidden delicious food . A new fish in the pond can starve to death because it does not know how to locate the food . Your local partner is an old fish who knows where every plan and plankton is "" ( Liangal . 2004 ) . As a late entrant in , dealt with "" , 's biggest automaker , to move even faster than it had planned ( ) . < fnote > E.g. marketing competence , relationship building , market position , industrial experience , image etc < /fnote><fnote > Leadership , rank , ownership type , learning ability , foreign experience , and human resource skills < /fnote><fnote > profitability , liquidity , leverage , and asset efficiency < /fnote > Alignment of goals and objectives : Finding the right partner involves aligning goals . In , a common disagreement arises because the [ local ] partner wanted to conduct some research and development , but the foreign firm was interested in the venture only as a sales representative ( Fey ) . The primary motivations for the in entering a JV are to obtain technology , capital , management expertise , and short - term success . The aim of foreign investors , however , is to gain market access to with a potential for long - term growth . Partners particularly need to insure that the processes will allow them to reach their compatible goals : e.g. technology knowledge or gain market share . Timing issue : Entry timing is an important part of an effective joint strategy , especially in 's environment where changes are occurring constantly . It is the firm who moves quickest that will gain the access to better partners and will in turn provide a competitive advantage over anyone who enters late ( Beauchampal . ) . We would argue that the smarter move is more efficient than a quicker one . Negotiations ( part of due - diligence ): Prior to any establishment , all partners need to negotiate critical terms of the contract , covering the objectives for all stages of the lifecycle . Areas of negotiation include objectives ( e.g. value creation , market share , technology transfer etc ) , IJV strategy ( including the exit ) , cultural compatibility and organizational fit , equity ownership , people involved in management , risks management ( ) . Moreover , the firms must endeavour to predict the potential behaviour of the partner in case of markets changes or new opportunities . Yet , no negotiation will cover all scenarios . Firms have to distinguish what 's essential from what 's negotiable . These basics should prevent early failure and help to build relationship . The negotiations should take as long as required and should not replace the due - diligence ( market research , independent and reliable assessment of partner reputation ) . It took Mc 's to start its in . Fair value of contributions : Where the parties contribute cash or cash equivalents , the relative contribution by each party can easily be measured . Where contributions are made in lieu of cash , the parties may disagree on the ' value ' of the contribution . To avoid problems down the road , parties should agree on the ' value ' of the intangible and tangible assets to be contributed at the outset or during the joint adventure and should stipulate that agreement in writing ( 2000 ) . For example , contributed too much , given its stake in ( Condon , ) . Agreement on conflict resolution : the joint venture agreement should provide for a practical and efficient dispute resolution mechanism . No contract can be so complete as to anticipate all of the issues that may arise over time . Consequently , a dispute resolution mechanism that is perceived as fair by all parties can help in reducing the risks of an unfavourable outcome ( 2000 ) . Conflicts between joint venture partners can significantly hinder joint venture performance as illustrated in the "" "" case study , with supervision conflicts ( ) . Quality of management : IJVs , as any firm , need good management ( not sufficient but necessary ) to become successful . Moreover , managers need special training about negotiations , culture , conflicts resolution and communication methods . In the "" "" case study , management training has been clearly a constant issue ( ) . For example , managers need to understand the role of "" implicit communication "" ( gestures , facial expressions , and other non verbal messages ) in which foreign managers are well - versed . Control and performance : There is a huge amount of literature about the link between control and performance . Most of the scholars do not agree on the correlation between control and performance . For example , while ( ) reports that dominant partner IJVs tended to be more successful than are shared management ventures , . ( ) states that , in , it does not when the local partner has a majority stake . Also , data from and indicate a success rate for joint ventures and a success rate for ventures with an uneven split of ownership ( ) . Culture and performance : Many studies have tried to find the correlation between culture similarity and performance . For example , . ( ) and . ( ) argue that cultural similarity between partners is a critical antecedent for success . The greater the cultural similarity between partners , the better the performance . Yet , Lial . ( ) show that IJVs that were established by firms from collectivistic cultures failed to achieve a better performance than those from individualistic cultures , suggesting that a similar culture was not always the most valuable resource affecting firm performance . These studies not only consider specific contexts at specific times but also have different definitions of performance . We argue that it is unproven that the control stake or the culture similarity has any systematic and direct link whatsoever on the likelihood of success . Yet , there might be exceptions for some IJVs in particular environments . < heading > During IJV 's life</heading > Regular reviews of changes : Frequent reviews of the IJVs are needed to determine how changes by either partner impact the . Just as basic strategy and internal management processes impact the cultural fit between the partners going into the , changes in these factors determine the ongoing value and feasibility of the relationship ( Fedoral . ) . Trade - off benefit / cost of control : The critical issue for parents is to exercise control , in terms of mechanisms , extent and focus , over an in such a manner that will enable it to successfully implement its common strategy without incurring a level of administrative or organizational inefficiencies which outweighs gains from its . However , the extent of control that the foreign partner attempts to exercise may limit the autonomy and flexibility of the and its local management , hindering the venture 's ability to respond to local market demands and generating a level of transaction costs that may offset the strategy 's potential benefits . ( . ) < heading > After IJV dissolution</heading > Exit strategy : By their nature , many joint ventures have a finite life . If there is no specified termination or renewal date , the partners should consider how their relationship can be terminated ( if desired ) at the outset , and to provide for that eventuality in the agreement ( 2000 ) . However , an issue that sometimes arises is in which a party purchaser acquires one of the parties holding an interest in a joint venture , leaving the remaining parties with a new ' partner . ' This may fundamentally change the dynamics of the joint venture , particularly if the other parties to the joint venture perceive the party acquirer as a competitor . To prevent such an occurrence , the agreement should provide the parties with the right to terminate the joint venture upon a change in control of of the joint venturers , or to buy the interest held by a partner that is acquired by a party ( 2000 ) . Liberalization in has been detrimental to local partners , when their foreign partner pulled out from the IJVs to set up their own subsidiary , e.g. ( with ) , ( with ) ( et al . , ) . < heading > Findings Limitations</heading > IJV study is closely related to many factors like the period of observation , the location ( e.g. emerging market or not ) , the industry ( technological or not , capital intensive or labour intensive etc ) . All cited studies have their own limitations ( industry range , performance definition , country studied , etc ) . Thus , generalising about the findings , as we did in this paper , limits somehow the validity of the arguments . Yet , scholars agree on requirements like due - diligence or trust to increase the likelihood of success . In summary , any recommendation is valid in a context ( period , country , industry etc ) . Companies do not need to follow all recommendations but seek for critical suggestions in line with their context and objectives . < heading > Conclusion</heading > Although there is no fool - proof method for creating joint ventures , the beforehand preparation , trust building , continued monitoring and creation of overseeing committees will increase the likelihood for success . The success or failure of any joint ventures ultimately rests with trust . Communication of the goals of each partner is an essential element in dealing with the pitfalls of joint ventures . Since , IJVs and wholly foreign - owned enterprises ( WFOEs ) have predominated over all other types of , accounting for of the total foreign capital inflows into . From , with the relaxation of government regulations , WFOEs surpassed IJVs in popularity ( 2001 ) . Given the very recent trend showing or firms acquiring foreign companies ( for PC , CNOOC for offshore oil , etc ) , it is too early to find literature studying why these companies choose WFOEs over IJVs . Future research would help to confirm the hypothesis that costs of IJVs outweigh the advantages exposed in the literature and that , wherever possible , are the best options in the new world .",1
"Temporal discounting and risk aversion are both phenomenon found in the laboratory when investigating how and why people make certain decisions . Decision making consists of choosing from between various options and with each option there are generally associated benefits and costs . It used to be thought that people behave rationally and therefore would select what would rationally be the best option . This assumption is what normative theories of decision making were built upon , for example utility theory as proposed by and argues that we try to maximise expected utility , by assessing the probability of an outcome occurring and multiplying it by the utility ( the subjective desirability ) of that outcome . However it was soon realised that people do not make decisions in a rational manner and are often affected by factors other than expected utility ( , ) . People tend to violate the criterion set by utility theory as they give more value to certain outcomes than to uncertain ones and also tend to have different attitudes towards gains and losses . To cope with this inconsistent data , new theories were developed such as prospect theory as put forward by , this theory proposes that peoples decisions can be predicted by looking at a value function as shown in Figure ( , , p.1060 ) . < figure/>This value function shows that people form a ' reference point ' , which is shown at the mid - point of the value function where lower values are seen as losses and higher values are seen as gains ( Kuhberger , ) This reference point is often formed on the basis of a person 's status quo . People 's decisions therefore depend largely on evaluating possible losses and gains against this reference point . The value function also shows that people are much more sensitive to potential losses than to potential gains ( hence the steeper curve for losses ) , this is to say that they show ' loss aversion ' ( Hogarth , ) . This loss aversion means that people also tend to be aversive to risk . ' Risk aversion ' can be seen when people are presented with options , one of which is a certainty and the other which is more risky . In this type of situation people tend to choose the certain reward even when it is of subjectively lower value than the riskier choice . For example when people are given the choice between a prospect that offers an chance to win $ or an alternative of receiving $ for sure , the large majority of people will choose the $ for certain option , even though the $ option has a higher mathematical expectation . This is also due to people 's tendency to weigh losses more heavily than gains.(Kahneman & Tversky , ) . However prospect theory does not always lead to the prediction that people will seek to avoid a risky decision , and many people will participate in risk seeking behaviour . For example if offered the choice between a sure loss of $ or an probability of losing $ , most people will take the risky option giving them a chance not to incur any loss , even though they will then actually have a average expected loss of $ compared with the expected loss of $ if they took the certain option . Therefore according to prospect theory people tend to be risk aversive for gains and risk seeking for losses ( , ) . Another phenomenon found in decision making is ' temporal discounting ' , this is where people tend to choose smaller rewards that are available immediately over larger rewards that are available later . It can be argued that this occurs because people discount the value of a delayed reward , meaning the present subjective value of a reward is reduced as a function of temporal distance in the future ( Yi et al , ) . Normative models of this behaviour assume that the present value of a reward decreases by a fixed proportion over the length of time a person has to wait for the reward , meaning that the "" future value is discounted exponentially with delay "" ( , p.54 ) . This would mean that a reward that is preferred from point in time is preferred from all points in time , however many experiments have shown that this is not the case . Instead it has been shown that people often reverse their preferences over time , this is because unlike what the normative model suggests ( that the value of the reward increases by a fixed proportion ) , that in fact the value of the reward rises by increasingly larger proportions as it gets temporally closer ( ) . An experiment carried out by Chapman and Elstein in also found a ' magnitude effect ' in discounting , this means that discounting rates are inversely related to the amount of the reward . This also goes against normative models , as they suggest that discounting rates should be independent of the size of the reward ( as cited in , ) . Evidence such as this suggests that the normative model which advocates an exponential discounting curve are incorrect and that a hyperbolic discounting curve better fits the data . The implications of hyperbolic discounting are that people 's preferences and therefore choices are not inherently stable and can change over time ( , ) . Both of the concepts of ' risk aversion ' and ' temporal discounting ' have been rigorously tested in laboratory experiments and there is still a huge amount of research going on in this area . From laboratory experiments and investigations into these concepts real world applications , it seems that these concepts are of practical use , and can be used in order to help make sense of people 's everyday decisions . For example the concept of risk aversion has been used in applications as diverse as energy conservation , medical decision making , and decisions about out - of - court settlements ( , ) . Most applications of this concept use it in the context of the ' framing phenomenon ' , this is where framing a decision in different ways can change whether people feel they are in a position of gain or in a position of loss , in this way framing can manipulate people 's tendency to be risk averse or risk seeking ( Kuhberger , ) . An example of this can be seen in energy conservation , where traditionally campaigns have stressed the amount of money and energy that people may be able to save through investing in alternative energy and conservation projects . These types of campaign therefore portray energy conservation as a chance to make a gain and in doing so encourage people to be risk averse . Prospect theory tells us that in order to be more successful , campaigners should instead show people how much they are losing by not taking the chance to invest in alternative energy and conservation . This means people will approach the decision from a position of loss and as prospect theory tells us that people are risk seeking for losses , they should therefore choose to invest in order to return to their status quo ( , ) . This effect can also be seen rather importantly in medical decision making , for example a study carried out by , and in found that patients after a heart transplant tend to become risk averse in relation to any activity that may be able to further improve their condition after transplantation ( et al , ) . This is because when the patient is very ill with cardiac disease , their situation is framed negatively as there is a large difference in utility between their current state and their reference point of good health . This means they are in a state of loss and are therefore motivated to take risks in order to get closer to achieving their reference point . However once they have had the transplant they will feel better and therefore frame their situation more positively , changing their reference point to of ill health . Therefore with their new heart they will feel that they are in a state of gain and due to the function being more gradual in the positive domain , the difference in utility between the patients current state and a state of health will not motivate them to carry out any risky activity which may further improve their condition . Also they would find any activity that risks them returning to a state of ill health and therefore loss very threatening . From these examples it can be seen that the concept of ' risk aversion ' can be applied to a number of real world situations , it can also be seen that knowledge of such a phenomena can help to avoid erroneous decisions made due to it . For example if doctors discuss the actual percentage of risk involved in activities that may further improve patients condition after transplant this may help to avoid patients aversion to them ( et al , ) . The concept of ' temporal discounting ' can also be seen as useful in various real world applications . It has been used in many cases to explain why people will often carry out "" suboptimally impulsive behavior "" and therefore sacrifice long - term gains for a short - term pleasures ( , , p.54 ) . As such the concept can be applied in areas such as career decisions , health decisions and marketing . This is because hyperbolic discounting means that the value of something drops slowly at long delays and steeply at short delays , therefore although we may be able to resist making a decision that we know is suboptimal when the reward is far away , this resolve weakens as the object of temptation draws temporally closer ( ) . For example in a study carried out by and in it was found that when people make career decisions they are often faced with the choice of early gains , such as a high starting salary , and later larger benefits , such as opportunities to progress . In these situations people often have long - term professional plans which they intend to stick to , but as the career outcome draws closer people often reverse their preference , neglecting their long - term career goals for the less preferred but more immediately available outcome . These findings have implications for both career decision makers and for the organisations attempting to hire them . They suggest that decision makers should actively seek out a source of social influence that will strengthen their resolve to achieve their long - term career goals and that businesses attempting to hire people should offer higher starting salaries if they can not offer potential employees competitive long - term salaries or professional growth opportunities ( , ) . Another real world application of ' temporal discounting ' can be seen in attempting to understand substance abuse , studies such as the one carried out by and Bickel in have found that greater temporal discounting is found in people suffering from an addiction as compared to non - drug - using controls . Therefore it can be seen that people suffering from an addiction are less able than non - addicts when given the choice between a smaller sooner reward and a larger later reward to choose the later reward . This may help to explain why substance abusers persistently choose the relatively small immediate rewards of drug use over delayed larger rewards such as employment opportunities , good family relationships and good health ( et al , ) . It is unclear whether these higher discounting rates are part of the cause of addiction or whether they are an effect of sustained addiction . However the implications of this higher discounting rate are that treatments that focus on the later consequences of drug use are likely to have little impact . Instead treatment programmes should focus on the immediate rewards of abstaining , therefore approaches which tell patients to take it one day at a time and provide tangible rewards for abstinence on a short term basis are more likely to be successful ( et al , ) . From these examples it can be seen that ' temporal discounting ' can be applied to real world situations and that research into this concept is important as it can be used to help people to make rational decisions , such as when looking at career choices and abstinence from drugs . Therefore it can be said that both the concept of ' risk aversion ' and the concept of ' temporal discounting ' are useful outside the laboratory and applicable to many real world problems . However this position is not supported by everyone carrying out research into these areas , and both of these concepts have been criticised for not relating to actual behaviour . ' Risk aversion ' for example can be criticised as choices in everyday life are rarely as simple as prospect theory suggests . Often when people are making decisions there are choices from which to choose and these choices often can not be measured accurately in terms of how much loss or gain in utility they would provide a person with compared to their ' reference point ' . It is also very difficult to know in real life what that reference point would be , as even with an unambiguous measure such as money it is unlikely that a person would know their exact wealth at any one time ( Hogarth , ) . It has also been argued that there is an emotional factor in decision making that prospect theory does not account for . It has been found that people tend to buy insurance for events with a high probability of occurrence but with low losses ( like household burglary ) but will tend not to buy insurance for low probability events with higher losses ( flood or earthquakes ) . It can be argued that this type of decision is not made by weighing up losses and gains but because failing to insure against such events as burglary which happen often would seem imprudent , whilst people do not feel responsible for failing to protect themselves from acts of God , therefore this decision can be seen to be made on the basis of anticipated regret . Emotional factors can also produce other violations of prospect theory as they can cause people to have preferred alternatives which mean they block out other relevant arguments and even the existence of other alternatives , people will sometimes even "" psychologically prepare themselves for the negative consequences of their decisions "" ( , , p.111 ) . Therefore for a full understanding of decision making both its cognitive and emotional determinants should be investigated . The concept of ' Temporal discounting ' has also been criticised for not being of use outside of the laboratory . Most research looking at this phenomena and its effect on decision making , has been carried out in controlled experiments using money as the rewards . Therefore there is little evidence that this concept can be transferred to real life situations where rewards are rarely as salient and measurable . We can not see into the future therefore it is often difficult to know if a temporally distant reward is in fact more valuable than one that is closer . For example in the case of career decisions , although by taking the option of a higher starting salary it may seem that a person has neglected their long - term career goals and therefore made a short - sighted reversal in their decisions . In fact it may be that when an option is far in the future it can seem very attractive but as it gets temporally closer the disadvantages of that option may become clearer . Therefore the person making the career choice may come to realise that the career they had planned for is not what they actually want , this may be what reverses that persons ' decision rather than temporal discounting ( Hamm , ) . Temporal discounting has also been criticised due to the lack of explanation of why discount rates can vary between different decision makers at different times and how these differences can be affected by circumstances , such as life expectancy . It can be seen that both the concept of ' risk aversion ' and ' temporal discounting ' can be seen as useful outside of the laboratory as they can be used to help explain why people make certain decisions in a variety of contexts . However it is also clear from the criticisms of these concepts that they can not be used alone to explain how people make decisions in the real world . Therefore it may be more useful to use these concepts in conjunction with theories that look at other aspects of decision making . For example 's rational - emotional model which accounts for the impact of emotion on peoples ' choices ( as cited in , ) . Also more research into the real world applications of these concepts may help to generate a more comprehensive theory of decision making .","In order to decide whether something is alive , an individual must be able to differentiate between living and non - living objects in the world . This is an evolutionarily important distinction to make as it can be critical in identifying predators and conspecifics from inanimate objects and therefore allowing us to distinguish the physical from the social world ( , ) . It has been suggested by many psychologists such as , Rosenbaum and that this distinction is made based on whether or not the movement of an object seems to conform to laws by conserving kinetic energy , if an object appears to violate these laws it is often identified as being animate ( as cited in ) . Whilst , as will be discussed later , this observation can give an important insight into whether something is animate or inanimate , it is rather ambiguous at the perceptual level ( ) . This suggests that other factors such as the perceived intentionality of the movement , the context the movement was within and prior knowledge may also be taken in to account when distinguishing animate from inanimate objects based on their movements ( ) . In a study looking at how motion provides information which allows observers to identify events , et al ( ) found that motion was identified as animate when there were increases in energy along the objects trajectory without any mechanical causality . Energy in inanimate objects can only decrease ( due to frictional forces ) and therefore it is only animate objects that can increase their energy without external causation , this is due to their autonomous energy sources . et al ( ) believed that the visual system can automatically detect when observable kinetic energy is not conserved and that this is how people detect animate from inanimate objects . From this type of evidence the violation hypothesis was formed , this hypothesis states that "" animacy is perceived whenever an object 's motion path indicates that the object must have access to hidden energy sources "" ( , p. ) . Therefore this hypothesis not only suggests that animacy will be perceived when kinetic energy is not conserved but also when the movement of an object deviates from what a motion path would predict . It has been found in experiments such as the one carried out by and Proffitt in that when the direction of a ball after collision with another ball deviates from the expected direction by people are more likely to rate the ball as being animate ( as cited in , 2000 ) . However there is also evidence that violation of laws alone are not enough for people to identify an object as animate from its motion . A study by in found that when participants were shown motions that violate laws they did not identify all of these motions as animate and instead sometimes described them as "" strange or artificial looking "" ( as cited in ) . Gelman in argued that this type of result is due to the cues of motion being ambiguous ; hidden energy sources may indicate an animate object but they may also imply an external energy source which is hidden or invisible ( as cited in ) . Therefore just because the energy source is hidden it does not mean that people will simply assume that it is internal or that the object is animate . In a set of experiments by and Feldman ( 2006 ) it was also found that even when objects seemed to have an internal source of energy and autonomous movement , if they appeared to collide with a static element in their environment they were less likely to be perceived as animate . This suggests that elements in the objects environment can affect whether they are perceived as animate , also providing evidence against the violation hypothesis . It would seem that there are cues other than movements which people also take into account when distinguishing an animate from an inanimate object . Tremoulet and Feldman ( 2006 ) explained their findings that when objects participate in a collision with a static element they are rated as less animate , by hypothesising that this type of passive behaviour counteracts the animacy cue given by violation of laws . They argued that this is because the collision deters the observer from attributing intentionality to the objects movements . Other experiments have also suggested that intentionality is an important cue to perceiving animacy from the movements of an object ; many have done this by looking at goal - directed movement . Goal - directed movement occurs when an object moves autonomously whilst also directing its movement "" toward ( or away from ) another object , state , or location "" ( , p. ) . in an experiment carried out in found that when unfamiliar entities which he called ' blobs ' behaved in a goal - directed manner by moving towards an irregularly shaped dot , they were identified as living organisms and therefore animate . ' ' that moved in an identical manner but with the goal dot removed failed to be identified as living , this suggests that goal - directedness is a decisive factor in deciding whether an object is animate . ( ) proposed that this was because goal - directed movements suggest that there is a reason for the objects movements and therefore that it has either biological or psychological intention . It is from evidence such as this that a hypothesis was formed proposing that people only believe an object to be animate when intentionality is perceived ( ) . The intentionality hypothesis unlike the violation hypothesis allows for a variety of factors to affect peoples ' perception of animacy . Whereas the violation hypothesis relies solely on whether or not energy is conserved in making animacy judgements , the intentionality hypothesis takes into account : the delay before movement , directness of movement , termination of the movement , bodily orientation and the context the movement is within ( ) . The delay before movement can effect whether an object is seen to be acting with intention as when an inanimate object encounters an element in its environment its movement is only affected when contact is made and this reaction occurs without delay . Therefore when an object reacts to an element in its environment without making contact or if there is a delay before reaction , this can increase the perceived animacy of the object . This is because the non - contact or delay implies that the object is not moving involuntarily in reaction to physical forces but intentionally due to psychological causes ( , ) . The directness of movement towards the goal and the point of termination of the movement can also help to convey intentionality as when an object acts in a goal - directed way it is expected that it will move directly towards the target and cease its movement once it has reached it , due to having gained satisfaction ( ) . Bodily orientation is also an important cue to intentionality as was found in an experiment by Tremoulet and Feldman ( 2000 ) . Their results showed that when the object was rectangular in shape and its axis of elongation and direction of motion were misaligned participants were more likely to rate the object as inanimate , this is because people expect an animate being to face the way it is moving ( , 2000 ) . Context also plays an important role when people are trying to determine the intentionality of an objects movements ; therefore elements in the surrounding environment of the moving object often play an important part in animacy decisions . Whilst it has been found that changes in speed and direction ( movements ) have been found to give a strong cue to animacy , if these changes are used in conjunction with cues given in the environment an identification of animacy is made even more likely . For example if a change in speed or direction can be seen to be caused at a distance by an element in the environment it implies that the object itself can perceive its environment and create its own goals based on this perception . This gives a greater perception of animacy as this ability is the preserve of living things and can not be carried out by inanimate objects . Evidence for this can be found in Tremoulet and 's ( ) study , where participants were presented with a target that moved in varying ways in relationship to a static element in the environment . Participants were asked to rate how alive they thought the target was . The varying movements gave the impression of the static element either being ' prey ' , a ' predator ' , an ' obstacle ' or ' irrelevant ' . The results showed that when the static element was seen as a ' prey , ' predator ' or ' obstacle ' , participants rated the moving object as more alive than when the element was either seen to be ' irrelevant ' or when there was no static element present . This shows that elements in the objects environment and the way its movements react to these elements can give cues as to the animacy of the object . Non - Newtonian movements and all of the cues to intentionality , including context , can be seen as important in helping people to decide whether the movement of an object suggests that it is animate or inanimate . However it has been found that yet another source of information can be used to distinguish animate from inanimate objects which is not included under either the movement hypothesis or the hypothesis . This source of information is prior knowledge ( Opfer , ) . When adults look at the movement of such objects as paper cups , feathers , cars and aeroplanes it could be expected that the lack of visible outside energy source could cause them to mistakenly perceive these objects as animate . However this does not occur due to adults ' prior knowledge that these types of object do not have their own internal energy source or that they only move because a person starts their motor ( ) . This also works the other way round ; in an experiment by ( ) it was found that participants judgements of goal - directedness and animacy were affected by the range of organisms they knew to be living things . For example adults ' knowledge of such organisms as germs and plants led them to consider an unfamiliar object to be animate on the supposition that it was a micro - organism ( Opfer , ) . Whereas in an experiment by and in it was found that children will often only attribute animacy to objects with leg like appendages , based on their limited knowledge which suggests that only animals can be alive ( as cited in , ) . Prior knowledge therefore can affect what movements of objects make people believe they are alive as adults know that some living organisms such as bacteria or cells do not need psychological intention in order to move yet they are still living . This may make them more likely to identify an object as animate even when it displays movements that do not conform to the intentionality hypothesis ( ) . Prior knowledge is also useful in determining animate from inanimate movement as it can help to identify whether an object is acting in a goal - directed manner . Prior knowledge means that we can identify the sort of things that an object would see as a goal and therefore whether an object is moving towards a goal or whether it is just randomly moving towards an element in its environment . An experiment by and in involved presenting children with a rectangle which sometimes moved towards a toy truck , the children then said whether they believed the rectangle to be alive or not ( as cited in ) . They found that the children did not believe the rectangle to be alive even when it moved in a goal - directed way towards the toy truck . It has been suggested that this is because the children had no prior knowledge that a toy truck would be a goal for rectangles and therefore they may have thought this to be unlikely . This shows that knowledge of what consists of a goal for a certain object can help to identify whether an object is acting in a goal - directed manner or whether some other force is operating on the object ( ) . The fact that prior knowledge and movements which give the impression of intentionality can affect peoples ' perception of animacy suggests that people do not use movements alone to distinguish animate from inanimate objects . However although intentionality cues do affect the perception of animacy it has been found that changes in speed are in fact the primary cue in distinguishing animate from inanimate objects . An experiment by Tremoulet and Feldman ( 2006 ) found that when an object increases in speed with no obvious external energy source this will increase ratings of animacy even when there is cue suggesting that the movement was unintentional , for example a collision with a static element in the environment . Tremoulet and Feldman ( 2006 ) also found that in all their experiments their environmental manipulation had a small effect on animacy ratings compared to the effects of changes in speed and direction . Therefore , evidence suggests that whilst movements are not the only movement cues to animacy that they are perhaps the most important . It would seem that the perception of movements is not sufficient for the perception of animacy but it is necessary . Although cues to intentionality and prior knowledge can influence these perceptions , observers will only perceive animacy when an objects movements appear not to conserve energy ( ) .",1
"< heading > Referral information Source of referral and a summary of key information</heading > Elective admission on ,   is known to have Crohns Disease < heading > History All relevant information gathered from the patient about the presenting illness , co - existing problems , current treatment , significant past medical history and the social and family background . The patient 's view of the nature of the problem and their expectations for treatment.</heading><heading > Presenting Complaint</heading > is known to have , she was admitted to B1W electively with a history of diarrhoea and abdominal pain < heading > History of presenting complaint</heading > was diagnosed with in . 's symptoms are normally well controlled by her medication , however , over her symptoms have been getting progressively worse and she has been having an increase in flare ups of her disease , her last admission was in   when she was placed on steroids . Over ,   has experienced : Abdominal pain -   described the pain as being sharp and localised to the and . The pain was rated at for intensity . The pain was not constant lasting for and   did not take anything to relieve the pain . frequency ( - 6 times day ) , no malaena or rectal bleeding . Stools are loose , contain mucous and are of normal colour , they do not float and are not foul smelling . Lethargy -   felt she has had approx of her normal energy levels over . of appetite and weight loss -   has lost stone in weight over the past 2 - 3 months There has been occasional vomiting of bile and food mainly in the evening . There is no dysphagia . There is no arthralgia , no skin or eye symptoms and no mouth ulcers . There has been no recent foreign travel no identifiable dietary triggers and no exposure to anyone with similar symptoms . < heading > Past Medical History</heading><list><heading > Medical</heading > No AsthmaNo Diabetes MellitusNo anginaNo hypertensionNo epilepsyNo DVT / PE</list removed from neck < heading > Social History</heading > is a lady who works as a project administrator .   has never smoked and drinks alcohol occasionally .   has 1 sister who is younger , they both live with their parents . < heading > Allergies</heading > NKA < heading > Medication</heading > Azathioprine mg , modifies lymphocyte and plasma cell function mg BD Aminosalicylate - stimulates prostaglandins and inhibits leukotrienes , scavenges free radicals and inhibits Interleukin 1 release every 2 months , has anti TNF alpha action mg used in the treatment of inflammation in active ( also used for treatment of perianal involvement at lower dose g ) Side Effect = peripheral neuropathy Ciprofloxacin mg PO BD Antibiotic used in the treatment of inflammation in active < heading > Family History</heading > No significant family history < heading > Systems Review</heading > Cardiovascular system No chest pain , orthopnoea or PND . No peripheral oedema . No shortness of breath or wheeze . No cough or haemoptysis . Gastrointestinal System As history of presenting complaint ,   maintains a low fibre diet . Genitourinary System No change in urinary frequency , no incontinence ( stress / urge ) . No change to menstrual cycle . Central Nervous System No headaches , blackouts or visual disturbances . < heading > Analysis of history The most likely single cause of the presentation , other possible causes and reasons for these choices . The findings to be looked for on physical examination to help decide the cause.</heading > Impression -   is a lady who was diagnosed with at . Her symptoms have been well controlled by the medication . However over ,   has noticed that her symptoms have become progressively worse with a marked increase in severity over .   presented with classic signs of exacerbation of her ; history of diarrhoea , abdominal pain in the and and weight loss . The abdominal pain may be caused by inflammation and spasm of the small / large intestine during an acute exacerbation of . It may also be due to stricture formation as seen in chronic disease . The diarrhoea   is experiencing may be due to a number of factors linked with her Crohns : < list > Bacterial overgrowth ( due to obstructive stricture / fistula)Proctitis - impaired sphincter function and frequent passage of watery stools with mucousDecreased water absorption due to colonic involvementDecreased bile acid absorption in the terminal ileumStenosis e.g. rectal - causing constipation with overflow diarrhoea</list > Drug induced and infective causes of diarrhoea must also be excluded in patients with . Infective - There are many infective causes for diarrhoea e.g. , E Coli and Salmonella , Rotavirus and Norwalk virus . Most infective causes of diarrhoea are acute and symptoms tend to resolve within . Signs to look for on examination include : < list > signs of dehydration - dry mucosa , decreased skin turgortachycardiafever</list > Drug Induced ( pseudomembranous colitis ) - antibiotics e.g. , and aminoglycosides can reduce the normal flora of the gut . This enables normal gut organisms such as to grow . C Difficile produces a toxin which causes inflammation and necrosis of colonic mucosa resulting in diarrhoea .   had no evidence of such drug use in from her history . Signs to look for on examination include distended abdomen with generalised tenderness . There are main subgroups of : < list patternStricture patternDiarrhoea pattern</list > The fistula pattern of presentation leads to formation of penetrating sinuses with fistula or abscess formation . The types of fistula that can form are : entero - enteric ( between adjacent lops of bowel ) , enterogastric ( between bowel and stomach ) , enterovesical ( between bowel and bladder ) , enterocutaneous ( between bowel and skin ) . The stricture pattern produces postprandial abdominal pain with constipation . The locations of the abdominal pain point to pathology in the colon ,   may have developed strictures in these regions . Stricture formation may also explain the occasional vomiting that   has experienced and the colicky abdominal pain . However one of the main symptoms   experiences is diarrhoea . < heading > Differential Diagnoses for presenting symptoms:</heading > Inflammatory Bowel Disease - There are main types of Inflammatory Bowel Disease - Crohns and Ulcerative ( ) . Signs to look for on examination include markers of chronic disease e.g. clubbing , koilonychia , leukonychia , mouth ulcers , weight loss etc . Inflammatory bowel disease is also associated with systemic manifestations e.g. rashes , arthralgia , conjunctivitis etc and so these should also be looked for on examination .   did not report any blood in her stools which is more indicative of rather than which is associated with bloody diarrhoea . Infective - There are many infective causes for diarrhoea e.g. , E Coli and Salmonella , Rotavirus and Norwalk virus . Most infective causes of diarrhoea are acute and symptoms tend to resolve within . Signs to look for on examination include : < list > signs of dehydration - dry mucosa , decreased skin turgortachycardiafever</list > Drug Induced ( pseudomembranous colitis ) - antibiotics e.g. , and aminoglycosides can reduce the normal flora of the gut . This enables normal gut organisms such as to grow . produces a toxin which causes inflammation and necrosis of colonic mucosa resulting in diarrhoea .   had no evidence of such drug use in from her history . Signs to look for on examination include distended abdomen with generalised tenderness . Malabsorption - Coeliac Disease - inflammation of the mucosa of the small bowel due to gluten intolerance abdo pain , nausea and vomiting , steatorrhoea , can be a symptom of some endocrine disorders e.g. hyperthryoidism , Diabetes . It is therefore important to look further symptoms associated with these disorders in order to exclude them as a differential e.g. Hyperthyroidism - sweaty palm , exopthalmus , fine tremor , goitre This is the most common functional bowel disorder . Criteria for diagnosis state that ' in there should be of abdominal discomfort / pain with out of of the following - relieved with defaecation , onset associated with change in stool freq , onset associated with change in stool form ' . If no other explanation can be found for this patients symptoms , patient follow up will determine whether they suffer from this condition . < heading > Physical examination Highlight the findings most relevant to your clinical problem solving by underlining them</heading><heading > Examination on admission:</heading><list><heading > General Observations</heading > Pulse - 100 bpmBlood Pressure - 85/55Respiratory Rate - 20 pmTemperature C</list > Weight - 40Kg Height - 162.56 cm BMI - 15.27 ( underweight )   appeared pale and underweight GI : The abdomen was soft and non - tender . There was no guarding or rebound tenderness . Bowel sounds present . < heading > General Examination < /heading > On examination   was comfortable and alert at rest . There was no jaundice or anaemia , there was no cervical lymphadenopathy and no palpable supraclavicular nodes . There was no clubbing or koilonychias and no signs of dehydration .   appeared to have a ' moon face ' consistent with Cushings syndrome . < list><heading > General Observations</heading > Pulse - 65 bpmBlood Pressure - 110/75Respiratory Rate - 14 pmTemperature C</list > GI : Inspection - The abdomen moved with respiration . There were no obvious scars , masses or visible peristalsis . The abdomen was not distended . Palpation - The abdomen was soft and non - tender . There was no guarding or peritonism and there were no palpable masses or organomegaly - resonant Auscultation - bowel sounds present < list><heading > CVS:</heading > No scars or deformities . I + II + 0 JVP →CRT < 2 secs</list><list><heading > RS:</heading > Clear vesicular breath soundsExpansion R = L</list > CNS GCS 15/15 < heading > Analysis of history and examination Reasons for your choice of the cause of the patient 's problem(s ) and any other cause that still needs to be considered at this stage</heading > There were no significant findings on examination . Given the history , the most likely diagnosis is a flare up of 's Crohns . The presence of inflammation , obstruction , abscess , and fistula should be investigated to determine the type of that   has i.e. is there any stricture formation as a cause of 's nausea and colicky abdominal pain , as this will help to tailor her management . < heading > Formulation of the patient 's problem(s ) Encapsulate this in physical , psychological and social terms ( the triple diagnosis)</heading><heading > Physically - < /heading > Short Term : Over   has experienced a loss of appetite and consequent weight loss and lethargy .   will benefit from nutritional supplements to improve her energy levels and may require intravenous fluids if she is dehydrated due to the diarrhoea . Pain relief is difficult in patients with inflammatory bowel disease , can themselves cause gastric irritation and colitis , opioid analgesics can cause constipation with a risk of obstruction . If pain can not be managed with paracetamol , displays fewer opioid side effects and is less likely to cause constipation . Patients who are placed on such medication should be closely monitored for signs of constipation . Long Term : It appears that medical therapy is no longer controlling 's symptoms and so there may be an indication for surgery , this could be in the form of a stricturoplasty to widen any strictures , closure of any fistula 's or resection of the affected part of the bowel . Also the continual use of steroids to control 's flare ups increases her risk of oseteoporosis and proximal myopathy , she is also at risk of syndrome ( moon face , striae , acne , thin skin , bruising , buffalo hump , poor wound healing ) . < heading > Psychologically < /heading > Psychologically   appeared to be in good spirits . is a chronic condition with a relapsing / remitting nature . Such illnesses pose a threat to an individual 's quality of life , their physical and emotional well being , social functioning and self - esteem . It is important that doctors listen to their patients concerns so that their condition can be managed appropriately . The option of surgery was mentioned prior to admission , however ,   opted to try and control her symptoms with medication to avoid the need for surgery .   is now keen to discuss surgery as she feels the medication is no longer controlling her symptoms . < heading > Socially < /heading > If surgery is discussed it is important that   understands the implications of the proposed procedure .   may require a stoma post surgery and she will require time off work for recovery . Referral to a stoma nurse and inflammatory bowel nurse specialist should also be made . < heading > Management Use the framework of RAPRIOP to structure your proposed management . to the guidelines to the writing of portfolio cases for the details of the issues to be addressed under each heading.</heading><heading > Investigations:</heading><heading > Blood Tests</heading><list><heading > Why</heading > FBC - for Iron deficiency anaemia - B12 , Folate or Iron deficiency ( microcytic ) , normocytic ( anaemia of chronic disease ) . Hypoalbuminaemia in severe illness . PlateletsUrea and Electrolytes - for raised and low Na due to dehydration and loss of NaHCO3 from the diarrhoea . ESR - inflammatory marker may be raised if there is inflammation CRP - may be raised if the cause of her diarrhoea is infection</list><table/>The blood results show that   has hypochromic anaemia , which is associated with chronic disease .   also has low total protein and albumin indicating that she is malnourished , probably due to the decrease in appetite and the history of diarrhoea . The and are also raised indicating an inflammatory process . is more likely to be raised in colitis . < heading > Rectal Examination</heading > Why - for presence of blood - unlikely as   is diagnosed with and Ulcerative if more commonly associated with bloody diarrhoea . < heading > Stool Culture and < /heading > Why - presence of bacterial pathogens , cysts , ova and parasites as infective causes . Presence of leukocytes to indicate inflammatory cause . < heading > Abdominal X - ray</heading > Why - to look for evidence of a dilated colon which is a medical emergency as there is risk of perforation < heading > Flexible Sigmoidoscopy</heading > Why - To look for evidence of disease activity . < heading > Barium Follow Through</heading > Why - used to evaluate the extent and severity of the disease in the small bowel indicated by e.g. rose thorn ulceration , cobblestone pattern ( transverse and longitudinal ulceration separating oedematous areas of mucosa ) , thickened separated loops of oedematous bowel , skip lesions ( fissuring with intervening normal mucosa ) , stricture and fistula . < heading > Colonoscopy</heading > Why - Visualise the mucosa and look for presence of strictures , ulceration . Colonoscopy is more invasive than flexible sigmoidoscopy and so is only used in patients where the extent of the disease is unknown or in patients who are at increased risk of carcinoma . < heading > Results</heading > Barium Follow Through : Normal small intestine Colonoscopy Report : Crohns disease affecting large intestine from caecum to the rectum . Colonic strictures identified and dilated at colonoscopy . < heading > Reassurance and explanation</heading > as you aware your disease is becoming difficult to manage with medication . The frequency of your flare - ups has increased indicating that your current treatment regime is not controlling your Crohns . Colonoscopy also showed that some strictures have formed in your colon as a result of your and these are the most likely cause of the recent pain you have been experiencing . We were able to dilate the strictures during the procedure so that your bowel contents were able to pass through more easily . However , given your current symptoms , it is likely that these strictures have reformed . We have discussed the option of surgery previously and you were keen to try and control you symptoms with medication . It appears that you are no longer responding to the treatment that we can offer to you and the current level of activity of your is resulting in you being malnourished . We therefore feel that it is appropriate to offer you the option of surgery . Surgery would involve removing the affected part of your colon , end of your bowel would be brought out onto the skin of the abdominal wall . This is called a colostomy and the opening of the bowel is known as a stoma . Your bowel motions would pass through the stoma into a colostomy bag which is worn over the stoma . If we need to remove a large amount of your bowel the colostomy may be permanent . We can ask the stoma nurses to come and see you before the operation to talk through this with you in more detail . Are there any questions ? < heading > Prescription / medical intervention < /heading > Anaemia -   had units of blood transfused to correct her low had been maintaining a low fibre diet , she was referred to a dietician who prescribed Fortijuice 200ml TDS to help with her malnourishment and to correct her low albumin and protein levels Commenced on Oral Prednisolone mg for surgery < heading > Observation</heading > was eating and drinking well during admission . Normal observations were made ( blood pressure , temperature , pulse , respiratory rate ) < heading > Referral and team working</heading><list > SurgeonsDieticiansStoma nurseInflammatory bowel nurse specialist</list><heading > Outcome A description of the progress of the patient as far as possible . This should include consideration of further issues to be resolved . Where appropriate you should contact by telephone patients who have been discharged home.</heading > had a subtotal colectomy , she recovered well from the operation and was coping with the stoma . < heading > Evidence based care and issues for research A brief consideration of the evidence base required for the diagnosis and management of the patient 's problem(s)</heading > Crohns disease is a chronic condition that requires repeated treatment either medical or surgical . The main role of all treatment is to minimise symptoms and delay or prevent relapse . Due to the relapsing nature of the disease , the effect of treatment on the patients quality of life is an important factor in deciding on acute alterations to medical treatment or surgical intervention . Current medical therapy involves the use of steroids which still provide the quickest and most reliable response to active . However , due to the relapsing nature of the disease many patients can become steroid dependent leading to an increased risk of the adverse side effects of steroids e.g. syndrome . Recent studies have shown that TNF alpha blocking agents are effective in inducing remission in [ 1 ] . This may in turn decrease the dependency for steroids . NICE guidelines , recommended the use of Infliximab for the treatment of severe active when treatment with immunomodulating drugs and corticosteroids has failed or is no tolerated and when surgery is inappropriate [ ] . The approved dose is given as IV infusion preferably at , [ ] . Research has now moved past the benefits of and onto agents that inhibit leukocyte recruitment and block molecules such as IL-2 in the inflammatory pathway [ ] . In contrast with ulcerative colitis of patients with moderately active 's colitis were shown to respond to oral metronidazole for [ ] . The average age of onset for patients with is in of life , but the average life expectancy is the same as the general population [ 5 ] . Unfortunately the cost of treatment forms a major part of discussion in all aspects of health care delivery and is no exception . Hospitalisation for surgery consumes a large portion of the total cost of treatment for [ 5 } . Indeed paper commented that therapy , which decreases the number of surgical hospitalisations for , would reduce the overall costs of caring for patients with the disease [ 5 ] .   appears to be having no significant response to medical therapy and the option of surgery was discussed . Research has shown that quality of life improved post surgery in patients with and that this improvement was unrelated to patient characteristics , nature of disease or intervention performed [ ] . Indeed many patients who underwent surgery for in the study felt that surgery had helped them and felt they would undergo surgery again [ ] . Surgery is usually indicated for patients whose disease fails to respond to drug or dietary therapy . Resection is not curative and there is a chance of recurrence that will require further surgery at [ ] . Some patients prefer to opt for surgery at presentation rather than pharmacological or nutritional treatment of unknown duration . Unfortunately , there is no controlled data to confirm the best approach for patients [ 7 ] . There is a well - known association between ulcerative colitis and an increased risk of colorectal cancer , and patients with disease are believed to be at increased risk of cancer of the small intestine . Studies have shown that the relative risk of colorectal cancer in patients with Crohn 's colitis is approximately 5.6 and should raise the same concerns as in patients with ulcerative colitis [ ] . Surveillance should begin after disease onset for pancolitis and after onset for disease affecting the left side of the colon [ ] . At the time of admission , 's colon only was affected by , she was diagnosed at and so regular surveillance to identify any dysplasia within the colon would have been indicated according to this paper . < heading > Commentary A commentary on issues of health care delivery , ethical issues or disability relevant to the patient and/or problem</heading > Crohns disease affects people in the , ( approximately 1 in ) with new cases diagnosed . Research shows that the number of people with Crohn 's Disease has been rising steadily , particularly among young people [ ] . The most effective prophylactic measure in patients with is to refrain from smoking , the risk of relapse in non smokers at is lower than in smokers [ ] . It is vital that the care of patients with disease includes advice on such lifestyle habits to prevent future exacerbations of the disease . With the advances in research and the variety of treatment options available it is essential that the patient remains at the focus of the decision making process so that they are fully informed on all available treatment therapies . This will ensure that the most appropriate management plan is developed for the patient . < heading > Impact on your learning Describe what you have learnt from this case</heading><list > Presenting symptoms associated with diagnoses for patients presenting with acute diarrhoea and appropriate investigationsManagement of patients with between and Colitis</list >","The concept of "" business cycles "" predicts that a recession occurs in a capitalist economy , leading Nobel Laureate to state , "" business cycles are all alike . "" The length and severity of the recessions , however , does vary with being particularly severe . Though Liberal historians would find Hoover and at fault , it seems more likely that it was , as believes , "" the interaction of cycle and trend""- the combination of the business cycle with structural trends in society just after , exacerbated by individuals ' actions , that resulted in the severity of the depression . < fnote > Lucas , < /fnote><fnote > Bernstein , , ' , ' , , pp . < /fnote > can be cited as the stimulus for , affecting not only the economy but also the international relationships between countries involved . With the end of came a growing dependence on , both politically and economically . banks were ill- prepared to become the world 's chief creditor after the war , however , so leant heavily and unwisely to borrowers in , in particular , who later had trouble repaying the loans . This resulted in making "" the international banking structure extremely unstable by . "" With countries , in particular , already indebted to the recall of loans to banks spread the depression , creating an international rather than just an depression . Insular economic policies with high tariffs alongside foreign loans and attempts to export products , in particular by the but later copied by countries , put further pressures on the economy . In this was exacerbated by the new spending trends , with consumers using credit and bank loans to pay for goods . Additionally , inadvertently prolonged the depression as it led to political mistrust . International action to halt the depression , therefore , was impossible to achieve . However , as argues , the war "" only exacerbated and accelerated economic problems . "" Therefore though it may have been the driving force to the depression , there were a number of other trends which , over time , were likely to have led to the depression even without the war . < fnote > McElvaine , , "" America , "" in Encarta . < /fnote><fnote > Fearon , , ' The Origins and , ) , pp . < /fnote > This is indicated when examining society . The period preceding is often perceived as . "" The social situation , however , was anything but that for many sections of society , with of all too poor to take part in the boom . In , for example , of had a total income equivalent of the bottom . Farmers , who accounted for of the economy , were experiencing a depression in following overproduction resulting from , leading to falling prices and farmers ' debt . Government policies such as prohibition and high tariffs meant that not only were they restricted in what they could grow , but also where they could sell their produce . Industrial workers were also only ever on the fringes of the boom , with wages rising by compared to rises in profits , and unemployed throughout . Therefore though the 's severity is viewed with surprise by some , if the preceding social situation is examined then it becomes apparent that the foundations of society were never strong enough to uphold the boom for a prolonged period . In addition to this , social trends resulting from increased the severity of , particularly in . After the war , consumption trends shifted to new patterns of spending as a "" direct result of the secular rise in national income during the ' New Era . ' "" The shift was taking place when the crash intervened , which blocked the economy from sustaining the transition . Additionally , the transition resulted in the development of new industries such as chemicals and processed foods and the weakening of others such as textiles , iron and steel . The uneven growth of industries forestalled economic recovery during the , and so increased its severity . Furthermore , Hoover 's belief in laissez- fair meant that in had no unemployment insurance or government welfare payments . When the depression began , therefore , were hit harder than citizens in most countries due to the social situation in their country at the time . < fnote , , ' , ' ( , ) , pp . < /fnote > The prolonging of the depression , however , was the result of individuals ' actions in the economy ; in particular and . Though accused of "" laissez - faire "" policies , Hoover did attempt to stop the depression with policies such as the Smoot- tariff , though these often did more to hider than help the country 's recovery . As later admitted by , of the architects of 's policies of , the President "" extrapolated [ the New Deal ] from programs that Hoover started . "" Therefore though often presented as the saviour against the sinner , in reality neither Hoover nor ensured economic recovery ; primarily because they failed to adhere to economic policies . Keynes argued that intentionally unbalancing the budget would boost demand to the point where recovery would take place . was reluctant to accept any increased deficit spending , however , to prevent mass suffering . In the long term , however , this only "" acted as a painkiller rather than a cure for the nation 's economic ills . "" Only when forced an unbalanced budget on the scale advocated did the depression end . Therefore the actions of individuals prolonged , rather than alleviated , the severity of the . < fnote > Reed , of , "" from "" < /fnote><fnote > McElvaine , , "" , "" in Encarta . < /fnote > Ideologies and ideas , therefore , had much to do with increasing the severity of the depression . In , for example , the ideas of Strong and held interest rates in artificially low , causing hidden inflation from borrowed money . This was exacerbated during the Depression by Hoover who , as a , believed in the policy of laissez- faire so had not implemented unemployment insurance or government welfare payments in . , on the other hand , had and so not only delayed the depression but also was not affected as severely as the . 's policy of intervention , extrapolated from Hoover 's ideas , was also ultimately disastrous creating a "" Depression within a "" with the stock market crashing . The only ideas which it is likely would have helped , 's , were ignored with predictable consequences ; increasing the severity of the . < fnote > Reed , of , "" from "" < /fnote > Furthermore , it has been argued that it was an "" idea "" that caused the . , writing for , brings the concept of government conspiracies into the by questioning whether was planned ; a "" trick "" because "" Millionaires were made over from the life savings of others . "" This was certainly true ; emphasis is often put on the Wall Street Crash causing poverty and bankruptcy , but its cause was shrewd investors selling shares and making money . It is unlikely that Hoover and his were the sole cause , however , as the progression of a crash and following depression is often hard to control and rarely , if ever , the consequence of person , or a group of peoples ' , actions . If anything , their influence may have speeded its progression . As a concept it will be impossible to ever prove or disprove , though as a theory it is interesting to consider when discussing the ; introducing the idea that the severity of the was increased by the greediness of party members . < fnote > Redford , , "" The was a trick , "" ( , , from at   URL ) < /fnote > Taken individually , it is doubtful that any of the factors detailed previously would have led to such a severe depression by themselves ; for example high tariffs may have worked if had not severed much of the co- operation between countries that existed previously . Chance , therefore , plays a part in bringing all of the constituents together . In this respect , the severity of the depression was also increased due to the chance of it happening when it did . From 1934 to 1936 , there were record droughts in , accompanied by severe storms , blizzards , tornadoes and floods throughout . In , for example , a dirt storm killing much of the wheat was followed in by a frost with temperatures dropping in in . even brought "" snusters "" ( a "" mixture of dirt and snow reaching blizzard proportions "" ) to the mid- . Meteorological chance , therefore , along with the "" dust bowl "" effect caused by over- cropping , increased the severity of the by making crops even harder to grow and increasing the plight of the farmers , and by consequence all citizens who relied on farmed food . < fnote > Bonnifield , , "" Men , Dirt , and "" ( , ) < /fnote > It is important to note , however , that was not severe for all , and for some suffering in it marked an improvement . Blacks , "" born in depression , "" scarcely noticed a change at , and became of positive change despite discrimination for job places . Lady , for example , was an active champion of black rights , and many New Deal programs prohibited racial discrimination , in particular . Other minorities , such as the , were treated similarly . Discrimination , which still abounded , was directed at whites as well as blacks ; poor evicted farmers , for example , were despised and abused , and labelled as ' Okies . ' Therefore whilst discrimination was still wide- spread , for minority groups it was an improvement on the preceding era and is an indication that in some areas , the was not as severe as often assumed . < fnote > McElvaine , , "" America , "" in Encarta . < /fnote > The severity of can be seen in terms of the long- term consequences as well as the immediate effects , giving an indication of its severity . No other depression , for example , has lowered the prestige of liberal democracy , caused a turnaround in economic theory and government policy , and strengthened extremist forces ; ultimately leading to . Interestingly , however , it was by this very product , with extremist forces in both and , that the ended ; "" killing evil with another""- thereby rendered a result as well as a saviour of the . The severity of the long- term consequences it likely to be due to the nature of the ; prolonged and widespread , as had never been experienced before or since . < fnote > Reed , of , "" from "" < /fnote > The Great Depression of the 1930s was the severest ever seen , affecting the majority of ( though some states did experience an upturn in the economy ) and . This was due to a combination of factors combining at one time to produce bankruptcy and poverty . The severity of the depression , therefore , can not be blamed on factor ; , the unchangeable business cycle , consumer trends and individuals ' actions all played a part . The prolonging of the severity , however , was increased "" not by the free market , but political bungling "" by Hoover and which ensured that the continued until it resulted in . < fnote > Reed , of , "" from "" < /fnote >",0
"< heading > Introduction</heading><heading>1.1 Essay aims</heading > In this essay , I will briefly define the concept of code - switching , before looking at the various social and linguistic factors contributing to code - switching . I will then take a more in - depth look at the various types of code - switching commonly found in discourse before commenting on my findings . < heading>1.2 W hat is a code and what is code switching ? < /heading > People rarely view languages or varieties of a language as a neutral concept . Indeed , Wardhaugh ( ) writes that "" terms like dialect , language , style , standard language , pidgin and Creole are inclined to arouse emotions "" . When talking about language , it therefore seems prudent to have a neutral term that does n't have so many potentially difficult emotional connotations . Wardhaugh ( ) defines the term ' code ' as being able to refer to "" any kind of system that or more people employ for communication "" . Code - switching therefore , is defined by ( ) as "" shifting , as the need arises from code to another "" . While this may seem obvious , the important thing is not that code - switching occurs - but rather the underlying reasons why people decide to code - switch . This can be in situations between languages , or as Wardhaugh ( ) suggests "" within sub - varieties of the same language "" . Therefore , it is important to note why people make the linguistic choice to code - switch at all , be it within a single language or between distinct languages . < heading > Language choice</heading > Everyone , everywhere makes choices about the language they use , some of these are obvious such as using a different code when going for a job interview than the code employed whilst having a casual drink with friends while others choices are not so obvious . Mesthrie ( ) agrees with this and says that "" language varieties constitute a resource that may be drawn on in interaction with others "" . Indeed , the example just given shows that to being to switch codes in this way is a valuable resource as using a code in the ' wrong ' situation can be seen as highly inappropriate . So given that language is a resource that can be drawn upon , what this example also shows us is that people are obviously aware that certain codes are "" correct "" for certain situations , and that in these situations some codes are more highly valued than others . This then also suggests that the various codes employed by a language speaker all have some particular associations that suit them to the context they are used in . In her study of the bi - lingual town of ( ) writes that the local forms as opposed to standard are "" considered ideal for sincere , unassuming talk between native Oberwarters "" . This shows us that in the local dialect is the preferred code for expressing honesty and sincereness , probably due the high solidarity using the local dialect creates . Holmes ( 2001 ) agrees with the idea that the various contexts people find themselves in help determine what code they use and states   "" Certain social factors - who you are talking to , the social context of the talk , the function and topic of the discussion - turn out to be important for language choice in many different types of speech community "" . She also states that the social factors dictating what language is used in ' typical ' interactions can be grouped into what is known as ' domains of language use ' . < heading>2.1   Domains of Language use</heading > Holmes ( 2001 ) writes that "" a domain involves typical interactions between typical participants in typical situations "" . A good example of domains of language use at work is in bi - lingual situations . Holmes gives the example of . In , most people in the cities are bi - lingual and use languages - Guarani , which is the indigenous language , and which is the language of the colonisers . Furthermore , people tend to use particular language in one situation and the other in a different situation . is the language used in education , administration and worship whilst is the language used in less formal situations such as telling a joke , or general gossip between friends . A general statement we can make from this data , is that it seems is the language preferred in more formal domains , whilst is the language preferred in more informal domains . Holmes writes of scales that relate to how various domains are viewed . These are - the   solidarity   - social distance scale , the   status scale , the   formality scale and the   referential and affective function scales . Below , I will briefly outline each scale and explain how it relates to the relationship between and in . < heading>2.12 The solidarity - social distance scale</heading > This scale can be illustrated as follows - < figure/>Holmes ( ) writes that this scale is "" useful in emphasising that how well we know someone is a relevant factor in linguistic choices "" . Examples of this scale in action are decisions such as whether to call someone by their name or full title - e.g. ' James ' or . In the situation of and , this scale would suggest that is the intimate / high solidarity language while is the distant / low solidarity language . This is because , if were to meet in a neighbouring speaking country ( hence one where is not an L1 or even an L2 ) using would be a way of expressing the intimacy and solidarity of their identity . < heading>2.13 The status scale</heading > This scale can be illustrated as follows - < figure/>Holmes ( ) writes that this scale "" points to the relevance of relative status in some linguistic choices "" . The basis of this scale is the idea that when we are speaking to someone whom we acknowledge to be of a higher social status than us we will change our speech accordingly . An example of this is that in business , it is acceptable for someone in a higher position of authority to address someone in a lower position of authority by their name , whereas that person in a lower position of authority would not be able to address their superior in this way and would have to use their full title . In , as is the language of administration and business , it would be reasonable to assume that people would address someone in a position of authority in . However , if the person with the higher status wanted to change domains to one where status was not so important , they could do so by switching to . < heading>2.14 The formality scale</heading > This scale can be illustrated as follows - < figure/>Holmes ( ) writes that this scale is "" useful in assessing the influence of the social setting or type of interaction on language choice "" . This scale suggests that language use is influenced by the formality of the situation . Indeed , as I mentioned earlier in this essay , the language used in a formal setting like a job interview will be very different than the language used in the informal setting of a causal drink with friends . Taking the example of , we know that is the language preferred in domains of high formality as it is frequently used in domains such as , worship and administration while is used in domains of low formality such as gossiping and joke telling . < heading>2.15 The referential and affective function scales</heading > These scales can be illustrated as follows - Affective < figure/>Referential < figure/>These scales are concerned with the feelings of the speaker ( affective ) and the content of information within the speaker 's utterance ( referential ) . example of this , is that while a lecture may be high in referential content , it will generally be low in affective content , as the main concern of the audience is not the feelings of the speaker but rather the information they are putting across . Holmes ( ) writes that "" Language can convey objective information of a referential kind "" . What she means by this is that affective information can be given in a referential way - such as someone telling their friend their relationship has ended with their spouse when asked how they are feeling rather than simply saying "" I feel bad "" and that referential information can be given in an affective way - such as someone saying "" some idiot ran into the back of me "" instead of simply "" I had an accident "" when asked why their car has a dent into it . In terms of the example of , again it seems that generally is preferred for pre - dominantly referential domains such as worship , education and administration while as is used in mostly affective ways such as joke telling it seems it is preferred for pre - dominantly affective domains . However , an interesting point is that most will use to gossip in , and while gossip is certainly affective speech there is also a high amount of referential content within it , thus supporting above claim . < heading>2.2   Domain leakage</heading > The scales in the previous section show that domain use is defiantly not clear cut and there are situations where a certain code is used outside of the expected domain . This is what is known as leakage . Holmes ( ) writes that often in people at home will talk in as is expected for that domain , but as the language of education is they will switch to when discussing school work . Similarly , if someone in was to visit an environment where was expected to be used , such as an administration office but knew the person working there they may make ' small talk ' in before switching to . Overall , this shows that classifying situations into pre - packaged "" domains "" can often be problematic . It also shows that there are reasons other than domain change as to why speakers change code . < heading>3.0 Diglossia</heading > So far , I have given examples of code switching where separate languages are used for each code . When languages are used in clearly different domains , such as the example of and in given earlier it is known as . Wardhaugh ( ) writes "" A diglossic situation exists in a society when it has distinct codes which show clear functional separation ; that is , one code is employed in one set of circumstances and the other in an entirely different set "" The important thing to note here is that in a situation , the codes do not share the same function . Holmes ( 2001 ) Agrees and states that in the broader sense of Diglossia "" Each variety is used for quite distinct functions ; H and L complement each other "" . Holmes then explains that ' H ' is typically the high , overtly prestigious variety while the ' L ' is typically the low variety which although is not overtly prestigious may have a certain amount of covert prestige . Looking at Gal 's study of we can see that in this case , the ' H ' language is . Gal ( ) writes "" While is the language of the past and of the old , is seen as the language of the future , of the young people that are most able to take advantage of the opportunities that Oberwarters feel exist in the - speaking world "" . In this situation , the language that is spoken by an individual gives people information about how successful they are . Wardhaugh ( ) writes "" reinforces social distinctions . It is used to asset social position and how to keep people in their place , particularly people who are not and the upper end of the social hierarchy "" . Gal ( ) agrees with this saying that in "" is considered a useless language because only peasant work is possible without a thorough knowledge of "" and furthermore "" The expertise and knowledge required for employment , and the sophistication that Oberwarters associate with urban life and that they seek , are both represented by the language "" . Another interesting point about situations is picked up on by Holmes ( 2001 ) who writes "" Often the grammar of the H is morphologically more complicated "" . This may explain why people view the ' H ' variety as more prestigious than the ' L ' variety , as in many people 's minds to speak in a more ' complicated way signals intelligence . Holmes also notes that since the ' H ' variety is used in more formal domains "" variety contains many more formal and technical terms "" . What this means , is that in order to talk about technical objects and ideas people must change code to the ' H ' variety . Eventually because of this , these objects and ideas become connected in people 's minds with the language itself . Gal ( ) suggests this is reason why view in the way that they do - "" The language itself has come to symbolize the higher status of the worker and the prestige and money than can be earned by wage work "" . < heading > Types of code - switching and their functions</heading > Up until this point , I have spoken about code - switching without making any reference to any technical terms for the types of switching or how these types differ from each other . In this section , I will talk about situational code switching and Metaphorical code switching in more detail . < heading>4.1 Situational Code - switching</heading > and ( ) dislike the term ' situational code - switching ' writing "" Situational code - switching could be regarded as changes in language choice rather than code - switching proper ; it refers to language switches which coincide with a change of interlocutor , setting or topic "" . Without an alternative definition of situational code - switching , it would seem that it is more a matter of code choice rather than actual code - switching . Wardhaugh defines situational code - switching between languages as follows - "" Situational code - switching occurs when the languages used change according to the situations in which the conversants find themselves : they speak language in one situation and another in a different one "" . From these definitions , it is clear the term ' situational code - switching ' is about selecting the most appropriate code that the domain requires . These issues have already been discussed in of this essay as I have , for the reasons noted above preferred to classify situational code - switching under the term ' language choice ' . < heading>4.2 Metaphorical code - switching < /heading > Wardhaugh ( ) writes that   "" When a change of topic requires a change in the language used we have metaphorical code - switching "" also , that "" the choice of code adds a distinct flavour to what is said about the topic . The choice encodes certain social values "" . This would suggest that in situations of metaphorical code - switching the fact that someone is code - switching at all is often more important than what is being said . Holmes ( ) writes that in metaphorical code - switching "" Each of the codes represents a set of social meanings , and the speaker draws on the associations of each "" . What the speaker is doing when code - switching in this way is encoding information about themselves and their attitudes as if to say ' I belong to group x and believe y ' simply by the code they choose to use . Wardhaugh ( ) introduces the ' us - they ' distinction in situations writing "" One language expresses a we - type solidarity among participants , and is therefore deemed suitable for in - group and informal activities , whereas the other language is they - oriented and is considered appropriate to out - group and more formal relationships , particularly of an impersonal kind "" . Holmes introduces an interesting concept that can be classed under metaphorical switching , which is tag switches . She suggests tag switches are "" made primarily for social reasons - to signal the speaker 's ethnic identity and solidarity with the addressee "" . An example of this would be if bilingual - English speakers were having a conversation , which was ended by the utterance ' have , Adios ! ' here , switching to does n't add anything to the conversational content , but what it does do is create solidarity between the members of the group . When used in this way , says ' Adios ' is a "" solidarity marker "" . final point makes about ' tag switching ' is that it is often used even in situations where the speaker is not bilingual . Holmes states that although few people speak Gaelic , some will often use Gaelic tags and phrases interspread with their to identify themselves as part of the Gaelic social group . When code - switching occurs within a conversation , there is often more going on than a signal of social identity . Gal ( ) explains that in , code - switching is often used within a conversation to make the connotations of a language affect the direction the conversation takes . She gives examples of in a conversation being used as a "" topper - a last word that was not be outdone "" and noted that   "" Even though it added nothing more to the content of the argument , the showed more anger , as if something had been yelled louder the time "" . This is a good example of how code - switching within a conversation without changing domain can affect the conversation . Gal is however quick to note   "" The point is not that a switch to is always used to express anger , to indicate the last and most effective increase in show of anger in an escalating disagreement , or to win an argument . It is not . The point is , rather that if a speaker wants to , switching to at a particular point in an argument can accomplish these communicative purposes "" . Mesthrie ( ) points out how other researches have "" Distinguished between ' unmarked ' language choices , in which the language used is one that would be expected in that context , and ' marked ' choices , in which the language used would not normally be expected . Marked choices may function as attempts to redefine aspects of the context , or the relationship between speakers "" . also states that "" Myers - Scotten has developed this idea into what she terms a markedness model of conversation code - switching "" . The code - switching patterns identified are briefly outlined below . < heading>4.21 code - switching as unmarked choices between different languages</heading > Mesthrie ( ) writes that "" code - switching may be associated with a series of unmarked choices when aspects of the context such as a change in topic or in the person addressed make a different language variety more appropriate "" . An example of this would be if strangers meeting in began their conversation in , but upon learning they were both changed language to . This could be used to create the solidarity relationship of ' compatriots ' rather than the relationship of strangers . < heading>4.22 code - switching as an unmarked choice</heading > Mesthrie ( ) writes that "" code - switching itself may also be an unmarked choice . In this case no meaning need be attached to any particular switch : it is the use of both languages together that is meaningful , drawing on the associations of both languages and indexing dual identities "" . An example of this is that in people may code - switch between standard and , using the to suggest that they are and successful and then using the local dialect to suggest that they are trustworthy and honest by emphasising their local identity . < heading>4.23 code - switching as a marked choice</heading > Mesthrie ( ) writes that "" In contrast to code - switching as an unmarked choice , code - switching is marked when it does not conform to expected patterns "" and furthermore "" Marked switching may be used to increase social distance or to express authority or anger "" . This can clearly been seen in the use of as a ' topper ' . Here , is a marked choice as the rest of the conversation has been conducted in which is the unmarked choice as it is the language expected within that domain . < heading>4.24 code - switching as an exploratory choice</heading > Mesthrie ( ) writes that "" code - switching may have an exploratory function when the unmarked choice is uncertain - for instance , when little is known about an interlocutor 's social identity , or when there is a ' clash of norms ' "" . An example of this type of code - switching would be in situations where people are unaware what code to use in conversation and may end up alternating between codes in an attempt to find a suitable one . < heading > Conclusion</heading > In this essay , I introduced and defined code switching . I then introduced the concept of ' domains ' and showed how a switch of domain is nearly always accompanied by a switch of code before outlining some reasons why this happens . I then investigated situations , concentrating on what motivates people to change code in bi - lingual situations and relating it to language choice and code - switching . I finally looked at specific types of code - switching and why people select certain codes for certain situations as well as the various reasons that people switch between codes within a single situation or ' domain ' . From the evidence given , it is reasonable to conclude that not only code - switching , but any form of language choice in general gives speakers the ability to influence how other people view them . This is particularly true in code - switching where I have shown that by changing codes , speakers can draw on the identities associated with ethnic group . In situations this can be membership of ethnic groups or often , speakers will attempt to associate themselves with the connotations of a certain language . Mesthrie ( ) agrees with this writing "" Language choice has to do with maintaining or negotiating social identities in relation to others . Code - switching allows simultaneous access to both identities "" . This statement also supports my conclusion , which is that when changing codes it is often the fact that there is a change of code at all which is more important in telling us the meaning of what is being said rather than the actual words themselves . What these conclusions show is that although I have identified many reasons why speakers code - switch the fact that it happens at all demonstrate that there is far more to language than just speech . What speakers do while code - switching is showing us that whether they are aware of it or not they are using code - switching as a communicative device in its own right in a way that can often tell us just as much , or even more about their feelings and intents than the utterances they use .","< heading > Introduction</heading > The fair delivery of high standard health care has been the objective of ( NHS ) since its establishment in . However this has proven to be a difficult task and to require a thorough understanding of the complex and variable health needs of different population groups . Health is defined as "" a state of complete physical , mental and social well - being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity "" . ( 1 ) Therefore , in order to account for the health of the nation , not only the physical maladies have to be prevented and treated , the social determinants of health must also be accounted for . This dimension poses the greatest challenge as it involves long - term approaches using profound measures designed to impact not only in lifestyles , but also in social and community networks and general socioeconomic and environmental factors such as income , housing , education , safety , access to fresh food , transport , access to health services . ( 2 ) ( Figure ) It thus implies that an equitable health service will be the one shaped to meet the needs of the populations , dynamically changing according to the changing needs of the populations . Contrastingly , a health care system which is delivered in a way that favours certain groups of people in detriment of others will systematically generate health inequalities amongst such groups . The differential exposure to socioeconomic factors influencing health prior to birth and across the lifespan will result in socioeconomic health inequalities , and are particularly important in explaining health differences related to gender and ethnicity . ( ) < figure/><heading > The assessment of health inequalities</heading > Several factors complicate the assessment of the populations ' health status . The definition and measurement of need , availability and utilisation of health care services can present variations which influence the results obtained . It is generally assumed that the needs of individuals integrated in a certain socio - economic group in a specific place will be similar and therefore can be revealed by a representative individual , a concept derived from statistical studies . ( ) However , individuals from the same background may report their maladies in distinctive ways and require different immediate approaches . ( ) Availability of health care may also be different across population groups . If , in one hand , certain services may not be available in some places , clinicians may tend to offer different treatments to patients from distinct socio - economic groups . Additionally , the acknowledgment of specific existing health services may be different between such groups . Lastly , the heath care budget may be distributed unequally across the populations . ( ) Moreover , the measurement of utilisation of health services normally records broad categories such as GP visits or hospital admissions which can be deceiving as a measurement of quality or quantity of health care received , as some may only require administrative work . In other circumstances , groups which seem to under - utilise some health services may be choosing alternative or private services , which will fall out of most studies and bias the results . ( ) Despite the difficulty in standardising methodologies and conclusions , health inequalities exist , regardless of whether the variables measured are mortality , life expectancy or health status , and independently of falling into socioeconomic , ethnic or gender categories.(2 ) The general trends of health show that although mortality has decreased and life expectancy has increased in , healthy life expectancy has actually decreased , which implies that the added of life involve chronic illness and disability . ( ) It is also important to note that even though mortality as a whole has been decreasing , the gap between mortality rates for subjects at the top and bottom of the social scale has increased . ( ) ( Figure ) < figure/><heading > Some explanations for health inequalities</heading > Several theories have been formulated to explain the existence and persistence of health inequalities , of which stand out as more encompassing explanations : behavioural and cultural , materialist and psychosocial . < heading > Behavioural/ cultural < /heading > The behavioural theory defends that patterns of lifestyles and health beliefs are present amongst cultural groups . Inequalities in health thus derive from unhealthy lifestyles of lower social classes in contrast to healthier behaviours assumed by higher social classes , particularly in respect to nutrition , exercise and smoking . The consumption of a high amount of refined foods along with the reduced ingestion of vegetables and fruit is more prevalent in lower social classes than in their higher counterparts . They also seem to practice less exercise and to smoke more . ( 2,5,6,7 ) ( Figure ) Moreover , the underutilisation of preventive health care and contraception by subjects in lower social classes has been detected.(6 ) The adoption of some of these health behaviours is shaped by lay beliefs of health , as illustrated in a study by and Steptoe , which reported that individuals from lower social classes tend to believe that good or bad health is due to chance.(7 ) The association of unhealthy lifestyles to a certain cultural or social class may lead to culture blaming . < figure/><heading > Materialist < /heading > The materialist theory of health inequalities defends that individuals from lower social classes have a more limited access to basics such as food and shelter but also to amenities such as the telephone , internet , car and home ownership . ( ) Poor health thus comes as the result of increasing material disadvantage . ( ) This generates a socioeconomic gradient in health . ( ) Figure illustrates the socioeconomic gradient of health , in what concerns to propensity of developing psychoses and drug dependence according to social class . ( 7 ) The tendency to develop such conditions increases as goes down the social ladder . It also shows how unemployment can treble the chance of developing psychoses and drug addiction . ( 7 ) < figure/>The association between poverty and inequalities in health is widely discussed in the literature . There is no doubt that poverty strongly impacts on one 's health , however the idea that it can be perceived rather than at an absolute level has to be considered . In other words , poverty is not only defined by one 's income but also by how it compares to the income of others in society . ( ) A variation of this theory is presented by the neo - materialist view , which interprets health inequalities as the combination of the negative exposures suffered by individuals who have restricted access to resources , with a systematic underinvestment in human , physical , health and social infrastructures.(8 ) < heading > Psychosocial < /heading > This theory suggests that the relative position of an individual to others in society according to their income , and the consequent negative emotions and distress that can affect individuals who believe they occupy a low place in the social hierarchy induce poor health through psycho - neuro - endocrine mechanisms . This perception would motivate ' escape ' behaviours such as smoking . ( ) Furthermore , such negative perceptions are revealed externally through antisocial behaviour , reduced civic participation , less social capital and cohesion within the community . ( Other theories have attempted to explain health inequalities . The artefactual theory which argues that the concept of health inequalities may be the result of an artefact , as concepts such as class and health are variable . The assessment of social class at time of death would be inaccurate and thus induce a numerator / denominator bias . Also , the use of different methodologies in the assessment of the population 's health status and delivery of care would induce a false concept of inequality . However , this idea can not account for the patterns of mortality and morbidity amongst different ethnic and/or social groups . The social selection theory argues that healthy workers will move up the social ladder whilst unhealthy ones move down , creating a pool of healthier individuals in higher social classes and of unhealthy ones in the lower social classes . Nevertheless , the number of socially mobile individuals is thought to be too small to bias the health status of entire social classes . < heading > Tackling health inequalities</heading > The acknowledgement of the existence of health inequalities carries the responsibility to address them . Since its election , the Labour government has introduced important measures to improve understanding and reduce health inequalities . In the health inequalities : a programme for action document a series of targets were set to impact upon main areas ( supporting families , mothers and children ; engaging communities and individuals ; preventing illness and providing effective treatment and care ; addressing the underlying determinants of health principles ) , based on underlying principles ( preventing inequalities worsening ; working through the mainstream ; targeted interventions ; support from the centre ; delivering at local level ) as shown in figure ) < figure/>Specific national interventions were also defined concerning life expectancy and infant mortality , including : the reduction of smoking amongst manual social groups ; prevention and management of risk factors ( poor diet , obesity , physical inactivity and hypertension ) ; improvement of environmental health ( quality of housing and reduction of the risk of accidents ) ; targeting over-50s . Interventions aiming to reduce infant mortality include the improvement of quality and accessibility of antenatal care and support in disadvantaged areas ; reducing smoking and improving diet during pregnancy and ( increase numbers of mothers breastfeeding ) ; preventing teenage pregnancy and providing support ; improving housing conditions for children in disadvantaged areas . ( ) < heading > The roles of doctors in reducing health inequalities</heading > Health professionals are expected to play a central role in the reduction of health inequalities and in the promotion of health , by lobbying against policies promoting health exclusion and through the provision of services which combat poverty and support / equip families who live in poverty . ( ) Doctors are expected to hold a good understanding of the causes of poverty and its impact on health . They should also overcome any putative negative preconceptions or attitudes towards poor patients . ( ) Based on these concepts , main areas of action have been pointed out as paramount in a doctor 's clinical practice : health profiling and monitoring ; preventing and alleviating measures ; working for social change . ( ) Doctors are expected to be involved in health profiling activities investigating the relationship between poverty and health exclusion , its nature and causes , so that adequate services can be delivered to such individuals . In addition , the health status of the population must be monitored so that services can be shaped according to need across time . ( ) Doctors have a role to play in the prevention of health exclusion due to poverty and should encourage and implement alleviating measures to reduce health inequalities at levels : through their potentially strong lobbying influence over the government , working towards social change ; in the community , through the identification of specific needs of local populations and individual patients and the mediation with relevant agencies which may be able to supply them with the resources needed.(10 ) In order to improve the delivery and accessibility of health care , the facilitation of transport and the introduction of extended surgery along with childcare services could be implemented . This would enable workers and mothers to attend consultations without compromising their professional / family commitments , and would decrease the amount of non - attended GP consultations . Additionally , some primary care trusts ( PCTs ) will face social and cultural challenges such as language , which can be reduced with the distribution of leaflets in different languages and the use of interpreters . Additionally , doctors could ease the financial burden of low income patients by not charging for services such as sick notes and prescribing gym membership , nicotine replacement therapy and counselling . They could also refer patients to appropriate agencies which can provide advice on how to claim for benefits and how to manage a budget . < heading > Conclusion</heading > The existence and persistence of health inequalities is undeniable in our society . The government has developed an elaborate plan to further assess , understand and tackle health exclusion and has set specific and ambitious targets . Doctors and other health care professionals are expected to play a central role in this process . However it is clear that measures beyond the efficient and adequate delivery of health care and health promotion are needed to reduce health inequalities , especially focusing in income and participation in society .",0
"< heading > PART ONE</heading><heading > Introduction</heading><heading > Introduction to assignment</heading > This essay gives an analysis of plc 's financial performance in . Details will be followed in parts . , we will give a general overview of Amersham plc 's financial performance trend over trading . Mainly we will talk about the changing trends in profitability , activity , liquidity , and financing ratios . , we will further discuss about Amersham plc 's report in . And critical evaluation of performance will be given . Finally , conclusion will be given according to the performance of Amersham plc . < heading > Brief description of the company</heading > Amersham is a world leader in medical diagnostics and in life sciences . The company is focused on enabling molecular medicine , working through main business areas in diagnostic imaging , protein separations and discovery systems [ 1 ] . Amersham is organised in businesses , dialgnostics and therapy products ) and systems and protein separations ) . The company was formed in from the mergers of ( ) , ( ) and ( ) [ ] . Amersham has research , development and manufacturing facilities at sites in , and . Their sales organisation includes offices in countries as well as extensive network of agents and distributors , serving hospitals , clinics , research laboratories , biotechnology firms and pharmaceutical companies across the globe [ ] . < heading > Overview of Financial Performance Trend from to 2003</heading > Amersham plc is at a structure reforming stage . Most significant changes occurred in . the following paragraphs will identify and discuss the trends in the accompanying graph . < heading > Overall performance</heading><figure/>Ratios in figure illustrates that Amersham experienced fluctuated business performances during . Above all , ratios of return on capital employed stood at in , rose sharply by at , then experienced a significant drop at in and reached the bottom of in . similar trends were seen in ratios of return on shareholder funds and return on total assets . Started at and respectively , ratios of return on shareholders funds and return on total assets reached peak of and in . Followed dramatically drop in and continued their downward trend in . < figure/>Figure unfolds the steady increase of turnover in . The biggest change occurred in , while turnover rose from to . After then , Amersham experienced a slight increase from in and in . < figure/>The line chart above reflects fluctuated performance in kinds of profit margins . The margin experienced an increase and , peaking at by , and steady decline in , bottoming at in the end . Profit margin has quite similar shape of figures with margin . Although gross margin experienced fluctuation also , it reached peak at in and declined after that . < heading > Solvency</heading><figure/>Liquidity ratios in figure disclose how far short - term lenders have provided the funds to pay for the short - term assets[4 ] . The chart shows a continuously decline in liquidity ratio . At , the ratios are also above which reached and 1.13:1 respectively . There is a huge fall during period from . And the ratio even dropped down to 0.88:1 which was below . Ratios kept on decrease at 0.79:1 by . < heading > Utilization of Assets</heading><figure/>Figure reduces the fluctuation in net assets turnover and fixed assets turnover and . Both of them rose from times and times respectively in to times and times in , following a sharp decline at times and times and finally a slightly increase at times and times . < heading > Working Capital</heading><figure/>Seen from figure , there is a modest increase of per year at the beginning . Then Amersham experienced a massive increase by per year at . There was a slight decline in and the turnover ended in . < figure/>Bar chart in figure indicates that Amersham most effectively managed stock in while the stock turnover was highest among the . However , the ratio reached the bottom at in . < figure/>Figure illustrates a negative financial position for Amersham . Because debtor were much longer than creditors payment . Although there was a obvious drop from , the debtor collection days were still above . On the contrary , the creditor payment were constantly below , and the shortest payment days occurred in which was . < heading > Financial Risk</heading><figure/>Gearing in figure shows the level of all forms of debt or borrowing(regarded as the high risk sources of finance ) as a percentage of the equity or shareholders funds(representing a lower risk to the company)[5 ] . There is a positive position for Amersham in terms of financial risk because their gearing dropped from at to at which was regarded as a desirable target level . < figure/>Interest cover indicates the extent to which current cover the fixed financing changes the company has to meet . Figure demonstrates that Amersham experienced an improvement in financial risk which could be seen from the rapidly increase in interest cover from . It stood at at the beginning and rose dramatically to in the end . < heading as detailed in 2003</heading > The strong results in reflect unwavering focus on 's business fundamentals . They continued to expand sales of their patented medical diagnostics products at an excellent rate , delivered stronger half growth in protein separations following the slowdown seen in , moved discovery systems into profit , ahead of schedule , for and they delivered improved underlying margins[6 ] . < heading > Business Performance</heading><heading > Return on Capital Employed</heading > From figure the part ) , we could easily found that the ratio of return on capital employed was declined from in to in . It was mainly due to reduce of profit before interest which was £ in compared with £ in ] . < heading > Turnover</heading > From the group profit and loss account sheet in report[8 ] , the group turnover was at , which was improved compared with turnover in . This improvement was due to sales up , sales up and as a result of the restructuring programme whilst maintaining growth in ] . < heading > Amersham Health - Medical Diagnostics and Therapy</heading><table/>See table ] , it is not hart to found that sales in increased by to with accounting for , up . sales were driven by patented diagnostic products , which grew by . Sales of unpatented diagnostic products grew by to . < heading > Amersham Biosciences - Protein Separations and Systems</heading><table/>Table ] illustrates the business performance of . In Protein Separations sales were , up , and operating profit was up to . Following the sales growth reported at , sales accelerated in driven by growth in laboratory separations and operating margins improved driven by changes in the product mix . sales in grew to , with an operating loss of compared with in . the business achieved profitability in following a successful realignment of the cost base by reducing R&D and manufacturing costs and refocusing the business portfolio on areas where there is strong long term growth potential and where Amersham has existing market leadership . Restructuring cost savings in amounted to amounted to with revised expectations of savings running at the rate of by . < heading > Earnings Before Interest and Tax</heading><table/>Table indicates that although turnover increased by £ in , profit before interest fell down from . Consequently , Margin fell down from to . These negative positions were caused by climbing of sales costs which reduced gross profit , and the increasing of administrative expenses . R&D expenditure in protein separations increased by . Furthermore , the most important factor which affected these declining figures was the adverse foreign exchange movements . During , the results were most notably impacted by the weakening of the dollar with an overall adverse currency impact . Table 4 [ 12]gives out the comparison of effect by exchange rate in and . < table/><heading > Assets Utilization</heading><table/>From table [ ] , we could see increase in net assets turnover in compared with . The increase in this figure reflects an improvement of managing total utilization of resources in . It was caused by major factors . , sales increased to up per cent at constant exchange rates and excluding the impact of disposed businesses . , fixed assets increased slightly from . , current assets increase from in time . This rose was mainly due to the increase of stocks and debtors - amounts due within . Finally , current liabilities also experienced a big increase which rose from to £ 618 million . All in all , the net assets turnover rose from to which means could achieve more £ of sales achieved for every £ of investment in the business.(All figures mentioned above see table ] ) * calculated by other item in the same category . < table/>Table shows the fixed assets turnover which gives out the number of £ s of sales achieved for every £ of long term investment in the fixed assets of the business . The fixed asset was used more effectively in , as the fixed asset turnover increased from in to in . Together with the decline from , such kind of small change can be easily accepted when happening to an international cooperation . However , for Amersham , this improvement in the use of fixed asset could be a long term trend rather than a temporary performance , because several effective strategies had been adopted in the fixed asset management . Generally speaking , Amersham continued its investment in effective fixed asset . In , the value of fixed asset after depreciation and amortization increased to , compared with in . There were main reasons for this kind of change . , from table , we could see that intangible assets declined from in to in . Table 7[15 ] illustrates the details around the changes in intangible fixed assets . < table/>From table 7 , there was a decrease in intangible fixed assets which was mainly due to the per cent reduce in other intangibles and slightly affected by goodwill which had a drop . < table/>Secondly , table ] shows us the per cent increase in tangible fixed assets was most significantly caused by the climbing in assets under construction . It was also affected by increase in plant and machinery and slightly rose by land and buildings spending . On the contrary , fixtures , fitting , tools & equipment items had an side effect on the total tangible fixed assets . < table/>Finally , as table ] told us , an acceptable rose in fixed asset investment . On side , investment in joint ventures had a rose which had the most important affect on the total fixed asset investments . While , on the other side , investment in own shares had a fall which had a strong negative effect on total investment . Investment in trade investments had a modest increase . < heading > Working Capital</heading > See from figure ) , the working capital in was , compared with in . There was a £ 8,500 fall in this item . Working capital is calculated by deducting the current liabilities from the current assets . It implies that short - term sources of finance contribute to the capital tied up in current assets and the difference represents the business 's own investment in the current assets . The ratio of current asserts to current liabilities expresses this ] . From the viewpoint of capital , there were major reasons which caused the negative result of capital in . , stock increased . Mainly due to the work in progress stocks increased in . Finished goods and goods fro resale also steadily increase per cent(refer to figure data came from [ ] ) . < figure/>Secondly , debtors increased in . See from figure trade debtors had a rose and arrived at at . < figure/>Finally , the increase of creditors also make important role by the reduction of working capital in . we could easily see from figure that the creditors ratios increase per cent comparing . Among all the other items , unsecured loan notes made the most significant effect on the final result which experienced a per cent increase . < figure/>In summary , table below will give the overall effect of working capital movements on cash flow . < table/>Traditional accounting statements do not tell us how efficiently an entity has been managed , that is , how well its resources have been looked after . Profit may , to some extent , be used as a measure of efficiency but , as we have explained in earlier chapter , accounting profit is subject to a great many arbitrary adjustments , and it is not entirely reliable . What we need to do is to put whatever evidence we have into context , compare it with earlier accounting period and , if possible , with other similar entities[19 ] . There are very many different types of ratios that we can use to measure the efficiency of Amersham , now we will cover common ones . < table/><heading > Stock turnover ratio:</heading > The result of this calculation gives the number of £ s of sales achieved for every £ tied up in stock[5 ] . As we can see from table that stock turnover in is slightly less than turnover in . It told us that Amersham was less efficient in purchasing and selling goods appearance . But generally speaking , stock turnover kept above times is a good performance for the inventory management of , which mean that Amersham had normal sales in stock . < heading > Trade debtor collection period ratio:</heading > Keeping high stock turnover is all very well , but there is not much point in generating extra sales if the customers do not pay for them . Customers might be encouraged to buy more by a combination of lower selling prices and generous credit terms . If the debtors are slow at paying , the entity might find that it was run into cash flow problems[19 ] . Thus is important for it to watch the trade debtor position very carefully . As an acceptable median debtor collection period in is . From table , we could conclude that Amersham does have problem in credit control procedures because the average period among was above . As we know that , cash is the oil for the vehicle . The worse thing is , period in is even longer than period in . This was caused by poor credit control , and more potential bad debt problems . Another factor was worse performance to customer expectations leading to more queries causing payment delays . < heading > Creditors payment period:</heading 11 shows there was an upward trend in the average lend of trade creditors because the period in is longer than period in . It illustrates that Amersham was having some difficulty in finding the cash to pay its creditors . Indeed , it was a sign that Amersham was running into financial difficulties , accompanying with the delay of payments by customers . < heading > Cash Position</heading > Cash is a very significant factor for the successful operation of a business . Almost every transaction recorded by the accountant will involve cash sooner or later . A business with adequate liquid resources can pay its way and is much less risky than a business which constantly delays payment to creditors because it does not have sufficient cash resources , or the ability to draw down cash from lenders . Conversely , cash balances do not earn a profit , so some managers would consider idle cash as a sign of inefficiency . The art of cash management is to hold a liquid balance that is sufficient for the needs of the business , get not over large and wasteful of resources[4 ] . < table/>Table reflects the cash position around Amersham in and . From the table , we can positively see that there was an improvement in cash position in . Following paragraphs will analyse the reason for this kind of improvement . Table clearly demonstrates the change in cash position for Amersham in . Among all the other factors , movement in creditors had the greatest impact on the cash position , which means that Amersham took advantage of bank to improve its cash position and solve capital problem , rather than resort to encourage its operating profit or reduce its customer stage payments . It might works well for the short term to solve current financial problems , but it had potential risk for Amersham in long term . < table/><heading > Financial Risk</heading><heading > Loans</heading > Besides obtaining the necessary capital from their shareholders , also borrow money in the form of debentures . < table/>Table tells us the loan position in for short and long term . For short term , Amersham strongly depended on unsecured loan , which is comparably the best risk free way to obtain capital . As we know that if it is secured loan and the company can not repay it on its due repayment date , the debenture holders may sell the secured assets and use the amount to settle the amount owing to them . But for unsecured loan , it is not the case . For the long term loan , the company only obtained from unsecured loan , and most of its loan capital came from bank loans and overdrafts . Generally speaking , from 's point of view , one further advantage of raising capital in the form of the debenture loans is that for taxation purposes the interest can be charged as a business expense against the profit for the year(unlike dividends paid to share holders)[19 ] . < heading > Gearing and Interest Cover</heading><table/>A high level of debt capital relative to equity capital(i.e . a high level of gearing ) means that the company focus a relatively high interest charge . Interest must be paid out of the store of available profits . If the interest charge soaks up most of the available profit there will be very little left over for the ordinary shareholders . Therefore , an investment in a highly geared company is usually seen as relatively risky for equity shareholders[21 ] . Compared and , had made much more progress in reducing financial risk field . We could see from table that gearing experienced a per cent reduction in . It was due to per cent reduction in long - term loans[22 ] . Consequently , the interest cover rose to times , which is times increasing compared with figures in . The positive appearance in financial risk management was significant for 's shareholders and for Amersham to attract more potential shareholders in . < heading > Assessment of Shareholders ' benefits</heading><table/>From the viewpoint of shareholders , it was not a happy result by . from the return on shareholders funds aspect , figures dropped . Also from the aspect , for the increasing spending on exceptional items and goodwill amortisation , there were less shares left for . Although there was slightly increase in dividends , but most of them were still in proposed progress . From all the analysis which we mentioned above , it is not hard to conclude that Amersham had not made its shareholders happy in . < heading > Conclusion</heading > From the above analysis of financial trends and critical evaluation of performance as detailed in most recent report , we could finally conclude that , after the structure reforming in , was getting better performance in inventory management , assets utilization , working capital management , cash position improvement and financial risk reduction , although there was slight adverse affect in shareholders ' benefits .   URL   URL   URL < heading > PART TWO</heading><heading > Budgeting</heading > Budgets are an important tool for management planning and control . This chapter considers the process of budgets , and show how budgets are applied in the business simulation "" "" . It also picks up some issues relating to my behaviours as purchasing manager in the budget preparation . < heading do not exist in a vacuum ; they are an integral part of a planning framework that is adopted by well - run ] . It is vital that business develop plans for the future . Whatever a business is trying to achieve , it is unlikely to be successful unless its managers are clear what the future direction of the business is going to be . The development of plans involves key steps : < list > Setting the aims and objectives of the business . Identifying the options available . Evaluating options and making a selection . Setting detailed short - term plans or budgets . Collecting information on performance and exercising control . < /list><heading > Application of budgeting in "" is such an important area for business and other organisations , which it tends to be approached in a fairly methodical and formal way . Following paragraphs will discuss and analysis about the application of budgeting in the business simulation game . Step1 : who will take responsibility There were functional areas in our team : purchasing , production , commercial , treasurer and finance . Define which manager should take his / her own responsibility was the thing we did . : Communicate budget guidelines to relevant managers When we planned to draw up budgets , all managers in different functions gathered together and discussed about them . It was the responsibility of the budget committee to see that managers had all the necessary information . Step3 : Identify the limiting factor It was important that the limiting factor was identified as capacity and all managers were informed of the restriction early in the process . The limiting factor determined the overall level of activity for the business . All managers ' budget plans considered capacity at the stage . Step : prepare draft budgets for all other area We adopted the bottom - up approach which was an effective approach allowed greater involvement among managers in the budgeting process and this , in turn , increased the level of commitment to the targets set . Step6 : communicate the budgets to all interest parties Quite commonly , it was impossible for our capacity to fulfil all the demands . We might communicate with our competitors to negotiate a win - win method . < heading > Purchasing manager 's contribution to budget</heading > As purchasing manager , my significant contribution was request to spend for supplier development at the very beginning stage , which made a long - term benefit for the overall situation . , we saved time for transferring raw material . , we had clearer and more effective budget plan since we cut up stage delay . , work in progress capital had been reduced at the largest extent to release our capital and cash position . < heading > PART THREE</heading><heading > Techniques</heading > In this chapter we will talk kinds of techniques : activity - based costing and investment appraisal . Function and usefulness of each technique will be given at beginning . Following we will discuss the application of each in the business simulation . Also we will compare them to the real world environment . < heading > Activity - Based Costing</heading > This costing system seeks to understand the behaviour of certain overhead costs , and to relate them to cost units on the basis of that behaviour . Overheads are grouped for certain activities(e.g . materials handling , setting up machinery ) which ' drive ' or cause costs to be incurred , and these ' cost drivers ' are allocated to cost units on the basis of the use which is made of the service provided . The new method is required to understand the indirect services rendered to production and the influences which drive the costs incurred . The system could help our decision making in aspects : , identify the overhead activities in the business which provide a service to production , and the cost incurred to provide that service . Some overheads may be related to labour cost and others related to machinery , while the demand for the service given by other activities may not be related to either of these factors . , establish a cost centre for each of these service activities , and accumulate the costs to the cost centre . Cost centres might be created for purchasing , materials handling , maintenance , inspection , packing and dispatching . , after observation and consideration it will be possible to identify the cost driver which establishes the demand for each activity : for example , production scheduling may be driven by the number of set - ups , the cost of purchasing by the number of orders placed , or materials handling by the number of deliveries or requisitions . These factors affect the cost and behaviour of the activity . At this stage , some activities may be identified for which there is little demand . , relate overhead costs to production unites on the basis of the cost drives - the number of transactions which each activity generates . In real world , we are more commonly use full absorption costing method . The overhead costs of production are added to the prime cost , which comprised direct materials and direct labour for each unit . < heading > Investment appraisal</heading > A number of investment appraisal methods have been developed which can be applied according to the circumstances of the case . In this chapter , we pick up of the most common used methods . The payback method : This method simply calculates the time taken by a project to pay back from its cash flow the amount of capital invested in the project . The project which pays back soonest is the preferred investment if a choice has to be made . Projects which can not repay within a certain period are rejected . The accounting rate of return(ARR ) This method calculates the rate of return on funds invested in the project over its full life . The company will select a ' hurdle ' rate - the minimum rate for acceptance of a project - and those projects with a return in excess of that rate will be acceptable . Working capital can be included in the funds invested , but the profit disclosed by the financial accounts if often used to calculate the return . Profit can vary according to the depreciation charge and other accounting policies used . At the stage of , our group had to decide our investment direction , which means should we choose to develop Tiger or product . If we used the payable method , as product had short pay back circle , it was better choice . But if we adopted method , as product Tiger had high investment pay back , we should choose Tiger . In realistic , current businesses and competitive environment also needed to be considered when we make any decision .","In his general introduction to , compares radical street performance to acts which question or re - envision ingrained social arrangements of power , < quote>'Street signals theatrics that take place in public by - ways with minimal constraints on access . Performance here indicates expressive behaviour intended for public viewing . It includes but is not limited to theatre , which typically keeps actors and spectators in their respective places through presentational conventions supporting a pre - set script . Radical street performance draws people who comprise a contested reality into what its creators hope will be a changing script . '</quote><fnote>2 , J , Radical Street Performance , P1 . < /fnote > In many ways , to experience the atmosphere of is to experience a form of radical street performance . , in its atmospheres ability to transport everyday reality to something more ideal . Throughout , the is visited by of people seeking escapism from their everyday lives . During the rest of they are followers of their own pre - set scripts , at work , at school and in the home . For a brief period each year they become holidaymakers , eagerly searching for a license to misbehave . The arrival of the masses to could clearly be seen as a performative way to challenge the status quo , easily connecting with philosophies surrounding the carnival , ' Was it an escape valve , serving to keep people in their place , or did the taste of a world more to the masses liking lead to change ? "" Carnival originated in when slavery was abolished in . The freed slaves took to the streets in celebration , singing and dancing in a chaotic street party . Over it has evolved into the greatest show on earth . < fnote>3 , J , Radical Street Performance , P4 . < /fnote > Bakhtin resurrected the idea of the carnival as a critique of the status quo . Describing such events as playful , non - hierarchical and sensorily excessive , he claims that , < quote>'The carnivalesque crowd in the marketplace or in the streets is not merely a crowd . It is the people as a whole , but organised in their own way ... outside of and contrary to all existing forms of the coercive , socio - economic and political organization , which is suspended for the time of the festivity . The festive organisation of the crowd must be of all concrete and sensual ... The individual feels that he is an indissoluble part of the collectivity . '</quote><fnote>4 , J , Radical Street Performance , P167 . < /fnote > To visit is to witness an assault on the senses . It is a carnival chaos of traditional fairground rides combined with modern steel thrill machines and a back catalogue of historic wooden roller coasters . The sight of wooden structures intertwined with steel , overlapping with walkways and under lapping with water channels is one of visual confusion . The sounds of fear , excitement and fun never fully drown out the rattle of roller coasters passing above and below . The intoxicating smell of fast food combines with that of perfectly oiled machines . The taste of the salt sea air is as exhilarating as the feeling of speed and abandonment . Blackpool Pleasure Beach is out of control . argues that no one can generalise about street performers . ' Some are working actors who explore street theatre as a means of bringing their politics into agreement with their profession . Others are not actors by vocation but rather are driven by a tremendous incentive to change their own reality . "" The same can be translated to the people of the Pleasure Beach . Many who work there are students to whom a job there is simply a way to earn extra money in . The sunshine logo , stamped upon the backs of their bright blue uniforms means little to them as they sweep greasy chips from the floor and harness endless toddlers safely onto the carousel . The other type of worker however , acts like an ambassador for . It is they who create the magic for the public . Believers in the magic of the park themselves , they are people to whom the Pleasure Beach is a way of life , bringing their passion of fun and ability to surrender to the atmosphere into agreement with their profession . To a certain extent , the employees are actors . They arrive for work everyday , put on a costume and paint broad smiles on their faces . The visiting the park are not actors but witnesses of the performance . It is an interactive experience . Driven by the incentive to change their own reality , they stand impatiently in line before climbing aboard rides which allow them , if only for , to abandon reality and yield themselves to a higher power . < fnote>5 , J , Radical Street Performance , P3 . < /fnote > In terms of an audience / actor relationship , the operation of the park and its machinery is a mystery to the public , a boundary it can not cross . In the same way behind the scenes activity is kept secret from the audience . suggests that , ' Space is always controlled by someone and exists somewhere , so is inevitably marked by a particular class or race and not equally accessible to everyone . "" However controlled the is by its employees , however , it is the public which creates the carnivalesque atmosphere which abolishes the boundaries mentioned by . During the period of the original carnival it seems that every excess was permitted and the fact that everyone wore masks seemed to abolish all social division . Streets were thronged with people intent on partying and carousing , singing , dancing and playing games . Costumes allowed revellers to appear in the city incognito . < fnote>6 , J , Radical Street Performance , P2 . < /fnote > Without the public , is an official space . The public creates its transformation from official space to playground , reinforcing idea in his essay is the Stage ' , ' A big part of the celebration is experiencing the transformation of work space , or traffic space or some kind of official space into a playfield . ' < fnote>7 , J , Radical Street Performance , . < /fnote > In riding a roller coaster , roaring down a ft drop at , colliding into everyone and anyone in a dodgem car , deciding the order of which to eat a hot dog , portion of chips , tray of shrimps , bag of doughnuts and an ice cream , or simply leaping off ride and hurtling through the crowds to be in line for the next illustrates 's view of the purpose of the carnival . ' When people go into the streets en masse , they are celebrating life 's fertile possibilities ... They protest , often by means of force and parody against what is oppressive ... Such playing challenges official culture 's claims to authority and stability ... People mask and costume or act in ways that are ' not me ' . The Pleasure Beach is truly devoted to the living of fantasy in order to create a different kind of reality . ' < fnote>8 Cohen - Cruz , J , Radical Street Performance , . < /fnote > I think of the Pleasure Beach as the capital city of Blackpool . Anyone taking a bird 's eye of the town will see a streets crammed with hotels and boarding houses , stretching all the way towards the promenade , gleaming from the tower in the to the Pleasure Beach in the . In the becomes the very pulse of a town devoted to amusement . In the introduction to City Cultures Reader , the city is described as taking on many roles ; it is a set of objects , a set of beliefs , a place of the spectacular , temporal , historical and even invisible . The question of where the city ends is debated , ' ... when does the suburb terminate and the countryside begin ? There are many arguments for seeing the countryside and the city as simply parts of an overall urban space , for are not the fields and agricultural plains just as manufactured as the city proper ? "" The merge between the natural and the manufactured is defined beautifully at Blackpool . Standing on the beach as the sun sets , watching the sea roll in from the , the landscape is mingled - the waves and sand suddenly combined with the black silhouettes of the pier and a mish mash of wooden struts and supports at the Pleasure Beach . Although the flatness of the sand compares astonishingly with the enormous hills of the collective roller coasters and long legs of the pier , they have joined to form a single landscape . Rides and attractions are supported beneath a sandy base and endless waves smack the pier 's structure . < fnote>9 City Cultures Reader ( class handout ) , P1 . < /fnote > The ideas surrounding the city in the City Cultures Reader are applicable to the Pleasure Beach . The text discusses a relationship between the city and those who live / visit there based entirely on trust , ' ... to live here , one must have faith in a huge range of impossible illusions . has to truly believe that paper is valuable ( money ) , that cars will not invade pavements ( traffic behaviour ) ... "" The relationship between and its visitors depends completely on trust . The act of boarding a roller coaster which climbs ft high and throw passengers down the drop at depends on the trust of the thrill seeker . They must truly believe they are safe and will return to the loading station eager for more . < fnote>10 City Cultures Reader ( class handout ) , P1 . < /fnote > The City Cultures Reader describes the city as a place of the spectacular , where many historic events take place , grand architecture is constructed , big decisions are taken and great art is produced . Such events have happened simultaneously at since it opened in . Decisions taken to improve the park and its popularity according to the changing times have led to the opening of attractions which are major historic events in of themselves , and certainly examples of grand architecture . The huge and hills of the Pepsi Max Big one can be seen from away , a superb lure for the thrills that await . Across the park is the massive network of rides , each crisscrossed and entwined with its neighbour , every conceivable inch devoted to thrill seeking . So unlike theme parks popular , particularly at where everything is pre planned , antiseptic and perfectly laid out , the has evolved slowly from a simple fairground . It lacks much theming but its attractive , tangled clutter has become a theme in itself . No one could argue it is a place of the spectacular . < quote > ' The city ... has been there before , it is now , and it will become ... it is forever changing , always different according to different conditions , different people , different ages ... It is what has called a ' possibilities machine ' . < /quote><fnote > City Cultures Reader ( class handout ) P2 . < /fnote > And what happens when it stops ? At the closing of the last day of the season , after , the was about to close for the season . The people had gone , the music had stopped , the spectacular had disappeared . During , the park and to a certain extent , the town shuts down completely . Without the of holidaymakers neither one can function . The rides and attractions stand frozen , the kiosks are shuttered and the decorations hanging in hotel windows on the promenade look strangely out of place in a town associated with . During this period , the becomes a non - place . states that , ' A non - place comes into existence , when human beings do n't recognise themselves in it , or cease to recognise themselves in it , or have not yet recognised themselves in it . "" Certainly out of season , when the is deserted and motionless , it is hard to imagine it crammed full in , the noises , smells and the soaring coasters completing circuit after circuit of well - worn track . < fnote>12 Auge , M , Orienting , , Non - places , ( class handout ) , P9 . < /fnote > I walk towards the park . It waits , surrounded by a sense of foreboding . On either side of the entrance tall , faceless jesters stand sentry , their arms thrust proudly towards the bright blue gates . Positioned strategically beside them are an arcade , a doughnut stand and 's Fish and Chip kiosk . All are closed although curiously , the lights surrounding the entrance to the arcade have been switched on . Any glimpse of cheeriness is lost however , as only a few of the coloured bulbs are flashing - the others have given up . As I look around I can hardly blame them . The fish and chip kiosk has its silver shutters clamped shut and the doughnut stand is depressing . A menu board swings metallically . Doughnuts are for a pound , candy - floss is served ' In a Bag or on a ' , popcorn is £ 1:25 and are topped with a choice of fresh cream or maple syrup . It 's and I 'm looking forward to roast turkey and pudding . These delicacies sound sickly and unappetising . Within the rusting gates the lies dormant . To my left is a crumbling white casino and theatre . Letters stuck to panes of grubby glass spell ' PARADISE ' . pink palm trees are attached to the walls . A trail of rust spills down the concrete from the spiky pink leaves . Clearly , this is a paradise lost . The main gates have been left open and I walk through them , feeling like a trespasser . The whole place is asleep , the only sounds coming from the road running parallel to the park . I think back to , fighting my way through waves of people towards the entrance kiosks . Above the clamour of the crowd and the screams as riders of The Big One are whipped around a hairpin bend high above , is the vicious chortle of a clown . He lounges on a revolving throne . Surrounded by glass , his head thrown back triumphantly , roaring with laughter , horribly frightening . Now he 's switched off and covered in a blue tarpaulin for . It 's disturbing knowing he 's under there , his mouth twisted , eyes malevolent , waiting . The kiosk building is designed to look like the mouth of a cave . On its roof a number of plastic prehistoric animals stare down at me . Purple spotted dinosaurs jostle for space with green and orange dragons . A white sabre - tooth tiger leers across at a bloated rhinoceros . At I imagine these fantastic characters will begin a grotesque life of their own , lumbering about the decaying mock rock formation like poor deformed players in a nightmare . The kiosks are tightly locked but I can glimpse parts of the park through the railings surrounding it . Dodgem cars stacked on their sides , signs advertising cold clams , beer and ice cream . Stands and stalls , each with faded painted lettering - ' French Fries ' in a western style , ' 's ' , bold and red , ' Sweet Treasures ' in delicate loops and swirls . is peeping through the paving stones and everywhere I look , the jumbled structures of different roller coasters meet my eyes . I realise with a shock how seedy it is . In , the grittiness is easily accepted . The park oozes a gypsy - like charm and nothing is taken seriously . Now everything appears threatening - any comfort has disappeared with the crowds , the park at once switching from dazzling fantasy to disturbing reality . I walk past a shop temptingly called ' You 've Been Mugged ! ' The windows are thick with dust and florescent yellow stars claim that all mugs are £ 1:50 each . They stand on uneven shelves , each bearing an enchanting message ; , , , , Big Chief , Big Daddy , I Love Aston Villa , I My Attitude Problem , Superman , Slapper , The Boss . I 'd be proud to drink my from any of these quality products . The light is changing as I reach the other side of the park . The coasters cast fat black shadows onto the pavement and aircraft warning beacons flash brightly at the highest point of , the ride dominating the park . Its massive metal structural supports drilled proudly next to wooden rides . Its huge iron network is reflected in the puddles at my feet . But as the sun sets , it becomes invisible , forgotten in the 's dark . People are swarming thickly around the entrance kiosks like wasps on a toffee apple . They hover around 's Fish and Chip kiosk , digging their nails into polystyrene trays bubbling over with hot , salty golden chips . They 're chomping away at hot jam waffles and tearing pieces of fluffy candy- floss from sticks . Electronic noise jumps from the arcade . The clown roars loudly as children press their noses against the glass surrounding him , a union jack flies proudly at the top of the casino . As the crowd pours through the ticket kiosks their hubbub is drowned slightly by a spectacular carousel , its frozen horses whirling around , their reflections caught in a winking mirrors . Amongst the vast , rolling sand hills in stood a small merry - go - round . Gloriously alive amidst the silent sand it began to attract people like an oasis in a sticky desert . Dotted around the main attraction were hobby- horses , an ice cream stand and a skittle alley . A troupe of minstrels sang on fine days . In , an ambitious young man , , inspired by a vision of the new style amusement parks , encouraged small companies to operate ' devises ' in his new fairground . I look upwards now , , and watch of these ' devises ' , Sir flying machine and its riders , soaring around in an endless circle . Small boys in football strips imagine flying through space , firing missiles through the galaxies , pulverising aliens to a stringy green pulp . In as donkeys walked slowly up the beach and the carousel spun round and round , boys felt for the time , the sensation of flying . Sitting , bewildered in tiny tweed jackets , they dreamed new fangled dreams of real aeroplanes and , perhaps even riding in themselves . ambition to create an amusement park which would "" make adults feel like children again "" is echoed everywhere in the park . The Pleasure Beach is fuelled by fun and a sense of desire mixed with danger . < fnote > Wyatt , M , White Knuckle Ride , P89 . < /fnote > I stand by a dustbin shaped like a large white rabbit and see a girl smothered in fake tan squeal as her boyfriend chases her with an ice cream . A toddler gazes suspiciously at a swaying pink balloon tied to his pushchair . He has no idea what it is but it 's pink and shiny and he decides he rather likes it . women are having their photograph taken in front of The Big One . They point to the top , their faces twisted in mock terror , the man with the camera laughing hysterically , imagining their mother 's reaction when they take the picture home . A small girl looks up at her father who is eating clams from a cone . He gives her one . She cradles the strange sea creature in her hands but temptation overwhelms her and after testing its flavour on her tongue , she gobbles it down . To sit in the food court is to experience several time periods in countries all over the world . The plastic tables and chairs are surrounded by a seafood counter designed in the shape of a medieval barn , a creperie pasted all over with Eiffel Towers , like houses selling sweets and ice creams , a red telephone box from which hot jacket potatoes are served , a bar in the shape of an erupting volcano and a curry house flanked by palm trees . It 's unreal but it 's happening . Back outside in heat an elderly couple sit on a bench beside large figurines of and the Mad Hatter . They smile as the train of the Big Dipper flashes past them , remembering another time when people , dressed in their best , paid a shilling to ride it for the time . As another train- load of people reaches the summit of The Big One , a pairs of eyes squint through the sunshine to watch its descent . Riders in their jeans and t - shirts throw up their arms in exalted triumph . From time to time , a lone voice amongst the crowds is heard to say , "" What 's all the fuss about ? It 's only a roller coaster ride with a big drop - it 's not really magical "" . But everyone else ignores him . They want to believe in the magic , determined to ride happily ever after .",0
"The ear is our organ of hearing ; throughout the world there are some "" people who have a disabling hearing impairment "" ( World health organisation ,   URL ) . If the impairment is from birth or a young age it can lead to a retardation of development by causing a delay in language acquisition and impede school progress . Hearing impairment in adults can lead to vocational and economic difficulties resulting in social isolation and stigmatisation . In the there is estimated to be deaf and hard of hearing people , this number is rising as the number of people over 60 increases . Of the adults are estimated to be severely or profoundly deaf , children are moderately to profoundly deaf , of these children were born deaf . ( Statistics from ,   URL ) < table/><heading > Basic anatomy of the ear and physiology of hearing . < /heading > The ear is made up of different parts , the outer , middle and inner ear . < picture/>The outer or external ear consists of the pinna and external auditory canal . Sound travels along the passage to the eardrum ( tympanic membrane ) which is situated at the end . The canal also contains hairs and glands which produce wax ( cerumen ) , together this is thought to keep the ear clean . The middle ear is a cavity approximately across which is filled with air . A chain of tiny bones , the ossicles stretch right across the middle ear cavity . They are the malleus ( hammer bone ) , incus ( anvil bone ) and the stapes ( stirrup ) . "" Their function is to transmit mechanical energy from the tympanic membrane across the air filled middle ear to the fluid filled inner ear . ""(Wilson et al , 2002 ) There is a connection between the middle ear and pharynx via the tube which helps to equalise air pressure . The inner ear is made up of parts , the cochlea and semicircular canals . Along the length of the cochlea are tiny hair cells , each cell has stereocilia which project into the cochlear fluid . "" When sound waves enter the cochlea the stereocilia are moved which causes the hair cells to trigger an electrical pulse in the auditory nerve "" ( Burton et al , 2000 ) . The nerve passes impulses to the brain which recognise them as different sounds . The semicircular canals are not used for hearing ; they are part of your balance system . < heading > Deafness</heading > There are many ways in which you could classify types of deafness , way of doing this is to categorise deafness into varying severity . "" Threshold is the level at which you can just make out the tone of a particular frequency . Thresholds are measured in decibels for hearing level ( dBHL ) . Normal hearing is thresholds dBHL across all frequencies "" ( ,   URL ) . The greater the threshold , the worse the hearing loss . Perhaps a more clinical way of classifying types of deafness is to split deafness up into categories . < heading>1 . Conductive Deafness</heading > This is caused by the failure of the ossicles in the middle ear to pass the sound waves to the inner ear . Another common cause of conductive deafness is the failure of the eardrum to vibrate in response to sound waves . In many cases treatment is available for conductive deafness and normal hearing will return . < heading>2 . Sensorineural Deafness</heading > This results from disease or trauma to the cochlear nerve , the rest of the ear machinery may be working but the electrical impulses are unable to reach the brain . Another cause is damage to the brain itself so that the message form the cochlear nerve can not be translated . The vast majority of nerve deafness cases do not respond to treatment . < heading>3 . There are many causes of temporary deafness , ( better health ,   URL ) i)Cerumen ( wax ) or a foreign object can block the ear canal causing temporary conductive deafness . ii)Excess Mucous - The common cold or hay fever can cause an excessive production of mucous which may block the tubes . iii)Ear infections - Otitis media / externa can cause fluid and pus accumulation which damps down the conduction of sound and chloroquine can cause temporary deafness in susceptible people . < heading>4 . Age related hearing loss</heading > This is termed presbycusis , our hearing gradually becomes less acute as we age , this is normal and rarely leads to complete deafness . Higher frequencies are typically loss . < heading > Ear Examination and Hearing Tests</heading > A thorough examination of a persons hearing requires an ear examination and hearing tests . < heading > The ear examination</heading > This involves inserting an otoscope into the ear canal which allows you to view the canal and the tympanic membrane . < heading > Hearing ( Audiometric ) tests</heading > These may be carried out for the following reasons : i ) To screen newborns and young children for hearing problems . ii ) As part of a routine physical examination iii ) To evaluate possible hearing loss in anyone who has noticed a persistent hearing problem . iv ) To screen for hearing loss in people who are repeatedly exposed to loud noises . v ) To determine the amount and type of hearing loss experienced by a person . ( web ,   URL ) < heading > Types of Hearing test</heading><heading>1 . Whispered Speech Test</heading > According to the systematic review carried out by at al , , "" the whispered voice test is a simple and accurate screening test for detecting hearing impairment which can be carried out in children and adults "" . The examiner stands at arms length behind the seated patient and whispers a combination of numbers and letter . They then ask the patient to repeat the sequence . The patient is deemed to have passed if the answer out of the letter or numbers correctly . Although this is a quick and easy screen which can be carried out in the community , it is difficult to standardise the test by controlling the loudness of the whisper . < heading>2 . Pure tone audiometry</heading > The usual primary purpose of pure - tone tests is to determine the type and degree of hearing loss . ( , ) define pure tone audiometry as "" a behavioural test measure used to determine hearing sensitivity . Pure tone thresholds ( 's ) indicate the softest sound audible to an individual of the time . Hearing sensitivity is plotted on an audiogram , which is a graph displaying intensity as a function of frequency "" . The test is carried out by a pure tone audiometer , which produces a range of pure tones at varying intensity in decibel steps . The sounds are played through a set of headphones which are placed on the patient . "" The health professional will send a tone and reduce its loudness until you can no longer hear it . Then the tone will get louder until you can hear it again . The patient signals by raising their hand or pressing a button every time they hear a tone . "" ( My webMD ,   URL ) The test is suitable for children above the age of and adults ; this is on the condition that they can respond to commands . < figure/>The white area on the diagram indicates the sounds that the person would not hear ; they are termed "" softer than threshold sounds "" . The grey area demonstrates the sounds that the person would be able to hear i.e. the "" louder than threshold sounds "" . < figure/>This audiogram shows significant hearing loss over the higher frequencies in sounds up to decibels . < figure/>This audiogram shows hearing loss of sounds of all frequencies below decibels . All audiogram figures taken from ( awareness campaign ,   URL ) < heading>3.Tuning fork tests</heading > These are crude tests but are routinely used in clinical examination . < heading test</heading > This compares the patients ability to hear a tone conducted via air and bone . "" A vibrating tuning fork is placed on the mastoid process and then help in line with the external auditory meatus . The patient is asked whether the sound is louder behind or in front referring to bone and air conduction respectively "" ( GP notebook ,   URL ) . In the normal ear , air conduction is better than bone and so the tone is heard more clearly at the external meatus . Conductive hearing loss , the sound is heard better over the mastoid process . < heading > 's test</heading > This compares bone conduction in both ears . "" A vibrating tuning fork is placed in the centre of the forehead . The patient is asked if the sound is heard in the midline or to one side "" ( GP notebook ,   URL ) . If hearing is normal the patient perceives the sound in the midline . If there is unilateral conductive loss the patient perceives the sound in the ear with conductive loss . If there is unilateral sensorineural loss the patient perceives the sound in the ear with the better cochlea . A drawback to the rinne 's and weber 's test according to , is that "" because the tuning fork test evaluates hearing at a single low frequency , it is not appropriate for most elderly patients . This is because most of them have presbycusis and have lost the ability to hear high frequencies . "" < heading>4 . Otoacoustic emission</heading > As discussed previously , external sound waves move the basilar membrane in the cochlea . The cochlea itself then produces sounds and these are termed otoacoustic emissions . Otoacousitc emissions can then be detected and measured by a microphone in the external ear . , have found that "" emissions are more easily recordable in younger subjects than in older people . This makes the technique particularly valuable in those in whom the more conventional tests of hearing function , which require a subjective response and the cooperation of the patient , difficult . This test which takes has obvious potential as a screening test in neonates . < heading>5 Auditory brainstem evoked potential</heading > For this test electrodes are placed on the scalp and each earlobe . Clicking noises are then sent through earphones . The electrodes monitor the brains response to the clicking noises and record the response on a graph . This test detects sensorineural hearing loss . < heading > Summary</heading > This essay has identified various tests which can be used to assess hearing . It is clear that screening neonates and children for hearing defects is important . The earlier the problems can be identified and managed , the better long term prospects for the child and family who will then receive the specialised support they need . Routine clinical examination has a place , but mainly in the detection of ear infections and cerumen via an otoscope . The tuning fork tests will give an immediate indication as to whether there is a hearing deficit present ; however these tests are crude and can only be applied if the patient can understand and follow a command . It has been highlighted that they are of little use in elderly patients due to the loss of ability , to hear high frequencies as we age . The whispered speech test has advantages in that it is cheap , quick and can be performed on mass in the community by a range of health professionals . I.e. health visitors . This makes it a convenient test for screening purposes . However its major disadvantage is that again the patient needs to be able to understand a command and respond , which is only possible in children . Another problem is standardising this test due to the loudness of the whisper . The pure tone audiometry is probably the gold standard test ; it is the most accurate at determining the type and extent of hearing loss . Its disadvantage is that it needs to be carried out in a specialised department by a technician . This renders it ineffective for community screening . Finally the tests which can be used in neonates and patients which can not respond to a command are otoacoustic emission and auditory brainstem evoked response . The drawback to both these tests is that they require specialised equipment and so it is difficult to take them out into the community .","The founding principle of the NHS was equity and to remove the financial burden of medical care . Despite this service , there still exists significant , differences in health and incidence of disease within the population ( ) . These differences are known as health inequalities . Inequalities exist as a result of unequal social position , i.e. differences in socio - economic status , geographic location , gender , age and ethnicity and are an important issue as they can have a profound effect on people 's lives . It is important we work to reduce them , because as highlighted by Mackenbachal . ( ) "" they contradict values of fairness and justice and reducing inequalities will lead to better average health in the population as a whole "" . What can be seen from studies into health inequalities is that there is a clear class gradient . ( ) noted that "" mortality rates increase in a step wise fashion as moves from social class I ( professional ) to social class V ( unskilled ) with the mortality rate of the later being twice that of the former "" . < heading > How can these inequalities be explained ? < /heading > The comprehensive report into health inequalities carried out was ; it was commissioned by the labour government in and published in . It suggested explanations of social class differences in health . < heading>1.Artefact</heading > This states that apparent differentials in health status between social groups are created by the process of measurement and data analysis rather than existing in there own right , often referred to as numerator / denominator bias . The explanation has been largely disregarded , ( ) shows that evidence from "" longitudinal studies such as the study has provided fresh evidence of a social class gradient in mortality between different grades of the civil service "" . < heading>2.Social Selection</heading > This explanation accepts that health and social position are linked but it suggests we have a situation of social mobility and that the direction of causation is from health to social position . To an extent this is a real phenomenon because the disabled or chronically ill can not work and so move down the social hierarchy but longitudinal studies have shown that at the very most this is a very minor contributor to socio - economic differences in health . < heading>3.Behavioural / Cultural</heading > This states that social class determines health through social differences in health damaging or promoting behaviours . ( ) "" estimated that health related behaviours like smoking , diet and recreational exercise account for per cent of the socio - economic gradient in mortality "" . The problem with the behavioural / cultural explanation is that it assumes individuals have the capacity to choose what behaviours they adopt . ( ) highlights this is n't always the case "" lower income families have poorer diets than high income families not because of poor knowledge about what constitutes a healthy diet or unhealthy attitudes , but because they can not afford to buy the foods considered important for good health "" . < heading>4.Materialistic</heading > This suggests that social class determines health because "" there are hazards to which some people have no choice but to be exposed to given to the present distribution of income and opportunity "" ( ) . Housing would be an example , ( ) states that "" low - income families are more likely to live in a house , which is damp , in need of repair , overcrowded and poorly constructed "" . This is associated with higher rates of respiratory tract infections , especially in children . However the question has been raised as to whether the distinction between the behavioural / cultural and materialistic explanations is artificial , or whether in actual fact they are closely linked . can not always be separated from their social context ; ( ) illustrates this well by looking at childhood accidents . "" The observation that children from lower social groups have more accidents than children from higher groups may be explained by the behavioural view as due to more reckless , risk taking behaviour in this group and inadequate care by parents . The materialistic view would highlight the unsafe play areas ; the lack of fenced off gardens and the greater difficulty of supervising children 's play from high rise housing . In the latter view , the environment is dictating the behaviour of the both the mother and child "" . With recent evidence suggesting , health inequalities are not confined to the poorest members in society , physcosocial explanations have come to the fore . ( ) states that "" the driving force behind health inequalities in developed societies is not absolute differences in living standards but relative differences "" . et al ( 2000 ) state that "" the perception that others around you are wealthier produces negative emotions , such as shame and distrust , which are translated inside the body into poor health by psyco - neuro - endocrine mechanisms and health damaging behaviours such as smoking "" . The neo - materialist explanation states that "" health inequalities result from the differential accumulation of exposure 's and experiences that have their sources in the material world "" ( et al , 2000 ) . While it does not deny the negative psychosocial consequences of living in relative poverty it seeks to reassert the importance of absolute material effects on health . Inequalities in health can arise as a result of poor access to the health services . It is thought that disadvantaged group 's experience a range of barriers to seeking and receiving medical care . This is supported by the - Hart inverse care law , which states the availability of good medical care tends to vary inversely with the need for it in the population . The Black report was not well received by the conservative government and it recommendations were not implemented . Subsequently there have been main reports on the evidence for health inequalities . The health divide published in and the independent inquiry into health published in . The recommendations of all these reports have instigated and influenced policies created by the government to tackle health inequalities . Health inequalities are being tackled on a broad front , and foremost by reducing poverty , improving housing and working conditions . This is being achieved by improving benefits , increasing employment prospects and regeneration of deprived areas . Health inequalities are also being tackled through health policy by requiring the NHS to prioritise health inequalities . Specific health programs such as Sure Start target young families and children . Sure Start ( ) state that the primary aims are "" to give the best start in life to every child , provide better opportunities for parents , affordable good quality childcare and ensure our communities are stronger and safer "" . Although it is an excellent initiative it carries the weaknesses of area based programs . ( ) notes that "" the health services can have little impact on the structural causes of poverty . However the nature and form of service provision has an important bearing on how low income families experience poor health in poverty "" . When considering what professional practise can achieve it is important to remember there is no single solution . This is because health exclusion and poverty are not experienced uniformly by individuals / social groups or across localities . Nor do practitioners / groups or organisations have similar or equal levels of resources , remits or concerns . Equitable healthcare provision according to need rather than equality in health care is needed . Good medical practise can help prevent and alleviate some of the worst affects of disadvantage on the health of individuals and challenge policy makers to develop more effective policies for tackling health inequalities . Poor practise by doctors can compound the effect of poor material circumstances on health . < quote>""Developmental programs must develop ways that give practitioners the knowledge and skills to integrate a poverty and health exclusion perspective into everyday practise "" ( ) . < /quote > The framework for achieving this has key roles : < heading > Profiling and Monitoring</heading > This is concerned with generating data about the extent of health exclusion in poverty , its nature and causes . It is achieved by building up an area or patient population profile of health inequalities , allowing the doctor to identify and target the health needs and those needs , which are not being met in their area . The overall aim is to provide an equitable service . Once needs are identified this has to be rationalised into what can be paid for which is a highly sensitive and difficult task . < heading > Preventing and Alleviating</heading > This is about providing services , which prevent ill health and help patients to mitigate and cope with the health effects of social disadvantage . Doctors can maximise access to services and care by reducing the geographical , material , social and cultural barriers to accessing services . Doctors can maximise their patient 's income and material resources by identifying people , slipping through the social security net and advocating for welfare rights provision . Financial costs of health promotion could be reduced for those most in need by the abolition of user charges , or providing "" on prescription "" exercise via gym membership , diet via slimming classes , counselling and alternative therapies . < heading > Working for Social Change</heading > Practitioners should support organisations , which lobby on social inequalities in health and professional organisations like the . Locally the practitioner can ensure that health inequalities are addressed on agenda 's about professional practise , this involves the practitioner being informed about the current situation of health trends . Health inequalities are complex problems and there is probably no one explanation , which can account for the inequality seen . However government has finally recognised health inequalities are a substantial and unacceptable problem in . To deal with this comprehensive strategies for reducing health inequalities have been created . These strategies will hopefully in time will dramatically reduced and erase the problem .",1
"Multinational corporations ( MNCs ) , sometimes called transnational corporations ( TNCs ) , are a very important feature of the modern , globalised economy . MNCs are corporations that have direct ownership of operations overseas in terms of ( ) in or more countries . In a broader perspective , these are companies that have the power to manage operations in country , even if it does not own them . In fact , MNCs generally do not own such assets , but co - ordinate and control operations through licensing , joint - ventures , franchising , sub - contracting and strategic alliances . < fnote > Foreign direct investment - "" the ownership of control of or more of an enterprise 's voting securities . "" ( government 's definition , see also investopedia.com/terms ) < /fnote > The emergence of MNCs is often related as being the main driving force in the internalisation of the world economy . This means that its significance in the global economy is particularly proven through the substantial expansion in the number of MNCs especially through the mechanism . Worldwide , has been growing times as fast as total investment ( see ) for . Moreover , some MNCs turnovers are almost as large as that of some countries . To illustrate further , the turnover of accounts for of net worth whereas accounts for of net worth ( Year 2000 Figures ) . As such , it can be concluded that on the basis on these figures , is a more productive and is more efficiently run than . MNCs set up subsidiaries abroad for various reasons and in many different ways . The motivations for going multinational could be narrowed down to main aspects ; resource seeking , market seeking and strategic advantages . However , before going through it in greater detail , it is important to note that the transnationalisation of a firm is motivated by aims to increase profit ; achieved through either raising the revenues or reducing the cost . As mentioned above , of the motives that drove companies to invest abroad was resource seeking ( Dunning , ) . This pursuit for capital includes both expanding resources deposits and having access to plentiful labour at low cost . Generally , very few assets needed by firm to produce goods and services are available everywhere . This is particularly true with the natural resource industries such as oil reserves , hard mineral and cocoa . Bearing this in mind , it is unsurprising that , companies like , Standard Oil emerged as the few multinationals to establish production facility overseas . However , technological changes in production and in transportation have tempered the importance of geography , e.g. the location of natural resources as an explanation of why firms turn multinational . It is arguable that labour would be a more important factor for companies to become multinational simply because of the potentially advantageous variations that exist in labour knowledge and skills , wage costs and in labour productivity . For instance , multinationals are often accused of exporting jobs to low - wage countries . This may be true in some industries , such as textiles and electronics . To illustrate further , has resorted to invest its production in countries like and to gain advantage of its cheap labour . It is said that it cost a year on average to employ an worker . This proves to show that , MNCs are profit motivated and therefore will explore foreign markets to reduce its cost of production . < fnote > URL   < /fnote > Another important trigger of internalisation could be described as market seeking behaviour . Firms enter into new markets to gain access to a new group of consumers to whom they can sell products to . idea of also states that companies should initially introduce new products where there is a market for it . Therefore , the most obvious attraction of a specific market is in its size as it indicates the level of demand and the ability to buy ( income levels ) . However , according to Dunning , a firm must possessed assets or skills to counter the disadvantages of servicing a particular foreign market ( ownership specific asset ) . 's influence on this is also very clear . Therefore , this motivating factor is usually strong in companies that have some competitive advantage , typically related to their technology and brand recognition . This is basically internalising the use of a firm 's ownership - specific advantages . An illustration to this idea of market seeking behaviour is the joint venture of 's ( ) 's operation in . With cars for every of its people , the government forecasted a market of vehicles by , equal to of global demand . VW saw the growth in demand in the car market and has captured the market for passenger cars and is reaping tremendous profits from this particular business venture . < fnote > URL   < /fnote > Finally , the last motivating factor is the strategic advantages . The such rationale of a strategic advantage is the access and combine knowledge . Elaborating further , this implies that a company drawn abroad by market opportunities is often exposed to new technologies or market needs that in turn stimulates innovative product development . The end result of locating more efficient sources would very well be a more advanced product . Coca - cola is a case in point . What has actually driven Coca - cola to become a high value multinational is in fact through the effects of learning from their counterparts in other countries and reinforcing its global marketing effort to adapt its product to local taste and standards . < fnote > URL   < /fnote > Additionally , corporations also venture abroad with a strategic motive to minimise risk . Firms are able to do this by spreading the risk of investment through diversifying its business into different countries and investing it in various products or areas . A further elaboration to this factor is the case of Nestlé . Nestlé , although classified as of the largest food companies in the world , does not only produce food but has in fact diversified its investment in non - core business assets as well , such as in , a maker of ophathalmological equipment and also , a cosmetics manufacturer . Booming demand in the for products such as contact lenses had managed to offset the sales decline during the and economic crises and in fact , helped increased 's overall profit by . This goes to show that although sales in market in particular were not as strong , could still gain profit from other products which are marketed to different countries . < fnote>'Nestlé 's future ' , , Aug 2004 < /fnote > Another motive to go multinational is by using strategic advantages to exploit geographical differences in factors of production . As explained above , production factors such as raw materials and labour cost varies in different countries . These variations exist also due to government regulations . Government intervention is evident by taxes , subsidies and other regulations such as tariff and non - tariff barriers . For most governments , is a major means of solving problems such as unemployment . Therefore , most countries especially developing countries seek to attract multinational companies by lowering taxes and providing subsidies . An example is , a "" low tax haven "" which has attracted many multinationals by giving the lowest tax on profits in the ( ) . However , the imposition of certain laws by certain countries is argued as creating unhealthy competition . In the example , a low tax policy is argued as reaping off the tax revenues of other countries . However , multinationals seek to use this location factor advantage that has lenient laws and regulations as an opportunity to lower cost of production and therefore gaining more revenue . This motive agrees with Dunning 's location - specific advantages . < fnote > URL   < /fnote><fnote>'Gimme shelter ' ,   URL   < /fnote > Finally , companies that become a multinational are able to shift production and resources between territories on a global scale . This simply means that firms are able to move around its resources or production strategically within any countries without incurring a large amount of cost . For example , many ( formerly ) and based companies who have traditionally had a high reliance on customer oriented call centres such as ) and ( ) have now resorted to ' outsourcing ' , whereby such call centre operations have now been relocated to developing countries such as and . The cost savings that resulted was large enough that it actually offset the cost of relocating the whole operations permanently . In conclusion , corporations have subsidiaries abroad for main reasons as stated above . However , there are plenty other reasons that somehow push a firm to become multinational and it is normally due to reason that will bring a firm to invest broad . Besides that , it is to note that the profit maximisation motive is the main motive that has actually caused the intention for MNCs to have subsidiaries abroad .","< abstract><heading > Section 1 - Executive Summary</heading > A stake in the business , , if being offered in return for a £ investment to allow us to enter the market with our developed system called . is designed to be installed into drinking establishments , and has the ability to stringently measure the volume of free - flow products ( lager , cider etc ) that have been dispensed by each member of staff . In many establishments , beer is the biggest selling product but does not provide a high level of profit , thus it is important for a manager to be able to account for all the beer that have been dispensed - this requires stringent methods of measuring stock . The provides this method & also records who has dispensed each beverage , allowing for easy detection of bar staff pilfering . has a very strong team of directors from engineering backgrouds , each of whom currently own a stake in the business . They bring experience from a wide range of areas -   manages the company , and brings experience from pub trade management ,   is the chief engineer of the project ,   &   deal with the financial sector of the business , having worked within several accounting companies .   has strong international business relations because of his experiences and interactions with overseas companies . We have identified a niche in the dispense monitoring market for a system that not only measures that drinks dispensed , but moreover , recognises each member of staff . We have recognised that a system would be of great benefit to establishments with many members of staff & are thus focusing our marketing towards students ' union bars . As present , we are operating the business from home & carry out all of the field work ourselves ( consultations , installations & aftersale service ) as we do not require the facilities of dedicated premises nor extra members of staff . Once the buiness begins to grow & demand for the product increases , we shall relocate the business & employ members of staff to help with the everyday operations Because of the highly differentitated nature of the system that we have developed , we predict excellent returns on your investment , with an expectance to break even after the sale of units - which roughly equates to complete student unions installations . We furthermore predict that a profit of £ will be reached after the sale of units . < /abstract><heading > Section 2 - History of is a small company that was set up in . The directors ; , ,   & , currently own of the company ( each ) , however , we are offering of the firm 's shares in return for a £ investment in the company . of the firm 's equity would be divided equally between the current directors . The ' LiquiSaver ' system , the current project that has been developing since it began , is a stock control system for free - flow products . We have come up with a feasible design for our product and have applied for the patent for the current design . We have contacted foreign contractors for the production of our device and they have agreed to proceed with our design after the feasibility study . < heading > Section 3 - Products / Services</heading > The "" "" system has been developed with the needs of the customer in mind . We noticed a gap in the dispense monitoring market for product that not only measures the volume of beverages dispensed , but furthermore recognises by whom they have been dispensed . The system consists of main parts : flow meters , the processing hardware that provides the manager with a printout of the 's activity and an checking systems . The flow meters are a cruicial component of the sytem & are designed to be connected in line of the keg and font in order to measure the volume of beverage that has been dispensed . The checking system restricts flow through the fonts unless the bartender signifys , by means of either a swipe card or an electromatic plastic ring that is worn on a finger , that he requires use of the font - this derestricts the beer 's flow allowing the drink to be dispensed . The CPU registers how much and by whom the beverage was sold . < picture/>LiquiSaver was developed for establishments that have a great number of staff , making it difficult to track pilfering without registering by whom the beer was sold . The main niche that we developed the product for is campus based students ' unions . Before we develop a new product and see the need for better services we need the existing product to mature positively in this market where unexpected problems could arise quickly . Once the product has reached stable sales , profit targets and generated additional cash for a new investment opportunity then additional parts and new parts will be produced and tested . The new product range we have in mind is an optic dispensed spirit control , line cleaning & temperature checks for the system . < heading > Unique selling proposition:</heading > The product is highly differentiated in that it has been developed specifically as a way to prevent pilfering & thus is worth an establishment paying a high fee for because of its ability to prevent the loss of income . We shall , in future , train staff for maintaining the system , as & when problems arise . Very special to the maintaining staff is that we train them to train our customers at of installation of how everything works . < heading span of our products:</heading><figure/>Fig shows the life cycle curve for the product . We are aiming for our product not to decline after it has reached its mature point . Therefore as mentioned before we update our existing products and add new ones depending on the consumers ' need . < heading > Current technology:</heading > The current technology of measuring the beer flow to avoid pilferage already exists from competing companys , and These products are developed for pub chains , as opposed to the type of venue that we are marketing to , & we will furthermore compete on quality , technology and more user friendly service . < heading > Future development:</heading > As we think further we understand that we do not see such a large competitor as a disadvantage and more likely as an advantage since it can be learnt from the products they produce . This means that we analyse their and similar products in the markets in order to reverse engineer . Thus this gives us a broader idea of products in order to create a more updated , technologically advanced product and simple to understand design so that the consumer can cope with it easily . More importantly we reuse the older equipment from our customers as part of our deal which would reduce the final price of the new updated products and quality will still remain the same . < heading > Section 4 - Markets & Marketing</heading><heading>4 i ) The Market</heading><heading > Brief Description & Outlook</heading > Desk research through databases suggests such free flow beverages account for of all beverages sold by both on & off trade establishments ( as shown in fig ) , and as fig shows , the demand for these drinks in increasing . < figure/><figure/><heading > Outline of Current size & projected growth of Market</heading > According to a report , in the Drinks market from on - licensed premises was worth . is positioned in a supply chain by supplying a solution directly to drinking establishments . As we are marketing our product direct to another business , we must orientate ourselves to the business buying system , and more specifically , the system of new task purchase , as opposed to re - buys . Once the idea has been pitched to the establishments , the business buyer will consider alternatives , which is why it is important for our product to be pitched as higher quality than the competition , so the buyer justifies spending the extra money . < heading > Description of Major Business Application & description of major customers / users</heading > As described in section , has been developed to detect not only what drinks have been sold but who they were sold by . We are thus pitching the system to privately owned establishments that have many members of staff . At the current time , we have not entered the market , being still in the prototyping stage . Once the research & development process is complete , after , we plan to have a market share & shall work towards a market share by , as depicted in Fig 1.1.3 . Although the niche in which we are planning to promote our product is a very small one , we hope that the differentiated nature of our product to suit this niche will allow us to benefit from high profit margins . < figure/>The system shall be sold directly to on - trade establishments . By dividing the market up by types of on - licensed establishments , a niche of the drinks market may be chosen in which to promote our product . As fig shows , we have chosen students ' union bars as a niche to promote our product . The characteristics of students ' union bars are as follows : < figure/>High staff turnover as students tend to work as and when they need money . It is less likely for managers to develop bonds with their staff , from which trust develops . Friends of staff drink at unions regularly , which is the main cause for staff dispensing drinks without charging for them . Drinks tend to be much cheaper in student union bars than in regular clubs . This leads to lower profit margins , and a greater need to maximise income from drinks sold . The large quantity of drinks sold in a student union bar leads to bar staff pilfering being very difficult to detect . These factors increase the susceptibility of losing income through pilfering , which is the ultimate reason for choosing this niche . The system is specifically to be aimed at unions of campus based universities , as the social life is much more heavily focused around the student union - students attending city based universities have a much greater choice of pubs / bars / clubs . We currently have a prototype of the SCS System installed into student union . Union managers & indeed staff are becoming accustomed to the system & negotiations are currently underway to carry out a full installation . Involving ourselves with 's student union will allow us to negotiate deals with the group . This is a group of unions that includes unions such as , , , , , , , . The president of 's student union , is also the chair of the group , so as becomes more involved & develops a reputation within 's union , the ability to promote ourselves through the group may arise . < figure/>Customer buying patterns are predicted to be as fig shows . The buying patterns will be the inverse of union activity as the majority of the installations will take place during student vacations when union activity is much lower than during term time . < heading>4 ii ) The Competition</heading > There are companies who produce a similar product to ours . These companies are and , who both offer a system that provides pub chains with information for volumes of each beverage dispensed at their tenant run establishments . According to the database , is a Very Large company ; in they turned over £ 2.71 million , at a profit margin of and a return on capital employed of . This suggests that the company has the monopoly of this industry & are operating in a very efficient fashion . is a much smaller company and the financial data available is thus very limited . According to their website , in Brulines Ltd attempted to float on the stock market twice , however , after recommendations from shareholders due to volatile market conditions , decided to withdraw this intention in . supply their system to many of the large pub chains - Punch Taverns , , Enterprise Inns etc , who install "" the EDISbox "" into their establishments . Brulines ' system , however , is intended to be used in tenant run establishments as a way to prevent tenants from taking a greater share of the pub 's profit than they are entitled to . Our product is intended to be installed into much larger , privately owned establishments that have many members of bar staff , with a greater emphasis on preventing bar staff pilfering . Brulines Ltd market their product to small public houses , having installed the system into premises owned by pub chains . They have thus developed a strong hold on this market , which excludes our niche and thus operations shall not be affected by our position in the market , meaning that their response to our entry may be none . Because we have chosen to market our product in such a small niche , will not act in a sense that we are in direct competition with them . Penetration of the chosen niche will allow us entry to the market , allowing us in future to branch out to market our product to other segments of the market , such as privately ran nightclubs . The highly differentiated nature of our product which is aimed at a specific niche of the market means that once we have penetrated the market , and continue to grow as a company whilst reducing production costs , we will set in place a barrier to entry for any potential competitors . < heading>4 iii ) As fig shows , customers will be reached via direct contact , and leaflets that highlight the benefits that our product has to offer the companies . Personal letters to the managers of each establishment would furthermore create an awareness of our system . < figure/>Each system that is installed will have a certain degree of uniqueness - consultations will take place with the manager of each student union bar to decide upon a specification to meet the requirements of the location . A basic unit will consist of , of which a venue of similar size to 's will require approximately to provide full accommodation for all of their beer lines . A complete installation of this size will cost £ , working out at £ per unit , although this will vary depending on the size of the installation . To minimise costs in the starting up of the company , all of the field services will be carried out by the directors . The field services that will be required are as follows : < list > Initial consultation to determine requirements , Complete installation of the system into the establishment , Tutorial to demonstrate to staff supervisors the functionalities of the product.</list><table/>A prototype of the system is currently installed into students ' union . Negotiations are underway to carry out a complete install of the system - a project that could be worth £ . Further consultations are in progress with Loughborough students ' union who are , like , a campus based could considerably benefit from the system . As shows , do not trade through an agent , wholesaler or retailer & instead , have chosen to distribute the system directly to the customer , with the aim of maximising the proportion of the sales of the systems that we , as the original producer , receive . < figure/><heading > Section 5 - Manufacturing & Operations</heading > Our operations and decision making process will be carried in the main premises based in the . At the stage we think that we are going to be based in one of our residential premises in order to avoid the high cost of renting or leasing a large office . Therefore our current operations capacity in the will be people . The production process and the allocation of its capacity will be done by our sub contractors . Later on once the company is stable and profitable we think to lease a business office which is located in a large business site . Additionally once there is a higher demand of our products then we will consider working with larger sub contractors . In terms of personal as I mentioned before there will be people in total . Once we move to bigger premises we would be able to employ more staff depending on the workload and in the areas of need . Our communication to our customers and suppliers will be carried through the internet and telephone . All our calculations and plans are done using special programs on our notebooks . Later on once we have the opportunity to move to an office we will invest in IT facilities . < heading > Manufacturing capability:</heading > From sub contractors we will buy in products such as the flow meter , the CPU for the self automated hardware and a simple i d checking system . At the beginning stages we will put together the self automated hardware ourselves . The reason is because we already used a prototype and tested it at a student union at where minor problems occurred . Also it has to be said that we will cut cost since we can avoid salaries for the technical staff at the initial stages . Later on at the stages of profitability and growth we are going to invest in sub contractors outsourcing our production . In order to avoid problems such as product defects or a large scale product failure we will have strict quality control processes provided to our suppliers / sub contractors . < heading > Sources of supply:</heading > In order to have the right supply we need to identify the most important facts that we expect from our suppliers such as reliability , quality , and value for money as well as strong service and clear communication and most importantly a financial security . The sources we are going to use to identify the right supplier down to our needs are recommendations , directories , trade associations , business advisers and exhibitions . Once we have found suppliers down to our needs we will contact them and ask them for a written quotation for or even longer . Then we will compare terms and conditions of suppliers . If we find various suppliers that are suitable to us we will go ahead to draw up contracts by negotiating terms and conditions that as such our payment method are shares and loans and maximum delivery time is varying . It has to be said that supplier is needed . The reason is because we think that only one supplier is too risky to play with even if we have ordered a single piece of a specific raw material . The reason is because our supplier might be in financial debt or another problem might have occurred during production or transportation and also we might not have the opportunity to pay in cheque beforehand . Since we think that we are going to outsource our supply and production to another country in near future where suppliers can supply and produce much cheaper then we will also have the need of skilled labour in . < heading > Section 6 - Management</heading > SCS Ltd is current operated from 's home address in , shire .   mainly manages the company as the company director and the other members of the board of directors provide the best possible support to smoothly drive the company to its goals satisfying our supplier and customer needs . The management team consists of members with the necessary skills required for the smooth flow of the company . Since all members are engineers the project 's technical division would be a surplus . The financial sector and the marketing sector would be covered since   and   have had past work experience and have specialised in these sectors . The international business would be covered by   because of his international experiences and interactions .   ( Company president ) , is mainly responsible for the overall management of the firm and the other members of the board of directors look up to him as a good leadership .   ( Chief engineer ) , is dedicated mainly to manufacturing our product , design and assembly .   ( Research analyst ) , is responsible for developing our current product with new technology and additions . He is responsible for marketing sector of the product to a certain degree .   ( Human resource and finance manager ) , is mainly responsible for the well being of the co - workers and the financial sector of the firm . < table/><heading > Section 7 Financial Advice</heading><heading > Section 8 - Risks & Rewards</heading > Typical risks that may be faced by the company upon start - up are as follows : An insufficient amount of time may have been predicted for start - up processes . This risk may be reduced by utilising the seasonality of the company 's activity - the quiet periods during university term time can be employed to orientate & prepare the business for periods of high level of activity . Inaccuracies in financial forecasts , which could lead to cash flow problems . By pitching our sales price high , underestimations in financial forecasts will be absorbed by this high margin . Offering discounts because of the temptation of revenue . This risk must be minimised by staying focused as a business , to maintain a high level of maturity - strong profit margins & a healthy cash flow are more beneficial to the company than volume of sales . Pressure on the management to have to cope with every aspect of the business , which could lead to a loss of focus on the original plan . The diverse range of experience ( including production processes , leadership ability & experience in running drinking establishments ) that the management bring to the company mean that we know & can familiarise ourselves with the business market that we are entering , which will allow us to remain focused & manage ourselves through the situations that we are likely to encounter . Promotional strategy may not be as effective as originally hoped , although the risk is reduced as we shall be mostly pitching the product directly to the businesses & the promotional strategy is not crucial . Time to establish relationships with suppliers may be greater than initially anticipated may furthermore cause an issue where credit for the business is concerned . The reliability & quality of suppliers may cause concern ; however , by building up relationships over long periods of time , we hope to benefit from loyalty . Receiving money from customers . Being a new business , our bargaining position is not yet strong , however , this risk is reduced by the fact that we are targeting a niche of students ' unions who have established themselves over a length of time as professional organisations , as opposed to pitching our product to rough & disreputable venues . , cost & availability may cause problems when it comes to finding premises . Upon start - up the business will not be in any great need for premises - for the few projects , the ability to operate from home will alleviate this requirement . Once the business establishes itself , the need to obtain premises to operate from will be such that we shall transfer operations . Such a time will not be for some time , allowing us time , as & when necessary to find a suitable location . < heading > Section 9 - Objectives & Milestones</heading > The current design of the is a feasible design which allows the company to proceed with the project . We have submitted the necessary documentation for the patent which is pending . The design of the flow meters , the CPU with the wireless connections and the design for the sensors are finalised . The main objective would be to develop the current design and bring in state of the art technology to our product . The main objective of the finance department and the company as a whole is to succeed in bringing business angels to invest £ in our firm for of the company as equity . The company plans to achieve a net profit of by the end of our first business year . The Company is fully managed by our board of directors and each member of the board of directors currently has an equal share ( ) in the company . We plan to employ more staff after we expand which would require a new business property when the work load increases with time . We currently have contacted our foreign suppliers for the purpose of production of our device . We previewed our design to the foreign suppliers after applying for the patent and they have agreed with the design and proved that it is feasible to proceed with the plan . Our main objective would be to have a healthy relationship with our international suppliers which would emphasize on reliability , Quality , value for money and financial security .",0
"< heading > Introduction</heading > Calcareous grassland ecosystem has evolved as a consequence of interaction with human agricultural management on steep slope of calcareous soils . Natural succession has been suppressed by sheep or cattle grazing , so plant community has been adapted to this disturbance on land and has become a home to many invertebrates and birds species . This habitat was once widespread in including southern ( , et al . ) . example is the Chilterns , Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty . Due to topography , human activities were relatively limited ; hence the majority of agriculture on steep slopes was grazing by sheep , forming a species - rich habitat ( EN , ) . As happened - wide , agricultural intensification and undergrazing in have led to the loss of the habitat , while use of fertilizers and herbicides have had further impacts on reducing the species diversity(Adriaens , et al . 2005 ) . , only a total of ha calcareous grassland remain in the , but the great concerns to the condition of this habitat in addition to direct loss are fragmentation and isolation of small patches which are inherited with high risk of extinction due to the decreased genetic diversity ( handout , , et al . 2005 ) . The value of biodiversity in calcareous grassland is recognized not only in the context as listed in of the 's , but internationally as included in ( EN , 2005 , the Chilterns AONB , ) . Practical strategies for restoration and recreation of remaining calcareous grassland are now under investigation . This report will discuss the following topics with reference to colonisation , plant communities and succession ; < list > Features of calcareous grassland , and the importance as a habitatEvaluation of methods for restoration and recreation and the factors affecting the outcomes of a project < /list><heading>1 . Features of calcareous grassland , and the importance as a habitat in the Chilterns</heading > The lay on a ridge of Cretaceous chalk with overlaying clay , sand or sand and gravel on the foot of the dip slope . Primarily due to the difficulty in access , facing steep escarpment has been utilsed for sheep grazing while other more reachable areas had been converted to beech woodland for industry and to arable crop production ( EN , ) . Calcareous grassland occurs on those steep slopes , the climax vegetation is woodland but grassland community has established through woodland clearance or burning and of agricultural practice , et al , ) which created regularly disturbed nutrient - poor land . Many plant species , such as gentians , orchids , scrubs , mosses and liverworts ( table . ) have evolved with this environmental condition , supporting many invertebrate and birds species ( EN , ) . There are over 40 vascular plant species estimated to be found in km⁻¹ area in the , some of them are recognised nationally scarce species . Butterflies and other insects associated with the habitat are also of value . There are several important scrub species in the which provide breeding sites for birds and shelters for invertebrates . Most of bryophtes are known nationally important survival of which is heavily dependent on grazing activities ( EN , 2005 , the Chilterns AONB , ) . < table/><heading>2 . Evaluation of methods for restoration and recreation and the factors affecting the outcomes of a project</heading > Abandonment of traditional agricultural management , successive conversion to arable land , fragmentation and isolation of small patches are the major threats to calcareous grassland community in the , therefore , restoration efforts need to put an emphasis on re - establishment of appropriate management and the creation of linkage between small habitats ( , et al , 2002 , , et al , ) . Some suggested conservation methods are ( , et al . , handout ) ; < list > Grazing by sheep or alternatively mowingSeedbank translocationSeed mixture plantation</list > Major problems in the existing degraded calcareous grassland are increased nitrogen content and limited light availability on the ground both of which have resulted in the dominant colonisation of unfavourable species and the failure to regeneration of important ones ( , et al . 2005 ) . Such constraints would likely to be overcome by grazing and mowing which induce disturbance on land . Brys , et al ( ) showed that these methods would promote high species accumulation in the short - term and pointed out the significance of grazing over mowing to reduce the effects of high nitrogen level in the soil . This is also supported by During and ( ) that grazing would lead to higher species diversity , but grazing intensity and duration require precise monitoring . However , lack of understanding among people and insufficient financial support by the statutory bodies are substantial issues in implementing the traditional management system again in the region ( EN , ) . Hence , incorporation of other forms of management as well as the improvement in grazing or mowing system , the labour requirement of which would be acceptable to people needs further study to successfully reestablish high biodiversity in calcareous grassland ( , ) . Fragmented , isolated or degraded calcareous grassland habitats often suffer from limited seed bank sources and even if present , low dispersal capacity and low persistence which are further suppressed by invasive undesirable species are great obstacles for restoration ( , et al , , , et al . 2005 ) . Latter methods seem possible alternatives for those vulnerable habitats . The translocation of flocks from well - established large areas to new restored sites would be effective ( , et al . ) . Sowing seed mixtures on the area between the isolated habitats would also encourage creation of nearby habitat and would improve connectivity , hence promoting the seed dispersal to wider geographical scale ( handout ) . Larger or connected habitats are beneficial to the colonisation of fauna which , in return , would improve dispersal capacity , whilst grazing is also important in this aspect (   et al , & Bonn et al , ) . However , a drawback to those approaches is the increased risk of colonisation of unfavourable species to larger areas ( , et al . ) . Translocation of seed bank not only contains desirable rare species but invasive species or the key species which are different in the genetic composition to those formerly colonised the re - introduced sites . Remaining habitats in the are relatively small compared to other parts of ( EN , ) . Hence , as well as taking account of the differences in genes and the composition of contained plant species , it is very important to select flocks which would not adversely reduce the regeneration capacity of original habitat . The other risk is the uncertainty of succession in the long - term . When introducing seed mixtures or in translocation , the species variety and the relative proportion of each species are crucial in determining the success of plant growth and colonisation of plant community through interaction between species ( handout ) . The inappropriate choice of species composition has high potential of promoting or depressing the growth of particular ones , resulting in the creation of grassland habitat with no ecological value . < heading > Conclusion</heading > Restoration and recreation of calcareous grassland in the is achieved through the combination of management mechanisms from different approaches , including grazing in existing habitat , the plantation of plants to isolated areas . The required management is different within the due to various conditions of remained habitats . Restoration programme of plant community in fragmented areas starts from identification of proposed sites , careful selection of species to be re - introduced at the scale of genes , to monitoring of community establishment . Re - adoption of grazing practice need to take account of socio - economic aspects of people involved , hence the improvement of the system and alternatives are important consideration . In addition , it is vital to increase connectivity in achieving the recreation of large area of habitat on top of the restoration of isolated areas in the . There is no single solution for restoration and the target should aim for the establishment of species - rich habitat in the long - term . The important factor in terms of the approach to people is the proposal and implementation of financial support systems for local farmers and education to raise awareness among the general public . In conclusion , those suggested methods would , with further investigation and incorporation of management regimes , lead to a strong way forward to enhance the ecological value of the .","< heading > Referral information Source of referral and a summary of key information</heading > has suffered from an intermittent speech impairment since   , she was referred to the neurosurgeon by Dr   ( Consultant neurologist ) on   < heading > History All relevant information gathered from the patient about the presenting illness , co - existing problems , current treatment , significant past medical history and the social and family background . The patient 's view of the nature of the problem and their expectations for treatment.</heading><heading > Presenting Complaint</heading > is a right handed female who has suffered from an intermittent speech impairment since   and has recently noticed an inability to distinguish temperature in her right hand ( ) . < heading > History of presenting complaint</heading > was on a walk in   when she found that she suddenly became unable to speak .   continued to walk but then collapsed and had fits before the ambulance transferred her to   hospital where she remained unconscious for . A CT scan was performed and a left sided was diagnosed .   recovered within and was discharged . After discharge ,   stated that she felt fine but would tire easily . ,   noticed that she was having intermittent problems with her speech , ' I knew what I wanted to say but could n't say it ' . Initially this only occurred when she went on long walks , it has become progressively worse and now occurs more frequently .   has also had difficulty writing for stating that she has started to jumble her words . There have been no problems with her reading .   has noticed that for she has been unable to feel hot things in her right hand and has noticed some tingling and numbness of the right hand and forearm .   has had no headaches , no nausea or vomiting and no changes in her vision . < heading > Past Medical History</heading><list><heading > Medical</heading > Retinal vein occlusion left eyeDeaf in left earLeft sided -   hypertensionNo hx of , anginaNo hx of DVT / pulmonary embolismNo hx of Tuberculosis or Rheumatic Fever</list><list><heading > Surgical</heading > Laser surgery for macular oedemaMastoid surgery</list><heading > Social History</heading > is an active , independent lady , she is retired school teacher and a widow of .   currently lives alone but has daughters who she sees regularly . of 's daughters is a speech and language therapist .   is a non smoker and drinks < unit of alcohol per week .   used to do a lot of long distance walking but finds that she now tires more easily since the stroke in . < heading > Allergies</heading > There are no known allergies . < heading > Medication</heading><list > Aspirin - used for secondary prevention of thrombotic cerebrovascular disease mg ODPersantin Retard - used for the prevention of ischaemic stroke and transient ischaemic attacks200 mg - used for prevention of stroke mg - stopped due to leg pain   Glucosamine < /list><heading > Family History</heading > No significant family history < heading > Systems Review</heading><list><heading system</heading > No chest pain , orthopnoea , PND or leg oedema.</list><list><heading > Respiratory System</heading > No shortness of breath or cough . No wheeze or haemoptysis.</list><list><heading > Gastrointestinal System < /heading > No nausea , vomiting or significant weight loss . No dysphagia or odynophagia . No change in bowel habits . < /list><list><heading > Genitourinary System < /heading > No change in urinary frequency , no incontinence ( stress / urge).</list><list><heading > Central Nervous System</heading > No headaches . No blackouts , dizziness or visual disturbances . Loss of temperature sensation in right hand . Numbness and tingling in right hand . No weakness of limbs reported . No dysarthria or dysphonia.</list><heading > Analysis of history The most likely single cause of the presentation , other possible causes and reasons for these choices . The findings to be looked for on physical examination to help decide the cause.</heading > is a right handed lady indicating that her dominant hemisphere ( i.e. that which controls language and mathematical function ) is on the left . From the history it appears that   is suffering from a type of dysphasia . is an acquired loss of production or comprehension of spoken and/or written language secondary to brain damage . There are main types of dysphasia - Expressive or Receptive . Expressive dysphasia is characterised by non - fluent speech produced with effort and frustration . Signs to look for on examination include malformed words and impaired reading and writing . Comprehension is intact , patients understand questions and attempt to convey meaningful answers . There may be co existing right arm and facial weakness . It is caused by a lesion in the posterior part of the dominant frontal gyrus ( area ) . Receptive dysphasia is characterised by empty , fluent speech . The patient is oblivious of any errors , reading writing and comprehension are impaired . It is caused by a lesion in the posterior part of the temporal gyrus ( Wernickes area ) . The examination will therefore need to differentiate between the types of dysphasia . The motor system will also need to be examined for any evidence of coexisting weakness . may develop as a result of vascular , neoplastic , traumatic , infective or degenerative disease of the cerebrum . The sudden onset of 's initial episode of dysphasia in   would indicate a vascular cause and this is supported by the diagnosis of a left sided . However , the lack of associated weakness indicates that this was not a normal infarct affecting the motor cortex . Vascular lesions also tend to improve with time which does not fit with 's history as her dysphasia has been getting progressively worse . Cardiovascular examination will therefore be important especially blood pressure , arrhythmias and carotid bruits which may all indicate risk factors for stroke . The recurrent episodes of dysphasia could be due to a vascular cause such as transient ischaemic attacks which are temporarily reducing the blood supply to the region of brain controlling language . There has been no history of head trauma to indicate this as a relevant cause of the dysphasia .   is keen to have a diagnosis for her condition as she has had no symptoms apart from those mentioned and says that she feels well in herself . The episodes have increased in frequency since   and have become progressively worse - this would indicate an expanding brain lesion . A space occupying lesion will lead to raised intracranial pressure depending on the size of the lesion . Signs of raised intracranial pressure include nausea and vomiting , headaches ( often worse in the morning ) and papilloedema , none of which   reported in her history .   did n't report any weight loss a sign associated with neoplasms . If the lesion is a neoplasm , the speed of onset of symptoms suggest a malignant rather than a benign neoplasm . Intracranial tumours are classified according to their tissue of origin with the most common group of primary brain tumours being gliomas . This group contains astrocytomas , glioblastoma multiforme , oligodendrogliomas and ependymomas . They commonly occur in the frontal , parietal or temporal lobe . Likely diagnosis at this stage would point to either a neoplasm in   dominant hemisphere . Another possible diagnosis could be recurrent 's due to e.g. carotid artery stenosis or valvular dysfunction as   recalled the possibility that she had had rheumatic fever as a child . However from the history ,   does not appear to have any risk factors for atherosclerosis . < heading > Physical examination Highlight the findings most relevant to your clinical problem solving by underlining them</heading><heading > General Examination and higher centres</heading > is a right handed lady who was orientated in time and place . was apparent from taking the history . On examination   was sitting in her chair reading . She was alert and comfortable at rest . There was no evidence of walking aids . No resting tremor or involuntary movements . PEARL < list><heading > General Observations</heading > Pulse - 80Blood Pressure - 195/95Respiratory Rate - 18 pmTemperature C</list examination ( relevant to patients symptoms )   's speech was non - fluent with mis pronunciation of words . Naming -   was able to name everyday objects - pen , watch , watch strap and watch clasp Comprehension -   was able to understand the command ' touch your left ear with your left hand ' but had difficulty carrying out the command had difficulty repeating the sentence was able to write the sentence given to her   was able to subtract from but had difficulty subtracting from   stated that on previous examination she had had difficulty identifying objects ( with her eyes closed ) placed in her hands with the right hand being worse than the left   was able to draw a complete house < table/><table/>Cranial Nerve Examination Cranial Nerves 1 - 12 intact < list><heading > CVS : I + II + 0 , JVP → , No ankle oedema . No murmurs or carotid bruits</heading></list > RS : Clear vesicular breath sounds < list><heading > GI : Abdomen soft and non tender , Bowel sounds normal . No masses or organomegaly.</heading></list><heading > Analysis of history and examination Reasons for your choice of the cause of the patient 's problem(s ) and any other cause that still needs to be considered at this stage</heading > On examination   was alert and comfortable . 's speech was non fluent and appeared to require a lot of concentration and effort .   mis - pronounced words mid sentence and had to stop and think about the next work she wanted to say .   had difficulty carrying out simple commands such as ' touch your left ear with your left hand and vv ' indicating left - right disorientation indicating a possible lesion in the dominant ( left ) parietal lobe .   had difficulty subtracting from but said that she had always had difficulty with mental arithmetic - possible degree of acalculia . On examination ,   was able to clearly write a sentence that was given to her . However , her diary showed evidence of dysgraphia and jumbling of words which had become progressively worse since   ( see attached sheets ) . Unfortunately we were unable to examine   for tactile agnosia but the patients own description of a previous examination suggests an element of astereognosis especially in the right hand supporting a possible lesion in the left parietal lobe . No evidence of special neglect as   was able to draw a complete house when asked . On examination of the cranial nerves , no abnormalities were detected . Examination of the upper and lower limbs showed no abnormalities although temperature sensation was not examined and 's history indicates a reduction in temperature sensation in her right hand and forearm . From the history and examination it appears that   is suffering from expressive dysphasia . This could be due to a space occupying lesion , or recurrent infarcts in the dominant hemisphere ( area ) . The most likely cause of 's symptoms is a space occupying neoplasm as the symptoms have become progressively worse over a period of , this makes a vascular cause less likely . If the lesion is a neoplasm , the speed of onset of symptoms suggests a malignant rather than a benign neoplasm . Diagnosis of such a lesion will require CT or MRI imaging of the brain . Location of a primary tumour should also be investigated by e.g. chest x - ray and abdominal ultrasound or CT , to determine whether the lesion is a primary or secondary brain tumour . < heading > Formulation of the patient 's problem(s ) Encapsulate this in physical , psychological and social terms ( the triple diagnosis)</heading > is an independent lady who feels fit and well aside from her dysphasia symptoms .   can not understand why she has no other symptoms and feels that she may be able to train herself to improve her speech .   is keen to have a diagnosis and begin any required treatment as her daughter is currently pregnant and she wants to be around for her . < heading > Management Use the framework of RAPRIOP to structure your proposed management . to the guidelines to the writing of portfolio cases for the details of the issues to be addressed under each heading.</heading><heading > Investigations</heading > Carotid Doppler Ultrasound - to assess if there is any carotid / vertebral artery stenosis which may be causing recurrent TIA 's Report : Right - Common carotid clear , bulb and carotid artery show mild plaque formation Left - Common carotid clear , bulb and internal carotid artery clear Forward flow in both vertebral arteries → 's periodic symptoms are therefore not due to TIA 's from carotid artery stenosis .   ordered - to assess valvular function as a possible cause of emboli and fitness for surgery   MRI scan Report : MRI shows tumour in left tempo - parietal region with patchy enhancement and oedema . There appears to be effacement of the ipsilateral ventricle . Characteristics of the tumour indicate that it is most likely malignant ( dark area in the centre of the lesion indicating necrosis , various signal characteristics reflecting the variable cellularity ) . < picture/><picture/><heading > Reassurance and explanation</heading > The results of the scan showing the brain tumour were discussed with . It was advised that the next step in the management plan should be an operation to enable a biopsy of the lesion to be taken . It was explained that this would provide a diagnosis of the character of the lesion so that a definitive treatment plan could be initiated .   was aware that the report for the biopsy could take . Management of the intracranial tumour will depend on its grade ( benign / malignant ) , site ( how approachable the tumour is ) and type of lesion - ( further surgery or conservative treatment ) .   mg QDS - prescribed to reduce any cerebral oedema caused by the lesion gm OD - to reduce the risk of any convulsions as a result of the cerebral tumour Aspirin - stopped in preparation for surgery   Echo Report : Left ventricle shows concentric left ventricular hypertrophy , good systolic function , trivial aortic regurge and tricuspid regurge , mild pulmonary regurge . No evidence of emboli → The echo confirms that there is no cardiac cause for 's symptoms and that her cardiac function is suitable for surgery .   Chest X - ray ordered - for evidence of a primary tumour Report - no hilar lymphadenopathy or evidence of a primary tumour CT Abdomen - for evidence of a primary tumour ordered - fitness for surgery Report : No abnormalities detected to contraindicate surgery   Blood tests including Clotting Screen - to assess clotting times since aspirin had been discontinued time - 0.8 APTT ratio → Values within normal range   < list><heading > Pre operative Observations</heading bpm regularRespiratory Rate - 17 pm</list><list><heading > Pre Operative Medications</heading > Ramipril 2.5 mgDexamethasone 4 mg - to reduce cerebral mgPhenytoin 300 mg - to reduce the risk of g IV - to prevent infection</list > Pre operative CT marker scan to mark the location of the lesion for surgery < heading > Prescription / medical intervention < /heading > Operative - Left parietal craniotomy for left parietal glioma / metastatic lesion biopsy of surgery - for histopathological diagnosis of lesion for definitive treatment regime Side Effects - Hemiparesis / hemiplegia , intracranial bleed , infection ( risk of infection is doubled as metal clips will be used to reposition the piece of skull removed to enable access to the brain ) Local anaesthetic : ( with adrenaline which acts as a vasoconstrictor to decrease bleeding from the scalp from incision ) Comment : A craniotomy was chosen for this operation instead of a burr hole as the MRI scan showed that the lesion was in close proximity to the sylvian fissure which the middle cerebral artery runs through . A craniotomy also allows greater access to the brain and therefore more control should a bleed occur . In   situation debulking of the tumour was contraindicated due to the location of the tumour and the risk to speech and motor function . < heading > Observation</heading > Routine neurological observations were conducted on the stepdown ward . Dexamethasone 4 mg was continued to reduce cerebral oedema post operatively . < heading > Referral and team working</heading > 's case highlights the referral process between the consultant neurologist and the neurosurgical team .   may need to be referred to the post operatively to assist with her dysphasia . Future management will depend on the results of the biopsy . < heading > Outcome A description of the progress of the patient as far as possible . This should include consideration of further issues to be resolved . Where appropriate you should contact by telephone patients who have been discharged home.</heading > On , 's expressive dysphasia appeared to be more pronounced . An urgent CT scan was ordered for evidence of a postoperative haematoma and 's neurological status was monitored . CT Report : The CT scan showed evidence of white matter oedema surrounding the left temporo - parietal lesion . There was no evidence of haematoma . ( 8 mg ) was prescribed to reduce the postoperative oedema and 's neurological status continues to be monitored .   was informed that the symptoms should ease over . , 's dysphasia appeared to be even more pronounced .   also had slight facial drop on the right side . CT scan showed white matter oedema , midline shift and effacement of the ventricle on the ipsilateral side . There was also evidence of haematoma at the biopsy site which was not present on previous CT scan ( ) . IV Dexamethasone 16 mg was prescribed . , 's biopsy was reported as being a glioblastoma - WHO grade ( highest grading - most aggressive type of glioblastoma ) . The samples showed malignant glioma composed of highly pleiomorphic astrocytic type cells with scattered mitoses . 's future management is due to be discussed at the meeting on . Once 's current symptoms have been resolved she will be discharge from the neurosurgical ward .   will be referred to a consultant oncologist who will oversee her radiotherapy regime . As the glioma is of such a high grade it is likely that   will receive high dose radiotherapy ( fractions , Gray ) if this can be tolerated over as an outpatient . The aim of the radiotherapy is to reduce the speed of growth of the glioblastoma and delay the speed of onset of symptoms .   will be seen by the neurosurgeon post discharge and will have a rescan after the radiotherapy treatment has finished . < heading > Evidence based care and issues for research A brief consideration of the evidence base required for the diagnosis and management of the patient 's problem(s)</heading > The incidence of brain tumours is - 15 per per year accounting for of deaths . The most common type of primary brain tumour is the glioma ( ) followed by meningiomas ( ) and pituitary adenomas ( ) . Brain tumours may benign or histologically malignant but will rarely metastasise outside the brain . of brain tumours are secondary metastases - most commonly from the lung , breast and kidney [ 1 ] . Patients with presumed primary brain tumours have surgical management options - biopsy or resection .   was not displaying any signs of increased intracranial pressure and so resection of the tumour was not essential . Patients with severe raised intracranial pressure will obviously require debulking of the tumour in order to maintain adequate cerebral perfusion . Patients without signs of raised intracranial pressure or in patients where resection is impossible due to side effects of surgery , biopsy is the only option . In 's situation debulking of the tumour was contraindicated due to the location of the tumour and the risk to 's speech and motor function . Studies into the benefits of surgical resection versus biopsy for malignant gliomas are limited and it has been identified that further large multicentred RCTs are required to conclusively answer the question of whether prior to radiotherapy , resection or biopsy is superior [ ] . Treatment with chemotherapy has been disappointing as there is difficulty in finding a drug which will cross the blood brain barrier [ 1 ] . The benefit of chemotherapy in patients with glioblastoma is debatable . found no significant benefit in overall survival when evaluating the use of adjuvant chemotherapy in patients with glioblastoma [ ] . However , recent studies by the ( organisation for research and treatment of cancer ) showed a statistically significant benefit to median survival of treating patients with radiotherapy and compared to radiotherapy alone [ ] . This is obviously an area for further research . Current NICE guidance state that is not recommended for - line chemotherapy treatment for patients with malignant glioma who have failed primary therapy ( surgery and/or radiotherapy ) , except in the context of a randomised controlled trial against a standard - treatment comparator [ 5 ] . NICE are currently appraising a different type of treatment - the use of carmustine implants and Temozolomide for the treatment of newly diagnosed high - grade glioma [ ] . Future treatment options for patients like   may therefore be increased . As stated previously ,   suffered from a haematoma and worsening of her dysphagia post operatively . Postoperative haematomas at the operative site occur in approx . of patients and a transient neurological deficit occurs in approx . of patients [ ] . < heading > Commentary A commentary on issues of health care delivery , ethical issues or disability relevant to the patient and/or problem</heading > The care of patients with a brain tumour is multidisciplinary and requires the assistance of a neurosurgeon , an oncologist , a radiologist , an expert in radiation therapy and various members of the nursing team . Management varies depending on tumour location , tissue type , and co morbid conditions . Further neurosurgical treatment may involve the placement of a ventricular shunt if 's tumour produces sufficient mass effect to cause obstructive hydrocephalus . Despite the short duration of symptoms , are often surprisingly large at the time of presentation , occupying much of a cerebral lobe . Indeed 's glioma measured approximately on the MRI scan . The treatment of gliomas remains difficult as there are currently no curative treatments [ ] . This is because by the time the tumour is detected clinically or radiographically , the tumour is beyond the reach of local control [ ] . The treatment of patients with malignant gliomas is therefore palliative . The aims of surgery are to establish a pathological diagnosis , relieve mass effect , and if possible , achieve a gross total resection to facilitate adjuvant therapy [ ] .   is likely to suffer from the side effects of radiotherapy ( nausea , hair loss , lethargy ) as she is likely to receive a maximum dose due to the grading of her glioblastoma .   will therefore need support and extra care during her treatment regime which can be provided by district and nurses .   will require a lot of support and encouragement during her palliative care and radiotherapy . < heading > Impact on your learning Describe what you have learnt from this case</heading > Focused examination for dysphasia Use of medication pre and post surgery Importance of post operative monitoring and imaging Astereognosis - failure to distinguish objects held in the hand by touch alone - due to a dorsal column lesion originating in the contralateral parietal lobe affecting appreciation of size , shape , texture and weight of surgery Management of brain tumours",0
"There is no doubt that by , 's criminal courts were busier than ever before . Can this be attributed to the fact that the are seen as of the period and therefore rising prices meant more theft for necessity ? Or is the relationship between prices and theft prosecutions in fact not showing more incidence of crime , but simply more prosecutions ? The relationship between prices and theft prosecutions is complex and certainly not direct . However , it is undeniable that a relationship was present . < fnote , , , Law & History Review , ( ) p. < /fnote > The prosecution process was very complex and it would be too simple to assume it merely reflected the incidence of crime and there was a simple correlation between prices and theft prosecutions . Criminal justice could have been administered differently during periods of dearth . argues ' harvest failure invariably promoted fears of social disorder , and it may be that as prices rose constables were more diligent in pursuing suspected thieves and JPs were more inclined to commit these s suspects to trial . "" For example , shows that in and harvest failure did occasionally provoke bursts of prosecutorial activity . In periods of moral panic , deviant behaviour , which is often ignored in normal periods , was prosecuted at a higher rate than usual . The peak of prosecutions for major crimes was . By there was a massive decline in prosecution levels and a decline in execution rates . It seems unlikely that there would be such a drop in the incidence of crime . Therefore , the decline in prosecutions could indicate that the ruling class , who were the magistrates , were less paranoid and saw the poor as less threatening by perhaps because the new poor law relief system was running across the whole of and the population had levelled off . Similarly , the gallows were public exhibitions and were used as a deterrent to others ; therefore a decline in executions by would indicate a decline in fear of the incidence of crime . < fnote , Peter ' Property crime and hard times in , p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid p. < /fnote><fnote > Sharpe , J.A Crime in Early Modern England ( , ) p.61 < /fnote><fnote > Hindle , in , c.1550 - 1640 ( , ) p. < /fnote > Therefore , increase in theft prosecutions could reflect the change in the formal character of the criminal justice system which occurred in . For example , bureaucratization of the courts and changing character of those who administered justice . witnessed a change in the county bench : JPs were more numerous , better educated and better informed . argues that were a period of law and order consciousness . There was a growing determination of the local elites to impose a degree of discipline and order on the labouring poor . This is mirrored in the workings of the poor laws and poor relief which are increasing in this period . However , although there was a hardening of attitudes in the legal system , this was probably not great enough to account for the whole increase in the level of theft prosecutions . says ' if the attitudes toward crime were changing , this may have been precisely because the level of crime was itself on the rise . '   < fnote > , Peter ' Property crime and hard times in , p. < /fnote > In addition , the judicial system was a participatory system . The victims had to make an initial complaint for a prosecution to begin . During times of crisis , victims may have been less likely to prosecute because of expense . For example , an initial complaint may have required a journey of and then a trial an even longer journey . would have been happier to settle out of court if it meant they got their belongings back and had little expense . Similarly , in times of dearth victims would not want to see their neighbours hung , thus as punishments were often harsher in times of crisis , as shown with the rise of executions , this could have been another motivate not to prosecute . Therefore , if victims were less likely to prosecute , but there were more prosecutions there may have been more incidence of crime . < fnote > Sharpe Crime in Early Modern England p.64 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid p.68 < /fnote > certainly believes that the change in criminal prosecutions could reflect an actual change in criminal behaviour , therefore more stealing was actually taking place . The state of the economy would support this view : by the war , plague , industrial stagnation and harvest failure all combined to create rising levels of poverty . uses the word ' necessity ' to describe the nature of theft during economic hardship . Rising food prices would have created hardship because of a labourer 's income was spent on food and drink . Therefore , Hoskins suggests the use of wheat prices as an economic indicator . Despite 's claim that by the poor ate cheaper grains like oats , it seems likely that 's suggestion of using wheat prices would probably be an accurate guide to fluctuations in other grain prices . For example , shows that as the price of wheat rose in , there was a sharp rise in the number of cases of theft reported . Underdown suggests this indicates the desperation of the poor . Cockburn claims that ' price trends bear a fairly close relationship to the pattern of property crime . "" All sudden upsurges of indicted theft during 's reign were periods of scarcity .   < fnote > ' Property crime and hard times in , p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid p. < /fnote><fnote > Underdown , From Heaven : Life in an Town in ( , ) p. < /fnote><fnote > Cockburn , ' The Nature and Incidence of Crime in , : A Preliminary Survey ' , in ( ed . ) , Crime in , ( , ) p. < /fnote><fnote > Cockburn ' The Nature and Incidence of Crime in , : A Preliminary Survey ' p. < /fnote > Generally in the periods crime was opportunistic and relating to people 's current economic status . comments that ' for every or there might well have been a opportunistic pickpockets or shoplifters , concerned with immediate survival rather than running a criminal enterprise . "" There was little professional crime , with few traces of a ' criminal subculture ' . thieves caught in in confessed to stealing ducks , geese and pigs on their travels . They either ate them themselves or bartered them for lodgings . Therefore , in times of high prices the opportunity for theft rose because of necessity . However , generally stealing would be a last resort . The poorer sort may change their diet to cheaper foods such as beans and peas . Similarly , they may have turned to private charity or statutory relief . However , these alternatives could not provide complete support for all those affected by rising prices and declining wages which so often accompanied it . argues that ' theft was simply of several alternative means of survival , and given the possible penalties it was probably the least satisfactory . But as other alternatives disappeared , theft must have become ... a real possibility . '   < fnote > Criminal entrepreneurs with legendary status < /fnote><fnote > Sharpe Crime in Early Modern England p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid p. < /fnote><fnote > Lawson ' Property crime and hard times in , p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid p. < /fnote > The example of illustrates that the relationship between prices and theft prosecution was positive . Prosecution levels were higher in of high prices than they were in of low prices . This would suggest that rising food prices were potentially ' criminogenic ' . Cockburn agrees that theft was a socio - economic phenomenon . An example of this relationship between prices and theft is illustrated in when grain prices began to rise and remained high for . This continued persistence of high prices led to hardship , which in turn led to theft as shown by the peak of prosecutions in being in . However , chronology was not always exact . argues that ' not only did prosecution levels often begin to climb only after prices , but in some cases they reached their peak slightly later . "" For example , in in and , prices and prosecution levels were moving in opposite directions creating negative coefficients . This perhaps indicates that the relationship between theft prosecutions and prices was nonlinear and that it was not equally strong throughout the period as a whole . Therefore , where high prices might mean more prosecutions , low prices did not necessarily mean low rates of prosecution . < fnote > ' Property crime and hard times in , p. < /fnote><fnote > Cockburn ' The Nature and Incidence of Crime in , : A Preliminary Survey'p . < /fnote><fnote > Lawson ' Property crime and hard times in , p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid p. < /fnote > There is a lag between prices and prosecutions most notable during the final crisis years in ' era . This lag could be a by - product of migration , which generally rose in of economic crisis . Migrants may have turned to thieving to help them move around . Thus , even after prices fell , counties with high migration levels may have still experienced high theft from impoverished migrants who finally crossed their borders . This is supported by an increase in the level of prosecutions for squatting and vagrancy in in . For example , was apprehended in in for stealing bread , butter and a pie . He claimed to have been working in Essex but lost his job and had been unable to find replacement work and had been '' driven by necessitie to search for foode . '' < fnote > Ibid p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid p. < /fnote><fnote > H. R. O in ' Property crime and hard times in , p. < /fnote > However , claims that court records showing these prosecution rates are ambiguous and do not measure absolute crime levels . For example , for occupation of the criminal vagrant is rarely stated : instead labourer is written . This does not mean most of the criminals were labourers ; it simply means vagrancy was a crime in itself , so the term could not be used in formal legal records . Another problem is the incomplete records . It would be impossible to find all the records from all the courts in all the counties to contemplate the complete relationship between prices and theft prosecution across the whole of . Cockburn continues that fluctuations in grain prices did not produce identical changes in the indictment of theft in adjacent counties of and . In addition , bad harvest might affect proto - industrial areas in Essex more than on upland pastoral farming areas . Similarly , theft levels depended on the effectiveness of early - Stuart social policy : . If these worked effectively the incidence of theft may have been lowered in times of high prices . However , a positive characteristic of these court records is their ' accidental ' nature . Their usefulness lies in the fact nobody wrote them for historians . However , the records should not be relied on as gospel . It would be unwise to assume they include every record of cases that were tried . However , they are useful if all this is taken into account . Hindle argues that ' overall fluctuations in the trend of indictment must bear a close , if complex relationship to actual criminal behaviour . '   < fnote > , Peter ' Property crime and hard times in , p. < /fnote><fnote > Lawson ' Property crime and hard times in , p. , p. < /fnote><fnote > Cockburn ' The Nature and Incidence of Crime in , : A Preliminary Survey ' p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid p. < /fnote><fnote > Hindle The State and in , c.1550 - 1640 p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid p. < /fnote > The relationship between prices and theft prosecutions differed in the and periods , with the relationship being stronger in the Elizabethan period . During the periods there are anomalies between the correlations between the variables . reason for this could be that by the period , population growth was slowing , wages were rising , there were improvements in agriculture , and thus perhaps as progressed short - term crises were less severe because the population were less vulnerable . Therefore , harvest crises and rising food prices would have a less dramatic effect on theft , meaning a weaker relationship between the variables . In addition , and argue that the period was affected by demobilisation bringing a large number of soldiers back to a labour market that failed to re - absorb them . The influx of discharged servicemen resulted in economic hardship and an increase in theft . was involved in foreign wars during the latter part of the Elizabethan period 1585 to 1604 . Lambard argues that when a soldier returns from war he will be ' either an impudent beggar or an errant thief . "" and Cockburn use tables of , , Kent and Sussex to clearly illustrate that the relationship between prices and theft prosecutions were uniformly strengthened when war was added to the crisis of high prices . < fnote , Peter ' Property crime and hard times in , p. < /fnote><fnote > Lambard in , Peter ' Property crime and hard times in , p. < /fnote > Overall , it is questionable whether the short term peak of prosecutions in ' reflects the driving force of hunger ... the fear of the poor encouraged prosecutions cases which were normally ignored or whether loss of goods hurt more when supplies were short ? "" There was definitely some interaction between the variables ; however it is probable that the wave of prosecutions do reflect peaks of theft in times of high prices . In addition , it was not only short - term crisis that effected this relationship , a longer , more deep - seated crisis of deteriorating living standards of the labouring classes lead to an increase in poverty and an increase in theft . The relationship between prices and theft prosecutions in was not direct , because many aspects need to be considered for example , the attitude of the victim and priorities of local charities . However , it is undeniable that a positive relationship exists between high prices and theft prosecutions . < fnote > Hindle   The State and in , c.1550 - 1640 p. < /fnote><fnote , Peter ' Property crime and hard times in , p. < /fnote >","< heading>1 . Introduction</heading > The texts chosen for this comparative analysis have the potential to demonstrate the ways in which different genres present with a similar topic : How should the , notably the and , react to armament processes in so - called ' rogue states ' ? However , the analysis will show that the presentation of information in both examples is not as different as one might expect . It will also demonstrate how discourse analysis becomes more difficult when genres evolve and overlap . < heading>2 . and context of chosen examples</heading > The genres covered in this essay are political speech and academic writing . However , as both these genres contain a variety of subgenres , the following discussion will concentrate on their most central characteristic features and the features specific to the selected subgenres . Text 1 is an extract from Prime Minister 's statement opening the debate in ( HoC ) , a communicative event belonging to the genre of political speech . Other communicative events of the same class , in Swales ' ( : ) terms , are inauguration speeches , election campaign rallies etc . All of these text types share a set of communicative purposes , like persuading the audience to back or oppose a certain policy , attracting votes or establishing a feeling of sympathy and trust between author and audience . The discourse community , in this case , can generally be identified as politically aware members of the public . Some subgenres , like parliamentary debates themselves , may require more expertise from the audience due to prerequisite specialist background knowledge or their highly formalised language containing archaic expressions like "" my right honourable friend "" , which make the discourse slightly less accessible for non - expert members of the discourse community . The speech at the centre of this analysis , however , is different because of its special significance as part of a very public political campaign . The participants of the discourse event are not only the addressor , , and the addressees present at the time and location of the event , the MPs in the , but also the whole country and potentially the whole world , due to modern media like television and internet . This is because the function of the speech is not only to convince MPs of the necessity of military intervention in , but also to gain understanding and support from the public and the international community for a highly divisive policy . Thus , the public is what might be called a secondary addressee . Due to these circumstances , the situation ( : ) of this discoursal event can not be restricted to the locality and time of the opening speech of a scheduled debate in the , of the government , on . A similar complexity is evident in the physical form ( : ) of the text . According to ( and : ) , there are great structural differences between written and spoken genres . In a political speech however , these macro - categories of genre overlap . The large majority of political speeches are carefully written , redrafted and tailored according to purpose and audience . Yet they are delivered as spoken discourse and are therefore subject to spontaneous alterations and the influence of extra - linguistic factors like gestures and intonation . Normally the linguistic style of parliamentary speeches is quite formal . The analysis will show to what extent this applies to the present example . Text 2 is an article by , entitled "" "" and published in the issue of the academic journal ' Survival ' , Quarterly published by . However , it is not a prototypical example for an academic journal article in terms of structure . As commonplace in social sciences like history and politics , the traditional structure of a research article containing an outline of methodology , data presentation , analysis and evaluation etc . can not be readily applied . The data employed in this kind of research is usually comprised of primary sources like documents rather than experimental results . The present article goes still beyond this discipline - specific variation as it does not even include a literature review . It does , however , include a short bibliography containing primary ( statements ) and secondary ( newspaper articles ) sources . The content of text is an overview of the past and current developments in the armament process and the response of the international community , most importantly the , to these developments . The article 's function is to evaluate the effectiveness of the responses and to pass recommendations on further action . The addressor is the author of the article , . Due to content and function of the text , the addressees are likely to be not only academics , but also politicians and national security professionals in different parts of the world . The discourse community of text will therefore be much smaller than the discourse community of text . This is also evident in the medium that transports the text , a costly academic journal rather than television or internet , and in the style of writing . Although the article is less ' dry ' than the traditional academic article , it still contains quite intricate syntax and expert vocabulary , as will be shown in more detail in the analysis . Therefore medium , style and participants tip the balance towards an instance of academic writing , although it verges on journalism with regards to content and structure . This mixture of traditional with untraditional characteristics might be the reason why , within the genre of academic journal articles , articles from the social sciences seem to have been widely ignored . Swales ' table "" of the RA "" ( : - 132 ) does not include any studies on articles from the social sciences . < heading>3 . Approaches chosen for analysis</heading > Both text and are of an argumentative nature , with the goal of persuading the addressees to consider and eventually adopt the point of view of the author on an issue of politics . Thus critical discourse analysis is the obvious choice of approach , because it situates discourse into social context and thereby offers an angle to analyse linguistic choices in terms of their ideological intent , which can be evident in vocabulary , grammar and textual structures carrying experiential , relational or expressive values ( Fairclough : - 111 ) . Given that rhetoric has been aptly defined as "" the art of persuasive discourse "" ( : ) , this analysis must also consider aspects of rhetorical structure . However , the theories that will be applied do not focus on the classical oratory techniques discussed by but around problem - solution - patterns as put forward by ( ) and others . Both and rhetorical structure analysis will occasionally draw on issues of information structure , like the fronting of certain elements and theme - rheme configurations . The addressor 's choice of theme , i.e. the "" point of departure "" of the message ( Halliday , in Brown and Yule : ) represents a "" staging "" ( Grimes , in ) of the sentence 's proposition that will influence the addressee 's interpretation of what is to follow ( : ) , i.e. the rheme . Therefore theme - rheme structure can add a micro - level aspect to the study of ideologically motivated texts . < heading>4 . Analysis of speech</heading > The addressee opens with a ceremonial phrase that functions as an indexical feature ( line 1 - 3 ) ( and : ) in parliamentary discourse . It activates a mental schema , i.e. a stereotypical pattern ( : ) in the addressees ' minds that allows them to identify the discourse as the opening of a parliamentary debate , to be followed by the debate itself . This is a typical example for the ritualised and rule - bond character of this genre pointed out by ( 2004 : ) . As line are demanded by protocol and therefore beyond the addressor 's control , it could be argued they represent a pre - sequence rather than an overt introduction to text . It could also be interpreted as a speech act ( , in : ) as it brings about a change of affairs in the world , namely the official opening of the debate . If accepts this interpretation , then line can be identified as the actual introduction of text . This interpretation is supported by the discourse patterning signal word "" outset "" ( line ) . begins the actual speech with a rhetorical strategy called Antithesis and Concession ( and Thompson ) . Instead of proceeding straight to the nucleus , i.e. the core of his message , chooses to begin with the rhetorical satellite , i.e. the periphery of the argument ( Matthews ) . Instead of saying "" I think we have to go to war "" he refers to the "" views of those in opposition to mine "" ( line ) . He claims to appreciate the controversial nature of the policy he is about to propose as a part of "" democracy "" ( line ) . This concessive strategy has the interpersonal function of advertising mutual understanding between addressor and addressees and also ' pre - empts ' criticism of his position . His affirmation of respect for his opponents is stressed by parallelism at the beginning of the paragraphs in line and line , his personal commitment underlined by the repetitive use of the personal pronoun "" I "" . After this quite evasive introduction one would expect the nucleus to follow , in the form of his judgement about the issue at question . But yet again , starts with a concessive remark on the issue , without actually naming it : "" This is a tough choice "" ( line ) . The choice of a demonstrative pronoun in the absence of any anaphoric reference point shows that he as addressor knows , and all the addressees know , the proposition of his message , due to previous extensive media coverage . This circumstance enables the PM to dwell on the satellite of the argument , and even his next sentence ( line ) is not a clear , neutral statement of the nucleus . The lexical choices he makes to describe the option "" no war "" have a strong connotation of retreat and backwardness : "" stand down "" and "" turn back "" , whereas the "" war "" option contains positively charged terms like "" hold firm "" and the personal pronoun "" we "" . It is not clear whether by "" we "" , or indeed "" our "" ( line ) , he means the government , the or the people . Interestingly , this is the personal pronoun he introduces after "" I "" . He does not directly refer to his potential opponents , instead he mentions "" this "" ( line ) and "" the views of those in opposition to mine "" ( line ) , and does not introduce the personal pronoun "" you "" as a counter position to his own . Instead , he aims to create a collective identity through the ambiguous use of "" we "" ( line ) , in the combination "" the course we have set "" , which creates a feeling of collective ownership of the government 's actions leading up to the debate . In the following sentence ( line ) , the PM finally asserts his view on the issue to be debated , i.e. the nucleus of his argument . The sentence , which can be interpreted as the core of his argument , the central statement of his speech , contains numerous features that contribute to its persuasive , affirmative character : It is short , simple and constative , containing the personal pronouns "" I "" and "" we "" , which gives rise to an impression of shared agency . It also contains verbs expressing modality , epistemic ( "" believe "" ) and deontic ( "" must "" ) , which attribute certainty and urgency to the propositional content . And again , this sentence contains the words "" hold firm "" and thus links 's assertion to the question posed in the preceding paragraph . In line , sets out to answer the question he poses at the beginning of that section , "" Why does is matter so much ? "" , a very effective text structuring device . His rhetorical choice is to elaborate on the importance of the issue before justifying his decision . Again , he avoids to name this issue , which is the question if should invade , instead he uses evasive pronouns like "" it "" ( line , , , ) and "" this "" ( line ) . He includes a lot of emotionally charged terminology like "" fate "" ( line ) , "" brutalised "" ( line ) "" next generation "" ( line ) , "" future "" ( line ) , "" "" ( line ) , "" bitter "" and "" grave "" ( line ) . This section is very much concerned with the future . In the following section , talks about the past . The return back to the present and then the past from an elaboration on the future is clearly signposted through the sentence "" But , and its WMD "" ( line ) . What follows , is a chronicle of the diplomatic lead - up to the current situation . The sentences are kept short and the political detail is kept to a minimum , which is a further indication that is not only addressing fellow politicians , an expert audience , but the whole nation . There are recurrent features in the recount . is the thematisation of adverbial phrases of time at the beginning of paragraphs and sentences ( line , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ) . This choice structures a potentially confusing history in a very overt way and assigns ' relative prominence ' ( Clements in Brown and Yule : ) to the time dimension of the conflict , creating the impression of a long history . The other recurring feature is a claim - counterclaim pattern ( McCarthy : ) made up of the constituents "" declaration "" or "" full and final declaration "" ( lines , , , , , ) and "" false "" ( lines , , , ) . Together with other lexical choices strongly suggesting falsehood , like "" blanket denial "" ( line ) , "" game "" ( line ) , "" undeclared "" ( line ) , "" defected "" ( line ) , "" denied "" ( line , ) , "" revealed "" ( line ) , "" prohibited "" ( line ) and "" lies , deception and obstruction "" ( line ) , the recurring theme of "" declaration "" followed by "" false "" is designed to leave the addressees with a deep mistrust of regime and without any hope for a diplomatic solution . The repetitive structure and vocabulary iconically mirrors the repetitive history , aimed at making the addressees feel the same impatience for a solution to text that the PM and his supporters feel about the armament conflict . The overall structure of text resembles a ' recycled pattern ' as discussed by ( : ) . He describes the basic pattern as : < quote > Situation ( optional ) → Problem → Response → Positive Evaluation and/or Result ( : 127)</quote > In text however , the ( i.e. the diplomatic effort to make disarm ) is not followed by a ( i.e. 's disarmament ) that would bring the pattern to a close . Instead , the is followed by a Negative Evaluation ( i.e. that 's disarmament is disproved ) , which causes the pattern to be ' recycled ' , i.e. resumed from the as the new departure point . Repeated Negative Evaluation then causes the text to become circular . To sum up , text includes various devices designed to make it memorable , like structural and lexical parallelism , short and simple sentences , chronic order , and clear signposting at the beginning of paragraphs through thematisation of time adverbials and direct questions ( line , , ) . Text 1 also includes a number of features with interpersonal function , aimed at making the addressees feel sympathy and trust for the addressor , like collective identity pronouns , concessive rhetorical moves , and modal expressions suggesting certainty . Text 1 is also designed to make addressees aware of the importance of its content , through emotive vocabulary and modal expressions suggesting urgency . All these features , jointly with the propositional content , are supposed to work together in order to persuade the addressees to adopt the addressor 's point of view . < heading>5 . Analysis of journal article</heading > Text 2 is much longer than text , therefore the analysis can only include the most relevant aspects due to the time and space constraints on this paper . The article starts without overt introduction with a paragraph summarising the present and potential future situation regarding armament process . In the next paragraph , the addressor summarises recent developments and judges the ' response so far as ineffective . This is followed by a paragraph briefly outlining further options of action available to the , including brief comments on their prospects of success . Then , the addressor gives a detailed account of the diplomatic history of the conflict since , stretching from page under the headings "" "" ( page ) , "" "" ( page ) and "" Putting on ice "" ( page ) . Under the next heading "" Red lines and pre - emption "" ( page ) , Samore examines and evaluates future military options and scenarios . Then , under the heading "" Isolate or negotiate ? "" ( page ) , he discusses and evaluates future diplomatic options and passes recommendations . Finally , under the last heading "" High stakes "" ( page ) , Samore summarises his analysis of the situation . The general rhetorical pattern evident in the article is involving Recycling , similar to text . The Solutions ( i.e. diplomatic efforts to stop and undo disarmament ) to the ( armament ) are assessed by the addressor to have been ineffective . So the argumentative circle resumes repeatedly at the Problem of continuing armament . The goal - achievement pattern ( Situation → Goal → Method of Achievement → Evaluation and /or Result ) ( : ) , which reflects the traditional structure of academic essays does not apply here , because the addressor has no way of assessing the effectiveness of the methodology proposed by him as he is unable to carry out the experiment . However , the category ' Goal ' would be more helpful in this context than the category ' Solution ' because Hoey defines ' Goal ' as "" an intended change in the Situation "" ( : ) . Although text is generally structured in line with the Problem - Resolution pattern , this is far less obvious to the addressee because the circular content coverage is not emphasised by lexico - grammatical parallelism like in text . The article is clearly structured through headings foregrounded through font size , some suggesting linear development through the ' birth - death ' metaphor . Chronicle progression in the sections covering the history is indicated through adverbial phrases of time and key vocabulary like "" roots "" ( page . But the signposting is not as clear as in 's speech as there are much fewer adjunct themes specifying simple time relations ( only once or twice per page on page 7- , 12,-16 , and ) . However , it does include numerous thematisations of complex time relations describing circumstances rather than abstract dates , like "" During the administration "" ( page ) , "" while the was focusing its intelligence and diplomatic efforts on - ni "" ( page ) , or "" Around the time that cancelled the visit "" ( page ) . Interestingly , the few instances of parallelism evident in text concern the very top end and the very bottom end of the macro to micro level scale . Samore chooses a macro structure that resembles newspaper articles , in so far as he summarises the most important points at the outset , only to return to them in more detail in the main body of the text : < figure/>One of the micro - level parallelisms mentioned above concerns a lexico - grammatical parallelism at the end of the "" or negotiate ? "" section ( page ) , i.e. the final sentence of the section outlining the addressor 's recommendations : < quote>""Only by offering to negotiate is the likely to get such commitments , and only by demonstrating that negotiations have failed is the likely to convince the key states to take strong action . ""</quote > Here , the addressor uses parallelism in syntactical structure and lexis to give his recommendations greater appeal and memorability . There are a few other instances of this kind ( "" rather than "" , page ) , but overall he makes little use of such overt measures to ensure easy access to his text . This becomes apparent in his use of specialist vocabulary as well . Terms like "" clandestine "" ( page ) , "" brinksmanship "" ( page ) , "" non - proliferation "" ( page ) or "" intrusive verification "" ( page ) belong to the register of academic / political discourse and thus restrict access to the text to members of those discourse communities . Text 2 is also characterised by a comparatively high density of nominal groups , which is typical for academic writing ( et . al : ): < was structured to require disarmament in stages , linked to the progress of the nuclear power project . "" ( page 10)</quote > In addition , the above extract exemplifies the tendency towards impersonal instructions commonly found in academic writing ( . : ) , in the form of a passive construction and an inanimate subject . Text 2 also contains numerous instances of hedging through ' weak ' epistemic modals like "" would "" , "" could "" , "" might "" , and other words suggesting uncertainty like "" potentially "" and "" in theory "" ( page ) . Nonetheless , it also contains lexical items emphasising certainty , like "" will "" ( page ) and "" certainly "" ( page ) . Both tendencies are traditionally found in academic writing ( . : ) . There are , however , instances of word play , which is not typically associated with the genre : "" radioactive "" ( page ) and "" genie "" ( page ) . Samore also uses a few idiomatic and informal expressions like "" Putting on ice "" ( page ) . Thus his style is formal overall , but more relaxed than the styles traditionally found in academic journals . In terms of ideological intent , text is certainly not neutral as the recommendations it passes are tailored towards the perspective . This is to be expected from an author whose background is not only academic but to a large extent political as he held senior positions within 's government and from 1996 to 2000 ( footnote page ) . But text contains little emotionally charged terminology ( "" killed "" , line ) and takes more actors into account than text , mostly impersonalised through geopolitical terms like "" "" , "" "" , "" "" and "" "" ( page ) . All of these are referred to in the person , so there is also no direct interpersonal engagement between addressor and addressees . The style is formal , with fairly long , intricate sentences and specialist vocabulary , but a lot more accessible than other instances of academic writing . Still , it is not quite accessible enough to appeal to a wider audience outside the discourse community . The same applies to its rhetoric . As academic texts should , text contains patterns like elaboration on points summarised before , thesis and antithesis ( page , ) , and patterns , but no obvious blunt , manipulative strategies . The text is persuasive , but not through interpersonal means . < heading>6 . Comparative evaluation of findings</heading > As previously discussed , both texts are concerned with a similar topic . Given that text and belong to different genres , one would expect them to handle the same topic in quite different ways . For the most part , this is the case . But both texts also show some surprising similarities . The rhetorical strategies of persuasion in 's speech are more obvious than those in Samore 's article . The speech also contains interpersonal devices , of which the article is completely devoid , as well as more emotionally charged vocabulary and structural parallelisms . Its syntax and lexis are much easier to understand than those of the article , which contains more detailed information on the subject itself , including specialist terminology . All these factors work together to the effect that 's speech appeals to a wider audience . However , both texts are examples of genres moving from a closed , limited register ( and : ) towards a more open register . This is a sign of a ' democratisation ' of discourse genres , linked to the phenomenon of ' conversationalisation ' discussed by and ( in Cameron : - 131 ) , an instance of social change being mirrored and at the same time facilitated through language . Discourse communities that were formerly restricted to an elite membership , like academia and politics , are increasingly open to the wider public . These discourse communities increasingly seek wider support , in terms of votes and funding for example . In both genres , texts are becoming more ' promotional ' ( Fairclough in Cameron : ) . Whilst this function is completely accepted in the field of politics , academic writing is generally still associated with objectiveness and neutrality , although it "" is not about performance , it is about persuasion "" ( Murray 2005 : ) . Text 1 and text both ' sell ' a political agenda , but their ' sales tactics ' vary depending on audience and situation . Both texts are less formal than other members of their class of communicative events , but they retain a substantial amount of traditional features in order to enable their addressees to categorise them . As genres are evolving with social and cultural change , discourse analysis will increasingly have to deal with texts that borrow many features from other genres . However , it is likely that most texts will still aim to be recognisable in terms of genre , because ' categorisability ' will remain an important factor in the addressee 's identification with the text .",0
"This report examines Merseytravel in terms of its potential contribution to tourism in , its role in urban regeneration , interaction with other stakeholders , and opportunities and threats which must be taken into account in strategic planning . Of specific interest are those opportunities related to 's status in and the strategies required to ensure that the benefits are seen well into the future . < heading > The role of . < /heading > Merseytravel 's primary role is as a service provider to the local community , owning and operating and , working in partnership with on the network , maintaining bus network infrastructure ( stops , shelters , stations ) , subsidising unprofitable but essential routes , providing free travel for the elderly / disabled , and the strategic planning of public transport in , as well as having some responsibility for ticketing ( , ) . It is responsible for liaising with and coordinating the numerous operators and providing frameworks for medium and long - term development . Stated aims in ( 2000 ) , put together by and local authorities , are : < quote>""To ensure that transport supports sustainable economic development and regeneration ; To moderate the upward trend in car use and secure a shift to more sustainable forms of transport such as walking , cycling and public transport ; To secure the most efficient and effective use of the existing transport network ; To enhance the quality of life of those who live , work in and visit . "" ( , 2004c)</quote > For Capital of Culture 2008 Merseytravel 's fundamental role does not change , but it has a potentially enormous influence over the success of since its project is central to the urban redevelopment programme centred on which is dominating ' preparations . The tram network is designed to serve local needs , through linking the city centre to outer suburbs , connecting areas of relative prosperity with less developed neighbourhoods , providing access to employment and leisure opportunities and - eventually - a link to , but it must also serve the needs of visitors and businesses during , hence "" [ enhancing ] the quality of life of those who live , work in and visit "" ( ibid . ) . Furthermore , any problems with public transport systems during would be damaging not only in terms of immediate visitor satisfaction but also for 's image around the since it would undoubtedly attract negative publicity . < heading > Taking advantage of 2008 Capital of Culture status . < /heading > As shown in i , a SWOT analysis of highlights a number of strengths and various opportunities , but there are also a significant number of serious issues to be confronted if both and are to benefit from status in , and further , if the tram scheme and redevelopment of existing infrastructure are to be wholly successful . There are several ways can benefit from 's designation . Building upon already high levels of power and interest ( as identified by Double , and , , where only visitor attractions , local government and were deemed more significant stakeholders in tourism development for ) , is in a position to play a greater role in the development of as an attractive tourism destination . Not only does have a significant influence over the arrival and departure of visitors to ( whether through in private vehicle , or on public transport by bus , ferry or train ) and the impression generated ( service quality , appearance of termini ) , it also facilitates their movement around the city during their visit . As such , visitor interaction with elements of could prove a make - or - break factor in their overall visitor experience and their perception of the city . With such a high - profile event as 08 , there is a great opportunity for to consolidate then improve its position as a key player in tourism and acquire a greater influence over the future development of ( for its own benefit and that of the local community it serves ) . , has already developed a more proactive role in projects and in some ways taken advantage of status . Given the scale of the developments and the inflexible deadline , there is a great sense of urgency surrounding all 2008 related projects . Merseytravel and in particular the new scheme is recognised as a fundamental cog in the larger regeneration ' machine ' , and it seems as though has been used to justify much of the considerable effort that has already been invested in accommodating all parties concerned when discussions may , in other circumstances , have dragged on for much longer . In this way , has been able to push forward some of its own projects , albeit as part of a much larger scheme and not without conflict , when it may otherwise have had to wait longer , conduct more consultation or further adapt plans . The buzz surrounding gives extra impetus to 's short - term future development and such high - level involvement in 's city centre redevelopment project only serves to increase its influence with local government and project a positive image of the organisation to local people , who will - if everything goes as planned - associate with progress and environmental improvements . At a purely business level , visitor numbers are expected to rise in meaning an increased number of people using services to arrive at and subsequently travel around . More passengers will increase income for partners and the expected partial introduction of the tram service will also provide a new source of revenue . Although the increase in passenger numbers may well give rise to new operational issues ( a possible need for greater frequency or capacity on certain services ) , this should have been foreseen and appropriate preparations should have been made . The Local Transport Plan due to be published in should include details of how the transport system will cope with the extra demand and how the anticipated infrastructure enhancements will fit in to schedule without causing disruption . A successful would further raise the positive profile of . All the developments have also created a platform for discussion and the potential for cooperation between stakeholders . Merseytravel is building solid relationships with key stakeholders involved in the regeneration of ) while consolidating existing relationships with the likes of , , , and ( Liverpool Vision , ) to bring about rapid , positive change in the provision of public transport in . Rogers and ( : - 40 ) explain , "" organizations [ ... ] have to choose the strategic direction in which they wish to go "" and of the options proposed , is consolidating its existing position , developing services ( improving the current offering ) and diversifying into related products ( the forthcoming tram network ) . There is also the potential for developing the market ( growing passenger numbers ) as capacity expands on the public transport network and visitor numbers increase leading up to and during . From this point of view it seems that has identified a clear strategic approach it wishes to pursue and is well set to benefit from status in . Many of the projects which benefit also represent large scale and permanent infrastructure and environmental improvements for the local community meaning that the effects of ' developments will continue to be felt long after itself has passed . < heading management . < /heading > Clearly there are several areas where can gain long - term benefits from status . have reported benefits over ( , ) , so it is important for all stakeholders to look at as a springboard for the future rather than just an end in itself . , the necessary involvement with other key stakeholders in projects in the run - up to 2008 should lead to the development of stronger relationships , facilitating any future interaction . Initiatives such as the / Local Transport Plan , , and the renovation of are all good examples of 's role , often in a coordinating capacity , and demonstrate how it operates as a hub for interaction between transport operators , developers and local Government planners , thus linking the tourism operating environment and the macro environment as identified by ( in , : ) . If this collaborative role within a strong regional framework can be continued and proves to be successful in delivering projects as anticipated , that can only be good in terms of sustainable management . < fnote > LIU , Z.-H. , ' Tourism development - a systems analysis ' , in ( ): . < /fnote > , a well organised and fluid transport network in would further improve the reputation of and would most likely increase the chances of obtaining backing ( political and financial ) for new schemes as may be outlined in future Local Transport Plans . Current and near - future successes can set Merseytravel and apart as examples of best practice . It is important to recognise that has to serve the immediate needs of , but also retain flexibility to adapt to the reality ; Merseytravel must perform in very different circumstances . Any steps taken to get full advantage from 2008 must not compromise the longer - term functioning of the transport network . i.e. projects such as the tram network should maintain usefulness for the local community at their core rather than be driven solely by a need to present a particular image in ; changes for should probably be primarily in terms of temporary increased capacity on the network rather than permanent infrastructure , unless of course those permanent works can be shown to be appropriate , desirable and viable in the long - term ( , ) . < heading > Minimising negative effects . < /heading > As shown by the analysis ( Appendix i ) , there are few threats to posed directly by . However , there are several related areas which need to be considered . The strict deadlines and enormous responsibility which designation has brought have inevitably lead to stress and there have been persistent rumours of the strain beginning to show as relations deteriorated over ( , ; ) . This is something that must be dealt with as soon as possible through regular meetings , extensive dialogue and a willingness to recognise the various needs of each stakeholder . The strategic plans of and may not always be completely synchronous , but it is vitally important that each includes enough flexibility so as to be able to accommodate the other ; they will always have to work together closely . 's plans include large scale construction across the city centre , so perhaps the greatest threat is posed by building works and , both with first stages due for completion in ( , ;   URL , 2004 ) . In addition to disruption caused to local people ( which must be sensitively managed ) , non - completion of the works before 2008 could be disastrous , potentially "" leaving looking like a large building site [ ... ] at the very time when it should be looking its best "" ( , 2004a ) . The direct effect on Merseytravel of such a scenario would be a failure to capitalise on the extra visitors to and increased costs while city centre works are halted during . There would also be a set of problems arising from the extremely negative publicity that would follow and severely damaged relations with the local community and other stakeholders . At the heart of 's development over , the tram scheme is particularly important . is an integral part of the wider regeneration of the city , key to the success of in and beyond and , if managed well , has the potential to add great value to the visitor experience as well as serve local people . However , given the high costs and publicity surrounding the plan , if managed badly it could be present serious problems for year and further damage the reputation of a city already set back by the failure of several large - scale development projects ( ) ( Hernon , ) . Finally , is expanding the public transport network rapidly over . Given that infrastructure "" is normally shared by residents and visitors alike "" and "" does not normally generate income and is treated as a public investment in most tourism developments "" : ) Merseytravel needs to keep in sight long - term goals and not become blinkered by the urgency and magnitude of . Although the network might be busy in with the additional visitors , beyond then numbers may well fall and will have to justify all the investment and disruption . < heading > Conclusion . < /heading > Merseytravel has a clear vision for the future , spearheaded by several key development projects and supported by a network of partners . There are areas where can make real progress on the back of 08 , but the stakes are high and as with any great risk , the potential benefits are huge , but the cost of failure would be vast and the effects far - reaching . It is in everyone 's interest for to continue the good work it has done in the city up to now and I am convinced that , through cooperation with other stakeholders , it will be able to do so .","< heading > Introduction</heading > Virgin Blue is a unique low - cost carrier . It appeared in the aviation market in , its early performance was spectacular and its strategy intriguing . It makes an interesting case study , differing in many ways from low - cost airlines . It is worth noting that since there are national low - cost carriers in - Virgin Blue and , a venture - but due to the newness of there is very little operations information or statistics available , making a comparison between the carriers extremely difficult . In this review is therefore considered in terms of its effect on and its relationship with . For the airline industry was dominated by just carriers : and . At various times there have been attempts to set up low - cost alternatives to challenge the ' comfy duopoly ' ( Four Corners , ) , but up until all such attempts ended in failure , partially as a result of a lack of protection in law against ' anti - competitive ' predatory behaviour ' ( ibid . ) . , launched by Sir and CEO shortly after low - cost rival , set out to revolutionise aviation in through a unique differentiation strategy . < fnote include cutting fares beyond the break - even point , hence operating at a loss in an attempt to run smaller competing carriers into the ground and capacity ' dumping ' on selected routes . < /fnote > The collapse of in provided with a perfect opportunity for expansion , picking up new routes , slots and increasing its share on key routes as well as later moving into and 's previously terminal buildings . In purchased and began operating its routes under the brand as a wholly - owned subsidiary ( , ) , reducing the number of national domestic carriers once again to , but for the time was a large full - service flag - carrier and the other a relatively small , low - cost alternative . As of , fleet consisted of 737 - 700/800 flying routes ( , ) . Passenger numbers , revenue and profits have all consistently increased year - on - year , the company was successfully floated on in and has extensive expansion plans . To date , the launch in of ' low - cost venture does not seem to have reduced Virgin 's market share which has grown to ( Knibb , ) and preliminary results show continued strong performance ( , ; c ; d ; e ; f ) . < heading > Location and nature of the business</heading > While principally operating in , in Virgin Blue expanded to flights under the name and has future plans for expansion throughout the region ( , ) . Despite the low - cost tag , has always focussed on high - levels of customer service and as such has introduced some elements more typical of full - service carriers ( and operations , paragraph ) . Another example of how Virgin Blue does not follow exactly the model of the most successful low - cost carriers is that it has a small freight operation , although it is remains primarily concerned with passenger traffic ; leisure travel and capturing a share of the lucrative business market , especially in the so - called ' Golden Triangle ' ( ) , which includes the busiest air route in the world - Melbourne ( , ) . In short lifetime , other airlines have failed to survive ( , acquired by ; , in administration ) leaving just and competitors . < fnote > The Virgin brand is licensed for use exclusively within , hence the name was chosen for the - flights . < /fnote><heading > Selected operating statistics and analysis</heading > In the financial year 2003/04 showed continued strong growth carrying over 10million passengers , raised revenue of and flew RPKs , all for the time , but these figures all fell marginally below estimates . Despite this , the company still recorded after - tax profits of AUD$158,519,000 , above forecasts ( , ; ): < figure/>Such impressive year - on - year profit growth has been matched by increases in passenger numbers and route expansion resulting in fast growing RPKs ( See appendix i ) . Rapid passenger number growth and demand for new routes demonstrates that there was a large , untapped market who could be tempted into the air if the price was right . Even before ceased all flights in , was growing in size and value almost as rapidly as it did , though it is fair to say that benefited from the disappearance of major competitor in terms of ' picking up ' better slots , greater market share and some passengers . Even so , a market share of in is still impressive , but has n't ' stolen ' over 10million passengers from - It established a new market and only recently began targeting ' business travellers . The establishment of can therefore be seen as both a protectionist move to prevent getting too - strong - a - foothold in the leisure travel market , to offset any loss should make progress in gaining a sizeable share of the business market , and a recognition on ' part of success and a desire to ' get a piece of the action ' for themselves . Some analysts suggest a share within should be 's target ( , ) , but even CEO acknowledges that such growth will come from ' luring non - flyers on to planes with low prices ' on key holiday routes ( ibid . ) rather than winning customers from . With such strong results year after year and in recognition of the focus on high - quality customer service has won several awards for various aspects of their business : < table/>Such awards are clearly not just the result of growth and profitability . They also indicate the success of unique [ corporate ] culture ' ( emphasised strongly in all company documentation ; see for example , : , , , , , , ) and management strategy in all company operations , details of which are given below : < heading > Routes</heading > As of March 2004 Virgin Blue operated routes ( , ) serving all major cities , and and in ( See appendix ii ) . It works primarily on a point - to - point system to speed turnarounds , reduce costs and limit the need for passenger transfers : < quote > CEO : "" ... we have consistently focused on ' hub - busting ' to ensure that people do n't have to change planes somewhere else just to get where they want to go . "" ( , 2003a)</quote > However , the fact that the airline has its base in and the high demand for point - to - point services from and means that these airports have become somewhat hub - like in their functions , though this is a natural evolution of any point - to - point network and not a strategy . Unlike , does not have the volume of air - traffic to necessitate use of secondary airports and the ever expanding network diminishes the role of these hub - like centres . Both factors are attractive for potential passengers . < heading > Ticketing / Pricing</heading > Virgin Blue 's ticketing differs from many low - cost carriers in that as well as via internet and telephone , customers can book through travel agents and while of bookings are made via internet ( , ) , travel agent bookings ' represents a significant proportion of revenue ' ( , ) . This flexible approach gives consumers more choice and facilitates bookings from people unfamiliar or uncomfortable with internet . Agents also have choice , using either the ' Travel Agent ' link on   URL   or phoning . Commission depends on the method used ( internet is cheaper for , so higher agent commission ) and the revenue they raise . The ' user - pays ' concept ( and operations , paragraph ) extends so that fares vary for each method in order to cover the additional incurred costs , higher fares reflecting the cost of using agents or selling through ( ibid . ) . Offering greater choice is also the reason behind offering ticket types ( , Fair Fare , , Fully - Flexible ) with fewer restrictions the higher the price ( , g ) , generating a broader customer base . Internet distribution and not printing tickets helps to keep costs down , therefore maintains fares low , but having compared the cheapest available , and fares on the key - Melbourne route , there is clearly work to be done if is to retain its reputation as 's premier low - cost airline : < fnote > Sample fares based on - Melbourne RTN . All flights ' booked ' 13 th Oct on the companies ' domestic websites   URL ,   URL ,   URL   and based on stay in . All fares were the cheapest available and include ( General Sales Tax ) , and all charges , taxes and levies . Exchange rate of AUD$1 : ( URL , 13 th Oct ) < /fnote><table/><table/><table/><heading > Management and operations</heading > When thinking of any company operating under the Virgin brand the obvious name is Sir and in the setting up of he had a significant part to play in marketing the new venture . However , apart from the initial investment and public appearances to raise the company 's profile , his role has been relatively small . In fact , th he resigned as Director from board ( , ) . On an operating level the personality driving is , Managing Director and CEO since the company 's foundation . He takes a prominent position at the head of the company making the kind of public appearances and bold statements that we might more associate with . Certainly he seems confident and energetic both in his running of the company and in rebuffing the / Jetstar threat , often taking time to speak to the press personally ; Of all documents read , feature his Head of Communication or other spokesperson ( See Thomas , ; Anon . , ) . 's vigorous cost - cutting strategy follows the lead of previous low - cost carriers : fewer staff on lower wages , fast turn - arounds , no ' free ' in - flight food , point - to - point network , no designated seating , favourable contracts with ground services and negotiating aircraft purchases at times when it is a ' buyers market ' . Less common cost - cutting measures include flight attendants cleaning the cabin and restocking snacks between flights rather than contracting out cleaning or catering ( limited though it is ) to a party , the establishment of a training facility in ( saving the cost of sending crew abroad and providing a source of revenue if used by other airlines ) ( , ) , and cross - training groundstaff to perform a various tasks , including even acting as replacement cabin crew ( , ) , giving greater flexibility to the whole operation . This should help to deliver low prices , but the fare comparison shows this is not always the case . It may be innovative , but the customer is not seeing any real benefit . While sticking to the basic principal , differentiates itself from competitors and innovates in both cost - cutting measures and service enhancements , pushing the boundaries of the low - cost model . As mentioned earlier , has introduced a variety of self - financing initiatives on a ' user - pays ' basis : < quote>""All our services are structured to be self - financing and ultimately profit centers in their own right . If they are n't then we simply wo n't do them . "" ( , , quoted in , ) . < /quote > Initiatives such as ' Blue Zones ' ( extra leg room in front- or emergency exit rows ) and ' Blue Rooms ' ( airport lounges at and with an entrance charge and paid - for services inside ) are clear examples of intention to appeal to a broader customer base , including corporate travellers who do not mind a little extra cost for significantly more comfort . proves that ' low - cost ' and ' no - frills ' are not entirely synonymous . Rather than categorizing as a low - cost airline , it may be more accurate to describe it as a high - value carrier : Passengers have the option to add services if they deem them to be offered at a good price , but the true low - cost option is always available . It is however a dangerous tactic ; failed precisely because it tried to be low - cost - with - frills . Marketing Virgin Blue originally depended heavily upon the Virgin brand , but now the company is established in its own right and has built the ' Blue ' brand . Press campaigns using the slogan ' Keeping the Air Fair ' focus on the low - cost image , while emphasising high - quality service , thus differentiating from with its total no - frills approach . < heading issues</heading > Given the size of there will always be a demand for inter - city air services , as well as cheap flights , for leisure and business tourism . The low - cost market in still has great potential for growth and while there are low - cost operators it might be argued that there is little to be worried about since there is clearly room for domestic operators . However , a lack of protection against anti - competitive behaviour does present a real danger for as expands . There are certainly some issues which threaten to damage its low - fare reputation and urgently need addressing . , although there is no all - out fare war , undercuts on numerous highly competitive routes . , rising fuel costs forced to add a fuel surcharge to ticket prices but on th management decided not to increase the surcharge but to review pricing on a route - by - route basis , minimising impact on key routes and identifying routes more able to absorb higher prices ( Anon . , ) . However , some analysts have commented ' there is a real risk that the average consumer may take the price hike as being opportunistic and permanent in nature , rather than a clearly defined surcharge like the ones and have implemented ' ( Anon . , ) , which would challenge status as top low - fare airline . < fnote > Original surcharge : Virgin Blue AUD$6 , AUD$10 per sector ( , ) . From th : $ , $ ( , ) . < /fnote > Virgin Blue 's service enhancements , although a great marketing tool , could become an issue . Despite reassurances that all initiatives are self - funding , if for whatever reason the cost of providing those services rose , would raise their cost ( potentially lowering guest usage of such facilities and making the projects unprofitable ) or simply withdraw them ( potentially losing lucrative business passengers ) ? As CEO said , "" I do n't believe you can be in the middle . You can either be or the other in this market "" ( Knibb , ) . It remains unclear if approach would be flexible enough to cope with the loss of this differentiating factor , given that the low - fares marketing angle is already being eroded . Qantas aggression , either direct or through , poses problems . Were to lower prices further , Virgin would surely have to follow suit but while , subsidised by , could survive only delivering tiny margins , could not and may find itself squeezed out of the market , or facing the decision to convert to a full - service carrier and take on the monopoly ( not viable , I would argue ) or sell out and integrate into the group . In conclusion , has made excellent progress in , but whether that is sustainable given competition from , with its history of beating smaller operators out of the market , remains to be seen . approach to low - cost is certainly unique , but there is a real danger it might find itself caught in - between full - service and no - frills just as CEO warned against .",1
"< heading > Introduction</heading > Information strategy is generally accepted to be of considerable benefit and increasingly recognised as critical to organizational success . However , most of the academic researches are focusing on reaping the advantages from large company prospects . The developed frameworks in small and medium enterprises ( SMEs ) are sparse . This paper aims to provide a discussion on how to develop a sustainable management information strategy ( ) / information system strategy ( ISS ) . By analysing the specificity of a SME , in our case , the strategic importance of systems integration ( SI ) in the formulation of is highlighted , attaining an extension of for achieving competitive advantage . < heading > Information strategy / information system strategy</heading > Information strategy becomes popular in many industries . However , the definition is ambiguous . ( JISC , ) describes it as a set of attitudes and values that lead to a shared vision of the future of the organization . Rather a nebulous concept , ( 2004 p.8 - 9 ) stated information strategy as the "" detailed expression of information policy in terms of objectives , targets and actions to achieve them for a defined period ahead . Information strategy provides the framework for the management of information "" . Some authors ( Galliers et al , ; and , ; , ) tend to use the concept of ISS to explain the issue . Indeed , the majority of this paper is devoted to discussing the ISS rather than the , and there are reasons for this . , information systems play a central issue in in most of the organizations , including the SMEs in the case . Information systems give us the means to collect , sort , analyse and query data to support the strategic information process ( and , ) . Thus , ISS is an important subset of for the organizations . , there are more academic literatures or reported works on ISS than there are solely on that are of relevance to the interpretive approach in SMEs . In teams of the nature of ISS , ( ) provides a useful framework to distinguish between the formulation or development of , and management perspectives to its implementation which he describes as information management ( ) strategy . All of these aspects are closely - related , demonstrated in figure . < provides a wide range of description of different approaches in each of these areas . Essentially , these levels of strategy recognise the different prescriptive views of academic literature on ISS . However , as most SMEs do not have an IS department ( and , ) or plan their IS ( Hagmann and , ) . The inter - relationship of strategy is not well - defined . In this paper , instead , and 's ISS model ( and , ) for ISS is introduced which could broadly be considered to be in the spirit of SMEs specificity . < heading > ISS for SMEs - Rembitt case</heading > Levy and 's ISS framework ( and , ) , adapting from 's themes ( ) for IS strategy , defines the key issues that should be addressed in developing a sustainable ( figure ) . It focuses on the role of information and information systems in supporting strategic objectives of the company . There are main areas to be discussed , namely business context , business process and strategic content . They provide the insights on the analytical approach towards the issues in SMEs perspective . < figure/><heading > Business context</heading > The business context refers to the understanding of environment SMEs operated . This encompasses the various relationships with suppliers and customers , the market awareness and the understanding of the firm 's competitive position . The owner 's knowledge and vision is crucial as the business strategy in SMEs is likely to be implicit . < heading > Business Process</heading > The business process stage ( and , ) addresses the understanding of value - adding work flows that contribute to the business and identifies the sustainability of the relevant information systems that supporting the business strategy and those value - adding activities . In particular , information that is available in the process to the SMEs is identified . Also , as current information systems are being reviewed and assessed , it constructs the platform for existing information requirement . < heading > Strategic Content</heading > The strategic content focuses on the comparison of business strategy requirements with organizational analysis in order to eliminate the capabilities of the development of the company by the use of information systems . The scope of the strategic goals on the systems should match the ability of the organization constraints by limited resources in SMEs . The choice is made to addressing the real needs and the priority of the company . However , in most cases , the means of changing are determined by the vision from the owner , and therefore reduction of fulfilment in information systems might result . < heading>'Application of ISS approach to Rembitt</heading > So , how does a company renew its ISS in such a way as to enable it to be the kind of organization it would like to be ? , a SME specialised in timber packaging and component manufacturing , was introduced as an example of how the ISS approach can be managed . Rembitt has traditionally operated as a solution provider for timber packaging . The original owners did not see the value coming from information systems investment and consider it as an expense rather than a strategic tool . Also , they only had the stand alone personal computer in the accounting department and manufacturing division . The systems were not integrated and designed to serve individual department needs . In the front office , they did not really understand what actually customers want and the demand was fluctuated rapidly because of the new supplies from other parts of the world and the fierce competition . This results as the delay of orders and thus customer satisfaction was low ( Figure ) . < figure/><heading > Critique</heading > Although this - stage framework provides a thorough analysis of ISS requirements for SMEs , it is hard to distinguish the strategic content from business issues , in particularly when owners are involved in all the business areas and processes ( and , ) . This is not clear cut from the stages , and therefore resulted in some overlapped areas . Also , different sets of tools are needed in order to address the understanding of the information systems requirements ( ) , in particular the knowledge - based SMEs . Through the understanding of business context , business process and strategic content , the key issues in developing a sustainable are highlighted . This also raises some interesting points on the specificity of SMEs and ISS . < heading > Specificity of SMEs and ISS</heading > Most of the frameworks and models are developed on the basis of large company . However , the problems encountered by SMEs are different , requiring different approaches . The aspects of specificity in SMEs might have effects on the development and implementation in ISS and therefore should be considered . Blili and ( ) state characteristics of the specificity of SMEs with respect to strategic ISS : environment specificity , organizational specificity , decisional specificity , psycho - sociological specificity and information systems specificity ( ) . In the case , the challenges in figure encourage a radical transformation of its information systems . A system integration approach is introduced as a solution by the new Managing Director ( ) , . < heading > Systems Integration</heading > Systems integration ( SI ) is becoming more and more popular to be one of the major drivers for , and it is demonstrated by the massive investments in and later Enterprise Resource Planning Systems , and extend it forward to the integrated and with the channels ( Finnegan , ) . However , the complex nature and functions of have made it difficult to define and bound ( Wainwright and Waring , 2004 ) . , Corbitt and Sandoe ( , p.7 ) define as "" ( bringing ) isolated information systems together with the goal of providing a whole or complete information resource for organizations "" consist of the external integrations with supplier and customers and internal integrations within the organization . < heading > Systems Integration of SMEs in developing ISS</heading > Most of the theories and literatures are developed on the basis of researches in large corporations ( Platts , ) . As for SMEs , the main goal is to survive in the market and seek for growth ( and , ) , it is arguable that the SMEs are equally well served by allocating scarce resources in . Finnegan ( ) provides a usable framework for a setting ( Figure ) . < figure/>This model provides a means for SME to achieve , which is essential to develop an ISS ( Figure ) . Discussions are given in case as follow . < heading > Top and Bottom Sponsorship</heading > Top sponsorship is particularly important in SMEs because of its highly centralized structure and rigid controlled funding ( Blili and , ) . Due to limited resource and investment , the support gaining from top management is crucial in implementation of projects . Bottom sponsorship gives the feedbacks and wins the supports from the users down the hierocracy . This provides a channel to address the need of understanding and evaluating the current information systems investment . Both the top and bottom sponsorship create the pathway for the communication of existing information ( Figure ) in order to achieve a better understanding of current information systems ( Business Process ) in formulating the strategic opportunities from information systems investment ( Strategic Content ) . The new , has in - depth knowledge and experience towards and strongly supports the development of a new unified information system - Fourth Shift . However , his enthusiasm can not be passed . Bottom sponsorship is weak , demonstrating by the hesitation and reluctance to change amongst staff . < heading > Match needs with channels</heading > One of the major parts of is the matching with the needs from the suppliers and customers . An integrating systems approach is critical for companies competing worldwide . Success integration is determined on the basis of an in - depth understanding of competitive environments ( ) and how you adopt it in your information systems planning ( Strategic Content ) . In , customer behaviour is collected and analysed to trace for the buying behaviour and habit . Online ordering is initialized to match the needs for faster response and shorter life cycle of customers . In the future , the feasibility of SI with major suppliers is being studied to achieve shorter lead time and flexible delivery . < heading > Business Process Reengineering ( BPR)</heading > As Wainwright and Waring ( 2004 ) state , successful system integration involves a rethink and changing of business structure and process in coping with the business strategy and information systems requirements . It is an on - going process with continuous reviews and improvements . is an important building block of ISS and the outcome of analysis of business activities and their support systems ( Business Process ) . It helps to streamline the work flows and at the same time cope with information systems requirements . has some on - going business process changes , for example , by using software , are now able to create "" helping customer to improve their packaging . < heading > Data Migration</heading > forms the backbone of IS . Operations involved include the selection , validation , transfer , creation and transformation of information from the legacy systems and data sheets , to the new system . Migrating data takes part in all core tasks of ISS development . The integration of information from separated systems creates the major challenges of what Wainwright and Waring ( 2004 ) called technical domains of ISS . Rembitt transfer the data to the new systems in . Also , production scheduling and technical information are now available and up - to - dated in a centralized system which is easier to manage and analyse . < heading > Change Champions</heading > Change champion is defined as the people who initiate the change . In SMEs , the precursor is likely to be the owner or the party systems providers . Change champion plays a significant role of strategic planning of ) due to the lack of system integration experience . This might lead to a great risk and decision might strongly bias to the operational efficiency and multi - purposed design inhabiting the strategic implications . In , is the change champion . He had the experience of developing Shift and recognized the strategic benefits from a centralized system . He also introduces Pre - actor to aid in stock control and systems to add value in his timber packaging business . < heading > End User Training</heading > End user training is essential for acquiring the user acceptance towards SI . The feedback from users provides a source to make further adjustment . The user training is the crucial to the implementation of ISS . It forms the major part of ISS and provides assessment of the acceptance of information systems . In - house training is conducted by on the application of Fourth Shift in Rembitt . < heading > Sub Cultural Integration</heading > ' Sub culture can reduce the effort of system integration as it might inhabit the knowledge sharing across divisions and along the hierocracy . Sub - cultural silos of knowledge and culture gap between business and IT professionals involve the influences of psychological contacts and power - based relationships in the adoption of the new systems ( and , ) . The challenge in ISS is the knowledge sharing across employees who have different sets of beliefs . As the owner tends not to transmit information to their subordinates ( , ) , it is clear that involves overcoming the structural barrier and subculture barrier of knowledge integration as well . In Rembitt , knowledge sharing happens amongst the senior managers only . Subculture is developed along the hierocracy and across the departments . For example , in an interview with 's directors , the Director expressed his concern on the various standards from people in inputting information . < heading > Neutral Meeting Places / Shared Benefits and Rewards</heading > A neutral and informal meeting place can provide a pressure - free environment for mutual communication and knowledge sharing . An adapted rewarding scheme will further motivate people to actively share what they have known . These issues further facilitate the knowledge integration and thus create incentives for effective information communication . In , however , there is no clear establishment of such places or scheme . < figure/><heading > Critique</heading > Finnegan 's ( ) SI framework provides a useful guidance on how to achieve in SMEs . However , it is doubtful that some aspects are more difficult to achieve than the others . For example , is easier to perform because of the clear understanding of core capabilities and simplicity of structure , however , matching the needs with supplier and customer channels are more difficult , due to the fact that SMEs do not have much bargaining power . It is more significant when customer dominant is high in the market ( and , ) . In particular , in some cases , SMEs do not have the choice to choose their systems ; rather the usage is imposed by major customers or suppliers , in turn increasing the dependence on those customers or suppliers ( and , ) . < heading > Conclusion</heading > In summary this paper discusses the key issues in developing a . From case , the extent to which can play a critical part of developing an information strategy is illustrated . frameworks are also discussed with reference to the specificity of SMEs in adopting ISS and . Further research is needed to examine the extent to which power issues influence the adoption of particular practices in developing ISS .","< heading > Referral information Source of referral and a summary of key information</heading > Ms   was referred to   Hospital Medical Admissions Unit ( ) by her General ( GP ) on . The referral was made on the basis of obvious jaundice in the sclera and skin and a history of hallucinations for . < heading > History All relevant information gathered from the patient about the presenting illness , co - existing problems , current treatment , significant past medical history and the social and family background . The patient 's view of the nature of the problem and their expectations for treatment . < /heading><heading > Presenting Complaint</heading > Ms   had an acute presentation of jaundice and a history or hallucinations for prior to admission . Ms   had also been experiencing "" body aches "" over . Ms   had a history of vomiting . < heading > History of Presenting Complaint < /heading > Ms   had a history of chronic alcohol drinking and she had stopped drinking prior to admission to . Ms   had a history of nausea , hallucinations and obvious jaundice . The hallucinations occurred at night , where she was found to be walking the streets in . Ms   had been vomiting ; there was no blood present . Ms   had associated aching limbs and no associated abdominal pain . Her bowels were regular and the stools were formed . The stools were not pale and had no blood in them . Ms   had normal coloured urine . Ms   had no chest pain , no shortness of breath and no cough . Ms   had no history of fits , no history of recreational drug use , no intravenous drug abuse and no history of blood transfusions . In , Ms   took an overdose and has a long - standing history of depression . < heading > Past Medical History</heading><list > History of depression . history of diabetes , thyroid problems , rheumatoid arthritis , epilepsy , asthma , myocardial infarction , stroke or . < /list><heading > Current Medication</heading><list > Escitalopram - 10 mg odParacetamol - 1 g bd</list > Allergic to silver . < heading > Family History</heading > There was a family history of depression . < heading > Social History</heading > Ms lives alone and is separated from her husband . Ms   is a business analyst . Ms smokes cigarettes per day and drinks bottles of wine and bottles of vodka per week . Ms   does not use recreational drugs . < heading > Analysis of history The most likely single cause of the presentation , other possible causes and reasons for these choices . The findings to be looked for on physical examination to help decide the cause.</heading > Based on the acute symptoms Ms   presented with , the differential diagnoses of acute jaundice , with associated hallucinations and a history of excess alcohol use are : Alcohol Withdrawal : nausea and vomiting may be attributed to alcohol withdrawal per se within of cessation of drinking . Late features of alcohol withdrawal usually occur within and include visual hallucinations . Delirium tremens can occur from alcohol withdrawal and is generally more common in heavy alcoholics . is a state of confusion arising following withdrawal or abstinence from alcohol and is accompanied by trembling and vivid hallucinations which may result in seizures and sometimes death . : hepatocellular damage may manifest as jaundice . Drug Reactions - with a history of previous overdose , it may be possible that another overdose may have been taken , which can present as nausea and vomiting . On physical examination will look for signs of alcohol withdrawal ; tachycardia , reduced blood pressure , and tremors . I will also look for an irregular pulse ( drug overdose ) and respiratory depression ( opiate toxicity ) . Examining for signs of chronic liver disease will also be performed ( spider naevi , palmar erythema , dupuytren 's contracture , caput medusae , hepatosplenomegaly and ascites ) , signs of anaemia , jaundice and generalised lymphadenopathy . signs of chronic liver disease to be looked for on examination include hair loss ( and in a male gynaecomastia and testicular atrophy ) . Neurological signs of chronic liver disease ( hepatic encephalopathy due to toxic metabolites accumulating in the blood stream and crossing the blood - brain - barrier ) include flapping hands , confusion , drowsiness , constructional apraxia and fetor hepaticus . It is also important to rule out the possibility of 's encephalopathy , which is due to a thiamine deficiency , often seen in alcoholics . It presents with a triad of nystagmus , ophthalmoplegia and ataxia . Ptosis , abnormal papillary reactions and altered consciousness may also occur . 's may also present with headache , anorexia , vomiting and confusion . Looking for evidence of 's syndrome is also important . 's is the reduced ability to acquire new memories , e.g. after 's encephalopathy , due to the thiamine deficiency . < heading > Physical examination and mental state examination Highlight the findings most relevant to your clinical problem solving by underlining them</heading > On general examination , Ms   was alert and orientated . Ms   had nausea . Jaundice was present in the sclera and skin . Capillary refill < 2secounds . There were no signs of clubbing , cyanosis or lymphadenopathy . Ms did not exhibit flapping hands . There was   no fetor hepaticus . The patient was not hallucinating at the time of examination . < heading > Gastrointestinal System</heading > The abdomen was soft and non - tender . There was   hepatomegaly but no palpable splenomegaly . There were no signs of caput medusae , spider naevi , palmar erythema or 's contracture . Yellow pigmentation over the skin . Ascites present . No masses were palpated . Bowel sounds were present . PR was normal . < heading > Cardiovascular System</heading><list > Pulse regularBlood pressure 116/76Temperature 36.6oCHeart Sounds I + II + 0JVP - raisedNo pedal oedema . < /list><heading > Respiratory System</heading > Respiratory rate breaths per minute . Vesicular breath sounds were present . Chest was clear - no wheeze / crackles . on air . Scale 15/15 . There was no evidence of 's or 's syndromes . < heading > Analysis of history and examination Reasons for your choice of the cause of the patient 's problem(s ) and any other cause that still needs to be considered at this stage</heading > History and examination confirm the initial possible causes of Ms 's presentation . The signs of chronic liver disease were hepatomegaly and jaundice , which suggest a diagnosis of alcoholic hepatitis . after the cessation of drinking suggest acute alcoholic withdrawal , possibly with delirium tremens . The signs on physical examination of alcohol withdrawal include a pulse rate of and a history of hallucinations . The presence of jaundice with no other liver or bowel symptoms / presentations indicates that the jaundice is hepatic . < list><heading > The causes of hepatic jaundice are : < /heading > Alcoholic Liver Disease ( Alcoholic Hepatitis , Alcohol Withdrawal)Cirrhosis of the 's DiseaseHaemochromatosisLiver metastases</list > The most likely diagnosis is alcoholic hepatitis and acute alcohol withdrawal . < heading > Formulation of the patient 's problem(s ) Encapsulate this in physical , psychological and social terms ( the triple diagnosis)</heading > Physical - Physically Ms   felt tired and ached all over her body since she stopped drinking prior to admission . Ms   had no specific physical problems but felt weak and unable to do things . Her history of hallucinations and walking in the middle of the night puts her at risk of physically harming herself . Psychological - Ms   described herself as "" depressed and fed - up "" . She did not feel very positive about herself or her life and she worried about her hallucinations . Ms   also worried that she would not be able to stop drinking . Social - Ms 's social habits are the precipitating factor in her illness and she relies heavily on drinking alcohol to get her through her week . Ms   feels vulnerable and alone in her life . < heading > Management Use the framework of RAPRIOP to structure your proposed management . to the guidelines to the writing of portfolio cases for the details of the issues to be addressed under each heading.</heading><heading > Investigations</heading > Ms 's blood biochemistry results on following admission ( ) were as follows : < table/>'L ' represents a ' Low ' reading , ' H ' represents a ' High ' reading . Ms 's blood results following admission ( ) were as follows : < table/>'L ' represents a ' Low ' reading , ' H ' represents a ' High ' reading . Blood film confirms previous thrombocytopenia . The raised indicates a macrocytosis and in the absence of anaemia , the macrocytosis is most likely due to alcohol . There is no alcohol - related folate deficiency . An electrolyte imbalance is also seen with a reduced , which can be caused by chronic alcohol use . In the presence of hepatitis , a raised , ALT , and will be seen ; this is seen in these results . The AST : ALT ratio is thought to be a useful indicator of when in excess of . Elevated ALT and indicate hepatocyte damage . Low albumin suggests possible underlying cirrhosis and impaired synthetic function . A prolonged is typical of alcoholic hepatitis due to reduced production of clotting factors by the liver ; Ms 's was in the normal range . Ultrasound investigation following admission detailed : < list><heading > Abdomen < /heading > Liver markedly enlarged . Appearances consistent with acute alcoholic hepatitis and possibly early cirrhosis . The gall bladder was oedematous . to . No free fluid . CBD , kidneys and pancreas were normal . < /list><heading > Reassurance and Explanation</heading > To appropriately reassure Ms   I would say : "" As you know , you have been suffering from jaundice and hallucinations since you have stopped drinking alcohol . There are a few reasons for why you may have jaundice and we would like to investigate them all . You have told us that you drink a large quantity of alcohol per week and that plays a significant role in problems with the liver , which most likely why you have jaundice . It is also quite common for people who drink a large quantity of alcohol and then stop drinking to experience hallucinations from the alcohol withdrawal . We would like to carry out some blood tests to assess your liver function and we would also like to get an ultrasound of your abdomen so that we can look to see if there is any damage to your liver . Now that you are in hospital we are able to give you some medication to help with the withdrawal effects of you not drinking "" . To explain the nature of the disease : "" Following your blood tests and ultrasound , they confirm that you have a degree of liver damage , which is a result of excessive alcohol consumption . It is a condition known as alcoholic hepatitis . Alcohol is metabolised in the liver and if the recommended safe limits for drinking are exceeded , you are at increased risk of alcohol - related liver disease . It is also possible that you have developed early liver cirrhosis from misusing alcohol , which is later stage liver damage that is irreversible . The jaundice you have is a typical sign of alcoholic hepatitis and can occur and after stopping drinking alcohol . You liver function tests often help indicate the severity of liver damage . Alcoholic hepatitis and cirrhosis are serious conditions and they will shorten the length of your life . It is therefore very important to abstain from drinking alcohol in order to try and help your liver remain functioning "" . To describe the management plan : "" It is extremely important that you abstain from drinking . The acute alcohol withdrawal hallucinations you are experiencing can be treated with a reducing dose of medication that we will give you whilst you are in hospital . We will also give you B 12 and some potassium supplements because you blood results indicate that these levels are reduced in you . We would like to keep you in the hospital until your hallucinations stop , your blood results improve and you are feeling less unwell . We will also organise for you to get some counselling and advice about alcohol - related problems , which you will be able to continue to attend once you have left the hospital "" . < heading > Prescription / Medical Intervention < /heading > Ms   was prescribed chlordiazepoxide ( mg qds ) in a reducing dose . Chlordiazepoxide is a long - acting benzodiazepine , which is used to attenuate withdrawal symptoms . They do however have a dependence potential so to minimise this risk , administration should be for a limited period only . Chlordiazepoxide should not be prescribed if the patient is likely to continue drinking alcohol . Ms   was prescribed Sando - K , an oral supplement for her hypokalaemia ( ) . Ms   was prescribed spironolactone ( 25 mg ) , an aldosterone antagonist used to treat ascites in cirrhosis of the liver . The severe deficiency states 's encephalopathy and 's psychosis , as seen in chronic alcoholism are best treated initially by parenteral administration of . Ms   was also prescribed ( ) followed by oral administration of thiamine ( mg ) for longer term treatment . During her admission , Ms   underwent an ultrasound of her abdomen . < heading > Observation</heading > Following admission from , Ms   was required to remain as an inpatient until her jaundice had subsided and her hallucinations had stopped . During her stay , it is important to monitor her blood results and make sure that Ms 's liver function tests are not worsening . Monitoring the presence and occurrence of her hallucinations will be an indication of how well the chlordiazepoxide is working and whether the dosage is correct . Longer term observation will be monitoring Ms 's liver function tests and her abstinence from alcohol , which will be done in a primary care setting . < heading > Referral and Team Working</heading > Ms   will require referral to counselling services ( the Drug and Alcohol Team ) and/or a referral to ( AA ) . Ms 's GP should also be informed of what treatment she received in hospital and how she was when she was discharged . It is important to have a team in place to work with Ms   in order to help her abstain from alcohol and prevent further liver damage and progression of cirrhosis . < heading > Advice and Prevention</heading > Ms   should be advised that abstinence from alcohol is paramount to her recovery and preventing a relapse . Ms   should be advised to go to the counselling sessions and AA in order to help her overcome her drinking problem . Ms   should be told that to prevent another relapse similar to the current one and to prevent a worse episode from occurring , she should abstain from alcohol consumption . < heading > Outcome A description of the progress of the patient as far as possible . This should include consideration of further issues to be resolved . Where appropriate you should contact by telephone patients who have been discharged home.</heading > Ms   had a confirmed diagnosis of alcoholic hepatitis and cirrhosis secondary to alcohol abuse . Presenting with hallucinations is indicative of delirium tremens and is an indication of severe alcohol abuse . Ms   was discharged on   having received a reducing dose of chlordiazepoxide . Ms   was stable and her hallucinations had stopped . < heading > Evidence based care and issues for research A brief consideration of the evidence base required for the diagnosis and management of the patient 's problem(s)</heading > of the population are psychologically or physically dependent upon alcohol : of these develop alcoholic liver disease . of liver cirrhosis is due to alcohol ( 1 ) . Current recommendations for safe alcohol consumption : units for males and units for females per week . unit of alcohol ( approximately 1 g ) represents a measure of spirit , a glass of wine or a pint of beer . An intake of units or is associated with a high risk of hepatocellular damage . Alcohol intake is directly related to death from chronic liver disease . Alcohol produces a wide variety of liver disease , from fatty change to hepatitis and cirrhosis . Fatty change involves the production of fat in the liver from the metabolism of alcohol and the cells become swollen with fat . This fat disappears on stopping alcohol . Alcoholic hepatitis sees the infiltration by polymorphonuclear leucocytes and hepatocyte necrosis . Alcoholic cirrhosis is predominantly of the micronodular type , with nodules <3 mm but found uniformly over the liver . Clinical features of alcoholic liver disease include vague symptoms , such as nausea and vomiting , abdominal pain and diarrhoea . Such symptoms are seen in alcohol withdrawal . More extensive hepatocellular damage may manifest from jaundice to hepatic failure . Acute alcohol withdrawal is regarded as a neurological emergency and on presentation a patient 's initial symptoms may include anxiety , tremor , hyperactivity , sweating , nausea , tachycardia , hypertension and mild pyrexia . These usually peak at . Generalised tonic - clonic seizures may also occur during this period . Delirium tremens ( a state of confusion usually arising in alcoholics after withdrawal or abstinence from alcohol ) occurs in < of individuals usually after following cessation of alcohol intake . It is associated with an untreated mortality of . Features include : Coarse tremor , agitation , confusion , delusion , and hallucinations . Fever , sweaty , tachycardia . Rarely lactic acidosis or ketoacidosis . Also look for hypoglycaemia , psychosis and hepatic encephalopathy . In the guidelines for , is the drug of choice , the advantages being it is long - acting , it is safer than many alternatives ( 2 ) and dependence and addiction is reduced in chlordiazepoxide . Poor nutrition is also common in patients who drink because of inadequate intake , associated chronic liver disease , chronic pancreatitis and malabsorption . Water and fat - soluble vitamins should therefore be replaced . and vitamins are recommended as a standard treatment ( ) for the management of capture alcohol withdrawal . In short , the treatment of alcohol withdrawal should include : < list > Chlordiazepoxide 20 mg 4 times and rapidly tailed off over . supplementationVitamin supplementationFluid replacement . < /list><heading > Commentary A commentary on issues of health care delivery , ethical issues or disability relevant to the patient and/or problem</heading > Important issues raised in this case include the issues of addiction and the health care delivery of services to help such individuals . Ms   was known to be a heavy drinker and was being treated with anti - depressants . There is an increased incidence of alcohol abuse in those who suffer from depression and health care delivery should include advice and support to such patients about managing and overcoming their problems to try and prevent hospitalisation for alcohol - related illnesses . Ethical issues include the transplantation of livers in those individuals who suffer alcohol addiction against those patients who may require a transplant that is not related to their lifestyle behaviours , although transplantation was not a direct issue in this particular case . < heading > Impact on your learning Describe what you have learnt from this case</heading><list presentation of . Signs and symptoms of alcohol withdrawal . Psychosocial impact an addiction has on an individual . Investigations necessary for Treatment of acute alcohol withdrawal . Importance of education and support with abstinence programs . < /list >",0
"< abstract><heading > Abstract</heading > By measuring the angles of sharp x - ray diffraction maxima from alkali - halide crystals the lattice constants of crystals were calculated ; ( ±0.013 ) nm , NaF 0.444 ( ±0.017 ) nm , NaCl 0.540 ( ±0.025 ) nm , KCl ( ±0.030 ) nm , ( ±0.017 ) nm . The atomic radii of the ions was calculated from these lattice constants and knowledge about the crystal structure ; F- 0.131 ( ±0.013 ) nm , Na+ 0.091 ( ±0.021 ) nm , Cl- 0.179 ( ±0.037 ) nm , 0.121 ( ±0.044 ) nm , Ca2 + 0.098 ( ±0.021 ) nm . By observing the symmetrical exposure of a photographic film sensitive to x - rays it was shown that a crystal has long - range order of its ionic lattice . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > Simple ionic crystals are structures that have periodic repetition of a pattern . < quote>""In ( ) unit cell there is one host atom at each corner and host atom in each face . The corner and face atoms touch along the face diagonal . The packing efficiency is . This is the maximum packing efficiency for spheres of equal radius and is call closest packing . "" [ this it can be shown that the unit cell size is a constant value . This is called the lattice constant , ' a ' . There are planes to this crystal , the up - down , the left - right and the forward - backward . There are given numbers , called miller indices , which define which plane one is talking about . They are based on the reciprocal of the intercept of an axis in the unit cell . There are given in the form ( h , k , l ) . denotes that the plane never intercepts that axis ( it is parallel ) . The higher the miller index the more perpendicular that plane is to that axis . Miller indices are useful as they have important relation between them and the lattice constant .   FORMULA   ( 1 ) Where 'd ' is the atomic spacing , ' h ' , ' k , ' l ' are miller indices , and ' a ' is the lattice constant . In order to get visual information from an object it is important to take into account the wavelength of light used . A large wavelength would not have the resolution to discern various parts of the object if they were smaller than the wavelength used . It would be like trying to find the depths of the notches in a key by touch wearing a bulky glove . Similarly to find the size of atoms ( and ions ) it is necessary to use a wavelength of light which is smaller than that of what you are trying to find the size of . However , atoms are incredibly tiny , and the wavelength of light required to resolve that detail is proportionally tiny . This poses a problem , as wavelength is proportional to the reciprocal of the frequency of the wave , and frequency is proportional to energy , the wave needed will have a very high energy . These are not as easy to produce and measure as lower energy waves . Equation ( 1 ) has the solution . If we could measure the lattice constant , and with knowledge about which plane the waves were diffracting off , the atomic spacing can be inferred and so can the ionic size . X - rays were discovered over by certain circumstances involving cathode - rays ( streams of electrons ) hitting various materials . Knowledge of how these x - rays were removed from materials came when the theory of quantum mechanics was invented . The quantum aspect of these x - rays shows that the energies produced are in discrete quanta . Thus the frequencies and wavelengths are also in discrete quanta . This makes producing specific wavelengths very accurate , as there can exist any other wavelengths if the materials were manipulated correctly . X - rays are suited for finding the atomic spacing because they have a similar wavelength to the gaps between atoms . This means that they diffract readily through the gaps . < proposed that the plane of atoms was like a partially reflecting mirror for x - rays . Constructive interference was caused when the angle of the incident x - rays was such that the reflection from the plane was equal to a whole number of wavelengths phase difference .   FORMULA   ( ) This is known as 's Law . This method requires the wavelength to be of a known value . However , the method requires holding a crystal stationary with many wavelengths of light being shone on it . As the x - rays pass through the crystal they diffract . At certain points some of the x - rays will form destructive interference and some constructive interference . Placing a film sensitive to x - rays at a known distance from the crystal would record the constructive interferences as dots . This assumes crystals have long - range order and would give information about the symmetry of the crystal structure . < heading > Experiment Details</heading > The crystals ( , , , KCl , ) were encased in a resin and this block was clamped in place on a rotating platform . As the crystal rotated through θ , the diffractometer arm rotates through . The diffractometer arm contains a collimator slit and a tube for detecting the x - rays . The detector is connected to a time - scaler and frequency meter set to a sensitivity of The primary x - ray generator was a copper source on 30kV producing x - rays with wavelengths nm and nm . These were collimated vertically by a 1 mm slit . The detector was moved around the crystal and at various angular intervals the number of counts was recorded over a period . At 0 ° there was a large intensity of x - rays , this was due to the x - rays passing straight through the crystal and no diffracting and so this value was ignored . The range of recordings went from = ° to ° in steps of ° . It was noticed that there was more intense x - rays recorded in certain bands . These bands covered ° and a measurement was taken every 0.5 ° . Due to the limited range of angles only the st order diffractions were discovered . As the angles measured were in ° the resolution of the angles were ° . The graphs of intensity against angle revealed maxima over the particular crystal - dependant ° range . The higher angle peak was due to the more intense nm x - ray . By using ( equation ( ) ) the distance between the ions in the crystal could be found . Due to the way the crystals were orientated in the resin the plane that the x - rays were diffracted off was the ( ) plane . Knowing the miller indices and rearranging equation ( ) the substitution of ' d(200 ) ' for a/2 can be made and ' a ' can be found for the crystal . Knowing the lattice constant for a crystal and its crystalline structure it is possible to calculate the size of the ions by assuming that opposite ions touch . < picture/>From Figure you can see how the lattice constant ' a ' is equal to a diameter of the larger ion and times the radius of the smaller ion . So ' a ' is the sum of the diameters of the ions . Having worked out ' a ' for and knowing that Li+ has radius nm , the radius for F- can be worked out easily . Progressing through all the crystals like this revealed the ionic radii of Li+ , , Na+ , Cl- and . By a similar method it is possible to find the ionic radius of Ca 2 + because the values for and the lattice constant are known . However , has a fluorite crystalline structure rather than a face - centred - cubic . < picture/>Knowing the radius of F- and ' a ' , Ca2 + can be easily calculated . As a test for the above methods for calculating ionic radius a further restriction on the model can be imposed that states that like - ions must not touch . For the face - centred - cubic structure this means that the diameter of the larger negative ion must be less than   , from 's rule . As a final check for the ion radii of and F- there is known to be a crystal of which has a lattice constant of nm . So the diameter of + the diameter of F- must be less than this constant . For the method the crystal was held stationary and white x - rays shone on it for . A x - ray sensitive film was placed behind the crystal and developed after of irradiation . < heading > Results</heading > From measurements of maxima and equation ( ): < table/>From these results equation ( ) states that   FORMULA   ( FORMULA   for ): < table/>Using Figure to see the relation of ions in , and knowing Li+ has a radius of nm , the radius of is calculated to be :   FORMULA   Using Figure to see the relation of ions in , and assuming has a radius of nm , the radius of Na+ is calculated to be :   FORMULA   Using Figure to see the relation of ions in , and assuming Na+ has a radius of nm , the radius of Cl- is calculated to be :   FORMULA   Using Figure to see the relation of ions in KCl , and assuming Cl- has a radius of nm , the radius of is calculated to be :   FORMULA   The ionic radius is larger for ions with more electrons . This is what is expected . Using Figure to see the relation of ions in , and assuming has a radius of nm , the radius of Ca2 + is calculated to be :   FORMULA   For the same - charge ions to be not touching the diameter of the larger negative ion must be less than   . In the diameter of F- 0.262 nm is 0.281 nm In NaF the diameter of F- 0.262 < nm In the diameter of Cl- < 0.382 nm In KCl the diameter of Cl- < 0.424 nm So all the ionic radii are consistent with the "" hard sphere "" model of lattices . Finally the diameter of + the diameter of F- must be less than the lattice constant of which is nm . It is as it values ( ±0.046 ) nm . The method produced this photograph : < picture/>The pattern of symmetry is clearly visible in the placement of the dots . It has lines of mirror symmetry . The and order diffractions are clearly seen . The large spot in the centre was where the x - rays travelled straight through the crystal . If you were to measure the intensities radially then you would find the graph of intensity against radius would be the same as one for a slit and coherent light . This shows that the crystal had long range order in its lattice structure . < heading > Discussion</heading > General limitations in the experimental procedure were that the reading of the angle could n't be more accurate . However if the diffractometer were made more accurate then the clamp holding the crystal would have to be improved as it was only roughly holding the crystal in the correct alignment . There was no way to test if the x - rays produced were of the wavelengths stated , so from this point of view the data obtained in unreliable . However there is little reason to think that the wavelengths were not calibrated and since the results are consistent for the wavelengths it can be assumed they are calibrated . The experimental errors were quite low considering the task of finding the atomic spacing . Averaging the number of counts over a period of reduced the uncertainty of finding a maxima , which helped with the angular uncertainty . Using the result of ionic radius to find others propagated errors , however the results for the ionic radii tied in with the distance that like - ions should be apart closely , so this is not a large problem with errors increasing unhelpfully large . The method clearly proves that crystals have long range order and symmetry , this data is reliable as the pattern created related with the theory of the lattice structure and the measured data . Overall the results are accurate and capable of supporting firm conclusions from .","has shocked and awed and the rest of the world with their bold statements and somewhat unorthodox policies . Created in and still led by , many attribute the party 's success single - handedly to his personality and powerful oratory skills . While both Left - wing and Right - wing parties hover closer and closer to middle - ground , the takes radical stances on sensitive yet pertinent issues , which politicians frequently steer clear off to avoid controversy . However , the party 's success ca n't be individually credited to its influential leader , its radical policies or to a failure from previous Left and Right - Wing governments ; an amalgamation of factors combined with the right timing and social context created the right setting for emergence . ( ) puts this succinctly in his study : < quote > "" ... The elevation of the movement as a force in contemporary politics rests upon a complex alchemy and conjuncture of variables ... By , the was very much the right party at the right place at the right time""</quote><heading > steps to success : the European Elections</heading > Despite having been created in , the 's sign of success was the promising result obtained in the . By strategically portraying themselves as the ' alternative ' party to a dissatisfied electorate , the amassed support from those frustrated with the current government . Much of this discontent was due to 's numerous failed policies and the ever - thinning dividing line between Left and Right - wing parties . < fnote > Le Pen collected a mere of the votes in the elections and did n't even manage to collect enough signatures for a nomination in . The received of votes in the , winning seats in . < /fnote > Mitterrand entered the presidential office replete with ideas for social reforms , however , these proved very costly and placed a heavy burden on the national economy . Although under 's government the average national salary rose , purchasing power plunged and worsened living conditions for the average person . The taxation policies imposed by the leader had a further detrimental effect in the economy . The income and wealth taxation increases triggered a great deal of capital flight , putting yet another damper on economic activity . ( ) is particularly keen on attributing the arrival of the FN on the political scene to this exasperation with the government , and to the system of proportional representation imposed by it , which allowed smaller and new parties to gain access to . However , the extent of the ' failure in implementing their policies was greatly magnified by external factors , like the inopportune recession which struck the whole of . entered a period of economic stagnation , pushing unemployment to very high levels , causing a stalling of export demand , and shrinking the domestic demand - all consequently leading to a slow down of the economy . Plenel and ( ) argue that this recession , largely driven by the oil shocks , is greatly responsible for the public 's frustration with the government and for the expansion of the support for the . < fnote > Unemployment level was of people in ( see ' Contemporary France ' lecture notes - ) < /fnote><fnote > Frustration which was greatly due to the tremendous rise in unemployment caused by the oil shocks - , the number of unemployed rose by , a rise . ( ' lecture notes - ) < /fnote > Whether this initial success was a direct result of government incompetence or of the economic climate at the time , undoubtedly knew how to best promote his party . He is considered by , Citron and ( ) to have had a central role in the growth in prominence of the party , due to his strong personality , his eloquence and persuasive public speaking ability . was also well aware of the people 's affinity to their past , the historic notion of grandeur and the urge to restore 's position as a powerful nation on the world stage . The appealed to this national pride , calling for the restoration of "" 's unique place in and in the world "" . < fnote>""Nous croyons que la occupe une place singulière en et dans le monde , car notre peuple résulte de la fusion unique en soi des vertus romaines , germaniques et celtes "" ( , of ) -   URL   ( accessed 20/03/2005 ) < /fnote > Le Pen was competent in recognizing what people wanted and delivering this to them in the form of electoral promises , both in populist and intellectual terms . Other parties , on the other side , have frequently been criticized for their failure to speak the language of the masses , resulting in a disinterest in politics and in the political class . Many also claim that the immense coverage given to by the media also worked to the benefit of the . Through it , exposed the party 's vision nation - wide , capturing the audience with his intense and compelling speeches , many of which played on the current fears of the . Clever promotional videos overflowing with subtleties and symbolism were created , making full use of the media to extend the 's reach . These types of political devices were not swiftly adopted by the other parties , who failed to perceive the impact of these developments in modern politics and their persuasive power over the popular vote . The delighted in this coverage , allowing its every move to be covered by the national press , and received more than enough exposure . However , this raises the question of whether all press coverage , both positive and negative , was in fact beneficial to the party . And furthermore , it is important to question the extent to which the specific policies publicized contributed to the 's electoral success . < heading > The Front National 's Policies : representative of the people 's views ? < /heading > There is an undeniable correlation between the timing of the strong stances on controversial issues taken by the , and the party 's popularity ; this is clearly reflected in people ' voting intentions , shown in . This begins to answer the question set out above , of whether the ample press coverage was advantageous to the FN . It appears that in fact , this has caused as much damage as healing to the party 's image . One can draw from this voting volatility that perhaps votes are n't representative of a full or consistent support for the party 's set of policies , or of a particular wish to see the party in power . Many argue that a great part of the votes are in fact impulsive ' protest votes ' , tending to be more against the incumbent government than in favor of the . This view credits the other mainstream parties and previous governments with a great deal of responsibility for the rise of the . It discards the notion of the results as being representative of a widespread support for the , defending that people voted free of party affiliation . The argument is that this was a result of people 's perception of as being unimportant in the determination of domestic policies , which affect their lives more directly , leaving people free to express their dissatisfaction by casting their anti - government vote . < table/>There are convincing arguments for both attributing these oscillations in voting intentions to a dissatisfaction with the government and to an actual identification with the 's positions ; and because these arguments are not mutually exclusive , it can be suggested that they may have contributed jointly to the swaying of the voting intentions portrayed above . The 's strong stance on the headscarf issue in , is a good example of this . Such results can be interpreted as a strong identification with the concerns raised by the leader and also a disapproval of 's government , which failed to take a decisive position on the issue . Le Pen openly criticized mainstream parties for not assuming a clear position on the issue and for favoring the growing immigrant population , relying greatly on the media frenzy to spread his word . The importance of the media is validated when we observe that in truth , the immigrant percentage of the population has been somewhat stable since . However , as a result of the media hype , the issue quickly escalated into one of basic values , immigration acceptance and the need to preserve culture and tradition . < fnote > URL   ( accessed 03/04/2005 ) < /fnote > A central and rather successful part of campaign was to openly blame the nation 's economic difficulties on this large immigrant inflow in the country . He brashly announced that immigrants , who benefited greatly from some of 's foreigner - friendly policies , were taking over jobs , social security benefits and health services . The 's slogan "" people out of work are immigrants too many "" propagated the fear and apprehension towards the immigrants . A sample poll conducted in in showed that of average voters thought that that were "" far too many in "" against of FN voters who shared this same opinion . Similarly , among the FN electorate , believed immigration to be the main case of unemployment , compared to for the sample of the entire electorate . < fnote > Bréchon and Mitra : , pg . < /fnote > By also cunningly associating immigration with crime , violence and problem - packed suburbs , created a ' fear of the foreigner ' and amassed a strong voter base in some problem areas . In fact , of voters admitted to feeling "" insecure "" an unprotected by the government in a sample poll , compared to of RPR voters , of voters , of voters and of voters . < fnote > Bréchon and Mitra : , pg . < /fnote > Le Pen 's nationalistic stance received substantial support , as he promised to work in the interest of a "" French France "" and stated in a TV broadcast : < quote>""Je l'ai dit plusieurs reprises , j'aime mieux mes filles que mes nièces , mes nièces que mes cousines , mes cousines que mes voisins . Il en est de même en politique , j'aime mieux les Français""</quote><fnote > Jean - , 13th of May , , in a TV programme "" "" on < /fnote > People felt deserted , as the incumbent government took mild stances and other left wing parties were divided on issues that preoccupied the population . continued on this nationalistic path , when in , was signed . He claimed the political class was undermining the sovereignty of the state and that this would have a negative impact on local producers who would lose business to competitors , as protectionist measures were deemed illegal . People felt ' protected ' by , and believed he , unlike the incumbent government , would have their best interest at heart . fended off his opponents on the political Left much in the same manner - through fear and defamation . He developed strong anti - communist policies , making people apprehensive of the political Left and of Communism , claiming that "" ... le début de marxisation de ce pays a commencé par la grande vague de nationalisation de ... ce qui se prépare dans le pays actuellement sous vous yeux , c'est la mise en place de la révolution marxiste qui conduit au , à l'esclavage et à la mort . ""   < fnote > Jean - , 13th of May , , in a TV programme "" "" on < /fnote > These scare - tactics impacted the various departments differently and many authors suggest that a large reason for the 's success was their specific targeting of the correct audience for support . This national variation in voting preference is also rooted in the individual social and economic history of each region , and in how this has affected their lifestyles , culture and views . < heading : The case of and Marseille</heading > Despite these oscillations in their voter numbers , the developed support groups in specific areas in ; areas which interestingly share many characteristics . As observed in the map below , these are mainly in the coast , the region , a sizable part of the region around , and . Mainly old industrial zones , with high immigrant populations ( many attracted during the years of the expansion ) and high criminality rates , these areas have proved to be more consistent in their support in the , than other regions . < fnote > The map shows the percentage of FN voters in the elections , which despite being the result of only a single election , is quite representative of areas with a strong tendency to support the . Map taken from Lubbers and Scheepers : < /fnote><picture/>There have been suggestions that part of the 's success is due to their distinctive ' targeting ' of these particular audiences . As a whole , these areas have lower literacy and schooling numbers , as well as lower average salaries , possibly being more susceptible to scare - tactics . Furthermore , people with a more rural upbringing have more difficulty with dealing with economic modernity and feel greatly the loss of national identity that this brings about . By correctly identifying this , and by campaigning heavily around these areas , the managed to develop this somewhat loyal support base . The town of , an industrial suburb north of , is frequently taken as an example of an FN support ' hotspot ' , as shown in the table below ( ) which compares general voting results in various elections with those in . We can observe that general voting patterns do n't apply as strongly in , whose voting preference is much less responsive to national changes . The campaigned heavily in this city , particularly through and his wife , prominent members of the party who developed a strong following in . < table/>Husbands ( ) depicted in his bivariate study this positive correlation between people 's area of residence and political preference , in particular with the FN . However , various other authors expanded on his work and interestingly pointed out in their study that the highest immigrant populations are n't in fact found in these ' hotspots ' . The correlation between percentage of immigrants and support seems to disappear below the ' departmental ' level . Bréchon and Mitra ( ) suggest that it is perhaps "" not the mere presence of immigrants as such which is the cause of support for the extreme right but rather fear of the immigrant population "" . This highlights the success of the 's scare - tactics , attributing some of its success to its political strategy . < heading > The unexpected results of > Arguably the 's largest and most recent success , the elections were the closest ever came to acquiring presidential powers , despite there being no real threat of an FN victory . The most widely accepted reason for unsuspected success , and passage to the nd round , was a lack of interest and general suspicion with politics and politicians on the part of the population . After cohabitations , it seemed to the that politicians were far more interested in holding on to power ( and the extremely powerful presidential post ) rather than with working in the best interest of the nation . These governments were rendered ineffective due to the conflicting political interests of the rulers , causing this great disenchantment with the political scene in . , of the - based IFOP polling institute argues that "" ... the seem to have absorbed the idea that the presidency just is n't as important as it used to be , and as a result they are not as interested as they once were . "" Corruption charges ran rampant , and was under suspicion - and therefore keen to earn the presidential immunity from prosecution . The other candidate , , failed to arouse people 's support , and therefore suffered a real blow in the voting ballots of the round . He lacked charisma and relied on highly technical economic language in his speeches , by - passing a large proportion of the population who was virtually illiterate when it came to complex economic jargon . < fnote > The between a President , , and a Prime Minister , . The , , again between and , a Neo - Gaullist Prime Minister . < /fnote><fnote > Henley , "" faces biggest challenge "" The ( 22/04/2002 ) < /fnote > All this perhaps explains the sizable number of abstentions in the round of the elections by reflecting the causes for the indifference on the part of the population . This indifference is also undeniably witnessed in the candidate qualified for the round , of which were from the hard left and from the far right ; a sure sign of the population 's call for change in the political establishment . A further display of popular dissatisfaction with the political class was given after received enough voted to pass through to the round , and 's supporters mobilized to keep him out of power - and despite this , the number of abstentions remained significantly large , at . All this disillusionment arising from 's part experiences with the mainstream political parties paint a bleak picture and attribute a great deal of responsibility to them for the rise of the . < fnote > Arlette Laguiller ( Trotskyite Workers ' Struggle ) , ( Trotskyite Revolutionary Communist League ) and ( Trotskyite Workers ' Party ) ( article ) < /fnote><fnote > Jean - Marie Le Pen ( ) and ( ) < /fnote><fnote > Data extracted from ' Contemporary France ' lecture notes - 22/05/2005 < /fnote > Nonetheless , some observers also point out that external events helped strengthen policies and thus his campaign . focused greatly on the eradication of violence and crime , and again , the media came to his rescue . A violent attack on an elderly man in was televised and shocked spectators . The significance of this campaign focus is confirmed when we observe the shift in 's own campaign , redirecting his attention to violence . surfaced soon after these images were released claiming that was "" sinking under urban violence "" , correctly identifying the concerns of the and of his voters . Despite the 's initial success , in the end , was the chosen candidate . However , he was elected not so much as a majority favourite , and more like the lesser of evils . A popular slogan captured the essence of the voters ' spirit in the elections , which asked people to "" choose between the crook and the fascist "" . < fnote > For a further study , look at article "" Mainstream parties focused on crime - and played into extremist 's hands "" in The ( 24/04/2004 ) < /fnote><heading > Conclusion</heading > Winock ( , pg 301 ) praises the 's ability to adapt , describing the party as a ' hard political tendency but a soft concept ' . This ability to transform and re - invent has helped the to detangle themselves from past mistakes of the extreme right , and to modernize . Recent examples include quasi - partnership with the national media , and his clever use of these means to reach a large population , leaving the traditional mainstream parties behind . < fnote>"" ... une tendance politique dure mais un concept mou . "" < /fnote > No doubt a large opportunity was left for the to enter the political realm by past failures of the mainstream parties , but the undoubtedly recognized what the population wanted and used this to their favour . These policies were then clearly and persuasively voiced by . His strong leadership , charisma , impressive oratory skills , appealed to people and amassed support in various areas throughout . Despite the many failures of the mainstream political parties in , and the obvious conclusion that would be to attribute all the blame to their shortcomings , this would paint an incomplete picture . It appears as if though the 's success might have been possible without the failure to some extent of the mainstream political parties , this certainly would have been on a much smaller scale . In order to understand the reasoning behind the 's uprising , we must accept that their success was a result of a complex interaction between many factors , and that these reacted together as catalysts to bring about the unexpected success that the has had in .",0
"< heading > What was "" traditional "" sport ? < /heading>""Traditional "" implies longevity= clue : these sports were pursued over Key principle= variety Most involved animals Often played as part of festivals/ annual holidays Lot of forms of football and athleticism . Most developed , however , was cricket . All sports were disorderly and riotous and often violent < list><heading > Some popular sports:</heading > FootballWrestlingCudgelsNinepinsShovel - boardCricketHorse racingRowing ( esp . Thames and Tyne)HuntingStow - ballRinging of bellsQuoitsPitching the barBull and bear baitingThrowing at cocksHurling to goalesFighting ( most popular individual sport):Cudgelling matchesPugilismHitting each others ' head with a stickStone fightsPrize fighting</list><heading > Was it in decline from ? < /heading > Has been suggested that by the 2 nd quarter of the 19 th century a thriving sporting culture persisted only among the landed elites PRESUMPTIONS ( Malcolmson ) vs REALITY ( Tranter ) Industrialisation ( restraints : people moving into the cities , working lengthening , urbanisationlack of space , and impoverishment BUT Overestimating the number of people , only minority of males in factories whose increased Even factory workers could still play football- e.g. 1835 , Blairdrummond estates vs. cotton mills ALSO : population growth as likely to encourage as discourage popular sport . Religious revival- initial hostility between religion and sport SOME validity Wider acceptance of Enlightenment , and Methodist values repugnant to unnecessary violence and cruelty meant that animal blood sports and other disruptive past times did decline ( growing desire for respectability ) BUT limitations : most sports were shared with the elite or were no disrespectful Political campaigning against sports and games : middle- class rulers did n't tolerate it , animal rights campaigns , corruption calls for abolition BUT Pre - occupation with "" brutal "" sports More detailed analysis shows that the only working - class sports that definitely declined were blood sports involving animals- even these survived more than was presumed . E.g. badger- baiting and cock- fighting in during st half of 19 th century Re . other working- class sports : evidence suggests growth or , at least , stability sculling/ rowing- lots of participants , prize fighting- no decline until , curling clubs increased , athletics soared , potshare , bowling , wrestling . Horseracing , cricket and football survived outside the elite private school more extensively than assumed THEREFORE many have overlooked the growth/ stability of many sports by concentrating on brutal working- class sports Establishment of more effective ways of policing- growing use by local authorities BUT ineffective methods of policing normal methods of policing were ineffective to remove speedily and completely aspects of sport that the working class wanted to retain E.g. no one succeeded in stopping much street football until or E.g. 2 . The street football at and - on - Trent was only stopped in by the army and special constables Widespread withdrawal of aristocratic and gentry patronage BUT too little evidence about patronage to guess overall trends reduce support of animal blood sports BUT continued to support other sports- boat racing , cricket , curling , etc . Even if was a decline , patronage may have been filled by other groups- e.g. publicans","Much is already known about the detrimental effects that alcohol can have on the body ( cirrhosis of the liver and links with high blood pressure ) ; but information about what it does to the brain is not so readily available . Alcohol is a combination of , and ( C2H5OH ) and is produced by either fermentation or distillation . Because of its relatively simple formula , alcohol - unlike many other drugs - is quickly and readily absorbed by the body and its effects can be almost instantaneous ( of Psychiatrists1979 ) . A psychiatric nurse will regularly encounter alcohol abuse both on the ward and in the community . Statistics have shown the number of alcohol related admissions to psychiatric hospitals in has risen sharply over , as has the incidence of alcohol related deaths ( ) . It therefore seems that the more informed the practitioner can be about the effects of this substance on the human body and the way it interacts with other drugs , the better professionally equipped they will be . I have chosen to look at alcohol 's effects on the brain because many of the drugs used on psychiatric wards influence the brain chemistry and the addition of alcohol can be very dangerous . I will begin by outlining the structure of the brain and some of its functions and will then move on to discuss the way alcohol impairs some of these functions and what the long and short term effects of excessive drinking can be . I will also be considering approaches to treatment of alcohol abuse and how it is dealt with by the psychiatric nurse . The brain is one of the largest organs in the body . It receives and processes sensory information and instructs the body to act accordingly . It can be roughly divided into parts : the frontal lobe , the parietal lobe ( middle ) , the occipital lobe , the temporal lobes and the insula , this is a structure buried deep within the lateral sulci covered by portions of the temporal , parietal and frontal lobes . The frontal lobe is the largest and most well developed part of the brain in human beings and it is thought that it is the development of this part of the brain which differentiates us from other mammals ( Marieb ) . Historically , a lot of what we know about the brain has been discovered by post - mortem studies of people with brain damage although modern techniques have allowed us to study living subjects and thus broaden our knowledge about the functions of different brain areas These techniques include ( ) which are x - rays of the brain taken in a series of sections , these are very good for locating tumours and tissue loss ( atrophy ) . ( ) is a technique which measures gamma - ray activity in the brain by injecting radioactive particles into the blood . This is good for looking at localised brain activity for different tasks The last type of scan that is commonly used is ( MRI ) . Again this measures brain activity similar to although no injection is needed since what is being measured is the oxygen levels in haemoglobin ( ) . As a practitioner , it is very important to understand the usage and technology behind these techniques since it can be frightening for a patient to think that they have a problem within their brain . The nurse 's role is to educate them about the procedure and offer comfort where possible . Messages within the brain are carried by brain cells called neurons ; these neurons carry minute electrical charges over the pre - synaptic gap using substances called neurotransmitters . Alcohol is thought to have various differing effects on these substances . We know that alcohol increases production of the neurotransmitter dopamine ( ) which gives us a feeling of well - being ; it is thought that this feeling is what contributes to the addiction . Drugs for alcoholics are currently being trialled which block the activity of dopamine receptors which in turn inhibits its release ( ) . It is also known that consumption of alcohol increases the level of and gamma aminobutyric acid ( ) in the brain and decreases the effects of anaesthetics ( ) . The receptors that respond to low levels of alcohol are in cellular areas and brain regions that control the effects of alcohol on behaviour . These areas include : the cerebellum , which controls motor coordination ; the hippocampal formation , which affects memory loss ; and the thalamus , which is involved with sleep . ( research Institute 2004 ) The body 's reflexes slow due to the delay or interference with the neural paths and this is when accidents happen . In the in road deaths is as a result of drink driving . A recent study has shown that drinking alcohol can cause subjects to deliver a quicker pre - emptive response than they would have had they not been drinking ( Abroms et al 2003 ) . This fits with the fact that we are often over cautious about activity after a drink . General self harm through accidents is also very common amongst alcoholics ( , Plant 2000 ) . ( ) have called alcohol "" our favourite drug . "" It produces a sense of well being and mild euphoria and is commonly used as a relaxant / stress reliever ; unlike many other drugs , it is considered socially acceptable . Alcohol is a very simple molecule which allows it to move around the body via the bloodstream as easily as water and without being digested ( ) . Alcohol also lowers our inhibitions which is why some people believe it gives them confidence , it also affects our judgement . Large doses of alcohol can cause the temperature - regulating mechanism in the brain to become depressed and a fall in temperature may become pronounced ( and report ) . This is an important point for the psychiatric nurse to use in the education of alcoholics , some of whom could be homeless and using alcohol to warm themselves up . The breakdown of alcohol in the body leads to excessive energy production ( = calories ) although it has no nutritional value , this is why many heavy drinkers suffer from malnutrition - they do not feel tired or hungry and so continue to drink . Alcohol also dehydrates the body , firstly because it is a diuretic and therefore encourages us to go to the toilet more regularly ; but also because drinking alcohol produces toxins in the liver and it requires more water than usual to flush them out . If water is not provided then the toxins build up ( biology ) . Another common short term effect is the "" hangover "" that many people suffer after drinking , a main feature of these being a headache . Alcohol may cause headaches by several means . , it is a direct vasodilator ; in some individuals vasodilatation may cause a headache . , as previously mentioned , ethanol is a natural diuretic ; which leads to excretion of salt , vitamins and minerals from the body through the kidneys . Excess consumption of alcohol may also produce dehydration and chemical imbalances in the body . Most alcoholic beverages that drink are not made from pure ethanol ; they also contain substances called congeners which are the flavours that give each alcoholic drink its distinctive taste . It is thought that these congeners that are also partly responsible for hangovers , and there have also been investigations into their relationship with alcohol addiction ( ) . Fructose , the naturally occurring sugar from fruits helps return portions of the body 's chemical balance back to normal following ethanol consumption ( National headache foundation ) . The brain , along with the liver are the parts of the body which require most blood and since alcohol is very quick to enter the bloodstream , it is hardly surprising that they are the body parts which sustain most damage due to excessive drinking . Hormones are another factor in the body which alcohol influences . Testicular atrophy which can lead to impotence and the development of breasts in males ( ) is thought to be caused by the effect of alcohol on the sex hormone . and Krika ( ) looked at the concentration of alcohol in various body fluids and tissues and found that the ethanol content of the brain relative to that in blood was and for the testes , they compare this to the figure for the liver . I found these results particularly interesting , since liver damage is something which we know is directly caused by excessive drinking and , if this damage is caused by a lower concentration than that in the brain and testes , we can only imagine the real extent of damage that the substance causes to the human reproductive mechanisms and cognitive functions . The high levels of concentration in the testes could also be a pre - cursor to paternally caused foetal alcohol syndrome since it has been found that heavy paternal drinking is usually evident in sufferers ( Abel ) . occurs when a mother is consuming large amounts ( g per day ) of alcohol whilst pregnant and can result in birth defects . The effects on the brain of become most prevalent as the child gets older , they will commonly suffer with speech problems and have a below average level of intelligence ( Cooney J 1991).Most medical professionals would now argue that alcohol should be cut out altogether during pregnancy to prevent any damage to the unborn child . With repeated bouts of intoxication , the body begins to build up a tolerance for alcohol and the effects of a single drink become less severe , forcing the alcoholic to drink more to receive the same effects ( ) . Alcohol dependence is commonly regarded as a problem involving many factors including cognitive and behavioural factors , psychosexual and biological factors , as well as mood disorders ( ) . There are several commonly recognised symptoms of dependence : a narrowing of the drinking repertoire , an increased tolerance to alcohol , repeated withdrawal symptoms , preoccupation with drinking over other activities , awareness of the compulsion to drink , relief drinking to avoid withdrawal symptoms , harmful recurrence of drinking after abstinence ( , ) . A psychiatric nurse should be aware of all of these factors when questioning new patients about their drinking habits since spotting the problem early means that there is a better chance of successful treatment ( ) . Alcohol also increases levels of aggression ( SANE ) and this is something that the practitioner should always be aware of when dealing with someone who appears to be intoxicated . Treatment for alcoholism within health trust is managed by a community team who also advise ward staff about inpatient treatment as and when this is needed . Treatment can aim to achieve of goals - complete abstinence ( the aim of the AA organisation ) or a sensible , managed approach to drinking , ( favoured by behaviouralists who believe in the use of ( ) to treat the problem ) . Which goal is chosen depends largely on the individual ( Moos et al ) . Since the government have put a national alcohol harm reduction strategy high on its list of priorities , it is surprising that there is very little information available about how this is to be implemented within the trust . Within the Trust 's policy on illicit substance ( ) it is mentioned that because alcohol is not a controlled substance , it remains the private property of individuals . Urine samples and blood tests are regularly taken from known alcoholics if they leave a ward . I have not been able to find any measures of the severity of a person 's alcoholism whilst on my current placement however , ( ) cite the addiction severity index and Brief drinker profile as measurement tools which can be used for this purpose . Since alcohol is an addictive substance the treatment of alcohol abuse will almost always begin with a detox programme during which the patient will very often be asked to sign a contract agreeing that s / he will not drink for an agreed period of time whilst undergoing treatment ( ) . If the detox is taking place within an inpatient environment , the practitioner may wish to prescribe a benzodiazepine to reduce withdrawal symptoms although a strict procedure is usually followed by the nursing staff before the administration of these drugs . In this Trust , we use the "" Clinical institute withdrawal assessment for alcohol ( et al ) which asks the patient to rate various symptoms on a scale of to 7 . The main drug used to treat alcoholism has historically been disulfiram , also known as which causes a severe reaction in the patient when taken with alcohol . It would not be used without a full treatment programme involving which would try to identify triggers and patterns of drinking behaviour , and possibly also the use of a support group such as ( AA ) . The drugs are usually used as a tool to prevent drinking beginning again and the patient will experience adverse effects when drinking alcohol for ( ) . Mixing alcohol with prescribed drugs can have some very harmful effects and this is particularly relevant in the mental health field where a lot of patients are taking controlled medications . Alcohol is classified as a depressant and strengthens the effects of many central nervous system depressants such as hypnotics and tranquilisers . When combined with tri - cyclic anti - depressants , alcohol will give a sedative effect , and it can also make the effects of anaesthetic less effective ( ) . It is also important to mention here that not all alcohol abusers are being treated for the problem of alcohol addiction whilst in hospital and alcohol consumption can interfere with other treatments , for example , can not be given if a person is intoxicated and neither can a mental health act assessment be completed . There are many damaging outcomes which can result from a long term drinking problem ; I have described some of these below . syndrome was discovered in . It is caused by a deficiency in vitamin ( thiamine ) its main feature is the impairment of recent memory . There is no cure for syndrome but it is fairly rare and can be prevented from occurring by administering supplements of vitamin to heavy drinkers . Another condition that can sometimes be found is 's encephalopathy ; the patient suffering from this will have great difficulty concentrating , slowness in answering questions , memory loss , confusion , ataxia ( body sway ) and double vision ( diplopia ) ( Jung , ) . This syndrome is thought to be due to a deficiency in B vitamins in particular areas in the base of the brain and is treatable by administration of supplements . is a diminishing ability to learn and make judgements which happens over of alcohol abuse , unfortunately the effects of this are irreversible ( ) . degeneration occurs when the cerebellum at the back of the brain is damaged . This acts as a feedback centre for the control of muscles and movement , including eye movements and speech . This damage presents itself by the patient 's staggering movements and tremors in the hands and feet , movement is no longer co - ordinated and speech becomes irregular or slurred . Peripheral neuropathy can also develop in cases of long term alcohol abuse ; this is tingling or numbness in feet or hands and clumsiness and difficulty in telling where hands or feet are when walking . Arms and legs can become weak and the sufferer may also experience injury to the feet which will go unnoticed due to the nerves which carry pain and touch becoming damaged . The symptoms will subside after if the patient eats a healthy diet and takes vitamin supplements ( ) . , although a well known feature of the alcoholic , actually occurs in of established alcoholics ( ) . It is a serious condition characterised by increasing tremor , restlessness , mental confusion and sometimes terrifying visual hallucinations . If untreated , it can be fatal . It can be nursed by the administration of tranquilisers such as mentioned earlier and will usually pass within . The psychiatric nurse will encounter alcohol abuse throughout her career and the main ways in which she will be able to help and make a difference are to be able to recognise the signs and to provide education about how to cope with the problem for both the alcoholic and their family . The long term effects of alcohol abuse are frightening and in a lot of cases irreversible so if a nurse is able to spot early warning signs of alcoholism and treat the issue before it becomes a true addiction then s / he may well be saving a person 's life . When treating the long term alcoholic , it is necessary to be able to recognise and effectively treat symptoms such as and to understand how people can become dependent on alcohol so that a good nurse - patient relationship can be established .",0
"< abstract><heading > Summary</heading > An experiment was carried out to gain more knowledge of : < list > Current , voltage and power in ac circuits Variation of inductance of a coil with number of turns in waveforms</list > This was achieved by setting up a circuit which had resistance and inductance connected in series . The circuit contained a ( trade name ) which allowed for changes to the number of turns of the coil . Increase in the number of turns caused increase in inductance . This caused the current to go out of phase with voltage . This lowered the current and also lowered the power factor giving a lower total power . Harmonics present on the ac mains were seen from the waveforms because there were peaks in multiples of . This meant that the waves were not completely sinusoidal but were close to it . Harmonics were difficult to read after the th harmonic because inductors act as low - pass filters meaning it filters out the higher frequencies . To counteract the effects of the inductor a capacitor could be added to the circuit to bring the current back into phase with the voltage . This would give a higher total power output . The graphs and waveforms can be viewed in the graph section in the appendix . < /abstract><heading>1.Introduction</heading > The purpose of this experiment was to develop understanding of : < list > Current , voltage and power in an ac circuit Variation of inductance of a coil with number of turns in waveforms.</list > Constructing a circuit that contained resistance and inductance in series carried this out . The ac mains were used as the voltage supply . The mains were connected through a variable autotransformer ( known as a ' ' - trade name ) and an isolating transformer . The provided a way of controlling alternating voltage and the isolating transformer ensures safety . The main part of the circuit consisted of a coil from the motor of a food mixer . The coil was wound on a magnetic core . The coil and part of the core were placed within the test box . The rest of the core sat on top of the box . To limit the current a fixed resistor of was placed in series with the coil . < heading>2.Theory</heading > An inductor consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a magnetic core . When current is passed through this coil there is a delay in the release of the charge . This causes storage of charge within the coil . This makes an inductor a storage element for charge . However placing an inductor in series with a resistor causes the current to lags in relation to the voltage . To oppose this problem placing a capacitor in parallel with the inductor will put the current back in phase with the voltage . A current - carrying coil with N - turns , length l , and cross - sectional area A wound on a ferromagnetic core , would have a voltage given by ,   FORMULA   is the current and is the inductance ( Henry 's ) It can be seen that inductance has a relation to current . The relationship between the inductance ( L ) and the number of turns ( N ) is :   FORMULA   Taking logarithms gives log log In a single layered coil  = , however in multi - layer coils  is slightly different from this value . Inductors can act as low - pass filters . This means that they only let through wavelengths of a lower frequency . can be present in circuits . is the distortion of wavelengths and frequency . In a normal circuit the current waveform is sinusoidal , however this can be changed due to the addition of other electrical components , hence causing harmonics in the system . For more theory read the appendices of the briefing sheet included in this report . < heading>3.Apparatus</heading > Variable autotransformer ac ( , Regavolt , or equivalent ) Isolating transformer with connecting leads Test box with inductor and switch to select number of turns ( Fig 1 of briefing sheet ) ( Tektronix TDS 210 ) ( Elcontrol Nanovip Plus ) connecting leads ( to ) for oscilloscope connecting leads ( 4 mm ) for circuit ) Shared access to Printer ( HP DeskJet 930C ) < heading>4.Method</heading><heading>4.1 . Preparation</heading><heading>4.1.1</heading > The equipment was set up as shown in fig of the briefing sheet . < heading>4.1.2</heading > The Variac was set to minimum voltage ( fully anticlockwise ) . < heading>4.1.3</heading > The turns switch of the inductor box was set to . < heading>4.1.4</heading > The time base setting of the oscilloscope was set to / division . The Channel 1 voltage range was set to Volts / division and the Channel 2 voltage range was set to millivolts / division . < heading>4.2 . Characteristics of an R - L Circuit</heading><heading>4.2.1</heading > The wattmeter was switched on and checked to make sure that all values read . < heading>4.2.2</heading > The oscilloscope was adjusted , using the beam position controls , so that each trace formed a line across the middle of the screen . < heading>4.2.3</heading > The power to the was switched on using the switch on the side of the box . The output voltage of the was slowly increased until the voltage on the wattmeter read 20V. < heading>4.2.4</heading > The r.m.s voltage ( in Volts ) , r.m.s current ( in milliAmps ) , power ( in ) , and power factor ( read from section labelled cos ) were recorded from the wattmeter . The same measurements were recorded when N ( the number of turns ) = , , , and . < heading>4.2.5</heading > The turns switch was set back so that N = 1250 . The traces on the oscilloscope were lined up so that the mean values were on the centre line of the oscilloscope . The horizontal cursors were set up by pressing then setting up VOLTAGE on the Type menu . The SOURCE was set to . The cursors were placed at the top and bottom of the waveform giving the peak - to - peak voltage . This voltage was recorded and a hard copy of the trace was produced . The hard copy was obtained by pressing and then HARD COPY . This SOURCE was then set to . The process to produce a hard copy of the trace was then repeated . < heading>4.2.6</heading > The vertical cursors were then used by setting TIME on the Type menu . The cursors were lined up on the crossing points of the waveforms . The time difference between these crossings was recorded . < heading>4.3 . Harmonic Analysis of the Voltage and Current Waveforms</heading><heading>4.3.1</heading > The MATH button and on the oscilloscope were pressed . The sec / div control was adjusted to read / div . The / STOP button was pressed to freeze the trace . The button was pressed and the SOURCE was set to . The vertical cursors were set up setting the to . The large vertical line was checked to be at 50 HZ , the next large line at Hz and the line at Hz . The horizontal cursors were then set up by setting up MAGNITUDE on the Type menu . These cursors were then used to measure the voltage at the and harmonics . A hard copy was obtained by pressing HARD COPY . < heading>4.3.2</heading > The RUN / STOP button was then pressed to de - freeze the trace . The button and CH2 on the oscilloscope were pressed . The RUN / STOP was button was pressed to freeze the trace . The current was recorded at the and harmonics as above . A hard copy was obtained in the usual manner . < heading>5.Results</heading><table/>This table shows how the voltage , current , power and power factor changed in relation to number of turns . The hard copies of the waveforms produced can be found in the graph section . The main results of the waveforms can be found here : < list > Peak - to - peak voltage ( CH1 ) = + 27.2 = VPeak - to - peak voltage ( ) = + = mV < /list><list > Magnitude at 50Hz ( CH1 ) = dBMagnitude at ( ) = -9.78 dBMagnitude at ( ) = -29.0 dBMagnitude at ( ) = -68.6 dB</list><table/>The raw data for the graph of log10 Inductance against log10 N turns . The method of calculation for this data can be found in the appendices of the briefing sheet included with this report . was found from the gradient of the graph to be . < heading>6.Analysis</heading > The set of data displayed in shows that as the number of turns go up there is a decrease in current , power and power factor . The voltage stays fairly constant . Power is related to current so a decrease in current means a decrease in power . The power factor is the cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current . Looking at figure in the graph section it is shown that as the number of turns increased the inductance of the system also increased . An increase in inductance gives an increase in phase angle . This is shown because the power factor goes down as inductance increases . Increasing the inductance causes a decrease in current , power and power factor . The peak voltage obtained from the oscilloscope was 27.2V. However this was not in r.m.s voltage . The peak voltage had to be divided by to obtain the r.m.s voltage . The r.m.s voltage calculated from the waveform was 19.23V. This was quite close to the wattmeter reading of ( Figure graph section ) The peak current obtained from the oscilloscope was 58.0mA. The r.m.s value was calculated by dividing the peak current by . The r.m.s current was This again was close to the wattmeter reading of The power factor calculated from the waveform was . This does not differ much from the wattmeter reading of . ( Figure graph section ) By changing the settings of the oscilloscope to produce in results in the magnitude of the waveforms were emphasised rather than the shape . The oscilloscope showed a voltage magnitude of A voltage magnitude calculated from the waveform data ( ) gave a magnitude of 25.68dB which was very close to the oscilloscope value . ( Figure graph section ) The oscilloscope showed a current magnitude - 29.0dB. The current magnitude calculated from the waveform data ( 41mA ) gave a magnitude of - 27.74dB which was again close to the oscilloscope value . ( Figure graph section ) The harmonics of the circuit had a period of but were difficult to read after the th harmonic . The inductor acted as low - pass filter and filtered out the higher harmonics . < heading>7.Conclusions</heading > Increasing the number of turns on an inductor increased the inductance of the system . This in turn increased the phase angle between the current and voltage causing the current to lag further and further behind the voltage . This caused the current in the circuit to decrease . The decrease in current caused a decrease in power . Because the phase angle increases as inductance increases the power factor decreased . were present in the system and had a period of . They were filtered out after the th harmonic because inductors act as low - pass filters .","< heading > Gorgias , Encomium to Helen</heading><heading>1 ) In what ways do your chosen texts invite you to place them in their historical context ? < /heading > When arrived in as a Ambassador in , he boasted that he could answer any question thrown at him , not because he knew everything , but because he was so confident in his ability to convince people that he was well - versed in everything by his rhetoric . The sentence he chose as an opening verse for this text seems to clearly indicate that he was well aware of how he could get attention from his listeners in his time and could lead them to believe in the authenticity of his argument . He begins his argument by mentioning what makes a virtuous city , and brings up the qualities of ' goodness ' which probably most of the Greek audience would happily accept and sympathise with . After showing that he shares the same value with the audience and he is going to construct his argument on that ground , moves onto his main subject : his defence in the case of . This choice of the topic itself may also help us to read the text within its historical context , because the character of has a more universal fixed implication in ancient rather than in the modern world . As we could read from his last sentence of the text , what is aiming to obtain by writing this account seems to be the reassertion that if it is used wisely and effectively , the speech could overturn even one of the most long - lived and firmly established ' prejudices ' . And for this purpose , and for his own amusement to see how far his rhetoric can take his audience , he chose to defend , who was considered to be no doubt the most notorious and totally ' unpitiable ' adulteress ever among ancient Greeks . < fnote > Ferguson in Classical Philology , available online < /fnote><heading>2 ) What do you consider to be the most important structural and linguistic features of your chosen text ? < /heading > Gorgias was a sophist who laughed at those who claimed to be teaching arête , and restricted himself to be promoting man 's ability in making a good speech : later his attitude was criticised severely by . His language in this text appears to be corresponding to his claim and be indicating that he is not much concerned about what is the truth , but is more careful in dealing with what ' seems to be ' true . In fact , the text gives us an impression that he actually does not care if was guilty or not , because according to his belief the function of speech is not reproducing the reality , but creates certain effects in emotions of the listeners . He took the position of defending , simply because he wanted to prove that speech is not a mere reflection of things , but is actually capable of creating a particular perspective towards things . < fnote > Segal in in , available online < /fnote><fnote > Rosenmeyer in , available online < /fnote > To make his argument ' looking like ' a correct answer or a right position to take employs a variety of techniques , and I suggest that this is the most notable structural and linguistic feature of this text . , analyses this case from mythological material rationally and logically , just as scientists conduct scientific experiments on their research object and lead the theoretical analysis out of the result . focuses on this characteristic of this text by quoting argument that there are numerous similarities in rhetoric and ideas between ' On and , and concludes that might be trying to adopt a medical scientist 's point of view in order to develop his theory in a convincing way , and he keeps the same tone throughout his discussion . Indeed , his argument is very mathematic from beginning to end . To persuade his audience that accusing is unreasonable , he enumerates all the possible reasons why needed to depart to Troy , and then proves the proposition is false by showing all the reasons are invalid , and therefore lead the conclusion inductively that his hypothesis is true . < fnote > Ford , p.177 < /fnote > , there is a certain attraction in the rhythm of his speech composed of effective repetition and symmetric sentence structure . Let us look at some sentences from the paragraph of the text as an example . The sentence of the paragraph reads as follows : ' That the woman who is subject of this speech was pre - eminent among pre - eminent men and women ' . By using the same word ' pre - eminent ' twice , not only does successfully make a comfortable rhythm in his speech here , but also the ' pre - eminent ' is efficiently emphasised and featured so that the speech assures its audience that pre - eminent is the keyword in this sentence . The following sentence , on the other hand , deploys the contrast and symmetric structure beautifully . In fact , the whole sentence is composed chained - symmetry following one after another . The part of this long sentence , ' it is clear that her mother was , and her actual father was a god and her reputed father was a mortal ' , already shows symmetric structure overlapping each other : In the larger sense this is a contrast of the identity of mother and father , but part can be further divided into sections which are contrasting ' actual ' ' immortal ' father and ' reputed ' ' mortal ' father . In the same way , the rest of the sentence is also constructed with repeated use of similar sentence structures , synonymous and antonymous phrases . These techniques of repetition of words and contrastive structure of sentences appear repeatedly throughout this speech , which possibly makes the impression of the text more attractive , convincing and sophisticated . < heading>3 ) What other aspects of your chosen text seem especially significant and why ? < /heading > He declares that he ' considers all poetry speech with meter . ' In other words , he admits that poetry has the same sort of power in influencing , or even controlling the listener 's mind as speech . Although there is no means left for us to find out if it comes out of his respect towards his great predecessor or simply he uses it to win a support from his audience , we can trace several ideologies shared between and in this text . , in the very beginning points out that surpasses all the ' pre - eminent ' Greeks by her noble birth and decency obtained from it as a reason why defending of is such justifiable and reasonable . The reasoning that is a kind of ' demi - god ' and therefore she is the best of the men and women , is very familiar in epic . , makes it clear that if 's departure is caused either by predestination or the power of love , it is unreasonable to blame because both predestination and love come from gods and it is impossible for human to overcome divine power . The idea that ' gods are stronger than human being ; both in force and in wisdom and in other respects ' is again very predominant one throughout the Homeric epic . It must be noted , however , that ' admiration towards poetry comes from a very different perspective from later critics . , for example , argues that only well calculated tragic actions can satisfactory bring pity and fear , but believes that fear and pity comes from logos through which the story is told , rather than plot . < fnote > Burian , p.141 < /fnote><heading > Pliny ,   Letters 6.16</heading><heading>1 ) In what ways do your chosen texts invite you to place them in their historical context ? < /heading > The main topic of this letter , the eruption of Vesuvius and the death of Pliny the elder , was an incident happened in . The letter is said to be written most probably in , and Pliny was born in either or , so he was when he lost his uncle and he is recalling the catastrophe after he experienced it . The letter is , however , composed of extremely detailed description of what Pliny the younger actually witnessed and what was reported by his uncle 's companions after the incident . After the preface of the letter , Pliny begins his story - telling of what happened on in with describing his uncle 's everyday routines . He testifies that his uncle ' had been working in the sun , had taken a cold bath , lunched while lying down , and was working at his books ' when his wife called his attention to the unusual appearance of the mountain . It is very interesting to see how this sort of life was considered to be praiseworthy among the citizens , and how it would contribute to his uncles fame that Pliny mentions not only his uncle 's heroic deed concerning the eruption , but also his everyday lifestyle . The importance of these everyday routines is featured again in the middle of the letter , when Pliny praises both his uncle and his friend Pomponianus for bathing and dining together in the midst of the disaster , pretending that everything was Pliny admires this action as very ' courageous ' . Pliny also emphasises the fact that his uncle ' certainly slept ' in that night near the erupting mountain , in order to give a proof that his uncle was an extraordinarily brave man . < fnote > Sullivan in Classical Philology , available online < /fnote><heading>2 ) What do you consider to be the most important structural and linguistic features of your chosen text ? < /heading > Obviously the form of this text is a letter . , however , points out that Pliny 's letters are different from those which are written with no thought of publication and merely consist of a mixture of ideas , advices , emotions and reports . According to his article , Pliny was from a ' wealthy , leisured , and over - educated ' society , part of which we could read from the fact that the mere boy refused to go to an exciting expedition of volcano because he prefers to study . For him and his fellow scholars , therefore , the letter - writing is not only a mere mean to report news to each other , but also of the important exercises to polish their writing skills . Consequently , as we can see , Pliny 's letters are all written in the ' best prose ' and in some parts it sounds almost like an epic novel . < fnote > The full article of is available online . < /fnote > Let us analyse more closely some of the features of Pliny 's letter which are not very letter - like . , Pliny 's description of what his uncle did and how dangerous the island was is very lively and vivid , even though Pliny actually did not eye - witness most of these events . Presumably from the middle of the paragraph all the things written down are either reported to him by somebody else who was there with his uncle or possibly even partially composed of Pliny 's imagination , but we can not see any change in his writing style for what he actually saw and for what he was reported to . Everything is written as if Pliny eye - witnessed all of them , and he even adopts his uncle 's psychological description when he explains that his uncle ' wondered whether to turn back ' but after a moment of thought he turned down the idea . , the characterisation of Pliny the elder is almost like a hero in epic poems . Pliny repeatedly emphasises his uncle 's exceptional braveness and the spirit of self - sacrifice : his uncle alone is ' hurrying to the place which everyone else was hastily leaving ' to rescue his friend , his uncle alone was trying to comfort the fear that all the others had in common , and his uncle alone made a decision because ' reason outweighed the other ' while others chose the same out of fears . The fact that this letter was structured with extremely careful literally observation and written in the aesthetic language makes this text more than just a report of the incident , but rather like a bibliographical story about the heroic death of Pliny the elder . < heading>3 ) What other aspects of your chosen text seem especially significant and why ? < /heading > In the beginning and the end of his letter , Pliny appears to be emphasising the difference between epistolary and historiography . Pliny says that letters are to be read by single or few friends but history is ' written for all to read ' , and thus ' immortal fame awaits ' his uncle if records his death based on this letter . We have already examined that Pliny 's letter includes more than a mere report of how he died because of the eruption of Vesuvius , but also his heroic characters and his lifestyle . One of the reasons why Pliny wrote this account like a short novel is , as we have seen in previous sections , that he was so interested in literature that letter - writing was more than just enumerating facts for him . But if we move our focus from Pliny to Tacitus , the receiver of the letter , we can suggest another factor which might have influenced Pliny 's decision to write his letters in an artistic way . It has been pointed out by many scholars that ' historical account is , compared to his predecessor 's , focusing greatly on personal portrayal of each individual character . In fact , the trend in historiography itself was shifting towards ' biography ' in ' time . It is , therefore , very likely that not only Pliny wanted to describe his uncle 's death dramatically , but also needed personal account and the life story of Pliny the elder to produce for his historiography . Whichever the truth is , it is very ironic that the death of his uncle seems to have obtained immortality from epistolary more than historiography after all , contrary to Pliny 's expectation . < fnote > Account of Tacitus in this section is based on the article by , available online . < /fnote >",0
"The essay will examine the main areas of policy that made up the ' classic ' welfare state : health , education , housing , and the national insurance and national assistance schemes . Where appropriate these component parts of post - war social policy will be analysed by employing , , New Right and Social critiques in such a way that a fair and balanced conclusion can be reached on the qualities and shortfalls of the ' classic ' welfare state . The creation of made it possible for the time in history for any citizen regardless of class , economic circumstance or location to feel assured that if they became ill they would receive free medical care of a usually high standard . This universalism underpinning the NHS ended the demoralization felt by those working class people using services without paying a fee , and broadly ended the disenchantment felt by those middle - class tax payers who hitherto this point saw a portion of their money go away to help the sustenance of those of whom they had no affinity to . Thus was highly successful in making society more prosperous in using the social cohesion felt by many in the immediate aftermath of the war , in order to create an institution that through its comprehensiveness , entrenched that sentiment and ended the stigma attached to utilizing a service funded through taxation . While analysts would largely agree with this praise , many would question the extent at which the has led to a truly egalitarian society . Indeed it has been proposed that : < quote > ' in health care ... the middle class in general have easier access to better facilities ( owing in part to the historical location of hospitals and the preference of GPs for middle class areas ) and enjoy longer periods of consultation with doctors ( owing to greater articulacy and perhaps social affinity).'[Lowe , ( ) , ' in since 1945']</quote > The New Right tend to argue that a plurality of private sources of medical care would have been more efficient than the more monolithic , nationalized system implemented . As it is only in a competitive environment in which excellence is rewarded with profit , that producers have the incentive to offer a good quality , cheap service in sync with the consumers ' ever changing needs . However in response to this , analysts may argue that : ' on the demand side , decisions are made by the doctors , thus alleviating the effects of consumer ignorance ... on the supply side , doctors are not as a rule paid a fee for service ... removing the financial incentive to oversupply , ' rendering the process more not less efficient . [ Glennerster , H. ( 2000 ) , ' ] But this reasoning in turn ignores the fact that doctors and medical consultants are not neutral agents within the but have vested interests in furthering their status and have deep - seated prejudices about illness . It is perhaps indeed due to this that an inordinate amount of the 's resources went on reactive methods of health - care , such as surgery rather than pro - active preventative methods , such as health education for the general public or mitigation of pollution . Feminists believe that a key weakness of the is that it reinforced occupation segregation between the sexes . This can be seen in that almost invariably the dominant , high - paid and high - status jobs were given to men ( such as Doctor and surgeons ) , whilst the subordinate , low - paid and low - status jobs were given to women . Whilst this argument holds true , one must appreciate the fact that women also benefited hugely from the alleviating the burden of giving birth and looking after sick members of the family . It seems apparent that social critiques of the Labour government 's approach to education differ in the favourability of their conclusions somewhat . Many accept that the abolition of fees for secondary schools , the raising of the school leaving age to and the implementation of a state funded scholarship scheme for university led to a greater equality of opportunity . Moreover they realise also was strong in that it addressed the geographical disparity of quality of schooling , the financial weakness of the voluntary sector and the latent antagonism between voluntary and state schools . However it also seems evident to social democratic analysts that compared to 's health policy , education was ' innately conservative ' [ George , V. and Page , ( ) , ' Modern Thikers on Welfare ' ] . In terms of increasing the school leaving age and the demarcation of primary and secondary schools , Labour was merely enacting the recommendations made in the Hadow report . Moreover public schools survived and went from strength to strength after financial and political trouble in ; schools were now funded by the treasury ; leaving less room for the more democratic multilateral schools to blossom . People may argue that the preservation of a tripartite system of education was politically astute as it meant that people 's right to decide upon their and their family 's future was not impinged , but there is indeed no doubt that the education system hindered momentum to greater equality . As both private schools ( with the obvious price - barrier ) and schools ( with the arbitrary plus examination favouring children who were surrounded by more educated and articulate people ) had an inbuilt - bias towards the middle class . With houses being destroyed in the war time , a further rendered uninhabitable , a birth rate that was going to rise sharply , and a substantial increase in public expectations of the quality of housing , 's government had their work cut out in providing the citizens houses to live in . A popular attitude to 's response is one of ambivalence . Whilst analysts criticize the Minister of Health for not making the programme more far - reaching , most accept that he was constrained immeasurably by the fiscal dictates of the treasury , the stipulations of , the lack of raw materials at home , and the lack foreign currency reserves to import the materials from abroad . It is fair to say that the government went some way in meeting the challenges posed . The Government initiated the repairing , converting and refurbishing of old houses , a resourceful idea in the immediate aftermath of the war . It presided over the building of prefabricated which were surprisingly popular and long - lasting ( some are still around despite their so - called life expectancy of ) . And it administered of building licences to and imposed stringent rent controls on private landlords further increasing the access to more affordable accommodation . As hinted earlier it was the extent not the nature of 's housing policy which is most criticised and that provoked dissatisfaction at the time . Indeed the fact of the matter is that the areas that Labour proposed to construct houses upon in the New Towns Act were mere building sites at the end of 's tenure , and that with the slowness of the building of council houses many people remained homeless . However a degree of sympathy can be felt when takes into account the economic and demographic pressures was under ( as outlined above ) , and appreciates 's well - founded repudiation of short - termist , populist housing policy that the Conservative party espoused in which the quantity of building is held at such a premium that the lack of quality of the housing and the urban decay that this would precipitate is disregarded . Indeed compared to the council houses hastily built after 's premiership , the designs are far more comfortable and conducive for the well being of the inhabitants and the harmony of the wider community . The 's unprecedented acceptance of its responsibility of ensuring the social security of its citizens ' from the cradle to the grave ' is crystallized in 1946 and . These programmes of course are anathema for the New Right , reputedly leading to a dependency culture in which there is no incentive to work , with the direct corollary being lack of economic dynamism . However this logic seems to be flimsy in light of the fact that ' in the and the counties with the fastest growing welfare expenditure and the highest percentage of GDP committed to welfare were and Germany'-the fastest growing economies . ' On the other extreme the Marxists Gough and O'Conor view the insurance schemes merely as mechanisms employed to ensure the sustenance of capital 's domination over labour . By providing the working class with such token , superficial reforms they argue , had diverted from its historic mission of overthrowing the capitalist system , in favour of compromising with it , and thus betrayed the people they were meant to represent . However , such reasoning merely provides clear evidence of how one 's ideological predispositions can obscure one 's view of empirical fact . Instead of Labour betraying the revolutionary working class by forging an alliance with the bourgeois , it seems very clear from the evidence given to the committee that there was a consensus transcending class barriers for the idea of a ' national minimum ' and ' it was this which both brought it into being and sustained it'(Timmins , ( 1996 ) ' ] . In conclusion , it seems that 's thesis that the creation of the ' classic welfare state ' marked the people 's attainment of social rights , on top of the political and civic rights they won centuries before it is satisfactory . Its key strength lies in the fact that it guaranteed on a comprehensive scale a basics minimum standard of living for everybody . belief that the welfare state brought more benefits for the middle class than the working class seems to be backed up by the above analysis on Labour 's approach to health and education ; but nonetheless there is no doubt that the needy and deprived also got a lot out of the institutionalisation of the idea of the national minimum- not least because it brought to an end of the stigma about receiving benefits . For those who are committed to equality and social justice it is a great shame that Labour did not use their huge political capital they gained after the general election of in abolishing private school education- a key social - divider . As far as the is concerned although on an ethical level , as a universal medical care provider it is unassailable , in practice too much power was given to health professionals , leading to a lack of accountability and a disproportionate focus on curing illnesses rather than pre - empting them . In terms of the feminist critique on occupational segregation , the may indeed have reinforced the bias towards men in the job world , but like work a job in this ever expanding public service was a stepping stone for greater female economic independence in the future .","< heading > Introduction</heading > The reforms that have brought about the reconstitution of social housing necessitate a re - conceptualisation of the term itself . Up to it was easy for academics to define the social rented sector . It had distinguishing factors : its housing was built primarily with the help of state finance its housing was subsidised by the national government its main administrator was either the local council or non - profit organisations operating under the aegis of the government its rents were held below market levels . Since then , there has been a tendency for governments to facilitate the increasing role of private business in social housing and simultaneously increase their own role in expanding other tenures , blurring the once sharp division between the "" private "" and "" public "" . In such a way , factor ) is no longer applicable because spending on social housing is now overwhelmingly financed by borrowing from capital markets . Factor 2 ) can no longer be considered as a necessary condition because of the increasing complexity and proliferation in subsidies that benefit homeowners and tenants and landlords in the private - rented sector . However , factor ) can still rightly be maintained as necessary conditions because private landlords rarely put the profits they accrue back into their property ; and so can factor ) , as it is self - evident that for social housing to have a "" social "" function it has to have a rent level lower than the asocial dictates of the market . Thus , "" social housing "" will be taken to be a type of tenure that is run on a non - profit basis offering a rent price lower than the market level . Significant state funding and involvement will not be considered as requisite features . This essay will demonstrate that the role of social housing in many modern welfare states is contracting and changing by briefly examining the housing policies of divergent welfare states , the , the , and , with particular attention to what has been implemented since . The essay will then go onto analyse the underlying reasons for the general trend of contraction in the social housing sector . It will emphasise in particular : the absence of the main conditions that necessitated the initial building of social housing ; the allure of homeownership ; the self - eroding dynamic within social housing and the widely perceived global economic pressures for fiscal prudence . The essay will finally give reasons that suggest that social housing is not completely doomed . < heading > The UK:</heading > Unlike and the a lot of social housing was built in the in and . After there was an acute shortage of both houses and money to buy houses . This made the construction of mass council housing a logical and politically popular policy . However large - scale funding for social housing soon became out of favour as a policy , with winning power . The New Right 's belief in fiscal rectitude and its utopian dream of attaining a property - owning democracy helped shape the agenda on housing policy in of Conservative party rule and in so doing broke the long welfare - capitalist consensus on the social rented sector . Despite ostensibly being against substantial state intervention the governments ' ambitions could only be realised with huge amounts of social engineering . The Housing Act granted most council tenants the right to buy their council houses . In housing benefits were introduced , marking a policy shift away from investment in "" bricks and mortar "" in favour of rent subsidies for tenants . of deregulated the provision of housing finance for owner - occupation , bringing high street banks into the market , so that more funding was available and more households were eligible for mortgages . In , the municipalities responsible for social housing were no longer able to keep the rents artificially low through transfer payments from general municipal funds . The result is that social housing as a proportion of total stock has dramatically declined from in to in . New Labour has continued in a similar vein to their predecessors , differentiating provision of rented housing and experimenting with the leasing of council housing to private profit - making bodies under detailed long - term contracts in their famed private - finance initiatives . Although the government has lessened the extent of market autonomy in that it has extended regulations over , it nonetheless exhibits scant desire to reverse the relative decline of social housing . < heading > The Netherlands:</heading > social housing is generally in relatively good condition . This is partly due to the fact that is quite new . of its social housing was built after . Further more , according to readings the has the largest proportion of social rented housing in the , amounting to of the country 's total stock , compared to the average of . Like the and , the had a grave shortage of housing in the early post - war period . The difference was that compared to the rest of , governments continued building huge amounts of social housing after . Unlike the rest of housing production in the peaked after . Moreover , while most governments produced policies of incremental privatisation in the social sector in , the did not follow this approach until . The Housing Memorandum initiated a slight change in policy with new emphasis given to creating a mixed system of subject and object subsidies . In the early-1980s a new centre - right government wanted to wean citizens off dependency on constant state subsidization with policies aimed towards increasing home - ownership . While the outcome was not as intended ( there was a collapse in the housing market and the government was compelled to increase social housing stock again ) it did indicate the emergence of new currents of thought opposing the prevailing orthodoxy . However it was the Heerma memorandum , produced in , which marked the decisive departure . It stressed decentralisation , deregulation , budget cuts , a gradual decrease in object subsidies , a growing emphasis on subject subsidies and a reduction in the share of social rented dwellings in new construction programmes . governments have as a result slowly retreated from the housing market and reigned back on state spending in social housing . This can be seen in the fact that no government has provided public loans to municipal housing companies since . < heading > France:</heading > The absence of a long - term housing policy made the destruction of dwellings in the nd particularly grave . The chronic housing shortage was further compounded by the growing demand for housing associated with 's rapid industrialisation and attendant reception of a mass of immigrants in and 60s . In response to this problem , priority was given to a vast construction programme of social rented housing . HLMs ( housing with moderate rents ) organisations enjoyed generous state assistance in building and running social housing . In , the usual form of central government financial initiatives were long - term loans ( over ) at lower interest rates than free markets ( ) . However , by the central government 's approach to housing had changed . It began to favour home - ownership ; encouraging the building industry to use industrial processes in order to develop cheap - family houses . of recommended a shift from object to subject studies in the view of increasing efficiency and reducing the level of state investment in housing . This was implemented in legislation , with a new and more generous housing benefit ( the APL ) being brought into being . The APL housing benefit was a way of manipulating the demand - side ; supplementing rent payments to landlords so as to ensure that poor tenants could still afford the rent increases associated with the housing rehabilitation programmes and reducing housing loans so as to encourage low - income tenants to buy up the aforementioned - family houses . As elsewhere in , the swing away from object subsidies in was sharp . In object subsidies accounted for of state spending in housing , in they accounted for while housing benefits rose steeply from in to of the housing expenditure in . Moreover , the building of social housing dramatically dropped from units in to in and its share of the total housing stock had fallen from at to in . Later in the government introduced right - to - buy measures indicating the impact of neo - liberal thinking had on housing policy . However , this was not as far - reaching as the selling off of council houses in the since the prospective buyers must have been occupying the property for . < heading > Sweden:</heading > Sweden was not on the receiving end of aerial bombardment in the nd . As such , unlike the other countries examined it did not suffer the acute housing shortages in the immediate aftermath of the conflict . Nonetheless , the state still played a central role in the housing of citizens . The post - war government extended wartime rent control as a temporary method to restrain the profit motive and saw the final solution as bringing the bulk of all rental housing under the control of public utility . The bostadsbidraget ( housing benefit ) was introduced in and in the Parliamentary Bill of , minister proposed that housing companies be divided into categories of funding : the non - profit public companies would be eligible for low - interest state finance for of building costs , co - operative enterprises would be eligible for , and private . . The state housing loans scheme , gave further power to the government , enabling authorities to specify where , when and how housing is to be built , as well as its final price , including the cost of land acquisition . The 1974 Housing Act reaffirmed the primacy of this social democratic approach , embodying a commitment to maintain society 's responsibility for the provision of dwellings and an aspiration to attain tenure neutrality . In privately rented dwellings , rents had to broadly accord to use - value , so when landlords sought to obtain an increase in rent , rent tribunals could set a fair rent based on the levels of rents charged by municipal housing companies for equivalent housing . Through this process , the social housing sector assumed the role of market leader and thereby helped maintain a unitary rental system . From onwards the terrain of housing began to change in line with the trends in more liberal welfare states abroad , starting with the deregulation and liberalisation of credit , which helped stimulate demand for home - ownership . However , real transformation commenced when the conservative - led coalition government of adopted a series of austerity packages aimed at remedying 's economic malaise . General subsidies were demoted in favour of target / income - related subsidies , the special fiscal status granted to non - profit landlords was rescinded and private landlords were extricated from the obligation of basing their rents on social sector equivalents . Consequently , the number of social housing units fell from in to in and the tenure is reduced to having a mere market - influencing role . < heading > General trends:</heading > The commonalities of housing policy in the countries show that there are general trends regarding the role of social housing . After the level of government intervention in housing tended to be high , mostly due to the destruction of housing but also because of economic recovery . Policies were focussed on the realisation of large - scale construction programmes . By ( for the and ) and ( for the and ) housing shortage had declined substantially , ideas about the welfare state shifted , fiscal rectitude was elevated to a near sacrosanct level and the states ' grip over social housing began to loosen . Now there is a clear tendency to restrict both general subsidies and tax benefits with the objective of reducing public expenditure and to deregulate financial and housing markets to assist the private sector to fill the gap ; there is less emphasis on maintaining tenure neutrality and relatively greater emphasis on assisting poorer households and areas . To put it simply , the predominant approach in housing policy at the moment is to promote homeownership , transfer risk from the public to the private sector , to reduce object subsidies and to increase targeting . The long - term consequence of this approach is that social dwellings are becoming devoid of their former substance and play a diminishing role in housing policy . The tightening of the eligibility criteria for social housing and the relative and sometimes absolute decline in the amount of social dwellings triggers off a self - eroding dynamic . Social housing estates start to lose the social mix so intrinsic to their vitality and they become areas of acute deprivation . They then become stigmatised and further repel aspirant working - classes and middle - classes . This residualisation is exacerbated by mono - tenurial circularity , whereby once home ownership becomes the dominant tenure arithmetically and socially , governments become less predisposed to produce policy favourable to other tenures . Through simple extrapolation , one may conclude that the state 's role in housing will soon become miniscule and that social housing is in terminal decline . However , there is much to suggest otherwise . Indeed , housing and land are both public goods ; because of the longevity of the former and the scarcity of the latter and it thus seems that it is absolutely necessary that government plays a significant role in housing . Moreover , the social rented sector has still got a lot to contribute . because it seems to be a tenure much better able than home - ownership to accommodate the post - Fordist pressures of labour flexibility ; and because it is difficult to envisage a form of property relations in which there will not be a need to regulate contracts to help weaker parties impose certain obligations on landlords . The apparent stabilisation of the social housing sector in both and adds empirical substance to this view . < heading > Conclusion</heading > The logic behind the above paragraph shows that the process of contraction in the role of social housing is not and , will not be , linear ; and the differences in the proceedings in the countries as evinced throughout the essay shows that the process of contraction is not generic . Thus , conclusions can be drawn : , that the diminution in the role of social housing is by no means inexorable . , that the recent diminution is chiefly driven by supranational economic forces coupled with a dynamic internal to housing . And lastly , however , that the rate , extent , nature and timing of these contractions are profoundly affected by the unique national politico - economic environments within which they take place .",1
"< heading>1 . Introduction</heading > For a new business , business plan is an outline prepared for the purpose of capturing credit and supports . This business plan is trying to get financing for the new startup My Mp3 - - . This plan focuses on the financing aspect to submit a comprehensive business plan over period . After a brief executive summary , there are various revenue and expenditures categories that will be applied to the new business . Subsequently , the possible source of finance to fund the project will be reviewed and analysed . < heading>2 . Background Summary < /heading > My Mp3 is a new small - sized public limited e - company which is worked out its business online . The web page will be designed to sell various brands ' Mp3 and Mp4 with the focus on the market mainly in . Customers can easily compare different brands ' products within similar functions ( the price - value ) and purchase their favorites on a discount price on www . mymp3 . Com . While , there are also additional services including downloading music . The digital products - such as the Mp3 and Mp4 - -- are popular fashion products which are received by a board target . It is a growing industry where the customers and digital products providers are keeping changing their digital products frequently for updated or new - fashioned products . Moreover , although the competition is increasing by new market enters ; a qualified service with well designed use - friendly webpage will help My Mp3 to success in this industry . The operational management team will include one full - time office clerk and one manager ( the owner ) to manage the website , post - sale and after - sale customer services , and part - time IT professional designers to help the setup work for web pages . < heading>3 . Financial Section</heading > Cash flow is regarded as the vital factor for a business in most contexts , which is a evidence if business is in a credit risk . This business plan comprises the revenue models and the cost models for the new business . < heading>3.1 Revenue Models</heading > There are main income resources in My Mp3 : the revenues from product sales and revenues from service sales . The detailed quantities are forecasted in a prudent ( or conservative ) practice , shown in the table in Appendix 1 . Those figures are assumed in an average basis for . The incomes model is form the sales of Mp3 and Mp4 that is the dominating revenues ( appropriate ) in this business . My Mp3 will promote these digital products from different companies , which are available for both those famous brands and new jumped - up companies . It is forecasted that there is an average sale of items ( Mp3 and Mp4 ) for at least , with price range nearly from £ 30 to £ 150 ( assuming that the average selling price is ) . It is usually lower than high street price . There are a year , therefore , the revenue is appropriately going to be £ . The loss form a discount on the price can be offset by a saving from the payment for a marketplace rent . The advantage of this revenue model is that all business can receive cash immediately , which can be a vital factor for a new company to success . , the advertising revenue is another vital income for an online e - company , which normally occupies of the total revenue or even more . My Mp3 will provide banners in the webpage as an advertising place for companies , especially for these new jumped - up companies who are eager to find a channel to promote their brand image , not only for the online sales , but also for the market place sales . This banner advertisement fee can be paid by pay - per - click ( ) ( usually is a minimum bid ) or pay - per - thousand , depending on the website performance ( online clickthrough rate , conversion rate ) ( Chaffey , et al . , ) . Moreover , My Mp3 can provide a professional webpage designing for advertisements , not only the products suppliers , but also other companies , such as a window of a public relationship management for IT companies . Totally , it is assumed the revenue in this part ill be £ for advertisement for . The advantage of this revenue model is that it can bring additional incomes straightforwardly , as well as promote the own webpage together with other brands . Additionally , there is an extra service on the My Mp3 webpage , which is to provide music in MP3 and formats for customers to download . It is planned to give the popular top songs online , which will be updated . Customers will pay for each time to download a song , instead of market price . And this discount price only for the clients who bought the products form My Mp3 . This plan forecast the annual clickthrough rate is . Moreover , affiliates model will be used here for Mp3 and Mp4 insurance . My Mp3 provides opportunities ( a link ) to purchase insurance for their high valued Mp3 and Mp4 , redeeming the loss for missing or breaking , for a short time ( basing on a insurance ) . My Mp3 will incorporate with a small insurance company . The affiliate fee will be calculated as a percentage ( ) of on a pay - for - performance basis . If it is assumed that My Mp3 just receives settlements per year ( of the sales ) , the company can get £ as a minimum . Furthermore , auction model can also contribute to the company 's revenue in a certain level in the future . My Mp3 will provide a section for customers to sell their Mp3 and Mp4 and charge the item listed for sale in a small amount ( £ ) . It is used as a way to achieve a higher clickthrough rate rather than gaining a charge . On the other side , My Mp3 is new brand ; therefore , it is not famous and successful enough to use the franchising model to sell the business operation ' idea ' , brand or a proven formula . The revenue sharing model in affiliate revenues model is not competitive because suppliers usually not will to afford the risk of others company 's the selling performance . Moreover , transactions model is for the company who act an agency obtains commissions based on a transaction completed . My Mp3 is going to buy the products form other companies , therefore , this revenue model is not available . To the subscription model , My Mp3 is an e - retailer who does not offer a specially graded information or service in return for an subscription ( payment ) currently . However , it model can be used for music download in the future , where there is enough registered customers agree to receive a customized promotion portfolio ( such as to pay songs by an fee ) . < heading>3.2 Cost Models</heading > The business plan will need to consider providing the adequate working capital to meet all costs including set - up expense , organisational operating expense , other expense for market development , technology and work team and so on ( , 2004 ) . The detailed figures for cost are assumed on an basis shown in in a prudent practice . , My Mp3 will bring set - up expense , including the initial payments of the good of sales to trade suppliers , provision for losses , land , and equipment . The main expenses are incorporation and registration fees and fixed asset requirement ( involved the computers cost and a small storage room cost to store the products before selling ) . To maximise the cash in current business , the payments of the products sales will be depending on a credit , which implies My Mp3 will try to take a certain period ( ) delay of payment for the digital products to suppliers . The business 's selling income will ideally offset the stock expenditure without consuming the working capital . Alternatively , in practice , it may be more seasonable for the counterparties that there is a initial payment ( £ ) and the rest of the payment would be settled after the products have been sold . It is assumed the cost of products sales is equal to of the sales ( £ , the profit rate is ) . Moreover , this credit strategy will be similarly used in purchase the copy right for a music download service . The payment to music providers will be occurred when a song has been downloaded by a customer . It is assumed the cost of clickthrough is equal to of the sales ( the net profit rate is ) . These works can be audited and recorded by software without difficulty . My Mp3 will put out contracts with different suppliers on the payment polices . What is more , the storage room and computers ( computers ) will be leased , instead of buying a warehouse , to reduce the disbursement by cash . Together with other office equipment and office supplies , the annual payment will be appropriate £ . Furthermore , My Mp3 will bring other organisational operational expense . Those work team cost involves telecommunications costs ( ) , office place rent cost ( a small low - cost place roughly in £ ) , website cost ( an fee about£1,000 ) , insurance paid ( approximately£1,000 ) , salaries cost and other overhead cost ( ) . The total cost is assumed at per year . Additionally , My Mp3 would authorise a - party deliver company to carry out the transportation activities . According to the characters of digital products ( small size ) , the transport cost , delivering the products from the suppliers , will be not too much , per year . The expense of delivering the products to customers will be offered by customers . Additionally , these free marketing tools will be the main marketing methods adopted in My Mp3 , such as the registering the website and struggling the highest ranking indexed within the main search engines , opt - in emailing marketing , exchanging the advertise banner or using online public relations . The main marketing development expense will be mainly on the purchasing an e - mails lists , if it is necessary , which normally will take £ per year . < heading>3.3 Project Analysis</heading > It can be deduced from the table and table that the project will require £ -- £ to cover the outflow of cash , and it will create a profit ( net cash flow ) ( £ 90,650-£70,640 = £ ) . Therefore , the company needs appropriate £ -- £ as working capital . What 's more , the pay back period will be near and the accounting rate of return is ( see Appendix 3 ) . This profit could be an underestimate number because the revenue ( such as the sales ) is estimated in a conservative manner . The revenue will be increasing due to the growing webpage impression and online visit quantity . My Mp3 will have a small inventory for the products , and the e - business not does require an expense office in a good position , therefore , together with the lease policy , the fix cost does not tie up a lot of cash . What is more , the risk of a dead debit or bankrupt is quite low in My Mp3 , because all most of the sales are received by cash and the outflow of cash is quite low because of the credit payment strategy . Furthermore , it is possibility that the variable cost of per product will be decreasing due to a growing bargaining power from a larger amount of orders raised with increasing webpage impression and online quantity visit . Furthermore , there are a lot ways to cut the cost and raise the revenues . A lot of online communication and marketing techniques can be used to increase the sales online in a cost - efficiency way . For example , in the future , auction model could be a new important income streams as My Mp3 develops . Or ideally , after a strong cooperating relationship having been built between My Mp3 and its suppliers , the products can be delivered from the suppliers to customers directly in order to cut the transportation cost for customer and company , as well as building another competitive advantage over other competitors . < heading>4 The Sources of Finance</heading > My Mp3 will be willing to establish sound debt to equity relationships which contribute to the successful of the business through sufficient equity or excessive leverage ( , 2004 ) . My Mp3 is planning to obtain funds for business through a number of different sources . , because My Mp3 is a small e - company with a manageable business risk , long - term loans on a annual payment basis - 5 years loan-- are an excellent and main source of finance when the interest rates are relative low at current ( Green , 2006 ) . My Mp3 will give a loan guarantee scheme to require financial supports from financial institutions ( such as banks ) , individuals or business angels ( which will provide within small investment size ) . Loans , being engaged percentage of the working capital ( £ ) , are often used for fixed assets payment such as warehouse and machinery at business starting up period . The advantage of is long - term loans that the interest payments will be lower than short - term , and brings advantage of tax deductions ( Banks . ) . My Mp3 will quest additional short - term financing to manage the uncertainty affects the cash budget ( Broyles , ) . It will be probably percentage of the total working capital ( £ ) . The main source is the flexible rated overdraft bank loan in the bank account for a short period , which will help My Mp3 to overcome the cash shortage ( often is used for buying supplies ) during the business running . Alternatively , equity funding is a good proposition to guarantee a good market value for business . It is a long term source of finance , requiring to finance the rest of the total working capital . The self - financing from owner will up to £ ( of equity ) , and My Mp3 will give proportional shares ( of ownership in total ) to different private shareholders ( individuals ) . It means a share in the control of the business . However , the advantage is that encourages the directors to operate the business and pay dividends under a well manner ( , ) . Furthermore , the equity financing will have more potential opportunities to raise additional capital by issuing new shares used for business expansion . What 's more , debentures , venture capital and shares issued to public for a large sum are not suitable for My Mp3 currently . To gain more cash , the funds can come from the business ' internal sources , such as reducing stocks , delaying the payments for suppliers and lease finance ( as the credit strategy and lease contracts shown above ) . < heading>5 . Conclusion</heading > My Mp3 is a new small - sized public limited e - company selling various brands ' Mp3 and Mp4 with the focus on the market . This business plan comprises the revenue models , from product sales ( ) , advertising ( ) , music download , insurance and auction , as well as the cost models , from the cost of products sold , the copy right for songs downloaded , warehouse , equipment and office , work team , transport and marketing activities . This business can be paid back at and the accounting rate of return is . Moreover , the main income resources in My Mp3 are coming from lone - term loan ( ) , short - term loan ( ) , and equity funding ( ) ( includes the self - financing ( ) and shares ( ) ) . From the analysis shown above , it can not be denied that My Mp3 has a potential strength to last the business over a .","< heading > Experimental Procedure:</heading > The beams ' dimensions ( breadth and depth ) shall be measured using a micrometer . This shall aid the calculation of the moment of area of the beam . readings shall be taken at different positions along the beam and averages calculated . The equation used for calculating nd moment of area is :   FORMULA   Below is a table of the data used to calculate the 2 nd moment of area : < table/>The test rig shall be set up with the following configurations : ( i ) < figure/>(ii ) < figure/>(iii ) < figure/ > FORMULA   Each time a mass shall be used which equates to Setup one has a central load , has length ' load and has a length ' load with a central simple support . All the end supports are simple with setup having an additional ' simple clamp ' . This ' simple clamp ' is an effective ' knife edge ' and should not affect the curvature of the beam , it simply prevents the right hand end breaking contact with the support . For setup and a rule shall be used for measuring . The rule shall be clamped into the slider on the rig and the initial profile of the beam with hanger obtained . Next the mass shall be added and the new profile of the beam obtained . Measurements shall be taken at intervals . Once all the data has been collected the ' new ' profile shall be subtracted from the ' initial ' to give a deflection profile . For setup a dial gauge shall be used instead of a rule , because of this a direct deflection reading can be taken . sets of measurements shall be taken and an average calculated . Throughout the procedure the slide track should be kept free from obstacles to prevent inaccuracies in measurements . < heading One:</heading shows the deflection profile for experimental and computer calculated results . The maximum deflection is in the centre of the beam where the load is applied . There is slight variation between the experimental and computer calculated deflection profiles . Overall the experimental profile shows greater deflection . This could be because of fatigue in the beam . It has been used in previous experiments therefore shall be ' weakened ' . Also it could be due to inaccuracy of steel . < heading > Setup Two:</heading > This setup also requires prediction of the deflection profile via the integration method . Below is the process of obtaining the general deflection equation . < figure/ > FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA   when   FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA      Graph shows the experimental , computer calculated and integration method deflection profiles . The maximum deflection is at from the left hand end . The computer calculated and integration method profiles are exactly the same . This means that the computer program uses the integration method to obtain its results . The experimental profile is again slightly greater at the extreme . This is probably due to fatigue or an inaccurate value of . < heading > Setup Three:</heading > This setup creates some complication for predicting the deflection profile using the computer . external loads have to be used , firstly the actual load of at from the left and the reaction force ( Q ) of the middle support . This reaction force is working upwards so it should be input as a negative load at from the left . Setup is similar to accept it does n't have the central support . The mid deflection of is 20.9 mm . If there were a support in the centre of it would not deflect here . In setup the load is central , this can be thought of as the reaction force of the central support in setup . The load should be thought of as working upwards , but this gives a deflection of . The beam would be bent upwards by approximately 10 mm in the centre . Clearly this is not the reaction force required to give a deflection of . < figure/>Therefore a ratio of the deflections multiplied by the load gives the required reaction force .   FORMULA   shows little variation between the experimental and computer calculated deflection profiles . The computer profile has slightly greater deflection at the extremes . In practise the central support is not a knife - edge or ' true ' point load as the computer simulation takes it to be . Therefore the surface area of the support reduces the overall deflection in practise .",0
"< abstract><heading > Abstract</heading > The study looks at how biotic indices are used to determine the quality of water . The study used the biological monitoring working party test to establish the quality of streams in . The organisms that were identified and allocated a score were benthic macroinvertebrates , from the score of these organisms it was calculated that both stream were in excellent quality . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > This study was conducted at Rennes field centre in , . The study was on benthic macroinvertebrates , the areas of benthos organisms looked at were herpobenthos which live on the sediment and endobenthos communities living on or in rocks ( etl ) . The site of the practical was the upper and lower stream that flows in and out of the lake E'tang du châtenany . < figure/><picture/><picture/>The study was carried out on a freshwater ecosystem because a slight change in the physiochemical environment will have an effect on the inhabitants of that stream , often causing them to die out or migrate elsewhere . This then means you can tell the quality of the stream by its inhabitants , if the stream is full of species that are very sensitive to pollution then the steam is in excellent quality . On the other hand if the stream is only inhabited by blood worms which can live in areas with very low oxygen , or any other benthic macroinvertebrates with a similar tolerance to low oxygen levels , then it suggests a very poor quality stream . This practical used the score system developed by the biological monitoring working party ( BMWP ) to assess how polluted the streams at the centre are . The system use a score method to determine the pollution levels , it identifies species down to there family and the assigns them a score based on how tolerant they are to pollution . The species with a high score belong to a family which has a low tolerant to pollution , and a species with a low score belongs to a family that has a high tolerant to pollution . < heading > Aims</heading > To establish how clean the streams at Rennes centre are by using a biotic index to carried out a comparison of the quality of the streams . Then to asses the accuracy of the biological test conducted . < heading > Method</heading > Place a pond net into the stream , use person to hold the pond net flat against the stream bed and the other person kicks at the stream bed . The kicking disturbs the stream bed and the inhabitants go into the net . The person kicking should kick for then the net should be removed from the stream . Take a plastic tray and place a small amount of stream water into it , rub the pond net out into the tray so all the organisms are removed from the net . Take another sample of this stream by repeat this process . Collect fairly large rocks from the stream and take them and the organisms back to the lab and key any aquatic life found in the sample and on the rocks . Once they are identified give them there score then calculate there quality index . Repeat this process for the other stream < heading > Results</heading><heading > Site 1 lower stream</heading><table/ > FORMULA    FORMULA      < heading > Site 2 upper stream</heading><table/ > FORMULA    FORMULA      < heading > Class results Site lower stream . < /heading><table/>Calculations to work out the over all water quality of stream one .   FORMULA    FORMULA      < heading > Class results Upper stream</heading><table/>Calculations to work out the over all water quality of stream .   FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA      < heading > Discussion < /heading > The results from this study show that the upper and lower streams that flow into and out of du châtenanyand are both capable of supporting macroinvertebrates that are sensitive to pollution . Both streams score or in words Excellent Quality on the test . However looking at the organisms individually shows the upper stream to have a lower proportion of organisms with a high tolerant to pollution , of the organisms collected from this stream were allocated a score of below . The lower stream had of the specimens collected with a score bellow . This suggested that should the streams become polluted the lower stream would contain a higher diversity than the upper stream . The upper stream existed in a more fragile state , should the biotic or abiotic factors of that stream change then a large proportion i.e of its diversity will be affected , this may result in the effected species disappearing , or changing in behaviour or morphology ( Unknown author ( cited from and , ) . This study has looked at the presents or absence of a species and determined the quality of these streams from this analysis . Pollution comes in a variety of form from eutrophication to the presents of an exotic organism ( Unknown Author ( b ) ) . By analysing the streams with just a biological test it has limited the results to only showing the types of pollution the test is capable of detecting . The streams may be polluted by a form of pathogen that benthic macroinvertebrates are not affected by ( , ) . On the other hand if there is a form of pollution present that affects directly the characteristics of benthic macroinvertebrates rather than the numbers of species present in this ecosystem , it may not have been detected . This would be due to the pollutant affecting a different aspect such as the physiology or behaviour of these organisms , rather than the amount present and this was not an aspect looked at in this study . It is impossible to test every chemical for environmental effects , some chemicals used may be acting as pollutants , without anyone realising it , and if they are the effects they can have on the environment can be expressed in a variety of ways . The biological monitoring scheme looks at types of effects pollution can have ( , ) . The type of biological monitoring looks at the presents or absence of a species , which is what this study has done . The type is bioaccumulation of a pollutant , the type is the effect of pollutants on organisms and the final type looks at changes in genetics . This study failed to look at the other effects of pollution and therefore deems the streams in excellent quality with out looking at all the aspects / side effects of pollution . From a study conducted on the quality of water world wide it was found that nearly all water bodies contain several different forms of pollution ( Andrew . R.W etl ) . So from only looking at effect pollution can have on a stream it is plausible to assume that a form of pollution may be present in these streams that we have not looked / tested for . To allow a more accurate analysis of these streams more tests have to be conducted . Not only dose this study use test which provides a limited view on the quality of the water but it also provides a ' snapshot ' ( , ) into the quality . The test works on a biological monitoring principle , all biological tests can tell you is the quality of the water at the instant of time that the sample was taken . Should another test be conducted at a latter date the results may have a very different out come . The result obtained from this study not only tell us about the quality of the stream put also gives an indication of the quality of the found between the streams . If the stream flowing into the was in excellent quality and the stream flowing out was in poor quality , it could have been likely that there was a pollutant in the that was flowing slowly out of the Lake into the lower stream . However both streams are in the same condition so it is highly likely that the Lake is in the same condition as the streams , however this assumption is not reliable , for a lake is far more susceptible to pollution than a river or fast flowing streams . A pollutant that is released into a has anywhere to build up , because that 's how long it can take for water in a Lake to be replaced ( Andrew . R.W etl ) . A fast flowing stream or river can wash the pollutant away so it does not get the chance to reach hazardous levels . In this project the streams looked at were slow flowing so it is highly likely that the streams and lake are in the same state , however to confirm this a test would have to be conducted on the Lake . This method of testing water quality is acceptable for of the world 's water supply ( Andrew . R.W etl ) . The streams were tested by using biotic indices that look at benthic macroinvertebrates which are only found in fresh water streams and . of the worlds water is found in ocean , atmosphere , polar ice capes and aquifers , the method of testing used in this practical is limited and inappropriate for determining the water quality world wide . < heading > Conclusion</heading > This study shows both the upper and lower streams flowing in and out of du châtenany to be in excellent quality . This conclusion was reach after the assessment of test , which is incapable of assessing all aspects of pollution . The study on the quality of water for these streams shows an important point , that relying on test is insufficient . There is no single test capable of determining the quality of water alone , pollution can affect the environment in a wide range of ways . To be able to test for all the effects pollution can have on an environment a wider rang of tests need to be conducted . The results drawn from this study are obsolete by now , the test undertaken shows the quality of the streams at the time the sample was taken . The accurate conclusion that can be drawn from these results is : at the time the sample was taken the streams were found to be in excellent condition to support benthic macroinvertebrates . As to whether any pollutants were present that would not effect benthic macroinvertebrates put other inhabitants of the stream remains unclear . For a more accurate evaluation on the streams water quality a more in depth testing process will need to be conducted .","< abstract><heading > Abstract</heading > A modern networked economy brings with it inherent risks to the security and stability of that economy , much as any other before the advent of the Internet has . But the world of E - Enterprise presents a new and unseen threat - that of the hacker . Whether of malicious intent or otherwise , attempts to break the security of high - profile web sites and E - Businesses are rife , and it is both the duty and responsibility of an organisation to protect against them . This essay examines the electronic threats to of biggest electronic retailers - Amazon.co.uk - using a number of published techniques to model these threats , their potential impacts , and proposes measures for preventing them or limiting the damage they cause . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > Amazon.co.uk has achieved almost unrivalled success as a purely - online retailer . The core value in 's business is not the products that they sell - though these do generate a substantial revenue , but in the ( which allows users to buy and sell from each other ) and , crucially , the licensing of 's technical architecture and model to other organisations . It is the success of 's architecture and model that has created huge value in others wishing to use it to sell their own products . The diagram below represents a simplified view of the Amazon.co.uk system , from a networking point of view . It is this view that will be used to model the threats to 's business and this view that will be built upon in each stage of this project . < figure/>Each section of this document will elaborate on the threats facing through a number of techniques . < list > Identifying ComponentsListing and explaining components comprising the greater Amazon.co.uk web siteModelling ThreatsUsing to expand upon threats to 's businessRisk Assessment ReportRe - writing the threat template to include priorities and The step in examining the threats to the Amazon.co.uk web site is to observe and analyse its behaviour and interactions with the user - the place a hacker or inquisitive person will look for potential holes in the interface that can be exploited . Through usage of the Amazon.co.uk website , and a full examination of its functionality , the core components providing that functionality can be deduced . The table below lists a name for each component that is inferred , and the text below describes the behaviour of that component and its purpose in achieving a business goal . < heading > Product catalogue browsing component</heading > Throughout the website the user has the ability to browse for a product by clicking on the tabs on the navigation bar to change product type ( books , electronics , videos etc ) , and further narrow the enquiry through category ( such as genre ) displayed on the left - hand navigation area . The results of the enquiry are displayed with products in the chosen categories pulled from the database displayed as search results displayed in a page - by - page layout . < heading > Search component</heading > The Amazon.co.uk website gives the user the ability to search for a product by entering a term(s ) into a text field and clicking the GO button . The ability is also provided to search within a particular ' shop ' ( section - see above ) such as DVDs , CDs , or books , and a ' Power Search ' option is also provided for books , allowing the user to specify many other criteria such as publication date or number . Results matching or partially matching corresponding fields of products in the database are displayed and formatted to the user , and can be viewed individually in greater detail . < heading > Shopping Basket component</heading > Users have the ability to add , remove , and change quantities of items in a virtual ' shopping basket ' . These items are held indefinitely and the website uses to record which products are stored in the shopping basket for unregistered users , registered users have a shopping basket stored in their account records on the server side database , making the shopping basket accessible from any internet - connected device . Users have the ability to discard the contents of the shopping basket or proceed to purchase the items in it . < heading > Saved Items / ' Wish List ' component</heading > An extension to the Shopping Basket component , users can click a button on a product page to ' . The product then appears under the section but is not added to the cart , but the user has the option to move items to the regular or to remove them at any point . This information is , again , stored server - side for registered users . < heading > Purchasing component / Possibly the most important function supporting the business , the buying component allows users to ' check - out ' the items stored in their shopping basket by clicking the ' Proceed to Checkout ' button . This walks the user through a number of steps , summarised below : Signing - in ( existing users . This checks the database for a valid username / password using an encrypted secure HTTP ( https ) connection . New users are walked - through the process of entering personal , payment , and delivery details , and selecting a username ( the user 's email address ) and password . Their details are stored as a new record on the customer database . Users are prompted to select a delivery address from a number of previously used addresses stored with their customer record . Similarly , users must select a credit / debit card from a list of prior cards used for payment . A new card may be added . A summary screen is shown , with all the items to be ordered , delivery type , costs and total . certificates can be redeemed by entering the code on the certificate , which is checked against a database of gift certificate numbers , and appropriate balance deducted from the order . On clicking the ' Place Your Order ' button , stock information is updated , order information passed to dispatch departments / order fulfilment personnel , and the user sent a confirmation email . < heading component</heading > On the main navigation bar on each page is a hyperlink to take the user to the ' Your Account ' section of the website . Clicking this button brings up , upon logging - in successfully , a page displaying information about the user that is held in the Amazon.co.uk customer database , and gives the user the option to change or update that data . Furthermore , open and past orders are available to view , and tracking features present the user with basic information about the current stage of processing their order has reached and an estimated shipping / arrival date , based on information logged in the order processing database . < heading > Customised homepage / ' Your Store ' / Product Reviewing</heading > Returning , registered users of Amazon.co.uk , identified by logging - in or by cookies stored on their machine from a prior visit , are presented with a personalised front page to . This page includes a number of recommendations and new products targeted at the user displayed in a large , central format - these recommendations are made using server - side logic to determine related products in similar categories , based on information stored in the database about products the user has bought , searched for and viewed in the past . In addition , where another user of has bought the same product(s ) as the user , other items they purchased in the same transaction are often listed on this front page . This clever data mining often achieves the goal of suggesting to the user products that another user with similar interests has bought , aiming to boots sales . By navigating to the more detailed ' Your Store ' section , users are presented with a list of recommendations that can be ranked - each product can be stricken - off as already owned or ' not interested ' , and given stars indicating the relevance / interest to the user of that particular recommendation . This scoring is updated in the database and new , more suitable recommendations are selected from the products based on the improved criteria and displayed instantly to the user . Users can also write reviews for products they have purchased in the past to inform others interested in a particular product - each review , along with associated ranking and credited by the username of the reviewer , is stored in the database cluster and appended to the product information page . < picture/><heading > Modelling Threats</heading > For the purposes of this report , it is assumed that the overview analysis revealing the gateway firewall , and the encryption of personal data using the signup , login , and purchasing process identified within the components described above , present the complete picture of the security measures in Amazon.co.uk 's e - commerce web site . These security measures will now be securitised and dangers to 's business activities will be described , measured and quantified using provided by [ ] . This is to be accomplished through a number of phases , working through , and tabulated below . < heading > Amazon.co.uk 's assets</heading > The step for any corporation requiring security to protect their business is an assessment of the assets they wish to protect , and analysis of the value of those assets in order to determine the appropriate balance of cost and security depending on the cost to the business of a compromise to the security of a given asset . The following table lists the chief assets of Amazon.co.uk 's business with a brief evaluation of their value to the business . < heading > Customer Database</heading > Amazon.co.uk holds a large volume of personal data about its customers on its customer database , including names , contact details , and credit / debit card details . These are not only extremely valuable to the individuals they belong to , but are mandated under to take appropriate measures to protect the security and integrity of this data . Compromise of this database could lead to heavy fines for negligence , and severely impacted sales due to shaken customer confidence in Amazon.co.uk < heading > Products Database</heading > The back - end of Amazon.co.uk contains , within the database cluster , a good deal of data about each product , and associated reviews , rankings , stock data , prices and other statistics . This data is chiefly used to produce the online catalogue by inserting wrapping HTML around it to produce a dynamic and interactive product page of each item . Without this data , the website would be unable to function and disrupt the ability for users to browse , search and buy items . It is also critical that the accuracy of this data be protected , for instance ensuring prices and stock are correct to safeguard sales revenue and successful fulfilment of orders . < heading > Sales and Statistics data</heading > Amazon.co.uk maintain a large archive of data relating to sales statistics in the cluster that is constantly being updated as transactions are processed through the web site . This data records product volumes sold , times and dates of sales , types of user that purchase particular items , and many other demographics . This data is important to the marketing strategies of the organisation and is mined to predict trends regarding sales and to make business decisions on products to stock , pricing , marketing , and many other areas in the sell space of the businesses ' function , making this data , and the protection of it from unauthorised access or modification , very important . < heading > Back - end website application and code</heading > The Amazon.co.uk website is generated dynamically using a combination of server - side dynamic HTML and client - side , using a custom ( programming library ) containing the functions used by the Amazon.co.uk web application . This application , and all the code generating the pages of the website are patented , copyrighted works and are valuable to - theft of these could lead to trade secrets and technology secrets being leaked to competitors , and corruption or change of these files could lead to unexpected or undesirable behaviour of the website and subsequent disruption to transactions . < heading > Amazon.co.uk internal network and link to Internet</heading > The logic and programming governing the behaviour of the network is contained within its network hardware . Router and switch configurations , firewall rules and programming , server access , restrictions , and policies are all important and disruption or change to these could cause the operation of the internal network , or the connection to the internet ( and thus customers ) to be threatened . < heading > Architecture Overview</heading > With a model of the Amazon.co.uk website , produced through the earlier table of components that comprise the whole , the next step in the process is to identify the technologies in use by that underlay these components and allow them to function as intended . The following table shows a list of those technologies chiefly used by the web application and supporting infrastructure , and details of where they are employed . < table/><heading > Architecture Diagrams</heading > The stage in mandates the creation of or more diagrams . These diagrams ' describe the composition and structure of the application ' [ 1 ] and graphically represent ' Trust Boundaries ' - these are the realms in which or more subsystem(s ) may trust the authority of each other . Data received by a subsystem from outside of its trust boundary should be assumed to be harmful , malicious or incorrect . < figure/><figure/><heading > Identifying Threats</heading > The step in the process is to identify and document specific threats to the assets of Amazon.co.uk - from the point of view of the network , host and application - and target at exploiting weaknesses of the specific technologies identified earlier . The following table lists and describes each threat in turn , and categorises them using 's STRIDE methodology [ 7 ] , into the following categories : Spoofing , Tampering , Repudiation , Information Disclosure , Denial - of - Service and Elevation of Privilege . Risk is calculated based upon the formula Risk = Probability * Damage Potential where Probability and Damage Potential are ranked on a scale of , where is very unlikely / minimal damage and is certainty / catastrophic damage . < table/><table/><table/><table/><table/><table/><heading > Threat Rating</heading > Each of the threats listed and tabulated above is given another dimension in the rating assigned to it for ' risk ' . This is accomplished using the Microsoft threat rating model - where each of the following factors are examined for each security threat and impact rated as High ( 3 ) , Medium ( 2 ) , or   Low ( 1 ): Damage Potential , Reproducibility , Exploitability , Affected Users and Discoverability ( hence the abbreviation ) . The table below shows each of the threats identified previously , along with an associated score for each component of the schema representing its impact ( Low , Medium or High ) . The total overall threat rating is given by the sum of these individual ratings , and is translated into an overall Low ( - 7 total score ) , Medium ( - 11 total score ) or High ( - 15 total score ) . < table/><heading > Risk Assessment Report</heading > With the ratings determined in the previous section , each of the core threat - templates that have been described above have now been subjected to factors of analysis to determine the risk and severity attached to each . As such , they can be re - written , as below , to incorporate the Threat ratings - and sorted to indicate the highest priority threat , flowing down to the threat with the lowest priority . N.B. For the sake of brevity , and Countermeasures have been excluded - please see earlier Threat Description Templates . < table/><table/><table/><table/><table/><table/>In accordance with the overview provided by the re - ordered , rated and priorities templates of the top threat templates , it is possible to provide ( i ) A description of the most critical threats facing Amazon.co.uk 's business and ( ii ) Countermeasures recommended to defend against these threats . of the chief threats facing Amazon.co.uk , and suggested countermeasures to those threats , are : < list><heading > Threat</heading>1 ( sniffing ) on unsecured data transmission ( customer details , etc.)2 access to database leading to damage / theft of data3 Poisoning SQL queries through bad validation / checking4 attack on Unauthorised Access7 Theft of customer account details & credit card fraud ( - phishing websites masquerading as Amazon.co.uk9 overflows from attacks on open ports ( e.g. ODBC port , , , Malicious from user input ( e.g. product reviews)</list><list><heading > Countermeasure</heading>1 Encrypting form data and cookie transactions , disabling option to pay using unsecured server2 Secure database access policy , lowest - possible privileges3 Validate ALL user input before allowing it to pass query to database using client - side embedded scripts and server - side database rules and permissions , or use pre - constructed database queries executed remotely by database itself4 firewall software to detect and combat dropped SYN ( TCP Synchronise ) packets and detect / filter trafficLarge bandwidth and web server redundancy to ' soak up ' attacks5 Robust , high - speed virus scanning at all entry points ( gateways such as main firewall ) , up - to - date patched systems6 Effective permissions on web server , high - strength password policy for router , firewall , and Linux system users7 Enforcement of strong password policy for customer accounts , encrypted credit card details , effective security policies ( such as only delivering ordered goods to credit card registered policies for ensuring customer can differentiate genuine website ( site certificate authorities ) , authentication through - party checking authorities with encrypted connections9 Closing ALL unnecessary ports , patching all servers to latest version regularly , including open ports on database servers10 Lock - down , validate and filter user input in all areas where long strings can be sent to web server ( such as product reviews)</list >",0
"Montaigne wrote "" To the Reader "" after he had finished the Essays ; it was there to introduce what was to come and set the tone for the rest of his writing . However , it was not thought to have been the original preface ; "" On idleness "" was another proposed preface to 's work . "" To the Reader "" demands the reader 's attention from the line when directly addresses ' You ... Reader ' . This adds an element of informality and continues in a discursive style from then on . is able to be very undeviating with his intent telling the reader exactly what he thinks they need to know and about his intentions for writing these Essays . He declares that , ' I myself am the subject of my book ' and at the same time it is ' a book whose faith can be trusted ' . This gives the reader a good sense that this book will be straightforward and honest because it is a book that is using to show something of himself and not that he is writing to construct a fictional sense of himself . Therefore the reader will feel that they have some special insight into his life and his personality , somehow that they know him without having met him . This would allow the reader to appreciate many more of the sections in the book because they are not being forced to agree with his ideas , they would not be shunned if they did n't like it , they merely get some grasp of what , himself would have thought about many different subjects . As he says himself , ' I have not been concerned to serve you nor my reputation ' which pulls the reader in even more and would make them want to carry on reading because they are having nothing imposed upon them . "" On idleness "" is presented in the book of Essays but is thought to have been an alternative preface , mostly because of the way it addressed the reader and declared what proposed to do with his works in a similar way as in "" To the Reader "" . Having read "" To the Reader "" allows whoever is reading this to appreciate it more than if they had not because the reader will already be familiar with 's discursive language and will be sure of his style and what he is attempting to show . However , this will also be very interesting to the reader because having read the preface they will be able to see another of 's reasons for writing the Essays . Not only did he write these books , ' to the private benefit of my friends and kinsmen so that , having lost me ( as they must do soon ) they can kind [ me ] here again ' as he states in "" To the Reader "" ; he also seems to have written it to keep ' a record ' of the workings of his mind while he is retired to his estate as "" On idleness "" points out . With both of these pieces , though , it would be clear to the reader this early on that is concerned about getting older and is becoming increasingly sure of himself and coming to the end of his life . "" On presumption "" is a section in book that is moreso concerned with himself and the ability for people to become too loving of themselves . This is described as a glory or ' vainglory ' and ' over - high opinion we conceive of our own worth ' , but the reader with be able to appreciate ( from having read "" To the Reader "" especially ) that is not one to revel in his own self - worth ; on the contrary , he often humbles himself as he did in "" To the Reader "" , ' my powers are inadequate ' and in "" On idleness "" he states that these Essays are not to flatter himself , but to ' make my mind ashamed of itself ' . consistently depicts himself honestly and especially so in "" On presumption "" ; however the reader may only feel reassured that this is honest if they have read "" To the Reader "" and are able to appreciate 's tone and style . Book , chapter seventeen therefore reinforces 's honestly and modesty again and the reader is able to feel that they further get a deeper insight into , the man . As he declares , ' I find myself bogged down in the laws of etiquette ' , it is clear that is not the conventional man who would be expected to be familiar and concerned with the profile they have in the court . As seen in it is clear that people at this time that were surrounded by the upper classes , were always concerned with the image they project and there were very clear codes of behaviour and conduct surrounding this . Yet in "" On presumption "" says that it is this kind of self - assurance and esteeming of oneself is not desirable for him and he is the to avoid any appraisal for his work because , and foremost , he has not written it for recognition . He even considers that the language with which he writes is ' rough and disdainful ' , and also that he has ' no idea how to please , delight or titillate ' . But ironically it is this not caring or trying to please that allows the reader to appreciate his work even more and intrigues them further . In "" On kinds of social intercourse ' goes on to write about the things that please him . He details why it is that he enjoys loving friendships , loving relationships and reading books but also the negative aspects of all of these . 's tone , again , is in - keeping with what the reader is already familiar with . He humbles himself again and makes it clear that in his work he is embarking on a ' study ' of the mind and not to feed his ego by being concerned about himself . However , he is aware that ' no occupation is more powerful , or more feeble , than entertaining one 's own thoughts ' therefore keeping the reader comfortable knowing that is not claiming self - importance . also discusses briefly how he enjoys to ' probe himself ' and that there is some more value in exposing his soul rather than to ' stock it up ' . He presents the reader with the complexities that he faces when writing these books and that he is aware how ' no occupation is more powerful or more feeble than entertaining one 's own thoughts ' . Having read "" To the Reader "" it is important to realise how this is a point that has made many times and that he is merely reinforcing it again to show the reader even more how he does n't regard himself highly and how they can appreciate what he has to say but not dwell on it because , after all , it is ' feeble ' . He goes on to talk of loving friendships and how difficult they are to come across , bearing in mind that he only concedes to have had only proper friendship , it would occur to the reader that the aim of this writing was not just all has stated but also to fill some void that not having a deep , loving friendship creates . It is also clear that feels a great sense of loss from the death of his friend and so writing in this way is a method to keep his mind occupied but also way that he will be able to continue until his death ( a matter of which he is very aware of and concerned about ) . To appreciate this text and the others fully , it is important to have read "" To the Reader "" because otherwise the reader may think that if does not regard himself too highly then there was little point in him writing these works , which are almost memoirs . However , having read "" To the Reader "" and then the texts that were to follow the reader can appreciate the writings of and his selfless attitude as well as having some idea of the man himself . The advantages to having presented "" To the Reader "" as the preface for his works are that is to directly address the reader showing he is aware that they have been drawn to his book , also that he does n't want them to think he wanted them to be drawn to his work because he did n't write it for them exclusively or to get their recognition , but furthermore that he can allow them to appreciate his work as an outsider looking in on the workings of his mind without them having to agree with or like his work , almost as if he has already criticised it himself therefore protecting it from negative criticism .","Lord Denning , renowned idol of the judicial system is known for his bold creativity and unashamed disrespect for precedent . Denning chooses to "" deal on principle "" with matters where law fails claimants , assisting the development of occupational rights in the home , using astonishingly inventive justifications . I shall examine his efforts on establishing wives equity in the home , rights for deserted wives , and proprietary estoppel , critically analysing his justification and intuitive approaches : was he right , why was such radical judicial activity necessary and were his ' achievements ' really progress ? < fnote > Lord Denning , The Due Process of Law on H v H ( 1947 ) TLR at < /fnote > Denning 's most memorable contribution was his gift to women : the ' deserted wife 's equity , ' an example of the fabled judicial law creation that Denning is so fondly renowned . When Denning was appointed , law was undergoing radical reform concerning gender equality and women 's rights . Aged patriarchal values of male superiority were staging their last strive for survival , whilst law reform was typically unhurried . Women had restricted proprietary rights and the majority of title papers were in the husband 's name . "" Under the old common law as it existed until she had no rights at all apart from those of her husband . She was treated by the law more like a piece of furniture than anything else . "" When a husband deserted his wife , she had no legal right to remain in the home , Denning commenting : "" I could see an injustice , it cried out for a remedy . "" His reform opportunity was in H v H where a deserted wife was threatened with eviction when the husband wanted to sell their matrimonial home . In an act of pure judicial creativity , Denning "" did not cite a single case "" and "" dealt with it on principle , "" claiming that "" at common law the husband has no right to turn the wife out of the house , "" and that "" he has no right in law to claim possession except under . "" Whilst the decision grasped the just principle it stood alone , unprecedented and heavily reliant on S17 entitling judges to "" make such an order with respect to property in dispute as he thinks fit . "" Denning proclaimed it afforded "" a free hand to do what is just . "" The wife was saved . < fnote > Lord Denning , The Due Process of Law < /fnote><fnote > H v H ( 1947 ) TLR at < /fnote><fnote > Lord Denning , The Due Process of Law on H v H ( 1947 ) TLR at < /fnote><fnote > Lord Denning in H v H ( 1947 ) TLR at as expressed in "" Lord Denning , Due Process of Law "" < /fnote > The decision was not without legal footing : inspiration for 's ingenious use stemmed from in . stated that a man can not treat his wife as a stranger ( and thus evict her ) . Denning questioned why the position should change if the man wronged and deserted , suggesting "" it is the husbands duty to provide the woman with a roof over her head ; and by providing the matrimonial home , he gives her an authority to be there "" which is irrevocable . His beliefs are morally grounded , pragmatic and just , providing order in a changing society with increasing separation . v McWhirter entrenches the rule , Denning this time elaborating and affording the wife an equitable right to remain in the home ; believing equity must answer law 's failings . This was a fictitious creation . Furthermore , exaggerates protection , the right becoming binding on successors in title ; in this instance the trustee of the husbands bankruptcy , Denning deciding that "" of all the creditors , she has the most crying claim of all . "" Women were therefore justly protected from eviction by mistresses , trustees , or husband / purchaser collaborations . < fnote > Shipman v Shipman ( ) at , TLR , CA < /fnote><fnote > Bendall v McWhirter ( ) QB 466 < /fnote><fnote > Lord Denning , The Due Process of Law < /fnote > The Lords in National Provincial v was unanimous in holding that deserted wives had no equity in the home , crushing Denning 's principle . Denning crossed the line from judge to law maker , stating that despite absence of legal or equitable interests wives have a "" licence coupled with equity , "" "" enforceable against any successor except a purchaser for full value without notice . "" Purists and colleagues objected , the stating "" legislation , not litigation is the only satisfactory way of delimiting the bounds of so complex subject . "" "" Protection for the wife should ... be provided by statutory amendments ... rather than judicial invention . "" Judicial freedom is necessary to achieve justice , e.g. literal interpretation is notoriously unjust , yet for law to be a certain , democratic machine judges can not be allowed free reign . The value was acknowledged , not the justification . Indeed , Formalistic theories ( e.g. ) stress the importance of judicial segregation to create a cohesive , democratic system . < fnote v ( ) Ch < /fnote><fnote > as per Lord in v ( ) < /fnote><fnote > as per Lord in v ( ) < /fnote><fnote > Law Quarterly Review ( LQR ) by Law Quarterly Review ( LQR ) by < /fnote > Yet Denning actions were true hallmarks of justice ; it was ingenious , providing practical solutions decided "" on principle . "" It was elastic , and like his other creations it was expanded until restrained by the ever conscious . Finally it afforded women the dignity and respect they deserved , illustrating the inadequacy and gender inequality of legislative provisions . Perhaps Denning was justified , a stating "" we think it is right to afford this protection to a deserted wife . "" Denning himself believes that it may have taken "" "" until other provisions would have been made . From Feminist perspectives the decision has immense value , acknowledging the male paradigm and deconstructing the patriarchy that subordinates women in the home . In a liberal society , where public and private spheres of life are divided , existing proprietary rights excluded women , assisting their suppression . Why should women surrender their rights , acknowledging male superiority ? Denning assured law did not fail women . The ethos continued : introduced a in reinstating provisions , becoming the Matrimonial Homes Act . Denning was principally correct , providing temporary justice , provoking creation of suitable legislation . < fnote and Divorce ( Cmnd . 9678 ( ) , p.180 ) Paragraph < /fnote><fnote > Lord Denning , The Due Process of Law < /fnote><fnote > Matrimonial Homes Act 1967 < /fnote > Denning made judgements concerning proprietary estoppel ; where an estate owner expressly or impliedly creates informal assurances concerning existing or future land rights , and then attempts an unconscientious withdrawal from the representation which another has relied to their detriment . Inwards v is a classic example , where a son built on his fathers land , and once conveyed in the will faced eviction owing to the agreements informal nature . Denning applies estoppel as it is the only plausible solution : the law disfavours informal creation of rights ( no deed / registration ) , gratuitous promises are unenforceable ( not contractual ) , voluntarily rendered services are not compensational and consensual occupation is not adverse possession . Denning imposed equity : it is "" a licence coupled with equity "" and implies a promise , stating it need not fail as "" the interest to be secured has not been expressly indicated . . . the court must look at the circumstances in each case to decide in what way the equity can be satisfied . "" This was just , and was expressly affirmed by . It was a pragmatic solution to a commonplace problem : families rarely create formal agreements ; illustrating Denning as grounded and understanding : not the stereotypical judge . < fnote > Inwards v ( ) , CA < /fnote><fnote > Lord Denning in Inwards v ( ) , CA < /fnote><fnote > Lord Denning in Inwards v ( ) , CA < /fnote > The issues were whether equity was transferable to parties . Law appeared to limit equity as a personal interest , yet equity is generally freely transmissible to parties . Denning was ahead of his time , clearly supporting this transition in Ives Investment v High , stating equity as "" available to successors in title , "" reiterating his comment in . increasing support exists , perhaps Denning was right . < fnote > E.R. Ives Investment Ltd. V High(1967 ) QB 379 CA < /fnote > A related development concerned contractual licences and the creation of equities . Traditional doctrine holds that contractual licences confer no proprietary interests upon the licensee , thus even with actual occupation or receivership of rents and profits the contractual licence never forms an overriding interest under ) . This reflects orthodox views that contracts are personal . Denning created controversy , suggesting that licences coupled with equity could affect parties , almost akin to a proprietary right , overriding the privity of contract principle . He was the "" foremost protagonist of the theory , "" lifting the contractual licence to a status of "" virtual equitable interest . "" Denning without authority , maintained that in registered land a contractual licence coupled with actual occupation constituted an overriding interest ; reiterating his own comments expressed in v that equitable intervention afforded contractual licences a "" force and validity of their own , which could bind parties . "" Known as the Denning doctrine it was contentious because of the power it afforded the court : contractual licences could be protected against most other rights . Denning believed that equity could protect the licensee from wrongful revocation . It was applied in , where the occupier of a cottage , sold from an estate at a reduced price on the contractual agreement that she could reside there rent - free for life now faced eviction from the new owners . Denning explored the possibilities . There was no tenancy at will as she could not determine the agreement , and was inconsistent with the requirements . It was not a life tenancy as she had no power of sale , and was contrary to the intentions of the parties , and it was no other form of tenancy as there was in absolute , required by v Chantler . < fnote > S70 ( 1 ) ( g ) Law of Property Act < /fnote><fnote > Law of Property Volume II : Property ( : Hart , ) < /fnote><fnote > Law of Property Volume II : Property ( : Hart , ) < /fnote><fnote v Errington and Woods ( ) KB < /fnote><fnote > Lord Denning MR < /fnote><fnote > Binnons v Evans ( ) 1 Ch , < /fnote><fnote > Lace v Chantler < /fnote > Denning believed that it should be an equitable interest : under equity will not turn out an occupier if that breaches the contract . The court gave the contract an equitable construction , imposing a constructive trust . Realistically the contractual licence became binding upon the party where they have full notice of it . It was the just result for the case , but as a principle it attracted wide criticism . stated contractual licences "" could only ever be private arrangements , "" and LJ named Denning 's doctrine as a "" far reaching statement of principle , "" indicating that it could not bind parties . Criticism likened the doctrine to "" a cinema ticket creating a proprietary right , "" an extreme but natural possibility and indication of how dangerously limitless judicial creations could become . Denning was fortunately correct , perhaps justified , but I question whether society would tolerate such undemocratic law creation . Such behaviour is potentially perilous , disrespecting the impartiality and autonomy of law establishment . Denning synthesised law , but it achieved justice despite being denounced . It was the only way to achieve the right result , so despite subsequent overruling it served its purpose : Denning 's bold move out of line was entirely worthwhile . < fnote > Foster v Robinson ( ) < /fnote><fnote > LJ Russell in V Hastings Car Mart < /fnote><fnote > lJ Fox in > Law of Property Volume II : Property ( : Hart , ) < /fnote > Denning contributed immensely to the development of women 's rights in the home , akin to his work for the ' deserted wife 's equity . ' Where issues continued for deserted wives , normal women were gaining a right in the home despite registration in the husbands ' name , with Denning at the forefront . The achievement was establishing a share in the proceeds of sale for the wife , Denning protesting against his fellows in v Hoddinott where the court ruled that wife 's would not receive any proceeds unless contracted to do so . Denning effectively overruled this , disregarding the doctrine of precedent , and stating that "" beneficial interests in the matrimonial , or furniture , belongs to or the other absolutely , or it is clear that they intended to hold it in definite shares . The court will give effect to these intentions ; "" striking an accommodating approach . In v Rimmer , Denning ruled to give equal share ; this was fair as she had made substantial mortgage repayments , the decision effectively giving the courts a free hand . < fnote > Hoddinott v Hoddinott ( ) KB < /fnote><fnote > Rimmer v Rimmer < /fnote > Subsequent progression established women a share in the house , however precedent was restricting : "" The wife had right to the house or any share in it unless she could show a contract by the husband with her or a gift by him to her or a trust by him for her in regard to it . "" Denning disregarded this stating , "" I do think that line of argument is valid ... in many cases ... the intention of the parties is not clear ... the court has to attribute an intention to them , "" again affording the judge a ' free hand . ' Denning 's approach is refreshingly realistic for the period , suggesting that when living together "" it does not matter who does the saving or the spending or payments : "" you intend to "" live together for the rest of your lives . "" His application ensured justice in a good many cases , e.g. v and he extended and justified the principle once again by using in , similar to the deserted wife 's equity . He stated "" ... I prefer to take the simple test : What is reasonable and fair in the circumstances as they have developed , seeing that they are circumstances which no one contemplated before ? "" This is Denning in his element , deciding the just result , then grappling for tool to implement it : creative but mischievous . S17 affords complete discretion , ideal justification where law fails to provide adequate provisions . At this period there was radical social adjustment , women 's rights markedly enlarged but law reacted lethargically , still supporting old patriarchal values : the social segregation and suppression of women . Denning was their hope , and whilst he abused his power , the greater good was worthwhile . Yet Denning moved too far , perhaps deliberately . The test was too broad and on appeal in the , whilst agreeing that "" the principle he sought to establish was fair in all circumstances that it had happened "" was only procedural : the test was questioned . Yet Denning and the court continued to use it , such as in and later Gissing v Gissing believing it "" fair and just . "" < fnote > Mr Tolstoy in Fribance v Fibance ( 1957 ) WLR 384 < /fnote><fnote > Lord Denning , The Due Process of Law < /fnote><fnote > Rimmer v Rimmer < /fnote><fnote > S17 Married Women 's Property Act 1882 < /fnote><fnote > Appleton v Appleton ( ) 1 WLR 25 < /fnote><fnote in Pettitt v Pettitt ( ) AC 777 < /fnote><fnote > Gissing v Gissing ( ) AC 886 < /fnote><fnote > Lord Denning , The Due Process of Law < /fnote > Consequently , the introduced the trust concept , Lord Diplock stating "" resulting , implied or constructive trusts "" could exist in Gissing on appeal . A fortnight later , Denning applied this in v , where Denning himself stated his previous cases "" still provide[d ] good guidance . "" Denning was right . Like the deserted wife 's equity the thrusts his principles intentionally , provokingly : eventually law must retaliate and find suitable legislative provisions . < fnote > Falconer v ( ) < /fnote><fnote > Lord Denning in v ( ) < /fnote > One inequality remained : where non - financial contributions were made . As Denning put it , why does the wife who stays at home and works for family 's good not acquire a share , when the wife who goes out to work does ? If Denning 's broad principle had been accepted , law could easily have developed , but the "" slammed the door . "" If "" she gives up paid work to devote herself to caring for her husband and child ... she finds herself with nothing she can call her own . "" Denning remedied injustice : the ' new model ' constructive trust , implemented in and , considering non - financial contributions ( e.g. home improvement ) . This built on Gissing , women who make non - financial contributions whilst the husband pays for everything were afforded justice . It was a pragmatic reflection of life when women were still domestically based . disapproved , stating "" no such general power exists . "" It was replaced by parliamentary provision , partially embodying his principle : S37 .   < fnote > Lord Denning , Due Process of Law < /fnote><fnote > Lord of in and Divorce ( Cmnd . 9678 ) < /fnote><fnote > Falconer v ( ) All ER < /fnote><fnote > Hall v Hall ( ) F.L.R. 379 < /fnote><fnote > Gissing v Gissing ( ) All ER < /fnote><fnote > Matrimonial Proceedings and Property Act < /fnote > With seemingly careless disregard for precedent and legal doctrine , Denning supported the underdog . Consistently stretching law until provoking parliamentary response ( e.g. deserted wife 's equity ) , and the necessary legal reform . He was inventive ( e.g. ) and innovative , not conforming to stereotypical images of dry and conservative judges . His gifts to women , at a time when society 's very structure resisted their fight for equality made him a model of morality , promoting equality and annihilating law 's male paradigm . It may have been until similar provisions were made . We can not ignore his boisterous , dangerous disregard for authority , leaving successive courts questioning the right principle to embody . such unconstitutional behaviour would not be tolerated , what was once named "" a naked usurpation of legislative function under the thin guise of interpretation . "" But the law is no longer what it was : an obsolete , inflexible machine adhering to an aged morality . Consistently he found the natural and ' right ' conclusion , perhaps the result the person in a street would state on hearing the facts . Despite tireless devotion , the defeated him , but eventually they introduced measures effectively similar to his . He was no dictator ; he loathed dictatorships , only abusing power out of necessity . "" The silent revolution has been accomplished . "" < fnote on a judgement of Lord Denning 's < /fnote><fnote > Lord Denning , Due Process of Law < /fnote >",0
"< heading > Introduction</heading > Farm diversification means a variety of different things to people , with ideas ranging from growing a wider range of produce to spread risk , to increasing the amount of income sourced from outside the agricultural industry or changing the use and marketing of a farm asset to add additional value to their worth over what its traditional agricultural use obtained ( Soffee 2003 ) . This report looks closely at the offering of livery services as a form of diversification as well as other forms of diversification , as many farmers are now using this to source more income by converting existing less utilizable buildings and land . The report includes practical steps took when he gave up farming his own arable land to focus on diversification on a holding at Hall where he originally converted his small barns into stables for livery . < heading > Identifying the Market</heading > At the heart of any agricultural enterprise is marketing , as there must be demand for what is produced before you consider how to make it and what price to sell it at . In the in the widening gap between farmers and consumers of their traditional products has led to an increase in farm diversification to allow farmers to regain some control of what they marketing to the public and how . A survey by found of farms now have diversity projects generating an average income of £ a year dominantly from lettings of converted farm buildings ( ) . Other popular diversification schemes include selling produce straight to the consumer and entering agri - environment schemes both of which require some sort of direct marketing to the general public . Visits farm , where trees were grown on his land and marketed direct to the public through a retail centre on the farm and where the farm 's own livestock was sold through their own on farm butcher shop were examples where farms had mastered the marketing of their own produce to the public perfectly to achieve higher gross margins on what they produced . Diversification into livery by a farmer means they are offering the use of assets of land and/or buildings to consumers oppose to a food or fibre product , meaning substantial demand for livery services must exist within close proximity of the intended site as the product can not be transported to the consumer , but it is the consumer who must travel to the product . So the initial step to diversification is assessing potential demand for product using the tools of market research , local knowledge and evaluation of local competing businesses . Market research data will also become invaluable at the later stages of development in helping to decide what scale of scheme can be sustained by the local market demand , what facilities customers most want that what will differentiate a particular livery site from the competition if the market is concentrated . Market research may also prove vital when sourcing capital , as proves to potential investors or banks that diversification in livery services will see safe and increased financial returns . The equine industry is the largest land based industry in the and the biggest employer in rural economies ( ) . It is also an industry that is expanding rapidly and despite the large costs involved for horse owners , there is a massive horses in the ( ) . So scope for livery businesses success appears to have promising potential , however the number of farmers diversifying into this sector is also huge , meaning in most areas horse owners often have a choice of livery stables to keep their horse in . knew of nearby farms also now offering livery stables since he first diversified and commented that new entrants will need to differentiate and market their stables well if they are to be successful . Once a target market has been established and their needs identified a site must be chosen and built to meet these demands . < heading > Location , Location , Location ! < /heading > Location is the prime factor that should be considered when diversifying . Often diversification plans involve use of redundant farm building , so location is already determined but still the following factors must be considered carefully before conversion begins . The general public may need access by foot ( environmental schemes ) or usually by vehicle . In the case of livery , good road access is essential so it is easy and convenient for customers to reach their horse everyday and roads and yards should be wide enough to accommodate horse trailers and trucks with ease . Good riding routes or bridleways must be within close proximity of stables without the need to use busy roads to access them . Access to open grass grazing in is also an essential factor for many horse owners . Security is also a priority not only of the horses themselves but the valuable equipment associated with keeping them such as trailers and tack . Customers will be reassured by security measures and a person living on site . Sites should also have adequate utilities supplies to them such as electric and water , with scope for potential future expansion if necessary . Potential for building expansion , including planning permission considerations ( stables are not classed as an agricultural use ) is also a good idea if you are serious about diversification . If any of these attractions are missing cost of upgrading faculties must be carefully evaluated before proceeding . believed his sites proximity to superb local bridleway rides , moderate road access whilst remaining secluded from potential thieves and existing small farm sheds made his site a viable diversification option , without to much investment as many attractions already existed . As his livery has expanded over he has also added an all weather exercise arena which he believes is a vital attraction for customers to ensure his stables remain full and ahead of competitors . This was a major cost to his business as all arena requires full drainage , a gravel base , covered with special silica sand , lots of post and rail fencing and he had high specification rubber riding surface made from waste tyres that had the steel wires removed which were very costly . The cost of this work can vary depending on size and quality of work ( Nix 2006 ) but yet only charged his customers a week on top of their standard livery fee for those wanting to make use of the facility . Other options that can attract customers to a livery include cross country courses , horse exercisers , floodlit arenas and even swimming pools are popular with owners of horses recovering from injury but all of which carry massive instillation and maintenance costs throughout their lifespan and will need planning permission before building . Where livery 's are not in close proximity to good bridleways or good riding areas it can prove a profitable enterprise to create riding paths across farmland that riders pay to use each time they ride it . These toll rides are another possible idea for diversification . < heading > Most diversification schemes require administration and horse livery is no exception to this , as in this competitive sector horse owners are looking for high levels of service . As well as planning permission being required for structures built or converted , it is now necessary to change the land use from agricultural to business . Customers may expect fire safety and security equipment on site . There are different levels of service a livery operator can offer horse owners , beginning with basic grass livery in a field with a form of shelter and cover for feed and tack , livery where a central stable is provided often with grazing and exercise facilities but owner is still responsible for keeping and grooming if their horse and finally board livery where owner is still responsible for some of the horses keeping but many routine tasks such as turning and mucking out are done by a stable hand . Typical prices charged for livery vary quality of stables provided but average prices for these s forms of livery are £ 20 - 25 , £ 35 - 40 and £ 65 per week respectively ( ) . After initially offering board livery with an employed stable hand , realised there was an increasing demand just for livery so decided to concentrate solely on . He charges a competitive price £ a week which including of separate grazing and all of his stables are filled . In financial terms , gross margins are small from livery as initial costs are huge , costing per stable for walls , gates , floor matting , fencing and ongoing utility bills . commented that much of his profit is generated by selling value added products to his customers , such as hay , routine medicines and bedding all of which he buys in bulk at discount prices but offers to his customers at slightly cheaper prices than they could find elsewhere . Other costs and recommendations made many recommendations about how to manage a livery and removing costly liable pitfalls that could see a livery owner lose money . he suggested public liability insurance is sourced ( should be considered for most diversification where public come onto farm property ) as individuals insurance may not guarantee them to be covered in a public livery . Housing should include good ventilation and be as dust free as possible as horses are susceptible to respiratory problems and water should not be piped to individual stables as it adds cost in building and leaves pipes open to frost damage which could do terrible damage to horses and buildings . Grazing fields should be fenced externally not using cheaper wire fences as are hard for horses to see and may cause expensive injury to a horse if they catch it accidentally . Mares and geldings should not be grazed together in case of damage or fighting . Finally he recommended a strict written agreement be made between the customer and livery owner so it is legally established obligations customers must abide by ( such as worming etc ) and how they are expected to behave in the stables and that they are responsible for damage caused or accidents and not the livery owner . Consider these issues during diversification and your chances of success are much more guaranteed !","< abstract><heading > Abstract</heading > This report looks to examine methods of controlling enteric diseases in calves and is structured around answering the following questions associated with the topic : How often do enteric diseases occur in agriculture and what are the consequences of this ? What is enteric disease and how are they caused / spread ? What are the symptoms and effects for infected calves ? What is the best way to treat an infected calf effective recovery ? How could calves be managed to reduce incidents of infection ? What conclusions can be made about management of enteric diseases in the ? < /abstract><heading > How common are enteric diseases in agriculture and what are the consequences of this ? < /heading > On cattle farms , calf rearing is often a troublesome and time consuming aspect of production overlooked by many producers . Calves are very susceptible to wide range of diseases resulting in high mortality rates of being accepted on most farms in the , with of these deaths occurring during of life dominantly as the result of enteric disorders ( Garnsworthy 2005 ) . The remaining of deaths are usually the result of respiratory infections , especially pneumonia at . Therefore enteric diseases are the largest cause of economic loss to the cattle industry and have a large effect on calf welfare . < heading > What is enteric disease and how are they caused / spread ? < /heading > An enteric disease is anything that stops the normal function of a calf 's stomach by inhibiting normal intestine function . There are multiple causes of enteric diseases and these can be subdivided into managerial and infectious causes . A massive range of infectious bacteria organisms and viruses exist and each affects the function of the intestine slightly differently . Commonly identified infectious causes include ; rotavirus , cryptosporidia , E - coli ( strain is often to blame ) coronavirus , clostridal , salmonella S ( a zoonsoes notifiable disease ) and bovine viral diarrhoea ( ) virus to name just a few as well as fungi often causing enteric diseases ( See Appendix 2 ) . Routes of infection are various too , with transfer of disease organisms often from the mothering cow 's colostrums or milk as well as accidental ingestion of the cows faeces ( for example a soiled teat ) . Infection can be acquired from the surrounding environment with bacteria present on the bodies , the feed , in the air and faeces of other calves as well as being harboured in the surrounding building materials ( formites ) . carrying disease such as rats contaminating feed with faeces are another potential way disease can spread . Every enteric disease will have initially been caused by bacteria , fungi or virus invading a calf 's body in one of these ways . It normal to find controlled populations of bacteria such as e - coli within the intestine however it is often managerial factors that lead to a calf being unable to defend against this population effectively this leads to disease . This is the result of the way maternal antibodies are transferred into new born calves to provide passive immunity to infection . The placenta of a cow is impermeable to protein , making the transfer of IgG anti - bodies into the calf 's bloodstream before birth impossible ( Garnsworthy 2005 ) . Calves are therefore born effectively with no immunity to disease causing organisms and are solely dependent upon the transfer of IgG anti - bodies , vitamins and fats into their bloodstream by ingestion of their mother 's colostrum to protect them from the mass of rapidly invading bacteria that enter their bodies from the surrounding environment after birth . A calf 's intestine gradually loses the ability to absorb after birth after a period of after birth and will no longer be able to absorb antibodies ( See appendix ) after this . If not enough colostrums is received in this time a calf is venerable to an enteric disease . Poor management practises that cause stress also contribute to high rates of infection as they lower a calf 's ability to fight off the infection . Wind chills , irregular feeding times , damp bedding and feeding of milk at incorrect temperature are all known to increase the likelihood of enteric diseases developing as calf struggles to maintain normal function . < heading > What are the symptoms and effects for infected calves ? < /heading > Good stockmanship skills are needed to identify calves suffering from enteric diseases quickly and accurately so that an effective treatment leads to an effective recovery minimises economic losses to the farmer . A calf with an enteric disease may display all , a combination or of the following symptoms during infection depending on what disease organism responsible for the disease . Scour ( diarrhoea ) is the most obvious initial symptom with smelly faeces being the result of undigested milk being excreted ( Garnsworthy 2005 ) . Examination of the faeces can often identify more specifically the cause of the disease ( for example thin profuse yellow scour suggesting a rotavirus infection is to blame ) and aid later treatment selection . scour may also be the result of overfeeding of a calf or experienced when a calf excretes for the time . This is normal and not caused by an enteric disease and a skilled stockman should be able to recognise and differentiate these causes of temporary scour . Dehydration and dry eyes are common as the result of the disease sloughing the epidermal cells tips ( willi ) in the intestine preventing the calf from absorbing liquids ( Garnsworthy 2005 ) . Calves are also likely to appear depressed lying on the floor with their head down , weak and lacking in energy and display a part or total loss of appetite in the early stages of the disease . < heading > What is the best way to treat an infected calf effective recovery ? < /heading > Calves showing any suspicion of these symptoms should be isolated away from other calves immediately , preferably by movement to an entirely separate building to stop the transmission of the disease to neighbouring calves via contact with infected materials and air space . Disinfection and removal of manure from their old pen will also prevent rapid spread of a disease through all the farms calves . The affected calf should then be fed a diet of electrolytes and glucose suspended in a solution of water warmed to around 25ºC to match the milk temperature the calf would receive from their mother 's dam ( Maff ) . The electrolytes in this feed positively promote uptake of fluids through the damaged intestine allowing the water to re - hydrate the calf and glucose provides an instant energy source to aid quick recovery ( Garnsworthy 2005 ) . This diet should only be fed for a maximum period of and then occasional feeding of milk should be resumed to maintain the function of the epithermal cells that digest milk in the intestine as they naturally become dysfunctional after a period of low milk intake as a normal reaction caused by weaning ( Garnsworthy 2005 ) . This milk may cause momentary cases of scour but will be beneficial in the long term after recovery because milk will provide a far more nutritious feeding solution than glucose and electrolyte rich solution to maintain calf condition . Small amounts of water should be offered little and often during recovery to re - hydrate the animal too . Antibiotic treatments may also prove useful in killing the bacteria responsible however use of broad spectrum antibiotics against unknown bacteria is not recommended as only E.coli , salmonella and similar organisms that can be killed in this way and must using a targeted anti - biotic ( ) . Doing this will require costly and time consuming blood and tissue tests as well as treatment consultation by a vet by which time a calf 's health may have deteriorate rapidly . Hence this practice is too costly and impractical for the most of farmers . Late diagnosis of an enteric disease often leads to a very weak , cold calf that is unlikely to recover from the condition as is too weak to consume any feed . Emergency force feeding of electrolytes and glucose solution using a throat "" tube "" and use antibiotics may work however often culling to prevent the spread of disease and prolonged cruelty to the calf is advisable . < heading > How could calves be managed to reduce incidents of infection ? < /heading > For farms rearing calves focus should be made on the pro - active prevention of enteric diseases rather than reactive management after infection . Prevention will cut medicine and time input costs needed dramatically , reduce animal suffering / welfare and also lead to reduced instances of other problematic diseases ( particularly pneumonia ) . As mentioned earlier the key step to disease prevention many farmers fail to utilise is ensuring calves receive the adequate quantity of colostrum in early life so that they maximise the number of anti - bodies available to fight off invading bacteria in their blood stream . As a general guide it is accepted that ensuring a calf receives litres of colostrum ( this quantity should be adjusted slightly depending on the calves body weight ) in of life ( when the calf 's ability to absorb colostrum is greatest [ see appendix ] ) should ensure maximum protection against disease . Feeding of colostrum for beyond this period is beneficial in nourishing the calf with additional vitamins and fats but does little to improve disease resistance . This can be done by leaving a calf at its mother 's teat for suckler beef production but it is ore practical on dairy units to milk the mothers colostrum and feed it to the calf via a bottle . Use of powdered colostrum or artificial injection of anti - bodies ( such as rotavec - ) at birth can prove useful ways to guarantee protection . Care should be taken when purchasing un - weaned store cattle for beef production as the level of anti - bodies in calves is unknown and their health status may not be immediately obvious , so where possible store animals should be purchased from a known source where feeding of adequate colostrum is adequate to guarantee a good health status of the animals . There is also good evidence that feeding of pasteurised milk will reduce the number of cases of enteric diseases too ( farmers ) . After feeding sufficient colostrum has been insured , the calves rearing environment should be considered carefully to prevent spread of disease organisms . Outdoor suckler rearing systems are the least susceptible to spread of infection . Indoor sucklers should be housed on fresh straw and cleaned regularly in housing with draft free but adequate ventilation . On dairy units use "" calf hutches "" is an expensive but ideal solution . These though plastic hutches are setup outside with a pen around them . The pen provides sufficient protection from elements that could cause stress educed infection whilst the open air stops air borne infections . Other useful management tips including through disinfection of buildings after calves are removed with a gap before restocking to kill bacteria and regular feeding routines are essential to reducing stress . Fans or storm sheeting can prove very useful tools in managing ventilation to prevent disease too . < heading > What conclusions can be made about management of enteric diseases in the ? < /heading > There is great scope to reduce the incidence of enteric diseases and the economic loses and animal cruelty associated with them in agriculture . Management to prevent the disease in the place is key to achieving this . For now high rates of calf mortality have all too often become the accepted norm on farms and poor management and hygiene being a common cause on both dairy and suckler beef farms . Yet few producers seem prepared to change their calf rearing systems and buildings to tackle the problem blaming poor produce prices for the lack of investment in facilities and lack of skilled stockmen . However instances of enteric disease were widely reported before the economic downturn in agriculture ( Andrews ) and in times of poor produce prices more focus should be made to maintain calf health to reduce economic losses rather than less . I believe the biggest reasons why producers continue to fail addressing the problem of enteric diseases in their calves is due to large time requirement needed to effectively prevent them at times of labour stress ( i.e. weekend and harvest periods ) and farm managers forgetting the link between healthy calves and income as most focus more on milk yields rather than quicker heifer rearing or weight gains . There is no reason why any cattle producer should not aim to improve the management of enteric diseases in times of economic hardship . I believe many farmers are utilising the full potential of colostrum to protect calves against enteric disease and mortality .",1
"< abstract><heading > Abstract</heading > The culture of electronic text differs from that of book publishing and the traditional roles of the publisher , editor and reader are becoming irrevocably intertwined . reason for this is the emergence of collaborative software like weblogs and , in particular , the "" wiki "" . Wiki comes from the word for "" quick "" and is a relatively unstructured medium for distributing information . A wiki is made up of various hyperlinked documents that can be collectively edited using a browser . In the words of , "" In the old days people had only ( professionally edited ) newspapers , magazines and books from which to take their usage cues . In the Internet world everyone 's a publisher [ ... ] But if everyone 's a publisher , can everyone afford an editor ? "" ( "" Lapsing into a Comma "" , , ) . This essay examines the arguments for and against the use of the wiki as a disseminator of knowledge . Questions will be asked about the accuracy of that knowledge and the societal impact of collaborative software . The key argument will explore if , with reference to the above issues , the role of the publisher as gatekeeper is really being undermined . < /abstract><heading > The Traditional Role of Publishing</heading > The rise of a print - dominated society in began in earnest in with a shift away from the 's monopoly of information that existed during the manuscript book period . This was initially fuelled by the brave efforts of , and Tyndale whose hard work and sacrifices led to ordinary people being able to enjoy the word of God through ownership of their own copies of the and in a language other than . In combination with reproductions of other classic texts of antiquity and , later , with scientific advances , these factors led to the development of books as elements of propaganda and religious education . During there were many social , political and economic changes that made print important . But it could be argued that those changes might not have happened as quickly , or perhaps at all , without the availability of print . In , things begin to change further with the advent of the printing press . The technology of the printing press - which is mainly attributed to with his idea for moveable type - coupled with new political and economic situations led to the expansion of a - dominated world economy and the beginning of a system of international competition in the book trade . At a time when most ordinary people were illiterate , they still had access to book culture because there were travelling raconteurs who stood in the market and read from books as a means of making a living as entertainers . But it was the rich and educated who controlled society and dictated the kind of information suitable for the masses ; the elite were the publishers . Since then , publishing has held an important place in establishing and defining notion of "" mass culture "" . It has helped nurture a sense of national identity and has stimulated intellectual and artistic thought . The traditional publisher is seen as an objective "" gatekeeper "" with the vital role of choosing and distributing books of "" cultural significance "" , and has been instrumental in building a literary heritage that can be enjoyed by all . But during , and with the rise of the Internet , the publishing industry became widely criticised for its part in promoting elitism in book culture and thereby helping to reinforce divisions in both gender and class . < heading > The Cultural Impact of the Internet</heading > The World Wide Web is the most collaborative multi - cultural project in the history of mankind . of people have contributed personal homepages , weblogs ( blogs ) , wiki pages and other sites to the growing body of human expression available online . and maintain that the Internet is inherently a democratic medium . Its users have the freedom to express their thoughts and ideas , and have gained more power in getting access to information . The Internet is a web of networks and censorship and control of information is difficult . The traditional face of the publisher and author is now changing . stated that "" As long as the printed book remains the primary medium of literature , traditional views of the author as authority and of literature as monument will remain convincing for most readers . The electronic medium , however , threatens to bring down the whole edifice at once . It complicates our understanding of literature as either mimesis or expression , it denies the fixity of the text , and it questions the authority of the author . "" Information in book form assumes some sort of narrative in a linear structure with a beginning , middle and end . In a book , footnotes , indices and other forms of non - sequential writing are irritating to refer to and distract the reader . Electronic text ( or hypertext ) on the Internet can be read in many ways , enabling writers to interconnect events in a non - sequential way , without there being any obvious start or finish point . All knowledge is presented as having equal status . As puts it , "" hypertext is the perfect medium for expressing the postmodern cultural / literary theory . "" < heading > Weblogs and the Individual as Publisher</heading > Before "" blogging "" became popular , digital communities took many forms . These included , e - mail lists and bulletin boards . In , Internet forum software such as WebX created running conversations with threads . Blogging combines a personal Web page with tools , specifically blogrolls and , to make linking to other pages easier - A blogroll is a collection of links to other weblogs , whileTrackBack is a system implemented by many blogging tools , including and , which allow a blogger to check who has seen the original post and who has written another entry concerning it - The system works by providing an alert between blogs . This way , instead of there being person in control of threads on a forum , or having anyone able to start threads on a list , there is a moderating effect that is the personality of the weblog 's owner . More recently , this moderation extended to a court ruling ordering bloggers to reveal their sources behind advance product information published in online publications . See   URL   The term "" weblog "" was coined by in . The shorter version , "" blog , "" was coined by , who , in , broke the word weblog into the phrase "" we blog "" in the sidebar of his weblog ( URL ) . In , the Oxford English Dictionary included the terms "" weblog "" , "" weblogging "" and "" weblogger "" in its new edition ( URL ) . < heading > Wikis and Collaborative Publishing</heading > Sven Birkerts in his book regards hypertext as a means by which all knowledge is offered as a "" souped - up cognitive collage "" . He could have been talking about the wiki . Wikis improve collaboration via a shared workspace . This shared workspace is essentially a hyperlinked blackboard that can be accessed and changed using the same simple browser - based user interface . The idea behind wikis is to make them as easy to write as they are to read . Any user who looks at any page on a wiki Web site can easily change it , remove it , link from it or link to it . This ease of use and conceptual simplicity can encourage user contributions and lead to significantly more knowledge sharing and more intense collaboration , which ultimately , it is thought , will foster creativity and innovation . properties define a wiki - style collaboration . < heading > Users can make changes < /heading > Wikis , by default , make writing , structuring and styling capabilities available to all users . "" Edit this page "" links appear on every page , which encourage users to make changes . The ability to easily track who made what changes and to refer back to previous versions balances out the lack of explicit control . < heading > Simple markup for formatting and linking < /heading > New content can be added using browser forms ( typically in plain text ) , which are formatted using a simple markup language . Easily remembered names - usually the page title - are used to create clickable links between any pages . The user works only with the intuitive logical structure of the Web site ( that is , the same structure that is used for navigation ) without any need to understand how content is stored . < heading > Visible change histories < /heading > Previous versions of changed content are available as links on each page , along with timestamps and details of who made the change . And "" diff'ing "" tools can used to display and color - code the differences between any versions . Users can set up e - mail notifications or Really Simple Syndication ( RSS ) feeds to alert them to changes . The visible change trails that accompany all activity add transparency . They also incorporate a roll - back capability so that erroneous changes can be removed . This is essential in limiting the amount of damage that less - sophisticated , non co - operative or malicious contributors can inflict . For an example of this see   URL   This link provides a very interesting look at how a entry gets built and built again ( just click on the "" history "" button to view ) . But it also shows how easily the system can be abused . Please be aware that some of this content is of an adult nature . < heading > Built - in , dynamic , Web site functionality < /heading > A wiki 's main role is in rendering text markup into HTML ( ) , maintaining links and keeping revision histories . But wiki engines typically include a number of other dynamic Web site features including full text search ; automatic navigation links ; design templates ; ( Portable Document Format ) or RSS export ; per - page discussion functionality ; basic analytics , such as most visited , most changed , recently updated or referenced by ; personalization , based on user preferences ; and add - ons such as blogging tools and event calendars . Wikis are simple enough to be used with little training or administrative support . Contributors are encouraged to "" publish "" as early as possible . And their peers can fix any errors that contributors may make , without having to ask permission first . Wikis are significant because they bring together authorial , collaborative and administrative functionality , simplify it , and make it a natural part of the navigational and reading experience for any end user who cares to use it . This encourages passive readers to become active contributors by leaving comments , making changes and even reorganizing or streamlining the site . The wiki concept was originally developed by in . Since then , of wiki implementations have been promoted , including a number of open - source projects like ( URL ) and ( URL ) . ( URL   ) is one of the largest voluntary efforts in distributed authorship . It was founded in by and . As of , there were active contributors working on articles in languages . articles tend to be neutral in tone , and when the topic is controversial the varying viewpoints are explained in addition to offering the basic facts . When anyone can edit what you 've just posted , such fairness becomes essential . But these different viewpoints are not necessarily authoritative . < heading > Wikis Are One Step Up From Blogs</heading > A lot of the value of a blog network is the social hub that is built from relationships . People read each others ' blogs to see what their friends and acquaintances are up to , and then they add value by linking , commenting and elaborating on what has already been posted . Similar social interactions take place in wikis , but at a faster pace and with a more intensely collaborative feel . < quote>""Wikis are based on emergent intelligence and knowledge : the belief that the best results come from allowing decisions to emerge bottom - up , in a relatively free - form interchange between the participants of a group , with only a light - handed editorial or managerial top - down control being applied "" ( URL ) . < /quote > Because so few restrictions are placed on participants , members of a project group may feel they have to exercise some form of censorship . This could take the form of building up some of the minimalist forms of wiki components , correcting the grammar and syntax of other contributors ' articles , or persuading others to accept your viewpoints . This interaction between contributors , united in a shared idea , helps build important social ties . in talks about the "" interactive relationship "" between the author and the reader . With , for example , different texts from different genres can be interlinked with a contributor 's own work to present an entirely new offering , and thereby merging the usual barriers between author and reader . "" Boundaries between culture producer and cultural consumer break down . "" < heading > Analysis of the Impact of Collaborative Publishing</heading > One of the most serious concerns about collaborative authorship is whether or not the content can be trusted . In the absence of a publishing gatekeeper , an anonymous group author is unlikely to have the same clout as a renowned single author . If a writer is perceived by the reader to be an authority on a subject , then the information that the writer gives out is almost always seen as content that can be relied upon . Wikimedia ( URL ) , the non - profit organisation that initiated and other associated sites , addresses these concerns by offering a model for peer review of any collaborative authorship . All articles submitted to undergo peer review and any amendments are saved and linked . It is thought that , eventually , this constant editing will allow readers to trust the content . The intention of the organisation is to create a neutral territory where , through open debate , agreements can be made on even the most contentious of topics . The authoring system sets up a democratic round - table where "" contributors construct their own rulespace and policies emerge from consensus - based , rather than top - down processes "" ( URL ) . Therefore the authority of 's collaborative offering depends partly on a communal "" self - policing "" principle that is defined and imposed by group members . As co - founder , , puts it , "" The incentive for behaviour in a wiki is to write in such a way that your writing can survive . The only way it can survive is if your writing is acceptable to an extremely wide audience . "" ( URL ) The collaborative authoring environment created by the Web will make even more ambitious and far - reaching projects possible . Projects like the Semantic Web , which aims to make all content searchable by allowing users to assign semantic meaning to their work , are set to organize the phenomenal output of collaborative networks . < heading > Possible Consequences of the Loss of the Gatekeeper</heading > In traditional publishing , authors of the printed word can dictate how their books are structured and therefore can establish , to a great extent , how those books are read . In turn , the publisher is able to exercise control over the form of the final published work . sees hypertext as being basically unstable and its ability to interconnect different Web sites into long link indicates a shift in power from author to reader . He maintains that electronic text offers the reader the possibility of controlling their own path through a text , without intervention from the author . In this way , the authority of the writer is undermined . Wikis , and other forms of collaborative authorship , empower the reader and are seen as responsible for challenging the long - standing literary norm . < quote>""The process of gatekeeping , which is so integral to publishing , has been challenged by postmodern thought . If there are no absolute standards , no rights or wrongs , no absolute good or bad , then the role of the publisher is defunct and redundant . "" ( URL   publishing / culture ) . < /quote > The Internet , as a collaboratively authored "" book "" offers opportunities for publishing without a gatekeeper . Information is no longer censored or judged according to its value , and there are few , if any , restrictions on who can access what . Electronic text is also very hard for author or publisher to control . It is easy to change , both textually and typographically . Because electronic text can be so easily altered , copyright infringements on the Internet are widespread and cases of piracy are very hard to pin down . Copyright is the legal means of protecting expression and it underpins the practice of publishing and authorship . But the rights of authors and publishers , established through of copyright legislation , are in danger of being diluted by the activities of collaborative publishing . states in his book "" Copyright law is a creation of print . The electronic word does not fit into the existing copyright marketplace "" . < heading > Conclusion</heading > In the world of the wiki , the superior standings of the author and publisher are demoted to the level of the general reader . No longer is the publisher seen as a cultural authority . To traditionalists , the publishing process is "" democratised "" , and the role of publisher as gatekeeper is rendered outmoded . While it is certainly true that the Internet has largely done away with the traditional role of the gatekeeper as most of us know it , the reality is that the culture of publishing and the gatekeeping role is alive and well . When new software made it easier for everyone to create their own Web sites or to take part in online discussion groups there was a huge rush to "" be published "" . Getting your name on the World Wide Web was all that mattered and censorship became a matter of some irrelevance . Who cared whether the spelling and grammar was n't quite right ? People were more concerned about disseminating information to anyone who bothered to hit their home page . However , the advent of the wiki has gone some way to halting this stream of unauthorised information . We 've already examined the physical properties of the wiki in terms of its functionality , and its editing , formatting and linking capabilities . We know what it can offer the user . It 's already been said that any user can make any number of changes to any article submitted to a wiki site and that many of these changes may not be authoritative . But human nature is such that , if a mistake crops up on a wiki , someone will invariably spot the error . Armed with the ability to use the editing software that comes with the wiki , pedants can correct the mistake almost immediately it 's noticed . With the printed word , a similar mistake might be found , but the reader has no power to correct it . If the publisher notices the mistake , they have to wait until the book is about to be republished to alter any erroneous text . What 's unique about wikis is that they are vehicles for reaching any number of unofficial "" authorities "" on a subject and that all of these contributors can have the chance to disseminate their knowledge to the masses . With the , for example , there is a hard core of "" "" that spend all their waking submitting articles or editing existing ones . To them , the wiki has become a way of life ( see   URL ) . But despite its breadth of coverage , , of the best examples of a collaborative project with some semblance of authority , can not guarantee that every one of its articles meets any standard for accuracy . Wikis are still some way off from convincing the likes of that the role of the gatekeeper in collaborative publishing is defunct . In his book , into a , he maintains , "" Internet discourse is unfiltered , and in losing the filter that blocks material without mass appeal , we also lose the filters that separate fact from fiction and standard from substandard language . The power of the usage police has been significantly diluted . "" ( )","< heading > Introduction</heading > Haymarket Publishing is launching a new electronic information package in . Called Finance ( see appendix i ) , it will draw on the success of our Finance product , which has achieved over page views per month and , in , was named in by in . < heading > Situation Analysis</heading><heading > Why ? < /heading > The and regions are seen as slowly emerging markets that have much potential in the eyes of the financial world ( see appendix ii ) . < heading > Opportunities</heading > Rodrigo de Rato , Managing Director of , is optimistic about the economic future of . He says , "" If economic growth can be maintained at its present level of over , real per capita income in will be higher than it is ... a significant change from the relative stagnation of . This growth will play a major role in alleviating existing social tensions , improving the political environment , and shoring up democracy in the region . "" ( See appendix iii ) . < heading > Other points to consider</heading > must also show economic flexibility in responding to the rise of as a world player . competes with in terms of textiles and labour - intensive manufactured products , but 's constant struggle to feed itself means it is also a large importer of commodities from . As largest and closest neighbour , keeps a close eye on economic developments and investment in the region . Despite the relatively slow take up of information technology , is an open door for many new markets , but particularly for bankers , commodity brokers , consultants and investors . < heading > Main Competitors to Finance America</heading><heading > Direct competition</heading > Latin Finance ( URL ) holds much of the market in terms of the business , finance and investment community . This magazine covers cross - border finance , business and investment in and the . Its circulation is . The magazine publishes in . ( URL ) is largest pan - regional business magazine . It has been established for and it has a readership of . It focuses more on general business and publishes in , and . < heading > Indirect competition</heading > Thomson Financial ( URL ) provides financial IT solutions worldwide . It has a focus on . Reuters ( URL ) is a large , international multimedia news agency , reporting extensively on topics ranging from financial markets to general and political news . ( URL ) publishes business and financial news and information . It provides data , analysis , and networking opportunities via a series of databases , publications , and events that focus on specialised sectors and markets ( see appendix iv ) . World Trade Executives ( URL ) offers information to business , legal , and financial managers in international markets . With contributions from top executives in major corporations worldwide , publications are practical , "" how - to "" guides for worldwide business operations . These and similar sites will be targeted as affiliates or partners to Finance . < heading > Marketing Objectives</heading > The aim of Finance is to become the definitive homepage for all financial professionals with an interest in . < heading > How will we achieve this ? < /heading > Through short - term objectives , which will be to build awareness . < list unique page hits , and views per month within of launchCreate a substantial base of link - exchange sites</list > Through longer - term aims , which will be to raise revenue . < list > Increase unique page hits to and views per month to by yearBuild subscriptions to its newsletters to reach within of launchWin partners and affiliatesGain advertisers and sponsors</list><heading > Target Audience</heading><heading > Who are we targeting ? < /heading><list > Commercial and investment bankers ; professional CFO and CEOs ; institutional investors ; analysts and intermediariesOrganisations looking to invest in countries , according to financial sector ( insurance , investment and banking ) , country of origin , size ( turnover and employees ) and demographic profiles</list><heading > What 's in it for them ? < /heading><list insight into deals , markets , issuers and investors , enabling decision makers to stay ahead of the competitionExclusive access to the plans of the institutions and the thoughts of those that drive financial marketsThe chance to join a Web community of company executives , investors and bankers in the regionLow - cost and often free access to a host of financial informationUseful links to affiliated financial , travel and news sites relating to updated Web siteReal - time pricingA link to investors worldwide , especially from to the best people through our contacts with business and law schools , and job agenciesFree subscriptions for partners and affiliatesPreferential rates for advocates of traffic to the site through newsletters and other e - mail campaigns , related links and discussion groupsInitially target financial executives in and to gain a foothold in the market presently dominated by ( see appendix v ) Gain revenue through sponsorships and advertising from banks , brokers and consultants , and through subscription - only access to awareness of the site through links , partnerships , affiliates , directory listings and advertisingSelecting the right keywordsStimulate prospects to take up free trial of newsletterDistribute promotional material at financial conferences</list><heading > Communications Strategies < /heading><heading > Choosing the Right Design</heading > The step in successful site promotion is to design our pages to be "" search - engine friendly "" . This means not only using keywords appropriately , but also avoiding design techniques that can confuse search engines , such as frames and certain types of dynamic page delivery . < heading > Selecting the Right Key Words</heading > It 's important to include all the words that someone might type into a search engine if they were looking for a site like ours ( including misspellings ) . Most or all of these keywords should be found in the text of our home page . For example : < list > FinanceFinancialLatinLatin AmericaLatin AmericanSouth AmericaAmericasNewsInvestorPublicationMarketsBankMagazine</list > We need to craft a brief site description that uses some of the keywords , and which sums up what our site has to offer - many search engines have a limit of words . A description might be : "" Finance magazine provides bankers , CFOs and CEOs , institutional investors , analysts and intermediaries with selected free content and up - to - date news on financial markets . "" We should try to mention a couple of site features that might entice people to visit . This description should also be used in the title tag that appears in the head section of our html page . Some search engines assign greater weight to keywords that appear in the title tag . < heading We should submit our home page to all the major search engines . Using an autosubmitter will save time , see   URL , for example . Almost all search engine traffic goes to the top search engines ( see appendices vi and vii ) . The most important "" search engines "" , including Yahoo and Google are more accurately described as "" directories "" . Google is currently driving of the search engine traffic on the Web ( see appendix viii ) . A directory does not use a "" spider "" to find sites to index . Instead , real people evaluate the sites submitted and choose those most suitable for listing . This means that a directory includes far fewer general sites than search engines do . If we do get listed , we 'll see our traffic climb immediately . Getting listed can take anywhere from to so we need to check with search engines after submitting to them ( see appendix ix ) . This gives us a chance to submit again if we 're not in there . < heading > Links</heading > Advertising on link - exchange sites is one of the best and safest ways for new sites to achieve top rankings . Some sites let you submit a banner ad to them in return for placing their ad on your site . Every time someone sees the banner on your site , you earn credit towards displays of your banner on other member sites . For example   URL   has a possible link available to the J.P. Morgan Chase site . All these links can appear on a special "" links page "" on our site . The links page could become a valuable resource in its own right , building more traffic for our site . < heading > Examples of potential link exchanges</heading><list > Financial Institutions - International Monetary Fund , in Finance and Accounting and ( , , LatPro.comConference / Seminar / Training Organisers -   URL Law Firms - Hieros GamosFinancial Technology - SAP , , , for and y SociedadBusiness Schools - Harvard Business School , ENPC School of International Management and Instituto Centroamericano de Admistración de EmpresasAirlines and Hotels - Aerolineas , , , , and , and and after , press releases announcing the launch of the site should be sent to the press offices at various financial seminars and conferences that focus on . Delegate lists should also be e - mailed and offered information about the launch and a chance to obtain free trials of our newsletter . There are many conferences to which this could apply ( see appendix x ) . < heading > Newsgroups and Discussion Forums</heading > There are very few quality sources focusing solely on ( see appendix xi ) . Yahoo is option . There are ways to generate traffic through Yahoo Groups ( see appendix xii ) . The is by submitting our ad to groups that are specifically looking for ads . The is by providing a free service , such as a business advice article or a free e - book and then adding our resource box at the bottom , giving a link to the Web site . I would suggest doing both if we want to get the best results . < heading > Sponsors / Partners</heading > EmergingPortfolio.com Fund Research ( URL ) tracks equity and bond fund flows , country flows , country and sector allocations , and company holdings data . International analysts , strategists and portfolio managers use this data . The firm also provides qualitative analysis on international markets . It produces regional reports , of which focuses on . This site could be considered as a link exchange , but it would also be a suitable sponsor . ) was established in as a response to the growing importance of the region for the . Activities developed under the programme are complementary to other international institutions active in the region ( IMF and ) . Some of these activities are developed in partnership with other international organisations . This non - profit making organisation could be a possible affiliate . < heading > Advertising</heading > Haymarket Business Interactive ( URL ) can design , develop and execute advertising campaigns for us using its industry - standard ad - serving platform . It has its own network of targeted B2B sites . < heading > Paid advertising on other sites</heading > To get results from banner ads , we need to spend a great deal of money , and we need to be prepared to refine both the banners and their placement on an ongoing basis . Mailing list ads , however , are generally far cheaper , and often reach much more finely targeted audiences than banner ads . < heading in the trade press prior to and just after the launch would encourage journalists to use our editorial , but again , it is very expensive . < heading > Google AdWords</heading > Google AdWords can help us reach people that are actively looking for financial products and services . That means we are more likely to receive targeted customers . Pricing is on a cost - per - click basis so we only pay when visitors click on our ad , and it 's easy to control costs . < heading > Advertising through affiliate programmes</heading > E - mail lists can be promoted through an affiliate programme . One can be easily set - up at cost ( see   URL ) . We then pay our affiliates a small commission per subscriber , or credit them with advertising impressions in our newsletter ( see appendix xiii ) . < heading > E - Mail Programmes</heading > Research shows that most traffic - driving initiatives generate less than a conversion rate ( see appendix xiv ) . The key to a profitable return - on - investment rests on the ability to gather accurate information about site visitors and get permission to contact them . < heading > How can we create successful traffic driving initiatives ? < /heading > By contacting our existing database . Our e - mailing campaigns will start with our Finance Asia and Finance databases . We will also contact the more general advertisers on our site like . We would encourage contacts to forward our e - mail to a friend who might be interested in the new content . The most popular house lists generally receive open rates of . The average clicked through rate hovers ( see appendix xv ) . Regardless of verification , a certain percentage of prospects will still bounce , and we should anticipate bounce rate . By using premium content to obtain reader e - mail addresses . Premium content is limited - distribution , high - value information sent to prospects in exchange for their e - mail addresses and permission to contact them again in the future . Premium content includes articles that focus on particular issues or in - depth treatment of specialised topics . It can also consist of comment on current economic and social trends . By encouraging sign - up from visitors to the site . We need to give our e - mail recipients a reason to visit our site , and to eventually link or advertise with us . We should arouse their curiosity by offering them a valuable information premium they can download when they visit . To build up our lists , visitors will be invited to fill out a form with their name , e - mail address and other details . A good way to bring this form to the attention of visitors is to use a "" pop - in "" box . For an example pop - in box see ( URL ) . Any offer should include an opt - in check box for permission to contact the prospect . For those that choose to receive messages , any e - mails sent from our site would be permission - based and legally protected . When soliciting prospects ' e - mail addresses , we must never forget to always include our privacy statement , which should state that we would never rent , sell or share their addresses . By taking advantage of free list - building services . Most work on a simple multilevel referral system . Not only do these generate more subscribers , but they also help to save money ( see appendix xvi ) . < heading Our e - mail newsletters should be as genuinely helpful as possible . Short nuggets of information should be offered on a regular basis and our URL should always be promoted in the e - mail signature . Readers are busy and will respond favourably to concise , easily digested information . Incentives for advertising in our newsletters will include free or reduced subscriptions . To encourage subscribers , we could have special offers on affiliated sites like those of The Economist or the FT . < heading > Editorial</heading > We should submit editorial content to financial publications before the launch , but we have no guarantee that this would be accepted unless we accompany it with some advertising . < heading > Testimonials</heading > Adding a few testimonials to our Web page or ad copy is one of the cheapest , most effective ways to immediately boost response rates . Most people like seeing their words and their names in print , so whenever a reader writes a particularly favourable comment , we need to immediately ask them for permission to use it . < heading > Additional Strategies for Future Consideration   ( see appendix xvii)</heading><heading > Campaign Schedule   ( see appendix xviii)</heading><heading > Budget   ( see appendix xix)</heading><heading > Conclusion</heading > We should build on the reputation of the Finance Asia site to reach prospects for the new site . The best ways of reaching our desired target market are through carefully targeted links and by sending informative , permission - based e - mails that include free , premium content . An advertising campaign in the trade press is too expensive for all but the biggest financial companies , but there are many established sites that would be useful affiliates and where advertising exchanges would bring in prospects and potential revenue .",1
"< heading > Introduction</heading > Human immunodeficiency virus ( HIV ) is the virus , which causes , Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome ( AIDS ) . HIV infects and destroys CD4 + lymphocytes , which are the bodies ' immune cells . After a long incubation period , on average the individual acquires AIDS which is a state of immunosuppression . "" This defect of cellular immunity leads to susceptibility to infection with opportunistic agents "" et ( ) . The period of infection may last for but eventually becomes overwhelming and death ensues . Transmission of HIV requires close contact and occurs by of routes , blood , birth or sex . "" Casual contact does not lead to disease transmission "" ) . The current global situation is that "" HIV / AIDS has been reported from every inhabited continent and from every country "" ( ) . The disease has changed the lives of individuals , ruined their health , caused their deaths and left survivors to mourn . The prevalence of the global epidemic is difficult to measure , as obtaining accurate statistics is highly problematic but the most recent estimates show that in "" people were newly infected with HIV and people died as a result of AIDS . Globally the number of people living with HIV / AIDS is "" . HIV and AIDS statistics ( ) Since the "" recognition of HIV in , it has aroused deep human responses , a persistently negative societal response has played and continues to play a critical role in the experiences of individuals infected with the virus "" Alonzo & Reynolds ( ) . This essay will look at stigma and why it is associated with HIV / AIDS , the effect this has on the individual throughout the disease course , and how this influences health care of HIVAIDS patients . < heading > Stigma and HIV / AIDS</heading > There are many varied definitions of stigma ( ) provide a good working definition . "" The stigmatised are a category of people who are pejoratively regarded by the broader society . They are devalued , shunned or otherwise lessened in their life chances and in access to the humanising benefit of free and unfettered social intercourse "" . Stigma ultimately creates outsiders , which results in social boundaries between normal and the stigmatised . This reduces the life chances of the stigmatised and they are perceived by society as "" high risk "" groups . The function of stigma can be thought of as a way of reinforcing social norms , it achieves this by defining deviance , and deviant behaviours . ( ) suggests that "" it is an exercise of power over people and a means of control by marginalising or excluding a group from the wider community thereby reinforcing societal values "" . If society can stigmatise certain individuals or groups in society which it considers to be "" at risk "" it can excuse itself from the responsibility of caring for and looking after such populations for the reason that they have brought on the disease themselves by acting deviantly . This is supported by ( ) who suggests that "" HIV is a metaphor for "" sinful "" and "" evil "" , it is therefore discrediting an individuals claim to be a moral character and of us "" . An example of how stigma associated with high - risk groups is reinforced is seen with the policy of blood transfusion in the . Any gay man who has ever had sex with a man , even "" safe sex "" is prohibited from donating blood . This discrimination prevents all gay men from donating blood . ( ) states that this "" reinforces the notion that it is "" others "" who are at risk from HIV "" . Such beliefs may result in people who do not fit into one of the "" risk groups "" presuming that they are at no risk . According to ( ) "" medical conditions which attract stigma are those that tend to be associated with negative attributes evoking strong emotional responses such as fear and revulsion "" . HIV / AIDS most certainly fits these , criteria . ( ) takes this further by suggesting "" that it is because a new disease like HIV , may be transmitted through the most intimate of human contacts that it strikes at the heart of social interactions , revealing the fragility of social order . It is the threat to social order , which generates the fervent moralising "" . ( ) have defined reasons why individuals with HIV / AIDS are stigmatised . HIV is associated with deviant behaviour , both as a product and as a produced of deviant behaviour . HIV is viewed as the responsibility of the individual It is tainted by religious and moral beliefs that lead some people to believe that having HIV / AIDS is the result of a moral fault , which deserves to be punished . HIV is perceived as contagious and threatening to the community HIV is associated with an undesirable and unaesthetic form of death HIV is not well understood in the lay community and is viewed negatively by health care providers . It is for these reasons that people infected with HIV / AIDS are subjected to unfair discriminate behaviour from others . Adding to this ( ) have suggested that laws , rules and policies of some societies can increase the stigmatisation of people living with HIV / AIDS , such as legislation , which demands the compulsory screening and testing of perceived "" at risk "" groups . This serves purposes of fuelling the stigmatisation of certain groups and of creating a false sense of security among individuals who are not considered high risk . Denial fuels stigma by making those individuals who are affected appear abnormal and exceptional . ( ) suggest that "" failing to respond to the needs of those living with HIV and failing to recognise growing epidemics in the belief than HIV / AIDS can never happen to us are some of the most common forms of denial "" . < heading > The impact of stigma upon the individual</heading > The "" risk groups "" for acquiring AIDS are considered to be homosexual men , female sexual partners of infected men , children of infected mothers , IV drug abusers , , blood transfusion recipients and people of or central origin . It is at these groups that the majority of stigma is directed . However some population groups are also more likely to be regarded by the broader society as innocent victims of HIV / AIDS . Individuals in these groups are infants of HIV positive mothers and transfusion recipients and thus they may be treated less harshly . Although the stigma associated with HIV / AIDS is overpowering , ) suggest "" individuals with the illness do not necessarily experience the same degree of stigma "" . An example of this is that individuals with strong ties to the gay community may perceive less and experience less gay and HIV related stigma than an individual with stronger ties to non gay communities . Therefore the impact of stigma upon each individual is different . An effective way of looking at the impact of stigma was shown by ( ) . They studied stigma throughout the disease trajectory , which allowed them to create a stigma trajectory , which conceptualises what an individual may feel and go through . There are phases to the stigma trajectory . < heading > Phase One - At Risk</heading > In this phase the individual perceives themselves or is perceived by others to be "" at risk "" , but the individual has not yet been tested . Individuals in this phase are aware of their risk or perceived risk and may potentially feel stigma for this . It is sometimes termed as pre - stigmatic risk as they are living with the idea of what may happen to them , the "" worried well "" state . < heading > Phase - Diagnosis</heading > A positive diagnosis is a profoundly disturbing realisation for all those involved . Individuals at this stage are adapting to their newly emerged status and its consequences , such as the possibility of a shortened life span . At this phase the individual has to deal with the consequences of discovery or disclosure of HIV positively . Individuals at this stage may have already seen and felt HIV / AIDS related stigma and must manage information carefully under much stress and tension . < heading > Phase At this stage although the individual is HIV positive they are seemingly healthy . The disease is asymptomatic and concealable . However in this phase there remains the potential for felt stigma in terms of rejection , alienation and isolation . The majority of people who can conceal their status will do so to protect their self - esteem and avoid stigmatisation . However concealing their status is emotionally exhausting for the individual and deprives them of the social support from their social network . < heading > Phase Four - Manifest</heading > In this phase individuals begin to develop clinical conditions linked to HIV . These early manifestations can precede the acquisition of an AIDS - defining condition . At this point the individual is developing revealing stigmatising signs and symptoms , which pose the threat of exposure . As HIV / AIDS begins to make itself evident it is accompanied by severe feelings of stigma and an inevitable decline in health status . In the developing world it has been seen that , the impact upon women is particularly acute . "" Men are likely to be excused for the behaviour that resulted in their infection whereas women are not "" ( ) . The families of the infected are most likely to be the primary carers although their responses are not always positive . The infected family member can find themselves stigmatised and discriminated against within the home . The HIV status of an individual also has an impact upon their employment , "" if people with HIV / AIDS are open about their infection status at work they may well experience stigmatisation and discrimination by others "" ( ) . A positive status could also be used to terminate or refuse the employment of an individual . < heading > HIV , stigma and . < /heading > Caring for people with HIV / AIDS is complex . This is due to the complexity of the physical manifestations , the need for infection control and the associated stigma . Caring for patients with HIV / AIDS is not easy for health care professionals it is mentally and physically tiring , watching the deterioration and death of mostly young patients is distressing . However there is no excuse for stigmatising behaviour towards individuals with HIV / AIDS and Kelly et al ( ) has shown that "" unreasonable stigma and prejudicial attitudes associated with AIDS have been identified amongst practising physicians and medical undergraduates "" . ( ) has shown that "" negative attitudes towards people with HIV / AIDS may affect the quality of patient care , or may result in a refusal to treat "" . Patient satisfaction is a key measure of quality of care . ( ) found that "" amongst HIV / AIDS patients satisfaction was high but prejudice was experienced "" Problems which , affect the care of patients with HIV / AIDS have been highlighted by ( ) , There is a fear of becoming infected which , is shown by an unwillingness to care and the absence of touching the patient . and religious attitudes of health care workers will also affect the care they give . There is also the problem of "" burnout "" a term , which is associated with people who work with high demand populations and are subjected to intense stress . These problems all bar burnout are stigmatising resulting in inadequate medical care . To provide adequate , respectful , compassionate and dignified care to HIV / AIDS patients Lindsey ( no date ) suggests "" care givers must examine their own beliefs , values , assumptions and attitudes towards HIV / AIDS "" . Educational programmes based upon sound , medical , social and psychological knowledge is needed to bring about changes in negative attitudes . < heading > Conclusion</heading > In conclusion , stigma is an attribute , which is significantly discrediting to an individual . It is a social label , which changes the way an individual views themselves , and is viewed by society . Due to its epidemiological nature HIV became a disease of which certain groups of sufferers were highly stigmatised and discriminated against . They were singled out in society as "" others "" their infection being the result of their own deviant behaviour . Stigmatisation has a profound impact upon an individual . To avoid stigmatisation an individual may conceal their HIV positivity , which not only denies them vital social support but also subjects them to intense stress and the worry of being "" found out "" . Towards the end of the disease when outward signs of HIV infection become evident , individuals can fear stigmatisation so much it forces them into isolation . Within the medical community stigmatising behaviour widely exists which , can not only prevent individuals from seeking help in the place but can also stop them from receiving adequate treatment and care . There is an intense fear of becoming infected when treating an HIV positive individual . Changes can only be brought about through strong accurate educational programmes which , quash ignorance and promote a more understanding and caring attitude .","< abstract><heading > Abstract < /heading > As technology improves , so too do the capabilities of space and interplanetary travel . of the main reasons we attempt to travel to outer worlds is fundamentally to see what is out there , to try and gain knowledge and understanding of universal phenomena , and to endeavour to find habitable planets similar to . So far we have been able to explore neighbouring planets without much difficulty but due to such massive distances , outer planets such as Uranus , Neptune and Pluto have not yet had a detailed dedicated study . This is about to change . < /abstract><heading > Mission Rationale</heading > Its all very well wanting to travel to a relatively unknown destination but the fact of the matter is that it is going to cost an awful lot of money . When looking at the total expenditure of an interplanetary mission , the following are some of the factors that must be taken into consideration : the launch ( not even looking at the cost of probe construction ) costs - talking in terms of currency as that is most probably where the probe will be constructed and launched ; there is the salary of each crew member ; the assembly of the launch base , then there is the construction of the probe itself , including all power sources , systems and fuel . An example of a total mission cost is that of 's . From its official approval in right up to its encounter with Neptune in , the sum calculated to [ ref.1 ] . Furthermore , as the mission continues it 's journey , so too does the increase in mission expenses . So why do we want to go there ? The main reason for interplanetary exploration is to find out if there are other inhabitable globes , like the , existent in the solar neighbourhood . This will inevitably lead to the answering of the forever - asked question "" is there life on other planets ? "" . Other reasons are to explore the formation and evolution of , and also to chart our destiny in . Now this is all well and good , but previous studies have determined that the planet Uranus is a gas giant . With its gaseous composition and large distance from the ( ) , there is absolutely no way human life could be sustained on Uranus . The reason for travel to this far away location is based around the various properties that the planet possesses , and the fact that Uranus , as of yet , has not had a dedicated study . The flyby produced some very interesting results , with an abundance of previously unknown information . However because that mission was only really designed to visit and , not a great deal of thought was given to the eventual encounters of the outer planets and , and therefore the spacecraft had to gather as much information as possible before it flew past on its way to the edge of . A probe put into orbit around the huge planet would allow an intensive study , which would produce many more beneficial results . What would be the main areas of study ? Uranus is distinguished by its bizarre axis inclination of - it has effectively been tipped on it 's side , and this phenomena leads to dramatic seasons lasting [ ref.2 ] . It is thought that this is the result of a collision with another celestial body , taking place during the early stages of the formation . A detailed study of the planet could reveal evidence either reinforcing or invalidating this idea . Uranus possesses a magnetic field roughly comparable in intensity to that of the , however due to the orientation of its rotational axis , the magnetic field varies considerably from pole to pole . In actual fact , the magnetic field is offset by to the axis of rotation , and a remarkable consequence of the rotation is that the field 's geomagnetic tail , the magnetotail , is twisted into an effective corkscrew shape behind the planet [ ref.3 ] . < figure/>As we know , is circled by very wide , very bright rings . Uranus too boasts rings but conversely , they are extremely narrow and dark . A reason for this may come from the intense radiation belts that owns . The radiation is such that any methane trapped in the icy ring surfaces would very quickly darken ( over a period of ) , as a result of irradiation [ ref.3 ] . This might also be the case for the planet 's natural satellites . On the subject of moons , has of them . Before the Voyager mission , the number of known moons owned by the planet stood at , but that rapidly increased to thanks to the flyby 's successful observations . It is very possible that there are even more moons orbiting the giant , as the largest of the current is only 150 km in diameter . Some of the larger moons show some evidence of geologic activity , which led to valleys , canyons and flows of icy material . Other regions of investigation would be the planet 's internal structure , as would its atmosphere , comprising of mostly hydrogen ( ) , helium and methane . It is the absorption of red light by the methane which give its powerful blue - green colour we see today . < heading > Onboard the Probe</heading > There are main areas that must be considered when thinking about what to put onboard the spacecraft : spacecraft systems ; propulsion ; communications ; space instrumentation ; power . The idea is that the maximum number of systems is sent into space , for maximum data recording , with as small as possible total mass when it comes to launch . As standard , the orbiter will contain appropriate back up systems which will include fault protection or automatic reboot processes if a failure or loss of contact with arises . There will be various systems aboard the probe used for obtaining the planetary data , namely interferometers , spectrometers , a photopolarimeter , a magnetometer , and several subsystems for particle examination . An interferometer , spectrometer and radiometer system will be used to determine the presence of various elements and compounds in the planet 's atmosphere and rings by studying their atomic absorption spectrums . These systems will work in the regions of ultraviolet through to infrared , and as the system is also a very advanced thermometer , it will detect heat distribution to help model the planet 's atmospheric dynamics [ ref.5 ] . A light - sensing photopolarimeter together with a magnetometer will study atmospheric properties , surface texture and composition , ring properties such as density and particle size , along with the strength and direction of Uranus ' eccentric magnetic field . A plasma subsystem will be used to measure interactions of the solar wind with the planetary magnetic field and interplanetary plasma resonance . Dust and charged particle detectors will collect information about the environment , and composition and distribution of interplanetary medium . There will also be a radio detection subsystem consisting of maybe m antennae to sense planet - generated radio signals . These systems will be accompanied by a wide and narrow camera imaging system to produce direct images of in the ultraviolet and visible parts of the electromagnetic spectrum . There will be a data recording system in the form of perhaps a MB tape ( rather than modern solid state memories due to its reliability ) , so that later playback can be carried out . The recorded information will then be transmitted back to via a communications system , through which messages from to the probe will also be transmitted . This system must take into account various important factors , for example , due to the orbiter 's limited power and large distance away from , transmission and sensing must be accurate , with various multiplexing . A spacecraft might require between and over to power all of its onboard systems , needless to say , it will have a very low transmission power ( about 20W ) [ ref.6 ] , and therefore , the high transmission power will come from the . A solution to the low power transmission is to have large receiving stations on , and directional microwaves to focus the signals at a very precise point . The probe will have a high - gain and low - gain antennae , maybe m in diameter to send and receive data , which in addition , will have very highly sensitive amplifiers , narrow band - pass and phase locking to reject noise . The high - gain antennae will provide primary communications as high signal direction and high data rates are achievable . At the expanse of gain is the high angle coverage low - gain antennae , which will be used for initial contact and in the event of any problems . Revisiting the idea of saving power , the spacecraft 's transponder will operate on the ' Ka ' band . Many probes use 'S ' and ' X ' band transponders ( transferring signals in the range of and ) , but the Ka band transponder functions on frequencies of around 20GHz , thus requiring less power due to higher directional capability . Another very useful advantage is that signals sent at this frequency are less susceptible to poor ground station conditions . The spacecraft will be powered by photovoltaic cells ( solar panels ) out to the orbit of and then by Radioisotope Thermal Generators ( RTGs ) for the remainder if its voyage to Uranus . The reason for this is that the 's intensity falls off as inverse distance squared , hence the amount of sunlight caught at is of that received on , and therefore the amount of power achievable , if any , would be incredibly small . This is where RTGs come into play . RTGs use the fact that radioactive materials ( such as plutonium ) generate heat as they decay into non - radioactive materials [ ref.7 ] . The heat is then converted into electricity via thermocouples in the thermoelectric effect , which is in turn used to power the probe . The radioactive source would be plutonium-238 in the form of , plutonium dioxide - an inert and insoluble ceramic substance - rather than neat plutonium with a solid design so as to increase safety in the possible event of an explosion . RTGs would provide power to the orbiter , each containing of fuel , and generating about 300W from 400W of heat , hence an efficiency of . < figure/><figure/>Another very important feature that the probe will possess is an autonomous navigation system which will provide pointing control of the spacecraft during all mission phases , and attitude knowledge relative to fixed reference frames , also with backup control and safe mode [ ref.9 ] . < heading > Propulsion and Trajectory < /heading > This brings me on to the planning of the route the probe will take in order to get to Uranus . In calculating the route that the spacecraft will take , a number of things must be taken into consideration . In general , we want to get to the destination in the quickest time possible , with the least amount of energy , ie propulsion fuel , used . ( named after the engineer ) is based around 's Laws and is the path which has the lowest energy requirement ( with regards to propulsion ) to reach the orbit of the target planet from the orbit of our planet . It describes the path in which the spacecraft would leave the at a tangential angle to its orbit , and would arrive at an angle tangential to the orbit of the destination planet . This orbit would have its perihelion , the closest point in an orbit to the , at the launch point ( ) and its aphelion , the furthest point in an orbit from the , at the orbit of the target planet [ ref.10 ] . This type of trajectory is obtainable for any travel between planets providing the required change in velocity - the spacecraft needs to speed up to get into the transfer orbit of a more distant planet - is achievable . Unfortunately , with the low thrust engines we have , a change in velocity needed to enter a transfer is not attainable . So how did Voyager manage to do it ? The Voyager mission very successfully used a natural planetary alignment to gain additional ' kicks ' of propulsion , which enabled the space probe to reach the outer planets and . The extra velocity acquirements were obtained by a gravitationally assisted technique , in which the gravity produced by the gas giants speeds up the spacecraft as it flies by . The problem with this is that the natural alignment of the planets occurs only once , but it still took Voyager to get to Uranus . I could possibly use ion engines to provide a continuous thrust over a long period of time but I am rather impatient and far too audacious to do it that way . < figure/>Enter the Variable Specific Impulse Magnetoplasma Rocket ( VASIMR ) . This engine uses magnetic fields to guide superhot plasma out an engine nozzle producing an immense amount of thrust [ ref.12 ] . Although only at a prototype stage , I have full confidence in to have completed the design and testing ready for probe launch in around . The engine works on basic cells : the forward , the central and the aft cells . gas is injected into the forward cell and ionised to create a plasma , which is then passed into the central cell to be further heated with electromagnetic energy ( radio waves ) , to of degrees Celsius . The plasma then enters the aft cell where a magnetic nozzle converts the energy of the plasma into velocity of the jet exhaust [ ref.13 ] . An incredibly strong magnetic field is also used to contain the plasma . < figure/>In rocket science , the fuel efficiency of a rocket engine is measured by its specific impulse , which refers to the units of thrust per the units of propellant consumed over time . The great thing about this fusion reaction engine is that it can generate a specific impulse of times greater than conventional chemical engines [ ref.13 ] . This then means that the journey path is direct from to and the voyage time is greatly reduced , thus lowering harmful exposure to radiation . It took Voyager 9 years to reach Uranus . With the proposed fusion - powered engines , that this would be dramatically reduced to something around 3 or 4 years . Also , with the large delta - v capabilities of the engines , the launch would not be so drastically affected by launch windows . Once the Uranus orbiter has reached its planet , it would go into orbit for , continuing to send back data until its power supply runs out . < heading > Manned Missions to ? < /heading > Expeditions to far away planets are essential if we are to broaden our knowledge of and hence planetary formation and evolution . Man has already exceeded itself by sending spacecraft into space to explore and capture images of the beautiful celestial bodies , however , we will always endeavour to push science to even further limits . Thanks to the introduction of powerful fusion engines , proposals of sending man to distant space have been initiated , so maybe one day we will experience hand views of the magnificent worlds the boasts . It is ambitious , but nevertheless I believe it 's possible .",0
"Once described by as the "" evil[est ] "" in the world , parties in have been criticised by political analysts and the public alike . It is certainly true that their traditional roles have been rendered almost insignificant over ; as organisation in elections and in government , parties have become less effective and less dominant in the performance of functions such as "" recruiting personnel to public office , linking voters to officials , and provoking the electorate with cues with which to differentiate candidates from one another . "" Parties have , however , continued to be institutions capable of "" providing a unifying centripetal force "" despite being unmentioned in the . Against a hostile environment produced by "" constitutional and legal impediments and an antagonistic culture , "" they have adapted their policy position and responsibilities to appeal to a more volatile and demanding public . political parties have modified their programs to "" what was always a broad base of support for individualism and democracy , "" performing different yet still significant functions and continuing to play important roles in society . < fnote > Epstein ( ) p.159 in , "" Political Parties , "" ( , ) , p.53 < /fnote><fnote > McSweeney and , "" Political Parties , "" ( , ) , p.180 < /fnote><fnote > Wattenberg , "" , "" ( USA , ) , p.1 < /fnote><fnote > McSweeney and , "" Political Parties , "" ( , ) , p.180 < /fnote><fnote > McKay , D , "" , "" ( , ) < /fnote > It is probable that the perceived decline in the importance of political parties has much to do with the increased impact of the media in society . With elections centred on television and newspaper coverage , and corporations such as ( who seek little more than increased viewing figures ) deciding what is broadcast , individuals have become the focus and parties are no longer the "" dominant communicator of political information . "" Combined with the effects of negative advertising , the public is subjected to consistent dismissal of various aspects of politics , in particular the parties . As citizen comments at   URL , "" I am sick and tired of the hatred and disgrace that they ( news media ) brings to the country and how they make us look before the whole world . "" The media often portrays issues unfairly or focuses on the topics they think will stimulate most controversy and debate rather than the political issues that are at stake . With such a loss of control of communication with the public , parties are often unable to project the desired image of a unified , coherent group despite still playing important roles in society . In short , it is likely that much of the decline in importance of parties is perceived rather than realistic due to the adverse effects of the media . < fnote > Crotty , J , "" Parties in Decline , "" ( , ) , p.249 < /fnote><fnote > URL   ( ) < /fnote > With the increase of the media , so has come a shift in elections to become centred more on finance to promote the individual than on the policies of the party as a whole . Though this has encouraged a growing role for interest groups and who are able , with the finance reforms of , to raise more money than the party for a candidate , it has not rendered the party insignificant . Following the confrontation at the Democratic National Convention , reforms were undertaken to modernise the conventions and adopt a party character "" to ensure fair and open party procedures . "" The result was that more people than ever before were able to take part in party decision making , rendering party nominations more competitive . The reforms , which were soon followed by , have transformed the political parties ' roles in the to provide organisational support through . Not only do they design and plan campaign strategies , but they also encourage support through mediums which the media can not put their own bias on , allowing the party to portray the image and issues they want people to see . By printing mailings and producing websites , for example , the parties can reach the public . Furthermore , they also provide media training to candidates and members , equipping them with the tools with which to portray the party . Though such work is often not as obvious as the work of political parties once was , it is nevertheless vitally important to the running of politics , providing a solid base upon which the individuals can rely . < fnote > Crotty , J , "" Parties in Decline , "" ( , ) , < /fnote><fnote > For example ,   URL   which features national , local and community bulletins as well as a blog < /fnote > Additionally , the role of the party at state level has also "" been revitalised "" leading to a "" more active role . "" Over , state parties have become more professionalized , bureaucratic and productive . Though and argue that organisational development is not necessarily synonymous with influence ; for example in "" presidential nominations state parties have effectively been removed as actors where once they played the leading roles , "" the parties have evolved to take responsibility for different yet still vital functions . The organisations engage in activities such as "" opinion polling , fund raising and providing services to candidates such as research , "" for example . The official website describes such activities as organising a "" "" on th in all states , and the organising a fundraiser in on th , which Governor attended . Such events often do not attract nationwide or international attention , but are vital to ensure continued support from citizens . < fnote > Jewell and in ( ) < /fnote><fnote > McSweeney and , "" Political Parties , "" ( , ) , p.114 < /fnote><fnote and , "" Political Parties , "" ( , ) , p.114 < /fnote > Despite serious challenges to the credibility of parties , they have survived to suggesting that they are more important in society than may be assumed . Threats from parties have never come to fruition , with the "" major parties ... weather[ing ] the most serious threat to their dominance ... retaining their pre - eminent positions despite dissatisfaction and the effects of and his Reform Party to address perceived unhappiness . "" With of the vote in , for example , Perot still did not manage to win a single state , suggesting that a combination of the electoral system in the and the public 's ultimate faith in the parties has ensured that they continue to dominate . It should also be noted that the and the Parties have both survived serious threats to their credibility ; stories in the news have included , an ethics investigation into , questions over various Presidents personal ethics ( in particular ) , and "" continual gridlock and partisan bickering in . "" The public appears to be able to separate the individual 's actions in his/ her personal life from their perception of him / her as a politician ; even during the scandal , for example , his approval rating remained high . It would be assumed that if parties truly had significantly declined in importance , a scandal or a threat from a party would have a more dramatic effect . The fact that is has n't suggests a continued significance in life . < fnote > Maisel , , "" , "" ( USA , ) , p.367 - 68 < /fnote><fnote , , "" , "" ( USA , ) , p.369 < /fnote > Those who claim that political parties have declined in importance in politics often comment on key issues ; firstly , party membership has fallen and those that do join are less active ; , less people are voting ; and , non - party structures have emerged to take the role of political parties . These criticisms are certainly true ; changing society , a "" new technology of politics .... [ and ] an evolving electorate "" has led to the development of issue politics which encourage citizens to join pressure groups supporting aspect of society rather than political parties which often try to cover all the issues yet none to a satisfactory depth . This is to disregard the fact that parties have at least attempted to define themselves more clearly and appeal to more people in , however . Though getting the correct balance between gaining a broad support base and focusing on key issues has often meant that the parties have appeared to hold very similar beliefs , both major parties have tried to redefine themselves . 's "" , "" for example , attempted to encourage less radical members of the public to support the , and 's "" Third Way "" of tried to put a new image on the party to encourage more support . Though such changes have had limited effect , the parties are certainly becoming gradually more partisan and attempting to modify the effects of interest groups and parties . < fnote > McSweeney and , "" Political Parties , "" ( , ) , p.v < /fnote > It is certainly true that , in some respects , political parties have declined in importance ; decreased party allegiance , the growth of Presidential primaries and the increased influence of the media have meant that the role of parties in certain aspects of political life has been rendered almost insignificant . Rather than accept defeat , however , they have altered their policy positions and reformed their party structures to adapt to a modern and more demanding society which is "" placing new and unaccustomed demands on the party agencies . "" This often means that , though the influence of the party may not be immediately obvious , beneath the surface of media politics they still have a significant impact . It is not that they have gaining increased importance , however , but that their influence has remained constant yet adapted to become less noticeable . Contradictory to works such as 's "" The Party 's Over , "" therefore , it appears that the party never finished ; the music was merely turned down . < fnote > Mahew , D , "" Placing Parties in , "" ( Guildford , ) , p.v < /fnote >","< heading > INTRODUCTION < /heading > Dietary survey is an assessment of current intake and is an essential tool in assessing the relationship between diet and disease . It is also used on clinical medicine and assists in policy making . Weighed food intake , in theory , is considered the ' Gold standard ' as there is no error in portion size . It takes account of weighed and estimated dietary intakes . Another advantage is that it is a prospective method hence des not rely on the memory of the subject . However , ( ) was correct in stating "" The measurement of habitual food intake of an individual must be amongst the most difficult tasks a physiologist can undertake "" Errors are likely to be introduced by food composition tables , as well as coding errors ( where exact matches can not be found ) and it is often difficult to assess food that is not prepared by the individual . This method is consequently not ideal for subjects who frequently eat away from home . Individuals are also likely to change their diets under scrutiny as well . It is however more precise than estimated intakes or past intake methods . The use of the foodbase program database has also made what was in the past a very laborious task very practical . < heading > METHOD</heading > Please see method detailed in practical booklet . All food and drinks consumed over a period were weighed and recorded < heading > RESULTS</heading > Please see attached dietary survey forms and diary analysis results < heading > DISCUSSION</heading > Some definitions The dietary reference values ( DRV ) are calculated on the basis of requirements to : < list > prevent deficiency of protein m vitamins and mineralsMaintain balance of energy On the basis of levels of intake associated with low rates of chronic disease for example heart disease.</list > Generally the distribution of requirements for a given nutrient within a population is assumed to be normal or and it covers EAR Estimated Average Requirement of a group of people for energy or protein or vitamin , will usually need more than the EAR and less intake for protein vitamin or mineral . An amount of the nutrient that is enough for only the few people in the group who have low needs RNI Reference Nutrient Intake of a protein , or mineral . An amount of the nutrient that is enough or more than enough , or more than enough for of people in a group . If the average intake of a group is at RNI , then the risk of deficiency is very small < heading > INTERPRETATION < /heading > Estimated Average Requirements for energy In general the foodbase analysis showed that I ( the subject ) consumed less than the Dietary reference values of energy per day ; kcals compared with recommended 1940kcals . From observing the dietary survey form it appears that too little energy was taken in on and hardly any on other days . Also as a lot of food consumed was pre - prepared e.g. sandwiches and soups it was difficult to estimate the amount of oil used so it was left out completely . This may be responsible for the low values . It also showed that very much higher than desirable levels of protein ; compared with this is g were consumed on average . < quote > Implications : There is some evidence that excessive intakes of protein may contribute to the demineralisation of bone , although the relationship is not a simple one and increases in dietary phosphorous which usually accompany increased dietary protein may minimise any such effect . ( 1991)</quote > Another negative point was t oo little dietary fibre was shown to be consumed of the RNI . This result was surprising considering the regularly large amounts of wholegrain cereals consumed . These are rich sources of insoluble non starch polysaccharides ( NSP ) . NSP - rich foods are generally less energy dense , more bulky and may induce greater satiety than NSP - free foods ; their laxative effect has been well documented ( , UK ) As concerns vitamins and minerals The following minerals were consumed at levels higher than the DRV showing most ' excessively ' consumed < table/>Taking into account the definition of 's only those values vastly different from the DRV were considered causes for concern .For example : The intake of sodium was almost double the dietary reference value . is the principal cation in extracellular fluid where it exists in ionised state . High sodium intakes are associated with higher blood pressure and have also been identified as contributors o other diseases . Calcium is suspected to be mainly obtained from high protein sources such as skimmed milk , this illustrates the difficulty of establishing a ' balanced diet ' as consuming item may be beneficial in sense but be provide another nutrient in excess amounts Consuming too many water soluble vitamins , B6 and B12 does not present a problem because they are simply excreted Too little of the following vitamins were consumed ( Most severe case ) < table/>Potassium was the most markedly deficient mineral . Potassium deficiency alters the electricophysiological characteristics of cell membranes causing weakness of skeletal muscles ( DOH ) . Very much lower levels of retinol were consumed .This vitamin has functions in growth , the maintenance of skin and mucous membranes and the visual process and intake should be increased to at least the DRV . Folate , the water soluble essential nutrient was also consumed in lower than desirable levels . This has serious implications as folic acid is a precursor of several important enzyme co factors required for the synthesis of nucleic acids and the metabolism of some amino acids ( Gaby et . al ) . Iron is a component of haemoglobin , myoglobin and many enzymes and is stored in reticulo - endothelial system as ferritin . Deficiency has adverse effects on work capacity , intellectual performance and behaviour and ultimately defective erythropoeisis leading to hypochromic anaemia . Iodine forms part of the hormones thyroxin and triiodothyronine which are necessary for the maintenance of the metabolic rate , cellular metabolism and integrity of connective tissue . There are no Dietary reference values for the intakes of fat and carbohydrates , However , a set of dietary goal does exist . It is defined as a   broad agreement among all national and international Authorities as to those changes in the average diet that are desirable to minimize risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer . ( ) The table below gives a summary and comparison of percentage of energy derived from carbohydrates , fats and alcohol with desirable levels of each the major food groups . The values ( not already provided ) were calculated using Atwater factors as follows : Starch   FORMULA   ( A column showing male intakes has been added for comparison purposes ) < table/>It is recommended that more energy is provided by carbohydrates because it is expected that this way less energy will be obtained from fats . < heading > CONCLUSION</heading > The values concur for the most part with data collected using food frequency questionnaires previously which was then analysed using DIETQ package . The information was obtained by analysing the diets of students aged It showed that students have been shown to derive much higher than desirable levels of energy from Saturated fats and sugar . This may place them at risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer later in life . This similar trend may be attributed to the ' student culture ' , which normally finds students living in private accommodation resorting to the increasingly wide array of snack foods , ready meals and take away food available . These are normally high in , sugar and may contain hidden fat . < heading > Accuracy < /heading > Advantages & Disadvantages of the method The weighed dietary survey has definite benefits over methods such as diary record because sample sizes are actually weighed and not estimated ( although in this case some of the weights were estimated as the scales were not used from the on start ) does rely on the memory and honesty of the subjects like food frequency questionnaire . It is however quite an inconvenience to carry around and not ideal when you do not prepare the food yourself . For example Impossible to weigh exact weights e.g. of ingredients of store bought foods e.g. sandwich with salad and not sure what oils have been used in that as well . For mixed salads and estimation of how much of each vegetable was consumed had to be made using pictures to estimate portion sizes . Some of the foods can not be found in the database program had to be chosen even for common things e.g. chicken , cereal . The computer programme utilizes information from the and 's The composition of foods . This may introduce errors but is normally taken to be accurate . The programme does not take into account Physical activity levels or intake of nutrients from other sources . I engaged in of walking everyday which is a significant amount of physical activity and also ingested multivitamin supplements which contain over 100%(US RDA ) of all nutrients . The study also assumed that this was my typical diet which as aforementioned is rare with students e.g. from the survey form it can be seen that the food and energy intakes were very high on and very low on others . The survey was however very useful in obtaining detailed information on my diet which is useful for planning and maintaining a healthy diet .",0
"< abstract><heading > Executive Summary</heading > In this report from was analysed in order to determine if it provides a true and fair view of the company 's performance . Also the reliability of has been considered in terms of past and future performance , in ......... < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > In this report the past performance of the engineering company will be analysed through the use of financial techniques such as ratios and peer analysis . will be analysed in order to determine if it provides a true and fair view of the company , taking into account the various accounting adjustments that have been made within it . At this point , using the previously explored information , it will therefore be possible to suggest to a shareholder in the company what they should do with their shares . The predicted future potential of the company will also be discussed , as suggested by , and other sources of information . Finally , the reliability of the report to a shareholder will be considered . < heading plc is an international engineering group , producing a wide range of precision engineering products , operating in countries worldwide . The principal activities of the are the manufacture and sale of industrial chains and related power transmission products , automotive cam drive systems and specialist machine tools and rotors . "" Renold Annual Report 2005</quote><heading > Evaluation of plc 's past performance from the perspective of an ordinary shareholder.</heading > In order to analyse past performance , performance indicators have been chosen that best illustrate how the company has achieved in , and have then been related to a shareholder 's position . The performance indicators chosen are : < list > Profitability Ratios : ROSE ( Return on Shareholder 's Equity , ROCE ( Return on Capital Employed)Liquidity Ratios : Current Assets Ratio , Test RatioEfficiency Ratios : , Trade Debtor Collection Period RatioInvestment Ratios : Dividend Yield , , ( Earnings Per Share ) , Gearing</list > In the following financial ratios , either data from or the database have been used . In some of the cases these calculated values have been compared to ratios released by the database . The purpose of this is to illustrate the variation that can occur in financial ratio calculation . This is due to the fact that different companies and countries use different variations of the same formulae , as a matter of preference or financial standards . < heading > ROSE</heading > ROSE , according to "" measures the rate of return the shareholders receive on their investment "" .   URL   ROSE can be calculated by finding the ratio between Net profit ( loss ) after tax and Ordinary Shareholder 's Funds . In the following graph there are different lines , which is due to the fact that in , had to change the way it stated financial documents to include FRS17 regarding Pension Benefits . < figure/>This graph shows a fluctuation throughout , with a recent dropping to - in . This negative value gives reason to the fact that no final dividends were paid in . However , it should be remembered that was added in due to FRS17 , which would have influenced this result to a high extent . This graph would appear to be a bad sign for a shareholder due to the fact that it shows an undesirable return on an investment . < heading > ROCE</heading > According to from the module Finance and Accounting at and , "" Return on capital employed measures the relationship between the amount invested in the business and the returns generated for the investors . "" It would therefore be desirable to have a percentage ratio that is larger than that which you would get in a bank account , which has none of the risk associated with businesses . The following graph was obtained using the equation : ROCE = [ Profit before interest and taxation]/[Fixed Assets + Current Assets - Current Liabilities ] x 100 % The lines represent data from , and average values respectively . The line uses ROCE values from , which uses a slightly different formula . < figure/>The graph shows that values for ROCE fluctuate considerably in until . There is also a difference between the ratio from and the calculated values , due to the different formulae that have been used . This indicates that it should be found out which formula has been used before analysing the results , before any false conclusions are made . This graph indicates to a shareholder that they are not getting as much return from their investment as they have in . The value is on average for the calculated values and negative for the values . This could raise concern because this same percentage could be obtained in a savings account . < heading > Acid Test Ratio</heading > The Acid Test Ratio is calculated using the formula : [ Current Assets - stocks ] / Current Liabilities The purpose of the ratio is to see "" what would happen to the current ratio if stocks were not included in the definition of current assets "" ( Dyson p ) , due to the fact that stocks can not easily and quickly be turned into cash . Using data from the and in , the following graph can be obtained : < figure/>It can be seen that over , 's has risen from in to in . This is a good sign of improvement , due to the fact that the company will be able to fulfil any short - term commitments easily . However , it would not be desirable for this value to rise much higher , as it would indicate that the company 's resources were not being used correctly . < heading > Current Assets Ratio</heading > A current asset ratio is the ratio between . A good explanation of the values that this ratio should be is given by , which is in turn referenced from   URL   < quote>""A firm needs enough assets to cover its liabilities , hence the result of the calculation should always be above . If the value is below then the company is insolvent . A value of means that they are struggling to meet their liabilities . A value is desirable . Whilst above means the company is in a very safe position""</quote > Data taken form the database yields the following graph ; < figure/>This graph shows a fluctuating Current Assets ratio , from a minimum of in to a maximum of in . Even though there seems to be a large drop from , it is still well within the range of data shown over , and is only a drop of . The value for also takes into account pension liability , which would account for some of the drop . The value of for Current Assets Ratio is within the desirable range of to , meaning that it has "" enough assets to cover its liabilities "" , without "" too much money invested in assets . "" This would indicate to a shareholder that the company is in a fairly strong position at present . The current assets ratio of Renold can be compared to its major peer of ( URL ) who produce power transmission chains , meaning that they are competing companies . Using the peer analysis option in database , it can be seen that has a current assets ratio in of compared to the value of for Renold . This means that while is able to cover its liabilities with relative ease , will be in a position where they will be struggling to meet the liabilities . Meaning that in terms of this ratio , is in a stronger position than one of its competitors . < heading > Fixed Asset Turnover</heading > Fixed asset turnover is according to ' Winning Business ' by ( , , p136 ) "" how many times a company achieves , or turns over the book value of fixed assets in net sales "" . The value that is obtained does not mean much in isolation , however when compared to it can be very useful . It can be seen , according to ( p259 ) that "" if the trend is upwards , then the investment in fixed assets is beginning to pay off . "" This is a good sign for Renold , as shown by the following graph , using data from ; < figure/>As can be seen , the graph shows an increasing trend , year - on - year , apart from where there is a slight dip . This increasing trend would indicate to a shareholder that the business ' fixed assets of the company are being used effectively , and are producing a good amount of turnover as a result . < heading > Trade Debtor Collection Period Ratio</heading > The Trade Debtor Collection Period Ratio is a ratio which indicates how long it is taking for debtors to pay . This is important to Renold , because if debtors are taking too long to pay , then cash flow may be affected . The following graph , using data from database and shows Period for Renold , using the formula : [ [ trade debtors + closing trade debtors)]/Turnover ] x 365 days < figure/>According to ( p260 ) , in the "" the median debtor collection period is "" . Whereas the time for is fluctuating , which is higher than that of an average company . This could represent that is fairly weak at collecting its debts , which may mean that could run into trouble if the debts are not collected quickly enough . However , the high value could also mean that because of the industry in which is operating , the time it takes to pay debts is longer . A shareholder should certainly be aware of this collection period , as an increase could be a bad sign . However , as it stands the time it takes to collect debt has decreased by in , which could indicate a possible further decrease in the future . < heading > Dividend Yield</heading > According to ( p261 ) , "" the dividend yield measures the rate of return that an investor gets by comparing the cost of his shares with the dividend receivable ( or paid ) "" . An investor would be interested in investing in a company that pays out a high amount of dividend per share , with a preferably increasing value . In the following graph the Dividend Yield has been calculated using the total dividends paid out during ( taken from the Renold website ) , divided by the market share price ( taken from database . ) Both the end and average values for have been shown for comparative purposes . < figure/>The graph above shows that over the Yield has decreased drastically from a value of to a value of . This is a bad sign for a shareholder in the company , due to the fact that every year they will be getting less money from dividends . In fact , states that no final dividend would be paid to shareholders in . The reason for this would be because the company reported a loss due to increased raw material prices , and so they would want to put the money that would have been used to pay dividends back into the company , in order to strengthen it . < heading > Dividend Cover</heading > Dividend cover is described by ( p261 ) as being "" the number of times that the ordinary dividend could be paid out of current earnings . "" It therefore indicates how much profit will be left after the dividends have been paid . In the following graph the dividend cover has been calculated using data from both and , in order to indicate any differences occurring due to the restating of figures that was done in order to make comparison to appropriate . The formula used to calculate dividend cover is as follows : Net profit after taxation and preference dividend / Paid and proposed ordinary dividends < figure/>It can therefore be seen that the dividend cover of Renold fluctuates to a high extent . In , and 2004 , the dividend cover is equal to , or higher than . Which is a fairly good , as the company has enough money to pay for its dividends . However , in , and more recently 2005 , the dividend cover has been negative , due to losses within the company . This can be considered as being a warning sign for potential shareholders , as in no final dividends were paid out . This means that shareholders would not have got a significant return on their investment . < heading > EPS</heading > In the words of ( p261 ) , "" enables a fair comparison to be made earnings and another by relating the earnings to something tangible , i.e. the number of shares in issue . "" There are different forms of : Basic , , and . There is generally not much difference between these variations of , however investopedia.com suggests that "" is a much more accurate reflection of a company 's earnings "" due to the fact that it takes "" into account if all warrants , stock options , and convertible bonds were traded in for stock "" .   URL   The formula for is as follows : [ Net profit ( including convertible preferred shares ) after taxation and preference dividend ] / [ Weighted average number of ordinary shares outstanding during the period and all exercisable share options ] The graph for this is as follows using data from and the database . < figure/>As can be seen above , has fluctuated to a high extent . Varying in value to - 7.5 in . From the point of view of a shareholder this graph can be seen as concerning . This is due to the fact that according to ( pg , , ) , shareholders should be looking to invest in a company that shows "" steady , non - volatile , growth "" , of which Renold shows none . < heading > Gearing</heading > Gearing in this instance can be considered as being the ratio between debt and equity . Where debt is equal to long - term liabilities + short - term liabilities , and equity is equal to shareholder 's funds . The data used to produce the following graph is from the database . < figure/>The graph shows that the gearing for has been steadily from until , but in increased dramatically to . This increase is in some respect due to the introduction of FRS which deducted a pension deficit of £ from the shareholder 's funds , thereby almost halving it . It is in some cases worthwhile to have an increased gearing because if the increased revenue produced using the increased loans is greater than the interest produced by the extra loans then it will be beneficial . However , this depends on the financial climate for the company . < heading > Assessment of reliability of the report < /heading><heading > How reliable is the information in the report?</heading > The reliability of is extremely variable . As with many financial items , there are different variations of the same definition , and different ways of doing the same thing . things that could be taken into account in order to discuss the reliability of are the accounting adjustments that have been made within it , and also which financial accounting standards have been employed . Accounting adjustments and financial standards affect the reliability of the report because , according to , they "" involve exercising a great deal of personal judgement . The decisions taken about how to treat them can have a significant effect on the profit or loss reported for . ""(p94 ) < heading > Accounting adjustments and their impacts on the reported profit</heading > examples of accounting adjustments that have been used in are Goodwill and Depreciation . , according to the Global Investor Glossary , is "" The value of a business to a purchaser over and above its net asset value . It reflects the value of intangible assets like : reputation , brand name , good customer relations , high employee morale , and other factors which improve the company 's business ""   URL   This means that if you wanted to buy a company , then it would in many cases be bought for a lot more than its actual net asset value . Hence , this needs to be taken into account in the company accounts , because otherwise it would appear that a significant amount of money had just disappeared . amortisation appears in the and of and is , like depreciation , subject to personal judgement , in the way it is applied , which therefore affects the profit of the company . In the case of Renold it is stated that goodwill is "" amortised on a straight line basis over a period not exceeding "" , which is a principal that is employed in many companies . Depreciation is an accounting adjustment which ensures that "" the cost of [ a ] benefit provided by fixed assets ... be charged to those accounting periods that benefit from such an expenditure . ""(p97)Dyson Due to the fact that there are many different methods of depreciation that are commonly used , there can also be seen to be a high factor of personal judgement that goes into deciding which method to use . In the case of Renold , they have taken into account a depreciation in the and of , which is included in the normal operating costs . This therefore has a direct effect on the profit / loss of the company . If a different type of depreciation had been used , then the profit / loss of the company could have been higher or lower , depending on what type of depreciation is chosen . It is commonplace that different companies use different types , making comparison between them misleading . It is stated in the ' Accounting Policies ' section of that "" Depreciation is calculated by reference to original cost at fixed percentages assuming effective useful lives "" . This is a common way of handling depreciation , but should be remembered when comparing 's performance to other companies . What evidence is there in that indicates that the financial accounting standards have been applied to produce a true and fair view ? It is stated in the ' Report of the Independent Auditors ' in that believe that : < quote>""In our opinion : the accounts give a true and fair view of the state of affairs of the Company and the at and of the loss and cash flows of the for . ""</quote > This provides some evidence that Renold have given a true and fair view of their company , because it shows that the auditors believe it to be reliable . However , we can also look at the financial accounting standards that have been applied in the report to support this view . In note of it is stated that FRS17 "" Retirement Benefits "" has been fully adopted in . This would mean that it would be misleading to compare data from and 2003/4 , due to that fact that different standards have been employed . However , the report does give a true and fair view in this instance , due to the fact that they have restated the data from to include FRS17 . Thereby making comparison between suitable . It is stated in note that on ( ) was purchased , and set in as an acquisition . It is also said that "" due to the proximity of the acquisition to the 's , the fair value of the is assessed on a provisional basis . ""(note 25 ) This means that even though the figures given in for this acquisition may not be entirely correct , it has in fact been stated that this is the case . This can therefore , be considered as giving a true and fair view of the company in the way that this has been admitted . Although not entirely in the way that it could be possible that these figures are slightly wrong . In ( p229 ) the main are stated as being FRS1 , , and FRS18 . FRS1 , , has been implemented within , due to the fact there is a cash flow statement within it . FRS3 , Reporting Financial Performance , has also been implemented . Exceptional items have been disclosed in the and , and there is a distinction "" between continuing operations , acquisitions and discontinued operations . "" ( ) FRS18 , Accounting Policies , has been implemented by issuing a section of ' Accounting Policies ' within on pages and . The implementation of these Financial Reporting Standards indicates that a true and fair view of the company is being given , because they are abiding by the same standards that other companies abide , and so accurate comparisons can be made . In conclusion , I therefore believe that educated adjustments and financial standards have been applied to produce a true and fair view of Renold ' s current financial situation . Recommendation to an ordinary shareholder at With reference to the information given in the previous section regarding the position of , it can be advised that a shareholder should hold onto or sell their shares , rather than increasing any current investment . The reason for this is that from financial ratios shown there are almost an equal number of good and bad values with relation to what a shareholder and the company would desire . However , with relation to the more specific ' for shareholder ' ratios , it seems that these tend to be giving negative feelings to the investment in Renold . This can be summarised as being that there have been no final dividends paid out in , the calculated ROCE is , which a shareholder could obtain at a bank with less risk associated . Finally , fluctuates to a high extent and thereby is not steady and does not show growth , which is what an investor should look for according to in ' Key Management Ratios ' . < heading > Assessment of the potential future performance of the over There are many statements within that indicate the predicted future performance of the company . They can be summarised as being on the matter of steel , the matter of currency , and the matter of . < heading > On the matter of steel</heading > It is mentioned in several places throughout the Annual Report about the company "" experiencing on year increase of in cost""(A ) of steel and its effect on the company . It is has therefore been identified as a problem that could also affect future company prospects . However , it is a good sign that the problem of rising steel prices has been identified and discussed in . This is because the company will now strive to take special measures in order to reduce the effect that rising steel prices have . Already it has been stated that "" prices to customers have been increased "" ( B ) , but these have "" lagged behind the cost increases and did not enable the business to fully recover the raw material cost increases . ""(B ) This means that more still has to be done in order to recover from the situation . However , on the matter of the future performance , it is also stated that there "" appears to be a consensus that steel prices have plateaued""(B ) . This allows for good future prospects due to the fact that if the prediction is correct then material costs will not increase and so the current problem of costs will not increase to further extent . The view that steel prices have plateaued is supported by other sources such as by , ( ) who states that he believes that a "" plateau for structural steel will exist throughout with a variation of a ton "" where is at a current price of $ .   URL   A slightly different opinion is put across by , director of , who says , "" prices will continue to slowly drop from their peak above $ a ton at . Prices will plateau in around $ 500 a ton . ""   URL   Obviously this is different from the view expressed in and by , due to the time scale that the plateau is predicted at . It also predicts that the steel price will plateau at a value which is significantly lower than its current value . The reason that these views on steel prices differ is because it is a subject of opinion . The main reason for rising steel prices is the increasing demand from , and the problems of supply are being solved by various methods . However , it is unknown how well these methods will work out . This therefore gives the scope for variation in views . The view put across by in the Annual Report that steel prices will plateau seems to be an educated one , as does the opinion of . However , even though they differ as to when a steel price plateau will occur , and at which price , either case would be beneficial to Renold , indicating a better potential future performance . However , in the Renold Interim Report it is stated that there is still a significant "" impact of continuing high raw material prices "" . Which , on the contrary shows that the costs of steel were still rising at . < heading > On the matter of currency</heading > The subject of currency is also mentioned within . This is related to material costs because "" exchange rate movements have caused significant input cost increases""(C ) . This is explained quite thoroughly in < quote>""The strength of the has aggravated the problems faced by the chain businesses as the majority of production is - based whereas the sales growth has come from Dollar - based economies . "" ( C)</quote > However , in , the future prospects in terms of currency are seen to be good , due to the "" recent weakening of the against the Dollar "" ( A ) This is backed up to a high extent by the following graph , using data from   URL . This graph shows the strengthening of the dollar that is mentioned in the Chairman 's Statement . However , the significance of this undermined in the article ' Market Insight : Will the Dollar 's rally continue ? ' by , because even though it is stated that the Dollar has enjoyed its strongest year against the since . It goes onto say that this is merely "" a blip in the dollar 's decline , with the downtrend seen during likely to be resumed in . ""   URL   The strengthening of the Dollar is also reiterated in which state that the "" recent strengthening of the dollar against the will , if maintained , provide benefit in . "" < heading > On the Far East</heading > It is stated within that it is "" proposed to establish a wholly owned manufacturing facility in ... to support a number of the Company 's product line""(C ) . Which "" will not only provide cost reduction but , more importantly , will provide better access to markets and customers in . "" This indicates that future prospects for the company in this area of the world will be very good , due to a larger presence of the company ( Does the financial report provide any useful information about the</heading > future ? It can be seen that does provide useful information about the future of the company , due to the fact that the information it gives is supported by outside sources to a high extent < heading > How will changes to affect the firm and its report?</heading > In , will be required to "" prepare its consolidated financial statements in accordance with ( ' IFRS ' ) "" , due to changes to . This will affect the firm to a high extent in the next annual report . It is anticipated , according to the ' Update on IFRS ' released by , that the following will be the most significant changes , amongst others . * Under IFRS , there will be "" a material increase in the value of property in the 's balance sheet . "" Also "" the basis on which freehold properties are depreciated will be revised from a reducing balance basis to a straight line basis which is considered to be a basis more in line with general practice . "" * , there will be "" classification changes in the balance sheet . "" * IFRS , standard goodwill will now be "" carried at cost and subject to an impairment review "" . * Also , the group "" made an acquisition that gave rise to negative goodwill "" in which has "" been reassessed under IFRS but there will remain a significant level of goodwill . "" It can therefore be seen that some of the changes after adopting IFRS will be fairly large , but should n't have too much influence on the overall accounts . < heading > How reliable is this report to an ordinary shareholder as an indicator of both past and future performance?</heading > It can be concluded that is very reliable to an ordinary shareholder due to the fact that it applies relevant financial standards and practices in the creation of the document . Also , the report seems to be fairly truthful in its outlook for the future position of the company , although it can be seen in hindsight that some of its predictions such as the plateauing of steel prices were educated , but slightly wishful .","< abstract><heading > Summary</heading > In this investigation a ' limited ' centrifugal pump was tested at different speeds and deliver pressures in order to determine the Pump Performance Characteristics . This was done by varying the delivery pressure , and measuring the suction pressure , the force exerted by the pump and the discharge rate of the pump . This collection of data was enough to determine and analyse such factors as efficiency . different speeds of 2000rpm and were tested . Varying the delivery pressure at a constant rate over the pump 's complete operating range yielded results in each speed situation . The results were then put into a spreadsheet in order to calculate the values that we wished to analyse . sets of graphs were then plotted . The of these was of the Pump Performance Characteristics of the pump and displayed and . The of these was of Results derived . Some useful information was obtained from looking at these graphs . , the characteristics of the pump were very similar at the different speeds . They were similar due to the forms and gradients of the graphs being very close to one another . , it was discovered that the pump would run more efficiently at than at 2000rpm . Finally , that for the non - dimensional results , if speed were to be increased then and would theoretically move closer together . It was seen that this sort of investigation into centrifugal pump performance characteristics is extremely useful in analysing how well a pump will work in certain situations . The graphs derived would be invaluable in a situation where you had to pick a pump to be used in a system . For example , you could use them to determine what speed and power intake you would need in order to get a particular discharge . Overall , the techniques used in this investigation and their results are a versatile tool in analysing the performance of pumps . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > In this investigation a ' limited ' centrifugal pump will be tested at different speeds and deliver pressures in order to determine the Pump Performance Characteristics . This will be done by varying the delivery pressure , and measuring the suction pressure , the force exerted by the pump and the discharge rate of the pump . This collection of data will be enough to determine and analyse such factors as efficiency . < heading > Apparatus and Method</heading > The pump being tested is a single stage centrifugal pump made by . It will be tested at speeds of and rpm . measurements were taken from the pump : the suction pressure , the delivery pressure , force given by the pump , and the discharge . The suction pressure and the delivery pressure were recorded from analogue dials . The force given by the pump was recorded from a spring balance . Before collecting this data the extension from the pump had to be centred in order to ensure that the system was in equilibrium without resting on other supports . If the shaft were to be resting on a shaft then the force measurement would be incorrect by a significant amount . This situation is illustrated below . < picture/>The discharge was recorded using a . When measuring , the most extreme measurements of delivery pressure were taken of all in order to determine in which range measurements needed to be taken . It was decided within the group to take measurements within each range . For rpm the most extreme delivery pressures were bar and bar , so it was decided to take measurements every bar from bar to bar . For rpm the most extreme delivery pressures were bar and bar , so it was decided to take measurements every bar from bar to bar . When recording the force and the discharge , taking measurements at a level perpendicular to the reading reduced systematic errors in the form of parallax errors . < heading > Theory</heading > Centrifugal pump definition from ' URL ' : < quote>[A centrifugal pump is ] A pump consisting of an impeller fixed on a rotating shaft and enclosed in a casing or volute and having an inlet and a discharge connection . The rotating impeller creates pressure in the water by the velocity derived from the centrifugal force.</quote > Performance curves are used to display to users how pumps perform at different fluid output levels , and are often used as points of reference for customers , being provided by pump manufacturers . They normally show total head , efficiency and input power against pump discharge . Where input power is sometimes labelled as brake horsepower . Total Head definition from ' URL ' : < quote>[Total head is ] The difference between the pressure head at the discharge and suction flange of the pump.</quote > Manometer definition from ' Fluid Mechanics ' by , and : < quote>'Manometers are device that employ liquid columns for determining differences in pressure . '</quote><heading > Sample Computations</heading > The following are a sample of the computations that are used in the spreadsheet in order to obtain the values that we wish to analyse . < list><heading > Measured Values:</heading > Suction Pressure = -0.05 = BARForce = = RPMh = Hg</list><list><heading > Calculated Values:</heading > Pressure ? P = - -0.05 = + = BAR0.35BAR x = , hp = ? P / ? g = ( 35x1000)/(1000x9.8 ) = 3.57MH20Power input , = x Angular Velocity = Force x Torque Arm Length x Angular Velocity = x 0.179 x ( ) x ? = WattsQ = ch0.5 = x h0.5 = / secPower Output = ? P x Q = x 1000 x ( ) = WattsEfficiency , ? = ( Pout / Pin ) x = ( ) x = = ( x ) = 3.44Q / fpD3 = ( 0.89/1000)/((2014/60)x0.0953 ) = 0.031T/?fp2D5 = 0.179/(1000x((2014/60)2)x0.0955 ) = 0.072</list><heading > Results</heading > The results and calculations on the results are shown in . < heading > Graphs</heading > sets of graphs have been plotted . The graphs are of the ' Pump Performance Characteristics ' . These have been plotted on different graphs for speeds of rpm and rpm , so as to stop any confusion between which results relate to which speeds . The graph illustrates the ' Non - Dimensional Results ' as calculated in the table . Both speeds have been illustrated on the same graph , due to the fact that there are sets of points , compared to in the performance characteristics graphs . Therefore , there is less chance of there being any confusion . These graphs are shown in Appendices , , and respectively . < heading > Evaluation of Results</heading > When the pump is running at 2000rpm the performance characteristics , as displayed by , are as follows . Efficiency is a parabolic curve in which the maximum value of efficiency occurs at litres sec-1 flow rate . Total head decreases at a constant rate as discharge increases , until discharge reaches litres sec-1 , at which point the total head starts decreasing at an increasing rate . Input power increases at a constant rate almost throughout . When the pump is running at the performance characteristics , as displayed by , are as follows . Efficiency is a parabolic curve in which the maximum value of efficiency occurs at litres sec-1 flow rate . Total head decreases at an increasing rate . However , it is fairly linear between 0 litres sec-1 and litres sec-1 flow rate . Input power increases at a constant rate almost throughout . It is now possible to compare performance characteristics for when the pump is running at the different speeds . At speeds of the pump has a maximum efficiency of more than when it is running at 2000rpm . However , efficiencies are the same as each other for flow speeds of up to litres sec-1 . The total head decreases at the same rate at each speed when compared to the range of the flow rate . For example , if you stretched out the curve for 2000rpm , it would look like 3000rpm to quite a high extent . This suggests that if you tested another speed then its total head would also act in the same way as compared to its range of flow rate . Input power at increases at a faster rate than for 2000rpm . This means that for the same increase in flow rate , a greater power input increase is needed for higher speeds . In order to analyse 3 , which displays the ' Non - dimensional results ' , we can consider that the non - dimensional results represent coefficients of the variables within them , and therefore the non - dimensional results change in proportion to the variables , as discussed below .   FORMULA   decreases at an almost constant rate . This is because delivery pressure is the variable that is changed at a constant rate during the experiment . The only other variable in the equation , which forms ? P , is the suction pressure . The suction pressure also changes at a constant rate . This non - dimensional will therefore change at a constant rate because ? P changes at a constant rate .     increases at a decreasing rate . This is because discharge , Q , increases at a decreasing rate .     increases at a decreasing rate . This is because force increases at a decreasing rate , which means that torque , T , increases at a decreasing rate . It can be seen from Graph 3 that for is larger than for 2000rpm . However , for is smaller than for 2000rpm . This indicates , due to the layout of the graph axes that as the speed increases the values of the non - dimensional numbers and will move closer together . However , the speed would have to increase by a very significant amount for them to have the same value . There are some possible sources of random error in this experiment , which may account for any anomalies within the data . , due to the fact that the delivery pressure and suction pressure were displayed on analogue dials , they may have not been recorded accurately , due to the spacing between numbers of the dial being wide . This therefore means that the values of the pressures can only really be measured effectively to , when sometimes the pointer may have been in - between these points . A way to rectify this would be to increase the number of markings on the dials . , when moving the extension to the pump in the measuring of the force , then it may not have been centred correctly , thereby inducing small errors . There are also some possible sources of systematic error in this experiment . However , because they are systematic we may not actually know about them . For example , there was calibration error noticed on when measuring for speeds of . For the couple of readings the manometer read - 4 , when it should have been . The results were calibrated by increasing each value by , therefore virtually calibrating the manometer readings . < heading > Conclusions</heading > In this investigation into the performance characteristics of a centrifugal pump at different speeds many things were realised . , it was seen that at the different speeds the characteristics were very similar . They were similar due to the forms and gradients of the graphs being very close to one another . However , small differences still existed such as the spread of the results and slight variations in gradient , such as with input power in and 2 , where for Graph 2 it has a slightly steeper gradient than in 1 . It was also discovered that the pump would run more efficiently at than at 2000rpm . , it was seen that in 3 , for the non - dimensional results , if speed were to be increased then and would theoretically move closer together . It can be seen that this sort of investigation into centrifugal pump performance characteristics is extremely useful in analysing how well a pump will work in certain situations . The graphs derived would be invaluable in a situation where you had to pick a pump to be used in a system . For example , you could use them to determine what speed and power intake you would need in order to get a particular discharge . Overall , the techniques used in this investigation and their results are a versatile tool in analysing the performance of pumps .",1
"The right to silence is a prominent feature of adversarial justice systems and is often erroneously viewed as a single entitlement . The right to silence is in reality a collection of privileges ; with the most important being the right of a suspect to remain silent under accusation or interrogation and the right of a suspect not to have to testify at his own trial . < fnote > R v Director of ex parte Smith [ ] 3 All E.R. , at - 64 different meanings are identified by Lord Mustill < /fnote > The right to silence derives from the privilege against self - incrimination . The judiciary have recognised the privilege as being "" deep rooted in law "" and as one of the rationales behind many other judicial safeguards , such as the rejection of improperly obtained confessions . However , as Lord indicated , "" statutory interference with the right is almost as old as the right itself "" . Furthermore , the judiciary itself has not always been a staunch advocate of this right and , in the past , courts have expressed regret that restrictive rules have prevented them from commenting on the failure of defendants to answer questions during interrogation .   < fnote > described in the maxim : "" nemo debet prodere se ipsum "" - "" no one should be obliged to give himself away "" < /fnote><fnote > Lam Chi - ming and Others v ) [ 1991 ] 93 Cr . . R. 358 , per Lord , at < /fnote><fnote > see : R v Sang [ 1979 ] 2 All ER , at ; and Others v ) [ 1991 ] 93 Cr . . R. 358 , at < /fnote><fnote > R v Director of ex parte Smith [ ] 95 C.R. App . R. 191 , per Lord at < /fnote><fnote > see : Jackson , J. , The Right of Silence : Judicial Responses to Parliamentary Encroachment , , , Modern Law Review , , ; R v Gilbert [ ] 66 Cr . App . R. 237 ; R v Alladice [ 1988 ] 87 Cr . . R. 380 < /fnote > There is a clear tension between trying to strike a balance between protecting the defendant 's established privilege against self - incrimination and the need for the courts to obtain the necessary information in order to convict criminals . the judiciary became increasingly reluctant to allow the defendant to thwart the prosecution case through silence , especially in civil matters . The legislature reacted to this and other stimuli , especially the prevalent use of silence by suspected terrorists in , by passing Public Order Act ( ) . < fnote > see : Re plc . [ ] B.C.C. ; AT & Y Istel Ltd v Tully [ ] A.C. 45 < /fnote><fnote > see : Jackson , in Criminal Evidence , , , Law , < /fnote > The disposed of the absolute right to silence and allowed , for the time , courts to draw adverse inferences from a defendant 's silence . The most important limitation of the right to silence , and the focus of this essay , is section CJPOA which allows an inference to be drawn if the defendant , "" [ upon ] being questioned , ... failed to mention any fact [ later ] relied on in his defence "" . The rationale behind is that it is expected that an innocent individual would wish to provide his exculpatory explanation at the opportunity . If he fails to do this the jury should be allowed to draw adverse inferences from his later fabrication , which is little more than an attempt to ambush the prosecution and ensure an unmerited acquittal .   < fnote > Criminal Justice and Public Order Act section 34(1)(a ) < /fnote><fnote > Cooper , S. , Legal Advice and Pre - trial Silence - Unreasonable Developments , , , , pp.61 < /fnote > However , even prior to the the "" common law right [ to remain silent had ] been diluted in certain areas "" . For example , in cases where a person is accused of a crime by another speaking to him on even terms , then he ought to reply to that accusation , and "" if he does not it is some evidence to show that he admits the [ accusation ] to be true "" . The judge was also able to comment , although not adversely , on a defendant 's failure to make a statement . This allowed the jury to be reminded that , where a defence was raised for the time in court , the police had not had the opportunity to test its veracity . The judge could further draw the attention of the jury to the fact that the defendant 's silence in court has "" deprived [ them ] of the opportunity of hearing his story tested in cross - examination "" . It is evident , that in reality , prior to the , the right to silence did not exist in absolute form and both common law and statutes had weakened and limited its application . < fnote > Yates , C. , Actions Speak Louder than Words , Vol . , No . , , , pp.361 < /fnote><fnote > R v [ 1892 ] 17 Cox C.C. , per at ; see also : R v Christie [ 1914 ] ; v The Queen ( Privy Council ) [ ] 1 W.L.R. 1251 ; R v Black [ ] 16 Cr . . R. < /fnote><fnote > R v Gilbert [ ] 66 Cr . . R. 237 < /fnote><fnote > R v Bathurst [ ] 1 All ER 1175 < /fnote><fnote > see : Police and Criminal Evidence Act sections - 32 - giving police power to arrest for questioning < /fnote > Many commentators were heavily opposed to the introduction of adverse inferences , especially as the right to silence had already been significantly undermined . O'Reilly argued that , "" the use of adverse inferences will erode or eliminate the right to silence and , in doing so , shift the burden of proof to the accused , in some cases reduce the prosecution 's burden of proof , and will weaken or remove the presumption of innocence "" . This essay shall examine whether , following the introduction of the , and the resulting jurisprudence , the legislation has successfully achieved its goal and whether a defendant is in a substantially more disadvantaged position . < fnote > O'Reilly , G.W. , England Limits the Right to Silence and Moves Towards an Inquisitorial System of Justice , Vol . , No . , , pp < /fnote><heading > The affect of on suspects in police stations</heading > Section 34 has had a marked impact on the practice adopted by suspects in police stations . research shows that the percentage of suspects remaining silent during interview , or only selectively answering questions , has dropped by respectively . The legislation was also successful in persuading criminals charged with serious offences to talk ; they were amongst the groups with the "" largest drop in the use of silence "" . On the other hand , of the principal reasons the legislation was introduced was to prevent terrorists and professional criminals from subverting the investigation of offences , and research found that "" there had been little change in the willingness of those suspects to answer police questions "" . < fnote > Bucke , T. , Street , , & Brown , , The right of silence : the impact of Public Order Act , , pp.31 < /fnote><fnote > ibid , pp.32 < /fnote><fnote > see : ibid , pp.36 - ; , , , Entry into the criminal justice system : a survey of police arrests and their outcomes , , < /fnote><fnote , , Silence and : Extending the Boundaries of in , , , , pp . < /fnote > Prior to the enactment of , of those who received legal advice would remain silent compared with who declined their right to a solicitor . Reducing the number of suspects being advised to remain silent by solicitors was a principal aim of . Judge maintains that the legislation has been successful in achieving this aim and he stated that since the introduction of the "" suspects who have received legal advice ... are a lot more likely to participate "" in police interview . Research supports Judge 's view ; "" among suspects receiving legal advice , the proportion refusing all questions fell from and among those refusing some questions from to nine per cent "" . < fnote , see : supra , no.17 < /fnote><fnote > Judge , Judge , see : Appendix A , Interview with Judge < /fnote><fnote > ibid , pp.32 < /fnote > Whilst it is manifestly obvious that the restriction the places on the right to silence has prompted a change in defence practices , it is unclear whether the primary objective , of making it easier for the police and the prosecution to prove their case , has been achieved . The legislation has been found to be relatively ineffectual where the defendant has refused to speak , "" as any adverse inferences ... were unable to fill large deficits in the prosecution case "" . Consequently , and unsurprisingly , the defendant 's silence has played only a marginal role in decisions to prosecute . Many prosecutors see silence as something which only aids the prosecution indirectly by serving to undermine the defence , rather than to bolster the prosecution case .   < fnote , , Silence and , pp . , see : supra , no.20 < /fnote><fnote > ibid < /fnote > Section 34 has , however , rendered the defendant significantly more likely to participate in police interrogation . As a result , many police officers believe that , instead of receiving silence from a defendant , they now get "" a pack of lies "" ; although , the police see the opportunity to have something to investigate as valuable . The prosecution case will be reinforced where the police manage to disprove the defendant 's claims and , in certain cases , counsel will be forced to advance a different defence at trial , thereby inviting inferences . < fnote , pp.35 , see : supra , no.17 < /fnote > Police claims that the provisions are beneficial to the prosecution , are not reflected by the statistics . The charge rate for suspects who answered all questions remained constant and where suspects refused to answer some or all questions the charge rate actually dropped by . This may be indicative of the fact that "" those who now exercise the right of silence mainly do so where the evidence against them is weak "" . The study also points out that , as only a minority of suspects exercise their right to silence at the police station , it would be unrealistic to expect the legislation to have a considerable impact on aggregate crime statistics . < fnote > ibid , pp.40 - 41 < /fnote><fnote > ibid , introduction , pp . x < /fnote><fnote > ibid < /fnote><heading > European and domestic case law following the introduction of the CJPOA 1994</heading > The statutory reforms introduced by the CPJOA were shrouded in controversy and widely expected to result in many appeals in the higher courts . These reservations have not proved unfounded and ) has frequently been consulted with cases concerning . < fnote > Dennis , , Public Order Act : , , , 4 < /fnote><fnote > Cooper , pp.62 , see : supra , no.10 < /fnote > In v the ECtHR ruled that , "" the question whether the right [ to silence ] is absolute must be answered in the negative "" . However , much of the subsequent litigation concerning has restricted the scope of the silence provision of the . In R v Bowden the Court of Appeal ruled that , "" since [ sections - 37 CJPOA ] restrict rights recognised at common law as appropriate to protect defendants against the risk of injustice , they should not be construed more widely than the statutory language requires "" . < fnote>[1996 ] 22 E.H.R.R. 29 < /fnote><fnote > ibid , at < /fnote><fnote>[1999 ] 2 Cr . . R. 176 < /fnote><fnote > ibid , per Lord , at < /fnote > The jurisprudence has also conferred specific rights on defendants and , to avoid infringing , the use of adverse inferences must be strictly controlled . In v the ECtHR ruled that no inference from silence may be drawn against a defendant who has been denied access to legal advice . < fnote>[1996 ] 22 E.H.R.R. 29 < /fnote > In v the emphasised that the trial judge must direct the jury with particular care with regard to drawing adverse inferences from silence . The stated that , inferences could only be drawn if , "" [ the jury were ] satisfied that silence at police interview could only sensibly be attributed to [ the defendant ] having no answer or none that would stand up to cross examination "" . This extra protection for the defendant is reflected in the judge 's summing up to the jury . < fnote>[2001 ] 31 E.H.R.R. 1 < /fnote><fnote > ibid at < /fnote><fnote > see : Specimen Directions , , No . ) , Defendant 's Failure to Mention Facts when Questioned or Charged - Section 34 , CJPOA 1994 < /fnote > The ECtHR further reduced the impact of section by affirming that it is "" incompatible with the right to silence to base a conviction solely or mainly on the accused 's silence "" . This limit is also reflected in the specimen direction , which states that the "" prosecution 's case against [ the suspect must be ] so strong that it clearly calls for an answer "" . This requirement for more than simply a prima facie case prior to drawing adverse inferences clearly further limits the application of . < fnote > Averill v [ 2001 ] 31 E.H.R.R. 36 , at < /fnote><fnote > Specimen Directions , ) , see : supra , no.39 < /fnote > jurisprudence has also prompted important decisions in the courts . The recent case of R v Bresa held that the judge must specifically warn the jury of the "" need to be sure that the defendant 's silence is attributable to the fact that he has no explanation to give , or none that would stand up to scrutiny "" , otherwise adverse inferences could not be drawn . < fnote>[2005 ] EWCA Crim < /fnote><fnote > Cooper , pp.66 , see : supra , no.10 < /fnote > The courts have rejected the notion that by merely relying on the advice of a lawyer to remain silent , the defendant could avoid adverse inferences being drawn as this would render section 34 "" wholly nugatory "" . However , in R v Hoare the Court of Appeal confirmed that where a defendant genuinely and reasonably relied on the legal advice to remain silent , then the jury should be directed that an adverse inference could not be drawn . < fnote > R v [ ] 1 Cr . App . R. 185 , per , at < /fnote><fnote>[2005 ] 1 Cr . App . R. 22 ; see also : R v [ 2005 ] 1 W.L.R. 2829 < /fnote><fnote > Specimen Directions , No . ) , see : supra , no . < /fnote><heading > Post - CJPOA disadvantages to the accused</heading > The case law developed from the shows clear friction between , on one hand , giving effect to the Parliamentary intention behind the and , on the other , guaranteeing the fair trial rights of the defendant . of the areas which have come under scrutiny as a result of this tension is the defendant 's relationship with his lawyer , and , more specifically , the advice which the defendant chooses to accept . As the law currently stands , "" genuine reliance by a defendant on his solicitor 's advice to remain silent is not in itself enough to preclude adverse comment "" . Defendants are , therefore , in a very complicated position . They can no longer be sure if it is reasonable to rely on their solicitor 's advice , consequently , they can not be sure whether following the advice will be detrimental to their case . < fnote > R v Hoare [ 2005 ] 1 Cr . . R. 22 , per , at < /fnote > A further difficulty when relying on advice to remain silent relates to legal professional privilege . The general rule protects any communication between solicitors and their clients , thereby supplying the solicitor with all the information he needs in order to provide accurate and helpful legal advice . creates a problem where a defendant seeks to disclose the content of a privileged conversation to demonstrate the reasonableness of his decision to follow advice to remain silent . The defendant is entitled to do this , but this can "" amount to a waiver of privilege so that the accused , or if his solicitor is so called , the solicitor , can be asked whether there were any other reasons for the advice "" . < fnote > see : R v Derby Magistrates ' Court , Ex parte B [ ] 1 AC 487 , per Lord of Gosforth C.J. < /fnote><fnote > Cape , E. , Sidelining Defence Lawyers : Police Station Advice after , , , , at , citing R v [ ] 1 Cr . App . R. 185 and R v Roble [ 1997 ] Crim . < /fnote > Defendants who wish to avoid adverse inferences by demonstrating the reasonableness of their reliance on the advice to remain silent are left with options . On hand , the defendant may decide that the adverse inferences from silence would be more detrimental to his case than revealing the content of his solicitor - client discussions and , therefore , he will waive his solicitor - client privilege . On the other hand , he may have to suffer the consequences of adverse inferences in order to avoid the content of his potentially incriminating privileged conversations being subject to the scrutiny of the court . The defendant is in an unenviable situation and he simply has to choose the course of action which he believes will weaken his defence the least . There is a clear conflict with the principle against self - incrimination . < fnote > see : R v F , Snaresbrook Crown Court , , unreported ( see : Appendix B ) < /fnote><fnote > see : supra , no.2 < /fnote > Proponents of would argue that an innocent defendant will have nothing to hide and would suffer no ill effects from having his conversations with his legal advisor examined . This does not account for the multitude of reasons an innocent defendant might have for not wanting the contents of a confidential dialogue scoured in open court . These reasons include wishing to protect the identity of a party , or keeping information , such as details of an extra - marital affair , secret . < fnote > see : R v H , Snaresbrook Crown Court , , unreported , ( see : Appendix B ) < /fnote > Vulnerable defendants also come under increased pressure and are those in most danger of suffering a miscarriage at the hands of . Cooper argues that it is not unrealistic to imagine a vulnerable suspect receiving "" honestly given ( but nonetheless possibly poor ) legal advice to remain silent ... only to discover later that by taking and acting upon that advice , the case against him has been strengthened "" . Whilst it could possibly be naïve and foolish for the defendant to rely on the advice , gullibility does not affect the genuineness of his decision to rely on the advice and is no way indicative of guilt .   < fnote > Cooper , , see : supra , no.10 < /fnote><fnote > ibid , < /fnote > Whilst it is possible in theory for such a scenario to occur , many proponents of argue that increased safeguards at the police station , such as the appropriate adult and the custody officer , provide ample protection for defendants . Judge believes that , "" only an incompetent solicitor , an idiotic defendant and an uncaring custody officer would place a [ vulnerable ] defendant in the position of suffering a miscarriage due to their silence "" he goes on to say that "" miscarriages [ do not occur ] very often ... and certainly not as a result of silence "" . < fnote > Judge , see : Appendix A , argues that "" in the case of a vulnerable or disturbed individual the solicitor should be seeking to have an appropriate adult present "" < /fnote><fnote > Judge , see : Appendix A , argues that "" the custody officer is the true professional in the police station . He is the one who signs everything off and will be held to account for irregularities so he would be sure to make sure that the appropriate provisions are made for vulnerable defendants "" < /fnote><fnote > Judge , see : supra , no.21 < /fnote > Regardless of whether the defendant is actually sufficiently protected or not , it is clear that the weakening of the privileged solicitor - client relationship will damage his ability to formulate a defence . "" Instead of [ the solicitor ] being able to tell his client that anything which the client might say would never in any circumstances be revealed without his consent , he would have to qualify his assurance "" . This undermines the very purpose of the privileged relationship and "" raises the fundamental question of the utility of legal advice at the police station ; [ its value ] is in danger of being seriously eroded "" . < fnote > R v Derby Magistrates ' Court , Ex parte B [ ] 1 AC 487 , at < /fnote><fnote > Cape , , see : supra , no.49 < /fnote><heading > Predicted disadvantages which have failed to materialise</heading > Section 34 has undoubtedly prejudiced the defendant in certain areas , however , numerous concerns raised prior to the have failed to materialise or do not appear to have had undesirable consequences for defendants . Commentators initially predicted that would provoke more confessions by suspects as well as "" false confessions from weak suspects "" . research proved these concerns unfounded . Since the legislation has been passed police interviews have resulted in exactly the same percentage of confessions .   < fnote > see : Zander , M. , Abolition of the Right of Silence , in ( eds ) , Suspicion and Silence : The Right to Silence in Criminal Investigations , , , < /fnote><fnote > O'Reilly , pp . , see : supra , no.16 < /fnote><fnote > Home Office Research Study , see : supra , no.19 < /fnote > It was also thought that the silence provisions would result in the erroneous convictions of innocent defendants who would normally have refused to comment . This would be in danger of occurring if an innocent defendant failed "" to offer cogent explanations for [ his ] behaviour or became confused "" . It is difficult to assimilate empirical evidence to either prove or disprove this theory . However , it is obvious that with fewer defendants remaining silent in police interrogation the risk of this occurring has increased . < fnote > O'Reilly , pp . , see : supra , no.16 < /fnote > Theoretical arguments which oppose to the right to silence have also been expounded , the most noteworthy of which is the game - theoretic analysis proposed by and . The concept purports to "" distinguish the innocent from the guilty by inducing an anti - pooling effect that enhances the credibility of innocent suspects "" . < fnote > Seidmann , D.J. & Stein , A. , The Right to Silence Helps the Innocent : A Game - Theoretic Analysis of , , , , < /fnote><fnote > ibid , at < /fnote > The game - theoretic analysis speculates that guilty suspects will chose to remain silent rather than risk telling lies because they "" fear that the police or the prosecution will discover the truth and use their lies against them as evidence of guilt "" . This sets them apart from innocent suspects , who are expected to offer exculpatory explanations at the earliest opportunity . and argue that , where there is no right to silence , guilty suspects have a greater incentive to lie and these lies would "" obscure the differences between the guilty and the innocent and , consequently , reduce the trustworthiness of accounts given by innocent suspects "" . The jury would find it more difficult to give evidential weight to exculpatory statements and miscarriages of justice would be more likely to occur . < fnote > ibid < /fnote><fnote > ibid < /fnote > If the assumptions made by and are correct then the theory puts forward a strong case for maintaining the right to silence . Unfortunately , however , they present a "" logical model rather than an empirically demonstrated thesis "" . Many aspects of the game - theoretic analysis can not be quantified and the theory is readily undermined . For example , it does not properly take into account those criminals who believe that they can formulate a convincing lie and therefore would not remain silent anyway . these guilty individuals were already ' pooling ' themselves with innocent suspects in considerable numbers .   < fnote > Roberts , P. , & Zuckerman , A. , , , , , pp.423 < /fnote><fnote > ibid < /fnote><heading > Is the accused necessarily disadvantaged by ? < /heading > Whilst many commentators maintain that has significantly diminished the privilege against self - incrimination , there is an argument that defendants are now no more disadvantaged . In terms of the impact of the legislation on the jury , questions have been raised about the impact of . Prior to the 1994 Act , juries were already taking a dim view of silence and although the judge would direct that nothing should be inferred from the defendant 's silence , "" the jury would still wonder why the defendant gave a ' no comment ' interview "" . Due to the secrecy of jury deliberations it is impossible to know the true extent of the affect of silence on the jury either before or after the . Many legal professionals and commentators believe , however , that juries have always drawn adverse inferences from what they believed to be an unjustified silence and they continue to do so . This suggests that has had a negligible impact on the jury . < fnote , pp.63 , see : supra , no.17 < /fnote><fnote > Judge , see : supra , no.21 < /fnote><fnote > see : Jackson , , Silence and , pp.157 , see : supra , no.20 < /fnote > Taking the argument to the next logical stage ; it can be claimed that defendants are actually in a more advantageous position . The current direction to the jury is considerably more comprehensive than the pre - CJPOA direction . The direction explicitly asserts that the jury may draw adverse inferences from the defendant 's silence if they believe that "" the only sensible explanation for [ the defendant 's ] failure to [ mention the facts ] is that he had no answer at the time or none that would stand up to scrutiny "" . Judge believes that the word ' only ' provides significant protection for the defendant , as "" it invites the jury to consider the multitude of other reasons why [ the defendant ] may have remained silent "" . < fnote > Specimen Directions , No . ) , see : supra , no.39 < /fnote><fnote > ibid ( emphasis added ) < /fnote><fnote > Judge , see : supra , no.21 < /fnote > The word ' only ' and the remaining elements of the test direction leave the jury unlikely to "" read anything into silence unless it strikes them as totally unreasonable and without other possible explanation "" . In contrast , before the the judge merely gave a statement that the defendant is not obliged to give evidence and that failure to do so must not be taken as an admission of guilt . Assuming that juries have always drawn adverse inferences , then prior to these inferences would have been drawn without direction as to how to apply them . Judge believes that this left scope for "" indecision and possible mistake "" . < fnote > ibid < /fnote><fnote > see : Appendix D , Specimen directions relevant prior to < /fnote><fnote > Judge , see : supra , no.21 < /fnote > The Court of Appeal expressed anxiety at the comprehensiveness of silence directions , saying that "" even in the simplest and most straightforward of cases [ requires a direction ] of such length and detail that it seems to promote the adverse inference question to a height it does not merit "" . It is clearly arguable that , this highly detailed direction induces careful consideration of the issue of silence by the jury and accordingly defendants benefit from greater protection . < fnote > R v Bresa [ 2005 ] EWCA Crim , per > The removal of the right to silence has had mixed success . The has essentially made the problem of ambush defences disappear . However , it has been unsuccessful in preventing terrorists and criminals involved in serious organised crime from relying on silence . The legislation has also been successful in encouraging more suspects to answer questions during interrogation , although the increased information given to the police has not resulted in a rise in the percentage of suspects charged . Furthermore , "" packs of lies "" often increase workload by forcing police to investigate spurious claims . Extra resources are not only required by police and prosecutors ; there has been extensive case law surrounding the and it has been argued that the act should be repealed on the basis of costs alone . < fnote > see : supra , no . < /fnote><fnote > see : supra , no . < /fnote><fnote > Birch , , Suffering in silence : a cost - benefit analysis of , , < /fnote > It is also evident that judgments have significantly reduced the impact of . Further rulings in the will require "" to take further action , [ and ] tinker with section 34 so as to [ further ] reduce its impact "" . < fnote > ibid pp.788 < /fnote > Ensuring fair trial guarantees for vulnerable witnesses relies on the "" solicitor giving advice at the police station "" . Suspects can not , however , confidently rely on advice without fear of reprisals , as the court may find that his reliance was not reasonable or genuine . It is not a desirable state of affairs where a solicitor is unable to give accurate advice on how the defendant should proceed to ensure the best possible chance of an acquittal . < fnote > Judge , see : supra , no.21 < /fnote > Authority is given to section by the jury . The jury 's understanding of the law is the most important consideration when deciding whether law has achieved its desired effect and if the defendant is actually disadvantaged . It is notoriously difficult to gauge the weight given to evidence by the jury . Assuming the commentators and legal professionals who believe that juries have always drawn inferences from silence are correct , it is clear that defendants are not in a substantially worse position . Defendants may even benefit from the more instructive section 34 direction to juries . of the is overcomplicated . The law puts added pressure on police resources and creates further expenses for the courts . Section 34 places the critical solicitor - client relationship under unnecessary strain and over complicates the advice given to confused and vulnerable defendants . Furthermore , the lack of change in charge rates , as well as the view that juries remain largely unaffected , calls into question the impact of . should "" [ give ] up the ghost and revert to the common law rule "" . < fnote > Birch , pp.788 , see : supra , no.82 < /fnote > URL   URL < heading > Research Memorandum</heading > In , I wrote to to ask if I could be a Marshal with a judge for at . I was told that this would be possible and I was assigned to Judge , on the th , th and th . I sat with Judge   during cases , the , R v F , involved intercourse with a girl under and the , R v H , involved a street robbery of an elderly woman . I saw the summing up of R v F and the swearing in of the jury and the start of R v H. I had decided , prior to sitting with Judge   that I would see what evidence issues arose in the case or cases I witnessed and I would base my essay on this . The summing up of R v F provoked some interesting issues about the removal of the right to silence , I therefore decided to base my essay on section CJPOA . At this point I consulted and Zuckerman , Criminal Evidence , our module core textbook for a preliminary discussion on my chosen topic . It was very helpful in providing an outline of the way in which the right to silence had changed and its impact on defendants . I also consulted journals referred to at the bottom of the lecture handout and in the footnotes of and Zuckerman , Criminal Evidence . These included Birch Suffering in silence : a cost - benefit analysis of , , J. , Silence and : Extending the Boundaries of in , Cape , E. , Sidelining Defence Lawyers : Police Station Advice after . These provided me with an interesting discussion on the policy issues surrounding the abolition of the absolute right to silence . Through research , I realised that since Act the right to silence has been divided into pre - trial silence , and silence during the trial . I wished to focus on the relationship between the state as prosecutor and the citizen as defendant , so I decided to focus solely on the issue of pre - trial silence . I then interviewed Judge , asking for his opinions on the abolition of the absolute right to silence . The interview with Judge , as well as the cases I witnessed , formed the basis of my independent research ( see appendix for notes ) . I used library catalogue to access journals which dealt with the abolition of the right to silence . I found the following journals of particular use and Pre - trial Silence - Unreasonable Developments , O'Reilly , G.W. , England Limits the Right to Silence and Moves Towards an Inquisitorial System of Justice and , Public Order Act : . These further elucidated the general principles and scope of s34 and provided me with some useful analysis of cases . I then completed the essay .","Unemployment rate is the total amount of people who are able to work and willing to work but does n't have a job . Unemployment is an economic market failure that has been claimed to be effected by many different factors . Some of them include , greater monopoly power among firms , high labor taxes , union structure ( labor unions , union membership , labor union coverage ) , high levels of unemployment benefits and its duration ( how many months can an unemployed claim benefits),a large proportion of long - term unemployed , substantial regional variations in unemployment , labor mobility , demand shocks ( i.e. real interest rate ) , employment protection laws , active labor market policies , and coordinated wage bargaining . since has been relatively high compared to other countries . In the 's unemployment has increased , however the main reason why average unemployment is too high is because the unemployment rates of the ' Big Four ' , , , and , are too high . Most other countries have been able to recover from the 's unemployment crises but mainly the ' Big Four ' has failed to do so . Following arguments will explain some of the reasons why the ' Big Four ' was not able to recover from 's unemployment disaster . An increase in unemployment might have been caused by greater monopoly power between firms and workers . Greater monopoly power of employers , firms , will tend to increase prices , decrease output and set a lower employment with low wages . When unions have little power and there is high level of unemployment , the unions accept low real wages at any real wage rate . Therefore , less competitive product markets lead to higher unemployment ( See Figure ) . < fnote > Baylis and Smith ( ) Macroeconomics , : Wiley , p. < /fnote><figure/><figure/>However there are some markets where the wages are determined between employers and trade unions , as a result firms and unions can determine an equilibrium real wage level . The overall wage depends on the strength of the trade unions ; wage bargains , union coverage and the degree of co - ordination of wage bargains . Normally , the greater union power and coverage , the higher their wage demands will be ( See Figure and Figure However , this also leads to higher unemployment . < figure/>There are strong unions because of several different reasons . reason is because of the number of membership and strong union rights that pressure the institutions , industries and firms that put high real wages . The government also effects the monopoly of labor unions with the laws and benefits they provide to the unemployed . The unemployment benefit is a very important factor which effects unemployment . When the unemployment benefits are high , their coverage are high and due long periods of times , which decreases the opportunity cost of not having a job . In other words , there is a lower possibility of an unemployed to fill vacancies in a market . The unemployed will look for a suitable job for himself until he finds whereas if the unemployment benefits were n't so high , the unemployed would be willing to accept any job at any real wage rate . This might be one of the reasons why although the level of vacancy in in the 's was high and yet the unemployment doubled in ( See Table 1.1 ) . Whereas usually when there are high numbers of vacancies one would expect unemployment to be decreasing like it happened in , and the . < fnote > Stephen Nickell , ( ) , . < /fnote > However in and although vacancies have been relatively high , unemployment still persisted to be just as high . < table/><table/>As it can be noted from , and , vacancies were high but this had no big effect on the unemployment of these countries . Table shows that in countries like and , unemployment rose significantly and 's . However in 's there has been a fall in the level of unemployment , of the reason for this effect might be high number of vacancies in those countries . Along with unemployment benefits , the proportion of long - term unemployed also effects the rate of unemployment . In this case , the greater the period of unemployed , the greater the unemployed losses it 's labor skills , and the lower competition it will create in < figure/>the market . Lower competition within the unemployed will in effect create a market monopoly for the employers , where the employers will gain a monopoly power in the market , and put an upward pressure to unemployment . Figure reflects the proportion of long - term unemployed among economies . It can be noticed that especially the ' Big Four ' has very high rates of long - term unemployment compared to other countries around the world . Keeping in mind that ' Big Four ' also has high levels of unemployment . This provides evidence that high long - term unemployment does indeed have a negative effect on employment . < fnote > Baylis and Smith ( ) Macroeconomics , : Wiley p. , < /fnote > Another factor reflecting unemployment is labor mobility . When a part of a country is economically doing better than other regions it 's going to demand workers , but if there is low labor mobility , there will be a weaker competition in the booming economy , and firms will have more power over the market which will create unemployment . Figure shows the percent of the population who change regions per year , . Figure portrays < figure/>that the Big Four has low levels of labor mobility . This is bad for the unemployment rate in their economy because it shows that the unemployed workers are less willing to change their habitat for better job opportunities . Therefore , this also means that there will be less competition between workers to fill a vacancy , which as mentioned above , creates more unemployment . Taxes also have a big influence on the level of unemployment . Mainly , tax rates influence the gap between the producer and consumer real wage : payroll taxes(taxes that either the employer or employee pay and that are normally related to social security contributions ) , income taxes and consumer price taxes   In Figure These tax wedges ( the gap between what the sellers receive for supplying goods and services and the prices buyers buy ) shifts the wage setting curve further to the right and thus increase the natural rate of unemployment . The reason why the wage setting curve shifts right is because the higher the taxes are , the greater the unions seek to provide a given real standard of living for their members and increase real wages . Tax wedges are also sought as a reason to understand some of the reasons for higher unemployment during the period . All countries , including the Big Four portray an increase in tax wedge , during the 's to 's . In contrast with , countries such as and has shown significant attempts to reduce labor taxes in . However , most countries , including the Big Four have n't put enough measures to decrease tax rates . < fnote > Baylis and Smith ( ) Macroeconomics , : Wiley p. < /fnote><fnote > Stephen Nickell , ( ) , . < /fnote><table/>In Table 2.1 , the variation of tax rates between countries reflect the different levels of fiscal policy used by governments to ensure and provide health , higher education , and pensions . Another factor which effects the unemployment rate are the demand shocks . The level of unemployment can be determined by the aggregate demand . Much of the initial increase in the 's in are said to caused by demand shocks ( See Figure ) . < decrease in aggregate demand causes the AD curve to shift leftwards , decreasing output , and increasing unemployment . Monetary policy has a significant impact on the aggregate demand . If there is a recession in an economy , with high unemployment , and low aggregate demand , the monetary policy can be loosened in order for recovery and decrease unemployment . However , this might result in labor shortages , and inflationary pressure in the economy . In the 's the tight monetary policy led to a prolonged period of high interest rates , and therefore an increase in the cost of capital . As Figure demonstrates , this led to low capital of capital and thus lower output and employment and thus higher unemployment .   < fnote > Stephen Nickell , ( ) , . < /fnote><figure/>However , there are some problems with analyzing the unemployment rate in relevance to aggregate demand . still faces high unemployment rates , this requires either very long lasting effects of shocks or a sequence of new demand shocks . There is one factor which does not seem to correlate much with the rate of unemployment but still is a factor worth considering . They are the employment protection legislation ( ) that the governments take to protect those in employment , e.g. formal dismissal practices , severance pay , formal notice periods of dismissal , the number of warning firms have to give a worker before he or she can be fired and so on .   < fnote > Baylis and Smith ( ) Macroeconomics , : Wiley p. < /fnote><figure/>Figure shows the overall employment protection legislation strictness ( ) . Note that the ' Big Four ' have of the highest strictness among the countries in the chart . This implies in the ' Big Four ' it is harder for a person to get unemployed than in countries like and . Therefore , it might be that countries with strong have low employment rates , cause increased hiring costs reduces the demand for workers . Countries with strong have greater job security and thus EPL benefits those workers who are currently employed , but do n't have much benefit on the unemployed . This might explain the reason why in countries with strong part - time jobs and female workers are less attractive . So , firms will be more vigilant about the skills of their employees and the number of skilled employees . This will decrease their likeliness of firing them , which might be a facto that prevents more job losses . < fnote > Baylis and Smith ( ) Macroeconomics , : Wiley p. < /fnote > However there are ways in which unemployment is n't only prevented but decreased . Wage determination and active labour spending are some of the many ways that can be used to tackle unemployment . As it has been noted previously , both market monopoly or union monopoly is not very good for an economy as both firms and unions will demand higher wages which will cause higher unemployment . However if the monopoly is reduced or if firms and workers realize that exploiting their monopoly power will only produce unemployment and so persuade them to wages and prices in a way that will cause an equilibrium in the economy , in effect help the economy by decreasing the unemployment rate . Another way in which unemployment problem can be tackled is by active labor spending . These refers to a range of policies that the governments uses to boost employment and reduce unemployment . There are a number of way in which the governments tries , such as helping unemployed 's job search , improving information flows about job availabilities , helping individuals with application forms and interview techniques , offering retraining , offer loans to individuals who want to start their own businesses , subsidize firms that hire those who have been unemployed for a long time and so on . < fnote > Baylis and Smith ( ) Macroeconomics , : Wiley p. < /fnote > In conclusion , reasons for unemployment include , greater monopoly power among firms , high labor taxes , union structure ( labor unions , union membership , labor union coverage ) , high levels of unemployment benefits and its duration ( how many months can an unemployed claim benefits ) , a large proportion of long - term unemployed , substantial regional variations in unemployment , labor mobility , demand shocks ( i.e. real interest rate ) , employment protection laws , absence of active labor market policies and coordinated wage bargaining . since has been relatively high compared to other countries . Mainly , the ' Big Four ' countries still face high unemployment is because they have failed to tackle unemployment , and they still exhibit the factors which cause unemployment , like high unemployment benefits , barriers to labor mobility and etc . Whereas most other economies in has recovered from the 's unemployment crises . In order for the ' Big Four ' to decrease it 's unemployment level , it needs to re - establish those factors which effect unemployment .",0
"< heading > Objectives:</heading > Different packaging films have different functions due to the properties of packaging materials are varied . In the practical , we intended to research the differences between the films provided by using simple tests and observing the changes of the samples wrapped by different packaging materials during . Introduction : Anon ( ) stated "" the packaging as the enclosure of products , items or packages in a wrapped pouch , bag , box , cup , tray , can , tube , bottle or other container form to perform or more of the following functions : containment , protection and/ or preservation , communication and utility or performance "" . Packaging provides a barrier between the food and the environment . And it control light transmission , the transfer of heat , moisture and gases , and movement of microorganisms or insects ( Fellows , ) . Light transmission is employed in packages that are intended to display the contents and provide a platform for labeling . But the light transmission is restricted when foods are susceptible to deterioration by light , such as the oxidation of lipids , loss of color and denaturation of protein . For example low - density polyethylene ( ) transmits both visible and ultraviolet light , polyvinylidene chloride transmit visible light but absorb UV light . Packaging should also have certain level of heat resistance , especially when packaging hot food then package shrinking may occur . The permeability of the packaging material to gases and moisture and the packaging procedures employed can influence the type of microorganisms that grow within the package . For fresh food , such as fruit , vegetable and meat , which still respire after harvesting , the water vapor may condense inside the packages if the existed water can not be vapor out of the package that may lead spoilage occur . At the same time , the gases produced by content such as the carbon dioxide , ethylene , have double - side influences . On hand , the high density of carbon dioxide in the package that can limit the microorganisms growth to achieve the extend shelf - life , on the other hand , the gases may deteriorate or over harvested the food . By researching , the water existing in the package may occur interaction with the certain film and generate hazard compounds when the environment of outside have changed , such the high temperature , high moisture . So the consideration of what kind of materials can run the job for individual food should be prior to the packaging . Another essential property of film is mechanical strength which is the ability of packages to protect foods from mechanical damage had been measured in this practical . The factor of material mechanical strength is influenced by the temperature of material and the length of time that the force is applied ( , ) . The materials of package are varied . In this practical , we chose paper , regenerated cellulose MS , regenerated cellulose , polyethylene , polypropylene , aluminium foil and film whose permeability of water vapor , violate compound and the tensile strength had been tested . Paper almost used for food packaging is made from wood . Some papers are made from repulped waster paper which increases the incident of contamination of microbes and the paper may give off odors which are likely to cause tainting of the contents ( Brennan , ) . In food manufactory , the coated papers are more commonly used . For example , aluminium coated paper enhance the barrier property of water vapor and gases . Regenerated cellulose ( cellophane ) differs from the polymer films in that it is made from wood pulp . It can provides general protect against dust and dirt , some mechanical protection and is greaseproof . When the environment is dry it is a good barrier to gases , but becomes highly permeable when wet . The codes are used to reflect the property of regenerated cellulose films : D : coated on side only ; M : moistureproof ; S : heat - sealable ; DMS : nitrocellulose - coated on side only ( Brennan , ) . Polyethylene ( PE ) commonly called polythene which can be divided into , and with different density . LDPE have most widely used in the food packaging due to its strength , low permeability to water vapor and it forms a very strong heat seal . But it is not good barrier to gases oils and volatiles ( Brennan , ) . is a clear glossy film with good optical properties and a high tensile strength and puncture resistance . It has moderate permeability to moisture , gases and odors , which is not affected by the changes in humidity ( ( Fellows , ) . Aluminium foil is in a good appearance , dead - folding and the ability to reflect radiant energy and an excellent barrier to moisture and gases . Cryovac S film : Cryovac feature a full range of barrier properties and toughness to meet each product requirements , with added value features such as easy - opening on transversal or end seals , plain , pigmented or printed , taped , non - tapped or roll stock , others provide controlled permeability rates . Value added features , such as easy - opening and re - closing systems , are also available ( , ) . < heading > Method:</heading><heading > Rapid tests for the identification of film packaging drop testWater tap testBreath testBiting testBurn testMelt testShrink testHalogen testColor testStretch test   - Details refer to handbook , p29 - 31 , 2006 , , department . < /list><heading > Tensile Strength & Extensibility</heading > This test should be carried out using the machine . The method is most suited to paper and film materials that do not stretch much under stress . The sample is length and width and thick . The sample will be extended for a maximum of at a rate of mms -1 . A recorder will record the data and draw a graph with load against time . < heading vapour permeability</heading > Weigh the dishes which contained dry calcium chloride that can absorb moisture though the packaging materials which cover on the top . After , the weights of dishes were varied due to the water vapour permeability different with different packaging materials . < heading > Packaging and storage of fresh fruit</heading > Using Re - cellulose 350 MS , and the same material with different size holes to packaged graph to observe the changes during . < heading > Packaging and storage of fresh meat</heading > Using kinds of packaging way involved polypropylene , Re - cellulose 350 MS , Re - cellulose and paper to packaged fresh meat and observe the changes during . < heading > Packaging and storage of potatoes</heading > Using polyethylene and the same material with different size holes to package potato to observe the changes during . < heading > Packaging and storage of cheese</heading > Using kinds of packaging way involved polyethylene , Re - cellulose MS , foil and film to package cheese and observe the changes during . < heading > Permeability to odours and flavours</heading > Using kinds of packaging way involved polyethylene , Re - cellulose MS , foil , polypropylene and original packaging to seal chocolate and seal them in a can with mint oil and observe the flavour changes after . < heading > Result:</heading><heading > Tensile Strength & Extensibility</heading><table/><heading > Water vapour permeability</heading><table/><figure/><figure/><figure/><figure/><heading > Packaging and storage of fresh fruit</heading><table/>Note that no alteration was observed on the packages or the fruit inside the times ( i.e. ) , but on we observed a slight amount of moisture inside the 350 MS Heat Seal , and an even less amount of moisture inside the 350 MS 8x5 mm . < heading > Packaging and storage of fresh meat</heading><table/><heading > Packaging and storage of potatoes</heading><table/><table/>Both potatoes began sprinting but the package without hole has more sprout than that with hole . < table/><heading > Packaging and storage of cheese</heading><table/>3 means vacuum packaged in + heat seal ; then another vacuum packaged with reg . cellulose MS < table/><heading > Observations on cheese</heading><list><heading > Sample : reg . cellulose MS + heat sealed < /heading > Sweating started to appear on after packaged and continued to occur as the time pass by . Oiling could be noticed on the after packaged . The cheese started to dry on the th day . With the loss of vacuum was clearly seen on the . No sign of mould growth . sign of drying out on the th day.</list><list><heading > Sample : reg . cellulose MS + vacuum packed + heat sealed < /heading > Sweating , oiling , loss of vacuum could be noticed on the after packed and increased as the time pass by . Mould growth started to be seen on the th day but with the same amount on after packed . sign of drying out on the th day.</list><list><heading > Sample : vacuum packaged in + heat sealed ; then another vacuum packaged with reg . cellulose MS over the already packed sample.</heading started on the st day and continued but very smallest oiling . The loss of vacuum could be observed on the with relatively small compared to other vacuum packs . No further loss of vacuum was noticed . No drying out , no sweating , no mould growth . < /list><list><heading > Sample 4 : Cryovac S film + heat sealed</heading > Sweating started on the st . Oiling started on the 2 nd day and continued as well as sweating . No mould growth.</list><list><heading > Sample : vacuum packaged in film < /heading > Sweating , oiling and loss of vacuum were observed in the and continued to occur . Marked loss of vacuum compared to others ( sample mould growth.</list><list><heading > Sample : wrap in aluminium foil < /heading > Oiling and sweating started on the st day and continued through out . sign of mould growth on and lots of mould on the 7 th day.</list><list><heading > Sample : unpacked</heading > Sweating started on the st day . On the : oiling and drying out were observed . Sweating , oiling and drying out all continued through out the observation . Marked drying out compared to others . No sign of mould growth . < /list > Hardness at the end of observation ( afterwards ): > 2 > 1 > 3 > 4 , 5 , 6 Oiling at the end : , 5 , and 6 > 1 , , and . Best quality : sample Worst quality : because of lots of moulds < heading > Permeability to odours and flavours</heading><table/><heading > Discussion:</heading><heading > Tensile Strength & Extensibility</heading > Compared the results of films : polypropylene , polyethylene and 350 Obviously , polypropylene has a high tensile strength and puncture resistance . Its load was Newtons which was the highest in this test ; the data was similar with the reference value the tensile strength , ) . In test , the polyethylene sample did not tear and the stretch extensibility was .Due to the highly linear arrangement of molecules and the distribution of molecular contributed the flexible , tough tensile strength and puncture resistance of property of polyethylene . cellulose was frail during the tensile strength when the load was Newtons , and the stretch extensibility was which was the lowest in the test . The various properties decide the functions such as polypropylene is thermoplastic and therefore stretches , and has low friction , which minimizes static buildup and makes it suitable for high - speed filling equipment . Polyethylene is suitable for shrink - wrapping . < heading vapour permeability</heading > Using the data collected related to the water vapour permeability of kinds of packaging material to draw a curd . From the trend of curd , it is significantly weight increase of cellulose plain that means the reg cellulose plain had high water permeability that correspond to the reference value that is - 275 ml m -2 per 24h in ° RH . The weight of dish and content which was covered with reg cellulose increased . Other dishes had not dramatic increase and maintain stable during . The moisture vapor transmission rate is the main factors that control the shelf life of dehydrated foods . So the reg - cellulose is not suitable for foods that require a complete moisture or gas barrier . < heading > Packaging and storage of fresh fruit</heading > Observing the weight changes of graph packaged by kinds packaging methods , we could find a vivid phenomenon that the graphs packaged in Polyethylene just lose weight , in another word , the change was and the polyethylene is good moisture barrier . There was weight lost from graphs packaged with M.S cellulose without holes , and the data could be explained that some leaks may exist on the seal and caused the moisture vapor exit from package . But when turn to the package made from same material M.S cellulose with hole , the percentage of lost weight were and in the packages with 2 mm 5 mm size hole and size hole respectively . And the proportion were similar weight lost that means the moisture transmission rate can be upgrade significantly when provided holes on the package that is crucial for the contents are sensitive and easy - spoil in humidity environment such as graph , tomato , which will be spoiled on the surface growing microorganisms in a wet surrounding . We also compared the weight change of graph in the same package material , M.S cellulose , with same size hole . But the gage was different . was sealed normally and another was sealed severe . The weight change were and respectively , in other word , the effective of proof moisture vapour with different seal method was minute in this practical . < heading > Packaging and storage of fresh meat</heading > In this practical , we adept fresh meat as the sample to determine the changes involved the discoloration , lose of weight , condensation and spoilage during with different package films . Normally , the compositions of meat are water , fat , protein and several trace minerals . And the proportion of water is . During , the paper covering meat lost weight , and meat became dry and contracted . The color of meat changed from cherry red to dark red and although there was not significant green patch found , we could not evaluate the meat packaged in paper that was not spoiled due to the meat was exposed in air where contain lots of microorganisms can lead the meat contaminated . Base on the result , the paper just can package ready - to - eat foods that do not required storage for long period . was good moisture barrier , so even during , the weight had no significant change that means there was no moisture or litter moisture go through the polypropylene into environment , at the same time , polypropylene was low oxygen permeability , so the intensity of oxygen in the package was limited that avoided the oxidation interaction inside the package and contributed the quality better than other samples . But we could find lots of water condensed from meat could not be emitted from package that may lead the meat total became green in the . So the polypropylene is not suitable for foods contained lot of water that may lead alternation . By compared the percentages of weight lost of meats packaged by reg - cellulose and M.S reg - cellulose were and respectively . The 's property is moistureproof that had been proved by the data of this test . But the meat 's quality can not maintain satisfactory after packaging , some green patches had been found caused by oxygen that can transmission though cellulose into package . The packaged meat had been determined spoil in the . There was a green patch about 1 cm diameter in the center of meat . So cellulose is used for foods that do not require a complete moisture or gas barrier . < heading > Packaging and storage of potatoes</heading > Using polyethylene and polyethylene with holes to package potatoes and observed the changes in different environments . No matter in fridge at ° or in shelf at room temperature or in dark box at room temperature , polyethylene without holes had less water lost , in another words , polyethylene is a good water vapour moisture barrier . The holes on the surface of package accelerated the moisture evaporation that leaded weight lose compared with polyethylene without holes . Compared the weight lost in fridge ° with the weight lost in room temperature about 25 ° , the previous had less sprouting than the later , the reason may be the low temperature decreased the biochemical reaction in the potatoes and prolonged the shelf life and limited respiration rate . The potatoes stored in warm temperature sprouted quickly than in the low temperature and light also contributed the color turn to green . < heading > Permeability to odours and flavours</heading > Compared different packaging material to range the permeability to odours and flavours , we could found , if set no packaged chocolate was the standard of strongest mint flavours , polyethylene was greater than cellulose and polypropylene and foil . In principle , polyethylene should have lower odours permeability than cellulose , I thought the reason contributed the result was the seal of polyethylene was not very hermetic , so the mint odors leaked inside and affected the plain chocolate flavours . The original packaging was good odor barrier which was associated with double membranes including foil and cellulose so less mint odor in the chocolate after . < heading > Packaging and storage of cheese</heading > In this test , cheese had been package with different methods , and we determined the changes about the sweat , oiling , mould growth and moisture during . The result showed us that in each package , the cheese all sweated but the changes occurred in different days with different material that means all material have certain level gas permeability , and the vacuum packaged in and heat sealed , then another vacuum packaged with reg . cellulose MS over the already packed sample had the less vacuum lose compared with others . Foil packaged cheese grew lots of mould may caused by the leaks between the foil . Cryovac S film packaged cheese oiling at but film limited the mould growth on the surface of cheese .","< heading > calculate the iron content of the beverage using the calibration plot</heading><table/><figure/>The reading value of the diluted sample ( ) is . According the formula y=41.291x , the concentration of iron in solution of diluted beverage is / ml , so when we calculated back to the original drink the concentration of iron is 4.46μg / ml . < heading > calculate the iron content of the drink by the standard addition method</heading > Due to the concentration of iron in sample is / ml by method , in sample should content iron . So X=223μg/ 25μg / ml=8.9 ml . so added , X , , of stock iron solution into A , B , C , D labeled flask respectively . < table/><figure/>Using the ratio is constant to calculate the concentration of iron in drink The calculation formula : / Z= ( 184 - 94)/223 , where Z is the iron concentration in beverage ; Z=236.8 μg which means there is in drink sample , so using the standard addition method , the iron concentration in beverage is = / ml . < heading > Compare your results and comment on them . How do they compare to the iron concentration declared on the label ? < /heading > Comparing the methods , the standard addition method is better than calibration plot . Due to the fact that in the method , we used standard iron contented solution to draw the calibration curve , and separately determine the sample reading of atomic absorption spectrophotometry which contents the matrix interference can affect result . But when using the method , standard addition method , in each flask contented same volume of sample ( ) , so this method can minimum or very often eliminated the interference and get more reasonable answer . On the label showing the concentration of ferric citrate is ( ) . And the structure of ferric citrate is C 6H 11FeNO 7 . The molecule weight of ferric citrate is and molecule weight is , so in sample the concentration of iron is / ml . < heading > Explain why atomic absorption methods are mainly using for the analysis of transition metals , while flame photometry is used for alkali metals . < /heading > Pomeranz ( ) stated the heat energy from flame can raise an electron in some atoms group jump to an excited state , if the excited electron drops down back to ground state from its original excited level in jump , the radiation given off is called resonance line . Low flame temperatures ( oC ) are used so that only easily excited elements such the alkali and alkaline earth metals produce emissions . This results in a simpler spectrum and reduces interference from other elements that may be present ( ) . The definition of transition elements are the elements in the 'd - block ' of the periodic table ( Hill , 2000 ) . When determining transition metal need more energy provided for exciting electron from ground state to excited level . In atomic absorption spectroscopy , the most commonly used fuel/ oxidant system is air - acetylene and elements can usefully be measured using this combination of gases , and this temperature of this flame is of the order of oC which is great higher than flame photometry ( King , ) , so the atomic absorption methods can excited the transition metals due to the wavelength from an extend source and can provide higher energy .",1
"< heading > Question did suffer its downturn in ? Distinguish between internal factors ( expectations , culture and organisation ) and external factors ( customers and competitors ) . < /heading > Marks and were founded through the partnership of and . took over and the company was hugely successful in terms of profit and market share . became the CEO of from and the company continued to make a success until . < heading is about the expectation of shareholders , CEO , managers and staff . Something that they expect the organisation to be what they can get back from the organisation . Cost control through full - time sales assistants reduction led to an inability in stores to meet the service levels . Employees expected stable and rewardful job . Cutting of full - time sales meant employees worked less and earn less which was out of their expectation . Employees expected secure and stable job . To grow through expansion overseas though many of the countries were difficult to expand in and might lead to scarification of cash flow . The appointed CEO , , was poorly received by shareholders . Salsbury was not the shareholders expected as he had only worked in womenswear which was one of worst performing units in M&S. Market share kept falling which made stakeholders lost their interest in M&S. < heading is about people attitudes and act within the company . Organisational culture is a critical feature of successful organisations : Managers followed central direction on how the stores operated which restricted how they could respond to the local needs of customers . Focus on day - to - day operations rather than long term strategy . Sticked to traditional culture and ignored the changes in the market place . Tied to a generalized view of the market instead of trying to understand and tailor offerings to various market segments . Having an inward culture which almost all managers and executives were promoted internally starting at the bottom . They already immersed in the established culture without innovations and knowledge form outside world . Autocratic approach from as he only allowed discussion in the boardroom and persuade people of his views . Inadequate communication between executives , directors and staff as top management sat in offices which were separated from their staff . Employees were happy and felt secure to work with before as the company as t foster good human relations with staff . However , employees felt stress , unsatisfied and unhappy to work in because of 's autocratic approach and cutting of staff . < heading > Organisation</heading>---It is about the structure of the company , including power structure and flow of decision making . Hierarchical structure with CEO , top management , store managers and staff . Top - down management which could often take the form of shouting and bullying which led to dislike of employees . Centralised authority caused lots of problems as store managers and staff were restricted in what they could do Disagreement with directives sent down from the top . Greenbury decided to control cost by having less full - time sales assistants , but store managers brought in all available employees to appeal the stores gave level of service when visited the stores . Greenbury never saw customer surveys results but make judgements on how operated by sales figures and visits to stores . This led to lack of understanding of customers ' needs . Top management was dominated by men while a large proportion of customers were women . This led to lack of understanding of customers ' needs . < heading taste and preference of customers made products which remained in the stores all year round no longer attractive . Customers were looking for up - to - date fashion but seemed only offered traditional range . Customers were not satisfied with the clothing range of the stores as did not segregate the clothing into different sections for different segments . Customers looked for clear layout of products so that they could find what they needed easily . < heading > Competitors:</heading > Situated in a turbulent competitive environment . Competitors like The Gap , Oasis and , which were at the top end of market , offered more design focused with up - to - date fashions but with similar price to Discount stores like and ' George ' range at at the bottom end of market offered essential and basic clothing , but at much lower price . and offered added value foods which were pioneered by Competitors reacted to changes in the market place quickly . < heading > Finance:</heading > Having financial difficulties worldwide because of tough trading conditions . < heading > Question the culture web as a model , identify some of the more important and influential aspects of the culture . < /heading > The concept of culture web is a representation of the paradigm ( taken - for - granted assumptions ) of an organisation and the physical manifestations of organizational culture . The cultural web provides wider aspects of the organisation as to give clues about the paradigm and to reinforce the assumptions within the paradigm . It can be used as a way of understanding current organizational culture and desired future culture . The cultural web is a useful way of considering the cultural context for change . The elements of the cultural web are rituals and routines , stories , symbols , power structures , organizational structures and control systems . Rituals and routines------Rituals are about organization events through which the organisation emphasizes what is particularly important . Routines are how members of the organisation behave towards each other and towards those outside the organisation . Stories-----------------------Stories and myths told by members of the organisation to each other , to outsiders and to new recruits which embed the present in its organisational history . Symbols---------------------Such as logos , offices , cars and titles or the type of language and terminology commonly used become a shorthand representation of the nature of the organisation . Power structure------------It is about how power distributed in the organisation . The most powerful groupings within the organisation are likely to be closely related to the assumptions and paradigm . Organisational structure------Outline important relationships and emphasise what is important in the organisation . It can reflect the power structure and show how decisions flow . Control systems-----------Measurements and reward systems emphasise what is important to monitor in the organisation and to focus attention and activity upon . < figure/>The assumption which constitute the paradigm reflect the common public perception that is traditional , old - fashioned and lack of innovations as it always emphasis and launch classic style clothing without any fashionable design . Also stories about products were not attractive meant its products were not up - to - fashion and not innovative . products were seen as of high quality as it launched the ' St ' logo to prove the quality and always use the same suppliers to ensure quality . All the organizational structure , control systems and board room meeting made being percept as an organisation which emphasis on organisational structure . < heading > Question ' levers ' did use to try to bring about change ? < /heading > Sometimes there is a tendency towards inertia and resistance to change . People will tend to hold on to existing ways of doing things and existing beliefs about what makes sense . Managing strategic change must therefore address the powerful influence of the paradigm and the cultural web on the strategy being followed by the organisation . If change is to be successful it also has to link the strategic and the operational and everyday aspects of the organisation . Managers need to consider how to balance the different approaches to managing strategic change according to the circumstances they face . Different ' levers ' can be employed to manage strategic change . Levers include the importance of changes in structure and control , the need to change organizational routines and symbols and the importance of political processes , communication and other change tactics . Structural and aspects of change tend to position top managers as controllers of change with organizational members responding to the systems they install . Routines --- They are the organizationally specific ' ways we do things around here ' which tend to persist over time and guide people 's behaviour . Symbolic processes------Changes in everyday things which are nevertheless especially meaningful in the context of a particular situation or organisation . Symbols can be objects , events , acts or people which express more than their intrinsic content . Political processes---------There may be a need for the reconfiguration of power structures in the organisation to build a power base , encourage support or overcome resistance and achieve commitment to a strategy or course of action . Communication------------It is important to communicate with members of the organisation understand the need for change , what it is intended to achieve or what is involved in the changes . Change tatics---------------Including timing , job losses and de - layering and strategies which can be put in place and to be successful quickly . used different levers at different time periods and with different CEOs . was appointed as the new CEO of in . , he used routines , symbolic processes , political processes , communication and change tatics to try to bring about change . < list><heading > Routines and symbolic processes:</heading > Employed more staff to operate on the shop floor to directly served and helped customers as to offer a more personal service . represented rites of challenge as he acted differently from previous CEO . Stopped using green carrier bags to present a new corporate image in . Alteration of stores , uniforms , packaging and labelling to fit with the new corporate image . Used only one distinct brand for clothing which everyone could understand . And the St brand was relegated to inside clothing labels as a symbol of quality and trust.</list><list><heading > Political processes:</heading > Deals with football clubs as part of the plan to tailor stores geographically in Feb 2000.Unveiled an exclusive clothes collection designed by haute couture fashion designers . < /list><list><heading > Communiction:</heading > Vandevelde conducted many interviews to raise awareness and M&S profile.</list><list><heading > Change tatics:</heading > Vandevelde planned to revitalise the domestic brand and them go overseas with an extensive expansion programme as to change to become a multi - format retailer . Grouped the stores on the bases of demographic characteristics and lifestyle patterns instead of operating with the old system which allocated merchandise dependent on the floor space . Overseas stores could develop their own strategies which ere tailored to the needs of local market.</list > However , sales remained unchanged as in and a fall in profit of £ m when announced its figures for in . New measures and strategies implemented did not make any visible improvement . The clothing range performance remained bad and there were lots of excess stock . Thus implemented new strategy and chose different levers to try to bring about change after . < list><heading > Structure and control , routines and symbolic processes:</heading > To retain and attract the best people by asking shareholders to double the share options available for key executives . Poster with question asking ' What you were doing to bring customers back ' to guide staff what they should do . Rites of sense making by creating a Customer Insight Unit to perform in - depth research with customers to gain an understanding of customers and perceptions of the brand . Moved the headquarters from , to in . This showed that was going to make meaningful changes and tackling the problems at its core . Launched a campaign entitled ' Fighting Back ' to encourage staff to get behind and make a difference in key areas of recovery . Top management was asked to work in a local store to get an insight into real situation in - store and to lift employee moral . New Autume - Winter fashion collection marked a return to 's roots with the main focus on classically styled clothing . The new range ' Per Una ' was put in a separate floor space with different shop fittings from the other clothing to target a different segment , which also meant was changing to more customer focus . Introduced washable suit . Implemented a store refurbishment programme.</list><list><heading > Political processes:</heading > Joint venture with of the leading suppliers , , to design and source children 's clothing . Collaboration with George Davies to design a women 's range called ' Per Una ' that would specifically cater for 's fashion - conscious customers . Closed its final salary pension scheme to new members to reduce cost.</list><list><heading > Communiction:</heading > Posters appeared in staff room to remind staff was changing and its new strategy . News about increasing sales and market shares to show that recovery was on track.</list><list><heading > Change tatics:</heading > Offered cloths at a discounted price in factory outlet malls to clear excess stock . Disposed its stores in and in and sold the stores to franchises . So that could focus on its core domestic clothing . Restore the confidence of its core customer by its new fashion collection and a new range of back - to - basics collection entitled ' Perfect' . Development of homeware department in existing stores , dedicated satellite outlets and expansion of ' convenience store format in railway and underground . < /list > Vandevelde 's performance was praised by shareholders . The new women 's range ' Per Una ' , ' Perfect ' range and washable suit were greatly received by customers and performed well . reported better trading figures and a rise in share price in . was employed to be 's head of retailing in and was promoted to CEO in after resignation . He made use of structure and control , routines , symbolic processes , political processes and change tatics . < list><heading > Structure and control , routines and symbolic processes:</heading > Spoke with actual customers and walked with them around the stores to find out what differences they did experience in its contractors from to produce massive saving per year and introduced new staff contacts to achieve cuts to overtime pay.</list><list><heading > Political processes:</heading > Collaboration with Davies and the recruitment of to produce new clothing . Alliance with , who was seen as a natural hero and could reflect 's brand values , to promote its children 's wear . with a m npackage form the chief executive position at Selfridges to head 's home furnishings division.</list><list><heading > Change tatics:</heading > Injected innovation into the food ranges , such as protected its popular ' steam cuisine ' by patent . Launched a nationwide credit and loyalty card scheme called ' & more ' to build loyalty , understand its customers and open a lasting dialogue with them .Built ' Lifestores ' which only stock homeware products with a fully functioning house to let customers see the homeware range in situ . Opened more stores in different > Under effort , Sales had risen on trading period which outperform most of its competitors but full cost was higher than . Back in the rankings of the ' World 's Most Respected Companies ' . Won a Queens Award for Enterprise for its washable suit which had been on sale since . A rise in profits and an increase to the dividend was reported in figures for . Success of its ' & more ' card and so regained customer trust . was blamed as being too nice and took too long to make decisions . Simply food stores performed better than main stores for sales per foot . Home division started having problems and underperformed . Performance in children 's and women 's clothing continued to be a problem and lost market share . Failed to make an impression on the culture and did not manage to change the bureaucracy .","< heading > Introduction</heading > English Nature is the government agency whose principal objective is to promote nature conservation in the countryside in order to ensure that future generations can appreciate the joy of natural beauty . is engaged in policy implementation , decision making on conservation activities in , the corresponding bodies for and are and respectively . Those agencies work together with , an advisory body , on nation - wide matters ( EN 2006① ) . Following the enactment of , so called 's report , has been integrated with division of and environmental parts of to form since . Reformation is expected to lead on to more robust enforcement of conservation activities with an emphasis on the promotion of public access and recreational service in the countryside ( EN 2006③ ) . This report will cover the following topics on and ; origin and brief history , policy objectives , funding sources and expenditure , organisational structure , functions and case studies , and discuss how can be involved in the activities of Nature . < heading > Part : English Nature</heading><heading > Origin and brief history</heading > Formation of conservation targeted government body was motivated by the increasing public recognition on the importance of countryside for recreation in , resulting in the establishment of Nature Conservancy by . By the Nature Conservancy Council Act , Nature Conservancy was replaced with with main aims of ( EN ) ; < list > To designate and manage nature reserves and conservation areasTo identify the Sites of Special Scientific Interest ( commit and undertake scientific research on wildlife and conservationTo provide scientific advice to government on policies</list > Further reformation was taken place in by Environmental Protection Act which appointed , , to work on regional level and as a coordinating body on national and international issues . , an agency for , was launched on th with an aim to promote conservation of 's wildlife and natural features for future generations ( EN ) . As a result of integration with and in , newly established will extend its power over various aspects of countryside conservation including the designation of , , Areas of Outstanding Natural ) and implementation of regulations on management of those sites , particularly in order to improve the public access and to promote rural development , as well as provision of grants , advice and information to the government and non - governmental bodies ( EN 2006① ) . < heading > Policy objectives</heading > In the work plan for , the report published by , the following policy objectives were stated(EN ) ; < list > To ensure that the best sites of wildlife , geological landforms and marine habitats are safeguarded . To bring about sympathetic management for nature conservation in all habitats ; and that the natural environment - whether air , water or land- is healthy and capable of supporting wildlife . To ensure that the important and less common species of wild plants and animals are conserved and that their numbers and distribution are increased . To provide opportunities for people to appreciate their natural heritage . To carry out research and survey which support the above.</list > Those criteria have been the foundation of the development of successive policy objectives and the scope of activities to be practiced . The current framework puts an emphasis on the operation of activities to reflect best environmental practices and to implement an environmental management system in order to achieve sustainability and prevention of pollution . principal roles are defined to guide its action ( EN 2003 , EN 2006① , EN 2006② ) . < list > comply with all applicable legal and other requirementsidentify environmental aspects and prioritise action to reduce them;set challenging targets to reduce our environmental impacts and regularly review progress;raise awareness of the environment amongst our employees through training , our environmental co - ordinators network and communication of environmental performance;report on our progress and performance , making this available both within the Office and externally;undertake regular management reviews to ensure that our environmental management system remains effective.</list><heading > Funding sources and expenditure</heading > English Nature is mainly funded by ) as grant - in - aid . Additional incomes are obtained from various activities such as from sales of publications , through national lottery grants , contribution from conservation partners , and from incomes of . Expenditure is mainly allocated to staff costs , conservation projects , management and operating costs , grant offers and maintenance of ( . . ) ( EN 2006②④ ) . < figure/><figure/><table/><table/><heading > Organisational structure</heading > There are division within ; people and policies , designated sites , modernising and managing projects and communication , science and wider environment ( . ) . Allocation and roles of divisions clearly demonstrate the reflection of the main objectives of Nature to organizational structure and the emphasis on its activities ( EN 2004).Executive committee is comprised of directors of each division . general managers and directors for particular areas of work take responsibility on implementation and reporting of regional plans and projects which are assigned to regional directors and operational area teams . There are over permanent staff employed by at st ( EN 2006① ) . < figure/><heading > Functions</heading > The functions of Nature are summarised in the following aspects ( EN 2003 , EN 2006① ) ; < heading > Position statement</heading > One of the main concerns of Nature is to influence the policies of government and non - government bodies associated with conservation work . stands on major issues and provides position statement as its opinion and advice to lead the modification on policy framework . The recent position statements include the following issues ; avian influenza , environmentally sustainable transport and forestry , access and countryside recreation , renewable energy , and climate change . In order to identify the targets and priority actions , sector analysis ; an overview of various influences on nature conservation , particularly by businesses and industry is undertaken . Many business sectors , companies own land of conservation interests or are closely related with agriculture , sea , transport and water management . Hence , claims the importance of the integration of business with nature conservation . Through position statement and sector analysis , seeks to guide businesses for conservation - incorporated framework and to increase the awareness on the responsibilities for management . < heading and designation of special sites</heading > English Nature takes responsibilities on the identification of special sites for conservation , management and monitoring of such areas . Designation is classified according to the significance of areas in terms of conservation values ; Sites of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSIs ) ; represent the best sites for wildlife and geology , of which is recognised as internationally important . By st , the total area of 's SSSIs is which covers of land area in . English Nature stated the target for SSSIs as to improve of land by area to favourable condition by . Although this target has been a challenge , there has been a significant effort to achieve this target over and it is expected to practice further actions in ( EN 200６② ) . Special Areas of Conservation ( SACs ) ; designation under Habitats Directive for the protection of wildlife . National Nature Reserves ; areas of national importance for wildlife habitat and geological formations . There are designated sites in which cover . The report summarised the analysis on visitors view that there is an increasing demand for better quality comfort and guidance in access and leisure facilities in and that the next stage is to address and reflect the revealed issues in the operation of new ) . Local Nature Reserves ; areas for both people and wildlife , with local importance . Those sites are expected to provide opportunities for people to enjoy and study wildlife . There are sites in total across which are used for variety of community projects such as for school visits and for education purposes ( EN 2006② ) . Greenspaces ; the aim of those areas is provision of contact with nature in towns ( EN 2006②. < heading > Grant offers</heading > There are many national grants provided mainly to voluntary organisations . It is expected that there would be reformation of those grants by in the near future . Some examples of existing or past grants are ; , Countdown Biodiversity Action Fund , Land Purchase Grants , Local , ( EN 2006① ) . < heading > People and Policies ; public involvement</heading > English Nature acknowledges the importance of volunteers to carry out effective conservation activities . There are volunteers under by , contribution of volunteers is estimated as to be equivalent to of support ( EN 2006② ) . There has been an increase in the number of volunteers involved particularly in ( EN 2006 ) . Main roles undertaken by volunteers are habitat management of , administrative assistance , bird ringing , invertebrate and botanical surveying , livestock monitoring , or organising educational visits and walks as leaders . < heading > Management of English Nature</heading > English Nature also leads sustainable lifestyle as an organisation through , for instance , the promotion of the use of alternatively fuelled vehicles , recycling initiatives at headquarters , reducing water consumption ( EN 2006② ) . < heading > Science and Research</heading > Various research projects have been undertaken and led by in order to improve the understanding of natural habitat and to utilise the acquired knowledge on the practice of conservation activities . Nature leads Biodiversity Action Plan ( BAP ) and provides information on the achievement and monitoring results . Some success stories reported in the report are ; re - introduction of pool frogs which became extinct in the in , steady recovery of the path moss population reaching the highest level since the start of monitoring , and progress on the accumulation of information for maritime BAP habitats ( EN 2006② , EN 2003 ) . < heading > Case study at regional scale : return on in the , and throughout England</heading > Red Kite , Milluvus milluvus , is the largest prey of bird once commonly found in the feed on animal carcasses which led to a misbelief that the birds become a threat to livestock such as lambs and gamebirds . Hence , the birds were persecuted to extinct , in most cases , by being poisoned ( RSPB 2006 ) . By , there were found only in central . In , and RSPB set up a re - introduction project in sites , in the and the other in in Northern Scotland ( EN 2002 ) . The habitat requirement for this bird is a combined vegetation of deciduous woodlands where it nests , and grasslands or farmlands where it scavenges food such as carrion , invertebrate , and small mammals including rats and chicks . The selection of those sites was since the areas were under designation as conservation sites and the areas supported large and rich habitats providing an ideal condition for the attempt for reintroduction . A total of nestlings from population were released in . In the early springs , twnety nestlings were brought into the sites when in age . Initially , chicks were kept in wooden cages for and were released into the wild in ( EN 2002 , ) . By , the population has grown to be well established in both cites with over pairs in the and pairs in . Following the success , further reintroduction has begun in the following cites since ; , the Midlands and . in the started breeding in and from , the chicks from there became to be released into other cites . The recent reintroduction has been taken place in since with kites from the Chilterns ( EN 2006③ ) . The reintroduction of has been a significant success , now this bird of prey has become a symbol of rebirth . Nature with the support of many organisations , has taken the lead for this programme ( , ) . < heading > Part : the Joint Nature Conservation Committee</heading><heading > Policy objectives</heading > The Joint Nature Conservation Committee was established in in conjunction with the division of to regional agencies ; , and , with its main function to serve as an advisory group on national and international issues associated with nature conservation . Its main policy objectives are ( JNCC 2006①② ) ; < list > advise Government on the development and implementation of policies for , or affecting , nature conservation in the and internationally ; provide advice and disseminate knowledge on nature conservation issues affecting the and internationally ; establish common standards throughout the for nature conservation , including monitoring , research , and the analysis of results ; commission or support research which deems relevant to these functions . < /list><heading > Orginisational structure and Funding Sources</heading > The committee is comprised of members of a Chairman and independent members appointed by the Secretary of ; the Chairman of and the ; the or deputy , , and ; and other member from each of these bodies . Meetings are held times a year and the papers and mitues are published ( JNCC 2006①② ) . The committee is mainly funded by regional agencies of , and and funds ( . ) ( ) . < table/><figure/><heading > Functions < /heading > The committee is responsible for the production of statutory provisions , particularly on the matters concerned with Sites of Special Scientific Interests in order to publish and revise the guidance for management . Monitoring of the conditions of designated sites is also an important duty for . A recent outcome of such activity is Report on Common Standard Monitoring which assessed the status of species , habitats and geology of over of the protected areas based on the results from assessments conducted in ( JNCC 2006①② ) . The purpose of the production of the report and the development of Common standar Monitoring was to provide agency members with the comprehensive , quick and reliable methods to evaluate the status of designated sites and the conditions of features of conservation interests . This report also enables to identify the priority issues at local and national level which is passed down to regional agencies who take responsibility for planning and impelementation of practical actions ( ) . < heading > Part : < /heading><heading > The role of There are various opportunities for to be engaged in the activities of Nature . For instance , cordination of sccientific research projects , development of conservation programmes , involvement in monitoring of designated sites , and provision of advice . The opportunities are not limited for professional possessions , involvement as volunteers may also be attractive for those who would be enthusiastic on promoting the conservation activities among the general public . On the other hand , the provision of feedback to as an individual scientist with professional knowledge is also an important aspect to improve the effectiveness of as a lead of conservation practitioner . The fundamental role of rural environmental sicentists would be to actively engage in activities in , or to in order to support its objective to promote the conservation of wildlife for future generations , to improve the knowelde on natural environment and to raise the public awareness . < heading > The provision of future ; targets of Natural England < /heading > Natural England set priorities for of its operation ; < list > A healthy environment ; improve the protection and management of important designated areas . Enjoyment ; encourage outdoor activities to the public and to raise the awareness . Sustainability ; ensure to keep balance the need for development and the use of natural resources with the need to preserve the environment . Future ; take responsibility to promote that government , businesses , individuals take account of the impacts of their decision - making has on nature and to provide reliable evidence to support the issue . < /list > It could be argued that the focus of would shift towards management of the countryside in cohesive way which tries to achieve rural development as well as conservation . The consequence of establishment of would be dependent upon the effectiveness of its leadership ; the ability to guide the interests of people from different aspects to set , activate and achieve the targets . < heading > Conclusion</heading > This report reviewed the role of Nature as a government agency concerning nature conservation . The functions of Nature are diverse , while there are many challenges to achieve its targets particularly on the status of the designated areas and the action implementation of , a lot of efforts has been put into effective coordination of works . There are success stories as demonstrated with an example of the reintroduction of . It is expected that the creation of would induce a significant positive impact on conservation activities and rural development in the future .",0
"Sheepdrove organic farm is located in , it is an organic farm with several enterprises including pigs , cattle , sheep , broilers turkeys and crops . The farm was established with the aim of running a farm that was self - sufficient . The farm has since grown and now covers an area of and employing people . There is an eco friendly conference centre located on the farm which is used by various organisations such as , Waitrose and , and is used to promote the farm produce . The farm has shops located in and and on the farm , there is also an internet site , all the meat and vegetables that are produced on the farm are available from shops and the internet site . There are many enterprises on the farm which could not all be covered in this report so I am going to talk about the free range poultry enterprise . In total there are chickens on the farm , the chicks are bought onto the farm at a old and are stored in house for of their lives , the chicks have access to conservatories so they can get used to natural daylight and sounds of the outside world , such as tractors , cows and birds are played into the shed . This gives the chickens sold from a unique selling point as they can claim that the chickens although reared inside to start with have always had an experience of outside life , and also they are probably of the only farms in the country to play music to their chicks . The chickens are transferred to outdoor mobile houses after . The houses are located in grassy paddocks with each one having chickens in each shed . The sheds are on skids and so can be moved around to different paddocks using a tractor , all the sheds have mains water and the power is provided by solar panels on the roofs of the sheds . The chickens are feed a mix of Wheat , and Soya in pellet form and are also able to roam the paddock to forage for other food . The feed is distributed using a hopper system that can hold and is filled once a week using a tractor and feeder wagon . The feed ratio for these slower growing birds is around 2:2.5 , commercial birds which are faster growing will have a feed ratio closer to . The paddocks are also surrounded by hedgerows with herb strips containing birds foot trefoil , yarrow , marigold , salad burnet , sheeps parsley and vetches , the chickens use this for foraging and for self medicating . The chickens have to be kept on the farm for under soil association rules to qualify as organic , are slaughtered at . When the birds are slaughtered they weigh , and after processing . These weights are very different to intensive poultry farming where the birds are slaughtered at , with a live weight of . The longest most birds are kept in intensive broiler production is , after this time the birds would weigh live weight , after processing , ( , ) , this is very different to the free range chickens who are older and lighter when killed . This means there is greater expense to produce free range poultry , not only do the birds have to be kept for longer , they also weigh less . This means the farm is reliant on receiving a good price for the organic free range meat . This can cause problems though with diseases , as the farm is organic it can not vaccinate its chickens , so when they do contract diseases medicines have to be administered and then a withdrawal period is needed , this can mean that chickens are kept on the farm longer than necessary just so they kept their organic status . In total around is spent of each medication for each chick with the main reason for its administration being infectious bronchitis . All the chickens are slaughtered at the on site processing plant , the farm slaughters of its own birds a week , with a further finished birds being brought in from local farms . of the meat is sold to Waitrose with the rest being sold through the farm shops and internet site . The unit is run by poultry foreman , and there are also general farm workers who assist with the foreman . At present the farm is having problems with the transition from the store to the field , when the birds are put outside there is a loss in body weight which is resulting in a loss of g on a finished bird , this is costing the farm a year . This needs to be resolved to stop this major loss in income , option is to wait longer until the chicken is not at such a vital stage in its growing phase , this will help to reduce the amount of weight lost , the problem with this is that the chickens need to be housed for longer and therefore another store will be needed to hold the new chicks that will arrive during this longer period . < table/>The inputs , processes and outputs for the system are shown in table one . As can be seen from the table there is quite a high amount of input needed to achieve the output . The output is a good that will fetch a high price and so therefore these high inputs are worth it . Prices for the organic free range meat are never likely to fall in the foreseeable future as demand is still increasing as the public move away from meat that has been produced in intensively housed units , this is supported by ( ) which states , "" The demand for poultry meat produced from drug - free fed birds will continue and expand . Growth in organically produced meat and eggs from chickens housed and managed under semi - natural and total extensive management systems is forecast to double within "" . If prices did decline , or the market for them disappear then the farm would be at risk of serious financial loss , the broilers are the most profitable enterprise on the farm so a large loss of income would occur , the high investment in the housing for and the processing plant could also be lost if the enterprise had to cease . The poultry system is efficient and has been created to supply an existing and expanding market , this is reflected by the fact that is it the most profitable enterprise on the farm . The only improvement that needs to be made is creating a new transition system which does not cause the chickens to lose weight when they are moved outside , and therefore increase the profit of the enterprise .","Shinfield farm is situated outside of Reading and is owned by ; the farm covers an area of of farmable land , the main enterprise of the farm is the dairy unit , which comprises of at present Holstein dairy cows . The other enterprises on the farm are a commercial flock of sheep , and also the research that is carried out on the farm in the centre for dairy research and the animal production research unit . The cows are feed on a mix of maize and grass , both of which comes from the farm , the farm grows of maize and of wheat which is used as whole crop wheat silage in times of shortages , otherwise it is combined , with the grain being fed to the cows and the straw being used for bedding . The cows are also fed on concentrates which are delivered to the farm on a lorry and stored in bays , it contains a mix of Soya , Rape , , and , and it also contains minerals supplements . The cows are fed of concentrate a day , the concentrate is mixed with the silage using a mixer wagon , the mix is then tipped on the floor in front of the cows , a mix of will feed cows The feeding system on the farm could be modified to help increase milk yield , currently all the cows are fed the same rations throughout , changing to a Complete diet or Traditional methods may help to increase the milk yield , in these systems the cows are feed different amounts of concentrates depending on their stage of lactation and the yield being produced . The complete diet could be implemented on the farm by splitting the cows into groups depending on their stage of lactation , and then the correct amount of concentrates can be fed to each group to achieve the maximum milk yield . Calving starts in and will continue through until , with there being around calves born in , and and less in remaining . Once the cows have calved they are kept inside until , then those producing litres a day will be turned out to the grass while those litres will stay in . The milk is sold at a litre , the farm is in the high hygiene bracket and has a volume bonus , this helps to increase the milk price , the farm also receives a premium of as it is situated near the market . The milk buyer encourages the farm to produce more milk in and will give a higher price for it then this is reason for calving , the milk is all sold to and is collected every other day by a tanker . The milking is carried out in a newly built point rotary parlour , this has increased efficiency , the old parlour only had the capacity for cows and it took to complete all milking , the new parlour has the capacity for cows , and can operate at cows an hour , at present the parlour averages cows per hour . The milking is done in groups , milking is carried out twice a day , and will occasionally take place times a day for research purposes . The dairy unit is operated by people , carry out the milking , prepares the teat while the other fits the teat cups , the person marshals the cows to the parlour and ensures they are constantly moving in and out of the parlour , there are also automatic gates and a teat sprayer to help with this process . The average cell count is , and is currently at , the current milk output is litres per cow per year with fat at and protein at . The milk yield for this herd is in the high to very high bracket ( source : ) , and the butterfat and protein levels of the milk are exactly on what the standard litre is expected to be , ( source : ) , this means that the farm is going to receive a good price for its milk due to its excellent butterfat and protein levels . is used in the cubicles of the milking cows instead of straw , this should help to reduce the chances of mastitis , the disadvantage of this is that sand will wear the cubicles faster ; also the scraper can not cope with large amounts of sand as it is too heavy . The sand is spread using a machine fitted to the front of a teleporter , of sand is used , at a cost of £ a tonne which is around the same cost as saw dust . The dairy system being operated on this farm is a high input high output system . Its is due to the large inputs that the farm is putting into the system that substantial outputs are being received , the diagram below shows the inputs into the farm how they are processed and the outputs that come from them : < table/>There are also 900 ewes on the farm , the flock is run for commercial purposes , although they are also used for research , the flock consists of Greyfaced ewes , and sired lambs . The flock grazes the permanent grassland on the flood plains , as well as on cereal volunteers and on cattle grazing land in to control the grass growth . The tupping date is fixed so that all the ewes lamb at , the ewes are tupped with and rams . In between three and four hundred of the lambs are sold , the rest go into store and are fattened through to when they are then sold . The whole flock is managed by worker . The research facility at the farm conducts applied and strategic research at ; the research department receives no university funding and is totally reliant on contracts . The work undertaken includes milk composition , nutrition , reproduction , health and the environmental impact of diary cows . The cows can all be individually fed using a gate system at the feeding troughs which will only allow the designated cow in . The animal production research unit looks at cattle and also other animals including sheep , goats , broilers and turkeys , with the research looking at improving carcass and meat quality .",1
"< heading > Introduction</heading > Growing herbs are innovative products in salads sector . Developing the market for these products we need to apply the principles of marketing mix which consists of the product itself , price , place ( distribution ) and promotion . "" What we must offer is the right products , at the right price , available through the right distribution channels and presented in the right way "" ( Stanley and , ) . Failure of marketing will result to eliminate the importance of efforts for producing a quality product . Thus , even a high quality product needs effective promotion to be established on market . < heading > The new product development process</heading > Developmental process of a new product is carried out by some very carefully designed steps ( fig.1 ) . In order to develop a new product on market we need firstly to gather as many ideas as possible from as many as possible sources in order to confirm that the product is viable on market . "" The step in marketing is to produce what people want to buy and not to sell what we like to produce "" ( and , ) . The following step is to estimate consumer reactions to this new product before affording much money to it . Then we need to make financial evaluation . The objective of this financial evaluation is to know the investment cost needed , the return on our investment and the payback period . The next stage is the technical development . Technical stuff needs to carry out trials on the varieties we intend to promote on market in order to confirm that they provide the necessary quality characteristics . Afterwards , we apply market testing so as to obtain a final feedback by consumers before the launch of product and finally proceed to commercial launch ( , and , ) . "" Although , the more obvious steps of marketing begin at harvest time , marketing actually begins with the planning of the crop before the seed is planted "" ( , ) < heading > The product itself</heading > The product is the most important part of the marketing mix . The type and the quality of the product must satisfy consumer needs and attract his interest . Therefore , we need to ensure that we produce the correct herb varieties , at the correct size , with the correct flavor ( , ) . Growing herbs are mostly grown for culinary purposes , so flavor is the most desirable characteristic . For this reason preferred varieties for pot herbs must be slow to flowering , otherwise fragrance deteriorates in leaves ( which are the added parts of the plant in food and salads ) . Compact herb varieties with dwarf growing habit , short stems and petioles are extremely desirable for pot herbs because they have better shelf life due to reduced evapotranspiration . They also have increased leaf mass within customer height specifications ( short plants are preferable ) and fit better on super market shelves . Unfortunately , the majority of new herb varieties have been breed for growing in the field because of their origin from warmer climates ( zone ) . For these reason , many trials need to be undertaken by the grower in order to find the optimum characteristics for pot herbs ( Seymour , ) . < heading > Crop production as a significant part of marketing</heading > Crop production is very important for the development of growing herbs on market . Cultural schedules for pot herbs develop to supply market around . If these schedules fail to be accurate , the reliability of the grower towards the retailer is harmed . An important advantage of growing herbs against cheap cut herbs imported from countries is that they lack seasonality . Therefore , the grower must be able to cover market demands all year around with the proper volume of products resulting to best profits both for retailer and himself ( , ) . The canopy uniformity ( fig.2 ) of the same species pot herbs is also very essential for the marketability of the product because it is a basic requirement of consumers and retailers . The most essential problem for grower so as to obtain uniform products is to control germination by using proper crop production techniques ( fig.3 ) . Undoubtedly , the quality of the product to some extent depends on sanitary conditions . Rots , diseases , yellowing of leaves , insects are extremely undesirable for consumers . "" The consumers relate plant failure to the grower or to themselves , so the main effect is the erosion of the desire to make a subsequent purchase "" ( , ) . Since , growing herbs are promoted for their healthy features , the extensive use of chemicals and pesticides for the management of pests and diseases would be extremely contradictory . Therefore , biological control alternatives and proper crop production techniques for pest management should be extensively used ( fig4 - 5 ) . Cost production finally should be considered so that growing herbs to be competitive on market against imported cheap cut herbs . Since glasshouses are expensive constructions , we should find the optimum crop production techniques to produce high quality products with the lowest cost . It would also be very essential to consider carefully the growing time of herbs from seed to harvest since longer growing times result to higher production cost . On the other hand , longer growing times provide potentially stronger flavor which is an extremely desirable qualitative characteristic . We finally need to find a balance between them ( Seymour , ) . < heading > Marketing after the end of the growing days</heading > Packaging is a very important part of product promotion . Pot herbs are placed in plastic sleeves at grower 's place straightforward after the end of the growing days because packaging protects the plant from damage during handling and prolongs shelf time of product . The plastic sleeve consists of clear plastic , so that consumers can view the product through packaging and it also permits the transmission of light for photosynthesis ( fig.6 ) . The sleeve constricts the foliage of plant reducing the volume of shipment during transportation and allowing more products to be displayed on retailers ' shelves ( fig.7 ) . Distinctive color of packaging is used for different species of herbs because it can help in the positioning of the product on super market shelves and its differentiation from pot herbs of competitors . There are also recipes printed on sleeves providing ideas for cooking because growing herbs are innovative products on market and consumers are inexperienced to use them . It is generally not enough for buyers to know only the name of plant , but they also need to know how to use the herb in the kitchen . For example it is not broadly known that herbs must be added in the food in the end of cooking to give the best flavor and retain a fresh color , otherwise the volatile oils of herbs are lost from food ( , and , ) . Advertisement is a necessary part of promotion , especially for innovative products . Advertisements through mass media such as television , radio , newspapers and magazines are a very common way to inform consumers about the product . Display of product on exhibitions and food shows is also an effective way to persuade consumers for the qualities of herbs . Advertising healthy properties of herbs , such as antibacterial and digestion properties , it was not permitted in the past because of regulations ( since there was no scientific proof for these properties ) . Nowadays , these properties are broadly recognized , while on contrary there are progressively more public concerns about the unhealthy features of saturated fats of meat . So , herb growers invest a lot of money on advertising the healthy properties of herbs . For instance chive ( fig.8 ) , coriander and parsley ( fig.9 ) are promoted for their digestive properties , while basil is advertised for reducing blood sugar levels and as a treatment of some types of diabetes . The key advantageous point for pot herbs is that the harvest of leaves becomes just before cooking . Therefore , fragrance and vitamins are at the best level when we want to add them in salad or food compared with cut or dried herbs and they also have more delicate and soft leaf texture ( , , , and Humbervhb , ) . Market research is also a significant part of marketing so that grower can define buyer behavior . The grower , defining buyer behavior , can make adjustments in his product in order to meet consumer demands . behavior is influenced by his social level and by his cultural status . For example upper middle class persons are expected to be interested in consuming more healthy products , because they can afford more money to buy them and they also are more concerned about healthy characteristics of food . On the other hand , persons of the same cultural status are expected to have similar styles of living . For example some herbs are extensively used by some traditional cuisines . The grower can develop a more effective marketing strategy understanding the behavior of the above categories ( , ) . Marketing cost has to be considered in conjunction with crop production cost in order to ensure that the financial input outweigh financial output . Transportation and distribution cost is significantly reduced in relation to imported cut herbs grown in countries , but transportation and post - harvest handling of pot herbs are more expensive due to cool chain techniques that need to be applied in this case . In general "" the more perishable the product the greater the marketing costs "" ( , ) . Packaging is also frequently considered by growers and by consumers as an unnecessary expense and finally both growers and consumers have to pay for it . However , we have to remember that without packaging we have more product losses due to handling , less shelf time of product , the product is less attractive to consumers and the transportation cost is significantly increased . Advertisement also is an important part of marketing cost and as mass media advertising is generally expensive , the immediate effects of this promotion technique may do not outweigh the cost . However , "" the total effects of advertising are realized in longer term "" ( , ) . We finally have to find a balance between cost and benefit in terms of the extent of marketing that will be involved in our enterprise . < heading > Conclusion</heading > There is much science involved in herb production , but there is also much science involved after harvest . Both parts ( crop production and marketing ) are of same importance for the development of product on market . Growers very often are concentrated on maximizing production forgetting market demands . However , if they fail to promote their products properly , their efforts for best production will be worthless .","< abstract><heading > Abstract</heading > The successful stories of different states are tended to be group together to form or theories by some scholar . Therefore the paper attempts to determine the relevance of these theories to the developmental experiences in of -- ( HK ) and , it explains the components of the theories of developmental states and finds the core elements of this theory . Then it tries to compare the feature of role of state in these states instead of comparing the degree of state intervention . It describes how and government develop their economy under their faith in less intervention and government involvement respectively . It will be explained by using the theories This paper finally concludes that the theories can explain and 's successful stories even though it has some mistake . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > The economic developments of were successful after . From , the average growth of GNP per capita in these states increased which is more than the amount in ( about percent).Some of the states including , , , and can approach and enter into the high - income economies in the world . < fnote , The miracle : economic growth and public policy ( : , ) , pp.xvi&2 < /fnote > Since these states have been growing in economy together , many scholars try to find the common feature of their successful experience in development and then develop as theories or models . This paper tries to find the theories of developmental state from different literatures . And then it focuses on the role of states theories , and finds the core elements of these theories . Many people always try to compare the successful stories in of and , since they are both small economies and have similar background . Therefore , this paper attempts to use the theories to explain their successful stories and determine whether the theories are relevance to their stories . < heading > Theories of Developmental States - The Role of states < /heading > The successful stories of states can be explained by several ways including geography , history , culture and role of states . For the geography explanation , these states are proximity to the sea which can encourage the trade and investment with the outside world . If we take history into an account in the effect of the economic development , we can see that the cold war gave a chance to develop . During , the world was divided into parts - bloc ( led by ) and bloc ( led by ) . In fact , the had socialist states including , and in .In order to prevent the spread of communism in , gave the military and foreign aids ( such as ) , the chance of access to the world market ( such as ) to . In the cultural explanation , the hard - working of and close business relationship of are helpful for its economic development . But if the geography , history and culture are the only explanations , other economies would have little to learn from successful stories of . So the theory or model of can not be formed in this situation . But this is not the case from the experience of , since the role of government is also influential factor . Therefore , to find the theories of developmental states , the paper focuses on the economic policy formulated by . In fact , there are different interpretations of effect of the economic policy : < fnote , The miracle , pp.81 - 84 < /fnote><heading > Neo - Classical View</heading > The neo - classical view believes that the individual has economic rationality to pursuit their self interest , so the invisible hand of market can help the development of economy . In this interpretation , the limit of the government intervention and the market ( including the enterprise ) in the central position of economic development are the key of success . Mackerras finds that ' every successful country ( , , , , ) has relied upon on private enterprise and free market to achieve economic development '   < fnote > , : an introductory history , ( : , ) , pp.397 - 398 < /fnote > In the economic relations ( such as international trade and foreign investment ) with the foreign countries , the neo - classical view uses the notion of comparative advantage to show that the relations are positive sum game . After getting the economic relations with the foreign countries , they will get some benefit such lower cost of national product from trade and raising capital from the foreign investment . Therefore , states should allow the foreign companies to access their national market , and free trade should be promoted . The successful state carried out free - trade by reducing the trade tariff ( such as and ) and encouraged the foreign direct investment ( such as ) . Haggards shows that ( such as , ) and used different development strategic which can show their difference in the success of economic development . The former used the import - substitution strategy ( more self - protected ) is less successful than the latter the export - led strategy ( less self - protected ) .   < fnote > Stephan Haggard . , Pathways from the periphery : the politics of growth in the newly industrializing countries ( , ; : , ) , ch.2 < /fnote><heading > Statist/ revisionist View</heading > The statist view was developed , because the neoclassical interpretation can not explain the existence of state intervention in the successful state . Mackerras finds that ' the weight of the government in the economy measured in terms of share of GDP in state enterprise is apparently greater in and than in many countries ' . < fnote > Mackerras , : an introductory history , ( ) , pp . < /fnote > The states played an important role in economic development , because they had power and resource to mobilize the different groups in achieving the developmental goal . For instance , ' government invested in prioritized industries , gave incentives to encourage the establishment of corporations , and eliminated the pressure of International competition . ' < fnote > , ' Northeast & Southeast Asian Comparsions ' , in ( eds . ) , Business and government in industrialising , ( , : , c1994 ) , < /fnote > Matthews and argues that the export - led strategies adopted by some of are a kind of state intervention . In order to push the export growth , the states targeted ' to strategic industries for special assistance on the basis on the basis of their perceived potential for promoting economic growth , rapid technological change and . "" Therefore , the statist approach believes that the state intervention is important for economic development of < fnote > Trevor Matthews and , ' Strategic Trade Policy : Experience ' , in ( eds . ) , Business and government in industrialising , ( , : , c1994 ) < /fnote><heading > Neo - classical View ? Statist Approach ? < /heading > The theories will not be relevance to the experience of , if we use either of the interpretations of state intervention . Therefore instead of asking the extent of state intervention in the debate between the Neoclassical and Statist Approach , we should ask the ' quality ' and ' kind ' of intervention in answering the economic development in . < fnote > Mackerras , : an introductory history , ( ) , pp . < /fnote><fnote > , Embedded autonomy : states and industrial transformation ( , : , c1995 ) , pp.12 < /fnote><heading > State autonomy < /heading > and States both had the state intervention in the market . But the difference was the state behavior or attitude in the economic development . The latter was ' impartial predatory ' and the former was ' developmental ' . The core goal of state is to develop the economy . < fnote > , autonomy ( ) , pp.12 < /fnote > As the states are developmental , they did n't want to bias to certain group . They wanted to be the neutral bureaucrats . So they tried to be insulated and autonomous from the demand or pressure of the business group ( especially the rent seeking group).But they still relies on the support from the business group in the development . thinks that ' the states are embedded in concretes set of social ties that bind state to society and provide institutional channel for continual negotiation and re - negotiation of the goal and polices . ' He described this state and society relationship as ' embedded autonomy ' . has the similar argument and describes it as ' governed interdependence ' . Therefore , the typical problem of state intervention in these states ( such as rent seeking and corruption which are obstacle for national development ) is less happened comparing with the other developing states . < fnote > loc . it . < /fnote><fnote > and . , and economic development : a comparative historical analysis ( , ) , pp.245 < /fnote><heading > Shared growth policy < /heading > states had the commitment to adopt shared growth policy during the developing process . Share growth policy is to equally distribute the fruit of growth to the public .Aoki , , and think that this policy is the ' legitimizing objective of a neutral bureaucracy and its great achievement . "" During the development process , the neutral bureaucracy is very important for the state to achieve its legitimacy . Because if the fruit of growth is not equally distributed , the general public may think that the government is not fair to them . This may bring a lot of social unrest which are the obstacle to economic growth . Therefore , the shared growth policy including provision of education and welfare is also important to the economic development . < fnote > Aoki , , ' , in , and ( eds . ) , The role of government in economic development : comparative institutional analysis , pp . < /fnote > The East Asian States have been successful in achieving shared growth . All of increased in education expenditure in order to bring equal chance for the general public . Some states ( such as , , , ) carried out land reform by distributing the land to the peasant in order to stabilize the society . Therefore income distribution performance of states is better than the unsuccessful Countries . , in the former is between 0.3 and , but the latter is . So the shared growth policy can also explain the successful of . < fnote , , pp.74 < /fnote><heading > Marktet Friendly/ Market Enhancing policy</heading > Another way to find the kind or quality of state policy is to combine the neoclassical and statist view . By getting the merits from both of them , we can find the policies which can help the successful development of states . In fact , the role of can ' do less in those areas where market work and do more in those areas where markets can not be relied upon . ' And describes it as ' Market - Friendly strategy ' . Their role is limited to remedy market failure . They can ' facilitate the private - sector institution that overcomes the market and coordination failure due to the information asymmetry , incompleteness of market and limited of knowledge . ' , and describe it as ' Market - Enhancing '   < fnote , The miracle : economic growth and public policy ( : , ) , pp.84 < /fnote><fnote > Aoki , , ' , ( ) , < /fnote > To overcome the market failure , the states can use their strength in coordination and enough resources to ' ensure adequate investment in people ( education ) , provision of a competitive climate for enterprise and openness of international trade and stable macroeconomic management ' The states were less successful comparing with because of their low and poor quality in investment in people , the closed international trade from import substitution strategy and instable management in inflation . < fnote > loc cit . < /fnote > In the above elements , elaborated the elements -- provision of competitive climate for enterprise . thinks the states are limited to be a ' midwife ' and ' husbandry ' . The role of midwife is to ' promote rather than policy the private groups by assisting the emergence of new entrepreneurial groups or inducing existing groups to venture more challenging kinds of production . ' And the role of husbandry is to ' carry out research and development from simple signaling to something as complex as setting up state organization to take over risk complementary tasks . "" In fact , the states provide assistance to the business group including encouragement ( midwife ) and infrastructure ( husbandry ) in facing new challenge . < fnote > , autonomy ( ) , pp.14 < /fnote > To conclude , the market enhancing or market friendly strategy can be included the investment in education , provision of stable and open business environment , and the limited assistance of the business in facing new challenge . < heading > Flexible policy</heading > The last successful ingredient of the state is its flexible policy . The inconsistent of state intervention explained by the neo classical and statist view was happened in country , because both of them only examine the intervention in the certain historical period . The degree of state intervention changes in different historical period . In fact , the states are flexible to change their intervention depending on the situation . For example , decreased their highly selective intervention to exports from in order to reduce the trade fiction with the countries such as . On the other hand , the unsuccessful states can be explained by its rigidity in changing the import - substitution strategy . Therefore , the theories of developmental states are the kind and quality of states intervention . The core characteristics of states are their embedded autonomy , and their shared growth , market enhancing or market - friendly and flexible states policy . The successful stories in economies - and - can also be explained by this theoretical framework . So the following sections show the characteristics of state intervention in HK and . < heading > The feature of role of state in and < /heading > The Economic developments in and are so successful . , the GDP per capita in HK increased from $ ( in ) to $ in , while increased from $ 2219 to $ 23582 . The GDP per capita in both economies increased times within . So we can see that the explanations of their successful development are valuable to study . < fnote > Angus Maddison , The world economy : a millennial perspective , ( and Development , c2001 ) , pp.305 < /fnote > As mentioned before , the successful stories can be explained by geography , history and culture . In the case of HK and , these factors can also explain the successl . In the geographical explanation , both countries have ready access to the sea , so they can easily get trade relationship with outside world . In the historical explanation , gave them a chance to become strategic important location . They became the entrepot base . In , at the peak of , trade was times that of its gross domestic product . In addition , the cold war gave HK a chance to develop tourism , HK became naval military personnel leave centre because of this historical event . In the cultural explanations , both populations are predominately : comprising in and in , cultural homogeneity can lead to the successful development .But these explanations are not useful to develop the developmental theories or models , since the other developing countries are difficult to change these factors . The developmental theories can be developed by the explanation of role of state in these countries , since the countries can improve their state policy after learning this explanation . Thus , the paper focuses on the role of state in HK and . < fnote > Eileen Lim , ' A comparative study of industrialisation in and ' ( dissertation , , ) , pp.4 < /fnote><fnote > Ibids , pp.2 < /fnote><heading > The different extent in intervention and its cause</heading > The difference between and is the extent of state intervention . is less role of government ( state intervention ) , while is more . And this difference can be explained by the different historical background of state . < heading > Hong Kong</heading > Sir , who was the HK financial secretary , used the term ' positive non - intervention ' to describe the government 's believe in less state intervention . Because he thinks that ' the market force does effectively allocate mechanism . On the hand , the crucial role of government is to provide the stable framework of law and regulation and of fiscal and public expenditure practices . ' The government strongly believed in the market which can effectively develop their economy because of some historical background .   < fnote > Howe , ' Growth , Public policy ' , in ( eds ) , ( Aldershot : E. Elgar Pub , . ) , pp.521- < /fnote > In the early economic development in , did not need the state to give incentive to certain industries in order to develop their economy . Because , after the ruling of communist party in in , a large influx of refugee helped HK boost its economy . After the influx , the labor supply increased , and the economic active population increased to of total population in . Apart from the labor supply , the influx of capital also increased . A lot of capitalist ( especially the textile capitalist ) came to HK to build the light industry . < fnote > Eileen Lim , ' A comparative study of industrialisation in and ' , pp.34 < /fnote > In addition , under the Colonism , several large international enterprise such as , , and group were well - developed before . And on the other hand , the large foreign enterprises did not take away the capital from HK to their country . They still cared about HK 's domestic interest . In , The bank gave the industrial and commercial support to the local enterprise such as owned by Y.K.Pao . Therefore , the government did not worry about the lack of capital for economic development . < fnote > Howe , ' Growth , Public policy ' , < /fnote > Yeung thinks that the less state intervention is caused by the Colonism . ' The colonial state believed firmly in free trade and laissez - faire policies as encapsulated in neo - liberalism to serve the interests of their colonial masters and capitalists ' . The Hong Kong Bureaucrat was so conservative to carry out the significantly state intervention policy . Therefore , when faced the transformation from light industry to the high technology industry in and ( caused by the restriction of textile export in Multi Fiber Agreement ) , the government only provided the basic infrastructure ( such as building of industrial estate).On the other hand , when facing the same situation , the carry out strategy economic plan which included the investment in the business . By comparing with , is less in state intervention . < fnote > . , ' , and Economic Crisis : The Political Economy of Deindustrialization in , Competition and Change , , , ( ) , pp.133 < /fnote><heading > Singapore < /heading > Gong Keng Swee , who was the chief architect of the 's economic development and former Minister of Finance in , believed that ' the state should formulate a set of coordinated government policies , mobilize savings and provide public goods to develop its economy . ' leader believed in the government involvement because of another historical reason . < fnote > W.G .. , ' , and 's since ' , , , ( ) , pp.1433 < /fnote > In , did not have the large influx of refugee which helped the economic development . Also they did not get the benefit from their hinterland ( ) and neighbor countries ( ) in the early development period ( ) .In , the poor relationship between and led to trade stoppage between . And there was no free trade between and , because wanted to protect its industries .   < fnote > Chew ECT and , A History of , ( : , ) , pp.194 < /fnote><fnote > R.S. Milne and , : the legacy of ( , ) , pp.131 < /fnote > And faced the economic problem after the independence in . As the withdrawal of military , the job market in lost place directly and indirectly . Unemployment was at a high rate of . Thus , promoting economic development was necessary for job creation .   < fnote > Newman , ' Government Intervention in the economy : a comparative analysis of and , , , ( ) , p. - 421 < /fnote > In addition , comparing with HK , the domestic private sector in was weak , and they were not able to help economic development . Therefore , establishment of state - owned enterprises and encouragement of the foreign capital was necessary in the condition . And state intervention was essential for 's development . < fnote > Stephan Haggard . , Pathways from the periphery : the politics of growth in the newly industrializing countries ( , ; : , ) , pp.101 < /fnote > Until , had wholly or partially state owned enterprises ( ) . The state had major shareholding in such sectors as transportation ( ) , petrol - chemicals , ship - repairing , shipping , engineering , construction and armaments . The state - owned enterprise can carry our some coordination work , while the market ca n't do it . The state own enterprises could effectively mobilize the private sector to increase national saving from $ m in to $ 16543 m in . In fact , the high saving rate is of successful element of economic development . So the ' visible hand ' of is beneficial for 's economy . < fnote > W.G .. , ' , and 's since ' ( ) , < /fnote><fnote > , ' in the Economic Transformation of East Asia ' , in and ( eds . ) , Economic and social development in ( : Routledge , ) , pp.96 < /fnote><fnote > I . , ( ) , < /fnote > To create good investment environment , had the heavy government intervention in weakening the labor movement . The government established to control the labor bargaining power in . In response to the transformation of industry , the government carried out the strategic economic plan in . The plan included the government participated in the joint venture and co - investment in some high technology sector .   < fnote > Chia Siow Yue , ' Singapore : Towards a knowledge - based Economy ' , in , , Yue ( eds . ) , Industrial restructuring in : towards , ( : ; : , c2001 ) , pp.181 < /fnote > So , from the historical explanation , HK and had different degree of state intervention depending on their developmental needs . As long as the state intervention is beneficial to the economy , the high degree of state intervention is not a problem . The more important thing is how they do the state intervention . From the above explanation , we draw the conclusion to ask the kind and quality of state intervention instead of extent of state intervention in theory . So the kind and quality is more important to explain HK and 's successful story . In the following section , the paper uses the above theoretical framework - state autonomy , and share growth , market enhancing , market friendly , and flexible state policy - to explain HK and 's successful stories . The paper explains that these countries succeed in the state autonomy . And then it explains how HK government and government develop economy under their faith in less state intervention and government involvement respectively . It will be explained by using the other theoretical components . < heading > and : Embedded Autonomy < /heading > The bureaucrats in both and have the capacity to insulate the effect from the private sector . Since both countries had commitment to develop their economy , the bureaucrats did not allow any event such as rent - seeking and corruption to affect the fair competition in the market . , the founding father of modern , has the high commitment to his countries development . And he carried our many strict norms and rules in the countries , for example , ban chewing gum in order to maintain the city clean . Therefore , he did not allow anything such as corruption to "" contaminate "" his city . The legacy of Colonism can also strengthen the capacity of the civil service in these countries . The left an independent civil service system to and . The civil service in these countries is known as independence in terms of political and economical . also left the norm of high salaries in the civil service , the top - ranking official 's salaries are as generous as the salaries of CEO in world 's leading corporations . Therefore , the official does not easily get involved in the rent seeking activity or corruption . And the set up of powerful , permanent , and politically independent has been found to be an effective strategy in both and . ( CPIB ) which is semi - secret organization was set up in , while ) was set up since . < fnote , , ' Curbing corruption : A comparative analysis of corruption control in , and ' ( dissertation , , ) , < /fnote > Both states are relatively strong , because they are not totally democratized . The states can maintain to be powerful without any ' democratic burden ' . In , the governor was appointed by Queen of Great of before , and the Chief Executive is elected through the government controlled election after the legislative council is formed from indirect election and is not powerful to alter the government 's policy . The decision making is led by executive branch . In , has of total seat in the Legislative Branch for . The legacy of leadership makes the executive branch to be powerful . And the society group is relatively weak in both states . In colonial period , ' by selecting co - opting leading business and commercial elites into the governance process , the colonial succeed in absorbing conflicts of interest among people . ' From the example of setting up , the government tried to control the labor union , so they can be autonomous from the pressure of the special interest groups . < fnote > Henry , ' , and Economic Crisis ' , pp.134 < /fnote > Thus , we can see that these countries have the autonomy from the business group or society and can effectively fight against rent - seeking activities and corruption . < heading > HK still has some state intervention</heading > Similar with , had some economy policy which subsidized to certain sector . This economic policy is always related to the welfare or public goods such as welfare public housing , education , and infrastructure , so many people misunderstand that does not have state intervention .The kind of policy is called as socio - economic policy . , and started to welfare public housing to stabilize their economic environment .Due to their small geographical size , both and had the lack of land problem which caused the high land prices . But at the same time , the poverty problem existed in the early economic development . In , the influx of refugees caused that the labor supply was greater than demand , so the unemployment problem worsened in . In , the military withdrawal resulted in high unemployment in . The low income labor is difficult to afford the high land prices . In order to eliminate the possibility of social unrest caused by this kind of poverty problem , these states provided the shared growth policy -- welfare public housing problem . Therefore these states heavily subsidized in the public housing . In , state owned the land which allowed the state to engage in massive welfare expenditure . By , of population lived in public housing in . By , of the population lived in public housing provided by owned by the government . After having this housing policy ( shared growth policy ) , the societies were more stable in these countries . These countries do not have any violent social unrest related to the inequality problem . < fnote > , ' in the Economic Transformation of East Asia ' , ( ) , pp.100 < /fnote><fnote > World Bank , The miracle , ( ) , pp.163 < /fnote > At the same time , the low - cost housing for workers helped to hold down wage demand . This brought the stability in the inflation rate in these countries . Therefore , the housing policy was also a kind of stable economic management . The other kind of state intervention is the public goods such as education and infrastructure . and government increased the education and infrastructure expenditure , when the economy transformed from low skill - industry to high - skill industry . In fact , the transformation is changing rapidly and unpredictably during the developmental period . These countries faced the increasing competition after the rise of other ( especially ) in and . In fact , has the competitive advantage of low labor product cost , so the attractiveness of and 's manufacturing goods decreased in this time . At the same time , Multi - Fiber Agreement imposed by restrict their amount of textile product . So , in order to keep the growth , they started to change to the more high - skill industry such as high - technology But since the transformation of market was so quick , the general publics can not easily response to the change . The general publics can not easily get the enough skills , knowledge and resource to face this new challenge . Therefore , the states can do the market - enhancing strategy by assisting the public ( especially the business ) to face the new challenge . They can increase the education and infrastructure expenditure to help the general publics . The provision of education helped the labor and capitalist get enough skills and resources , and the provision of infrastructure ( such as the building high technology facilities ) helped the capitalists to transform their industries . So when facing the transformation to high tech and knowledge - based economy , both and government increased the expenditure in the education and infrastructure . Starting from , government set up , increased amount of loan to the technical and education , and they built several industrial estates to support industrialization . When facing the similar situation , the did more than that . As mentioned before , they participated in the investment in the high technology industry . < fnote > Howe , ' Growth , Public policy ' , in ( . ) , pp.79 < /fnote > On the other hand , the provision of infrastructure can provide competitive climate for enterprise , since the superb infrastructure can attract the foreign direct investment . For example , in order to encourage the foreign direct investment , the and built the ports , airport , roads , telecommunications and a mass transit system . Apart from socio economic policy , has other kind of intervention which shows that economic policy is flexible to change depending on situation . dollar and stock market is vulnerable from some external event . In , negotiation caused the anxiety in public which sent both dollar and to a crashing dive . In order to remedy this market failure , the government intervened in the stock and money markets by linking dollar to dollar . This has since brought the stability to the economy , especially in the protecting economy against the effect of in . When facing the speculator attack in financial crisis in , government also intervened by using its foreign reserve to defends against the attack . After financial crisis , faced a long economic recession period . In order to recover the economy , the government used the public fund to build . < fnote > Peter Ferdinand , ' and the currency board system - A model for a globalizing World ? ' , in , , & ( eds . ) , in Transition : country , systems , ( ; : , ) , pp.62 < /fnote > Since the government strongly believed in ' positive non intervention ' , they tried to limit the state intervention . But when their economy encountered some problem caused by market failure ( such as the quick industrial transformation or the speculator attack ) , they tended to do the market - enhancing strategy . And their policy was also flexible to change to more intervention < heading > Singapore is open and market - oriented policy < /heading > Many people think that the state intervention is equal to protectionist . Since the high state intervention will give the state more chance to control the number of foreign capital in order to protect its local capital . And many people think that the state interventions lose the economic freedom in the state . Since when the state intervene in the market , they try to control the activities of the certain industry for the sake of following its economic plan . But these conclusions are not true for the 's situation . For the question , it can be explained by 's desire . Since is small in geographical size which is lack of resources , they have to rely on the foreign capital to build up its economy . And its small size also cause that the agricultural sector is not influential to resist the transformation . So , does not have incentive to resist the foreign capital , Rather , they do more in those areas where markets can not be relied upon to encourage the engagement of foreign capital in their development , they carry out the market- friendly strategy which are openness to international trade and foreign direct investment . There is no tariff ( except food commodities ) in the . To encourage the foreign direct investment , they gave some fiscal incentives such as tax holidays and accelerated depreciation allowance , ready - to - move into factory sites and a range of development expenditure including training and education effectively acted as subsidies to foreign direct investment . On the other hand , HK also do the similar kind of things to attract foreign capital . For the question , the result of index of Economic freedom carried out by can show the answer . kept to be in place from to 2006 ( is in st place ) in this index . The foundation defined Economic freedom as ' the absence of government coercion or constraint on the production , distribution , or consumption of goods and services beyond the extent necessary for citizens to protect and maintain liberty itself . In other words , people are free to work , produce , consume , and invest in the ways they feel are most productive . ' The index found that is less in coercion or constraint on the economic activities . Because has ' good commercial law and the efficient way police handle nonpolitical crimes '   < fnote , Index of Economic Freedom 2006 ,   URL   Assessed on 09/02/2006 < /fnote > Therefore , from the 's experience , its legal system is essential can constrain the state intervention . The state intervention is not a great problem , the most important thing is the effective and fair legal system provided by government . And on the other hand , can adjust their degree of intervention , if they think that it caused some problem to its economy . In , faced the ' problem of over - regulation , high company tax rate , rising statutory charges , and a high contribution rate ' . So the government has adopted some policies to ' reduce its direct involvement in the economy and has switched to a new emphasis of managing the economy through partnerships with business and labor . ' ' The enterprise started to privatize rapidly in , and the number of contribution of state - owned enterprise to GDP reduced to in . "" After this adjustment , the economy of rebounded in . < fnote > Newman , ' Government Intervention in the economy : a comparative analysis of and , pp . < /fnote><fnote > W.G .. , ' , and 's since ' , , , ( ) , < /fnote > 's economy policy can be described as ' planning market - oriented interventionism ' . According to , the planning in never involved in detailed blueprints , because of priority accorded to reaction to the international market , impossibility of predicting its course and need for flexibility to ensure a quick and competitive response . To conclude , since started the state intervention at the early development , they tended to remedy the problem of state intervention , and make the intervention more market - oriented . And they will reduce the state intervention flexibly , if they think that the excessive state intervention is the root of economic recession . < fnote > Ibid . pp . 1433 < /fnote><heading > Conclusion</heading > The theories of developmental state ( including embedded autonomy , and shared growth , market - friendly and flexible policy ) are relevant to explain the successful stories in and . The embedded autonomy in HK and can explain that these states can prevent rent - seeking activities . The theories of shared growth , market - friendly and flexible policy can explain that government intervened in the housing and stock market under the faith in "" positive non - intervention "" . And the theories of market - friendly and flexible policy can describe that government reduced the state intervention under its faith in the government involvement . But the theories still have some problem . Some of the components in the market friendly strategy ( including ensure adequate investment in people , provision of a competitive climate for enterprise and openness of international trade and stable macroeconomic management ) are too vague . The stable macroeconomic management is a way of the provision of a competitive for enterprise . In fact , the provision of a competitive climate for enterprise can be interpreted in many ways . Although the market friendly strategy fairly explains the HK and , it ca n't explain which is still not openness of international trade . If the study is expanded into countries , the theories will get the same problem with the neo - classical or statist view which ca n't reflect the reality . But , overall , the theories are relevance to and 's situation . Different countries have different historical background . According to Path dependency theory , outcome of a process depends on its past history .So it is difficult to greatly change and in the faith in less intervention and government involvement respectively because of their historical background . But their economies are still successful , since the degree of intervention is not a key factor to affect the economy . The more important thing is how the state intervenes . From the experience , the government intervened in market oriented way . And then they adjusted and reduced the government intervention according to the situation . The other developing countries which wanted to follow the model of or should consider their background . When they follow a certain degree of intervention , they should be flexible to adjust it . To conclude , the successful stories in are worthy studying . But when other countries want to copy from them , they should consider their own situation .",0
"In Aldous wrote ' Brave New World ' . His dystopia existed into the future . In his world culture and art no longer existed . Truth had been sacrificed for technological progress . Society existed only to perpetuate the status quo , controlled by sophisticated methods of science and censorship . Around the same time , were formulating their ideas that our world was not so dissimilar to 's nightmarish creation . The founding authors of were , Theodor Adorno , and . This essay will explore their thoughts and theories on the ' culture industry ' ; a concept worked out by Horkheimer and Adorno in . The ' culture industry ' is the culmination of a number of ontological ideas running throughout thought . A brief genealogy of the is a prudent place to begin , from this , the concepts essential to their ideas will be examined . Their arguments are those of ' totality ' , technological domination , and to a certain degree a functionalist critique of societal mechanisms that reproduce and create social control . The ' culture industry ' is the capitalist method of securing stability for its world system , through the domination of the way in which people use their ' free time ' the industry has removed people 's true choices and obscured their ' real ' needs . The commodification of culture has meant that it has not only become a marketable good but one that re - enforces the economic bas of society . The question is ; can art be separate to this industry ? The domination of the economic system leads the critical theorists to a bleak outlook of the world . This view , though intuitively reasonable , is not wholly accurate in the real world . Art can be produced outside of the ' culture industry ' , but can and often is engulfed by it . Nevertheless even in the total repression that apparently exists , artists still strive to be outside the framework of mass culture , and this must be a source of optimism and possible change that should not be ignored . The school was set up in . It founders tended to be upper - middle class , left wing , - Jewish intellectuals ( Stinati:1995:53 ) . The 's rise to power in forced the school to relocate to , though it returned to after the end of . This profoundly influenced the work of the school . They witnessed both the totalitarianism in as well as the consumer culture in the . They saw the desecration and deformation of art under the authoritarian 's , in juxtaposition to the mass individuality and consumption under liberal democracy . "" It Seemed the possibility of radical social change and been smashed between the twin cudgels of concentration camps and television for the masses "" ( Craib:1992:209 ) Throughout the critical theorists work is an implicit attempt to reconcile the failure of Marxism to explain the prevailing social conditions in the western world . Since the collapse of communism , post , this reconciliation seems even more potent . Although , as notes , the golden past that the is often looking back to is a period of early capitalism , "" which is seen as a time of real individualism to be contrasted with the modern denial of the individual . "" ( Craib:1992:215 ) Where they differ from most obviously is their disinterest in economic and structural problems . But the language used is that of and their central themes come from and thought . Horkheimer offers us a useful outline of the nature of critical theory that should be "" distrustful of the rules of conduct with which a society presently constituted provides each of its members "" ( Horkheimer:1976:218 ) . He goes on to write that ' social totality ' is fundamental to modern life , and according to Adorno actively wanted ( Adorno:1991:89 ) , but at the same time loathed . "" This is the sided character of social totality ... men identify themselves with this totality and conceive it as will and reason ... [ At the same time ] because cultural forms are supported by war and oppression are not the creations of a unified self - conscious will . That the world is not their own but the world of capital . "" The theory of totality is key to broad thought but completely essential to the conception of the ' culture industry ' . Lukacs states that the concept of totality is most important concept of theory . Capitalism a totalising system , it intrinsically is geared to expand and dominate . For this reason capitalism has allowed us to gain knowledge of society as a whole . Life and society can not so easily be split up into convenient academic departments . Economy and culture are not separate entities in society , and it is the dialectic relationship between culture and industry that is so interesting for Adorno et al . The relationship between industry and culture is not an equal one . The market forces that drive capitalism have created cultural commodity fetishism . Coupled with this the market seeks to reinforce its own existence through the provision of culture for , not from , the masses . "" Commodity fetishism is a process by which men conceive of their social relations as if they were natural things ... they [ men ] have no social relationships except in the act of exchange of objects . These objects come to stand for the social relationships . "" ( Abercrombie:1988:43 ) People 's beliefs about the products they purchase , and sell , come to mask the true social relations between them . This is the fetishism of the commodity . The implications for the ' culture industry ' are that the nature of culture is being not only hidden , but corrupted by this fetishism . Because culture can simply be purchased , in the form of buying art and attending the opera , it ceases to exist as simply culture ; it has become a commodity . Commodities are alienating , "" Money is the absolutely alienable commodity , because it is all other commodities divested of their shape , the product of universal alienation . "" ( Marx:1994:252 ) Adorno went as far to say that "" the real secret of success ... is the mere reflection of what ones pays in the market for the product . The consumer is really worshipping the money that he himself has paid for concert "" ( Adorno:1991:24 ) Money corrupts the relationship between the artist and the viewer . In doing so the nature of culture , in the context that the critical theorists examine culture , is distorted from one that is inherently challenging to society ; to one that is complicit with society . The value of art should be its use value , not its exchange value , in accepting the art to be synonymous with its price we lose the real value ; the potential to inspire and provoke ; the chance for culture to be freedom as hoped . This is not an accident ; again the critical theorists are intuitively correct in their view of mass media , albeit a miserable one . calls this both ' technological domination ' and ' repressive desubliminiation ' . Monopolies and large scale state intervention have reduced people 's freedoms : extending their control in ever more secretly manifested ways as well as being exacted more efficiently and more successfully than ever before . A combination of authoritarianism and capitalism was present in the ' brave new world ' post . The blossoming of a more complete Fordism diminished the prospect of any working class revolt . This effected culture profoundly , high art and low art seemed to be amalgamating and not for the better . ' Culture ' was being eroded by "" repressive desubliminiation "" that "" manifests itself in all the manifold ways of fun , relaxation and togetherness which practise the destruction of privacy , the contempt of form , the inability to tolerate silence , the proud exhibition of crudeness and brutality "" ( Marcuse:1995:203 ) Society is becoming merely ' dimension ' , allowing the economic base , and its institutions , to assert more control over social relationships . It is naïve to presume that critical theorists are entertaining that some kind of illumnati control the globe , but rather that as a society we have succumbed to certain values that generate and regenerate ' desubliminiation ' and reduce true freedom . Technological progress governs our lives ; the celebration of humanism and romance are seen as backward in an age of science and ' reason ' ( Marcuse:1964:58 ) . Technology and more astutely ; its misapplication , is a derogatory force against a wealthy and rich culture . Technological domination owes much to what post - structuralists , as well as , have called ' instrumental reason ' . "" Instrumental reason , then , is concerned solely with practical ends ... instrumental reason separates fact and value : it is concerned with discovering how to do things , not what should be done "" ( ) sees that the needs of society have curtailed and replaced the needs of the individual . Adorno postulates a similar idea in his chapter on ' Free time ' ( Adorno:1991 : chapter . The premise of both their arguments is that sexual energies , as well as other ' life - energy ' or ' libidos ' , are harnessed by the system to endorse its values or transferred to more productive outputs . Adorno sees ' free time ' and hobbies as essentially a means to supporting the structure of the work environment . The very idea of hobbies , to Adorno , is depressing : we create ourselves through our work ; hobbies are something we attach to ourselves rather than allowing them to become part of our self identity ( Adorno:1991:163 ) . This functionalist conception of ' free time ' can be transposed to the ' culture industry ' . Culture 's function is to offer some light relief from the toil of work , yet which also sanctions the current structures and institutions in existence . Having broadly discussed the core concepts that run through critical theory ; the ' culture industry ' can be explored in depth . "" [ T]he expression ' industry ' is not to be taken too literally . It refers to the standardization of the thing itself ... It is industrial in the sociological sense , in the incorporation of industrial forms of organization even when nothing is manufactured "" ( Adorno:1991:87 ) . In this sense technological progress has led to the rational , inescapable domination of the science over the arts . has been fundamentally altered by alienating commodities and relationships , creating an neutered and barren society : the masses need a new ' opium ' to continue such a dreary life . "" [ T]he culture industry reflects the consolidation of commodity fetishism , the domination of exchange value and the ascendancy of state monopoly capitalism "" ( Strinati:1995:61 ) Conformity has replaced consciousness , and new forms of ' culture ' reflect this fact . The ' western ' for Adorno , and the contemporary ' horror ' film genre epitomize the bastardized version of predictable , consumable and addictive anti - culture . Listeners , and viewers "" are distracted from the demands of reality by entertainment which does not demand their attention either . "" ( Adorno:1991:310 ) . The fine line that the modern culture industry must walk is between elevation from boredom , yet not so much as to confuse an essentially passive audience . Audiences accept this deception , and are apparently aware of it . Soap operas are undeniably dire , yet over people watch episodes religiously . People are aware of bad they are , and how wasted the time spent staring at them is , but watch avidly nonetheless . To admit they truly worthless , would mean that "" their lives would be completely intolerable as soon as they no longer clung to satisfactions which are none at all . "" ( Adorno:1991:89 ) The ' culture industry ' does not only create a regressive audience , which by its nature is less challenging to the authorities and less aware of itself as a class . It is actively working as a form of propaganda for the existing framework of society . "" The concoctions of the culture industry are neither guides for a blissful life , nor a new art of moral responsibility , but rather exhortations to toe the line , behind which stand the most powerful interests . The consensus which it propagates strengthens blind , opaque authority "" ( Adorno:1991:89 ) Once again , we can substantially back this up by venturing into the world of . Disney films are the most sinister of these . These films instil the values that will be of use to society from , and say far more about the society in which they are created than any kind of fantasy world . "" The vamp , the national hero , the beatnik , the neurotic housewife , the gangster , the star , the charismatic tycoon perform a function very different to that of their cultural predecessors . They are no longer images of another way of life but rather freaks or types of the same life , serving as affirmation rather than negation of the established order "" ( Marcuse:1964:60 ) These messages could be harmless , but modern society is a bombardment of media messages , telling us how to behave and what to buy . This leads to the face of the culture industry , and perhaps its more obvious : the creation of ' false needs ' . The society we live in is irrational according to , increased productivity is destroying the free development of human needs ( Marcuse:1964:9 ) We are incapable of making any real choices in our lives . We may be able to choose between buying different brands of washing up liquid , even choose between buying different styles of music . But these are essentially false choices , as the goods are only pseudo - individualistic , rather relying on a core that is the same throughout , with some peripheral differences . Adorno is extremely critical of popular music , owned by mass corporations and churned out for the masses . The current state of popular music has become synonymous with manufactured bands and powerful record labels . The image and package of popstars is most important rather than focus on their music as it is so similar it is not a selling point . This is the pseudo individualism that Adorno , and anyone interested in art and music must despise . Art is the case of pop music is created not for the sake of itself or its message but rather on its potential market success . Although Adorno is elitist , as he almost advocates that culture is only for those than can be critical . He is also over critical of the methods of producing music : using the same loops and hooks and musical tricks , tricks have been used since the invention of music , rather than some inferior state of music that has recently been created . But his overall point still stands : culture has become , under production and consumption principles , poorer and ceases to fulfil its original function . We can no longer make any real choices as even outlets and sources for our critical nature have been recruited to the totality of neo - leviathan state system . The situation looks bleak . But there is hope , and art can still be created with a critical edge . The nature of sub - culture is to fight against the establishment . Sub - cultures have always created the cutting edge of our art and music . In and the generation of protest clearly showed that not everyone had bought into the system whole heartedly . was the cultural pinnacle of a socio - political movement . His music did not represent anything that would be helpful to the prevailing social order . plays are blatantly against the system , and he , as an author suffered for his integrity . The punk movement during , the sexual revolution of , anti - protests , and most recently , though barely comparable the protests against the war in all show a sub - cultures that were critical . These movements have unquestionably changed the outlook of society , but often only to build aesthetically different societies and no more . The more recent skate punk lifestyle , fuelled by rich middle class white teenagers is the epoch of the ' culture industry ' . is marketed on , is taught in secondary school , has become a TV presenter , the women of the sexual revolution all got married and had children . The power of the ' culture industry ' is to adapt itself to market conditions , and exploit and commodity all art and culture . "" Choose leisurewear and matching luggage . Choose a piece suite on hire purchase in a range of fucking fabrics . Choose and wondering who the fuck you are on a . Choose sitting on that couch watching mind - numbing spirit crushing game shows , stuffing fucking junk food into your mouth "" ( Welsh:1997 ) For all the ' false needs ' we can fulfil , and can dream of fulfilling , we will never be satisfied ; we still wo n't understand who we are , and we never will until we become our ' species being ' . This a reassuring thought , and offers hope for the emancipation that wrote of .","For , modern life was an eternal clash between the soul and society , and in order to study this he created a unique style of sociology ; one dedicated to the unending dialectic of human existence ( Etzkorn:1964:2 ) . In this dialectic the individual life spirit is always in danger of being trapped and suffocated by rules and forms that it has created , forms that now confront and constrain this spirit . Whether Simmel ever intended to create a strict theory of modernity is unclear , even in which is regarded by many , included , as his definitive work , the idea of modernity is implicit , but never truly the focus of his work . is wants to examine contemporary contents of science and emotion ( Simmel:1907:57 ) . Simmel talks of modern culture , the metropolis , and modern tendencies offering us glimpses of what the essence of modernity might be . is often described as an artist and a musician , rather than a mathematician or a scientist , and more than other sociologists we have to be immerse ourselves in the flux of life , and in the style of his sociology in order to emerge with answers . 's essayism presents us with ' fragments of modernity ' , ' sociological snapshots ' from which some binding force needs to be searched for . is < quote>""always speaking about the ultimate problems of life , but in a tone which implies that he is only discussing pictures and books , only the inessential and pretty ornaments of real life ... Thus , each essay appears to be removed as far as possible from life , and the distance between them seems the greater , the more burningly and painfully we sense the actual closeness of the true essence of both . "" ( Lukacs:1981:104).</quote > The essence of modernity is captured by for the very reason that he never attempts define it , he never tries to paint it accurately , but chooses to give us an impression , paradoxically these blurry brush - strokes seem to show us a heightened sense of reality . In attempting to construct features of 's modernity we may be unfaithful to his own methodology , but we may also be able to depict new patterns and interconnections that allow us to return the flux with a greater understanding and appreciation of . There are persistent themes in which relate to the modern experience ; proximity and distance , totality and fragmentation , inner freedom and outer obligation , the money economy and division of labour , all of which are different interpretations of the dominant theme of objective versus subjective culture , of form versus content . It is perhaps easiest to begin with the ' big problem ' of objective and subjective culture and of form and content , and from this original dialectic we can examine how this paradigm affects modernity . < quote>""Whenever life progresses beyond that of the animal level to that of the spirit , and spirit progresses to the level of culture , and internal contradiction appears . The whole history of culture is the working out of this contradiction . "" ( Simmel:1921:11)</quote > Culture for is present wherever life and the contents of life ( impulses , drives , hopes ) have created forms to express and realize themselves , but these forms does not share the ' restless rhythm of life ' and thus act back upon the individual ; "" this new rigidity inevitably places them at a distance from the spiritual dynamic which created them and which makes them independent "" ( Simmel:1921:11 ) . Life needs , yet reacts against form , as a river needs yet erodes its banks , "" life as such is formless , yet incessantly generates forms for itself "" ( Simmel:1921:12 ) . No sooner has a form been created then the process of dismantling it and renewing it begins . This is the eternal struggle , that all societies pre - modern and modern must ' work out ' , of the subjective will against the objective world . But in modernity this struggle has essentially changed , in this new phase we are witnessing "" the struggle of life against form as such "" ( Simmel:1921:12 ) . The culture of modernity seeks to express itself in the restlessness and formlessness of life , modern individuals "" are moved at once by a will to change - to transform both themselves and their world - and by a terror of disorientation and disintegration , of life falling apart . They all know the thrill and the dread of a world in which ' all that is solid melts into air' . ""(Berman:1983:15 ) . This ' cultural epoch ' that views all types of form as exhausted will , by necessity , have to create its own forms , and thus destroy its own ends , this for represents the ' tragedy of culture ' ( Simmel:1911:43 ) . It is difficult to reconcile 's notion of the deconstructive nature of modern culture with the increased objectification and permeation of the money economy into almost all relationships that too perceives in modernity . This antagonism within modernity ceases to be uniquely modern , and rather a feature of all societies , despite 's claim , that , regardless of the limited possibilities of life , the momentum of the idea of modern culture against form does not diminish ( Simmel:1921:26 ) . The solution to this problem may be found in his essay on . Modernity , unlike other epochs , is concerned at a fundamental level with the form and content dialectic , this dialectic becomes the everyday experience of humanity . < quote>""The deepest problems of modern life flow from the attempt of the individual to maintain the independence and individuality of his existence against the sovereign powers of society , against the weight of the historical heritage and external culture and the technique of life . "" ( Simmel:1903:324)</quote > The pressures of society are exaggerated under modernity due to the intensification in stimuli to which the individual must deal with . Under these conditions people have developed certain characteristics that are distinctly modern . These characteristics can not stand alone , but are only part ; a fragment of the ' total personality ' , and the total modern experience . This interconnectedness is vital for understanding 's vision of modernity , simply to write a shopping list of features of modernity can only fail to grasp its flux and interwoven dependence ; "" the most banal externalities are , in the last analysis , bound up with the final decisions concerning the meaning and the style of life . "" ( Simmel:1903:328 ) . The metropolis is an obvious symbol of the modern world , but it is the consequences of living in the city that create the essence of modernity . The individual in the city must adapt a blasé attitude toward life , "" life makes blasé because it stimulates the nerves to their utmost reactivity until they finally can no longer produce any reaction at all . ""(Simmel:1903:329 ) . Modernity requires this indifference , distinction between events and objects leads to mental distraction . Were we to focus on the details of modern life we would become Man without qualities ' , simply unable to function under the burden of the energy required to comprehend life . < quote>""The mental attitude of the people of the metropolis to on another may be designated formally as of reserve . If the unceasing external contact of numbers of persons in the city should be met with the same number of inner reactions as in the small town ... one would be completely atomized internally and would fall into an unthinkable mental condition "" ( Simmel:1903:331)</quote > This leads to the emergence of a cold , unemotional , unattached world , one in which there seems to be no common humanity , no compassion any longer . It is interesting that should choose the word reserve , in this case it means much more than diffidence . What are we reserving , what are we saving for ourselves , what are we keeping from the metropolis ? is constantly dealing with worlds , the inner and the outer world , by maintaining an attitude of indifference to the outside world , we can foster inner freedom ; depersonalisation allows for increased individuality . This inner freedom is experienced most obviously in the dense crowds of the metropolis , where "" bodily closeness and lack of space make intellectual distance really perceivable for the time . "" ( Simmel:1903:334 ) . It is not only the sheer size of cities , the numerical impossibility of knowing everyone , that has developed this peculiar attitude . The nature of the money , and the money economy requires a calculating rationalising mind , one that can reduce qualitative values to quantitative terms . < quote>""Punctuality , calculability , and exactness , which are required by the complications and the extensiveness of metropolitan life are not only most intimately connected with the capitalistic and intellectualistic character but also colour the content of life and are conducive to the exclusion of those irrational , instinctive , sovereign human traits and impulses which originally seek to determine the form of life from within instead of receiving it from the outside in a general schematically precise form "" ( Simmel:1903:329)</quote > Objective culture seems to dominate modernity more than any other epoch , yet has also asserted that modernity is more actively against this objectivity than any other period . Individual freedom seems superficial and hollow when compared to the power of markets and money flows . Far from creating a spiritually aware world , money creates a calculating one , the ability to handle qualitative differences of a subjective world seems to be lost ; modernity can only measure in monetary units . The use of money also necessarily increases the means - to - ends rationality within the psychology of modern individuals ( Simmel:1997:252 ) , all possibilities are determined by means of the universal and objective value of money . The domination of money creates an atmosphere where personal interaction is not needed , money allows individuals to invest minimum energy and maintain their social distance from those who from time to time they must necessarily come into contact with . Money is < quote>""equally useful to everyone , so within money transactions all persons are of equal value , not because all but because none is valuable except money "" ( Simmel:1907:432)</quote > For , the positive consequences of this negative trait of ' lack of character ' are the ease in which money allows us to deal with one another . We can , without knowledge of others involved in and interaction , expect and predict responses with regard to money transactions ; allowing the personality to remain uncontaminated by the economic activity . This indifference created by money , and the unimportance of personal traits and individual qualities , is according to , a "" democratic levelling social form that excludes specific individual relationships . "" ( Simmel:1907:443 ) , money not only unites societies via the means of transactions , but it also allows inner unity and sanctity as diverse personalities can all be guaranteed equal treatment . It is this depersonalisation of interaction , the referral to objective rules and standards , also found in 's concept of legal - rational domination , that bureaucracies require to function properly . The room for individual judgement and personality is significantly reduced , again having an equalising affect . The dominance of objectivity is vital to modern societies , not only because there are endless possibilities in a social milieu so large , but because ideas of individual freedom rely upon universal rules . In 's discussion of the division of labour , he states that this is one of the most important concepts that allow the divergence of subjective and objective culture ( Simmmel:1907:453 ) . Modernity is propelled by an increasingly complex division of labour that , although typified by man increasingly converging in ever more densely populated areas , thus vastly increasing the potential for interaction , is epitomized by society 's composite individuals pursuing increasingly individuated existences , unaware of those around them . Spatial unity seems to come at the price of spiritual fragmentation . This alienation and lack of solidarity certainly echoes of 's essay on , as well as sections of Capital . The idea of alienation from not only the product of labour , but also from fellow workers is well suited to 's modernity . statement that "" Money is the absolutely alienable commodity , because it is all other commodities divested of their shape , the product of universal alienation "" ( Marx:1994:252 ) , is precisely why money allows intellectual distance in transactions . It is precisely because we do not have to ' cope ' with the identity of the producer that money enables the functioning of modern society . The division of labour is paramount in modernity , within it we once more find the dualism of the subjective opposed to the objective . Prior to the division of labour workers invested themselves in the product , uses the example of a work of art to show how this method of subjective production affects the individual , this again is similar to . < quote>""This autonomy of the work of art , however , signifies that it expresses a subjective spiritual unity . The work of art requires person , but it requires him totally , right down to his innermost core . "" ( Simmel:1907:455)</quote > Whereas subjective work unites the spirit , objectified labour fragments . The division of labour is detrimental to the ' total personality ' , as it requires the focus of mental energy on fragments that lead to the neglect of the whole ( ) . < quote>""The fact that labour now shares the same character , mode of valuation and fate with all other commodities signifies that work has become something objectively separate from the worker , something he not only no longer is , but also no longer has . "" ( Simmel:1907:456)</quote > Not only is the worker alienated from his own labour , but similarly the consumer is also alienated from the product . The product is external to both producer and consumer for the very reason it is not made for , or by anyone . But without objective production there could not be a mass of goods , broadening consumption needs , and is dependent on , the increase of objective culture : impersonal and objective goods are of more use to more people . This anonymity is also a feature of modernity ; "" never feels as lonely and as deserted as in this metropolitan crush of persons "" ( Simmel:1903:334 ) . For all the mental freedom there is something inherently sad about being alone in the midst of people , not only because of the fact of loneliness , but also for the fact of valuelessness . But again money has a unifying feature ; that despite all being more separate in this crowd we are reliant upon this anonymous mass . Money makes all us dependent on others , but at the same time we are more independent of any particular other . < quote>""It is precisely these types of relationship which must produce strong individualism , for what alienates people from one another and forces each to rely upon himself is not isolation from others . Rather , it is the anonymity of others and the indifference to their individuality , a relationship to them without any regard to who it is in any particular instance ... the money economy makes possible a cleaner separation between the objective economic activity of a person an his actual ego , which now completely retreats from those external relationships and in a way can concentrate more than ever on it inmost strata . "" ( Simmel:1997:247)</quote > The money economy supports both tendencies of modernity , tendencies that run in apparently opposite directions ; towards both the independence and autonomy of individuals and conversely toward larger and larger depersonalised and remote spaces . Modernity for Simmel is full of internal contradictions , and he expresses these in such a way that opposites were to be found not only in close proximity to one another , but also within one another . The modern experience is one of unity and totality but simultaneously fragmentation and diversity , individualism is paramount but the world is simultaneously in which individuals themselves do not matter . Modernity seeks to free itself from the constrictions of form , only to reify these ideals ; modernity is at once one with the eternal flux of life , and yet somehow contrives to stifle this through ever more rigid rules and standardisation . 's modern painter captures this ' fleeting beauty ' , and it is with equal artistic skill that paints his picture of modernity , choosing "" to illuminate with a firework rather than study with a lamp "" ( Schmoller:1981 : vii ) . Simmel offers us momentary glances into the darkness surrounding us , but just as we come to recognise these shapes , they are no sooner gone , only to be illuminated once more from a different angle and in a different light . "" Modernity here has found a dynamic expression : the totality of fragmentary , centrifugal directions of existence and the arbitrariness of individual elements are bought to light . "" ( Koigen:1985:39 ) . Rather than being the disorderly and unsystematic philosopher some view him as , his methodology is actually unified , showing the totality of modern society , "" the inexhaustible multitude of interspersed analogies refer back time and time again to the unifying core conception of the whole work which may be briefly expressed as follows : from any point of the totality one can arrive at any other , each phenomena bears and supports the other , there is nothing absolute that exists unconnected to other phenomena and that possesses a validity in and for itself "" ( Kracauer:1981:7 ) . It is for these reasons that is often regarded as the sociologist of modernity . < quote>""The crowd is his element , as the air is that of the birds and water of fishes . His passion and profession are to become flesh with the crowd ... It is an immense joy to set up in the heart of multitude , amid the ebb and flow of movement , in the midst of fugitive and infinite . To be away from home and to feel oneself everywhere at home ; to see the world , to be the centre of the world , and yet to remain hidden from the world - such are few of the slightest pleasures of those independent , passionate , impartial natures . "" ( Baudelaire:1964:9)</quote >",1
"Although once only observed in , mergers and acquisitions ( M&A ) are now occurring throughout the world . Adopted since up to , as a corporate strategy , M&A is continuing to grow in an exponential fashion . The bulk of occurred in the and wave , in the 1980`s and the 1990`s respectively . Despite their popularity and the large amount undertaken among both small and large firms , acquisitions often fail to deliver value to shareholders and do not meet the expected financial rewards and benefits . It is widely known that in fact shareholders of the acquired firm have benefited more than the buyers themselves . The failure to create shareholder value , in the in the and is accounted primarily by managerial hubris and the high premiums paid . In concentrated firms , though it is principally the actions of controlling shareholders that affect the premium size and the outcome of the M&A. Nonetheless other factors should also be considered . The 1980`s merger wave was an attempt to restructure and unite core businesses , in the 1990`s firms intended to gain economies of scale and scope , hence market power , in response to the increasing competitive global markets . Notwithstanding , it was discovered that of acquisitions were successful , that were resold at prices below the acquisition cost and that failed to recover it ( Hitt et al , ) . The failures of when acquiring , and , who lost $ and $ respectively , empirically accentuate the risks involved in M&A. M&A offers an opportunity to acquire the high growth rated assets that reward managers . Yet managers might become too overconfident as for acquisitions to be successful it is essential for them to act with due diligence from the earliest stages of takeover . Prior to acquisition an in depth analysis of the firms compatibility is essential . Unfortunately , it is not only unlikely for acquirers to inadequately analyse and evaluate targets but also for them to poorly select them . The acquiring firm 's lack of knowledge about its target is exemplified in merger of , and , Inc to form CUC . Shortly afterwards , it was discovered that had engaged in fraudulent financial reporting since the 1980`s causing stock prices to plummet . ( Hitt et al , ) . < fnote > Including financial as well as non - financial aspects . < /fnote > In the means of payment have been cash , junk bonds and equity swap / cash respectively . M&A`s financed through risky debt usually involved poorly financially performing firms , which underinvested in the acquired company ( consequently continuing underperformance ) and which had a substantial possibility of defaulting . In contrast , by issuing stock acquiring firms may conserve their cash and borrowing potential for future synergic growth opportunities . Stock deals also favour the acquiree`s shareholders because of their non - taxable nature and because of the positive returns reported through the use of the pooling of interests accounting . Yet cash payment is most common because the acquiree`s shareholders do not have to bare the risk of stock price devaluations ( in stock acquisitions ) if the market considers the purchase price too high . Sharing risks might also suggest that the acquirers are unsure about the future and hence managers may opt for a cash transaction to prevent sending inaccurate signals to the market ( Hitt et al , ) . < fnote > A former accounting convention whereby the acquiring firm does not recognize the goodwill paid through the premiums . Most at were stimulated by the forthcoming elimination of this standard whereby returns on equity could be artificially increased . < /fnote><fnote > In a fixed - share deal the shareholders would receive the same numbers of shares but of less value if the stock price fell , whilst in a fixed - value deal , the shareholders would receive the same value , but the extra stock issued to pay would lower their potential stake . < /fnote > The premiums paid appear higher when there are conflicts between , when a CEO has been positively appraised and is also the chairman of the . Managerial hubris is evident in the proposal to takeover , where the respective refused to negotiate and instead opted to use the press to trade insults , consequently leading to the payment of irrational premiums . The premiums offered by competitive bidders augment in a similar fashion to auctions . Likewise , in hostile takeovers the premiums paid are greater than that of friendly takeovers , because of the upward pressure the reluctance to takeover has on the bid . The tools managers use in defence of hostile takeovers may apparently protect shareholders against unfavourable takeovers whilst genuinely used to ensure their jobs and their perks . In contrast , firms try to avoid takeover by become more firm specific investment . ( Hitt et al , ) . < fnote > Acquiring managers might choose to form conglomerates ( which the 1980´s proved unsuccessful ) to minimise the effect of competitor 's actions and recessions on manager 's performance . < /fnote > Most M&A action in continental involves a transaction from a large shareholder to another large shareholder . These owners are perceived as controlling because they can influence decision making , without bearing the full cost of ownership . A large shareholder may free ride on insider information such as growth opportunities by exploiting them through his / her share and control in another firm . Likewise , the controlling owner might internalise corporate decisions by recommending managers to reduce overcapacity , so that supply falls and prices increase in the industry where he / she possesses stocks . More obvious benefits of control are perks and stock options . An owner with a majority stake in companies , A which is gaining profits and B which is under performing , may oblige A to buy products above market price in order for B to recover until it is breaking even . Consequently the large shareholder pays lower taxes for A , unfortunately this imposes a sub - optimal position for A`s minority shareholders . ( , ) For a controlling shareholder whose firm is a potential target and who may lose say as a result of the acquisition , the value of control will justify the high premiums paid . Likewise occurs in / in targets with high levels of management ownership . The market price is a fair representation of the value of a share ; therefore any amount paid for the target above the bidder 's share price represents an estimate of the private benefits of control the buyer is willing to pay for ( Zingales , ) . Beyond this universal ownership reason , the following differences between countries account for the M&A failures : shareholder rights and degree of protection , accounting standards , enforcement of corporate law and governance . In the / the difference between non - voting and voting shares is minimal , as opposed to countries with concentrated ownership where non - voting shares are worthless but voting shareholders are more powerful . In , managers are not legally committed to act in the shareholder 's interest and may seek to maximise their own utility . ( , ) . In the   Chaebols , due to owner - managers exerting significant control and the weak legal protection for minority shareholders , associate firms may engage in an acquisition that might result in a share price drop , but a share price rise for the rest of the firms in the group . ( Bae et al , cited in , ) . The transfer of price is obvious in the Japanese Keiretsus for example the and , where a subsidiary bank can facilitate its parent larger and cheaper loans . Similarly , if the workforce is quite influential it might receive greater benefits and higher wages ( , ) . < fnote > Reciprocal shareholding and network between associate firms . < /fnote > In the firms situated near the frontier of the , could compete both on quality and cost but as other companies approach the frontier , quality and cost are becoming mutually exclusive . As differentiation between firms diminishes and management emulating techniques such as benchmarking become exhausted , competition takes the form of rival takeover . A successful under these circumstances involves an alignment of both firm 's strategies , which are either cost cutting , or quality emphasis strategies ( Porter , ) . < fnote > Production Possibility Frontier . < /fnote><fnote > The case of and the low cost Go airline company illustrates this point . Go 's objective was to offer low fares and high - quality service . < /fnote > In spite of the aforementioned , the overpayment of targets may be attributable to unintended calculation errors in arriving at a takeover price , rather than a genuine desire for managers to overlook shareholder 's interest and maximise their own utility . The overpayment for targets is visible in the way the distribution of the valuations is skewed to the left . This unsymmetrical distribution curve is due to the error involved in calculating the bid , which is rooted in the asymmetries that exist between the bidder and the target coupled with the former´s belief that his / her valuation is correct ( Roll , cited in Seth et al , 2000 ) . Many risk averse and traditional firms perceive acquisitions as a means of achieving the innovate approach they lack . As the new firm integrates it internalises the acquirer 's attitude towards innovation and is discouraged from advancing , effectively hindering shareholder value . Moreover unexpected coercion from the acquirer may force the best employees to leave resulting in a loss of human capital for the firm . Lastly , the fact investment banks fees world - wide are directly related to premium size , may make analysts recommend unreasonably high premiums ( Hitt et al , ) . In diverse ownership firms it has been managers and their proposed premiums that pose a threat to the shareholders ; alternatively in concentrated firms it has been controlling shareholders and their private benefits of control . Managerial hubris may distort objective analyses of targets and may be the catalyst for the overvalued takeover bids . Likewise the pressure exerted by controlling shareholders has a substantial effect on the premiums paid for acquirees . Nevertheless as has been explored , there are other factors embedded in the differences between countries , that may not be and foremost reason for the failures of the bulk of but should neither be ignored . Exercising an adequate and precise due diligence process , assessing the viability of the post merger integration of the firms , protecting minority shareholders and acting with corporate social responsibility will ensure that shareholder value is added . Hopefully , these criteria will be met in the forthcoming cross border acquisition of by .","Absolute dating is a very misleading term as it puts across the idea that the method used provides a completely accurate date , which is not true as many absolute dating methods depend heavily on assumptions . The methods do , however , provide invaluable data which can produce a more specific sequence of past events than just relative dating alone . The methods contrast with relative dating methods , which use the idea that a context or layer of stratigraphy must predate that which is above it . It is always essential to use as many dating methods as possible to get a better picture of a site and therefore all methods are important to archaeologists . Most of the absolute dating methods are based upon the chemical and physical changes of artefacts by humans and time , such as series dating which uses the radioactive decay of uranium isotopes to date rocks around a possible human inhabited site.(Renfrew & Bahn 2004:149 . ) The basic principles behind dendrochronology have been known for a long time but the method used has only been used and perfected since . The main idea behind dendrochronology is that a growing tree adds a growth ring underneath its bark every year , this can therefore show how old a tree is . When this is compared with trees of older and younger ages from the surrounding area it is possible to get a long chronological sequence ( see diagram . ) However , this method , as of all dating methods , is dependent on assumptions . Dendrochronology assumes that a tree will produce ring , but it is known that during the tree will grow less and possibly not at all , and also that it would be possible to produce rings in areas with less defined seasonality . The method also must assume that the factors affecting the area and its trees in the present time , such as rainfall or soil quality , also affected the area when older trees in the sequence were 1996 ) < figure/>These variations in temperature and environment are also what makes it possible to develop long sequences of data such as the sequence of set up in from the Bristlecone pine ( Grant et al 2001 : . ) If a large enough sample can be collected then it is possible to match the growth of tree to another , as seen in the diagram . This is possible because of the effects of environmental factors on a tree . For instance if there is a higher than average rainfall in the growth ring of the trees in that area will be wider , this will be extenuated in a arid environment such as a scrub land or desert . In a more temperate environment , if there is a cold spell early in the year this can affect growth dramatically causing a ring to be thinner . These variations are matched up to produce a sequence . This can then be used to track back from and date a piece of wood and , therefore , what that piece of wood is part of i.e. house or pathway.(Renfrew & Bahn 2004 : pg138 ) This was seen with the dating of ' Sweet Track ' , an ancient causeway used to link areas of dry land in the levels . It is possible here to show that the causeway was laid in of or , due to the growth rings of the wood used . The wood was driven into waterlogged soil which is why it has survived so long , preserved in anaerobic conditions , and is only part of the system of track ways that cross the levels . Oak , of the woods used on the ' Sweet Track ' , is very good for dating and in the Isles the sequence goes back a long way into prehistory . In the record goes back as far as 5300BC and this has been matched with a sequence from which tracks back to , allowing a usable chronology for the whole of western and central ( Renfrew & Bahn 2004 : pg139 . ) There are , however , many problems with using dendrochronology as a dating method . The method can not be used on all wood that is preserved . A small section of wood such a spear handle or arrow will not have enough rings to date it , you will need of growth rings to date wood which is why it is only normally used on building material . This really limits it to post sites when large structure begin to appear and when preservation is better . This method also only dates when the tree died or was felled not when it was used . It is seen that wood can be kept for a long time and treated to strengthen it before being used for building material . If a piece of wood is left around before use it would lead to overestimation of the age of a building ( Grant et al 2001 : . ) It is also possible that a piece of wood can be reused from a old building or structure and again cause the dates to be overestimated for the newer structure . It is also possible that rings can develop on part of the tree and not others , this is known as ' locally absent ' rings . This means it must be cross dated with other parts of the tree if possible , or dated in a different way . ( . ) < picture/>This occurrence can often cause dating errors especially in early dates from before . Radio carbon - dating is another very popular absolute dating method and although the older the sample the less accurate it can be , it is possible to go back 50,000 years . The principle idea is that carbon exists naturally with isotopes , , 13C and the radioactive All these isotopes work their way through the planet 's food chains and natural systems , and so are evenly spread . This is essential to keep the dating accurate . This store of carbon isotopes is known as the carbon exchange reservoir , and the carbon reacts with oxygen to produce CO2 . From the dating perspective we are interested in 14C and its reaction to . This makes its way into every living thing via absorption in form or another and remains constant in the organic material until death . After death the 14C will begin to decay at a set rate , called a life . it is known that the life is ) , but for dating we use calculation of to be consistent , as he used it during the world war and . This means that every 5568 years half the 14C in a sample of organic material will decay . This is how first obtained dates from samples , by determining how much 14C was left in a sample and therefore determining how much had decayed . This method assumes that 14C levels have remained the same throughout time . They are currently between 14C and normal carbon ( Higham 1999 . ) This assumption has been proved wrong by the use of documented dates and showed radiocarbon dates to be increasingly too young . This shows that a tree growing at that time must have been in a atmosphere with more 14C than is in the atmosphere , against 's main assumption ( : pg17 . ) It was also seen that use of tree ring dating to produce calibration curves against radiocarbon dates has determined that any dates before 1000bc were increasingly young , a radiocarbon date of around 4100bc is more likely to be around 5000bc . Now that uranium series dating has been used to calibrate older dates ( up to 40000BP ) , it has been found that after dates were out . There is now a large range of calibration curves which can be used easily to calibrate a date on site . Radiocarbon dating has been used recently at Stonehenge to gain a better chronology of the uses and phases of the site . It determined that the digging of the outer ditch was cal . These dates were gained from samples taken from antlers deposited at the bottom of the ditch and are also backed up by structural deposits of the ditch . It was then found that the ditch silted up over a time of , these dates came from analysis of deposits found within that fill although they are thought not to have great validity . They have also been used on important artefact such as the Turin Shroud dated , with some accusation , to . This dating example used a new method of which can pick out the number of 14C particles in very small sample , down to mg . This means that a precious artefact , such as the Turin Shroud can be tested without being damaged . This new method now means that single seeds or pollen grains can be tested rather than just large samples , giving individual dates and not dates of a whole layer of material . These method are extremely useful and have helped archaeology immensely . It has been seen that dendrochronology is very reliable and can be extremely useful when made into a chronological sequence such as the bristlecone pines in . This can help date artefacts from varying sites across the state and general area . Radiocarbon dating on the other hand is less reliable , and is only useful if it can be calibrated , often with dendrochronological sequences . However , when it is accurately calibrated it can often provide the archaeologist with a efficient way of dating sites over a wide area , unlike tree ring dating . If a ceramic sample , or grave burial sample(with grave goods ) can be calibrated it would be possible to fit this into other sequences by dating the context . The new use of AMS can also help us to date anything from a large cremation pot to a small speck of wood within a bronze axe.(Fagan : pg126 ) These to dating method may be getting older and less used as more accurate and computer based methods come to the fore but they will always be essential for the archaeologist . Dendrochronology in particular is unprecedented in that it is the best and most accurate way to date a large piece of wood , and the use of sequences can be essential in dating other artefacts and sites . Radiocarbon dating may get even more accurate with the use of AMS and possible newer methods but it will always be useful for more modern sites with charred food materials and related objects . As long as all methods can be cross referenced with others then accuracy can be at its greatest , and where this is n't possible results must be looked at as possible but not definitive .",0
"The nature of the transition between and periods is a major research concern , in particular how rapidly the change in material culture occurs , the mechanisms of change , as well as whether immigrants brought or adopted by indigenous people . "" A Neolithic revolution ? New evidence of diet in the Neolithic "" written by and Mortimer Hedges in are inferred especially the subsistence practice change from maritime to terrestrial based consumption , which is often assumed as shift from wild to domesticated resources at transition . The main argument of this article is to re - assess the work of Tauber , who explained the complete rapid dietary shift at transition with application of stable isotope measurements . This rapid dietary shift assumes that change from exclusive use of wild foods in the to increased use of domesticated resources in the Neolithic . In order to investigate rapidity of dietary shift , Tauber mainly applied stable isotope analysis and used the valuable results of this new chemical analysis of human bones . Stable isotope analysis of human skeletal remains , which is indicated as direct evidence of human diets , compared with archaeological records . In this paper , and represented new stable isotope result to confirm the isotope result of 's previous work . Generally , carbon in consumed diets has been resolved in human bones , therefore measurements of the carbon stable isotope ratio can categorise the main diets of individuals whether marine or terrestrial base . In general , carbon stable isotope data in human bone represents -11 or -12‰ for marine based diets , whereas -20 or -21‰ for terrestrial protein diets . However , stable isotope value is a quantitative measurement , therefore the middle values between marine and terrestrial based diet , as -16‰ , it represent terrestrial and marine based diets . The absence of human remains from sites , due to the rising sea - levels , and used human remains from a variety of coastal and inland sites , moreover human remains are mostly dated by ( ORAU ) , and the radiocarbon date from rest of skeletons are derived from the published values of radiocarbon laboratory . The represented isotope ratio in this article shows clearly all of the individuals dated after have evidence of terrestrial based consumption . This result highly explains a rapid abandonment of marine consumption in the Early and Middle Neolithic . Although this article could not identify the introduction of Neolithic material culture into whether by immigrants or adopted by indigenous people , this article clearly suggests there was a rapid dietary shift from marine resources to terrestrial base consumption at transition in . According to Milneral . ( ) , 's previous work has several limitations , including choice of sample from archaeological contexts , the sample size bias , and results are confined to , and chronologically dispersed . Despite these previous drawbacks , and applied appropriate methodology to re - assess 's work with sampling human remains from various sites within , both interior and coastal sites . Furthermore , and mainly applied for dating human skeletons , as well as published data from radiocarbon laboratory , whereas 's samples were possibly caused radiocarbon years gap due to the absence of applying "" marine reservoir effect "" ( , and ) . The results of and article indicate the complete dietary shift in , because the results of radiocarbon - dated human remains suggest the marine base diets . Moreover , the structure of article is well planned , and also main arguments and isotope results are highlighted clearly . However , it might be preferred that the application of scattergram with valuable isotope results . Furthermore , this article is quoted by the numbers of authors , therefore it is clear this article have been considered as making large contribution to the study of subsistence change at transition . However limitations for isotope measurements are introduced only a small number , there are , in particular , "" preliminary models "" which show that a diet dominated by terrestrial food might include 20 per cent of marine protein without raising the stable isotope values ( and - 195 ) . Moreover , this article has not been supported by the cultural continuity , which tends to be observed from faunal assemblages . In general , faunal assemblage refers to the generalised dietary tendency over long period , whereas stable isotope data refers to the dominant protein intake by an individual during before death ( and - 195 ) . Thus , the term "" stable isotope analysis as a direct evidence of human diet "" which is used in this article , is considered as not suitable expression , because the dietary reconstruction needs to consider with combination of other evidences ( Milneral . ) . Furthermore , this result did not clearly represent subsistence change from hunter - gatherer to agriculturalists at transition , because generally stable isotope analysis can not distinguish between wild and domesticated resources ( 2003:67 - 73 ) . This conclusion attempts to summarise the brief critique of "" ? New evidence of diet in . "" written by and in . According to this critique , a limited representation of isotope analysis drawback could be identified as weakness of this valuable article , especially for people who are studying stable isotope analysis . On the other hand , the important results are represented well , and this isotope results are frequently referred by other isotope studies . Thus it can say the usefulness and values of this article is relatively high . Therefore this article would be playing important role in the study of investigating nature of the transition between and . RICHARDS , , and , . A Neolithic revolution ? New evidence of diet in , Antiquity : - 897 .","< abstract><heading > Summary</heading > The purpose of this laboratory was to analyse data produced from an experiment using . The experiment investigated the lateral and longitudinal forces on road tyres when in the process of cornering . The data obtained included lateral force , longitudinal force , slip angle and slip ratio . The method of the laboratory involved typing simple commands into . The commands were used for a variety of functions , from loading the data to plotting graphs from it . In the laboratory was used to analyse these results and produce suitable visualisation of the data produced . At was commanded to produce graphs using the method of least squares as if with polynomial . This produced an inaccurate graph as the data clearly had a curve and the graph produced had a straight line . This method was refined and a more complicated method was produced . This involved calculating new variables using commands . However this produced a line of best fit which fit well through all the points . Using the data from the experiment was visualised suitably . The data could now be analysed easily . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > An experiment was carried out investigating the lateral force , Fy , and longitudinal force , Fx , acting on a road tyre when it is cornering . The tyre had a translational velocity of v , which had components , longitudinal component vx and lateral component vy . The tyre also had a rotational velocity of . The tyre was subjected to a load , which was i.e. 4900N. The slip angle was given by  FORMULA   The slip ratio was given by .   FORMULA   < picture/>The data obtained for this experiment is in appendix . This data had to be processed so that it would be easier for patterns to be discovered and arguments and conclusions to be formed . This data was processed using . had a range of functions which , allowed for easy manipulation of data . For example can plot points on a graph and draw the line of best fit . The purpose of this laboratory was to use to analyse the data and present the results in a way that was easy to understand . < heading > Theory</heading > The data in was analysed using various forms of regression . In the few exercises the method of least squares was used to find linear lines of best fit . In this method the model y = a + bx , is chosen to be the line of best fit . However once it passes certain points there will a degree of error , since the line of best fit does not follow points individually but follows the overall pattern of the points . The method of least squares chooses estimates for the values a and b , which minimises the sum of the squared error . To find a ' and b ' , the estimates , the following equations are used ,   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   Solving these simultaneous equations gives the values to be used for a and b. The line of best fit can then be plotted . For non - linear regression the model used is y = axb and the data can be converted to a form which fits this model . < heading > Apparatus</heading > The apparatus used to analyse this data was the software package . < heading > Method</heading><heading > Importing the tyre test data into the MATLAB workspace</heading > The test data was imported into the workspace using standard Windows XP functions . The data was contained in files , lateral force data.txt and longitudinal force.txt . This data was loaded in using the commands < quote > > > load ' lateral force data.txt ' > > load ' longitudinal force data.txt . '</quote><heading>1.2 < /heading > The number of significant numbers was changed to short using the command < quote > > > format short</quote><heading>1.3</heading > The data was then called using the commands < quote > > > lateral_force_data > > longitudinal_force_data</quote><heading>2 . Visualising the tyre test < /heading > To produce graphs more easily the data was separated into its individual variables using the commands < quote > > > alpha_m = lateral_force_data(:,1 ) > > Fy_m = lateral_force_data(:,2 ) > > s_m = longitudinal_force_data(:,1 ) > > Fx_m = longitudinal_force_data(:,2)</quote > This assigned the variable alpha_m to column one of lateral force data and assigned to column of lateral force data . The same process was carried out to assign variables and to column one and column of longitudinal force data respectively . The variable names were chosen to correspond to the data forces and angles from figure . < heading>2.2 < /heading > This data was then plotted on labelled graphs with black circles as points using the following commands . < quote > > > plot(alpha_m , , ' ko ' ) > > xlabel('slip angle ( deg ) ' ) > > ylabel('lateral force ( N)')</quote > The command ' ko ' corresponds to the black circles and plot , xlabel and ylabel correspond to the plotting and labelling of the graph . The graph was printed out and can be viewed in appendix under graph . < heading>2.3</heading > The data for the longitudinal data was also plotted and labelled using the standard commands as shown above . The graph for this data can be viewed in appendix under graph . < heading>3 . Modelling the lateral tyre test data</heading><heading>3.1</heading > The pattern produced from the data for lateral force data was linear up to the slip angle of . After this point the pattern was non - linear . The model for the linear pattern was .   FORMULA   where  is the slip angle and C is the cornering stiffness . Cp is a coefficient that allows for a non force at slip angle . < heading>3.2</heading > The coefficients C and Cp can be found using the linear regression . The method of least squares can be applied to the lateral force data to produce C and Cp . To achieve this the following command was typed < quote > > > polyfit(alpha_m(1:3 ) , Fy_m(1:3 ) , ) > > C_alpha = ans(1 ) > > C_p = ans(2)</quote > The command polyfit executes the method of least squares ; the at the end of the command produces a linear model . < heading>3.3</heading > The new values of Fy were calculated and a graph was then produced based on linear model from equation using the standard commands for plotting graphs . The graphs were also labelled using standard commands . < quote > > > alpha = 0:6 > > Fy = C_alpha*alpha + C_p</quote > The command alpha = , assigns values to in increments of to the variable alpha . This allows ranges of data to be loaded quickly into the workspace . < heading>3.4</heading > The graph was edited to see the result of changing a few variables . The variable C was changed to 800N deg -1 and deg -1 . With the variables changed the lines were plotted on the same graph so that they could be compared . The command < quote > > > hold on</quote > allowed plots to be added to a current plot . Typing < quote > > > hold off</quote > changed this setting back to default . The graph can be viewed in appendix under graph . < heading>3.5 < /heading > The model for the non linear pattern was .   FORMULA   the calculation of  can be found in appendix . < heading>3.6</heading > The values for and Fy can be calculated using the following commands . < quote > > > alpha = 0:12 > > nu = ) ) > > mu = min(nu,1).*(2 - min(nu,1 ) ) > > Fy = C_alpha*(360/(2*pi))*tan(alpha*pi/360)).*mu > > plot(alpha_m , , ' ko ' , alpha , Fy)</quote > This produced a line of best fit that was non linear . The graph can be viewed in appendix under graph . < heading>4 . Modelling the longitudinal tyre test data</heading><heading>4.1 < /heading > The pattern produced for the longitudinal force data was linear up to a slip ratio of . After this point the pattern was non linear . The model for the linear pattern was .   FORMULA   where s is the slip ratio and is the longitudinal stiffness . is a coefficient that allows for a non force at slip angle . < heading>4.2</heading > The coefficients Cs and can be found using linear regression . The method of least squares can be applied to the longitudinal force data to produce Cs and . To achieve this the following command was typed < quote > > > polyfit(s_m(1:4 ) , Fx_m(1:4 ) , ) > > C_s = ans ( 1 ) > > C_q = ans ( 2)</quote><heading>4.3</heading > The new values of Fx were calculated and a graph was produced based on the linear model from equation using the standard commands for plotting graphs . The graphs were also labelled using standard commands . < quote > > > s = 0:0.01:0.05 > > Fx = C_s*s + C_q</quote > The command s = 0:0.01:0.05 , assigns the values to in increments of to the variable s. < heading>4.4 < /heading > The graph was then edited to see the result of changing a few variables . The variable Cs was changed to and With the variables changed the lines were plotted on the same graph so that they could be compared . This was done using the command in . The graph can be viewed in appendix under graph . < heading>4.5</heading > The model for the non - linear pattern was .   FORMULA   the calculation of  and  can be found in appendix . < heading>4.6</heading > The values for  ,  and Fx can be calculated using the following commands . < quote > > > s = > > nu = 4900*(1 - s)./(2*C_s*s ) > > mu = min(nu,1).*(2 - min(nu,1 ) ) > > Fx = C_s*(s./(1 - s)).*mu > > plot(s_m , , ' ko ' , s , Fx)</quote > This produced a line of best fit that was non linear . The graph can be viewed in appendix under graph . < heading > Results and Observations</heading><list > The calculated value of Cwas 1005 N deg -1.The calculated value of Cp was N deg -1.The calculated value of Cs was N.The calculated value of was - 14.5 N.</list > The graphs for the data can be viewed in appendix . < heading > Analysis and Discussion</heading > Graph 1 produced a graph for lateral force data . This was plotted with only the points displayed . The graph showed a linear pattern up to angle after which point it was non linear . This meant that when the tyre is cornering after it turns more than the lateral force on the tyre increases in a non linear fashion . Graph 3 highlights the linear part of the data . During this stage as the slip angle increases the lateral forces also increase at the same rate . When the cornering stiffness was increased the gradient of the linear line also increased . When the cornering stiffness decreased the gradient part of the linear line also decreased . This shows that the cornering stiffness is directly related to the gradient of the linear line . But once the slip angle is greater than the cornering stiffness has a different effect . In graph 5 it can be seen that the line follows the points closely . Overall it can be seen from the graph that once the slip angle gets higher than the lateral force does not increase much . It can also be shown that there is a limit to the lateral force on a tyre of around N. If required to find the lateral force at a particular slip angle it can be easily read from the graph . The data is now in a suitable format for analysis and pattern recognition . produced a graph for longitudinal data . This was plotted with only the points displayed . The graph shows a linear pattern up to the slip ratio of after which point it was non linear . Graph 4 highlights the linear part of the data . During this stage as the slip ratio increases the longitudinal force on the tyre also increases at the same rate . When the longitudinal stiffness was increased the gradient of the linear line also increased . When the longitudinal stiffness was decreased the gradient of the liner line also decreased . This shows that the longitudinal stiffness is directly related to the gradient of the linear line . But once the slip ratio is greater than 0.03 the longitudinal stiffness has a different effect . In graph it can be seen that the line closely follows the points . Overall it can be seen from the graph that once the slip ratio becomes higher than the longitudinal force does not increase much . It can also be shown that there is a limit to the longitudinal force on a tyre of about 4500N. If required to find the longitudinal force at a particular slip ratio it can be easily read from the graph . The data is now in a suitable format for analysis and pattern recognition . Using graphs have been produced from the data . These graphs are of high accuracy and use standard methods of regression well . They can be used to find patterns and for any other reasons graphs may be needed . Using was an easy process . However a drawback to using is that you should know how to use all its functions , or at least the functions needed , in order to gain the most from it . < heading > Conclusion</heading > Analysing the data was using was a fairly simple process . The commands were easy to input producing graphs of high standard . uses proven techniques , such as regression , to produce graphs of high accuracy . is a useful tool for data analysis and visualisation .",0
"This essay will discuss various advantages of using qualitative methods . I will explain why I believe that , despite controversy , qualitative methods can be valid and reliable whilst highlighting the care psychologists need to take to use them affectively . I will conclude by explaining how qualitative methods can best be used in psychological research . and * ( ) say scientific research involves experimentation to test a hypothesis . However , whilst in long - established physical sciences such as chemistry , ' the depth of knowledge from past theorising constrains the choice of sensible hypotheses , ' psychology remains a relatively ' new ' science ( Burt & Oaksford * , ) . They argue that qualitative methods are essential when generating hypothesis for research in new fields , which we are interested in but unsure which questions to ask . Without them , we could only resort to an ' armchair technique ' ; reading limited existing literature , then ' sitting around ' waiting for a hypothesis to strike you ( Burt & Oaksford * , ) . As a practical example , et al ( 2005 ) used a grounded approach in a longitudinal study on ' the social mechanisms that encourage and discourage the uptake of smoking ' ( 2005 , p.397 ) in young people . They say discourse analysis of interviews with youth - club attendees , allowed research ' from the perspective of young people themselves ' ( 2005 , p.400 ) . Such research could uncover ideas the researchers would not have discovered in text books . Despite the usefulness of qualitative methods in hypothesis generation they have encountered criticism involving ' reliability ' and ' validity ' and questioning whether qualitative methods could ever pass tests for them . Reliability , put simply , is the extent to which an experiment is stable ' within itself ' ( Flanagan , , p.170 ) and the likelihood of the results being repeated . Validity involves the ' truth ' of the results and whether findings could be generalised to the greater population ( Flanagan , ) . However , Merrick * ( ) points out these concepts have ' traditionally been used to access the quality of quantitative research ' . In my opinion the issue is whether these concepts should be of consideration with regard to qualitative research and if so , how should we define them ? Morgan * ( ) , a biologist , proposes ' a minimum attribute of good science is that it should be based upon observations that can be repeated by other competent scientists . ' However , in Coyle et al 's ( 2004 ) study it is hard to see how or why this could be expected . The participants were informed the study was about ' what men had to say about emotions ' ( 2004 , p.403 ) and the ' interview guide was brief , relatively unstructured and non - specific ' ( 2004 , p.403 ) . Clearly , a natural conversation could not be reproduced . Does this mean the results are not ' reliable ' ? Merrick ( ) takes a post positive position , rejecting defining ' reliability ' regarding qualitative research on the basis of replicability . Instead , she suggests we should consider how ' dependable on ' ( * ) the research is , by considering methods , the researchers ' backgrounds and how these would influence the results . I agree that qualitative methods can be declared ' reliable ' , and therefore useful in psychology , without using the criteria developed for quantitative studies . In my view , the concern of qualitative research is the patterns emerging from the data , which can be looked for in future similar studies , not an exact replication of what they find . Some critics also question whether qualitative research could ever be valid . maintains it is essential ' observers should try to keep personal prejudices out of science ' ( * ) . However in both et al 's ( ) study and Coyle et al 's ( ) study researchers lead discussions and undoubtedly influence responses . This is ' reflexivity ... the ways in which the researcher influences the research ' ( , ) . If we apply here the traditional ways of ensuring the internal validity of quantitative research - minimising extraneous variables so it is certain is what is influencing would be right . However , in qualitative studies validity should not be so simply defined . To illustrate , Hammersly and Atkinson ( , as cited by , ) regard reflexivity as an important aspect of research because ' researchers should set about understanding the effects they will have * . ' In Coyle et al 's ( 2004 ) study they discuss ways they personally could have influenced interpretation ; ' we drew on our familiarity with mainstream and critical social psychology ... our different gender positions also meant that we positioned ourselves differently in relation to the text and the speakers ' ( p.404 ) . I believe as long as researchers give as much relevant information as to how they may have influenced research , and do not try to pass off results as objective truth ' out there ' ( a concept which , , p.488 thinks science should involve ) , the results can still be internally valid . Furthermore , I agree with ( , cited by , ) that reflexivity is a problem in all research , whether quantitative or qualitative - all interpretation of results will depend on who is interpreting them and why . Merick ( * ) says that in qualitative research , ' reliability and validity depend on the relationship between the researcher and research purpose ... ( and ) between the researcher and the interpretive community . ' Therefore psychologists must be aware of these relationships and take these into account , so that qualitative research does not mislead . The last major consideration is external validity - if qualitative results are dependent on context , how could we generalise to the greater population ? ( ) points out that making generalisations is not usually the intent of qualitative research . For example , discourse analysis ' recognises that objectivity is never actually obtainable and that intense scrutiny made of each discourse produces data that is as biased ( or unbiased ) as any other form of research ' ( Flanagan , , p.130 ) . Normally more research would be necessary before any generalisations could be made and psychologists should keep this in mind . Another advantage of using Qualitative methods is when studying groups . For example when studying ' men 's talk about emotions ' ( Coyle et al , 2004 , p.401 ) the ' placing of an individual , in relation to or others ' ( p.402 ) was of interest . In my opinion it would be ridiculous to suggest that a quantitative method such as a questionnaire would be a more ' valid ' or ' reliable ' way to study individuals in groups than discourse analysis . Finally , qualitative research may be of use to psychologists when quantitative methods are not practical or are simply unethical . An example is 's postgraduate research on treating survivors of child sexual abuse ( unpublished , cited by , ) . They point out that to study this quantitatively , they would need unbiased samples of people who were or were not abused and who are now adjusted or maladjusted . Ethically , survivors can only take part voluntarily , and it unlikely many would come forward for laboratory testing . However , most respond well to discussions in a ' nurturing environment ' ( Burt & Oaksford * , ) and good treatment methods have been derived from this source . As and ( ) point out , there is a pressing need for such studies ; society needs answers to psychological questions such as ' how do we best treat survivors of abuse ? ' and ' how can we stop young people starting smoking ? ' right now , and right now qualitative methods appear to be productive methods to reaching answers for them . In conclusion , qualitative methods can best be used by psychologists to generate hypotheses in new areas , study groups , develop treatments , and as an alternative when quantitative tests are not possible . However , if conducting the research psychologists must give detailed information so that the study can be considered in the appropriate context . If reading a qualitative study , psychologists must be careful not to over - generalise . Under these guidelines , qualitative research is very valuable in psychology .",", explained language acquisition by stating that babies learn by listening to the words parents use when pointing to objects around them ( Gopnik et al , ) . Whilst this account might seem intuitive , and does play some role in an infant 's learning ( , , in , ) , it is far from explaining the complicated language acquisition process in its entirety . Gopnik et al ( ) point out that children do not only learn names of objects , but verbs , adjectives and prepositions too . They have to distinguish human speech from other sounds in their environment , break down this continuous sound - stream into separate , meaningful words and understand different voices and pronunciations . Whilst these are hurdles which the most modern computers are nowhere near overcoming , normally developing children are able to conquer understanding and producing grammatical language to an almost adult - like standard by the time they are ( Gopnik et al , ) . This essay will explain how the preferences infants seem to possess innately help them to use the abilities they all have to help them to master their native language in such a short time . Our ability to perceive and attend to language begins even before we are born . A foetus ' inner ears are fully grown at from conception ( , ) and soon are working well enough to hear the sounds conducted through the mother 's abdomen and the amniotic fluid . We know this because unborn babies do not only move in response to loud noises but because they have also become tuned into their mother 's voice , and learned to distinguish it from other women 's , by the time they are born ( , ) . Furthermore , when only a day old , infants can not only already distinguish human voices from other noise in their environment , but preferential sucking tasks show they prefer to listen to voices over anything else ( , , in , ) . This suggests that babies are already programmed to be attentive to language by the time they are born . What is even more fascinating is that newborns have the ability to remember words , as well as the sounds of voices , that they have heard prenatally . ( , in , ) showed this by giving mothers in of pregnancy a story to read aloud frequently . As expected , day - old infants chose to hear a recording of their mother ( whose voice they were familiar with ) reading this story than a stranger . However , given the choice , they preferred to listen to a stranger 's voice reading the familiar story than their mothers reading a different one . This highlights that foetuses can in some way attend to the content of the language they hear as well as how the voice speaking it sounds . Therefore it seems babies are born with a preference to listen and tune into voices and words they have heard , remembered and become familiar with . This early preference to focus attention on speech sounds will be vital for helping the babies to learn about language and later produce it themselves . As well as being able to tune into and remember the language they hear , babies seem to be more sensitive to some speech sounds than adults . This is especially apparent when regarding the differences between phonemes . In , the sounds /r/ and /l/ are pronounced , heard and spelt differently . So if a recording plays sounds where /r/ gradually becomes /l/ , adults will perceive a sudden change from consonant to the other ( Gopnik et al , ): we turn a graded input into distinct categories . Conversely , adults , who do not distinguish between these phonemes in their language , will perceive no sudden change ( et al , ) . Whilst adults seem constrained by their mother tongues , babies who have only been exposed to of , and can discriminate the phonemes of the other languages as well as their own ( Butterworth et al , ) . This initial high sensitivity to many changes in language sounds means humans have the ability and potential to learn any language they are exposed to , regardless of their race or genetic heritage . However , this impressive ability to distinguish so many phonemes soon diminishes . The babies will no longer perceive /r/ and /l/ differently after they are ( , ) when their phoneme recognition ability becomes similar to an adult 's : ' exposure to a particular language has altered their brains ' ( Gopnik et al , , p.104 ) . Gopnik et al ( ) believe this process is caused by babies listening to what we say and constructing prototypes for each phoneme ; ' grouping the sounds they hear into the right categories , the categories their particular language uses ' ( p.108 ) so babies will develop separate /r/ and /l/ prototypes , but the will include both sounds in one . Whilst such narrowing may seem restrictive to a baby 's potential , in fact this eventual ' learning by forgetting ' ( , , in , ) means that they will be able to focus more attention on understanding the phoneme distinctions that matter in their own language . This will help them later to recognise and learn whole words and their meanings . As well having equal potential to learn any language and preferring to listen to human voices over other sounds , babies have already learnt to recognise their own language . babies of this age prefer listening to over ( Butterworth and , ) . They seem to be able to make this distinction by paying close attention to various sound features ; as well as phoneme categories babies recognise the prosodic and rhythmic features of the language they hear . For example , a baby will distinguish more between and recordings than and recordings , presumably because has similar stress patterns to ( , ) and they will prefer to listen to languages with similar rhythms to , in , ) . This awareness of the many distinguishing features language sounds have and the preference they have for listening to their native language sounds will also help infants to concentrate on and begin to understand more aspects of how their language works . Despite the fact that newborns will not begin to produce these speech - sounds they which are so interested in for ( , ) , they show an ability to initiate and maintain some kind communication with adults from much earlier on . Most obviously , from birth they have the ability to cry to communicate distress and in some parents claim they can distinguish a ' hungry ' from a ' tired ' cry ( , ) . From , babies smile in response to their mothers ' voices ( , ) which will presumable encourage her to speak more to them . This will be helpful because the more a baby is spoken to , the faster its language learning will progress ; unlike other knowledge , there is no way of finding out about language other than listening to those who use it ( Gopnik et al , ) . Babies show delight in games that involve turn - taking , such as peekaboo , highlighting the social context in which early language development begins ( , ) that babies seem to be keen to participate in ; for ( , in , ) their ' untimate motive is a deep seated need to communicate ' ( p.129 ) . Making adults see them as social creatures ensures babies are exposed to language which they will be able to listen to and learn from . Of course , for babies to be eventually able to produce language themselves , they will have to be able to reproduce these words they hear . Long before language - like sounds are produced , babies show keenness to imitate adults . ( , in , ) found that newborns will not only copy an experimenter who sticks out his tongue , but will make an obvious effort to find their own tongues ( , , , in , ) . This suggests that babies already regard imitation as a worthwhile pursuit . Furthermore , it is interesting that the tests of imitation with the most significant results involve the organs of articulation , since it is essential that babies master motor skills in this area for them to be able to produce the of different sounds in their future language ( , ) . Once babies are in the ' babbling ' stage , this drive to imitate is applied to language sounds too . , the percentage of infant sounds matched to what the mother had just produced increases from , with pitch being the most frequently replicated feature , followed by duration and rhythm ( , ) . Gopnik et al ( ) tell us that when heard an /ee/ vowel sound for , they responded with a similar cooing ; ' just hearing a grown - up produce the sound motivates babies to try and produce it themselves ' ( p.125 ) . Babies also pay close attention to the visual display played alongside the sound ( , in , ) perhaps to work out how it is made , before testing this out by trying to produce the sound themselves . Such behaviour demonstrates babies ' strong desire to practice the sounds they have learned to make . ( ) identify a stage where this is most obvious , called ' vocal play ' . They tell us it emerges after a change in neuronal networks at , which renders the baby better able to coordinate motor movements with the vocal organs . Infants ' increasing expertise allows them to experiment with different volumes , pitches and tongue positions familiarising them with ' a kind of mouth - to - sound gap ' ( Gopnik et al , ) which they seem to delight in discovering . Such desires to practice using their mouths to produce different kinds of sounds will be a useful route for the babies to perfect their pronunciation of the phonemes making up their future language . The abilities and preferences of infants discussed so far may explain how infants learn individual words as labels , but they do not allow for the of grammatical rules children learn with regard to how to put these words together into sentences and how to give these sentences meaning . I will now explain how grammar would be impossible to learn through imitation alone . The most obvious example to consider is that children in all cultures often make mistakes by over - regularising irregular word forms . ( Gopnik et al , ) . They might use the past tense suffix ' - ed ' to produce words like ' goed ' or ' eated ' or the suffix 's ' to indicate plurality for words where this is not normally used , for example ' sheeps ' or ' foots ' . It is unlikely that the babies would have heard these words from adults , so they can not be produced through imitation alone . These mistakes can not be accidental ; introduced to a made - up word such as ' wug ' will infer the plural form is ' wugs ' ( Gopnik et al , ) . To produce the above mistakes illustrate that infants have grasped the concept that words are divided into morphemes and affixes can alter their meanings . To use these affixes appropriately , they must also understand the concepts of plurality and tense . Therefore these mistakes , although non - standard , are actually intelligent because they illustrate the infant has the ability to apply grammatical rules generally and to novel words , rather than by learning each instance separately . In conclusion , babies seem to be designed to acquire language even before they are born . They have the abilities to tune into human voices , remember familiar words and sounds and encourage adults to communicate and teach them . Furthermore , they seem to desire and actively seek exposure to language and choose to practice what they learn until it is perfected . Once given the cue of exposure to adult speech , and time for some practicing , they are able to grasp the rules of grammar and begin to make their native language their own .",1
"< heading > Introduction</heading > This project aims to identify the trends that have been observed , and the challenges which have been faced in the destinations sector , in the cities sub - sector and in , so as to be able to make considered and justifiable comments on what the immediate future might hold for the city . The timescale examined is to , i.e. prior to my starting the research . were a time of radical social , political and economic change in , and as the seat of government and national and international financial institutions , has been hugely affected . With the process of stabilisation underway , now is both an interesting and appropriate time to study and evaluate tourism in . < heading > Trends and challenges in the destinations sector , city destinations sub - sector and . < /heading > Tourism destinations all around the world had in . While all regions except enjoyed some positive growth ( , ) , the effects of and were still being felt and the downturn in the global economy added to problems . However , there continued to be development of some largely unexploited areas including rural , ecological and event based tourism ( e.g. incentives such as free entry to cultural attractions - on production of a foreign passport - during the in / . ) The developing trend of destinations investing in cultural tourism based on heritage , the arts and multiculturalism also continued . Looking at regional trends more relevant to , according to , in all countries except suffered falls in international tourist arrivals in , caused largely by instability triggered by serious economic crises throughout the region . However , there were signs of recovery towards and into the early part of , with a stabilisation and decline in indices measuring economic instability : < enote > The Emerging Markets Bond Index ( EMBI ) is a widely used index in to illustrate to potential investors the economic health of a nation . Known as the ' Riesgo País ' ( ' Country Risk ' ) in those countries where it is used , the higher the value , the higher the associated risk when investing in that nation , hence the unhealthier the economy . < /enote><figure/>As local economies began to recover ( shown by 's EMBI returning to very near its level and 's settling , albeit at around double the figure ) , destinations began to see the benefits of renewed stability : < figure/>The peak in tourist arrivals in matches perfectly with a period of sustained stability in the economy , and the peak correlates with the high - point of the index . Although this indicates an unstable economy , it follows after the exchange rate of the peso against the dollar peaked at $ , hence making it the cheapest time for foreigners to visit the country . Paradoxically , the start of 's economic instability in matches the low - point in visitors to , due to major factors : Such instability generally raises doubts about travel ( e.g. accessing funds ) ; There was no great fluctuation in exchange rates as in to help attract foreign visitors ; had just become vastly cheaper than before , so likely took a share of 's potential visitors . Therefore , one of the major challenges faced by destinations in was the poor state of the regional economy and the uncertainties which that brought . With the downturn in the global economy , the prospect ( then reality ) of war with , the SARS outbreak , all resulting in less willingness to travel from major tourism generating nations , planning for the future became a real issue for destinations around the world . In , as in other regions , negative media coverage ( such as the scenes of looting and rioting in in , the general strike in , and the initial doubt surrounding the viability of some policies of 's new President ) had to be overcome to prove themselves as safe destinations . < figure/>Cities are increasingly viewed as products , and so image - promotion has become ever more important . Assuring travellers of a destination 's security , especially cities ' , became a major issue over given the ' cautious attitude ' of tourists and their tendency to stay closer to home ( , ) . Aggressive marketing campaigns were launched by many city destinations , often focussed on the domestic market . 's recent project launched on rd and advertisements run in the national press for are just examples among many . < enote > Translation of advertisement : "" within everyone 's reach . "" Promotion : and in hotels of stars ( with breakfast and taxes included ) Total price from ARS$100 per person ( approx . £ ) tariff based on a double room for residents . Offer valid until ( Secretariat of Tourism and Sport ) < /enote > Cities have sought to use tourism as a catalyst for urban regeneration / development ( e.g. , opened ; , ( project constructing shopping , dining and performance areas ) ; expansion of already renovated ( restaurants , bars , ) , plans released ) often using the areas for cultural attractions - museums , theatres , arts centres etc . Such initiatives can help to stimulate interest in a city counter - balancing the many challenges they have faced recently . However , trends in the city of since have gone against those seen elsewhere due to the effects of 's unique crisis . The chaos in the national economy has had major effects : Business tourism to the city has fallen massively since the peso 's devaluation ; has meant that the city , once the most expensive in , is now much more affordable for foreigners . In fact , "" the tourists kept at bay by [ 's ] social unrest have started flooding back ... after a devaluation of the "" ( , ) , evidenced by the huge surge in arrivals to the city in ( arrivals , international - see graph on following page ) , due to a combination of bargain prices and summer holidays in the northern - hemisphere major tourism generating countries . To cope with demand , there was , and continues to be , a flurry of construction of new hotels ( and 5 stars ) , and the number of youth hostels has tripled with bed numbers rising from to and expected to reach in the near future . ( ) . Due to devaluation , became far too expensive for ( hence the cheap breaks offered only to nationals to stimulate domestic travel to the capital ) , but paradoxically dropped from rd to th in a list of the world 's most expensive cities . Accordingly , tourist numbers have risen almost as fast as the peso has fallen ( , ) . The largest increases came from neighbouring countries , particularly , benefiting from the high - quality - low - price shopping which according to ( Buenos Aires Centre for ) , became the primary reason for visits to in . Summer ( ) broke all records as the peso began to stabilise , promotion paid off , confidence was restored and visitors from neighbouring countries continued to enjoy the benefit of favourable exchange rates : < figure/>However , it was not all good news during . Overcoming negative perceptions of became a real challenge after the th rioting and looting shown on news programs around the world , followed by the debacle of Presidents in in . There were genuine security issues to be addressed , leading , for example , to advise against all but essential visits and requesting in the country to register with the . As a report highlighted , "" television is a powerful medium for changing and shaping the perceptions of its viewers "" . Essentially , there was a sense of uncertainty and insecurity which doubtless discouraged many foreigners from visiting , despite attractive exchange rates . Prices in rose as the peso fell in value and nationals suffered banking restrictions imposed by the national Government in an effort to curb spending , a situation known as the ' corralito ' . Those measures were successful , but effectively prevented any but the wealthiest visiting the city . < heading > Analysis of the future for . < /heading > The economic outlook for improved slightly in and with the peso falling to its lowest rate against the dollar since , and with that economic stability came a renewed willingness to travel to by tourists from the major generating countries of and . In response to this opportunity , , Minister of Tourism , declared in that tourism in has been put "" top of the agenda "" in order to aid flow of currency , international investment , employment and recovery from the crisis . Seeing tourism as having a major role in the city , , hoteliers ' associations and the national Government have begun developing a solid strategy integrating tourism with urban planning and economic recuperation . The city 's authorities have been collecting statistical data since and analysing strengths , weaknesses , opportunities and threats in order to develop their tourism industry , and have so far responded well to the challenges they have been presented with . < enote > The Sub - secretariat of was awarded prize in ) section of 2003 , based on its success in . < /enote > Since the disturbances of , the city has concentrated on improving its image overseas , taking part in tourism fairs around the world and focussing on its cultural offering , particularly tango . This sensible strategy and marketing campaign , allied with the support of the national government and the attraction of a high - quality - low - cost long - haul destination for visitors from and and the boom in domestic tourism in , means that the outlook is very positive . The economy continues to settle , investment in the tourism industry remains an attractive prospect for foreign companies already with interests in the city ( evidenced by 's announcement in that it will spend renovating and redesigning its hotel ) , and state funding continues , all of which seems set to lead to a period of steady growth . However , the visitor numbers seen in are unlikely to be sustainable . The opening of the ' corralito ' on nd meant that once again had access to their money and could travel in their forthcoming break , though exchange rates prohibited overseas trips . , therefore , saw more domestic tourism and as the economy stabilised , the period benefited from pent up demand from those overseas who had put off their visit when the crisis was at its height . Such a boom will not likely be repeated . The city 's low prices will continue to attract tourists from and , although the cost of flights to from those areas may prove a negative factor - is cheap , but it remains fairly expensive to get there in the place . Business tourism suffered more than any other kind due to the crisis and does not seems set to recover its levels for some time . It is only leisure based tourism and that is buoyant . Promotional campaigns at home and abroad should help to increase leisure based tourism . The single largest potential problem for the city is the national elections in . is of the frontrunners although he is largely blamed for the crisis due to economic austerity measures implemented during his previous terms as President ( ) . Should he return to office , such is the resentment towards him in certain areas , there is a real chance of social unrest which could again cause the index and the peso to falter , discouraging foreign investment and visitors . politics does have a reputation of being somewhat volatile , something which would not help the tourist industry in the capital . With the current President only heading an interim government and not running for re - election , the comfortable situation which finds itself in now could dramatically change . There is , for example , the chance that the new government might not continue investing in tourism in the city at the levels which have so helped over . In general though , given the increases in tourism seen since , I believe in the short term the low - value peso will continue to fuel rapid growth , and will certainly be the prime recipient of visitors to . In terms of its life cycle as a tourist destination ( , ; cited by , ) , the city is definitely enjoying rejuvenation . Throughout the majority of I expect the number of visitors to the city to be significantly above levels , partially due to domestic tourism but more significantly because visitors from abroad have few security issues to worry about . Summer 2003/04 may see a slight reduction in visitor numbers compared with since the pent up demand for travel to will no longer exist , though will always see an increase in due to the large movement of people domestically and regionally at that time . Barring a repeat of the violent demonstrations of , tourism in in the immediate future should continue to prosper .","There is no doubt that climate changes all over the world and this is not a scenario but the reality . The term ' climate change ' sometimes is referring to all form of climatic inconsistency , but as 's climate is not always the same , the term is best used to pinpoint significant change from climatic condition to another . Although ' climate change ' has become synonymous with ' global warming ' scientists use the term in a wider sense including also natural changes in climate . ( ) Comparing with previous it is easy to infer that climate has changed . In , mean temperature has been increased by with ( ) being the warmest . During , precipitation has also been increased over by ( The project , ) . In the , was warmer than period . As a result and seasons experienced in the especially is a strong evidence of climate change . Finally the global atmospheric CO 2 concentration has been increased by ( ) . ( Review of the Potential Effects of Climate Change in , ) According to scientists the climate will become warmer . It is estimated that by , the temperature in the south east of the country will be warmer than now . By temperatures may increase 0C. Generally south and east will be warmer than north and west . In addition , high temperatures during will become more frequent . By contrast , cold winters will become rare . It is also estimated that winters will become wetter and drier in the . By precipitation will increase by . By contrast , in central and UK will be drier , with less rainfall than now . In addition , sea level will increase in the per decade especially in south and east . ( , ) Climatic factors play an important role in the and have great contribution from year to year production . Changes that may occur , in terms of the intensity and distribution of precipitation combined with changes in CO 2 and temperatures , will have great influence on the horticultural production . ( Review of the Potential Effects of Climate Change in , 1996 ) There is no doubt that CO 2 concentration has been increased and taking into account the fact that plants respond positively to an increase of it , the horticulture will benefit from this change . Increasing the level of C0 2 , the level of photosynthesis increases and the rate of respiration decrease , resulting in greater productivity by crops especially plants such as vegetables . ( DEFRA , ) For example , although temperatures have little impact on lettuce yield , it has been found that an increase in C0 from ppm to ppm enhances weight and as a result yield by ( . , ) . In cauliflower the increase of has also a beneficial effect . Higher concentrations of C0 lead to an increase in total biomass and curd weight , which undoubtedly improves quality of the product ( . , ) . In onions it has been found that crop dry weight was increased by as a result of enrichment . In addition , onion yield was increased due to higher level of C0 by and depending on the variety . ( . , ) Another example of beneficial effect of C0 2 is carrot . Elevated C0 concentration increased root yield by ( . , ) . All these findings indicate that important benefits for the growers may happen in the future due to the increase of concentration in the atmosphere . It is known that C0 2 leads to more efficient use of water . In higher concentrations plants use less water but more efficiently , being more able to resist water stress . In consequence , growers will have more water resistant plants and this is beneficial for horticultural production . ( , ) Apart from cultivated plants , weeds are also influenced by C0 2 . The rate of their photosynthesis is stimulated by higher levels of C0 2 , being more antagonistic towards plants and more difficult to control them . As a result , the C0 influences crop- weed competitiveness , sometimes for the benefit of the crop and sometimes for the benefit of weeds . Such changes will affect their distribution in the and some weeds like perennials , which have rhizomes and storage organs , will become more difficult to be controlled by growers . ( IPCC ) Not only changes in C0 2 concentration but also changes in temperature will have great impact on the horticultural production . Escalated temperatures promote plant growth , but extremely high temperatures cause damage to the crops . It is estimated in the that rise in temperature will extent growing season available for the plants and will reduce the period required for maturation . This is beneficial for those areas of the where lower average temperatures prevail . An increase in temperature will expand the cultivation area of horticultural crops to north as well as to higher altitudes . By contrast , higher temperatures during will cause damage to crops and will increase the heat stress risk . ( TDRI , ) It is estimated that in the will become warmer and that climate change has great impact on horticultural crops . Plants such as apples , cherries and blackberries require a certain number of below a critical temperature to resume growth in . In consequence , temperatures above average during will affect bud - dormancy and blossom during . In addition , taking into account that it is difficult to develop new varieties and rootstocks to respond to this rapid change of climate , the problem becomes more severe . As a result , warmer have negative effect and this is a concern for . ( , 2000 ) Apart from fruit crops , temperature affects salad crops such as lettuce . The minimum temperature for growth is between 3- 0C and the maximum 17- 0C , with the mean optimum temperature during maturity 0C. Although temperature has been found to have little effect on yield , it affects germination and growing season of lettuce . Apart from the fact that warmer temperatures promote germination , they also allow growing season to start earlier and simultaneously extent it . By contrast , higher temperatures during have a negative impact , increasing the possibility of bitterness , loose head and bolting . ( DEFRA , ) Cauliflower is another example of crop affected by temperature changes . of all , it has different stages of growth with different response to temperature ; juvenility , vernalization and curd growth . Escalated temperatures reduce the period of juvenility and curd growth but delay curd initiation . Although increasing temperatures promote maturity of summer- cauliflower , they reduce maturity of crops and as a result a better management of transplanting will be necessary so as to have continuity of production . Moreover , higher temperatures reduce the possibility of frost damage but maximize quality problems such as bract , leaf bract and curd looseness . ( DEFRA , ) Changes in temperature undoubtedly affect root crops such as onions and carrots . Soil temperatures 0C are the best for carrot growth . Taking into account that carrot growth is being promoted by an increase in temperature , crop production will also be increased . As frost damage will be reduced , the growing season will be extended resulting in earlier production especially under polythene . ( DEFRA , ) Not only carrots but also onions are affected by warmer climate . Temperatures between 23- 37 0C are the best for fast growing of onion seedlings and higher temperatures boost vegetative growth before bulbing . In addition , promotes bulb diameter and increase the rate of bulb size . As a result , warmer temperatures will give earlier bulbing combined with faster bulb growth and maturity , but reduce yield as the duration of bulb growth is decreased . ( DEFRA , ) Finally , temperatures affect pests and weeds , which have great impact on horticultural production . As the climate changes and become warmer the problems for the growers will be multiplied . of all , new pests are likely to be introduced to the , which are extremely harmful to other countries , due to warmer climate . , considering that winter temperature is crucial for the survival of many pests , increasing temperatures will promote their development and will reduce the time to reproductive maturity ( , ) . Such earlier reproduction will lead to high populations becoming difficult to control them . Finally , warmer temperatures will allow noxious weeds to become more common . To sum up , all these changes in climate make undoubtedly difficult the crop protection and as a result the horticultural production . Apart from CO 2 and temperature changes , it is also predicted a sea level rise in the . Taking into account that higher sea levels will lead to penetration of salty water into groundwater , the impact upon horticultural crops will be great . The response to salinity varies among species . Some of them are very sensitive because salinity affects water uptake and their quality and quantity of yield is diminished . In addition , sea level rise causes water logging that undoubtedly damages crops as it leads to poor aeration . Finally , increased rainfall as it is predicted during affects horticultural crops . Increased rainfall leads to water logging that has great influence on roots due to poor aeration ( , ) . As it is commonly known O is necessary for plants ' survival . Water logging will be a serious problem for roots in those areas of the that heavy soils prevail . While horticulture in the will be benefited from CO 2 and warmer temperatures , adaptation is necessary in order growers to take advantage of the climate change . There are short - term adjustments as well as long - term ones . The aim at optimising production , which are the tools against climate change , while the latter refer to structural changes so as to get over difficulties caused by climate change . ( The project , ) Short - term adaptations for growers include changes in planting dates and cultivars and external inputs . As the climate in the will become warmer during and especially during , growers will be able to have earlier planting or sowing during . Earlier planting allows crops to reach maturity before high temperatures of take place . In addition , it allows growers to extend growing season and as a result to increase yield potential using long season varieties . Finally , deeper sowing will increase germination percentages due to higher temperatures . ( The project , ) External inputs such as pesticides have to be taken seriously into account as the climate changes . The more warmer the climate becomes the more difficult for the growers is to control pests and diseases . The warmer climate will lead to higher incidence of these problems and simultaneously higher use of pesticides . In consequence , growers in order to optimise production and profitability have to adopt other systems , such as integrated pest management instead of empirical functions . ( ( project , ) Long - term adaptations include the use of new and more resistant varieties and change of land use ( project , ) . As in many regions the climate is likely to become warmer , growers will have to either change crop or change land . For example apple growers will have to move north so as chilling hours to be fulfilled . To sum up , as climate changes the response of crops also changes and as a result growers have to adapt as soon as possible . Another response to climate change for the growers is the use of new varieties ( project , ) . They will have to abandon traditional varieties and choose those that are more resistant to heat , pests , diseases and require less chilling for bud emergence . There is no doubt that horticulture in the may be benefited from C0 2 and warmer temperatures in general . On the other hand , there are disadvantages as well . The impact of climate change varies among horticultural crops and cultivars . All these changes in climate are a challenge for the growers and in order to be successful they have to adapt as soon as possible and find alternative practices so as to take advantage of these .",0
"' The Kaleidoscope ' and ' are instantly comparable in that they deal with the subjects of death and bereavement . In terms of metre and rhyme , the poem adheres to certain rules of its genre , which I will be exploring shortly . However , the poem by is a clear example of free verse . This form of poetry is written in continuous prose but finds structure in the organisation of line breaks and breaks in syntax . This form does not have a set rhyme or metre , and is naturally a looser , more flexible form as a result . < fnote > Attridge , , Poetic Rhythm : An Introduction ( Cambridge ) , p.5 < /fnote > Both poems are examples of the sonnet design . A traditional sonnet is a form of ' love ' poetry , although this is not the only subject that can lend itself to the form ( for instance bereavement in the case of these poems ) . Sonnets are generally written in lines and with a regular metre of iambic pentameter . There are various different forms of the sonnet , which alter the structure as well as rhyme scheme . For instance , the sonnet is divided into quatrains ( with the rhyme scheme of ' abab ' ) and rhyming couplet to conclude . The sonnet , however , is split into one octave and the concluding argument ( volta ) is within the last lines , or sestet . The poem is an example of the sonnet , and adheres to the basic structure of this form of poetry . < fnote > Stallworthy , J , The Norton Anthology of Poetry ( New York ) p.2043 . < /fnote > The Susan Wicks poem , however , does not conform to the strict metre of iambic pentameter due to the free verse model . The metre instead is anapaestic for the few feet of line1 , ending with an iamb in order to place stress on ' drove ' : < quote > When the throb of her voice was cut off , I drove</quote > From this point onwards , the poem alternates between metre schemes ranging between some iambic feet , anapaestic and dactylic . The anapaestic metre in the few feet lends a strong sense of movement to the poem , a steady beat , much like the docking of the tape alluded to in line , or the throb of car wheels driving on an unsteady road . The subject of loss is dealt with in the poem by trying to re - live a memory of a loved - one through music . The initial bereavement is felt in the quatrains at the beginning of the poem . There is an emphasis on silence as the rhythm from the car and the clicking tape ( felt through the beat from the anapaestic feet ) are the only things that can be heard . The plosive sounds of ' t ' , ' k ' 'd ' adds to this effect . This poem is an form of sonnet and the volta comes through in the last lines with the re - living of the memory of the lost one through the music on the tape : < quote > Between note and the next she still breathes ... [ ll.10 - 11]</quote > The poem , however , is an sonnet form in that the turn takes place in the last lines in the poem , forming a rhyming couplet . In the previous lines , the sense of grief felt by presumably the poet , can be an all - encompassing emotion . The iambic pentameter offers a sense of gravity to the poem . The rising syllable in the iambic foot also creates a sense of climbing , as the poet literally climbs the stairs expecting to see his loved - one at the top . The excess or ' kaleidoscope ' of commodities - ' tray ' , ' pillow ' , ' gowns ' and ' frocks ' - in the lines contrasts sharply the sense of loss and emptiness later in the poem . Instead , the poet 's grief becomes everything : < quote > My hands become a tray Offering me , my flesh , my soul , my skin . [ ll.11 - 12]</quote > He is offering himself , almost as a sacrifice or a demonstration of his desperation in wanting his wife back . The use of punctuation and anaphora ( with the repetition of ' my ... ' ) here foregrounds each word so that the reader is forced to consider the painful subject which the poet is addressing and the feeling of powerlessness in it 's entirety - in his entire body . This feeling of paralysis through mourning can also be read in the poem with the use of enjambment after the and stanzas . The stanza which ends with ' love ' is structurally separated from the resulting part of the line - ' ... and love / itself were cut out ' - so that the physical splitting of the stanza after the line reflects the poet 's feelings of being cut away from her beloved . The enjambment between stanzas and reflects the volta in the argument . The reader and the poet are beginning to find some relief from this almost deafening silence found in the quatrains . We are literally pulled forwards from line - 12 across the divide - ' ... Her breath / pulls me across darkness ' as the poet is pulled from despair by the memory of her loved - one evoked by the music . The use of assonance and long consonant sounds , for instance 's ' and ' n ' , emphasises the steady and smooth running of the tape as it plays anew and therefore the relief the poet feels from the silence and grief as she has metaphorically ' erased death ' . The poems deal with a tragic subject in different , but equally effective ways , both using the sonnet form capably . The poem is the more structurally accurate when looking at this form . The sonnet is an elegy for his wife , and his consequent devastation at her death . The unexplainable nature of death is foregrounded in the last couplet , leaving the reader with an impression of the poet 's helplessness . < quote > I ... wait , and cry For the absurd forgiveness , not knowing why . [ ll.13 - 14]</quote > The Wicks poem , in the basic sonnet form of lines , shows how something as simple as a piece of music can evoke strong memories of a person , such that it can be an alleviation from intense feelings of loss and emptiness . herself observed , ' poetry itself requires us to remain essentially vulnerable . ' . The irregular rhythm shows this vulnerability by creating a sense of passing time but with a lack of recognition to it . The lack of a consistent composition in the free verse structure in turn foregrounds the uncontrollable and unimaginable nature of death . < fnote > URL , received , < /fnote >","< heading > The Tamworth Pig</heading > The pig probably descended from the Old English Forest Pig from and is now extremely popular throughout and also the World . They originate from the Midlands and the name derives from the town , . The has long legs , large pricked up ears , a long head and body , a straight belly and a distinctive red / ginger coat . Records show that this colour has not changed since the 's and importantly the coat prevents sunburn in . They are medium sized with weighing and between 450 - 650pounds . Sows do not produce large sized litters compared to other breeds ; normally piglets but they are very careful mothers . They are a slow maturing breed and are often known to be energetic yet not nasty , but pigs that enjoy life and are can be very affectionate . < heading of the Tamworth</heading > The is listed in along with many other breeds of pigs . However , the is seen as an endangered species due to breeding females left in the . < table/>This table shows how the Tamworth Pig is an endangered species and apparently there are in the world . The reason as to why these rare breeds are rare is because they do not fit in with modern day production systems . However , this can change if people stop thinking we should not eat rare breeds . Instead they need to be persuaded to possess these animals and eat them , because the demand is what will save them . < figure/>This graph is a representation that the Pig population had declined dramatically over . The above graph is only portraying data from , which backs up the point that this is not only a localized problem but also a world wide one that is being addressed . Around 1885 , exports of the Tamworth Pig to other countries around the world occurred , including and . In , received the Tamworth Pig but in the a decline occurred due to many reasons such as competition from other breeds and also new regulations . , registrations were recorded , but from the graph you can see since slight fluctuations have occurred , showing how the registrations vary from just a few pigs up to . < heading > Why should the be conserved ? < /heading > There are many reasons as to why the should be saved . The bacon and pork has a great quality due to the length and depth of the body and the proportion of fat to lean red meat is very favourable . In the 's , out of commercial and rare breed pigs , the came out top according to a ' taste test ' performed by . The saw a decline due to competition by mass marketers ; hence one of the reasons to preserve the is that it would more benefit from a niche market due to its high quality meat . Another reason is that the is exceptionally good at being reared on pastures . It has a long snout which means it is very good at clearing an area , especially woodland . It is an ideal animal for any gardener who wants their land cleared . Being a descendant of the Old English Forest Pig means they suit rough woodlands and forests . They are a disease resistant pig and can cope with extreme temperatures . Sites of ( SSSI 's ) have been created for Conservation measures for these pigs . In which they graze on environmental areas such as . < picture/>The photo above shows woodland cleared by pigs . The pigs are extremely happy to live outside and be able to wander freely throughout brambles and bracken in which they remove by grazing . Another reason for saving this breed is that cross breeding can occur . In , most breeds were crossed with others , however the was not , hence it is known as a pure breed . , the is used to cross with other breeds such as the , in order to produce good quality meat . Some breeds do not produce exceptionally good meat , so by crossing them with a they benefit much better . < heading > Survival</heading > Tamworth Pigs have so many reasons and benefits as to why they should be saved and kept alive . How they are saved is the question though . DNA testing save and safe guarding existing genetics and developing a breeding strategy are all possibilities . Technology still needs to be developed so that the freezing of semen , embryos and tissues can be improved , in order to save certain breeds like the . ( ) , which was established in , has ensured that no farm animal has been wiped out and the Trust relies heavily on donations to carry out its work . are found in the and are essential in order to preserve and maintain these rare breeds . , in , has a in which pigs are kept and looked after . < picture/>In , received its and have bred them ever since . Places such as , are essential in order to preserve , such as the Tamworth Pig . of visitors arrive and this also helps to promote the rare breeds and prove how important it is to conserve them so they do not go extinct . This is an example of commercially exploiting a rare breed like the . The market is extremely important for rare breeds because it is here that will decide the fluctuations of the population . The is a rare breed partly because it can not keep up with market needs , therefore it has become rare . , supermarkets require specific conditions so many breeds suffer . So , in , The created a scheme in which individual butchers ' offer different breed meats so the consumer has a variety of tastes . An example of this is , , . In conclusion , The pig is in danger and without Trusts and places such as The and , the maybe extinct . The is now seen on an international scale , despite it being a rare breed . With its good quality meat , grazing benefits and cross breeding , the is defiantly worth saving . It just needs more people and the market to realise what an important , yet efficient animal it is .",0
"Popularity is often seen as the essence of a president 's success ; granted few tangible powers and dependent upon media interest , he has little to rely on except dashing looks and a jolly smile . Popularity ( defined as "" being liked or supported by many people "" ) is ultimately determined by a president 's personality , and can go some way to ensuring elections are won , economic growth is encouraged , and misdemeanour is forgotten . , for example , is famed for his "" fireside chats "" during a period of economic turmoil and 's presidency continues to be celebrated by many despite personal and political problems . In the short term , therefore , character determines popularity and hence how successful a president is perceived to be due to media influence and interaction with the public . Yet popularity alone does little to explain the prevalence of presidents such as and , whose personalities are long forgotten , in rankings of successful presidents . Nor does it explain why some presidents , whose popularity was high throughout their time in office such as , are little- known for being great . It appears that popularity , therefore , is a fickle measure of success , dependent upon "" current political issues , differing perspectives on historical eras , and historical scholarship . "" When determining presidents ' accomplishments in retrospect many scholars have argued that , rather than popularity , "" the bottom line of the presidency is effective governance . "" "" Effective governance , "" however , relies upon thing ; appropriate situations , over whose occurrence the president has little or no control but which he has potential to manipulate using his personality . Character therefore continues to be the determining factor of a president 's success , but certainly not in relation to popularity . With long term perspective it appears much more likely that it is the president 's personality ( which does not necessarily render him popular ) which manipulates chance events and situations which thus determines a president 's success . < fnote > Soanes , C. ( ed . ) ( ) . : , ( 1994 ) The Modern Presidency . : . p.219 < /fnote><fnote , ( 2004 ) . : , p.169 < /fnote > Despite being dependent upon character and fortune , numerous scholars continue to state that "" in order of priority , effective governance ranks first""- meaning , by "" effective governance , "" how much legislative success they have , how they treat the economy , use the veto , and so on . Even who writes that "" presidential character is manifestly important "" later concludes that "" policy leadership is the sine qua non of a successful presidency , "" ranking personal appeal behind both moral leadership and effective governance . Such categories , however , can be seen to comply with a stereotype of what citizens would like to believe the man supposedly "" deciding the fate of their country "" has the most control over , and over which he should be judged . In reality , however , the views of scholars such as who concludes that "" we now are ... dependent ... upon the mind and temperament "" of the president are more pragmatic . A president 's personal impact on the occurrence of events is minimal ; once in office , the elected president finds himself at the centre of a mass of bureaucracy , surrounded by many with more experience than him and presented with problems about which he can do very little . Furthermore , the president is granted very few powers . Despite requiring him to swear to "" preserve , protect and defend the Constitution of , "" the actual powers the document grants him go little farther than giving him the opportunity to appoint certain officials , fill vacancies and grant pardons- though even these often require approval . Effective governance is certainly important , but is impossible without certain character traits . Despite some public and scholars ' ( such as ) expectations , therefore , most problems in the such as poverty and the economy are unlikely to be affected , let alone solved , by person , however "" powerful "" he is perceived to be . The most he can do is hope to face situations which can be presented in a favourable manner to the public , hence achieving perceived success despite having very little influence upon such events himself . < fnote > Pfiffner , The Modern Presidency . P.169 < /fnote><fnote , , p. < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p. < /fnote><fnote > Neustadt , ( ) . , p. < /fnote > The president 's influence on the economy certainly falls into such a category . The economy is often used when judging presidents ' success ; Hoover , for example , is consistently derided for purported mismanagement of it which supposedly led to . Quite apart from the fact that it is impossible to judge an administration 's effect on the economy until after they have been in power , it is questionable how much influence any person , or even group of people , can have on the economy . Often affected by events ( such as which "" severely damaged business and consumer confidence initially "" and prompted the government to "" shut down financial markets ... for "" ) that are out of the government 's control , or even strengthening or weakening apparently upon a whim , it is the most that a president can do to take credit when the economy is strong and reassure or create positive spin when it is not ; in effect , using his personality encourage popularity by presenting a favourable picture of his presidency , whilst in reality he has affected very little . In the long term it becomes apparent that presidents have little direct effect on the economy , relying upon chance , or fortune , to prevent a depression . provides a perfect example . The man who proclaimed "" it 's the economy , stupid "" and was fortunate to preside whilst the market was strong continues to be feted and ranked in the top most successful presidents . , however , he is seen by scholars as controlling an administration which had a disastrous effect on the financial system . Though the economy may be used to judge a president by many , therefore , in reality an individual can affect very little whilst in power but seek popular acclaim for favourable conditions , and create positive spin on negative circumstances . < fnote > Schepp , "" How the World Changed . "" news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/world/02/september_11/how_the_world_has_changed/html/economic_view/usa.stm Accessed . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote > Policy leadership presents a similar situation . Once again , expectations are high for a president to get legislation through and improve , or change , situations within the country , despite him having very little real power to push laws through . In theory a president and his administration must form "" policy , domestic and foreign , for the country . "" This is not such a simple task , however . To succeed , the president must often mobilise public support and attempt to "" gain the upper hand with , "" utilising the infamous "" power to persuade "" which "" amounts to [ much ] more than ... [just ] reasoned argument . "" Even with a popular or persuasive president , however , still may not pass the legislation . and , for example , found that their heavy - handed approach was unsuccessful . Though presidents may blame their lack of legislative success on a whose majority is not in favour of his party , such sentiment does not always hold . Senior achieved much legislative success "" even though the opposition controlled both houses of , "" for example . Conversely , Junior should have found passing legislation easy as , for the time since both are . It has not been that easy , however , and has struggled to push all of his agenda through . , for example , "" leaders ... abandoned their efforts to win approval of a budget for after they were unable to bridge widening differences on fiscal policy in their party . "" It is up to the president to create the image of a united administration . Once again , it becomes apparent with long - term perspective that any legislative success is due to the president manipulating chance circumstances . , for example , was able to push through controversial anti - terrorist legislation such as following the attack on the twin towers . Once again , therefore , the character of the president is essential in working around chance circumstances to paint a favourable image of a potentially unsuccessful administration and manipulate chance events to attempt some legislative ( or economic ) success . < fnote , M. ( ) Presidents for Dummies New York : Hungry Minds < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote > Neustadt , , p.34 < /fnote><fnote , Presidents for Dummies < /fnote><fnote > Hulse , C. ( 2006 ) "" "" ( late edition ) , , p. < /fnote > If personality and the reliance upon fortune is key for perceived economic and legislative success , then a president 's relationship with the media is of vital importance ; perhaps more important than any legislative action he could attempt . Since used television to craft his image with the presidential news conference in 's auditorium , presidents ' actions have been closely tracked by television , radio and newspaper ( and now also the internet ) . Becoming increasingly hostile and cynical over following events such as , and the impeachment situation , it is important for the president to build a rapport with the media early on to encourage them to present unfortunate news with a positive spin . Though is much derided by some members of the public for saying or doing things which make him appear unintelligent , he does have a very good relationship with the media . Once again fortune played a part , as he had the good luck to enter office after a president whose administration had be berated by the media towards the end of its term with scandals about pardons and the pricey office space . "" By comparison ... [Bush ] had to look good , at least for a little while . "" does also have a certain amount of skill when interacting with the media , however . He uses techniques such as giving nicknames to reporters and questioning them on their family life and children . A "" personable person ... he does try to relate to reporters on one . "" Though this may not change the way that the media views his policies , if he gives press conferences early and often , and comes across in speeches as informal and amiable , then much of the ( uneducated ) public will look favourably upon him . Presidents also tailor their speeches and schedules to suit a media which cares more about the sound bite and quirky news story than in - depth coverage and analysis . At , for example , the president is guaranteed news time by the gimmick of pardoning a turkey . It could even be claimed that a president could be seen as successful even if he never had a single piece of legislation passed and the economy was in tatters . As long as he was telegenic and created enough interest for the media to write unusual stories , then the majority of the public would not realise as the media tends to focus on sound bites and quirky news clips rather than in - depth analysis . When was flying to to talk about the budget , for example , it was his haircut that was the focus of the news bulletin , whilst the budget barely received a passing comment . When it later becomes apparent that administrations are based upon lies and spin , the president can only hope that chance events ensure his presidency is reflected positively , and that the media continues to focus on favourable events . A good rapport with those who present the president to the public can therefore dramatically affect how successful his administration is perceived to be . < fnote > Smith , T. "" The President and the . ""   URL   Accessed < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote > A president 's personality and reaction to the media can ( or even , in 's society , is certain to ) mean the difference between whether a candidate becomes elected to Presidency or not . Though in practice the media may only sway a minority of uncommitted voters , it is vital in order to get a potentially previously unknown candidate recognised at the very least . With advertisements and campaigning costing and sound bites lasting ( despite once having been ) , it is almost impossible for a candidate to get his policies and beliefs presented to the public . Even if he was able to , candidates appear very similar ; even more so than their parties that they represent , who at least differ on moral viewpoints . It therefore comes down to the candidate who can best present himself in photos and on fliers , who can get the media 's attention , and who is the most eye - catching in the short sound bite . Such importance is clarified by the example of the - Nixon Great Debate of . During the ever televised presidential debate , the viewers who tuned in saw as a young , energetic candidate whilst was underweight , "" arrived at the debate in an ill - fitting shirt , and refused make - up to improve is colour and lighten his perpetual ' five o'clock shadow . ' "" Though in substance the were evenly matched and those that heard it on the radio pronounced the winner , those that watched the debate declared the victor by a large margin . When the time came to vote , "" of all voters reported that had influenced their opinion [ whilst ] reported that their vote was the result of the debates alone . "" Needless to say , won the election . The effect of personality on popularity is therefore not only essential to a president when he is in power , but also before he is elected . This is confirmed by the tactics of 's candidates who often attack each others ' character through negative campaigning and investigating each others ' history ( in short , attacking the tool they are both reliant upon ) rather than their policies . Once in power , it is the use of this strong personality to manipulate the media which is essential in presenting chance events positively , thus creating the enduring perception of a successful president . < fnote > Allen , E. "" , . ""   URL   Accessed < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote > The importance of having a skilled personality to encourage popularity by influencing the media and promoting acclaim for events which are merely due to chance comes to the fore most obviously when facing crises . Though appearing incongruous with what the leader of a country should feel , there is evidence to suggest that presidents hope for disasters because in reality people look to a leader in emergencies . Previous accusations are forgotten , and the president is given the chance to appear as the figurehead , and defender , of the people . Presidents have been made by crises and equally unmade by the "" misfortune "" of not being presented with such situations . , for example , "" may have risen to genuine greatness [ but ] never gained the opportunity . "" Despite having "" personal vigour and belief in the strenuous life .... His opportunities were few and his actions were less impressive than the noise accompanying them . "" Though still recognised as a successful president , if asked , few could pinpoint why he was great yet would be able to talk avidly on , , , and so on ( all who led the country through times of great difficulty ) . As noted by , "" it was his misfortune not to be a war president . "" This comment suggests an important idea : that it is not merely fortune across the spectrum of the presidency , but the "" good "" fortune to face a crisis- in particular a war , which aides a president and gives him the ideal opportunity to manipulate events using his personality . < fnote , ( ) The Modern Presidency . : , < /fnote><fnote , < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , p.70 < /fnote > Statistics certainly appear to support this premise , with presidents rated as more successful both during conflicts ( certainly if they are rapidly concluded ) , as well as in the long run . In a poll conducted in by and Dodder of 571 historians about the accomplishments of administrations , the presidents that had taken part in a war had a higher average ranking ( 13.06- 1 being the highest ) than those who had not faced conflict ( ) . The only non - war president who even made the top is Roosevelt- a President who was nevertheless exceedingly successful in foreign affairs with his quest for , and was even awarded for his part in settling . Even if he did not preside over actual conflict , his activities in foreign affairs set him apart from all other non - combatant presidents . If the poll is extended to include presidents up to , the results are similar ; against for non - conflict presidents ( from a survey of "" prominent professors of history , law , political science and economics "" conducted in ) . This concurs with surveys conducted by in , over various spanning and in . Though the publics ' view tends to fluctuate more due to the constant revision of opinion on various character traits and events , the "" top- and bottom - ranked presidents have remained a fairly stable group "" which is consistent with the views of scholars ; ( ) , ( bombed and seen as "" ending "" ) , ( and Great Depression ) , and ( American Revolution ) always in the top . Though historical perspective certainly has an affect on public opinion , with currently placed top in poll and sited higher than scholars credit him , the premise remains ; those who presided over the country 's participation in warfare are perceived as more successful . There are certainly exceptions such as and who both presided over conflicts but are consistently ranked bottom . This appears to be due to weak character traits rendering poor leadership skills or corrupt administrations , hence presenting conflicts unfavourably ; in other words , the presidents failed to successfully manipulate potentially fortuitous events . The majority of presidents , however , appear to have mastered the skills demanded of the position . With surveys done by showing presidents who showed great crisis leadership skills to also be ranked highly in economic management , international relations and so on , the implication is that participation in warfare ensures perceived success in other areas of management and , in short , is regarded as being beneficial for the nation . Presidents who preside over conflicts , therefore , are perceived ( by the public at least ) as being successful in all areas . < fnote > Dodder , R and Maranell , G , ( ) , "" Political Orientation and Evaluation of Presidential Prestige , "" , Vol . : p.418 in , The Modern Presidency . P.222 < /fnote><fnote > Lindgren , J. "" The Rankings "" ( Survey from and , )   URL   Accessed . < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote > Imbornoni , A. "" How Do the Presidents Rank ? ""   URL . Accessed < /fnote><fnote>(No author given . ) "" bumps from top of Presidential Greatness Scale . ""   URL . Accessed < /fnote><fnote>(No author given . ) "" . ""   URL . Accessed < /fnote > Despite this commonly held belief , however , war is not beneficial for countries . Many reminisce of a strong economy and plentiful employment during the world wars . Certainly for certain sectors it is "" very good business indeed . "" Companies such as , and , for example , thrive on the prospect of future conflicts whilst diversifying between wars ; "" is pushing armoured vehicles to local police ... at $ plus "" whilst , inventor of , "" is projected to earn in revenues . "" Wars are even credited with pulling out of of the 1930s . Though they "" lag ... behind the huge profits paid to companies , "" even in businesses profit from conflict . "" Since coalition forces toppled , "" for example , "" businesses have profited by . "" Amec ( a construction firm ) , the top earner , "" has made m. "" As commentator on antiwar.com claims , "" I do not believe our economy can survive [ without conflict ] "" having been "" in a continual state of war for . "" The "" opportunity cost "" is what is lost , however . currently "" spends in excess of , or a day ... beyond the military budget ; "" just "" month of military spending would wipe out 's catastrophic budget deficit . "" Conflicts ensure a massive re - assignment of the country 's resources , rendering some products or systems seemingly unimportant and so abandoned . From , for example , "" production of civilian cars was essentially shut down . "" Furthermore , strict controls were placed on fuel so movement was restricted , and choice was limited through rationing . Additionally , died because of the conflict . In terms of "" the real amount of goods and services available to people , "" war restricts prosperity and hinders innovation in the majority of sectors of society . may be beneficial to big business and a president 's success rating , but it certainly is not beneficial to a country 's citizens . < fnote > Hallinan , C. "" War Is Good Business . ""   URL . Accessed < /fnote><fnote > Verkaik , ( ) "" £ 1.1bn , "" , , p. - 2 < /fnote><fnote > Henderson , "" is good for the economy- is n't it ? ""   URL . Accessed < /fnote><fnote > Hallinan , C. "" War Is Good Business . "" < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote > Henderson , "" is good for the economy- is n't it ? "" < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote > It is questionable why wars almost automatically render presidents as being perceived as successful if conflicts have such a detrimental effect on the country . There are answers to this : character ( or more specifically , machismo ) and the media . It is almost certain that a president 's characteristics will be tailor - made to suit a war situation ; it is unlikely that anyone else would even attempt gaining power , let alone win an election ( which in effect is little more than a head - to - head battle itself ) if they did not have a personality which strives for and enjoys conflict . Once elected , however , the president has little opportunity to display such qualities . A war gives a president an opportunity to display his strongest personality characteristics . The media aides and abets such an image . Whilst a downturn in the economy might mean the destitution of of families , it is much less unlikely to be reported on than a conflict which is guaranteed to produce exciting stories and which , more to the point , present as the "" saviours . "" Despite some such as Dr Drolesky of the Christ or magazine stating , "" To believe in the ' superiority ' of the system is the political equivalent in believing in the horoscope or the tooth fairy , "" political culture ensures ( whether correctly or not ) that many consider their form of democracy superior to all others . When conflicts arise , therefore , rather than protest at the injustices of human liberty , they often herald the government as having "" saved "" another corrupt country . , for example , was not developed enough for democracy , so by forcing their "" superior "" form of governance upon them the country is now in the early stages of a civil war . Despite claiming "" he does not believe has descended into civil war , "" the country 's former interim minister "" has told the people were dying . "" Once again , therefore , the manipulation of the media ensures that crises give an opportunity to presidents to create the perception of a successful and strong government by pandering to the notion of superiority . With hindsight it becomes apparent that conflicts are entirely chance events , which can only ( if at all ) be affected by key character traits . , for example , may have been seen as the more successful president of all time if he had been more successful in . Conflicts give the president a unique opportunity participate in events that will be remembered for , whilst giving him the chance to appear as a figurehead and claim successes based on human life and liberty whilst in power , though the reality may be completely different . < fnote > Drolesky , T. "" Believing in all of the wrong things . ""   URL   Accessed < /fnote><fnote>(No author given ) "" denies is in civil war . "" < /fnote > Due to the combined effects of presidential spin and the ineffectiveness of the media , the detrimental effects of conflicts therefore appear irrelevant when assessing presidents ; mere participation in warfare during Presidency ensures perceived success , whether the country benefits or not . The conflict does not even necessarily have to be won ; and , for example , were both disastrous in handling foreign affairs , yet continue to be seen as successful presidents as their characters ensured they were able to put positive spin on negative events . Similar is true of Prime Ministers in ; was quite insignificant when seen against other wars , for example , but was presented as an important conflict and hence had a positive effect on popularity . Those that appear weak in the face of conflict , such as "" who was reluctant to use force "" and even who is increasingly presented as having a weak character that panders to 's whim ( contributing , if not being the source of , public dissatisfaction of his actions regarding the War- despite the actual conflict being an initial success ) "" [ are ] ridiculed . "" It appears , therefore , that positive presentation of participation in warfare ensures that a president is seen as more successful than might actually be true . This hypothesis certainly seems to be believed by President . , who worked with on a ghost written memoir , claims that the President stated before he was elected in , "" of the keys to being seen as a great leader is to be seen as a commander - in chief .... If I have a chance to invade ... I 'm not going to waste it . "" This concurs with 's belief that "" no president could be considered truly successful without one military ' win ' under his belt . "" Interestingly , campaign staffers later "" took his [ 's ] original tapes and notes , "" suggesting many were worried about people knowing 's true ideas . , the President claims "" I did n't want war . To assume I wanted war is just flat wrong ... No president wants war . "" If the original statements are true , however , they prove that those striving for greatness realise the importance of conflict ( if realises then it is likely that previous presidents also have ) . Such beliefs are supported by 's popularity ratings . As the graph ( left ) from website reveals , with no new conflict on the horizon 's approval rating is dramatically falling . Statistics and surveys appear to prove without doubt , therefore , that crises- in particular , wars- are the most influential factor in evaluating a president 's success , both long term and short term . < fnote > , "" . "" < /fnote><fnote > Baker , "" . ""   URL   Accessed < /fnote><fnote>(No author given . ) "" denies is in . ""   URL   Accessed < /fnote><fnote > Franklin , C. ( Professor of science at ) "" Approval of President , 2001- Present . ""   URL   Accessed < /fnote><figure/>Such a premise only holds true with short - term conflicts , however . Upon examining the perception of presidents ' success through long - term conflict , it becomes apparent that personality is not enough alone to hold the perceived success rate high , suggesting that character is not the reliable tool that some assume it is . This has become particularly noticeable more recently with advances in the media ensuring not only that photos and stories emerge in the media instantaneously , but also that statistical evidence about a war is readily available for public consumption . As seen in and as is beginning to be seen with , though conflicts are initially beneficial for a president 's success , when the novelty becomes extended reality their popularity begins to drop . Such a premise is supported particularly strongly by 's current popularity ratings . With the conflict in and with soldiers killed , a poll conducted in "" showed his personal rating at , compared to . "" The graph below , from the website , further supports this , showing how the approval of 's actions has dropped over . Such a dramatic change in popularity is despite his "" likeable "" personality remaining consistent . Though it can make a significant difference , personality is obviously not enough to base success upon during a president 's time in office . During as well as after power , therefore , chance is key . If , for example , had the good fortune to end the conflict and withdraw troops within then it is likely that his approval rating would still be high and he would be perceived as a highly successful president . As it is it would be impossible for him to withdraw troops now without receiving international criticism . A president therefore relies upon fortune to start a crisis , and fortune once again to end it swiftly before too much pressure is placed upon a personality covering an administration of little real substance . < fnote>(No author given ) "" denies is in civil war . "" < /fnote><figure/>The fallibility of character as a measure of success is further confirmed when it is considered that presidents such as and continue to appear in lists of the most successful presidents as "" reputations fluctuate over depending on current political issues , differing perspectives on historical eras , and historical scholarship . "" In other words , when character is no longer remembered , it is questionable what makes such leaders stand out . The answer returns to the chance event of favourable crises and the response of the media in . Though pre - world war was considered isolationist so the country had few conquests or battles overseas , it did have problems on its own land . , for example , was fortunate enough to be on the winning side during whilst rode on the victory following . was able to take credit for writing the draft of , and also achieved success during crises by fighting the pirates in the and acquiring from . No doubt each president also faced problems during their terms in office- inevitable given their position , but the good fortune of positive historical portrayal ( particularly favourable in regard to the Founding Fathers ) ensures that the victories are forever remembered whilst the loses ( such as 's unpopular reaction of "" an embargo upon shipping "" to the threat of ) are gradually forgotten as those who they affected pass away . may have been more important in elections then with very little media to speak of , but their perceived success has much more to do with a few key victories than consistent achievements whilst in office . Despite being almost impossible to visualise their personalities , therefore , all presidents viewed with hindsight are judged by criteria outside of their control ; "" chance "" events which conclude ( or appear to conclude ) favourably often irrespective of the president 's actions . < fnote > Pfiffner , The Modern Presidency . P.219 < /fnote><fnote>(No author given ) "" . ""   URL   Accessed < /fnote > Personality is certainly of importance . If a successful personality is understood to render a popular president , then it is almost certainly the deciding factor in elections- both for the power to persuade people to donate money to the candidate 's cause as well as appeal for votes . Once in office it then becomes the measure of his perceived success . As , President 's speechwriter pointed out , "" In a president , character is everything . A president does n't have to be brilliant ; was n't brilliant , and he helped save from . He does n't have to be clever ; you can hire clever ... but you ca n't buy courage and decency , you ca n't rent a strong moral sense . A president must bring those things with him . "" Such characteristics present a strong candidate and sustain his administration . They also affect how he is perceived when viewed with hindsight , as personality to some extent affects legislative and economic success which his overall success is often judged on . Personality is a dubious measure of success , however . Though claims that "" there is widespread consensus in politics that presidential character is as important as intellect , organisational abilities , television presence , or effectiveness in public speaking , "" when judging the success of a range of presidents over a period of time personality is certainly , as has previously been suggested , a fickle friend . Not only is "" the desirability of many character traits depend[ent ] upon the historical circumstance , "" but personality is often forgotten or distorted over time , particularly when considering the earlier presidents who have less documentary and media coverage . In the long term , therefore , character is an unreliable measure of success , dependent upon personal opinion rather than statistical evidence . < fnote > Noonan , P , "" "" in , ed . ( ) Character above all . : Simon . P.202 in , The Character . P.4 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , P.6 < /fnote><fnote > Ibid , P.4 < /fnote > With historical perspective , popularity resulting from personality is forgotten or distorted . All that is remembered are specific events and situations recorded in documents and memories , which are presented favourable or critically dependent on the character of the president .. These "" events and situations "" are all the result of chance which , it appears , is the most important factor when judging a president 's success . With few powers ( possibly the reason why presidents have to reply on character and good fortune so much ) once in office , a president can do little except hope for such favourable opportunities and situations . Though good fortune also encompasses factors such as the economy and legislative success , there is barely a situation which alone has the potential to affect a country 's economy , morals and very infrastructure more than a conflict . Character is therefore essential to determining a president 's success before , during , and after he has been in power . Whilst in power , it determines popularity . As it is the perception of success which is important to both president and public , popularity is therefore the oft - used measure of success whilst a president continues to preside . Yet views of popularity are a personal judgement ; short - term , unsustainable , and certain to fluctuate . should be determined in retrospect , as with hindsight comes reality . Though fortune appears little better than popularity ; illogical , and completely out of a president 's control , with perspective it becomes apparent that it is the impact of character upon fortuitous events- in particular , the fortune to face a crisis , which determines a president 's success . 's "" effective governance "" may be important , but to those judging presidents it is conflicts which appear to have most affected the country , and hence over which their success is measured . Though it is more than a little extreme to state that President breathed a sigh of relief when the planes struck the twin towers , the correct sentiment is implied ; as supported by statistical evidence from polls questioning both scholars and the public , when presidents are judged with fairly and with hindsight the impact and result of certain character traits both upon , and resulting from , conflicts is rendered the measure of success . < fnote > Pfiffner , , p. < /fnote >","Despite being described as "" intrinsically implausible "" by some , and continually debated even today- after it was published , 's account of government by the consent of free individuals in "" is the intellectual foundation of constitutional government and has provided the terms of discourse for modern discussion of legal and political obligation to the state . "" Forming the basis of which claims that all governments "" derive[e ] their just powers from the consent of the governed "" as well as changing the scholar 's understanding of the entire chapter of 's constructed state , the paragraphs defining and addressing the status of tacit and express consent have become the justification for political authority . Despite building the foundations of largest superpower , however , there are serious flaws and omissions in 's theory which encourage the academic to question its validity . < fnote > Finnis , in , , "" "" , ( Spring 2004 Edition ) , ( ed . ) , < plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2004/entries/legal-obligation > ( ) < /fnote><fnote > Carmody , , "" , "" ( ) , p.1 < /fnote > Locke argues that consent , in effect , legitimises government . It "" expresses the acceptability , or at least tolerability , of the government "" whilst enabling people to create political allegiances without "" awaiting the gradual emergence of bonds of community and reciprocity "" and providing "" deliberate control over the liability to legal duties . "" , therefore , that it provided the foundations of his society , stating that "" every man ... [ is ] naturally free , and nothing [ is ] able to put him into subjection but only his own consent . "" To the question of exactly how citizens consent , follows the ideas set forth in 's which "" introduces the idea that continued residence counts as some kind of tacit consent to obey . "" Locke extends this to include any enjoyment of the benefits of government , stating , "" Every man , that hath Possession , or Enjoyment , of any part of , doth thereby give his tacit consent , and is as far forth obliged to Obedience to the Laws of that Government , during such Enjoyment , as any one under it . "" Whether it is "" barely travelling freely on the highway , "" therefore , insists that that is consent . It is in this idea of tacit consent , however , that has formed the basis of many scholars ' objections to the theory . < fnote , , "" "" , ( Spring 2004 Edition ) , ( ed . ) , < plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2004/entries/legal-obligation > ( ) < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote > Locke , John , , section < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote > Locke , John , , , lines . < /fnote><fnote > Locke , John , , section < /fnote > Often people are not aware that they are consenting . Actions such as "" barely travelling ... on the highway "" are commonly undertaken by people without imagining that they will create obligations , and in circumstances in which they "" have no feasible alternative . "" Though Locke would class this as "" tacit consent""- people consenting through their use or enjoyment of , "" it has been argued by many that it is unfair to infer consent when the citizen is themselves unaware . Such a system , if followed , would leave citizens open to abuse from those in power as Locke does not specify where the line should be drawn . It could be argued , for example , that if a person was enjoying tea imported from , then that person is in that action submitting themselves to the rules and laws of the Government of China . This would create a complicated , over- burdensome and unwieldy situation which would be entirely impractical . < fnote , , "" "" , ( Spring 2004 Edition ) , ( ed . ) , < plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2004/entries/legal-obligation > ( ) < /fnote > Tacit consent assumes that the government was originally founded with fair consent and voluntary subjection of the people . Almost all administrations which presently exist , however , "" or of which there remains any record in history , have been founded originally , either on usurpation or conquest . "" Violence and submission by necessity is , therefore , "" all the original contract which they have to boast of . "" In the few places that consent has taken place , it has commonly been irregular , confined , and intermixed with fraud and brutality , rendering any claim to authority insignificant . Even the most plausible way "" by which a nation may receive a foreign master , by marriage or a will , "" offers little solace to those citizens who it affects , treating them as a dowry or legacy rather than inviting them to be part of the contract and asking for their consent . If this so - called "" original contract "" is all that tacit consent has to rely upon , then it has sparse grounds for legitimacy . < fnote > Hume , David , "" Of the Original Contract "" ( ) , ed . , Jon < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote > If tacit consent is deemed implausible , express consent is little better . Express consent relies upon active citizens being able to , and themselves partaking , in such events as elections to give the government authority . Elections are , however , "" either the combination of a few great men , who decide for the whole .... or it is the fury of the multitude , that follow a seditious ringleader . "" Legitimate elections therefore rely upon being , yet rarely are , open to all . Despite this , even , purportedly the most extensive democracy ever , did not allow women , slaves and strangers to vote . Even making the requisite assurances for these groups , the "" establishment was not at made , nor any law ever voted , by a tenth of those who were bound to pay obedience to it . "" To take a further example , the IVth and held no title to the throne but a parliamentary election ; odd , if the "" only real foundation of all authority be consent and promise . "" Furthermore , elections should be participated in by all . It is unlikely that there has ever been an election , however , where every citizen has taken part- in the , for example , voter turnout for presidential elections of the population . If express consent is dependent on open elections attended by all , therefore , full consent has never been given to a government . < fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote > Both tacit and express consent rely on the doctrine that everyone is free to leave the country they are in if they do not agree with the rules and laws set down by the Government . Often , however , people are unable to leave due to personal circumstances . "" Poor peasant[s ] or artisan[s ] , "" for example , would be unable to leave the land they know to join one where they do not know the language , manners , or lives . Most would also be unable to afford such a luxury . This is increasingly in evidence in with the increase of the media ; starving world citizens see the wealth of the world but are unable to access it due to lack of funds . often , therefore , stay where they are due to denial of alternatives rather than express or tacit consent . < fnote > Ibid < /fnote > Even if personal circumstances are satisfactory , however , the rules and laws of the land may prevent a person from leaving it . In 's time , for example , "" it was regarded as a crime in a knight that he had attempted to fly to the , in order to escape the tyranny of that emperor . "" The ancient also prohibited all travelling "" under pain of death . "" This again can be observed in 's society ; restrictions on immigration prevent people from leaving a land which they do not necessarily consent to . Hence Locke in effect proposes an impossible situation ; he claims that people consent to the government and its rules and laws if they stay in its country . This includes , however , consenting to laws forbidding them from leaving- consenting to their freedom to not consent being taken away . < fnote > Tacit , "" Ann , "" vi , cap . in Ibid < /fnote><fnote > Ibid < /fnote > Even if the majority objected to the government and withdrew their consent , there is little guarantee that this will affect those in power . , drawing on the ideas of , believed that if the established government failed "" to provide the security which they were established to provide , we may withdraw our consent and set up another government in an effort to improve our lot . "" A country 's citizens , however , are rarely able to co - ordinate their resources to overthrow a government or instigate a revolution . If the withdrawal is through express consent such as an election , it is again often unlikely that the turnout will reflect the public 's opinion . Even if it does , there is no guarantee that those in power will not manipulate the election ; in , for example , held regular elections but coerced citizens into voting a certain way . It could even be said that manipulated the election results of to produce the desired result . Locke does not , therefore , offer a reliable method by which to withdraw consent . < fnote > Smith , , "" , "" ( ) , The for Civic Education , < URL > ( ) < /fnote > Locke also fails to reconcile the inconsistencies associated with property . Locke 's theory of consent is intrinsically bound up with the idea of possessions , claiming equally that people consent to government rule for the protection of said property , and that children accept the rules their father consented to when they "" come of age "" ( aged ) and inherit land ( "" property "" ) . This method , however , forces consent on the generation of a family . It also assumes that children will inherit land when they become adults . Though it is argued that , if inheritance laws of are studied this flaw is reconciled , fails to state a solution himself . Furthermore , Locke ignores those that do not own property . This is because he never intended or expected that those without property would be in charge of civil society . In order for the system to be advantageous to those with property , whom Locke gives priority to , those without it must be excluded from its privileges although still protected by and subject to its laws . In effect , therefore , Locke ignores a section of society to further prove his theory of consent ; thus manipulating the facts . By ignoring those without property , creates a flaw in his own proposal . The principle of consent , both express and tacit , is in theory the bases of all modern government . Were a citizen to claim in most parts of the world , however , that "" political connections are founded altogether on voluntary consent or a mutual promise , "" a court would soon imprison you as "" seditious for loosening the ties of obedience . "" Hence consent appears to be discredited in practice ; express consent is rarely undertaken by every citizen , and most are unaware of tacit consent . If they are aware , there are often restrictions preventing their acting against that content . Locke 's ideal , therefore , may have formed such doctrines as , but in truth is unrealistic and forms a weak basis on which to create government . < fnote > Ibid < /fnote >",1
"< abstract><heading > Abstract</heading > This essay begins by investigating quaternions . The emphasis is on their relations to rotations in dimensions . It then progresses to a more general overview of division algebras with the aim of investigating proofs by and . It then explores the construction and a brief foray into the octonions and SO(8 ) . It closes with a brief account of the Freudenthal square , a relationship between the normed division algebras and the exceptional Lie algebras . Acknowledgements : Thanks to , Professor and for advice , guidance and inspiration and above all to Dr. for without his skill , wisdom and patience this essay would not have been possible . < /abstract><heading>1 Introduction : Real and Complex Numbers</heading > FORMULA   and   FORMULA   are both normed division algebras . An algebra is a vector space with a multiplication and left and right distributivity . A division algebra is an algebra A such that if ab = then a = or b = for   FORMULA . A normed division algebra is an algebra with the additional property that A is a normed vector space with   FORMULA   where   FORMULA   is the norm of the elements and   FORMULA . "" This implies that A is a division algebra and that   FORMULA . "" [ B2002 ] That   FORMULA   is a division algebra is easily seen . We have   FORMULA   so   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   is a normed algebra . We also see that   FORMULA   generates SO(2 ) , the groups of rotations in - dimensional space . When   FORMULA , the map   FORMULA   is an isometry . We see that when   ,   FORMULA   is a rotation . This follows from   . Theorem 1 . The group SO(2 ) consists of all multiplications   FORMULA   by complex units . : The matrix of the rotation is   FORMULA . We can see that det R = so   FORMULA . • This essay will explore other such algebras and investigate hypercomplex numbers . We will also research some applications to geometry , uses in rotations , construction of hyperdimensional objects and some interesting algebras . 2 Dual , Double and   FORMULA   Take a number of the form a + bi for   FORMULA . Let us find a rule satisfying   FORMULA   for   FORMULA ,   FORMULA   and such that the distributive law is satisfied . We require that   FORMULA . Then   FORMULA . We can see that this multiplication   is both commutative and associative . Then we can write   FORMULA . There are cases to consider , the being   FORMULA . Then   FORMULA   and   FORMULA . This means that a + bi can be written as   FORMULA   with   , the complex numbers . The case is   FORMULA . Then we set   FORMULA . So a + bi may be written as   FORMULA   with   FORMULA . These are the double numbers . The case is   FORMULA . We have   FORMULA , we may write a + bi as   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   These are the dual numbers . < heading>3 Quaternions</heading > The story of and his discovery of quaternions is familiar to all [ ] . His ' Eureka ! ' moment and subsequent etching of the relation   FORMULA   into the stone of the bridge is part of mathematical legend . Quaternions become familiar during some elementary course in the algebra of rings . However , it was probably discussed as a brief example of a division ring with only a brief mention as regards to rotation .   FORMULA   is a beautiful object to consider and some of its applications to rotations in and four dimensional space are equally beautiful , if not more so . was interested by how   FORMULA   was linked to - dimensional geometry . He was desperate to find an algebra serving the same purpose for - dimensions . He later wrote that his son , , would ask at breakfast : "" Well , Papa , can you multiply triplets "" . His answer was always : "" No , I can only add and subtract them "" [ H2004 , H2000 ] . was referring to 's attempts to construct an algebra with elements of the form z = a + bi + cj where   FORMULA . Addition is a simple matter but , as discovered , multiplication proves to be a much more complicated issue . We need a rule satisfying   ,   FORMULA   and such that the distributive law is satisfied . Let us use   FORMULA . This is easily seen to satisfy the above requirements . We also notice that the multiplication rule is commutative and associative . The problem arises when we come to division . Take   FORMULA   and we see that this equation has no solution . It can be shown that for ever multiplication rule satisfying the above conditions , there exist z 1,z2 such that = z2 has no solution . 's own block was caused by ( a + bi + cj)2 . He was considering triplets with i2 = j2 = - 1 and expected to have ( a + bi + cj)2 = a2 - b2 - c2 + 2abi + 2acj + 2bcij . The problem lay in the fact that required   , to form a division algebra . We see   FORMULA    FORMULA    . leading to consider the , somewhat absurd , requirement that ij = . Then he realised that ( a + bi + cj)2 = a2 - b2 - c2 + 2abi+2acj+bc(ij+ji ) and that he could then write k = ji = - ij with k linearly independent of i and j. This was quite a breakthrough , since anticommutativity was not often considered at this time . Then came the inspiration while walking alongside and quaternions were born . We recall that a quaternion is an element ( a , b , c , d ) of   FORMULA . The quaternion is usually expressed , with respect to a basis { , i , j , k } , in the familiar form a + bi + cj + dk . We may multiply a pair of quaternion expressions using the distributive law and employing the basic relations :   FORMULA . So we see that for quaternions a = a1+a2i + a3j + a4k and b = b1 b4k we have   FORMULA . The algebra formed by this operation of quaternion multiplication is commonly denoted as   . Example 1 . Take the quaternion   FORMULA . We may write this as   FORMULA . It is easily seen that   FORMULA in the same way that   can be written   FORMULA   and   . For each quaternion q = a + bi + cj + dk there exists a conjugate quaternion   FORMULA   and   FORMULA . It is also true that   FORMULA   which is strictly positive for all quaternions except the quaternion . This means that a norm   FORMULA   may be defined and hence an inverse   FORMULA   for all q = . We see that   FORMULA   implying 's theorem , every positive integer is the sum of squares , through 's identity   FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    . . H is a non - commutative , associative division algebra . : When we show that   FORMULA   is a ring , we need only investigate distributivity and associativity .. Multiplicative associativity can be easily shown :   FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA   We can show distributivity since   FORMULA   and right distributivity is shown similarly . Now , for   FORMULA   let us have xy = , then   FORMULA . of the norms must be , without loss of generality say   FORMULA . The norm is when the components of x are , hence x = . Then , since this proves that   FORMULA   is an integral domain , it is simple to show that there is a muliplicative inverse and thus prove the theorem . So we now have that the quaternions   FORMULA   are a non - commutative , associative division algebra . As an alternative proof , let   FORMULA   be the real algebra that has the basis 1,i , j , k under the usual relations . Then , with some work , we can see that this defines an associative algebra structure on the real algebra   FORMULA . We consider the real linear automophism   FORMULA   given by   FORMULA . We see   FORMULA . We define   FORMULA   so that   FORMULA . Then   FORMULA . So   FORMULA   is an associative division algebra . • There are many other useful representations of this algebra , most commonly used and useful forms are the following . . A quaternion q = a + bi + cj + dk may be considered as a formal sum of the scalar element a and the element x = bi + cj + dk of   FORMULA . Multiplication of quaternions of this form   FORMULA   takes a form expressible in terms of the dot and cross products of - dimensional vector algebra :   FORMULA   . Let us denote the imaginary element of   FORMULA   as This is so as to avoid confusion with the quaternion basis element , i. The matrices   ,   ,   FORMULA   satisfy the same relations as i , j , k. We can also introduce the unit matrix element ,   , for the quaternion basis element we find   FORMULA . This has the form   FORMULA   for   FORMULA   We note that the associativity of quaternions now follows automatically from that of matrices . An interesting thought here is to consider the quaternion group group   . We see   FORMULA , with   FORMULA   if we say j = ik . We then have a representation   FORMULA   with   FORMULA   being the group of invertible matrices with entries in   FORMULA   - with   FORMULA   with   FORMULA .   FORMULA   is a representation since   FORMULA   so   FORMULA   is a homomorphism . Furthermore ,   FORMULA   where   FORMULA   is the group generated by A , B since it is obvious that there is a bijection   FORMULA   and hence isomorphism [ JL2004 ] . . We now fix the quaternion q = a + bi + cj + dk and then consider the function   , left multiplication by q , that is given by   FORMULA . We note that the composition of functions such as this is given by   FORMULA . Then we deduce   FORMULA   and we note that this depends essentially upon the associativity of quaternion multiplication ; this point is worth remarking on , because the higher - dimensional algebra of octonions is not associative so the same procedure can not be carried through . We discuss this in detail later on . Since Lq is a linear operation on   FORMULA   we can get a matrix representation for it , and hence for q , by examining how it acts upon the standard basis { , i , j , k } . This yields   FORMULA   Obviously this can be written in the form   FORMULA   with Ai being standard 4x4 matrices which again behave algebraically like the quaternion basis . Note , one can similarly define a linear map   FORMULA   by   FORMULA   but to get a similar application of associativity one needs to work with representation by transposed matrices . There are many intriguing relationships to be explored between these different representations and are worth exploring simply for entertainment and interest 's sake . An interesting fact is noted below . A group is a set G which has both group structure and k - manifold structure for   FORMULA , with both the maps   FORMULA   defined by   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   given by   FORMULA   being differentiable . That is , G is a subset   FORMULA   which is diffeomorphic to   FORMULA   and is associative , closed , has multiplicative inverse and identity , Now , Theorem 3 . H is a group . : H is diffeomorphic to   . Hence   FORMULA   is a - manifold since we can see   FORMULA   is bijective and   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   are differentiable . It is easily seen that   FORMULA   has group structure under addition as well as multiplication . Then the condition that there exists a map   FORMULA   is satisfied . • < heading>4 Quaternions and Rotations</heading > Let us suppose that q is an unit quaternion , defined as a quaternion of norm , so that we have   FORMULA . Let x be a quaternion of the form bi + cj + dk such that   FORMULA . We can treat it as an ordinary element of   , since its norm is the usual norm . Then , we have   FORMULA   and   . The map     preserves lengths . We can see that it then follows that this linear map will define a rotation of - dimensional space . A homomorphism is defined from the multiplicative structure of   FORMULA   to the group special orthogonal group SO(3 ) of rotations in - space . This means that the multiplication of quaternions is mapped to the composition of rotations . . The map   is onto . Proof : All elements of SO(3 ) are determined by both a unit vector   , in   , considered as the axis of the rotation and an angle   FORMULA   considered as the angle of rotation around   FORMULA . Note : There exists a slight ambiguity here since a rotation through   FORMULA   about the axis   FORMULA   gives the same result as a rotation through   FORMULA   about the axis   FORMULA . We shall now consider the quaternion   FORMULA Our goal will be to show that it will map to this rotation . Consider   FORMULA   It is obvious that n commutes with both the terms of q so we can re - write the product as   , since q is a unit quaternion . Thus   FORMULA   is invariant under the rotation induced from q and it follows that it is the axis of that rotation . Let us consider an unit vector   FORMULA   and let this vector be perpendicular to   , so   . Using the scalar - vector notation which has been discussed previously , we see   FORMULA . Then   FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    . This gives   FORMULA   and   FORMULA . So   is in the positive sense of the rotation from   FORMULA   to   . Any rotation may be captured by a unit quaternion mapping of the form   , so we can now observe that this mapping is actually since we know that   FORMULA   gives the same rotation . So we see that this can be used to to resolve the ambiguity noted above . • < heading>5 Loose ends</heading > We may pursue this a bit further by taking note of the fact that for unit quaternions , the complex representation discussed in a previous section is a unitary matrix   FORMULA . So we have   FORMULA   since   FORMULA   and furthermore   FORMULA . The set of unit quaternions forms a group under multiplication which is isomorphic to the special unitary group in dimensions , SU(2 ) . In general , SU(n ) denotes the group of complex , n x n unitary matrices with determinant . After his discovery , dedicated his life to quaternions and their application to geometry . Many universities used quaternions for work in   , as naturally as vectors and scalars are the standard method in . There were quite a few battles fought between the ' vectorists ' and the ' quaternionists ' , although vectors were finally accepted as the standard . Indeed , many mathematicians and physicists were particularly vicious about quaternions . Kelvin himself opined , "" Though beautifully ingenious , the quaternions have been an unmixed evil to those who have touched them in any way "" . Faced with opposition by luminaries such as , it is not surprising that vectors were victorious over quaternions . It must be noted , however , that vectors are much simpler to use , although their use is quite mechanical and not as much fun as the quaternions . The development in the understanding of linear algebra , means that many of the amusing properties of quaternions can equally and sometimes more profitably seen as a special case of a matrix group . This is in fact a great pity since quaternions are beautiful objects , worthy of study although they are not regarded as highly as they have been in the past . The above theorem relating quaternions to - dimensional rotations may simply be regarded as a group homomorphism   . Simply put , it is a representation of the group SU(2 ) by real matrices . The mapping was shown earlier to be so the inverse map can not be regarded as a representation of SO(3 ) by complex matrices . However , it is a kind of double - valued representation , if we allow ourselves to be a bit lax regarding the double - valued nature of the inverse mapping . Namely , it is what is known as a spinor representation . It is possible to put an equivalence relation on SU(2 ) such that   FORMULA   are equivalent . Then the inverse map may be treated as a map from SO(3 ) to the set of equivalence classes . For   FORMULA , the double cover of SO(n ) is Spin(n ) [ H2003 , CS2003 ] . What are spinors ? Spinors are - component complex column vectors . They were discovered by and re - invented by and to describe spin , a fundamental property of the elementary particles . An n - dimensional spinor of a certain type is an element of the vector space on which a real group called the spinor group Spin(p , q ) acts [ C81 ] . Spinors became prominent with the advent of quantum mechanics . This happened when realised that a spinor representation of an electron 's state was required for the correct relativistic equations for describing the electron . In quantum theory the double - valuedness is not a big obstacle as in classical physics since the observable properties of a system are expressed through quadratic expressions of the wave function , removing the   FORMULA   factor . They are still used within particle physics where bosons and fermions require either tensor or spinor descriptions . They are also used within research on loop quantum gravity , the main rival of M - theory as a budding . < heading>6 The Tetrahedral Group</heading > Here follows a fantastic diversion for the next sections . As we know , there are regular or ' ' solids . Namely these are the tetrahedron , cube , octahedron , icosahedron and the dodecahedron . Now an unit quaternion can represent a rotation in - dimensional space . The rotation groups of these solids are useful in other areas of mathematics but here we ask how does this relate to quaternion rotations ? consider a regular tetrahedron in which the vertices are arranged so that by looking inwards from the vertex D towards the mid - point of the opposite face , the order of the vertices in that face is clockwise . Such a direction will be referred to as an outward - pointing normal to the tetrahedron . We can achieve any even permutation of { A , B , C , D } by a rotation , so that the group of rotations is A4 , with   FORMULA . There are distinct types of group elements . are the rotations which fix a single vertex . For example , we find a rotation leaving D fixed and cyclically permuting ( ) by rotating about the outward pointing normal to the face through   FORMULA . Let us call this rotation D1 . D1 2 is a rotation through   FORMULA   about the same normal . We call this rotation D2 . , , , B2 , C1 , C2 are similarly defined . We now define the type of rotation through   FORMULA   about the line perpendicular to the edges AB , CD . We shall denote this rotation , the permutation ( AB)(CD ) . Rotations AC and are similarly defined . The type of rotation is the identity Id. The cubes of the type and the squares of the type are equal to We only need examples to generate these rotations . Let us choose D1 and . Denote these by a , b and the other permutations may be calculated as :   FORMULA ,   ,   FORMULA    ,   ,   FORMULA    ,   ,   . The presentation of the group is   FORMULA . Let us describe the tetrahedron in coordinate form . Opposite edges are at right angles so we can arrange AB parallel to the y - axis and symmetrically placed with respect to the x - z - plane but below the x - y - plane . We then write   FORMULA   and   FORMULA . We arrange CD parallel to the x - axis , symmetrically placed with respect to the y - z - plane and above the x - y - plane . Then   FORMULA   and   FORMULA . Letting the edges be of the same length and the position vectors be unit vectors we have   FORMULA   Using the quaternion formula for a rotation we have   FORMULA   and   . The quaternion representations of the remaining rotations may be calculated from the presentation given above . < heading>7 A Dimensional Regular Hypersolid - The 24 - Cell</heading > We consider quaternions corresponding to elements of A4 , together with their negatives . We can take these quaternions as distinct points in dimensions . They are unit quaternions and so lie on the surface of the unit - sphere   FORMULA . These points are taken as vertices of a hypersolid and form a polyhedron by joining each vertex to its nearest neighbours . We may define distance on the surface of a sphere in terms of angles separating vectors to those points from the centre of the sphere . A quaternion analogue for the cosine rule is needed . We consider a triangle which is defined by quaternions q , q ' and their difference q - q ' .   . Comparing this with the cosine rule   FORMULA   gives   FORMULA   We start with a quaternion and calculate the cosine of the angle with all other quaternions . We see the largest cosine not equal to is   FORMULA   and   FORMULA . So we set up a network , G , with vertices and an edge for each pair of vertices whose angle cosine is   . Every vertex has neighbours . Take Id , . The common neighbours to these vertices are -B2 , -C2 , -D2 . Exploring in this way while examining angles between edges , we find the smallest hypersurface polyhedron to be an octahedron . The hypersurface must be built from regular - dimensional solids of which there are types , so most are easy to eliminate making the work a lot simpler . The vertices   ,   ,   FORMULA   form a typical octahedron the bracketed pairs here being opposite , non - connected vertices of the octahedron . To complete the task we find the centre of the octahedron as the mean of any of these opposite pairs . We then normalise it to unit length so that it lies on and use this as a projection centre for stereographic projection of the vertices onto   FORMULA . Joining pairs of points by line segments according to the adjacency information contained in the network G gives a - dimensional projection of the - dimensional regular solid . This - dimensional projection may be displayed on a Maple worksheet as displayed . This beautiful object is called the - Cell [ S2001 ] . < heading>8 - dimensional rotation : An introduction</heading > We regard SO(4 ) as the group of rotations for - dimensional space . This would include rotations such as those of the - Cell . We may consider some quaternion pairs as rotations in - dimensional space . Take unit quaternions   .The double - valuedness also happens with SO(4 ) so the quaternion pair     obviously gives the same map as the pair   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   give the same projective map . There exists a relationship between SO(4 ) and SO(3 ) x SO(3 ) . More accurately , there is an isomorphism between the projective groups   FORMULA   since the projective map   FORMULA   is given by   FORMULA   [ CS2003 ] . Take a rotation   FORMULA . We know that   ,   . Theorem . Eigenvalues of orthogonal matrices have unit modulus . : Let   FORMULA   be an eigenvalue which corresponds to a certain eigenvector Take the complex transpose so that   FORMULA   for   FORMULA . We know that A is real so   FORMULA . Then   FORMULA . Since x is an eigenvector it is nonzero and as such   . • Since the eigenvalues of A have unit modulus by ( 5 ) we can write them as   FORMULA   We take the corresponding eigenvectors to be   FORMULA   and so we may choose a new real basis for   FORMULA   to be   FORMULA   We will take these vectors to be an orthonormal set . We see that   FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA   We also see   FORMULA    FORMULA      With respect to the orthonormal basis { e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 } the matrix form is now   FORMULA   We may interpret this as a product of commuting rotations , R1(θ ) in the ( e1,e2)-plane and R2(φ ) in the ( e3 , e 4)-plane . < heading>9 Quaternions and - dimensional rotations</heading > Take any unit quaternions r , s. Then we may regard the mapping   FORMULA   as a rotation . Let us consider the case   FORMULA . Then we get the rotation   FORMULA   discussed in the previous section . Similarly , for   FORMULA   we get   FORMULA . Finally , the rotation A is given by   FORMULA   with respect to the orthonormal basis { e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 } . We will discover an expression for the quaternions r , s without considering a change of basis . Let us consider the quaternions corresponding to a rotation through θ in any plane . We suppose that a non - zero quaternion q is fixed under the mapping   , with r , s being unit quaternions . We split the quaternions into scalar and vector parts by writing   FORMULA . Then   FORMULA   is equivalent to   FORMULA   - or to   FORMULA . So we see   FORMULA . The scalar and vector parts of this equation may be considered as : < list ( ) FORMULA , ( 2)</list > with   FORMULA ,   ¸ . We then ( scalar ) multiply equation ( ) by x and ( ) gives   FORMULA . Hence α = or a = c. So equations ( ) , ( ) become   ,   FORMULA . Let the orthonormal quaternions q1 , q2 span a - space , and suppose it is invariant . Then : < list   ( ) FORMULA   ( ) FORMULA   ( ) FORMULA   ( 4b)</list > So from ( ) , ( )   FORMULA   ( 5 ) for some   . To both sides of ( ) we take the scalar product by x2 to get B ■ ( x1 x x2 ) so B takes the form   . Substitute back into ( ) , ( ) and use ( ) to find   FORMULA . Then   FORMULA   ( )   FORMULA   Thus b2 = d2 = λ2 . The quaternions we need are   ,   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   since they are unit quaternions . The rotation clearly occurs in the orthogonal - space with q1,q2 held fixed , The orthogonality conditions   ,   FORMULA   or   ,   FORMULA   are satisfied by all q in this space . We are thus able to move   FORMULA   past the qis in any expression . In particular ,   FORMULA   Then   FORMULA . The angle between q and q1 is then given by   . Thus   FORMULA ,   FORMULA   and then   FORMULA    FORMULA   ( 7 ) < heading>10 Quaternion expression of four - dimensional rotation</heading > To find the quaternion expression for the rotation A , an orthogonal matrix , we determine its eigenvalue structure in terms of θ , φ and the basis { e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 ) . Then rotation R1(θ ) , discussed above , will have quaternion expression   FORMULA    FORMULA   ( 8) given by an application of the results in the previous section . Similarly , R2(φ ) will be found to have quaternion expression   FORMULA    FORMULA   ( 9 ) Then the quaternion pair ( r , s ) representing the - dimensional rotation A is obtained by r = r and s = s1s2 . < heading>11 Composition of orthogonal 4 - by-4 matrices</heading > As we stated earlier , there exists a relationship between SO(4 ) and SO(3 ) x SO(3 ) . So any rotation in dimensions can be written as q ' = rqs where r , q , q',s are quaternions and r = a + bi + cj + dk , s = w + xi + yj + zk are unit quaternions . As previously , let   FORMULA   be a rotation . Then we can write   FORMULA . Quaternion multiplication is associative , so if we write R for the matrix representation of right multiplication by r and S for the matrix representation of left multiplication by s , then rqs = since   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   so A(q ) = rqs = R(S(q ) ) . So A = RS . The bigger problem is to demonstrate that this construction gives every orthogonal matrix . This is the problem of actually finding r and s when you 're given an orthogonal matrix . We can write   FORMULA   and   FORMULA . These are easily seen to be isometric with the origin as a fixed point so they are rotations in   FORMULA   about the origin . We see   FORMULA . From RS we can find a   FORMULA . Writing   FORMULA   we see that   FORMULA   with   FORMULA   FORMULA      FORMULA      FORMULA      FORMULA      FORMULA      FORMULA      FORMULA      FORMULA   Theorem 6 . Every orthogonal matrix is given by the construction involving the matrix multiplication of the representation of left and right quaternion multiplication . Proof : It is easily seen that the sum of the elements of T is equal to   FORMULA   and the complementary minors of T are . For - by-2 complementary minors   ,   FORMULA   of A , an orthogonal - by-4 matrix , we have   FORMULA   or   FORMULA   depending on   FORMULA   by 's , proved in [ GR2000 ] . Then T has non - zero entry so its column are linearly dependent and the rank of T is . So there exist a , b , c , d , w , x , y , z such that   FORMULA   and T takes the required form . So each matrix of a 4D rotation is composed of matrices R and S representing left and right multiplication by the quaternion pairs ( r , s ) or ( -r , - s ) . • Problem solved ! If we look carefully through the above work , we can easily see how the quaternion pair ( r , s ) form an orthogonal matrix . Example 2 . Take the simple example of   FORMULA   and   FORMULA . If we want the rotation   FORMULA   then we find the matrices R , S and find   FORMULA . Then   FORMULA   with   FORMULA   and   FORMULA . We are rotating vectors in dimensions so let us have co - ordinate axes , i , j , k with O the origin . Let   FORMULA . Then we can see that   FORMULA   is a rotation by   FORMULA   about the origin in the plane and   FORMULA   about the origin in the jk plane , whereas   FORMULA   is a rotation of   FORMULA   about the origin in the - plane and   FORMULA   about the origin in the jk plane .   FORMULA   is a rotation by θ about the origin in the plane , R1(θ ) . The matrix   FORMULA   of rotation A from is given by the matrix representations of r = r 1r2 and = s1 s2 where   FORMULA   giving the rotation   . Thus we conclude our brief exploration of the link between quaternions and rotations . < heading>12 Hypercomplex number systems</heading > Consider an expression of the form   FORMULA   where all the   FORMULA   are arbitrary reals . Addition   FORMULA   is simple so consider multiplication . We write   FORMULA   where   FORMULA   are real and uniquely determined by choice of α , β . There are n choices of α , β and n + 1 choices of   , so n + 1 ) such numbers in total . We have   FORMULA   as the result of applying the distributive law . We obtain   FORMULA   by rewriting   FORMULA   as   FORMULA   and replacing this by     A system , with addition and multiplication , as defined above is known as an hy - percomplex number system of dimension n + 1 [ KS89 ] . The expressions are called hypercomplex numbers . The complex numbers , dual numbers , double numbers and quaternions are all examples of hypercomplex numbers . In all hypercomplex number systems it is always true that   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   for real a , b and distributivity holds . < heading>13 Classification of the Division Algebras</heading > A normed division algebra is a division algebra with a norm   , as defined in the introduction . The familiar hypercomplex number systems are all normed division algebras , although this is not necessarily true for all such systems . We will now show that R , C , H and O are the only normed division algebras . Consider the composition law ,   . we note that the inner product   FORMULA   and   FORMULA . This is easily seen since   FORMULA   by   FORMULA . Also ,   FORMULA   since   [ CS2003 ] . For conjugation ,   FORMULA   we have   FORMULA   and   FORMULA . This is easily seen since , by the previous paragraph ,   FORMULA . We have   FORMULA   since the previous result gives   FORMULA . Then it becomes apparent that   FORMULA   since   FORMULA . We let S be a subalgebra of n - dimensions , containing and i , an unit vector orthogonal to S. Then   FORMULA   and ( i , a ) . We now evaluate composition , conjugation and the inner product on the double algebra , S + iS. We have ( a+ib , c+id ) = ( a , c)+ ( b , d ) since ( a , i d ) = , ( ib , c ) = ,   FORMULA . Then   FORMULA   so   FORMULA . Lastly ,   FORMULA   so   FORMULA . Letting D = C + iC , which is a normed division algebra when   FORMULA   for   FORMULA . Expanding gives   FORMULA . So D is a normed division algebra when   , or equivalently , when C is an associative normed division algebra [ CS2003 , ] . We have C = B + i'B. B must also be an associative normed division algebra with i'bc = i'cb , in other words B must be commutative as we will now see . For   FORMULA   we have   FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA . Letting B = A + i""A we can show that A is a commutative , associative normed division algebra with trivial conjugation ,   . Suppose   FORMULA   and we see that since   FORMULA   so   FORMULA . Then   FORMULA . So we can write the following , due to : Theorem 7 . R , C , H and O are the only normed division algebras . : The real numbers R are commutative , associative and have trivial conjugation . The complex numbers C is a commutative , associative algebra . The quaternions H is an associative normed division algebra . The octonions O is non - associative so its double algebra is not a normed division algebra . • It is important to remember that a normed division algebra is not necessarily a division ring , or any kind of ring . The fundamental properties of rings include associativity under multiplication . The octonions O is a normed division algebra which is non - associate . Therefore , it is not a ring . The next theorems , due to Fronebius , are of great interest to us . It enhances the link between the normed division algebras and division algebras in general . Theorem 8 . Every associative division algebra is isomorphic to of R , C or H. Proof : Let A be an associative division algebra . Let   FORMULA   and consider xa = a. Multiplying on the left by b , we have b(ea ) = ba = ( be)a so be = b and A has an identity . Elements ce form a subalgebra R which is isomorphic to If R is not all of A then it contains a subalgebra C which is isomorphic to C So if   FORMULA   and e are linearly independent , the set of elements C of the form αe + βa forms a subalgebra isomorphic to C This is proved by showing that a satisfies a quadratic equation with negative discriminant . If we say dim A = n , we have that the system of n + 1 vectors ,   , is linearly dependent and that , for some m , a is a root of the mth degree equation   . The general mth - degree polynomial can be written   , as a product of linear and irreducible quadratic polynomials . We may replace x with a and since P(a ) = , we have Pi(a ) = , for some i , because A is a division algebra . We see that a can not satisfy a linear equation since e and a are linearly independent . Therefore , a satisfies an irreducible quadratic equation - its discriminant is negative . If C is not all of A , then it contains a subalgebra Q which is isomorphic to H. So , if   FORMULA   do not belong in the same subalgebra C then the set Q of elements of the form   FORMULA   forms a subalgebra isomorphic to H. In C we choose an element b such that   , and in a subalgebra C we choose b ' fulfilling the same condition . b , b ' are scalar multiples of a , a ! so Q , with elements   , and Q ' , with elements   , coincide . Let c = b and c = kb + k'b ' . Then , unless k ' = , the set of these elements Q "" coincides with Q ' and Q. We assume that bb ' + b'b = ke for real k and b2 , b'2 = - 1 since this is easily proved . We choose d = kb + 2b ' so c = ( k2 - 4)e . So k2 - 4 < 0 . Let   FORMULA   and we see   FORMULA . We also have   FORMULA    FORMULA . Then   FORMULA . So   FORMULA ,   ,   FORMULA   and to show that Q "" is a subalgebra we need only evaluate the following products . We have   FORMULA ,   ,   FORMULA   and   . Thus , any product is a linear combination of the elements so Q "" is a subalgebra . It is isomorphic to H by the following . We must show that e , c , c , cc forms a basis of Q "" . Since c and c belong to distinct complex subalgebras they are linearly independent , so we need only show the same for cc . To prove , we suppose cc = αc + βc + γe . Multiplying on the left by c gives   . Rearranging , and then taking the difference of the expressions gives   FORMULA . But it is impossible to find a real β which avoids a contradiction . So the elements form a basis . We have Q "" = H since we can see the multiplication rules we examined above give the multiplication table of H. If Q is not all of A , we must show that A is not a division algebra . Take c not in Q and   FORMULA   where   , the imaginary unit of ,   FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    , , so   FORMULA   and   FORMULA . Then we see that   FORMULA   so   FORMULA . But ix = c is not solvable for   FORMULA . So we have a contradiction [ KS89 ] . • More generally we have a proof that A is a normed algebra , which implies the result we are looking for by 's theorem . Theorem 9 . Every alternative division algebra is isomorphic to of R , C , H or O. Proof : The ideas upon which the previous proof was based also hold for an alternative division algebra . The thing we realise is that this theorem can be stated as follows : Every alernative division algebra is isomorphic to a normed division algebra . Then the rest follow by . So we need to define an inner product such that A must be normed , such that   FORMULA . We define a conjugation operation on A. If   FORMULA   and e , the identity , are linearly dependent then   . If a and e are linearly independent , then   FORMULA   is a subalgebra of also contains   , the conjugate of   FORMULA . Let also   , the quaternion subalgebra , and take a to be the conjugate in the quaternion algebra . We see   FORMULA ,   ,   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   where k is real . Then   FORMULA   and   FORMULA . Then   FORMULA   since if not , a is a multiple of . This lets us deduce   and   . The conjugate of ab is   FORMULA   so   FORMULA . We define an inner product   FORMULA   on A. The properties of inner product   FORMULA   if a = 0 , ( a , b ) = ( b , a ) , ( a , kb ) = k(a , b ) and ( a , b + c ) = ( a , b ) + ( a , c ) are obviously implied by the deductions we have made . We see   FORMULA   since   FORMULA   for a=0 . Then   FORMULA   and it follows that   FORMULA   so that A must be normed . The result follows by . • < heading>14 of F</heading > We now explore another way to classify associative division algebras that is , perhaps , not so direct . The group arose out of an attempt to classify division rings . To get started we need a few definitions and redefinitions . A ring A is known as an F - algebra if it   , the center of A and it is a finite dimensional vector space over F. A simple F - algebra is an F - algebra A over a field such that A is simple and so has no nontrivial ideals . We now redefine the associative division algebra . An F - algebra A is known as a division algebra if the units of A are the quotient ring A/{0 } [ S99 ] . As we know , the opposite ring   FORMULA   to an ring R has the same additive group structure as R but has a new multiplication   FORMULA . If A is an algebra over F , then so is   . An R - module is a set that has multiplication and addition operations , forming an abelian group under addition and satisfying   FORMULA    FORMULA   and   FORMULA   for   FORMULA   a ring with identity and   . An R - module is simple if it has no nontrivial submodule . M n(A ) denotes the algebra of n x n matrices over the algebra A. We have that M n(D ) is a simple algebra for a division algebra D over F. Lastly , an ring A satisfies the descending chain condition so that if   FORMULA   is the set of all ideals in A such that   FORMULA   then   FORMULA   such that   FORMULA for   FORMULA . Theorem 10 . Let A be a simple F - algebra . For some division algebra D and some positive integer n , there is an isomorphism from A to ) . : Let M be a simple A - module . A - module structure is given by the ring homomor - phism   FORMULA . This is injective because A is simple so its kernel must be A or { 0 } , and is not A since a homomorphism has   FORMULA . By 's Lemma , a name familiar from representation theory for another different lemma , we have   FORMULA   a division algebra . Then   FORMULA   by the Double Centralizer Theorem and   FORMULA   is isomorphic to a matrix algebra over   . • Note : The Double Centralizer Theorem states that for an ring A with center F and a subalgebra   FORMULA   over F the following holds .   FORMULA   is simple ,   FORMULA , if   FORMULA , then   FORMULA   and if B is central simple over F , so is   FORMULA   and   . For a proof see [ H78 ] . Theorem 11 ( Schur 's Lemma ) . If S is a simple R - module then   FORMULA   is a division algebra . : The proof is quite simple . Since     is a ring , we show that every nonzero endomorphism   FORMULA   is invertible .   FORMULA   is a submodule of S and if   FORMULA   then   FORMULA   so   FORMULA   since S is simple .   FORMULA   is a submodule of S and   FORMULA   if   FORMULA   again because S is simple . So φ is an automorphism of S , and is thus invertible in   FORMULA . • An F - algebra A is central simple if it is simple and   FORMULA . It is easily shown that an F - algebra is central simple if and only if it is isomorphic to M n(D ) for a division algebra D over a field . An F - algebra is central simple if and only if it is isomorphic to ) for a division algebra D with center : A is simple so , as we have just shown , it is isomorphic to some ) for a division algebra D over field ) has the set of dIn as center , for   FORMULA . Conversely , ) is central simple because matrix algebras are simple . • We briefly define the tensor product . Take A - modules say R , S , T and a bilinear mapping   FORMULA . We construct an A - module P and a bilinear mapping   FORMULA   with the property that to any bilinear mapping φ there corresponds an unique homomorphism   FORMULA   such that   FORMULA . Such a module P is called a tensor product of R and S , denoted   . We note that   FORMULA   and if D is a division F - algebra then   . . The tensor product of central simple F - algebras is another central simple F - algebra . : We show that   FORMULA   is simple . Suppose that I is a nonzero ideal of this tensor product and let   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   for   FORMULA   linearly independent over choose   FORMULA   to have few nonzero   . Assume   FORMULA   and if   FORMULA   then   . A is simple so the ideal Iai generated by a1 is A. Then we have   FORMULA . So we can find   ,   , which is a sum of tensors with the same number of nonzero   FORMULA   as For   ,   FORMULA   but   FORMULA   since   FORMULA   has fewer nonzero   FORMULA   than z.   FORMULA   since the   FORMULA   are linearly independent over F. Then   FORMULA   and hence in   FORMULA ,   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   implies   . Then   FORMULA   and so   FORMULA . So , by definition ,   FORMULA   is simple . It remains to show that   FORMULA   is central . We identify F with   FORMULA , so that it is clear that   FORMULA   since     involves F - algebras . Then   FORMULA   is an F - algebra . Let   FORMULA   with   FORMULA   linearly independent . Then   FORMULA   for   FORMULA . Then   FORMULA . Write   FORMULA   and , since   , for   FORMULA ,   FORMULA   implying   FORMULA . So   FORMULA for   FORMULA   and so   . Therefore ,   FORMULA   is central over F. Then   FORMULA   is central simple . • The last theorem , and the one following , are needed to define an operation on a particular group : Theorem . If A is a central simple F - algebra , so is   FORMULA   its opposite and   FORMULA . : From the definition of the center of a ring Z(A ) we see that the center of   FORMULA   is just the center of A ,   FORMULA . Then   FORMULA   is central over F where A is central over also see that   FORMULA   is a simple algebra if A is simple since the right ideals in A map injectively to the left ideals in   , and vice versa . We define a map   . This map is obviously a homomorphism , since it respect addition a multiplication in the given tensor product . Since   FORMULA   is simple and a nonzero map , it is injective . It is surjective since   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   have the same dimension over F. So we have an isomorphism to   . • We say that A , B are similar   , where both A and B are central simple F - algebras , if   FORMULA   such that M m(A ) = M n(B ) . This is easily seen to be an equivalence relation , satisfying symmetry , reflexivity and transistivity . We let [ A ] denote the equivalence class of A , a central simple algebra . We denote   , the set of such equivalence classes . The group of a field F , Br(F ) , is an abelian group defined as follows . It is the set Br(F ) under the operation   . Br(F ) is closed under the operation as we have seen .. We have   FORMULA , so   FORMULA   so the identity is [ F ] . We have   FORMULA   because   FORMULA . Then Br(F ) is an abelian group since the tensor product is both associative and commutative . Theorem 15 . We can show that there is a bijection between the elements of Br(F ) and the division algebras D with center F , mapping D to the element represented by ) . : We have   FORMULA   so all representatives of a certain element of Br(F ) have the same basic division algebra Then   FORMULA   so it is easily seen that Mn(D ) and Mm(D ) represent the same element . • So we have proved that there is a bijective correspondence between the division algebras D over F and the elements of Br(F ) [ S99 ] . Example 3 . We do not progress deeply into this subject matter so our example is very simple . Take Br(R ) the only division algebras over R are R itself and H. So we can see that Br(R ) = Z/2Z. There is a huge number of groups , of course , since we can have F = C , F = Q and all other fields . It is possible also to calculate groups for commutative rings and there is more application throughout cohomology , although this is far beyond the scope we wish to discuss . < heading>15 construction</heading > Before we get around to construction , we need a couple of definitions . Recall the definition of an algebra and a division algebra is an algebra with multiplicative identity and multiplicative inverse . We see that ax = b and ya = b are uniquely solvable so if ab = 0 and   , b = [ B2002 ] . The associator is a trilinear map on an algebra A ,   , given by [ a , b , c ] = ( ab)c - a(bc ) . An algebra is power - associative ,   , if the subalgebra generated by element is associative so [ a , a , a ] = . An algebra is alternative , ( aa)b = a(ab),(ba)a = b(aa ) , if the subalgebra generated by elements is associative , when [ a , a , b ] = 0 . If the subalgebra generated by elements is associative [ a , b , c ] = 0 , then A is associative . construction is a process by which we may create   FORMULA -hypercomplex numbers . These new hypercomplex numbers are constructed from   FORMULA -hypercomplex numbers . This is done by the process of defining the multiplication rule for the   -dimensional hypercomplex numbers in terms of the   -dimensional hypercomplex numbers . If we let h1 , h2 be   -dimensional hypercomplex numbers and write each h1 , h2 as an ordered pair of   -dimensional hypercomplex numbers , A , B , C and D ,   FORMULA , then the process defines the multiplication of h1 and h2 by   , where D * is a conjugate of D and c is a field parameter . Let us try to create some of the algebras we have already met . Consider this with multiplication rule for ( a ; b ) and ( c ; d ) , with   FORMULA . We have ( a;b)(c;d ) = ( ac - bd;ad + bc ) with   , since   . Take the complex numbers a + bi and c + di where   , and   FORMULA . Then ( a + bi)(c + di ) = ( ac - bd ) + ( ad + bc)i . This shows that ( ac - bd ; ) , ( ; ad + bc ) correspond to ( ac - bd ) , ( ad + bc)i respectively . Let us write   FORMULA . We need to introduce   , another imaginary unit , with   FORMULA   and   . Consider the multiplication of quaternions defined as ordered pairs of complex numbers , ( a ; b ) , ( c ; d ) , with   FORMULA . We have   FORMULA . Take quaternions , each in terms of complex numbers ,   ,   FORMULA   where   FORMULA . Then   FORMULA . Compare this with the above . We see that there is a term consisting of   FORMULA . This is a new imaginary number   . Similarly , let   FORMULA . We define the octonions ,   FORMULA   as the ordered pairs   ,   . Multiplication of U and V is given thus :   FORMULA .   ,   ,   ,   FORMULA   are the new elements introduced by applying the process . So , we begin to wonder , why are there no other division algebras ? Indeed , why ca n't we have an infinite chain of algebras , each constructed by applying the process to the previous algebra ? As we have noted earlier , R is a commutative division algebra with trivial conjugation . C is also commutative but trivial conjugation is lost . For quaternions , we lose commutativity and associativity is lost for the octonions . As we go on , our algebras lose properties . Let us define a c - algebra as an algebra with conjugation ,   FORMULA   such that c(c(A ) ) = A and c(ab ) = c(b)c(a ) . The c - algebra is real if a = c(a ) , and nicely normed if   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   for   FORMULA . If A is nicely normed ,   FORMULA   [ B2002 ] . If A is nicely normed ,   FORMULA . If A is also alternative it is a normed division algebra . This is seen by   FORMULA   . Applying the construction to the c - algebra A , gives A ' . ( a , b ) are the elemtents of A ' , as shown earlier . This leads us to the conclusion that A ' is never real , A is real if and only if A ' is commutative , A is commutative and associative if and only if A ' is associative , A is associative and nicely normed if and only if A ' is alternative and nicely normed and A is nicely normed if and only if A ' is nicely normed . A ' is never real : The elements of A ' are   FORMULA   so   FORMULA   so A ' is not real . A is real if and only if A ' is commutative : Let A be real so a = c(a ) and ab = c(ab ) = c(b)c(a ) = ba . Then   FORMULA   so A ' is commutative . Conversely , let A ' be commutative . Then   FORMULA . So dc(b ) = bc(d ) so a = c(a ) and A is real . A is commutative and associative if and only if A ' is associative : Let A be commutative and associative so ab = ba and ( ab)c = ) . Then   FORMULA    FORMULA   while   FORMULA    FORMULA . We can see that these are equal since A is commutative and associative , so A ' is associative . A is associative and nicely normed if and only if A ' is alternative and nicely normed : A is associative and nicely normed so   ,   FORMULA   and   FORMULA . Then   FORMULA ,   FORMULA   and   FORMULA    FORMULA . Similar for ( c , d)[(a , b)(a , b ) ] . So A ' is alternative and nicely normed . is simple . That A is nicely normed if and only if A ' is nicely normed is a simple proof . So we see that we can only construct a small number of division algebras by applying the process [ B2002 ] . < heading>16 Octonions , Sedenions and The octonions were discovered in by , shortly after quaternions came to light . He expounded his new "" octaves "" to his college friend , . Unfortunately , discovered octonions in and beat Graves to publication : they became known as "" Cayley Numbers "" . The octonions are another hypercomplex number system ; as shown it is a non - associative , normed division algebra . From the process we know it is an alternative , nicely - normed c - algebra . The multiplication table for O takes the form displayed . The octonions are given the form   FORMULA   [ H2004 , H2000 ] . < table/>There are a few interesting facts about octonions , which we will investigate below . Despite this , they are largely ignored - even more so than the quaternions . There are many reasons for this , including the fact that was more concerned with the link between quaternions and hyperelliptic functions ; that numbers were a mathematical oddity that arose from his research with no practical application . The quaternions form SU(2 ) , a double cover of SO(3 ) as well as the link to SO(4 ) . However , O is both useful and beautiful ; and much of the rest of the essay is devoted to exploring how [ CS2003 ] . Since associativity fails , it is sensible to investigate the multiplication operators before we proceed . We define maps ,   ,   ,   . is well - defined as the product of Rx and in either order since ( Lx)(Rx)y = ( Lx)yx = x(yx ) = ( Tx)y = ( = ( Rx)xy = ( . We see that   FORMULA   since the inner product   FORMULA   implies   FORMULA   and   FORMULA . This is known as the law [ CS2003 ] . We recall that a reflection in a vector x is expressed as   FORMULA . Given our previous study we see , . An inverse loop is a set with element , binary operation xy and inverse satisfying   ,   ,   FORMULA . We see that   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   are equivalent so xyz = . An isotopy is a triplet of invertible maps preserving the relation . So   FORMULA   mean   FORMULA   and ( a , b , c ) mean that xyz = implies   . These notations can be considered equivalent . A monotopy is defined to be one of the invertible maps in an isotopy . If xy = z implies   FORMULA   then c is a monotopy . We see that c is a monotopy if and only if there are elements α and β , companions , such that   FORMULA . This is since   FORMULA   so   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   so   FORMULA . We see that   FORMULA . Now we shall prove that multiplications by unit octonions generate SO(8 ) in the same way that the complex numbers and quaternions generate SO(2 ) and SO(4 ) respectively . , it is easily seen that if x(ry ) = ( xr)y for octonions x , y we have r is real so that the octonions are strongly non - associative . We may then prove that if α , β is a pair of companions for c , then any other pair has the form   FORMULA   for real n. Let   FORMULA   for all x , y , and set   FORMULA . If we let   FORMULA ,   FORMULA   we have   FORMULA . Putting   FORMULA ,   FORMULA   and then   ,   , we have   FORMULA   for all x , y showing that n is real . . If   FORMULA , then   FORMULA such that   FORMULA   is an isotopy . : We may write   FORMULA . We have   FORMULA . We see that   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   are bimultiplications by unit octonions since the was found earlier to be   FORMULA   and the is   . c is the product of unit bimultiplications . So   FORMULA   [ CS2003 ] . • We have seen earlier that a and b are unique up to scalar multiplication . - 1 keeps a and b in SO(8 ) so   . ( a , b , c ) is an orthogonal isotopy if   FORMULA . The group of such isotopies is a cover of SO(8 ) , the spin group Spin(8 ) . The spin group has an outer automorphism known as a triality automorphism such that   FORMULA . It is clearly an automorphism and we see that it is an outer automorphism , so not a conjugation . It is simple that PSO(8 ) has a triality automorphism since if   FORMULA   we define   FORMULA . ( [ a ] , [ b ] , [ c ] ) arising from the orthogonal isotopies ( a , b , c ) is isomorphic to PSO(8 ) with triality   FORMULA . Triality takes   FORMULA   for every unit octonion Then SO(8 ) is generated by the left , or right , multiplications of octonion units . This is a result of applying triality to the fact that SO(8 ) is generated by the bimultiplications . We also see there is a map from both triples ( a , b , c ) and ( -a , -b , c ) to c. This is then a representation of Spin(8 ) , the double - cover of SO(8 ) . The triples ( a , b , c ) for which c fixes form Spin(7 ) , the double - cover of SO(7 ) . If we apply the process to octonions and then repeat this continuously we find a chain of c - algebras with dimension , , , ... , . It is important to remember that these hypercomplex number systems are not division algebras . The - dimensional c - algebra is known as the algebra of sedenions from sexdecim [ B2002 ] . This algebra is non - commutative , non - associative , non - alternative and is not a normed division algebra . So it is possible for   ,   FORMULA   but ab = 0 . It is power associative   FORMULA   so [ a , a , a ] = , the subalgebra generated by element is associative . Each element can be represented as   FORMULA   or by applying the process . Take octonions a , b and the sedenion s = ( a ; b ) . The multiplication of sedenions is given by   . The multiplication of the sedenion elements   ,   FORMULA   is given by   FORMULA   for   FORMULA . Summation is over the permutations of the sedenion cycle ,   FORMULA .   FORMULA   is given by   FORMULA   if   FORMULA   is an even permutation ,   FORMULA   if   FORMULA   is an odd permutation , and   FORMULA   otherwise , Lastly ,   FORMULA   if   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   otherwise . < heading>17 The Freudenthal square</heading > We now explore very briefly a relationship between division algebras and Lie alge - bras . is an array of algebras . The entries of the array are the result of the algebras of × matrices.over R , C , H , O tensored with R , C , H and O. We can construct a commutative but nonassociative product a ◦ b = 12(ab + ba ) . Any algebra which satisfies the identity a ◦ ( b ◦ a ) = ( a ◦ b ) ◦ a is known as an algebra , which are power - associative . < table/>We can extend this to a Freudenthal rectangle , a array , by including the algebra < table/>The entries are all Lie algebras formed by the operation   FORMULA   defined by . This operation is for   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   is the space of imaginary elements of A , which are orthogonal to . Recall that for a ring R its derivation Der(R ) is a mapping   FORMULA   such that   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   [ D94 , B2002 ] . Remember that a Lie algebra is an algebra g over a field F if its multiplication   FORMULA   satisfies   FORMULA   and the identity   . A semisimple Lie algebra is a Lie algebra formed of the direct sums of simple Lie algebras . The classical complex simple Lie algebras are   ,   ,   FORMULA   corresponding to Lie groups   ,   ,   . A semisimple Lie algebra is a Lie algebra formed of the direct sums of simple Lie algebras . It is also given by the following theorem [ V74 , H2003 , B89 ] . Theorem . A complex Lie algebra is semisimple iff it is isomorphic to the com - plexification of the Lie algebra of a connected , compact matrix group So we know that   FORMULA   has complexification   FORMULA   and is the Lie algebra compact , simply - connected matrix group   .   FORMULA   is the complexification of   FORMULA   the Lie algebra of the compact , simply - connected Spin(n ) . Lastly ,   FORMULA   is the complexification of   , the Lie algebra of the symplectic group Sp(n ) . A root system is a finite real vector space with an inner product   , together with a finite collection R of vectors in E satisfying : < list > The elements of R span E FORMULA , then so is   FORMULA .The only multiples of   FORMULA   are   ,   FORMULA .4 If   FORMULA   then   FORMULA .5 .   FORMULA   is an integer.</list > The elements of R are roots and the dimension of E is called the rank of the root system . Theorem . Every irreducible root system is isomorphic to one of : < list > FORMULA . FORMULA . FORMULA . FORMULA .The ' exceptional ' root systems   ,   ,   ,   ,   [ H2003]</list > The algebras formed by the operation defined by , above , are the exceptional Lie algebras and a few corresponding to he classical root systems , see [ V74 , H2003 , B89 ] . < heading>18 Summary</heading > Thus concludes our brief foray into the world of normed division algebras . An interesting fact to close here is that quaternion representations of rotation groups may be fundamental to the underlying structure of our universe . The standard model insists on an infinite space created by inflation . The plasma that filled space shortly after the big bang fluctuates in density , causing temperature fluctuation in radiation . The standard model predicts these fluctuations , but on larger scales they are not detected . Consider the - manifold and finite universe S3/ a group of isometries . There are a few explanations for the missing fluctuations but the simplest is that a spherical universe will not support large scale fluctuations , analogous to the way an unit circle will only support wavelengths   FORMULA . The observable evidence is inconclusive with   FORMULA   so although the universe is indicated to be spherical , there is no conclusive evidence . To recognise a spherical universe we must find which spaces are possible . The operation is similar to our construction of the - Cell . We find that the possible symmetry groups are the cyclic group   , binary dihedral   , binary tetrahedral   FORMULA   of order , binary octahedral   FORMULA   of order and binary icosahedral   FORMULA   of order . The corresponding spaces S 3 / Γ are among the likeliest construction of our universe [ W2004 ] . < heading>19 Appendix A : More on Lie groups and Lie algebras</heading > We quickly tour the area of Lie groups and algebras in greater detail . The collection of classical Lie groups is made up of the general and special linear group , orthogonal groups , the unitary groups and the symplectic groups . They are all examples of matrix Lie groups , a subgroup G of   FORMULA   such that if any sequence   FORMULA   converges to A then   FORMULA   or   . Theorem . Every matrix Lie group G is a group . The proof is given in most good Lie theory texts . Example 4 . i )   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   are ( matrix ) Lie groups . The matrix group is a group G such that G is a closed subgroup of   FORMULA .   is a subgroup of itself , and if ( An ) is a sequence in   and   FORMULA   then   FORMULA   or it is not invertible by definition . If   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   then   FORMULA   are all real . So   FORMULA or A is not invertible . ii ) Many of the subgroups of   are ( matrix ) Lie groups , including the special linear , symplectic ( special ) orthogonal and ( special ) unitary groups . This can be shown by using methods similar to above . iii )   ,   ,   ,   . Of course , O is not a group since associativity fails . iv ) Take   FORMULA . We define the group product by   . Associativity is easily checked , with   . G has an identity and an inverse for each element . The product is smooth as is the inverse element map , hence G is a Lie group . A matrix group is compact if all convergent sequences   FORMULA   converge to an   FORMULA   and there exists a c such that   FORMULA   for all   ,   FORMULA   and   . Example 5 . U(n ) is a compact group since   FORMULA   and   is preserved under limits . If A is unitary , the column vectors are orthonormal . Then   FORMULA . ii )   FORMULA   is not compact . For   FORMULA , if   FORMULA   we do not always have   FORMULA . Similar idea for the other classical Lie groups . A matrix Lie group G is connected if for   FORMULA   there exists a continuous path   FORMULA   in G with   FORMULA   and   FORMULA . We say G is simply connected if every loop in G can be shrunk continuously to a point in , as well as G being connected . Now a Lie algebra of a Lie group G is given as   . Theorem 20 . Let   FORMULA be smooth and for each   FORMULA   for   FORMULA ,   FORMULA   is surjective then   FORMULA   is a manifold . Then   FORMULA . : We are familiar enough with differential topology to recall that   FORMULA . Now , we let   FORMULA   be a chart on X around x. The map     is constant since   FORMULA . So   FORMULA . Then   FORMULA . But   FORMULA   is injective . We also have   FORMULA . But   FORMULA   is surjective so   FORMULA . • This gives a neat way to calculate the Lie algebra of a given group since we see that   FORMULA . Example 6 . We have that   is a group . It is simple to see that this has group and manifold structure , and that   FORMULA   given by   FORMULA   is diffeomorphic . Amazingly enough , H is the corresponding Lie algebra . We remember that the Lie algebra of is the tangent space to G at the identity ,   . In this case ,   FORMULA for   FORMULA . As we know , this is equivalent to   FORMULA   for   FORMULA   with   FORMULA . Then we see   FORMULA . The matrix exponential is defined by   . The Lie algebra of a matrix Lie group G , for X an n x n matrix , is given by   . The classical Lie groups have their own Lie algebras ; we have already stated which are the classical Lie algebras and which Lie groups they correspond to . It can be shown that the Lie algebra of a matrix group is a real Lie algebra . Think of the more abstract definition of a Lie algebra , in terms of Lie brackets . If V is a finite - dimensional real vector space , then Vc the space of linear combinations   FORMULA   for   FORMULA   is its complexification . Theorem 21 . Let g be a finite - dimensional real Lie algebra . The bracket operation on g can be extended uniquely to gc , its complexification as a real vector space , making gc into a complex Lie algebra , the complexification of g. : We see that   FORMULA   is real bilinear and that it is skew - symmetric . Since the operation is skew - symmetric , it is complex linear in both factors . So we verify   FORMULA   to show bilinearity . We see   FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    . ( ) The identity hold for   FORMULA . It holds for   FORMULA   since the of the identity is linear in x for fixed y , z. The identity then holds for   FORMULA   and   . The same argument is made for y and is obvious since the bilinear bracket operation must be   FORMULA . • The classical Lie algebras are classified by Theorem 17 . Then the classical root systems   ,   ,   ,   FORMULA   are assigned to   ,   ,   ,   FORMULA   respectively [ V74 , H2003 , B89 ] .","< abstract><heading > Abstract</heading > This essay starts by introducing some basic differential and algebraic topology . We then move into more advanced areas such as the various characteristic classes . The algebraic topology , which takes up much of the essay , is approached from an algebraist viewpoint . We take time to appreciate the algebraic structure of cohomology including group cohomology although we develop the main ideas in the form of cohomology from differential forms . We also take a quick look at an application of cohomology to representation theory . After preparing ourselves , we give a sketch of the proof of an interesting theorem we wish to explore . This work is quite wide - ranging and we content ourselves with giving an introduc - tion to the main thread which involves the development of moduli spaces . The theorem has a corollary that tells us that there are ' exotic ' - manifolds , which are homotopy equivalent but not diffeomorphic to any complex surface . The essay is presented in chapters - the covering topics from smooth manifolds to cohomology and Poincare duality . The chapter discusses applications of what was discussed in the - operations on vector bundles and the treatment of characteristic classes . The final section give an in - depth discussion of the main theorem and a sketch of the proof . This is one of the more interesting facts in contemporary research in differential topology . proved this in and won the Fields ' Medal in for his efforts . It is definitely one of the more intensive research topics which have led to the Fields ' Medal . For example , although the proof of Monstrous Moonshine by Borcherds was a momentous achievement , the sheer volume of background knowledge required for this topological work is breathtaking . We aim to give a good introduction to some of this mathematics which runs through manifolds to connections . < /abstract > FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA < heading > to Duality</heading><heading>1.1 and an Introduction to Smooth Manifolds</heading > Manifolds will be important to us throughout the discussion of cohomology and later . This gives an opportunity to discuss the interesting idea that we want to explore in full . If n = , a - manifold can be constructed that is topologically equivalent but not differentiably equivalent to the four - manifold . When considered carefully , this is quite a stunning statement . As if it were n't fascinating enough that we can construct such "" exotic "" manifolds but moreover , this is only true for n = ! The proper statement is a corollary of a long and complicated theorem which we will soon develop . , we need some familiarity with topological reasoning . Topology is a study of the properties of a space that remain the same under homeomorphism . Familiarity with topology and some differential topology is assumed so we discuss this point briefly , so that we may move quickly to cohomology and more algebraic ideas . A homeo - morphism is a bijective , continuous function with continuous inverse . It can be thought of as the correspondence between the point of spaces A and B when we deform A into B. A manifold will be defined more accurately below but we can think of it in a simple way as a topological space in which the small bit surrounding each point can be compared to an space . For example , the torus is a manifold since each point lies in a slightly curved area that can be deformed into a disk in the plane , but the cone is not a manifold since the neighbourhood of its vertex can not be deformed into a piece of the plane . We give results that we need later as well as a few other interesting results . For an open set   , a mapping   FORMULA   is smooth(1 ) if it has continuous partial derivatives of all orders . For   FORMULA , with   FORMULA   not open , is smooth(2 ) if it can be locally extended to smooth(1 ) map on open sets . In other words , if around   FORMULA   there exists an open set   FORMULA   and a smooth(1 ) map     such that   FORMULA   on   . A ) map   , for   ,   , is a differomorphism if it is bijective with   FORMULA   also smooth(2 ) . X and Y are diffeomorphic if there exists such an f. Equipped with the above we can now define smooth manifolds . A k - dimensional smooth manifold is a subset   FORMULA   which is locally diffeomorphic to   FORMULA   - for now we will call X a k - dimensional manifold . This means that for each   , there is a neighbourhood V which is diffeomorphic to an open set   . The diffeomorphism   FORMULA   is known as a parametrization . This makes the n - manifold very interesting to those who are exploring - dimensional spaces [ GP74 , ] . Example 1 . We can show that the circle   is a - manifold . suppose y > 0 , then   FORMULA   is a bijection of the open interval   FORMULA onto the upper semicircle . Its inverse is smooth extending to a smooth map   . So   is a diffeomorphism . This map and     parametrize except around the points   ,   . For these points we use   ,   FORMULA   mapping   FORMULA   to the left and right semicircles . So by covering it with parametrizations , we have shown that the circle is a - manifold . We can use the same argument to show that the n - sphere   is an n - manifold . Suppose that   FORMULA   for FORMULA , then   FORMULA   for   is a bijection from   FORMULA onto the n - sphere above the -axis . Its inverse extend to a smooth map   FORMULA   so φis a parametrization . We proceed as in the previous case , to give local parametrizations about all pints except the axis points . of which there are . We can cover these with new parametrizations , as above , finally covering the n - sphere in + 2 parametrizations . So then the n - sphere in   is a n - manifold . Now for an enlightening proposition , . Every point in X , a k - dimensional manifold , has a neighbourhood diffeomorphic to all ofM , k. : Let   FORMULA   with   FORMULA . The map     defined by   FORMULA   is a diffeomorphism of   FORMULA   onto   FORMULA . We see that there is a bijection from   FORMULA   to   FORMULA   and that   FORMULA   can be locally extended to a smooth map on open sets and is therefore smooth . Let X be a k - manifold , so each     posseses a neighbourhood V which is diffeomorphic to U open in   FORMULA . Then we can take U diffeomorphic to all of   , in which case so is V since diffeomorphism holds under composition . • We recall that the derivative of f at x , denoted dxf , is the best linear approximation of f. That is , dxf is the unique map with the property   FORMULA . We suppose   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   is a local parametrization for V open in   FORMULA . Let f(0 ) = x , then   . The tangent space at the point x of a manifold   FORMULA   .is the image of   , denoted   . A tangent vector to X at x is a point v lying in   , a vector subspace of   FORMULA . There exists a slight ambiguity about whether different local parametrizations will give the same tangent space . Take   FORMULA ,   FORMULA   and we may assume that f(V ) = g(U ) . Now   FORMULA   is a diffeomorphism . Write   FORMULA   and differentiate to get   FORMULA . This implies that   FORMULA . We can reverse f , g giving   FORMULA   so   FORMULA   is well defined . We can then show that   FORMULA   has dimension M. Let W be an open set in   FORMULA   and choose a smooth map   , extending f _ .   FORMULA   the identity map of V. The chain rules gives the identity map of   FORMULA   as   FORMULA . Then   FORMULA   is an isomorphism , so the dimension of   FORMULA   is M. The derivative of a smooth map of manifolds   FORMULA   at a point x is a linear transformation   FORMULA   for f(x ) = y [ GP74 ] . This derivative can be shown to satisfy the chain rule ( any text of manifolds ) . We also see that it is the same as the usual derivative for maps on space . Let   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   parametrise X , Y about x , y for   FORMULA ,   FORMULA   and   , . For appropriate ,   FORMULA   giving   FORMULA . We can show that this definition is independent of parametrization . Let   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   with   ,   FORMULA . Assume   FORMULA ,   . The maps   ,   FORMULA   are diffeomorphisms . Then independence follows . A local diffeomorphism f at x is a smooth map   FORMULA   of manifolds X , Y that carries a neighbourhood of x diffeomorhically onto a neighbourhood of f(x ) = y [ M88 ] . Theorem 3 . ( Inverse function Theorem ) Suppose that   FORMULA   is a smooth map with dxf at x being an isomorphism . Then f is a local diffeomorphism at x. We have seen many interpretations and proofs of the before . However we apply it , is is an amazing result . If dimX < dimY we have   FORMULA   injective at best . If this is true , f is an immersion at x. The canonical immersion is the inclusion of   FORMULA   into   . . ( Local Immersion Theorem ) Suppose that   FORMULA   is an immersion at x and that f(x ) = y. Then f is locally equivalent to the canonical immersion near x. Sketch of Proof : The proof works very simply by taking   FORMULA   and constructing a map   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   for   FORMULA . We find that we can apply the ( old ) to G and that it is a diffeomorphism from some neighbourhood of   FORMULA   to a neighbourhood of   FORMULA . We have   FORMULA   where c is the canonical submersion . Then we take a new parametrization on X around x to show that f is locally equivalent to c. [ M05 ] • A map is proper if the preimage of every compact set is compact . An immersion that is injective and proper is an embedding . The next theorem is proved in [ GP74 ] . Theorem 5 . An embedding is a diffeomorphism of X onto a submanifold ofY. f is a submersion at x if   FORMULA   is surjective . The canonical submersion is the projection of   FORMULA   onto   FORMULA . Then we have the following theorem - a proof is omitted but is analogous to the local immersion theorem . Theorem 6 . ( Local Submersion Theorem ) Suppose that   FORMULA   is a submersion at x and that f(x ) = y. Then f is locally equivalent to the canonical submersion near For   , the ıpreimage of y ,   , is the subset of X containing x such that f(x ) = y. A regular value for f is a   FORMULA   such that for   FORMULA   and x such that f(x ) = y ,   FORMULA   is surjective . A critical value is one which is not regular . Theorem 7 . If y is a regular value of the submersion   FORMULA   then FORMULA   is a submanifold of X with   FORMULA . : Let   FORMULA   and y corresponds to   . Near x ,   is the set   FORMULA   -   FORMULA   is the set of points   FORMULA   where the set of   FORMULA   is defined on   FORMULA . Then   FORMULA   form a coordinate system on   FORMULA . This is an open subset of   FORMULA . So we see that   FORMULA   is a submanifold of X with   FORMULA .[GP74 , M88]• A map   FORMULA   is transversal to the submanifold   FORMULA   if   FORMULA   for all   FORMULA   [ GP74 ] . A manifold X is simply connected if X is connected and every map from the circle   FORMULA   to X is homotopic to a constant . This is a generalization of regularity which proves useful in the study of smooth manifolds . A set   FORMULA   has measure if , for every   , there exists a countable collection of rectangular solids   FORMULA   in   FORMULA   such that   FORMULA   and   . Study of transversality and intersection is very important in some areas of research involving manifolds . Indeed , the class of objects to be studied is enlarged by considering manifolds with boundary , spaces which may fail to be manifolds . A manifold with boundary is defined as a subset Z C R n with a neighbourhood for each point that is diffeomorphic to an open set of the upper - space   FORMULA   in   . The boundary   FORMULA   is the set of points of the image of the boundary of   FORMULA . under such a local parametrization . Theorem 8 . ( ) For a smooth map of manifolds   , the set of critical values of f has measure [ M05 ] . This leads to an interesting result - the embedding theorem . A k - manifold s , by definition , a subset of some space   FORMULA   for what n does   FORMULA   contain a differomorphic copy of every k - manifold . An useful object in proving this theorem is the tangent bundle ,   . . The tangent bundle of a manifold is another manifold and   FORMULA . : Let   FORMULA   be an open set and hence a manifold . Then   FORMULA   and we see   FORMULA   is open in   's topology since   FORMULA   is open in   FORMULA . Take a local parametrization   FORMULA   with   FORMULA   an open set and then   FORMULA   is a diffeomorphism .     parametrizes the open set   FORMULA   since   FORMULA . Then every point of   FORMULA   is in such a neighbourhood.[GP74]• Now we can prove the of 's theorems , proof of which is discussed in most books on the subject . Theorem 10 . Every k - manifold admits an injective immersion in   FORMULA .[GP74 , , M05 ] . Sketch of Proof : If   FORMULA   is of k dimensions ,   , we produce a linear projection   FORMULA   with a restriction to an injective immersion of FORMULA   be an injective immersion with   FORMULA . Define a map   FORMULA   and a map   FORMULA   by   FORMULA .   FORMULA   so Sard 's theorem implies that there exists   FORMULA   which is not in the image of either map . Let   FORMULA   where   FORMULA   and then   FORMULA   is injective . Suppose   FORMULA   but x = y and it is simple to show that this contradicts the choice of a , as does assuming that   FORMULA   is such that   FORMULA .• Whitney formulated more results , refining the previous proof . . Every k - manifold embeds in   . Theorem . Every k - manifold admits an injective immersion in   FORMULA . Now a few ideas we will need later . A metric on a smooth manifold X is a collection of inner products on the tangent space   FORMULA   for all   FORMULA   such that   FORMULA   is a smooth function on the set   FORMULA   for   FORMULA   and   . A manifold is a manifold with structure [ D903 ] . To close we look at the definition of a topological manifold . It is a manifold , a smooth manifold , missing a few properties . We define as follows . Recall that a topological space X is if   ,   ,   FORMULA   for distinct x ,   and U , V open in X. A topological space X is known as a n - dimensional topological manifold if it has countable basis for its topology and it is locally homeomorphic to   FORMULA   [ MJ97 ] . < heading>1.2 , Differential Forms on Smooth Manifolds , and We assume familiarity with homology , so we give only basic definitions . A homotopy of continuous maps is a family   FORMULA , 0 < t < 1 such that   ,   FORMULA   are independent of t and   ,   FORMULA   is continuous . continuous maps   ,   FORMULA   are homotopic ,   , when connected in this way . Homotopy can , of course , be shown to be an equivalence relation and the equivalence classes are called homotopy classes of f , [ f ] . A loop is a continuous map   FORMULA   with   FORMULA . The set of homotopy classes of f forms the fundamental group ,   . The fundamental group is an useful tool for studying and distinguishing between topological surfaces . This is because homeomorphic spaces have isomorphic fundamental groups . However , its usefulness does not extend to higher dimensions . So we construct the homology groups to serve this purpose . We are already familiar with this topic so we will revisit only the basic points . The n - simplex   FORMULA   is the smallest convex set in   FORMULA   containing n + 1 points . A simplical complex is a finite collection of simplexes in some space , so that if a simplex lies in the collection so does each of its faces ; and so that intersecting simplexes belonging to the collection intersect in a common face . Let X be a finite simplical complex , and we assign to it a collection of groups called the simplical homology groups   FORMULA   for   FORMULA . If an edge of a polygonal curve has vertices v , w then ( v , w ) denotes an orientation of the edge from v to w. Then   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   when we have vertices v , u , w of a triangle of X with ( u , v , w ) denoting the orientation of ordering the vertices . The boundary of an oriented edge is defined by   ,   FORMULA . Let X be a finite simplical complex and let   FORMULA   be the free abelian group generated by the oriented simplexes , simplexes σ in X with orientation .   FORMULA   has elements   FORMULA   known as n - chains . Then the kth simplical homology group of X is given by   FORMULA   for a boundary homomorphism   FORMULA   defined by   FORMULA   where the hat in   FORMULA   means that the vertex   FORMULA   of the n - simplex is deleted . Theorem 13 . The composition of maps   FORMULA   given by   is equal to . : We have ,   FORMULA   ( ) which since each terms appears twice with opposite sign.• The sequence   FORMULA   with   FORMULA   is called a chain complex .   FORMULA   implies   FORMULA   and we define the nth homology group of the chain complex as   FORMULA . When   FORMULA   we call this particular homology group the nth simplical homology group . These groups were discovered by . They were then generalized as below . Generally , homology is defined as follows . The singular homology group of X is denoted   FORMULA   where   FORMULA   is as follows .   -is a boundary map given by   FORMULA   as before where   FORMULA   where   FORMULA   is an n - chain in   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   is a singular n - simplex meaning that   FORMULA   can have singularities in its image . A singular homology group is isomorphic to most other kinds of homology group . What we have said above tells us what a homology group in a rather abstract but it would be hard to form a clear picture from this . What is homology actually about ? The homology group is just an group that ' counts ' the number of holes in a given topological space - the places where there is some disconnectivity in the space . In the case of singular homology , a measure of the hole structure of a space is formed by the groups . So this answers the question that I have often been asked ' What information does a homology group contain ? ' . When you are using cohomology to manipulate some algebraic construction it is used in a mechanical way , as is also true for homology above . The question above is modified to yes , but what is cohomology and why do you waste time finding out ? . Of course , as we find out below , cohomology of some topological space is an invariant that is dual to homology so you can think of it as finding holes in this space . As I have discussed , my opinion is that algebraists generally have even less of an idea what homology is about , perhaps due to over - specialization . Cohomology , we will se later , is a graded ring and so has more algebraic structure than homology - so it has many more uses . The question here is the philosophical one of whether such over - specialization is good for mathematics as a whole ? Obviously , specialization is necessary but the question to ask is whether we should be in a situation where homology and cohomology are used on a basis by people who have no sense of what they mean . It 's a bit like a claim to understand 's Piano Concerto just because you can play the piano . < heading>1.2.2 Cohomology Vector Spaces</heading > Cohomology is defined in a similar way to homology . We start with the vector space case . Let there be a sequence   FORMULA C is called exact when   , an exact sequence . Let the sequence of vector spaces and linear maps   FORMULA   FORMULA   with   FORMULA   be called a chain complex . For a chain complex , then we define the cohomology vector space to be   . The elements of   FORMULA   are called n - cycles and elements of   FORMULA   are known as n - boundaries . The elements of H n are known as cohomology classes . Similar for the case for free abelian groups C n. A k - linear map   , for V a vector space over , is alternating if   FORMULA   when   FORMULA   for some   . The space of alternating maps is denoted   . We can write   FORMULA   where   FORMULA   is a basis of V. If   FORMULA   we see   FORMULA . Theorem . If   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   then   FORMULA   Proof : Let   FORMULA   where   FORMULA   are fixed . Then   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   so   FORMULA . • For   FORMULA ,   , the exterior product is     denoted   , . FORMULA . We have the following , proof given in [ . If   FORMULA ,   FORMULA   then   . Theorem . A k - linear map is alternating if   FORMULA when some   for   FORMULA . : By Theorem we have   FORMULA . •   FORMULA   is the exterior algebra of .   FORMULA   is an anti - commutative and connected graded algebra . Sketch of Proof : We prove anti - commutativity : if   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   then   FORMULA . Let   FORMULA   with   FORMULA   and we have   FORMULA . We have   FORMULA   ( ) Associativity is proved similarly and then we can see that connected is graded and connected.• A differential k - form ωon an open set   FORMULA   is a smooth map   FORMULA   [ M05 ] . The vector space of such maps is   FORMULA . We can write   FORMULA   for   FORMULA   acting on points   , an open set . The set   FORMULA   is a basis of   FORMULA   giving   FORMULA   . Then we can write   FORMULA   as   . The exterior differential   FORMULA   is given by   FORMULA   where   FORMULA   is the linear map given by   FORMULA   for   FORMULA ,   FORMULA   being smooth functions of   FORMULA   is a basis of   FORMULA   for   FORMULA the dual basis of   FORMULA   from 14 . We have from [ H02 , . If   for   FORMULA   and   , we have   FORMULA . The exterior product on Ω ( U ) is induced from the usual one by defining   . Theorem . For   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   we have   FORMULA . :   FORMULA = FORMULA = FORMULA = FORMULA = FORMULA   ( ) [ MJ97]• < heading>1.2.3 Digression : Group Cohomology and cohomology is basically summed up as a study of the application of homological algebra to modules of groups . An M - automorphism of is an automorphism with φ(m ) = m for all   FORMULA . Recall that the group   FORMULA   of the field extension N : M is the group of all M - automorphisms of N under the operation of composition - see [ J04 ] for proof that the set of M - automorphisms is a group under composition . Let G be a group acting on H an abelian group . H is a G - module if the action g of G on H satisfies : < list > h1 = h;(h + h')9 = h9 + h'9 . < /list > As we discussed for cohomology vector spaces , the cohomology group of H is the quotient group H1(G , H ) = Z1(G , H)/B1(G , H ) . Taking   FORMULA   the groups of cochains , we have the group of cocycles   FORMULA   and the group of coboundaries   FORMULA . Let F be a field and F its algebraic closure [ J04 ] . A discrete   -module is an abelian group H which     acts upon such that the action is continuous on the discrete topology of H and the profinite topology of   . The profinite topology is the topology of the profinite group - a topological group is profinite if it is isomorphic to the inverse limit of some projective system of finite groups . Then the cohomology group follows after a bit more work . Say that a map is continuous if it is continuous for both the profinite topology on   FORMULA   and the discrete topology on H. We define the group of continuous cocycles     as being the group os continuous maps   FORMULA   satisfying   FORMULA . H is discrete so any coboundary is continuous . Then the cohomology group is   . Theorem 20 . Let   FORMULA be an exact sequence of G - modules . Then there is a long exact sequence   FORMULA where   FORMULA   is the cohomology class of the cocycle f in , A ) for . Sketch of Proof : We prove this in steps : ) we show that   FORMULA   is exact . We have   FORMULA   so   FORMULA   for every cohomology class   FORMULA . Conversely , assume   FORMULA   for   FORMULA   and then   FORMULA .   FORMULA   is surjective so there exists   FORMULA   such that   FORMULA   so that   FORMULA . Then there exists   FORMULA   with   FORMULA . Since     is injective we can show that a is a k - cycle because   FORMULA . Then we have a cohomology class   FORMULA   with   FORMULA . ) We now show that   FORMULA   is exact . ,   FORMULA . Conversely we follow a similar argument to above . ) Similar argument to above to show that   FORMULA . • This extends to modules or generalizes to chain complexes . In fact , most results in group cohomology will extend to cohomology [ MJ97 , M05 ] . question that has been asked of me is why cohomology . The answer is that it has many applications in the theory of elliptic curves , although this is conveniently beyond the scope of this discussion . It is involved in the proof of the - Weil theorem saying that the - Weil group E(K ) of elliptic curves on a number field is finitely generated . Recall the definition of a group and their relation to associative division algebras [ J05 ] . Another interesting fact is that these groups are homomorphic to the cohomology groups under certain conditions . Let A be an algebra over a commutative ring Then A / R is an algebra if and only if A is faithful finitely generated as an R - module and the induced ring homomorphism   FORMULA   is an isomorphism . Theorem 21 . A finite dimensional algebra A over the field F is central simple if and only if φA is an isomorphism . Sketch of Proof : If A is central simple then so is A and so is [ J05 ]   FORMULA . Then φA must be injective surjectivity follows from checking dimensions . Conversely , we assume that φA is an isomorphism .   FORMULA   is central simple since it is a matrix algebra [ J05 ] . We tensor an ideal of A by an ideal of   FORMULA   to get an ideal of   FORMULA .   FORMULA   is central for α central in A.     since ) is a matrix ring.• Let P be a commutative ring and G a finite group with elements acting as automorphisms on   FORMULA is a - cocycle into a group of units   FORMULA . From [ J05 , S98 ] we see that γ defines an element of   FORMULA . We can then define an algebra known as a crossed product on   FORMULA . It is possible to show from this that there is a homomorphism to   FORMULA   from   FORMULA . To be precise , we form the P - module   , where   FORMULA   is the image of t under   FORMULA   for the polynomial ring P[t ] . Theorem 22 . There is an unique associative multiplication on ∆such that   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   [ S98 ] . Take   FORMULA   - ∆ is an R algebra written   FORMULA   and we say that the   FORMULA   are the canonical elements of   FORMULA   associated to γ . If γ is it is a - cocycle . The crossed product is then called trivial and is denoted   . We then proceed to find   FORMULA   that allow us to construct Azumaya algebras . We find the P / R for which the trivial crossed product is and this is enough to show that P / R is a extension if and only if   FORMULA   is an Azumaya R - algebra . Theorem 23 . Let P / R be a extension . Then : i ) Then FORMULA   is equivalent to   ; ii ) Suppose there are   FORMULA   such that   FORMULA   for all   FORMULA . Then   FORMULA ; ii i ) The crossed product construction defines a group homomorphism   FORMULA . Sketch of Proof : Let   FORMULA   and let   FORMULA   and let   FORMULA   be the seperating idempotent discussed in of [ S98 ] , as an element of   FORMULA . Set   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   and so we take P as a subalgebra of A. We then show that if g = h then   FORMULA . So the conclusion is that A is spanned over S by the   FORMULA   and so   FORMULA . We have e the unique idempotent so   FORMULA . Then   FORMULA   so we can show   FORMULA . Then there is an isomorphism   FORMULA . With a few facts regarding equivalence in [ C02 ] , this proves the theorem . Let   FORMULA   and let   FORMULA . Define   FORMULA   and letting ψ be the identity on P. f is a morphism of R - algebras and is an isomorphism since   ,   FORMULA   are Azumaya algebras which can be proved to be isomorphic since they have the same rank so ii ) is proved in this way . Then iii ) is easy since i ) shows that it is possible to define a homomorphism on the group of and the fact that   FORMULA   is an isomorphism if and only if P / R is with group G together with ii ) shows that this homomorphism is the identity on the coboundaries.• It is possible to extend this to an isomorphism   FORMULA   where R is a field and P / R is an infinite extension . There are further ideas involved , such as the subject of Lie algebra homology of which a general exposition is given in [ GL76 ] . This is idea is extended to algebras in [ K90 ] , and even further in [ J05 , J96 ] to or generalized algebras . The results can be used to find a character formula for the algebras . Another interesting idea is that of orbifold cohomology discussed in [ EO00 ] . We ca n't go into any detail since this section is already a major digression . It will suffice to say that a type of cohomology implies some interesting properties of a algebra . My interest in these algebras derives from interest in triple groups which result after making some changes to the generators of a group . < heading>1.2.4 Cohomology</heading > We define complex of U to be the commutative , differential , graded algebra   FORMULA   for an anti - commutative algebra   FORMULA   with a differential   ,   . . The composition   is for all non - negative k. : We have   FORMULA . We use the fact that   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   with proof in [ MJ97 ] .   FORMULA = FORMULA = FORMULA = . •(1.4 ) Theorem 25 . The operator d : Ωk(U ) - ► Ωk+1(U ) satisfying < list > FORMULA ; ; < /list > is unique . : We have defined   FORMULA   with these properties . Let e satisfy the above properties . Then we must show that   FORMULA . Now it is simple that   FORMULA   from property and   FORMULA   implies that   FORMULA . We see from property that   FORMULA   and that   FORMULA   So   FORMULA . • The kth d e Rh am cohomology group is   . cohomology group coincides with other cohomology groups so we will use the usual notation for a cohomology group . The cohomology group of the smooth n - manifold X is the kth cohomology vector space of   . The exterior product of forms extends to give a product   . A category C category consists both a collection of objects and , for each pair of objects , a collection of morphisms from object to another . In most categories over sets , an object is given as some mathematical structure such as a group , open set , vector space or chain complex . A morphism is simply a map between objects in C. It is required that the morphisms then satisfy some conditions such as the identity map between an object and itself is always a morphism , and the composition of morphisms is always a morphism too . The morphisms are usually required to preserve the mathematical structure of the objects . If the objects are groups , the morphisms should all be group homomorphisms . For vector spaces , linear maps would be the morphisms of choice , for manifolds , one would choose smooth maps and , similarly , chain maps for chain complexes . We say that cohomology is functorial , . A smooth map     induces a linear map   FORMULA   with   FORMULA . Sketch of Proof Let   FORMULA   have   , a cycle from   FORMULA   with cohomology class   FORMULA   its corresponding cohomology class in   FORMULA   and define   FORMULA . Considering the chain complexes and chain maps we have   FORMULA   so that   FORMULA   is a cycle .   FORMULA   is independent of the choice of cycle so if [ x ] = [ y ] then   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   and so   FORMULA   and   ,     define the same cohomology class [ H0 2 ] . • A contravariant functor     maps every object in C to an object in   , and every morphism in C to an object in   FORMULA   given by   FORMULA   for a morphism   FORMULA   such that   FORMULA   and   FORMULA .   FORMULA   is a contravariant functor . We define   FORMULA   to be the linear map given by   FORMULA   for the exact sequence of chain complexes   . Theorem 27 . Let   FORMULA be an exact sequence of chain complexes . Then   FORMULA   is exact . Sketch of Proof : Follow the proof of . • Theorem 28 . If C and C are chain complexes then   FORMULA . : The proof follows from the observations that   FORMULA   and that   FORMULA   [ S02].• Theorem 29 . ( ) Let and U 2 be open sets in   FORMULA with   FORMULA . Then there exists an exact sequence   . The proof depends on the following lemma [ MJ97 ] . Lemma . Let and U 2 be open sets in   FORMULA with   FORMULA . Let   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   be the inclusions corresponding to the sets . There is an exact sequence :   FORMULA where   FORMULA   and   FORMULA . Proof of Theorem : We see that we have chain maps   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   so we can apply the previous lemma . Then and give   FORMULA   [ H02 ] . • The support of f , a function   FORMULA , is the set   . Define an integral   FORMULA   on the vector space of n - forms with compact support . < heading>1.2.5 Differential Forms , Generalizing the De Rham Complex and Integration on Manifolds</heading > The treatment of differential forms on manifolds is , for the most part , as discussed above . We say that   FORMULA   a family of alternating k - forms is smooth on   FORMULA   if   FORMULA   is a smooth function for any local parametrization . The set of such ω is denoted   . The nth de Rham cohomology of X ,   , is the nth cohomology vector space of   FORMULA . An orientation form on the k - manifold X is an   FORMULA   with   FORMULA . An orientation of X is the equivalence class of orientation forms . The standard orientation representing   FORMULA   is the orientation form   . A basis of   FORMULA   is positively or negatively oriented depending on whether   FORMULA   is positive or negative for ω the orientation form of X [ M05 ] . We can define an integral on   FORMULA   the space of differential n - forms with compact support just as we can integrate - forms of - manifolds . Take X which is diffeomorphic to a region   FORMULA   which has a smooth boundary . Let   FORMULA   be an orientation - preserving diffeomorphism . Define the integral   FORMULA   where   FORMULA   is the standard basis for   . Theorem . If   FORMULA   is also an orientation - preserving diffeomorphism then we have   FORMULA . : We have   FORMULA   a diffeomorphism and   FORMULA   for h(x ) = y by the chain rule . We write   FORMULA , and we can show that   FORMULA   where   FORMULA . We also have that det A is the determinant of h. Since the dif - feomorphisms are orientation preserving , we have the equality   FORMULA   [ MJ97].• We can restate this as a change of variables in   FORMULA   - saying that for regions U , V in   FORMULA   and an orientation - preserving differomorphism   FORMULA   we have   FORMULA   for any n - form ω . Similarly ,   FORMULA   for any n - form ω if φ reverses the orientation . This comes from the restating   FORMULA   [ GP74 ] since the form is equal to some smooth function on U times a determinant by Theorem 30 . Then   FORMULA   by a theorem we will give shortly . Then we restate the previous theorem after redefining   . Theorem 31 . For - forms   FORMULA . This is obvious for k = . Then the lemma follows by induction on k applied to the definition of the exterior product . The other important theorem in this discussion is , of course , Stokes ' theorem which is stated in this case as : Theorem 32 . Let   FORMULA   be a compact oriented k - manifold with boundary . Then   FORMULA   for   FORMULA . A proof can be found in [ MJ97 ] . < heading>1.3 , the Complex Projective Space and Vector Bundles</heading><heading>1.3.1 Homology , Cohomology and Duality</heading > Let X be a compact , oriented smooth n - manifold . Poincare duality is the statement that   FORMULA   for integer k. Let   FORMULA   denote cohomology group with compact support . It is given in [ M052 ] that : Theorem 33 .   only if k = n and   FORMULA   i n all other cases . We have a theorem that follows from which is needed to prove the duality theorem . Theorem 34 . There is an exact sequence   FORMULA   Proof : Let X be a smooth manifold with open subsets   . We define the direct image hom o - morphism   FORMULA   extended from   , the chain map induced from the inclusion   FORMULA . We can define another inclusion to give a covariant functor on the category of open sets and inclusions . Let U1 and U 2 be open sets in   FORMULA   with   FORMULA . Let   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   be the inclusions corresponding to the sets . There is an exact sequence :   FORMULA   where   FORMULA   and   . to this exact sequence.[H02 ] • Theorem 35 . For   FORMULA , pairwise disjoint open subsets with union U of the smooth manifold X , we have   FORMULA   given by   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   given by   FORMULA   The idea here is to use the fact that there are such isomorphisms for chain complexes , and to extend that . The proof of Poincare duality follows after a bit more work . We define a linear map   FORMULA   from the bilinear map     defined by   FORMULA   where   FORMULA   is the vector space dual of   FORMULA . This follows from a composition with integration of the bilinear map   . A contravariant functor sending A to its vector space dual A * is exact . So we can dualize the sequence of and by the previous theorem we have an isomorphism   . For an oriented n - manifold the exterior product defines   FORMULA   inducing   . Theorem . The diagram   commutes for open sets   FORMULA . : Let   FORMULA ,   FORMULA   be cohomology classes . Then   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   for i'the vector space dual of i * . Then since   FORMULA   we can integrate over V instead of U. We see that the forms are the same on V. So the diagram commutes [ S99 ] . • We can extend this to the theorem below , which is proved by the same methods . Theorem 37 . For open sets of X , and with union , we have the commutative diagram   . Corollary . For open subsets of X we have their union satisfying Poincare duality if   FORMULA ,   ,   FORMULA   satisfy that condition . Similarly for pairwise disjoint open sets . Lastly , U satisfies duality if it is diffeomorphic to   . Then we give a theorem proved in [ MJ97 ] that will let us proceed . Theorem 38 . Let U be a collection of open subsets of the n - manifold X with open cover V. We have   FORMULA , Any open subset that is a subset of a set in the open cover and is diffeomorphic to     is in , the union of open subsets is in is the open subsets and their intersection are in and a similar condition for pairwise disjoint open subsets . This lets us prove duality . Theorem 39 . ( Poincare Duality ) For an oriented n - manifold we see that   FORMULA   is an isomorphism for all k. : Let U be the open subsets of X with   FORMULA   being isomorphisms . Let V be the trivial cover shows that we have satisfied the conditions of 38 [ H02 , , M05 ] . • Another way of expressing this is   FORMULA . < heading > Classes</heading><heading>2.1 and and Fiber Bundles</heading > FORMULA   denotes the set of - dimensional subspaces of   FORMULA . It is the n - dimensional complex projective space . For   FORMULA   we let   FORMULA   spanned by z be denoted by   . . The cohomology of   FORMULA   is   FORMULA for   FORMULA   or   otherwise . We can extend the embedding   FORMULA   to an embedding of   FORMULA   into   . Assume the statement for C and n > 2 since the cohomologies   FORMULA   by [ ? ] which states that there is a certain long exact sequence . Then   FORMULA   is homeomorphic with   FORMULA   by a certain homeomorphism defined in [ MJ97 ] . The exact sequence has the form   FORMULA   Then by Theorem 33 we have   FORMULA   only when k = when it is The result follows . A fiber bundle is topological spaces T , the total space , B , the base space , and F , the fiber space together with a continuous map     such that each   FORMULA   has an open neighbourhood U b and a homeomorphism   FORMULA   such that   . The fiber over x is the pre - image of   , denoted   . If T , B , F are smooth manifolds then we have a smooth fiber bundle [ MJ97 , , S99 ] . A vector bundle is a quadruple   FORMULA   with the fiber space FORMULA   are vector spaces for all x and we can choose the local homeomorphism h so that   FORMULA   is a linear isomorphism . bundle which will be very useful is the tangent bundle . Take a smooth n - manifold and   FORMULA   with   . The fiber over     is the tangent space   . A map ( f , g ) between fiber bundles   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   is a pair of continuous maps   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   such that   . A homomorphism between vector bundles is a fiber bundle map such that   FORMULA   is linear for all   . Vector bundles over the same base space are isomorphic if there exist homomorphisms   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   such that   . A vector bundle that is isomorphic to a product bundle   FORMULA   is called trivial . Theorem . A continuous map   FORMULA   of vector bundles over B is an isomorphism if it maps the fiber     injectively onto   FORMULA   . The direct sum   FORMULA   of vector bundles over the base space   FORMULA   is the vector bundle   FORMULA   with total space   FORMULA   and a projection   . An inner product on a vector bundle ν is a map     such that   FORMULA   is an inner product on each fiber   . Theorem . Every vector bundle over a compact B has an inner product . A section in a fiber bundle is a smooth map     such that   . Theorem . Every vector bundle ν over a compact base space B has a complement . < heading>2.1.2 Operators on Bundles</heading > We consider the tensor product and the exterior product ; applied to vector spaces and then investigating the application to vector bundles . We assume familiarity with the definition of modules and free algebras . The tensor product   FORMULA   of R - modules is the quotient   FORMULA   where   FORMULA   is the free R - module with basis   FORMULA   for R a commutative ring with unity ,   . The canonical projection   FORMULA   given by   FORMULA   is R - bilinear when restricted to   FORMULA   by the generators of the submodule in the quotient module . Any R - bilinear map can be expressed as the composition of the restricted canonical projection and an unique R - linear map . In this case , we say the tensor product is universal . To prove this , we have the following : Theorem 44 . For an R - bilinear map   , with U , V , W being R - modules , there exists an unique R - linear map     such that   FORMULA . This has the immediate consequence that the tensor product is a functor . Proof : f extends naturally to an R - linear map   . f is R - bilinear so the image of   ,   , is under f ' . Then f ' induces the map g from   FORMULA   to W. We see then that   FORMULA   is R - linear . g is uniquely determined by f since   FORMULA   is generated by the image of   FORMULA   under   . • We define a new entity by considering the R - submodule   FORMULA   generated by   . The exterior kth - power is the quotient module   FORMULA . We define a canonical projection   FORMULA   by   FORMULA . Then   FORMULA   for some permutation τ by 14 and 16 . Then the composition   FORMULA   is an alternating map where λ is extended to k - variable tensor products . There is then an obvious extension of to accompany the new definition . From extended to k - variable tensor products : Theorem 45 . There is an unique R - linear map   FORMULA   for any R - alternating map     such that   FORMULA . In the case R = K where we consider finite - dimensional vector spaces the exterior ppwers are dual to   FORMULA   the alternating powers introduced earlier . Letting   FORMULA , the exterior product gives an alternating map   . By Theorem 45 we have an unique linear map   . For this map we have the following , proved in [ MJ97 ] : Theorem 46 . We have : i ) φis an isomorphism ; ii )   FORMULA   is a basis for   FORMULA   for   FORMULA   a basis of V ; ii i ) There is an isomorphism   . The balanced product , denoted     is the cokernel of the R - linear homomorphism   FORMULA   given by   . The cokernel of a homomorphism of modules   FORMULA   is the quotient module   FORMULA . We define   FORMULA   by   FORMULA   which becomes a B - module when B is commutative which is obviously isomorphic to the R - module   FORMULA   < heading>2.1.3 Connections and Curvature Forms</heading > The next section involves connections , although some of the more interesting discussion is omitted since our goal in this section is to develop the idea of characteristic classes . We will later see how theory , the theory of connections , makes frequent appearances in our work . A connection on ν is a linear map   FORMULA   satisfying   FORMULA   for   FORMULA ,   FORMULA   and exterior differential d , where   FORMULA   is the tensor product . We require   FORMULA   to be C - linear when ν is a complex vector bundle with   FORMULA   a complex vector space . We can tidy this up to a connection being a linear operator   FORMULA   satisfying the rule by letting   . The trick here is to extend the connection to an operator   FORMULA   satisfying similar conditions to the derivation on differential forms that we discussed above . We define a   FORMULA -bilinear product   FORMULA   by   FORMULA   where   ,   ,   FORMULA   and   . Theorem 47 . The   FORMULA -bilinear product A satisfies the following : < list > FORMULA . FORMULA ; for   ,   FORMULA   and   FORMULA .</list > This follows simply from the associativity of the exterior product . Then we have to following for [ MJ97 ] : Theorem 48 . There is an unique linear operator   FORMULA   satisfying that   FORMULA when i = 0 and   FORMULA   for   FORMULA   and   FORMULA .   FORMULA   gives a sequence of vector spaces   FORMULA . Amazingly , this is not a complex generally , although it is complex when   FORMULA   and ν is the trivial line bundle . We do have   FORMULA   which can be seen to be   FORMULA -linear since   FORMULA . We also have that   FORMULA   by a theorem we omitted earlier , [ M74 ] . The - form   FORMULA   is called the curvature form of the pair   . The connection   FORMULA   is called flat if   FORMULA . We now define the   FORMULA -bilinear product   FORMULA   mapping a pair   FORMULA   into   . Theorem 49 . There is a map   FORMULA   from t to . Proof : By Theorem we have   FORMULA . • So the sequence mentioned above is a chain complex when   FORMULA   is flat . < heading>2.2 and : The Many Characteristic Classes</heading > We are , for the most part , interested in the Stiefel - Whitney class , so we only briefly visit the following ideas as an introduction to characteristic classes . Let ν be a complex vector bundle . The kth Chern character class of the pair   FORMULA   is the cohomology class   , the cohomology of the complexified complex . The factor that normalizes the cohomology class   FORMULA   is there so that the Chern character class is in fact a real cohomology class in   , a fact we discuss further later . The kth Pontryagin character class   FORMULA   of the pair   FORMULA   is given by   FORMULA   where   FORMULA   which in turn induces a complex connection   FORMULA . We need to revisit the discussion of connections to understand the definitions above . We see that if   FORMULA   is a section that vanishes on an open subset   FORMULA   then so does   FORMULA   so   FORMULA   is a local operator . In particular , this induces a connection on   , the restriction of the vector bundle to the open subset   . The connection form with respect to the basis   FORMULA   for   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   is denoted by A where   FORMULA   is a kxk matrix of - forms and   FORMULA   since elements of   FORMULA   has the unique expression   FORMULA   for   FORMULA . Then we calculate   FORMULA   from   FORMULA   ( ) so   . For the connection   FORMULA   on   FORMULA   we have   FORMULA   defined by   FORMULA   and from this definition we have : Theorem 50 . ( 's identity ) We have   FORMULA . :   FORMULA   ( ) The trace homomorphism   FORMULA   induces [ FORMULA .and we can prove that   FORMULA   for   FORMULA . Take   FORMULA   to be a homogeneous invariant   FORMULA   polynomial with variables in a n x n matrix A. The exterior product is commutative on even - dimensional differential forms so we can replace     with differential - forms   FORMULA . Then we can define   . As earlier , there is a matrix B of - forms of   FORMULA . We can from this define a global - form , one that is independent of basis , denoted   . If we to let   FORMULA   to get a - form   FORMULA   then it would be possible to prove that the connection involved was a closed form and that the cohomology class   FORMULA   is independent of the connection . Then the kth Chern class is   FORMULA   where   FORMULA   is the coefficient of   FORMULA   in   FORMULA . Then for   FORMULA   we have the kth Chern character class being   FORMULA . It 's simple to see equivalence with the earlier definition . With the updated definitions , say ν is a real vector bundle . Then   FORMULA   and   FORMULA . We let ν be a smooth real - dimensional vector bundle over a manifold X with and inner product   . This induces a pairing with   FORMULA   defined   FORMULA   where   FORMULA . A connection   FORMULA   on the pair   FORMULA   is said to be orthogonal if   FORMULA . Let   FORMULA   be the curvature form of a metric connection   FORMULA . We treat this form as we did in the previous section and finally apply the polynomial . We define the Euler class of the oriented - dimensional vector bundle ν as   . For a complex k - dimensional complex vector bundle we can prove that the Euler class is equal to the kth Chern class . Let ν be a vector bundle and take S(ν ) to be the vector space of sections on the bundle ν . We have the section in S(ν ) assigning the origin in the fiber   FORMULA   to   . The section embeds B into T with   FORMULA   as a retraction map and then   FORMULA   is an isomorphism . Let   FORMULA   denote the nonzero vectors of T. This next theorem is proved in [ M74 ] . Theorem 51 . ( Thom Isomorphism Theorem ) There is an unique cohomology class   FORMULA   such that for each fiber F , the image of [ c ] under the restriction   FORMULA   is nonzero . Furthermore ,   FORMULA defines an isomorphism   . The composition of the isomorphism   FORMULA   and the one defined in 51 is known as the Thom isomorphism . Then the ith Stiefel - Whitney class   FORMULA   is given by the composition   FORMULA   where   FORMULA   is a square , an additive operation   FORMULA   satisfying < list > S 0 is the identity ; FORMULA   when   ; If   FORMULA   then   ; ; < /list><heading > Chapter 3 Topology of Four - manifolds</heading > From this point on we restrict our attention to - manifolds and their topology . This type of work is the perfect setting to describe the cohomology and related issues that were in - troduced above . In this section we will direct our attention to compact , simply connected , differentiable - manifolds and will give a proof of a result involving simply connected , com - plex surfaces . We will be forced to introduce some new methods as well , but will try to approach the theorem without any major headaches . Many of these new ideas are quite complicated so we content ourselves with a more general explanation of ideas . < heading>3.1 Algebraic Geometry and and Other Definitions</heading > Take a closed , orientable , X. By Poincare duality we have   FORMULA . When X is simply connected we have   FORMULA   so that any homological information exists only in   FORMULA . By the universal coefficient theorem [ INS ] we have   FORMULA   being a free abelian groups , giving the fact that   FORMULA   is a free abelian group . We now need to realize the homology and cohomology classes of a More than this , we will find later that many of the ways of doing this will prove useful at some point so we need to be able to work our way between them . The way is by the complex vector bundle of rank - complex line bundle - which is determined up to isomorphism by     its class in   FORMULA   so we have a bijection from the isomorphism classes of line bundles to   . We can also use smoothly embedded , - dimesional , oriented surfaces in A surface of this type carries a fundamental homology class in   FORMULA   so that we can choose a general smooth section of a line bundle whose set us a surface which represents the homology class that is dual to   FORMULA . Then , last of all , we have cohomology - a representation of real cohomology classes by differential forms . Let X be a compact , oriented , simply connected - manifold . The duality isomorphism is equivalent to a bilinear form   FORMULA   known as the intersection form of the manifold X. It is a symmetric form which induces an isomorphism between the groups   FORMULA   and   FORMULA . We call the latter property unimodular . For oriented surfaces   ,   FORMULA   in X , a four - manifold , we assign the notation   FORMULA   to each point in their intersection according to the orientations in the isomorphism of the tangent bundles   FORMULA   with intersection number given by the total number of points counted by sign . We can , of course , move this over to homology to give the form F. Then the cup product is   . In terms of cohomology we are given the intersection number by the integral   FORMULA   for some closed - forms   ,   FORMULA   representing the classes that are dual to the oriented surfaces   ,   FORMULA   in X. We know that the number of the manifold X is given by   . For the number   FORMULA   we write   FORMULA   where the   FORMULA   are the dimensions of the maximal positive , respectively negative , subspaces for the intersection form on H 2(X ; R ) . The signature of an oriented four - manifold is then defined to be   FORMULA . The intersection form on the real vector space   FORMULA   is classified up to equivalence by   FORMULA   and   . An n - dimensional complex manifold is a - dimensional smooth manifold with an open cover U1 and maps   FORMULA   so that   FORMULA   are complex differentiable on   . A hermitian metric on X , an n - dimensional complex manifold , is a positive definite hermitian inner product , an inner product where the term is linear and the is complex linear , at each point   FORMULA   which varies smoothly over X. A hermitian metric where   FORMULA . is called a metric . In this case ,   FORMULA   is called a form and a complex manifold that is equipped with such a metric is know as a manifold . Hodge theory involves a study of the algebraic topology of a smooth manifold X of the partial differential equation theory of generalised operators associated to a metric on In other words , Hodge theory gives representatives for cohomology classes on X , a compact manifold . The theory was developed by in the thirties - as an extension of cohomology - and it has major applications in the discussion of manifolds , manifolds and algebraic geometry of complex projective varieties . The adjoint operator is defined   . The theorem gives   FORMULA   for each unique representative a of a real cohomology class . Given a metric we have the decomposition   FORMULA   into self - dual and anti self - dual harmonic - forms . For an oriented four - manifold the characteristic classes to hand are the familiar and Pontryagin classes along with the Stiefel - Whitney classes denoted by   . The Stiefel - Whitney class w2 is from the mod2 reduction of the intersection formula   FORMULA   for all   FORMULA   [ D903 ] . We finish with a few useful definitions . Given disjoint connected n - manifolds X and Y , then a connected n - manifold   FORMULA   called the connected sum can be constructed by deleting the interiors of closed n - balls   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   and identifying the boundary spheres which result . Define a complex surface as a complex manifold of dimension - which is a smooth 4 - manifold X. < heading>3.1.2 Beginnings of Theory : Anti - Self - Dual Connec - tions Over Four - Manifolds</heading > Suppose that X is an oriented four - manifold . From Hodge theory we have the decomposition of - forms on X into dual and anti self - dual parts   . This extends to the curvature form   FORMULA   on   FORMULA   over   FORMULA   for   FORMULA . A conection is anti self - dual if   FORMULA . On the space   FORMULA   the equation   FORMULA   is the system of PDEs :   FORMULA ,   ,   , for   . connections are solutions of the equations a special case of the - Lagrange equations for functional , the square of the L 2 - norm of the curvature form   FORMULA . Take a twice differentiable function from   FORMULA   to   and a twice differentiable function from   FORMULA   to   . An integral is defined on the function which we allow to vary while fixing the . The function must satisfy a certain differential equation when we try to find the . Then this equation is known as the - Lagrange differential equation or the - Lagrange condition . Take l a line bundle over some manifold X. The curvature form   FORMULA   for the connection   FORMULA   on l is known to be an imaginary - form   FORMULA   so that   FORMULA   is a real - form that is closed by 's identity . Take a new connection   FORMULA   which gives   FORMULA   so   FORMULA   so it is dependent only on the choice of l. This is the class c ) . Let ν be a vector bundle and we know   . The - form   FORMULA   depends only on ν . These forms represent a characteristic class of ν ;   FORMULA   for a complex vector bundle v. class discussed earlier is the standard - dimensional class for a real orthogonal bundle given   FORMULA . This bundle also has a Stiefel - Whitney class , satisfying   FORMULA . < heading>3.1.3 we define the gauge group   FORMULA   of the bundle ν as the set of automorphisms   FORMULA   which ' [ respects ] the structure on the fibres and [ covers ] the identity map on [ the smooth manifold ] X ' [ D903 ] . The gauge group acts   FORMULA   on the set of connections . The moduli space   FORMULA   on a bundle ν , over a compact , oriented four - manifold X , is defined to be the set of gauge equivalence classes of connections on ν . The moduli space C has an induced topology , induced by the topology in the space of connections . The space   FORMULA   is a Sobolev space and is defined to be the completion of the space of smooth functions on   FORMULA   that is compactly supported on the norm   FORMULA   for   FORMULA   the tensor of the ith derivatives of f. We define   FORMULA   for a vector bundle ν over X a compact manifold [ , D903 , ] . Then we have : Theorem 52 . ( Sobolev embedding theorem ) If   FORMULA   then there is a bounded inclusion from   FORMULA into the space   FORMULA   when   FORMULA . So for a four - manifold X the Sobolev embedding theorem says that   FORMULA   is a space of continuous functions when   . The set of gauge equivalence classes is defined to be the quotient space   FORMULA   where S is the space of   FORMULA   connections on ν and Q is the group of   FORMULA   gauge transformations and we denote the equivalence class of a connection   FORMULA   by   FORMULA .   FORMULA   the L2 metric on S and this is preserved by Q so we have   FORMULA   We can show that this is a metric in quite a simple way . The only condition for metrics that is n't trivial is to show that   FORMULA   implies   . We suppose that   FORMULA   and we let   FORMULA   be a sequence in S with all   FORMULA   gauge equivalent to   FORMULA   and the sequence converging in   FORMULA   to   FORMULA   so the proof depends on showing that   FORMULA   and   FORMULA   are gauge equivalent . If   FORMULA   then we can prove   FORMULA . So we just show that g lies in the subset of unitary sections of   . On a manifold X , we can move tangent vectors along a path by parallel transport , preserving vector addition and scalar multiplication . A closed loop at a base point x , gives rise to a invertible linear map of ) , the tangent vectors at x. We can compose these closed loops and we invert them by going backwards . The set of linear transformations resulting from parallel transport along closed loops is called the holonomy group . A connection   FORMULA   on ν is reducible if the holonomy maps of all loops based at each   FORMULA   lie in some proper subgroup of the automorphism group   . If we have a connected base X then it is possible to find a holonomy group   . We define   FORMULA   of   FORMULA   in the gauge   FORMULA   as   FORMULA . We can show that   FORMULA   the centralizer of   FORMULA . Further , for small   , we can show that the projection     induces a homomophism from   FORMULA   to a a neighbourhood of   FORMULA   and for   FORMULA , the isotropy group of   FORMULA   is isomorphic to the isotropy group of   FORMULA . This is for   FORMULA ,   FORMULA   where   FORMULA   is the bundle of Lie algebras associated to the adjoint operator   FORMULA . Then we have to find the solutions of the equation   FORMULA   to complete the construction of the moduli space . Consider the Sobolev space   FORMULA   - denote by   FORMULA   the orbit space . For   FORMULA   and a bundle ν ' we have a moduli space   FORMULA   composed of     connections modulo     gauge transformations ' [ D903 ] . Theorem 53 . The inclusion   FORMULA   is a homeomorhism . This theorem means that we can ditch the cumbersome Sobolev - type notation . We let   FORMULA   be an connection and we define   FORMULA   given by   FORMULA   We take the set   FORMULA   and from our earlier work we see that a homeomorphism is induced from   FORMULA   to the neighbourhood of   FORMULA   in   FORMULA . < heading>3.2 Main Theorem</heading > We take a leap here , defining and stating what we need . These results follow from what we have discussed above but the ideas involved are quite complicated so we we will avoid them , Although the work is complex , the ideas are , as with most work in this area , geometrically reasonable so that we can get some sense of what is happening . What we want to do is to be able to distinguish between - manifolds that have the same invariants . So , we define some new invariants using moduli spaces . To illustrate , we take the simple case of a - dimensional moduli space . So the invariant is an integer since it is a class in - dimensional homology . Take a simply - connected - manifold with   FORMULA   with ν an SO(3 ) bundle with   FORMULA   nonzero and   FORMULA   for   FORMULA . We can see that for this to be true ,   FORMULA   must be odd so that   FORMULA . We define the invariant to be   FORMULA   for the sign   FORMULA   at a point   FORMULA   depending on the orientation of the determinant line bundle   FORMULA   and the moduli space   FORMULA   for some generic metric g. We can prove that q is independent of the choice of generic metric g. We can apply this idea more generally . That is , we can define invariants of a X by a process similar to above - taking the moduli space to contain some homology class that is indepdenent of the choice of generic metric . Theorem 54 . Let X be a simply connected with   FORMULA   odd , and suppose that   FORMULA   with   FORMULA . Then the polynomial invariants are identically . We now complete our investigation . Corollary 2 . For any simply - connected , complex surface S with   FORMULA there is a smooth four - manifold X(S ) which is homotopy equivalent to but not diffeomorphic to S , nor to any complex surface . This theorem follows from : Corollary . No simply connected , complex , algebraic surface S can be written as a smooth connected sum   FORMULA with   FORMULA   and   FORMULA positive . This theorem is as follows from the next theorem and the results regarding polynomial invariants . Theorem 55 . We have   FORMULA for large k if S is a compact , simply connected , complex surface with   FORMULA . This theorem is implied by the following central result that we have aimed to discuss . We saw earlier that the - manifold has a standard orientation with   FORMULA . The embedding of S in projective space defines h , a hyperplane class in   . Theorem . For any simply connected , complex algebraic surface S , with   and any hyperplane class h in   FORMULA   there is a   FORMULA   such that for   FORMULA   and any Stiefel - Whitney class   FORMULA   which is the reduction of a ( ) class   FORMULA , we have   FORMULA . A detailed proof is included in of [ D903 ] . We will not attempt to give a proof but will discuss the more comprehensible ideas behind it . We let S be a complex , algebraic surface . We put a metric on S , that is compatible with a certain projective embedding [ D903 ] . cohomology of the metric - form   FORMULA   is dual ( Poincare ) to the hyperplane section class   FORMULA . We define   FORMULA , [ X ] ) where   FORMULA   is a specific cohomology class and for X the compact , regular moduli space of connections defined relative to the metric . We know that we can represent   FORMULA   by the - form   FORMULA   since the metric form is self dual . By cohomology ,   FORMULA . Then   FORMULA   as required since X must be a complex manifold and   FORMULA   the - form of the natural metric on , the volume element on X [ MJ97 ] , so   .",1
"Since , financial crises have undoubtedly increased in frequency . Apart from the incredibly unstable interwar period , the period since then has seen an unprecedented amount of crises . Financial liberalization has been widely blamed for the crises of recent times by popular commentators , but as will be shown , this is by no means the only factor . This essay shall explore financial crises in general and these factors using examples such as of the late 1990s . has taken a lot of criticism for its role in financial crises , most notably by . I shall also look into the role of the IMF in this picture and whether it has played a part in the proliferation of financial crises since . < fnote > Referred to hereon as IMF < /fnote > Financial crises are defined as follows < quote>""Episodes of financial market volatility marked by significant problems of illiquidity and insolvency among financial market participants and/or by official intervention to contain such consequences "" ( Bordo et al 2002 : 4)</quote > There are main types of financial crisis according to Bordo et al ( 2002:4 - 5 ) , which are banking , currency and twin crises . Banking crises are where there is financial distress marked by the erosion of most if not all of the aggregate banking system capital whereas a currency crisis is where there is a forced change in exchange rate parity , an abandonment of an exchange rate peg or an international rescue . A twin crisis is a combination of the . Looking at figure , it is immediately obvious that in the period from that there were no banking crises in the sample of countries . The reason for that was the tight regulation of domestic and international capital markets . This was a legacy of the interwar period as the authorities sought to prevent the banking crises of and occurring once again . Since however , banking crises have returned . The fact that more crises have occurred in the larger of the samples of countries reveals the majority of banking crises have occurred in predominantly developing nations ( since the larger sample contains developing as well as more industrialized nations ) . This is understandable given that their banking and financial systems are less developed and more susceptible to crisis in the rigors of financial markets . Literature on previous crises supports this negative relationship between banking crises and capital controls , which is emphasized in figure where banking crises are more frequent in the presence of no capital controls . In the financial crisis for instance , the absence of controls permitted banks and companies to fund themselves offshore and hence increase their bets increasing the risk of problems later on since it was more likely that loans would go bad . The entities in question were encouraged to do so by the existence of government guarantees and implicit exchange rate guarantees ( Goldstein ) safe in knowledge that they would get their money back . < fnote > As cited in ( 2002:15 ) < /fnote > Again looking at figure , although banking crises were suppressed in the interwar period , this came at a cost of an increasing likelihood of currency crises occurring . This idea is re - enforced by figure which compares the incidence of crises with and without capital controls . This shows that currency crises are more likely with capital controls . Theoretical work by and Drazen ( ) has found that controls incline governments to take riskier policies which may make market participants doubt whether governments will defend an exchange rate . Emperically this relationship has also been found to be true with studies by ) and ( ) . Currency crises did not occur in anywhere near the number they have in period compared to , when capital mobility reached high levels and capital controls were absent , implying that it can not just be financial globalization on its own which has caused the proliferation of crises . Bordo et al ( 2000 ) entertain the idea that democratization is the other important factor . Essentially the rise of democracy in many places around the world has made it more difficult for governments to credibly sub - ordinate all other policies to the maintenance of a currency peg as well as credibly committing to exchange rate stabilization . A good example of this in recent times is in , where the government maintained an artificial peg . The government also had a high interest rate , which encouraged residents to fund themselves offshore , which increased the currency and liquidity risk that the country was exposed to . This risk confronted the authorities with a dilemma , which either meant allowing the currency to float or defend the peg at all costs , by maintaining high interest rates and buying up domestic currency by selling its foreign reserves . Maintaining high interest rates was not good for bank balance sheets however due to their maturity mismatch and their exposure to higher credit risk when the economy began to deteriorate . However , they were eventually forced to float the Baht as their foreign exchange reserves began to dwindle . The floating of the Baht had come far too late . If it had come earlier it would have avoided the impression of an implicit guarantee and would therefore discouraged residents from simply funding themselves offshore without thinking of the currency risk . It would also have allowed the government to lower interest rates when the economy started to slow , easing the pressure on financial institutions ' balance sheets . Therefore , with regard to currency crises , it is not just capital mobility on its own which affects the appearance of currency crises ; it is the combination of this and the appearance of democracy . < fnote > As cited in ( 2002:66 ) < /fnote > As a note , which will come relevant with regard to the IMF , while crises have increased in frequency in period , it is also important to look to whether they have increased in depth as well . Interestingly , Bordo et al ( 2000 ) find that crises have neither become longer or more severe in terms of output loss in the period since against the previous period of globalization up to 1914 . If anything crises were more severe and longer in the period of globalization than since . So what role is there in all this for the IMF ? Up to the its primary role had been to defend the Bretton Woods Adjustable system and also as a financier of temporary current account deficits for advanced nations ( Bordo and James 1999:1 ) . Indeed it was more that the international monetary system was built around it . It was created as a response to the much disrupted interwar period to overcome the perceived market failures of the preceding period . However , following the collapse of the system in its role has changed . The changeable pegs were gone , and therefore the IMF 's role as guardian with it . A development was the movement towards an increasingly integrated world economy . The dramatic opening up of capital markets was a particular development which aided this . This meant that private capital could substitute for IMF financing of payments imbalances . Additionally there has been a dramatic increase in membership from the original industrialized countries to include many developing nations . The is now multi - faceted . Since it has been concerned with a number of issues from promoting world economic growth and stability to , more recently , global poverty . In this new free market world it is also seen as providing solutions and public goods to help solve the so called new externalities such as the problems of debt crises . Moreover , it has also been seen as a crisis manager , providing crisis lending when countries access to private capital has been stopped suddenly . If confidence was able to be maintained , countries should be able to gain sufficient liquidity from private sources . However , as less economically developed nations do not usually have a good track record of borrowing or a supply of contingent credit , funds are not available to them . It is therefore believed that the IMF should step in and supply this short term capital to finance imbalances and to restore expectations of stability . In other words , they should be a lender of last resort . At the moment the IMF is not able to fully carry out this role as its resources are simply too small in relation to the capital flows that we are dealing with . Loans in the last resort like these are also seen as endangering moral hazard for both policy makers , who may follow too lax tax policies in the knowledge that the IMF would intervene and also for the lenders who will lend without monitoring its use given that they know they will be bailed out . This creates an expansion of risky borrowing , which was so deadly in . The more an institution like the IMF steps into financial crises to help , the more countries and financial institutions will come to expect it . The IMF 's role as crisis manager has certainly accentuated problems in the past such as in the crisis of where a $ 50million loan was used to sustain an overvalued exchange rate , which rather than help anyone in the country simply went to speculators . < fnote > Bordo and James ( 2000:28 - 29 ) < /fnote><fnote > Stiglitz ( ) < /fnote > IMF programs are pronged , combining financing , macroeconomic policy adjustment and structural reforms . In its role as crisis manager , the IMF program involves these elements , and as with the , it has again been criticized for its role in macroeconomic policy adjustment . Take the example of . It recommended a policy of fiscal austerity in the thought that countries involved should have a balanced budget . Not only was that misguided in the sense that the countries involved were going into a recession - "" Not for have respectable economists believed that an economy going into a recession should have a balanced budget "" ( ) but also because it encouraged contagion of the crisis between the nations . This occurred because country cutting back its imports means that another country 's exports are cut thus spreading the downturn . While this policy helped the country 's involved pay back its debts as their trade surplus improved , the real side of the economy was left devastated with a collapse in commodity prices . Furthermore , in the case it was also criticized for it structural reforms , which were supposed to restore confidence and prevent a recurrence as well as increase the economy 's resilience and lay the foundations for long - term growth . However the results were not positive in , and , indeed capital continued to flow out of the country and the currencies continued to depreciate . < fnote > Boorman et al ( 2000:7 ) < /fnote > The final way the IMF is linked in with the increase in financial crises is through its ideology , pushing for free markets , specifically financial markets . Financial liberalization has been much debated over . Proponents have looked to neo - classical growth theory in that in a free market , capital will move to where it can be most productively used i.e. in less economically developed nations where the Marginal Product of capital is higher . According to Edison et al ( 2000 ) capital market liberalization has been shown to have a positive effect on growth in ( of course notwithstanding the crisis ) but the impact in other less economically developed nations has been small . This leads me to say that the ideology itself is generally based on a sound footing ( although that itself is open to criticism ) ; however the way they push the ideology , by attaching conditionality to loans made to countries , has created many a crisis , not least the crisis . They have consistently pushed for capital market liberalization without considering that the underlying institutions must be sound . This is crucial for the avoidance of asymmetric information problems . In conclusion , the increase in number of financial crises since has been caused by a number of factors including the increasing liberalization of financial markets . However , this factor does not operate in isolation , indeed it has been suggested by economists such as Bordo et al ( 2001 ) that the crisis problem has increased due to the combination of financial market liberalization and increase in democracy . The IMF 's role in the global economic system has changed much since the end of the system . Its widened agenda has undoubtedly had a role to play in the crisis problem , since it appears that it is almost too much for them to take on , particularly in its role as a crisis manager . The IMF has clearly made crises worse in some cases , although overall crises are no worse in terms of depth or severity in the period since than the previous period of globalization before . Whether they have actually caused crises though is open to debate . However , the as a truly global institution could do more to prevent crises in the future by attaching conditionality to loans which strengthen the underlying institutions in developing nations .","< heading > The Sulphur cycle</heading > When the oxygen is completely depleted in the lower parts of the sediment anaerobic species of bacteria begin to grow . Anaerobic bacteria can use nitrates or sulphates as the terminal electron acceptor of respiration instead of oxygen . The species degrade the cellulose to glucose and then ferment it to produce energy . Other products of this anaerobic type of respiration are organic compounds such as ethanol , acetic acid and succinic acid . reducing bacteria such as can use these products for anaerobic respiration using sulphates producing lots of H 2S. This H 2S will react with any iron producing black ferrous sulphide . The H 2S diffuses from the sediment into the water column ; this is then used by photosynthetic bacteria to grow . Immediately above the sediment there is usually a band of green sulphur bacteria followed by a band of purple sulphur bacteria . They use H 2S instead of water as the reductant during photosynthesis so produce sulphur and not oxygen .   FORMULA   This sulphur then returns to the sediment and is recycled by Desulfovibrio . The water column above this zone is often full of red bacteria , these are purple non - sulphur bacteria that grow in anaerobic conditions and are known as photoheterotrophs . This is due to their use of organic acids supplied by bacterium as their carbon source . These bacteria such as , Rhodospirillum and Rhodomicrobium are intolerant of high concentrations of H so occur above the layers of green and purple sulphur bacteria . The top zone in the column is the aerobic zone , it is mainly populated by distinctive types of bacteria : oxidising bacteria such as and Thiobacillus known as chemoautotrophs . They oxidise any H 2S that diffuses into the aerobic zone to gain energy and synthesise their organic matter from which produces oxygen from CO 2 Sheathed bacteria which produces sheaths formed by a mixture of proteins , polysaccarides and lipids . These are found right at the top of the water column and can be encrusted with ferric oxide giving them a yellow colour . < heading > Conclusion</heading > From looking at our columns the different zones can be identified by their levels and their colours , our experiment shows that the columns with only distilled water added have signs of ferric hydroxide encrusted sheathed bacteria at the top , some initial growth of purple non - sulphur bacteria on the inside of the glass and the dark coloured sediment suggests H 2S production in the presence of iron . The addition of extra sodium sulphate and salt affects the rate and the growth in the other columns but it is hard to quantify as the columns need to be left for longer to mature sufficiently for the system to have balanced .",0
"It seems odd to analyse a concept which is so thoroughly engrained in common language such as that of knowledge . However , since the early writings of philosophers have questioned what it is to know something . Distinctions have been made between capacity knowledge , knowledge by acquaintance and propositional knowledge , each with various difficulties associated with them . The most fundamental debate surrounds the concept of propositional knowledge ; what it means to say we know a particular proposition . such response has been to claim that knowledge is justified true belief . This is known either as the tripartite definition or more generally , the standard analysis . In attempting to define a concept like knowledge , theorists are looking for a set of conditions which cover all aspects of how we use that concept . These conditions must be necessary and sufficient ; each condition is essential to the concept and the combination of these conditions is enough to satisfy the demands of the concept . In the case of knowledge as justified true belief , theorists have identified conditions that are said to successfully fill the necessary and sufficient conditions of knowledge . Predictably , these conditions are truth , belief and justification . The truth condition is pretty much universally accepted . Its basic premise is that it is impossible to claim to know something which is false . If I claim to know that the earth is in fact square , whilst maintaining that it is true that the earth is round , then my claim to knowledge seems somewhat oxymoronic ; I am claiming to have false knowledge . The real controversy that surrounds the truth condition lies in our understanding of the concept of truth . Although this is in itself a difficult subject to tackle . The belief condition , although generally regarded as necessary , has more controversy surrounding it than does the truth condition . The inclusion of the belief condition boils down to the requirement of a psychological connection to an agents claim to knowledge . Broadly speaking , it is impossible to know something which you do not believe of have no belief about . This condition acts to exclude the agent from knowing something which they are at the same time ignorant about . However , although the belief condition is mostly accepted , some philosophers have doubted its necessity ; < quote > "" ... we can accept , or assent to , a known proposition without actually believing it . ""[1]</quote > The underlying idea is that it is possible to accept some proposition without acquiring the tendency to accept this proposition in certain circumstances . In accepting some proposition , an agent is said to know this proposition , but does not necessarily hold the relevant ' dispositional psychological state ' in order for it to count as knowledge . Whether or not this view holds as valid , it is important that the concept of knowledge has as a condition some form of relation between that object and the subject . In the standard analysis , this condition is belief . The and final condition for the tripartite definition of knowledge is the justification condition . It 's apparent through the use of thought experiments that true belief would not suffice in a fully comprehensive account of knowledge . By saying that knowledge is a belief that is true , there remains the possibility of accidental true beliefs . For instance ; if an agent believes that he will win the lottery next time he plays , and against all probability , he does , it can not be said that he knew he would win the lottery . The justification condition means that lucky guesswork does not count as knowledge . However , some philosophers have discounted the need for justification in an account of knowledge ; < quote > "" Belief is a dispositional state , implying a certain degree of stability""[2]</quote > The suggestion is that the holding of a belief implies some form of justification which has led to an agents arrival at the belief . Therefore the justification condition is surplus to requirement . This line of thought has an intuitive element to it ; it makes sense to say that the an agent has a reason for believing in some proposition , and that this reason is itself justification for the agents holding that belief . However it does not capture fully what is trying to be said in adding the justification condition to the standard analysis . Although the justification condition is used in order to clarify our concept of knowledge , it in turn is a concept which needs much clarification . The traditionally held view is that justification requires a form of evidence to secure the truth of a proposition . However , as we have seen , some consider belief to contain an element of justification , but this does not satisfy our intuitions about knowledge . As a result , philosophers have distinguished between internal and external justification . In holding a belief , it is said that there are ways in which that belief can be justified ; < quote > "" Sometimes we focus on the person 's entitlement to hold a certain view . But sometimes we are interested in whether the grounds on the basis of which he holds it are objectively adequate ... ""[3]</quote > Internal justification focuses on the responsibility of the agent in assessing the reliability of the ways in which he formed his belief . External justification instead looks at the reliability of the evidence which provided the information and lead to the formation of a belief . The identification of this division in the condition helps to explain the notion that an element of justification is contained within belief . The claim here is that , although almost all beliefs are in some sense justified , those which are only internally justified do not meet the conditions which are required to constitute knowledge . It is possible for an agent to internally justify a belief using completely unreliable methods . However , in order to claim knowledge , the agent must also hold some form of external justification . As a result , theorists have identified an extended version of the standard analysis . In this version , criterion need to be fulfilled to account for justification ; An agent must be personally justified in believing some proposition and the agent must believe the proposition on the basis of adequate grounds . [ 4 ] Although clarifying the nature of the justification condition , it is still difficult to judge how strongly we should interpret the condition . When faced with a sceptical argument , it will be impossible to justify any belief that an agent might hold . Platonic knowledge assures us that , in a state of knowing , there will be no choice other than to accept that you know , but no amount of empirical evidence will lead to this knowledge , it can only be acquired through the ' forms ' . These examples of the problems surrounding what we can know have many implications for the standard analysis . However there is a problem which has received much more attention from proponents of the tripartite definition ; it comes in the form of an ingenious paper produced by ( ) . In a page paper , provided a counter example which directly attacked the sufficiency of the conditions which make up knowledge . provided an example in which an agent , Smith , has strong evidence to suggest that will get a job which they have both applied for . Having seen Jones count some money in his pocket , Smith comes up with the proposition that the man who will get the job has coins in his pocket . As it turns out , Smith 's reliable source of information has failed him and it is in fact Smith who has got the job . However , as it happens Smith also has coins in his pocket . Thus the proposition ' the man who will get the job has coins in his pocket ' is true . Here has provided an example of a man who holds a true belief , which is justified , but does not seem to correspond with our intuitions about knowledge ; to claim that Smith knew that the man who would get the job has coins in his pocket seems absurd . However , as much as the counter example seems to illustrate a fundamental flaw with the tripartite definition of knowledge , it seems to me that it would be easy to counter the objection . If we accept that the justification for the proposition was not strong enough for Smith to claim knowledge , then it seems that the counter example fails . The problem with this is it leaves open the question of what exactly constitutes a strong enough justification ? Clearly , Smith had strong grounds for accepting that he would not be the one getting the job , but these grounds were built on non - reliable information . Therefore , we could argue that Smith 's forming his belief in the proposition was not in fact justified . Unfortunately , by taking this path , we are likely to end up nowhere but delivered into the hands of the sceptic ; we will find no belief which has strong enough justification . The counter example has clearly dealt the standard analysis a harsh blow . As a result many philosophers have now directed their attention at finding the conditions of knowledge that will not allow for such counter examples . However , I feel that any attempt to clearly define the limits of such a widely used concept as knowledge will only end in failure . Including concepts such as justification in the definition only ends in the need for further analysis . And this analysis itself is unlikely to be definitive . The fact that it is questioned whether we are really able to know anything at all clearly illustrates the implausibility of ever being able to find a complete set of necessary and sufficient conditions that fully satisfy our concept of knowledge . So , it seems that justified true belief does not definitively illustrate our idea of knowledge , it maybe the case that in certain circumstances this will be a adequate account of what we are claiming to know , but it will not suffice for a universal description .","This essay will look at how empowering , empowerment within the hospitality and tourism really is for workers by examining both sides of the argument . ' Employee empowerment is considered by many organisational theorists and practitioners to be one of the most important and popular management concepts of our time ' ( Potterfield , p6 ) . However , the term empowerment is one that is ambiguous and difficult to define . ( ) cited in ( , p6 ) suggest ' empowerment covers management strategies for sharing decision making . ' Empowerment incubuses the idea of pushing down authority to those employees lower down in the hierarchy , changing the role of managers to be of a coaching nature rather than controlling . As ( p14 ) have illustrated ' empowering organisations are characterised by having less hierarchical and more flexible work designs . ' However , Lashley ( ) has noted that an underlining point about empowerment is that the empowerer is still in a more powerful position . It is also important to understand what is meant by the term ' power ' when talking about empowerment . As defined in , power is the ' ability to do something ' or ' a person or group that has control , influence or authority . This suggests that by being empowered , employees will have authority although in reality it is felt that empowerment results in employees ' having to do more for less ' ( Caulkin , p8 ) cited in ( p270 ) and is merely a system ' designed by management and intended to generate commitment and enhance employee contributions to the organisation ' ( Wilkinson ) . Literature has continuously suggested that many people working within the hospitality and tourism industries view their work as being a job rather than a career . Often these industries have large numbers of transient workers which results in high turnover levels and low commitment that is often a problem for many businesses and a reason why many companies do not implement high quality training schemes as it could be seen as a waste of time and money . Mullen ( 2004 ) noted that staff turnover levels within the hospitality industry are a year . Bearing this in mind , to what extent empowerment practices within these industries need to be implemented is a hard question to answer . Despite this , people claim to like interacting with people and therefore , empowerment seems to be a suitable scheme to implement . As ( ) has stated , ' workers are an untapped resource with knowledge and experience and an interest in becoming involved ' . By giving employees the chance to participate in decision - making it can help lead to job satisfaction and better quality decisions for the business . ' Empowerment represents an attempt to establish moral involvement ' ( Lashley p.5 ) . It is also believed by ( p14 ) that ' empowerment of employees has particular attractions for service organisations , because employee commitment and customer service quality are seen as interwoven ' . As argued by ( p.46 ) companies must devolve certain kinds of decision making power , shifting it away from the top management down to low - level employees . The idea that workers could be self - motivated to carry out work without close supervision is argued by ( ) cited in ( , ) . ( 2001 p270 ) believes ' empowerment can deliver genuine improvements in the workplace experience of employees . ' It has been observed that high levels of job satisfaction as well as better quality decisions can be gained from empowering employees . Not only do the workforce benefit but also the organisation due to increased levels of efficiency . ( Wilkinson ) . As ( 2004 p.75 ) note , ' though many companies talk about empowering employees , few have genuinely developed the organizational strategies and culture to support empowered employees ' . However , it is believed by ( ) cited in ( Wilkinson ) that , the power given to employees can assist employees to change decisions and also it help to ' provide effective resistance to management decisions ' . Despite this , ' there are still some significant limits on the power of the empowered ' ( Lashley , p7 ) . ' Some forms of empowerment aim to involve employees in aspects of service operations without necessarily sharing decision making power with them ' ( Lashley ) . For empowerment to be effective employees need to have a belief in their own efficiency and play a key role in making the service encountered by customers a success . Whilst for some employees they find empowerment rewarding giving them a ' sense of personal power together with the freedom to use that power ' ( Conger ) cited in ( Lashley ) for others , it can be an unwelcome development for some people as previously noted , they may purely want to just work to earn their money without any added responsibilities . The idea of increasing downward communication to employees is in an effort to make them more aware of reasoning behind business decisions and as a result , it is hoped the will become more committed to the organisation . ( Wilkinson ) . ( ) cited in ( Potterfield p54 ) belive that for empowerment to work , organisational ingredients need to be shared with employees , information regarding performance , rewards based on performance , knowledge that enables employees to understand and contribute to performance and power to make decisions that influence performance . problem relating to empowerment can be highlighted when looking at an organisation that has a chain of establishments . Whilst many of these large companies such as try to put into operation empowerment , it is important that a certain standard is maintained throughout the hotel chain . This could be seen as a reason as to why ' for lower level employees , empowerment in organisations with more flexible specialised processes , which rely on employee skill , discretion and organisational capabilities , is more likely to be associated with more influence over decisions than in organisations where there are rountinised and standardised processes that are capable of being tightly controlled from above and where there is a tradition of such control ' ( , ) i.e. , . In conclusion , whilst to what extent empowerment actually gives employees power is still very much a contested subject , it is believed that ' empowerment can deliver genuine improvements in the workplace experience of employees ' ( Lashley , 2001 p270 ) and that it helps to ' increase the freedom and autonomy of workers by giving them greater influence over their own working lives and futures ' ( Potterfield , p7 ) . It would appear that the proposal , that empowerment enables a ' win win ' situation for both the employee and employer can however be criticised as the ' degree of participation offered by empowerment is strictly within an agenda set by management and it tends not to extend to significant power sharing or participation in higher level strategic decisions ' ( Wilkinson ) . Despite this , empowerment is believed to be a necessary element to the management of organisations in modern internationally competitive environments . Overall , empowerment practices for workers within the tourism and hospitality industries are often empowering to an extent but a certain level of power still needs to be held by managers as otherwise without boundaries being set , businesses could end up loosing money rather than making it . ' Empowerment may not in practice dilute overall management control : rather it can reconstitute the nature of such control ' ( Wilkinson ) .",0
"< abstract><heading > Summary</heading > Analysis using Computer Aided Design ( ) is becoming more widely available and utilised within the design process . Using in the design process can raise several questions regarding the application and benefits of using these tools . Within and are used extensively to model various parts of the car , such part is the rear wing . The rear wing is a crucial component on a car and its ' design can greatly affect the performance of the car . The rear wing can be responsible for generating up to of the cars total down force . CAD can be used to create an optimal rear wing design that complies to the regulations that govern the Championship . Using can provide benefits to the design process but there are also disadvantages . CAD must be used appropriately by an experienced engineer to be of value within the overall design process . Training and experience is invaluable for an operator to ensure that the software is optimised and produces relevant information . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > Analysis using Computer Aided Design ( ) is becoming more widely available and utilised within the design process . Various analytical methods including finite element analysis , mechanism dynamic simulation and computational fluid dynamics are being integrated into the design process to enable the most appropriate design to be chosen to solve the original design problem . Using in the design process can raise several questions regarding the application and benefits of using these tools , such as : Are tools such as these really as beneficial as their promoters suggest or will they create an over dependence on the computer in design ? Will they enable designers to produce better products or do they inhibit growth and trust in our engineering insight ? Do such tools require and facilitate more sophisticated design techniques ? How should an enterprise manage a design process awash with high precision analytical data ? How much effort should be spent validating results and how is this best performed ? To enable the role of in the design process to be considered and assess the advantages and possible pitfalls that could be encountered when using ; a design problem will be identified and investigated . ® Education Edition 2005 SP3.1 can be used to model the design problem and COSMOS ® suit used to analyse the problem . ® is used for stress , strain and displacement analysis by finite element analysis in both parts and assemblies that are created in . is a virtual prototyping tool that can simulate mechanical operations and any physical forces they generate . COSMOSFloWorks ™ is a fluid flow simulator and thermal analysis program that can be used to model liquid and gas flow both external and internal . < heading > Design Problem</heading > The Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile ( FIA ) is the governing body of international motor sport and implements regulations in numerous different motor sports series across the world . The provides both sporting and technical regulations that all competitors within a particular championship must comply to . The Formula One World Championship is such series that is governed by the . The has sporting and technical regulations that each team , car and driver must comply with in order to compete in each race of the championship . Failure to comply with these regulations can lead to a variety of penalties from race bans to expulsion from the . If a team incurs such a penalty it can inflict financial damage due to loss of revenue associated with competing in races and also damage to the reputation of the team which could lead to reduced sponsorship . It is therefore necessary to make sure that all components on the racing car conform to the technical regulations as set out by the . Appendix 1 shows of the technical drawings that illustrate technical regulations which are supplied to teams showing the rules regarding rear wing design , for example , Regulation states : No part of the car behind the rear wheel centre line may be above the reference plane . The aerodynamic designers therefore need to design a rear wing that complies with these various regulations . Aerodynamic designers are therefore concerned with main points when designing components for a car : Creating down force - helps ' push ' the car onto the road and improves cornering Minimising drag - caused by turbulence and causes the car to slow down The rear wing is a crucial component on a car and its ' design can greatly affect the performance of the car . The rear wing can be responsible for generating up to of the cars total down force . Appendix 2 , part , shows illustrations of different designs of rear wings that were used during the Formula season . These illustrate clearly the various measures adopted in rear wing design to optimise the performance of the car . flaps can be added to the back of the top wing , and the angle of tilt varied from race to race depending on the amount of down force required for that particular circuit . Appendix 2 , part , shows close up the latest designs for the rear wing on the and cars . < heading > Design Methodology</heading > The rear wing that an F1 team designs for its ' car must comply with the FIA regulations but also produce optimal performance when used . The FIA regulations are therefore the basis on which any design for the rear wing is constructed from . There are methods that can be used when designing the rear wing ; Computer aided design and manual design techniques . < heading > Manual Design Techniques</heading > Without the aid of computers the design process would consist of drawing the various design options by hand . Manual calculations would then be performed using fluid dynamics to predict the flow of air over the rear wing . The lift per unit span each section of the wing can be calculated using the Kutta - Joukowski Theorem :   FORMULA   Equation 1 2 When the designers believe an appropriate design has been found scale models of the wing can be made and tested . To analyse the flow of air over the rear wing a scale model can be built and tested in a wind tunnel with a rolling road ( figure and 2 ) . < picture/><picture/><heading > Computer Aided Design</heading > Nowadays with modern computers it is possible to use them to aid the design process . A sketch can be created within modelling software , for example , ; which can then be used to generate a model of the rear wing . This model can be used by an analysis suit , for example , COSMOS to analyse the flow of air over the wing . Once the computational calculations have been completed the program can be used to visualise the results by producing flow trajectories and surface plots . < heading > Solving Design Problem</heading > SolidWorks ® Education Edition 2005 SP3.1 is used to model the design problem and COSMOS ® suit used to analyse the problem . A sketch is drawn of each of the components of the rear wing , for example the large and small components of the wing and the end plates . of the sketches are shown in figures and 4 . < picture/><picture/>A 3D assembly of the wing is created as shown in figure . Appendix 3 , part and , contains the engineering drawings showing the dimensions of the rear wing , all dimensions are in millimetres and comply with the FIA regulations . < picture/>The external fluid flow over the individual components and entire rear wing can then be analysed using . The only parameter that will vary within this report is the speed of the air flow ; all other parameters are set as follows : Fluid : Air , type : External , Default wall conditions : Adiabatic wall . The upper wing components were analysed separately with different air flow speeds . During a race the speed of the car changes so it is necessary to analyse the fluid flow at different air flow speeds . The speeds were 90ms -1 , which corresponds to the maximum speed of the car at , and 22ms -1 that corresponds to a speed of . Appendix 3 , part and 4 , shows the analysis of the upper wing components . For both of the components the goals plot shows the convergence towards a solution and the flow trajectory plot visualises the air flow over the component . These flow trajectories along with the other analysis tools available within COSMOS can be used to create a rear wing that produces the amount of down force required for each circuit . Using enables a selection of different rear wing configurations to be created with different small and large components that will be specifically designed for use on a particular circuit . To further investigate the air flow over the rear wing the complete rear wing assembly can be analysed , although it is necessary to evaluate each individual component of the rear wing . Once an overall design is created that the engineers believe to be optimal , the rear wing design can be added to the model of the entire car and this can analysed . Figure demonstrates the path lines over an entire F1 car created through computational fluid dynamics . < picture/><heading > Management Report</heading > Using CAD in the design process can raise several questions for both the designer and management regarding the application and benefits of using these tools . Both and manual methods have their respective benefits and disadvantages . allows rapid and cost effective evaluation of a design . It is possible to test a large number of designs with relatively low cost compared to evaluating a large number of designs by manual techniques . Using manual techniques can be expensive , for example , using scale models and wind tunnels . If a small modification is made to the design it may be necessary to construct a new scale model at cost . Manual techniques are also expensive due to the cost of construction and running costs associated with wind tunnels . allows small modifications to be made to the design and reduces the cost as no new prototype is needed as with manual techniques . has a relatively low investment compared with manual techniques as the computers and software are the only initial costs compared to manual prototyping techniques and wind tunnels . There is also hazard reduction when using compared to prototype testing and many promoters suggest that using computer aided design is more durable . of the largest benefits of using is the ability to use the software to visualise the results of the analysis easily . Not only is prototyping expensive but it raises scaling problems associated with using models that are smaller than the actual design . CAD overcomes these problems as it is possible to draw the sketch to the actual size of the component . Scaling problems arise in prototyping as using models of different sizes affects achieved . With a different Reynold Number for the prototype this can lead to results of the prototype being different than those that will be achieved when the final component is tested , this can potentially be dangerous as the component could fail and cause injury as the correct prototype results were not obtained . CAD generates more information than other methods of analysis . This can be both an advantage and disadvantage to the design process as a large amount of data can be harder to analyse , as the operator needs to be able to extract the correct information that will be useful for evaluating the design . It is necessary that the engineer using the software is skilled enough to evaluate the results but also configure the parameters . An over dependence of the engineer on the software / computer in configuring the parameters can lead to results having no value within the design problem Once and analysis has been performed on a design it may be necessary to validate the results obtained , this is when manual techniques can provide useful . Within , teams still use wind tunnels to analyse the final design before going into production , to validate the results obtained from their computational fluid dynamic analysis . F1 teams overcome the scaling problems by using a full size model of the car within the wind tunnel . This however is expensive , so for other products it might not be feasible to test at full scale . CAD must be used appropriately by an experienced engineer to be of value within the overall design process . Training and experience is invaluable for an operator to ensure that the software is optimised and produces relevant information . I believe that can be used to produce better products but designers and engineers must still use their knowledge and insight and not become over dependent on the software .","< heading > Introduction</heading > Single cells of microorganisms are too small to be seen with naked eyes . However , with the aid of microscope , some microorganisms can be observed easily . This experiment aims to introduce the use of microscope and learn how to prepare a ' wet mount ' of culture for microscopic examination . Also to recognise the difference between bacteria , yeasts and moulds under microscope . Microorganisms are living organisms with a very small free - living structure . In ascending order of size , the major groups of microorganisms include the viruses , the bacteria , the fungi ( yeast and the spores of moulds ) , and at last the protozoa and algae . The protozoa , algae , moulds and yeasts can be seen easily with a relatively low power of magnification ( 100 - 400× ) under light microscope . Bacteria are smaller than fungi and can only be seen with the aid of a higher power light microscope ( ) . Viruses are even smaller which can only be seen under electron microscope with higher magnification ( or higher ) . ( Bell et al . , ) Special morphological details are required to characterise a bacterium , these are usually determined by means of light microscopy . are much larger than bacterial cells and can be distinguished microscopically from bacteria by their size . Yeast and moulds can be distinguished by their shape and reproductive structure . ( Gerhardt et al . , ) The ' wet mount ' can be used to observe bacterial spores or to determine cell motility or as a confirmation method for the presence of yeast and moulds in colony counts . It is used in this experiment in order to observe any movements of bacteria . , yeasts and moulds are mostly capable of growth in food . It is important to understand the nature of and identify different microbial species as well as the basic details of microbial structure and function . Some bacteria may cause food poisoning while some fungi may cause food spoilage and diseases to human ( e.g. athlete 's foot ) . Some are beneficial , e.g. yeasts are used in the brewing process and to make bread dough rise , production of antibiotic penicillin from a fungus and the use of fungi to manufacture cheese . ( Gould and , ) < heading > Methods</heading><heading > Examination of Bacillus cereus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae:</heading > A grease pencil was used to make a mark on the centre of a slide A sterilise loop was used to pick up some Bacillus cereus in a bottle The loop of culture was being put over the grease pencil mark on the slide and covered by a coverslip The slide was observed under a light microscope with magnification of and then Slide of cerevisiae was prepared in the same way as Bacillus cereus but it was observed under magnification of and then of the microorganisms were made < heading > Examination of Rhizopus stolonifera and Panicillium variabile:</heading > A drop of mounting fluid was put on a slide An adhesive tape was used to pick up some growth of Rhizopus stolonifera The area of tape with mould growth was positioned in the mounting fluid and the tape ends being sticked to the slide The slide was observed under a light microscope with magnification of variabile was prepared in the same way but it was observed under magnification of as well were made < heading > Results</heading><heading > Drawings of different microorganisms when observed under microscope</heading><heading > Bacillus cereus ( bacterium)</heading><figure/><heading > Saccharomyces cerevisiae ( yeast)</heading><figure/><heading > Rhizopus stolonifera ( bread variabile < /heading><figure/><heading > Conclusions</heading > Different magnifications were used to observe different microorganisms . Bacillus cereus ( bacterium ) , could only be seen under magnification of whereas cerevisiae ( yeast ) , Rhizopus stolonifera ( bread mould ) and Panicillium variabile could be seen under magnification of and 100×. This showed that bacteria are smaller than fungi . The nucleus of cerevisiae was clearly shown under microscope but not in cereus . This showed that yeasts are more complicated than bacteria . Bacteria are prokaryotes which possess simple chromosomes and no nuclear membrane . They are single - celled organisms and have simple structure . are eukaryotes which possess a true nucleus enclosed in a nuclear membrane that contains their genetic material within complex chromosomes . They are either unicellular such as yeasts or multicellular such as moulds . The drawings showed that cerevisiae cells were round in shape , cereus cells were filamentous which had a lot of hyphae and Panicillium variabile cells were hand - shaped . Yeasts usually do not form filaments . Also , cereus and Panicillium variabile have different reproductive structures . Those are some of the distinguish features of different fungi when observed under microscope . The reproductive structures are different between yeasts and moulds . As yeasts grow , their cells extend sections , called buds , which enlarge and eventually become detached and lead to a separate existence . bear hyphae which collectively known as mycelium . Spores are formed and bound in sporangia . Spores will be dispersed by wind and animals when sporangia split open and geminate on a suitable surface . Each spore can grow into a fungal plant . There were some points that we had to pay attention when performed the experiment . The diaphragm should be closed when we are focusing the objects and then opened when we examine the slide as to get maximum contrast . Also , the bottle with apple juice and yeast cells should be shaked as the big yeast cells were suspended at the bottom . The cover slip should be put above the specimen slowly to prevent air bubbles . The light microscope is available to and needed by all who study microorganisms . Under microscope , bacteria and fungi can be distinguished easily by their size and by the presence of internal cell structure such as nucleus . Moulds can be identified by their structural features , mainly asexual spore - bearing structures . < heading > Questions</heading > Why should you always examine a slide under low power before switching to the high power oil immersion objective ? We should always examine a slide under low power before switching to the high power oil immersion see because we need to check whether the specimen is rewarding and to select an area for study or to detect motility first . Then use oil immersion objective for more definitive observation . How many cells of Bacillus cereus could theoretically be placed side by side in a straight line across the diameter of a coin ( ) ? Make use of your own estimate of the size of the cell . From the drawing , the diameter of Bacillus cereus cell is . As the magnification used was , the real diameter is estimated as = 0.003 mm , which is µm . So the number of Bacillus cereus cell could theoretically be placed side by side in a straight line across the diameter of a coin ( µm ) = = cells . How many protein molecules of diameter nm ( the size of haemoglobin ) could theoretically be placed side by side in a straight line across the width of a cereus cell ? From the drawing , the diameter of Bacillus cereus cell is . As the magnification used was , the real diameter is estimated as = 0.003 mm , which is µm . So the number of protein molecules of diameter nm ( µm ) could theoretically be placed side by side in a straight line across the width of a Bacillus cereus cell   FORMULA   How is asexual reproduction in cerevisiae similar to and different from that in cereus ? cerevisiae reproduces asexually by budding . In the budding process , a new cell forms as a small outgrowth of the old cell . The bud gradually enlarges and then separates to form a new cell . cereus reproduces asexually by binary fission where cell elongates sufficiently to form equal and independent daughter cells with characteristics like those of the parent cell . The cell division methods are similar as identical cells with the same genetic information are produced at the end . The difference is cerevisiae cells will only have plain of division whereas   cereus will have different plains of division . Thus growth of bacteria is faster than yeasts . On the other hand , cereus sometimes formed endospores inside cells and wait for suitable condition to grow , but cerevisiae will not form endospores . What are the essential differences between asexual reproduction in Rhizopus stolonifera and sp . ? Both Rhizopus stolonifera and sp . produce spores asexually . For Rhizopus stolonifera , sporangiophores grow upright from the surface and the tip swells to form sporangia . Each sporangium contains many spores . for sp . , a conidiophore terminates in branched phialides and each phialide tips off with conidia . The spore - bearing structures rise above feeding mycelium . The conidia bud off in chain from the top and external to hyphae . The conidia are not contained in coating .",0
"Structural adjustment has featured at the heart of many development debates and continues to cause controversy as contentious Poverty Reduction Strategies ( 's ) are widely implemented in developing countries . What is perhaps most ambiguous is what structural adjustment aims for , recently it has been used as a development tool were initially it sought more to implement macroeconomic reform . In assessing the economic merits of structural adjustment alongside its drawbacks I hope to look beyond the circumstantial evidence to the theoretical frameworks which surround its creation . My argument will focus on the socio - political effects of structural adjustment in contrast to its economic advantages using the evidence from countries ( and specifically ) who have experienced structural adjustment as well as purveying the academic literature , especially that of NGO 's , assessing the validity of structural adjustment as a tool of development and the different recommendations for its future . As far as possible I intend to avoid discussing the behaviour of ( 's ) who initiate structural adjustment as my primary focus will be on assessing whether structural adjustment is a worthwhile policy for developing countries to adopt . < heading > Structural Adjustment</heading > It is important to understand structural adjustment in context . It was introduced in , after the oil crisis , when many developing countries were struggling to meet their debt repayments . In the wake of the global 's acceptance of neo - liberalism , structural adjustment embodies a strong credence to neo - liberal economics ; comparative advantage and the deregulation of the market to promote free trade being central themes . It claims that by converting "" fundamental economic concepts "" into policies for developing countries it can create a stable economy for that country and aid its progression towards development , leaving behind their cloak of poverty . However contrasting this theoretical model of structural adjustment to actual results and their effects could indicate a different story . < fnote > Bracking , S. ( ) Structural Adjustment : Why it was n't necessary & why it did n't work 26(Issue 80 ): p.207-   URL   Accessed . p.207 < /fnote > Structural adjustment , embodied as ( 's ) , ( 's ) , Economic Recovery Programmes ( ERP 's ) , Structural Adjustment Loans ( SAL 's ) , or ( SAP 's ) and Poverty Reductions Strategies ( 's ) normally precede any sort of loan by the IMF or and are conditional in the sense that the recipient government 's policies must align to the rigid proforma of structural adjustment to receive their proposed loan . The IMF states that adjustment policies are "" key to unlocking the full potential of the global economy "" whilst others accuse adjustment of "" ruining the economies of developing countries "" . More political insights charge adjustment with being a form of neo colonialism whereby developed nations exercise their control through a "" regulation of poor countries "" for their own gain . < fnote > URL   Accessed < /fnote><fnote > Chossudovsky , M. ( 1997 ) . Impacts of and . ; . p. < /fnote><fnote > Bracking , S ( ) Structural Adjustment : Why it was n't necessary & why it did n't work Iss80 p. < /fnote > Although there are claims that 's are radically different there is "" little substance change "" in their actual content . The neo - liberal credence from which structural adjustment sprang emphasises the necessity of the market to be unregulated and the importance of free trade , essentially following Smith and Ricardo and their neo - classical economics . In the reality of adjustment this is translated into the belief that an artificial , created and sustained liberalised economy can become stable and prosperous from policy reforms and a cash injection into their economy . So too with the recent goals of the IMF and seeming increasingly focussed on development and poverty alleviation through their macro economic policies adjustment supposedly caters both for the development of a nation as well as for its economic fate . In this way it seems the meaning of development has morphed into simply being perceived as economic growth and vice versa , for example and both conceptualised development and economic growth as synonymous . < fnote > Simon , D ' Neo - Liberal , Structural Adjustment , Poverty Reduction Strategies ' in Desai V & Potter R. ( Eds . ) ( ) : . p.91 < /fnote><fnote >   URL [ 126]=i126e5df509b8cf88b8ae836fead961c4b5Accessed 22/04/05 . < /fnote><fnote > Esteva , G ' Development ' in Desai V & Potter R. ( Eds . ) ( ) : . p12 < /fnote><heading > The Economic Benefits ; in theory</heading > Despite varying strengths of adjustment the macro economic prescriptions , generic in character , are usually initiated in ' phases ' . Phase , otherwise known as "" short term macroeconomic stabilisation "" implements policies which reduce government spending , take existing price regulating controls away and allow the market to devalue . Phase prescribes "" necessary structural reforms "" such as continued deregulation of banking , reforming taxes , placing economics within banking and trading , privatising public or government owned land or businesses whilst simultaneously promoting good governance and poverty alleviation . < fnote > Chossudovsky , M. ( 1997 ) . Impacts of and . ; . p.55 < /fnote><fnote > ibid < /fnote > By eliminating government control on interest , exchange rates and the market trade in general structural adjustment aims to boost businesses so that the economy has more investment , domestically and internationally , and is therefore more stable . Reducing government spending through wage cuts , scrapping subsidies and reducing welfare services is intrinsic to adjustment as it takes economic strain away from the government . Meanwhile phase privatisation gives public services over to companies who make more money to feed into the economy . The emphasis of structural adjustment on export promotion follows a strong liberal ethic as to the economic benefits of comparative advantage . By specialising in commodity only and ceasing to compete in numerous markets a country can increase export increasing revenues and their percentage of profit whilst creating a stronger market with a growing global repute . This turns developing countries into players in the international trading market making money from exports whilst simultaneously importing for the mutual advantage of all . The move from a stronger market economy to development in terms of income and opportunity for the majority of the population is made , by adjustment economists , through their adherence to trickle down economics . Through the process of trickle down any wealth made at the top of the hierarchic structure of a country will move down and benefit the bottom tiers of society naturally and without any interference in the market . In this way neo - liberal economics has shaped and formed adjustment leading many to assume , in , that adjustment was a ' foolproof ' way to develop the underdeveloped . Structural adjustment aligns closely with Modernisation theory in the idea of progressive steps from "" traditional society "" to "" high mass consumption "" through the stages of transition and "" take - off "" . < fnote > Rostow , W. ( 1996 ) The Stages of Economic Growth : a non - communist manifesto : < /fnote><heading > The Economic Benefits ; in practice < /heading > The IMF website proclaims that adjustment "" has a strong interaction with economic growth "" . Generally speaking Gross Domestic Product ( GDP ) is used to indicate adjustment 's success although it potentially represents a distorted picture as to actual economic growth of the whole country as growth is often poorly distributed within national society . However remembering that adjustment seeks to implement new macroeconomic structures GDP is a good indicator of change within the economy , and an increase in GDP would surely indicate a level of success for adjustment . In the many cases of adjustment there has been an increase in GDP and a good indication of sustained economic reform , although external variables do sometimes impede such progress . In the lower developed world the period saw a rise in GDP whilst and saw a rise of and a rise of . Worldwide GDP increased by in . < fnote > URL   Accessed . < /fnote><fnote > URL   Accessed < /fnote > 's GDP has slumped by in the but had increased by in the and agriculture also rose by alongside an increase of in industry . This rise in industry and export has accompanied adjustment polices and infers that adjustment generates growth as well as the foundations which support long term growth , creating a healthy economy which in turn attracts long term for the country . < fnote > ibid . < /fnote > The financial benefits accrued by many countries who accepted adjustment policies did not come without certain economic , as well as socio - political , costs . The rhetoric of many 's around the issue of structural adjustment is that long term economic reform will inevitably bear short term ' teething ' problems . This would account for immediate recession or shock but many countries seem unable to exit from this slump leaving the economic benefits of structural adjustment as ambiguous . perceives that whilst a "" temporary sacrifice of growth "" might be expected and even necessary for long term economic growth it has not been accounted for within structural adjustment which leaves countries bearing these sacrifices alone at great cost , sometimes to the detriment of the economy they initially sought to rebuild . A case in point is where , after of adjustment , the effects of adjustment were seemingly erratic . writes that , despite a drought in , reforms did succeed in liberalising trade , reducing economic controls and building "" a better basis for self sustaining growth "" . Despite this claim 's statistics fail to indicate growth and despite the extremity of the political situation in the failure of structural adjustment to assist neither the economy nor deal with the poverty perhaps shows some negligence . GDP only increased by in where in the Eighties it was at . Essentially this indicates that adjustment had the opposite effect to its aim , minimising rather than maximising growth in GDP . Industry is perhaps the most alarming where growth was at in manufacturing and now is . In defence of structural adjustment these decreases could be the result of the militant government in , the effects of repetitive flooding or the recent decline in tourism because of growing internal political tensions . < fnote > UNCTAD . ( )   URL   Accessed 03/04/05 p 25 < /fnote><fnote > URL   Accessed 06/04/05 . < /fnote><fnote > World Bank Statistics   URL   accessed < /fnote > Another perspective from which to view the idea of adjustment having economic benefits is from a global perspective or , perhaps more relevantly , from the perspective of the global who facilitate and create the policies of most 's involved in adjustment . The continuing wealth creation and growth in the economy of both and could infer not just a healthy economic growth but an extra income accrued from successful bargains within Third World trading agreements . Dependency theorists such as and have spoken about the "" development of underdevelopment "" with reference to how capitalist states monopolise the underdeveloped worked to keep them as they are ; dependent on the aid of capitalist states , unable to rival capitalist power and economically beneficial to capitalism . In effect could we argue that for the global north to enjoy the economic benefits that they do from the implementation of adjustment ( predominantly it 's prescriptions for free trade ) the global , already poor , must pay the increasing socio - economic costs ? This is supported by Bracking who concludes that adjustment "" expressed continuities in both the discourse and practice of post - colonial international political economy "" . This perspective has some value and it is important to realise the different ways in which adjustment can be construed through theories . Now we are able to contrast some of these economic benefits with the effects they bear in other arenas of life external to economic figures . < fnote > Simon , D ' Neo - Liberal , Structural Adjustment , Poverty Reduction Strategies ' in Desai V & Potter R. ( Eds . ) ( ) : Arnold . p < /fnote><fnote > Bracking , S ( ) Structural Adjustment : Why it was n't necessary & why it did n't work Iss80 p219 < /fnote><heading > The Social Costs < /heading > The economic growth expected by many ' adjusting ' economies has not permeated to all levels of society and in many cases it has had the opposite effect . To the contrary the overwhelming picture for many countries with extensive periods of adjustment is poverty for the majority of their population . began its adjustment adventure in and of the population live on two American dollars a day , of children are malnourished and the country has had to start importing food to provide food for its citizens . In , for whom adjustment began in , of the rural population survive on one dollar a day . In order to understand these effects it is necessary to unearth the adjustment policy involved , it 's actual effect aside from theories surrounding adjustment and how this translates for many developing nations . < fnote > ( ) ( ed ) Structural adjustment in : . p39 < /fnote><fnote > URL : 20208585 ~ menuPK:441697 ~ pagePK:141137 ~ piPK:217854 ~ theSitePK:343623,00.html Accessed < /fnote > The liberalisation of trade is as central to adjustment as it is to neo - liberalism and it results in a removal of trade tariffs and opening up of the market to global competition . This ushers in cheap imports for consumers but simultaneously confronts domestic industry with a speedy influx of strong and well established competition . Without the sophisticated technology and strong economic foundations enjoyed by foreign importers small national businesses are no longer economically viable : the drastic fate of many farmers illustrates this cost . This translates not only into diminished job opportunities and increasing unemployment but to a loss of domestic security for food and other commodities . The country initiating adjustment policies becomes inherently weak and susceptible to the volatile winds of the international trading market . Instead of making the country stronger economically structural adjustment could undermine their independence . Whereas used to meet all its domestic food needs , by it was importing of food . This lack of food security has led to increased malnutrition in many countries seriously threatening the health and life expectancy of future generations as well as violating fundamental human rights to food and clean water . In malnutrition in children globally was at whilst young children die every year in the developing world . < fnote > SAPRIN ( )   URL   Accessed 04/04/05   < /fnote><fnote > URL   Accessed < /fnote><fnote > URL   Accessed 10/04/05 < /fnote > This "" expansion and deepening of poverty "" felt by a huge increase in unemployment is often further exaggerated by huge increases in prices of everyday commodities as price controls and subsidies are scrapped by adjustment policies . In the shock treatment saw the price of bread rise by whilst cooking oil rose from its original price leading to an outbreak of which killed . < fnote > Chossudovsky , M. ( 1997 ) . Impacts of and . ; p.183 < /fnote><fnote > ibid . p.194 < /fnote > Structural adjustment also promotes a market of exports so there is more profit , policies offer to invest into industry , dependent upon a country specialising in a small number of exports . In such grants favoured large scale specialised producers willing to export in bulk and simultaneously all development banks which had previously offered credit were closed down so as to cut government expenditure . In in law proscribed that a landowner must own hectares , further augmenting already existent inequalities between small scale domestic producers and commercial farmers . Where producers are encouraged by adjustment policies to focus on product alone to maximise profit they do so often to great economical value but at a cost of their own domestic security ( predominantly food security ) . When drought hit in agriculture incurred a loss of of maize crop and a huge majority faced famine , meanwhile foreign financed tobacco companies growing to export still had a "" bumper harvest "" . < fnote > Chossudovsky , M. ( 1997 ) . Impacts of and . ; . < /fnote><fnote > ibid . p.106 < /fnote > The deregulation of interest rates and currency leads to an unpredictable economy for which domestic business suffers more than others . Midst such economic turmoil and unrest countries are encouraged to stimulate ( ) and therefore , in such a fragile and volatile condition , often end up attracting ) through . This stimulates investment but often at the costs of workers and therefore not to the overall benefit of the nation . In structural adjustment and resulting liberalised labour laws saw wages fall by or more . writes that adjustment "" has eroded the seemingly democratic nature of the process of ' free exchange ' embodied in classical bourgeois ideology "" by reduced employment rights and social services . In effect the only benefit of such an adjustment policy is for 's who generate more profit by exploiting vulnerable economies . < fnote > UNRISD ( 1995 ) States of disarray : the social effects of globalization : an UNRISD report for . : UNRISD p. < /fnote><fnote > Bangura , and No 37 ( Dec ) London p.35 < /fnote > Adjustment seems to have a disproportionate effect for women and children . In adjustment seems to reinforce the exclusion of women by refusing to grant loans to female farmers because they do not hold legal property rights for the land they cultivate because traditionally men own property . In women contribute to the economy whilst having a share of . So too the costs of adjustment are often borne by women who are forced to take jobs where they are unfairly treated not because of their emancipation or equality with men but through sheer poverty . Chossudovsky asserts this as a "" degradation of the social rights of women "" who are also severely affected by the abolishment of state services rendered as ' surplus expenditure ' by adjustment . Lower wages , alongside the abolishment of benefits , make poverty commonplace with no cushions to break the fall of many families and units . In this translated to more incidences of drug use and increased prostitution of women and children having to seek work in all areas . < fnote > SAPRIN ( )    URL   Accessed 04/04/05 < /fnote><fnote > ibid . < /fnote><fnote > Chossudovsky , M. ( 1997 ) . Impacts of and . ; . p34 < /fnote><fnote > SAPRIN ( )    URL   Accessed 04/04/05 < /fnote > Privatisation and other reductions in public expenditure within structural adjustment are , theoretically , mutually beneficial ; whilst revenues increases from other reforms privatisation quickly reduces government expenditure in the short term whilst relieving it of a long term economic burden . So too the expectation is that profit from newly privatised services will further reinforce the economy . Primarily and quickly all subsidies for food , education and healthcare were cut . services such as water and electricity would be handed over to private management followed by education and healthcare . This privatisation of welfare in which business tried to make profits from healthcare and education had severe consequences for a society already suffering economic cutbacks . In ever increasing poverty and a lapse in vaccination which were no longer provided by the government led to a rise in and a rise in malaria , dengue and leishmaniasis too . Health workers joined teachers on strike whilst child malnutrition hit and infant mortality rose to a quarter in some areas . In the reintroduction of health fees saw the cost rise by so that only a minority could afford adequate health care despite deteriorating health due to poverty and new bouts of epidemics such as . The number of outbreaks of AIDS , HIV and 's rose dramatically as did the death toll . < fnote > Chossudovsky , M. ( 1997 ) . Impacts of and . : P.201 < /fnote><fnote > ibid . < /fnote > Finally an often unconsidered social effect of adjustment is the great cost levied on the environment . Structural adjustment often prescribes heavy industrialisation and its focus on trade and production does not entail any sort of consideration for the environment . Whilst of the world 's oxygen is produced in the rainforest every year of the rainforest are either logged or simply disappear . Much of this corresponds to ongoing adjustment programmes which have promoted exports and thus encouraged illegal logging as well as its emphasis on the freedom of businesses meaning until recently governments had not actively pursued policies against industries showing no regard for the environment . It is clear that the whole world could not consume and produce as much as developed countries do because the earth simply does not have the resources to do so . However and adjustment policies proscribe this exact path , forcing the industrialization process not just to the detriment of the society today but without foresight for . UNRISD states that "" the effectiveness of policy responses to environment degradation is often curtailed by adjustment "" . The "" rapid growth of agricultural imports "" accompanied by "" institutional changes ""   which counteract attempts to promote localised sustainable living are all negative effects on efforts made by many environmentalists . It is estimated that by 2025 half our world will live with sparse water supply meanwhile fossil fuels are running out and the world climate is changing drastically . < fnote > URL   Accessed 08/04/05 . < /fnote><fnote > URL   Accessed 08/04/05 < /fnote><fnote > UNRISD ( 1995 ) States of disarray : the social effects of globalization : an UNRISD report for . : UNRISD . p50 < /fnote><fnote > URL   Accessed 08/04/05 < /fnote > There are other costs resulting from the adoption by developing countries of adjustment policies . Oxfam writes of the social costs involved by adjustment because all funding is streamlined in exports and industry and other valuable social development programmes are stopped so as to focus on adjustment at the expense of other causes and to their detriment . So too adjustment has often been charged with being culturally insensitive , failing to recognise the diversity and culture of individual countries with their prescriptions and instead streamlining countries economies and disregarding "" that some individuals may not be trying to maximise their own economic self interest "" . The increasing migration of workers bankrupt by the adjustment 's agricultural reforms led to an insurgence in coca production and the illegal drug trade in became rampant and all invading . Structural adjustment "" undermined the legal economy , reinforced illicit trade and contributed to the recycling of "" dirty money "" towards 's official and commercial creditors "" . In effect drug profits were the way managed to pay off its escalating debts , the total debt had doubled as a result of adjustment and debt repayments increased from $ to $ a month . < fnote > OXFAM   URL   Accessed 20/04/05 < /fnote><fnote > UNRISD ( 1995 ) States of disarray : the social effects of globalization : an UNRISD report for . : UNRISD . p.43 < /fnote><fnote > Chossudovsky , M. ( 1997 ) . Impacts of and . ; . p.211 < /fnote><fnote > ibid . p.204 < /fnote><heading > The Political Costs < /heading > Bracking charges adjustment with being a form of "" political domination "" in that it reduces the opportunities countries have to work within other markets and retain a sense of independence without relying on "" undemocratic finance institutions "" . Essentially the argument is that structural adjustment undermines the sovereignty of nation states and their "" sacrosanct right ""   to form policy instead forcing them to follow macroeconomic models . Indeed Adedeji writes that "" independent policy making and national economic management were considerably diminished and narrowed in "" as a direct result of structural adjustment . So the implication is that non - adjustment motivated priorities have to fall by the wayside in favour of structural adjustment reforms . There is no arena for genuinely domestic concerns and thus there is a demise of politics replaced by a mimicked version of neo - liberal economic ideals . Does the illegal drug industry prosper because of the strict adjustment conditions that demand government monies focuses , not on internal policing , but on economic growth , national expenditure and income ? < fnote > Bracking , S ( ) Structural Adjustment : Why it was n't necessary & why it did n't work Iss80 pg < /fnote><fnote > ibid . < /fnote><fnote > Simon , D ' Neo - Liberal , Structural Adjustment , Poverty Reduction Strategies ' in Desai V & Potter R. ( Eds . ) ( ) : Arnold . p < /fnote><fnote > Adedeji , A in , R Aid , Conditionaility and Debt in p.4   URL   Accessed 20/04/05 . < /fnote > Structural adjustment reforms often spark "" unrest and violence "" as the UNRISD report recognises . In the ' Fujishock ' of the 90 's left the government having to chose how to react to the inevitable social protest and general discontent which could potentially have a detrimental effect on their rule as well as an unsettling effect on the country in general . Faced with what they perceived as a potential "" civil dissent "" worked closely with the army who prior to with its forces . During his reign continued with militaristic intervention seriously undermining any concept of a democracy and the resulting "" curtailment of civil liberties "" had serious political ramifications . This could lead one to suggest that structural adjustment leads to a demise of proper politics and democracy . Has adjustment led to adopt the strong , militaristic style he displays , after he declared independence for , became their president and formed the country 's relationship with ? < fnote > UNRISD ( 1995 ) States of disarray : the social effects of globalization : an UNRISD report for . : UNRISD . p.42 < /fnote><fnote > Chossudovsky , M. ( 1997 ) . Impacts of and . ; p205 < /fnote><fnote > ibid . < /fnote > Increasingly , where governments initiating structural adjustment have evolved into authoritarian states , there is an implication that this form of adjustment implies an infringement onto the basic rights of man , the freedom of speech and the liberty to hold differing political opinions . Because of the Reform of Workers Laws the right to strike and to form unions were removed and effectively workers were unable to change their working circumstances . They were exploited by , low pay and unfair treatment and denied the right to protest about it . Essentially this implies that structural adjustment can lead to an infringement of human rights firstly under authoritarian regimes and here because of unfair labour laws . < fnote > Bangura , and No 37 ( Dec ) London p.35 < /fnote > Perhaps this illustrates the influence structural adjustment has upon domestic politics . Indeed whilst structural adjustment reduces the authority of the national government it introduces a "" dominant importance of external influences "" making the country vulnerable , not just economically , but also politically . By adhering to liberal economic adjustment policies developing countries are seen to be allying themselves , willingly or unwillingly , to liberal politics and therefore have less political manoeuvrability within international relations and trade . < fnote > Lancaster C & Williamson J. ( ) Economic Reform : : . p.64 < /fnote > In an article on adjustment suggests that politically the issue is that adjustment "" seeks to further weaken the limited strength of the working class and strengthen that of the bourgeoisies by it 's insistence on the market mechanism as the primary regulatory force "" . For this reason he perceives there are "" great dangers "" for any country wishing to subscribe to structural adjustment and maintain its own democracy and an economic independence . < fnote > Bangura , and No 37 ( Dec ) . p.25 < /fnote><fnote > ibid < /fnote><heading > Conclusion of Socio - Political Effects</heading > Before evaluating the costs of structural adjustment in socio - political terms it seems imperative to differentiate between the unavoidable costs born by adjustment in return for economic benefits , in contrast to the effects that adjustment might bring but which are not necessary in order that adjustment occur . To clarify , whilst increased unemployment is a cost of adjustment because of cuts in state services , starvation is an effect because no adjustment policy directly caused its occurrence and it was not a necessary component of the adjustment process . Never the less , as we have seen , such effects can have severe consequences for individuals and institutions alike . The real question is whether these negative effects are necessary , because if they are not the validity of structural adjustment still stands and the only failure is in the formation and implementation of structural adjustment . It appears many of the effects of structural adjustment could have been avoided but a lack of resources , or perhaps more importantly an inaccurate interpretation of the problem , means this has not been the case . Essentially structural adjustment has succeeded in many cases in producing economic success , but the isolated reform of economics has had negative knock on effects for society and politics which also play a large part in economics . It appears structural adjustment addressed only part of the economic problem - developing countries , behind on their debt repayments , were left post - structural adjustment with further debt , a clear sign that both the diagnosis and prescription was lacking . Perhaps what it most alarming about the socio - political effects of structural adjustment that we have considered is that "" the social impact could itself frustrate the desired economic effect "" . < fnote > UNRISD ( 1995 ) States of Disarray : . UNRISD : . p.42 < /fnote > There is , however , no way to judge how developing countries would have fared midst global economic difficulty without adjustment policies . There is no doubt in some cases adjustment lending provided , albeit invisible , a cushion against what could have been poverty at even greater depths . UNICEF states < fnote > Nkombo Muuka , ( ) In and Vol : ) < /fnote><quote>""we recognise that the primary cause of the downward economic pressures on the human situation in most countries affected is the overall economic situation , globally and nationally , not adjustment policy as such . Indeed without some form of adjustment , the situation would often be far worse""</quote><fnote > Cornia A G , Jolly R , & Stewart F. ( ) ( ed ) Adjustment with a Human Face : Protecting the Vulnerable and ( Vol 1 ) Clarendon Press : . p. < /fnote > It is also important to note that many of the so called ' effects ' of adjustment are actually caused by extraneous factors for which structural adjustment is not accountable and can not control . Developing countries are often the most vulnerable when hit by a global recession , a national drought , regional flooding , earthquakes , terrorist attacks or mere market diminutions and neither national governments nor adjustment can consider in their policies such unprecedented events which influence all areas of life . So too as recognises 's administering adjustment "" can not be held responsible for the circumstances that brought indebted countries to their doorsteps in the place "" . So too whilst structural adjustment proscribes polices it is national government who implements them . The fact that successfully ' adjusted ' with improvements to the social welfare as opposed to ' social costs ' indicates a success for structural adjustment and UNICEF concedes that "" growth orientated approaches with structural adjustment have been adopted successfully "" . So too , as in where society benefited from structural adjustment , policies can "" combine structural adjustment , economic growth , and protection of the human dimension "" . This suggests not only that macroeconomic structural adjustment can be effective when it considers societies alongside economies but more significantly that the success of structural adjustment relies on how it is implemented by national government . Whilst in structural adjustment had within it policies and programmes to safeguard social welfare real social costs were incurred . This however does not represent a failure for adjustment but perhaps a lack of government action in implementing the adjustment . This is the stance of who consider the state of an indication of the poor "" implementation "" of structural adjustment rather than structural adjustment itself . < fnote > George in Nkombo Muuka , ( ) In and Vol : ) < /fnote><fnote > Cornia A G , Jolly R , & Stewart F. ( ) ( ed ) Adjustment with a Human Face : Protecting the Vulnerable and ( Vol 1 ) Clarendon Press : Oxford.p.125 < /fnote><fnote > ibid . < /fnote><fnote > URL   Accessed 06/04/05.p 2 < /fnote><heading > Adjustment within Development ; Perspectives from Development NGO's</heading > Whilst we acknowledge that structural adjustment traditionally aims at economic reform and not development it has been recognised that increasing the BWI have reformed their mission statement so that it says "" Our dream is a world free of poverty "" . Working from this structure structural adjustment is , in some way , responsible for development as well as for instigating successful and productive economic policies . This leads to a growing link between structural adjustment and human development , in part a link created by 's . It is evident that whether it has been acknowledged or not structural adjustment has had an undeniable effect on development and the work of ( NGO 's ) in many countries . For this reason it is important to acknowledge their views and contributions on the issue of structural adjustment . Despite the socio - political costs of adjustment and the criticisms of many surrounding macro economic policies , charities and 's have consistently acknowledged the need for structural adjustment and it 's relevance in many developing countries . UNICEF states that "" countries have to adjust to the changing environment "" whilst writes that "" macroeconomic stability is essential for sustained growth , without which poverty can not be reduced "" . However all 's emphasise that whilst structural adjustment is necessary the socio - political costs incurred are not and could be avoided . UNICEF 's book ' Adjustment with a Human Face ' suggests "" more gradual timing "" for structural adjustment with more money available and the introduction of meso - policies to safeguard the vulnerable and poorer sections of society . Finally it emphasises the importance of a continual assessment of living standards . Similarly ' Our Global Government ' suggests structural adjustment should be based around "" low condition compensatory finance "" and short term economic provision for countries struggling to pay off debts in the immediate future . Oxfam suggests adjustment could be more beneficial to developing countries if it was based around a series of "" incremental steps "" whereby changes are initiated over a longer period of time avoiding dramatic changes occurring within and throwing a country into chaos which could further exacerbate any economic difficulty . Finally a report by gives a less satisfying or coherent conclusion for the future of structural adjustment but , arguably , the most enlightened as to the realities of the situation . It suggests that the makers of future adjustment policy need to be those involved with adjustment , "" those who are close to , and who understand best , their local and national realities "" . So , for , what is needed is the "" space ""   for those involved to shape their own economic reform . This is suggesting a model of participatory development , defined by as a process involving elements ; the cognitive which perceives the realities differently ; the political which builds "" a bridge between the and its target populations "" by giving a voice to those without ; and the instrumental which bring about new ideas of ways to develop . This overwhelmingly positive response from 's serves to illustrate that they consider structural adjustment has value within development as a theory despite the current negative effects it creates for many countries . < fnote > URL : 20040565 ~ menuPK:34563 ~ pagePK:51123644 ~ piPK:329829 ~ theSitePK:29708,00.html Accessed < /fnote><fnote > UNCTAD . ( )   URL   Accessed 03/04/05 p 24 < /fnote><fnote > ibid p.291 < /fnote><fnote > Commission on . ( ) Our OUP : . p186 < /fnote><fnote > Oxfam in , R. URL   Accessed . < /fnote><fnote > SAPRIN ( )    URL   Accessed p188 < /fnote><fnote > ibid < /fnote><fnote > Rahnema , M. ' Participation ' in , W. ( 2001 ) The Development Dictionary ( Ed ) Palgrave / WUP / : . p121 < /fnote><heading > Conclusion</heading > Ultimately structural adjustment can not be held solely responsible for the sustained poverty in many ' adjusting ' countries to which other factors contribute . There is some onus on the institutions dictating and forming the policies of structural adjustment , the national governments who implement the reforms , and unpredicted extraneous causes which can not be accommodated for in advance . In saying this structural adjustment in practice had resulted in serious socio - political ramifications in real human terms which can not be ignored . Politically the effects of adjustment are far reaching and imply a lack of sovereignty as well as a move towards a globalisation which makes a country vulnerable as much as it empowers . We have noted the social costs of structural adjustment ranging from physical lack of resources such as food , water , education or healthcare to a more abstract degradation of indigenous cultures and the reinforcement of discrimination within society . What is apparent from this study is that poverty alleviation and macroeconomic reform through structural adjustment do not have to be mutually exclusive terms ; economic growth is not incongruous with development as has been shown in a minority of cases ( being a case in point ) . Adjustment can , in short , exist alongside and compliment the process of development . The social effects of structural adjustment do , in the majority of cases , outweigh or worse declare void , the economic benefits of adjustment . However there are exceptions to this case and much more evidence which leads us to suggest that the social effects of structural adjustment could be easily avoided making structural adjustment not only viable but a powerful tool for development . Adjustment is perhaps the popular porn for attack but what needs to be tackled , in my opinion , is the underlying tradition which separates social development and poverty alleviation from instituting sound macroeconomic reforms within national economies . Thus , as proposed , there needs to be more interaction and better cooperation between the and in order that practical realistic policies are made for developing countries acknowledging the reality of their situation as well as the centrality of economics to any lasting development . < fnote > Singer H W. ( ed Shaw , J ) ( ) International development co - operation : selected essays on Aid and the system Palgrave : . < /fnote >","< heading > Introduction:</heading > Science is a means for discovering what works , or what will solve problems in practice ( ) "" Scientific management "" , set up by ( ) , an engineer , was applied to design the most efficient performing method for any tasks on the shop floor . ( ) also assumed that workers were lazy and needed money to motivate them . By , the legitimacy of bureaucracy and scientific management was questioned as assets and people were left idle in the Depression era ( Clegg et al 2005:24 ) . 's rational approach was criticised by the human relation school , and it highlighted that social relationships were a more significant determinant of employee productivity than simply money . There is no more urgent problem than establishing sound and cooperative relations between workers and management ( ) . Human relations theory ( ) was generated through a series of experiments and interviews . As ( ) indicated , similar to the field of medicine , human relations is a field of research , teaching and practice . is regarded having its origin in the studies , in which was actively involved . Although the methods and findings of this experiment are highly controversial , the significance of the studies is recognized . , social science is engaged with industry formally , and , the core of and subsequent managerial practices are built ( and ) . ( ) identified the meaning of human factor in organisations . Workers , as human beings not robots , have different needs besides economical reward demand . Their personal feelings and attitudes towards social interest and supervisory relationship have an influential affect on their performance in the workplace . The implications of spread to a broader context in terms of psychological , sociological and political areas . Based on the essay question , I will discuss the implications of in the organisation of work domain . main propositions will be examined in terms of conceptual contribution and practical examples . Initially , the importance of satisfying employees ' social needs and consideration of social relations will be analysed ; , I will evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of adopting teamworking in organisations ; , the control mechanism issues referring to manipulation , justification and efficiency will be discussed . Finally , a summary on the implications of , the interrelation among the previous propositions , as well as further advice to organisations will be given . < heading > The importance of social needs and consideration of social relations</heading > After the interpretation of 's data , ( ) argued that workers seek for recognition , satisfaction and a sense of belonging to a social group , which is vital for productivity . He also indicated that lacking of awareness to human relationships and too much attention was paid to technical relations at work than social relations was a key defect in other management theories . In addition , Cleggal . ( 2005:26 ) identified that many of 's ideas emphasis on the failure of management to consider social relations , social orders and the collaboration to maintain them as fundamental parts to contemporary enterprise . Organisations are increasingly concerned about how to satisfy employees ' social needs and making full use of the potential power in order to bring a positive effect to productivity as well as avoid unnecessary conflict inside and outside of organisations . According to Collier ( 2002 ) , corporations , both large and small , continuously insist that they seek managers who can work "" with and through "" people , rather than experts who only have technical knowledge of the business . Professional interpersonal skills are required for managers and supervisors , to whom large organisations give training in the arts of intensive communication , social skills and leadership . Additionally , as ( ) suggested , remedial interviews as a managerial tool were used to create better adjusted workers , and training in consultation and personal interviews was recommended as an essential management skill . Personnel departments , later becoming human resource departments , grew further , in which human resource managers are responsible for both the physical and mental states of workers . criticism on 's is that we have learnt clarification of what was not true about behaviour in industry , like workers should not be treated as machines , rather than what was true , and maybe that is why we have abundant conclusions , but "" found in blind alleys "" ( Whyte ) . implication of having for organisation of work is that workers have social needs and managers ought to be aware of and respond to it . Whereas , to what extent their needs affect organisation productivity and how to deal with informal social power are not explicitly mentioned by . Unfortunately , the management action of fostering collaboration within informal groups and focusing on social relations does not seem to bring the predicted outcomes . For instance , managers assume that a - way communication attachment could promote co - operation with workers , while employees treat it as information which management can use to eliminate misunderstanding ( Bendix , ) . Similarly , Perrow ( ) argued that organisational change through managerial grids , training , and job enrichment is ineffective for all but a few organisations . Furthermore , personnel department try to build an image of helping , encouraging and taking care of workers , as well as restructure the employment relationship away from low - trust relations to increase motivation and performance . However , they seem to reach less than promised and give lip - service to employees on formal social involvement and decision - making participation . < heading > Strengths and weaknesses of adopting teamworking in organisations</heading > The well - known shows that when a group realizes that it is valued and forms social relations among each other , productivity rises as a result of group cohesiveness . Informal groups have great effect on the worker 's temperament and well - being . The "" bank wiring room experiment "" suggested that workers were not merely driven by economical factor , but the informal side ( i.e. informal norms , peer pressure ) of the organisation was even more important than the formal rules and hierarchy side . of the essential elements of human relations , identified by ( ) is a conviction that you can understand the social process of group behaviour provided that you are committed to it with a clinical viewpoint . In detail , if they are parts of the group , cooperative action will be easier , understanding will be improved , unnecessary conflict will be minimized , and useless frustration will be reduced . Another crucial aspect of human relations is a fundamental belief that the person who is responsible for getting the group work done can both facilitate cooperation and help group workers keep their own integrity . The individuals within the group will be able to serve the group 's purpose without losing their own identity . Workers are more likely to form their own groups , thus team work in companies has much broader influence than that implied by formal labour - management ( ) . In support of 's opinion , stated that the group combination has important effect upon company programs . Group dynamics became an identifiable field at 's in the and grew rapidly since then . The thought that internal dynamics of small group could gain a degree of self - governance is favoured by management ( and , 2002:52 ) . The idea that teamworking could build up consolidation and value consensus is demonstrated by ( ) , based on a manufacturing case . Team workers formed normative rules which brought their new substantive rationality into social actions . Team members contributed more in terms of time and energy to the whole production process , and put more personal responsibility to products . Their commitment to the company and teamwork increased since they developed a team 's value consensus and turned it into social rules . Nevertheless , whether productivity and efficiency were affected or not by forming the team is not illustrated in the case . A number of studies were conducted to find the relationship between small groups ' activities and productivity . The study at the plant showed the fact that workers respond "" in the form of higher productivity to a simple overt recognition of their importance "" ( ) . It makes sense that people who are participated in decision - making process will be more effective in carrying such decisions . On the contrary , by reviewing several studies , ( ) concluded that relation between group cohesiveness and productivity is uncertain , due to the mixed results . His explanation of why the relationship is ambiguous is that altruism toward fellow workers may lead them to work little or hard . Additionally , collusion is bad as employees exert lower effort , unless the firm can make compensation tied to group performance . It is true that in some situations , highlighting people 's importance and teamworking spirit may lead to complexity and less productivity . A house may burn down if fire chief allows group discussion , for it is time consuming in an emergency . < heading > Human relations control and its related issues ( manipulation , productivity and efficiency)</heading > The rational ideology of control ( for example , scientific management and systems theories control ) throws up problems such as absenteeism , high staff turnover , employees ' resistance and poor quality . The human relations approach , claimed by some human relations writers , could provide a solution to the above issues . They presumed that control is unnecessary and outdated . "" leadership and autonomous work groups have been seen as the basic precondition for job satisfaction and high productivity . "" ( and ) These human relation theorists supposed that command and control was bad for business and empowerment and commitment should be adopted . In detail , team workers are delegated tasks and responsibility and they become self - managing . Values rather than rules become the means of co - ordination in organisations . implication of is that it assumes a new form of control which brings queries . Some argue that whether the concept of human relations skill implies cynical manipulation on workers or not ; whether we would be better off if we eliminate the notion of "" participation "" , "" group dynamics "" and "" development of social skills "" , and come back to the fundamental belief on "" self - discipline "" and "" individual initiative and responsibility "" of . ( ) It is worthy analysing the implications of on control mechanism compared to bureaucratic control , and exploring the fundamental nature of the . control is run by incentive , which may generate conflict among workforces in terms of work rules and job guarantees . Control is externalised rather than internalised . In contrast , normative control , rooted in the human relations theory , works through informal process and value system rather than a formal mechanism ( ) . Moreover , while traditional bureaucratic control is associated with tight supervisory attention and formulated rules , human relation control adopts teamworking and peer pressure to achieve management objectives . The study of ( ) on different managing approaches of managers is highlighted on obtaining a deeper view on bureaucratic and human relation controls . person is a scientific management type of manager and he avoids any human contract with employees , who are seen as "" economically motivated automatons "" . Another manager takes a human relation approach and she talks and listens to employees and motivates them to work . No matter what approaches they use , ( 2005:46 ) pointed the vital point is that they both want to control their employees : "" by avoiding human relationships and through human relationships "" . In addition , stated that human relations theory is a response to the "" limitations of scientific management as a means of organizational control "" . It is not an alternative but an extension of scientific management . Etzioni ( ) introduced types of control , which are coercive control , remunerative control and normative control . control is more related to remunerative control and human relation approach can be categorised into normative control . Control is essential in organisations , since managers are responsible for shareholders , whose concern is largely on economic performance . The constant conflict between workers and management also require control and surveillance . ( ) suggested , however , if managers can convince workers that higher production links to better standard living for all , without preventable risks to their jobs , management and workers could share the same goal , that is , a joint interest in increasing productivity . When workers are willing to cooperate , business will gain superior prosperity . In summary , this essay has discussed the implications of human relations theory to organisation of work in dimensions . Employees ' social needs are influential and management could take advantage of the potential to form well - organised team work activities . Effectiveness and productivity would be improved in certain organisations under certain conditions . The underpinning management concept of encouraging teamworking and empowerment is to internalise control within and beyond the workplace , and to extract maximum commitment and endeavour from employees . limitation of this essay is that the implications of are mainly considered from managerial perspective rather than workers ' point of view , which could be explored further . Likewise , criticisms are largely referring to management actions in adapting of human relations approach . A critical feature of human relations approach , indicated by ( ) , is the social engineering role combined with management through sustaining integration of the organisation . Though human relations are not concerned with making everyone happy , employees ' needs and human side of business should no longer be disregarded and unity will be created and maintained through common norms and values . It is a defect to treat human relations approach as a solution to the problems brought by scientific management . Rather , connecting human relation patterns with structural and technological planning could be expected to solve the organisational and industrial problems . How to accomplish the aim is beyond the discussion of this paper .",0
"< abstract><heading > Summary</heading > The aim of the assignment is to design the most cost - effective waste heat recovery system . In order to satisfy the requirements , a suitable overall size of heat exchanger has to be selected , and then fin geometry is chosen with the suitable overall size . After determination of these criterions , value of oil saved and payback time of the system can be calculated respectively . In this assignment , designs give nearly identical payback time should be selected , and the final choice of design will go with the maximum return over system 's lifetime . In this design , the suitable overall size of heat exchanger is 400x400x500 mm , and the designs are surface and surface . However , comparison with the return over system 's lifetime between these designs , surface is the best design for the waste heat recovery system . < /abstract><heading > Introduction</heading > The object of the assignment is to design a waste heat recovery system . In order to design the most cost - effective waste heat recovery system , payback time has to be minimized . In this report , designs that give nearly identical payback time are considered , and the one with the maximum return over its lifetime is selected . The basic data is shown as below The allowable pressure drop in the heat exchanger is Pa. Flow rate is   FORMULA   Mean outside temperature is ° C , operation time is to April ( / day , ) . Oil costing p / litre with S.G. 0.8 and calorific value MJ / kg . The heating system efficiency = , electricity costs p / kWh . The pressure drop in the duct is x dynamic head . Conductivity of aluminum is / mK , cost £ / kg . Overheads of apply to the cost of the aluminum . < heading > One case</heading><heading > Use surface , 10.26 of and ( Reference 4)</heading > The overall size is 400x400x500 mm < picture/><heading > Find G = Mass velocity in channel   FORMULA   ) < /heading>= Mass velocity in duct * ( Face area / Free flow area ) = Mass velocity in duct   FORMULA   By geometry :   FORMULA    FORMULA   = plate spacing of surface 1   FORMULA   = plate spacing of surface 2   FORMULA   = plate thickness   FORMULA   = heat transfer area of surface per unit volume occupied by surface 1   FORMULA   = ( Free flow area * Length)/Surface area   FORMULA   = 0.453   FORMULA   =   FORMULA   < heading > Find Re , St , f</heading > FORMULA   =   FORMULA   =   FORMULA   From . ( Reference 4 )   FORMULA   f = And Pr = Then St =   FORMULA   =   FORMULA      < heading>3 . Fin efficiency</heading > FORMULA   = Where   FORMULA   is plate thickness   FORMULA   ( plate spacing ) = m   FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA      < heading>4 . Calculate U</heading > FORMULA    FORMULA    FORMULA   Both sides are identical and we can neglect the thermal resistance of the plate and so   FORMULA    FORMULA      < heading>5 . Find 's and   < /heading > FORMULA   Area of one side =   FORMULA   =   FORMULA    FORMULA      Using a capacity ratio of   FORMULA   =   FORMULA   Where   FORMULA   and C=1 < heading>6 . Calculate annual fuel savings</heading > FORMULA    FORMULA      Energy / year   FORMULA   = MJ Value of oil saved =   FORMULA   = £ < heading>7 . Pressure drop</heading > Core   FORMULA    FORMULA   Entrance and exit   FORMULA   From . ( Reference 2 ) with   FORMULA   Re =   FORMULA   FORMULA   Duct   FORMULA   = Pa So , total pressure drop = + 2.86 + = Pa < heading>8 . Select fan and calculate running costs</heading > From the manufacturer 's data sheet ( Reference 1 ) we see that the 76FW fan at rpm will meet the demand . And the capital cost is £ . The fan power   FORMULA   =   FORMULA   =   FORMULA   Where   FORMULA   FORMULA   FORMULA   for motors Then the electricity cost is :   FORMULA   costing £ . < heading>9 . System cost</heading > Area of aluminum In heat exchanger   FORMULA   =   FORMULA   =   FORMULA   Mass =   FORMULA   Cost of aluminum =   FORMULA   = £ Cost + Overheads =   FORMULA   = £ < . time = Capital cost/(Oil cost savings - Extra electricity cost ) =   FORMULA   =   FORMULA   < heading > Analysis of the different cases in the spreadsheet</heading > The Appendix shows a spreadsheet of Heat Exchanger design . different overall sizes of heat exchanger are considered . In order to find out which dimension of heat exchanger is the best one for the waste heat recovery system , surface 9.03 ( Reference ) is tested with these different sizes of heat exchanger . Finally , the best one is 400x400x500 mm , which gives the shortest payback time between the optional overall sizes . After determination of heat exchanger 's dimension , best fin geometry has to be chosen for the system . In the spreadsheet , fin geometries are considered , which are surface , surface , surface and surface 11.1 ( Reference 3 ) . From the spreadsheet , it shows that values of oil saved for these different surfaces are £ , £ , £ 90.3 and £ respectively . And their payback time are , , and respectively . This indicates that the most cost - effective waste heat recovery system should choose surface with 400x400x500 mm . < heading > Discussion of results</heading > From the spreadsheet in the , the optional overall sizes are , . , , 400x400x450 mm and 400x400x500 mm , the payback time of these different cases with surface are -30.50years , 30.81years , , , 5.17years and respectively . Obviously , the choices are impossible , since the payback time can not be negative , and lifetime of the system is only . By considering the rest , the last one is winner . In terms of surface geometry , louvered fins are not taken into account , because the calculated pressure drop in the heat exchanger with louvered fins is Pa , which is not satisfied with the assignment . In the spreadsheet , plate - fin surfaces are considered . Surface and surface have got shorter payback time than the others , and the payback time is nearly identical , but their values of oil saved are different , hence , the return over its lifetime is different . The maximum goes with surface , which is £ , while the one with surface 9.03 is £ . < heading > Conclusions</heading > To conclude , the most cost - effective waste heat recovery system should choose surface with 400x400x500 mm heat exchanger or surface with 400x400x500 mm heat exchanger , since their payback time are minimum , which are and respectively . Furthermore , by considering maximum return over system 's lifetime , the surface with 400x400x500 mm heat exchanger is the final choice , because its return over its lifetime is £ more than the former one , which is £ .","< heading > Introduction</heading > Environmental law inevitably affects every citizen of the . The issues transcend national boundaries , for instance regarding river pollution or global warming . Therefore , the has gradually formed its own body of environmental law , "" populated by a staggering array of actors and interests "" . Now , "" the regulates the ' environment ' as a whole "" , using a range of legal principles such as the precautionary principle , the polluter pays principle and the integration principle . Yet , these have emerged out of an ad - hoc evolution , which can lead environmental law to be viewed as "" a bundle of paradoxes "" . There is a conflict between the furtherance of the Community 's economic aims and environmental protection . There are concerns that "" the policy for the environment is primarily directed towards the completion of the internal market "" and can not therefore be an autonomous area of policy - making . Nevertheless , Lord claims that "" environmental policy has been one of the great success stories of the Union "" . This could be pre - emptive , given the feared ignorance of environmental issues amongst the new member states . < fnote > J. Peterson & Decision - making in "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > Damian Chalmers - "" Law "" , in eds . - "" "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > Damian Chalmers - "" Law "" , in eds . - "" "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > K. P. E Lasok - "" "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > Lord Clinton - Davis , in ed . - "" Protecting the European Environment "" , page . < /fnote><heading > Early developments < /heading > At the outset of integration , the priority was maintaining peace by way of economic integration and the creation of a common market . Thus , environmental legislation up to "" mirrored the economic approach of "" . The environment was protected as a secondary and perhaps inadvertent consequence of some economic directives . The attitude to environmental protection at this time was "" incidental "" , and "" inarticulate "" . In international cooperation on environmental matters began with the Stockholm conference . This led to the summit , where the Community declared that "" economic expansion is not an end in itself "" . This assertion proved instrumental in the "" attempt to wrest government out of the narrow economic sphere "" . It is essential that a credible environmental strategy is developed in conjunction with economic goals and not subsidiary to them . < fnote > Ludwig Kramer - "" "" , page . < /fnote><fnote>1967 Directive of Classification , Packaging and Labelling of Dangerous Substances 67/548 EEC . < /fnote><fnote "" ( ) ELQ 7 , quoted in Law "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > Community Declaration at , , quoted in "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > Damian Chalmers - "" Law "" , in eds . - "" "" , page . < /fnote><heading > Approximation of laws</heading > The environmental measures were founded on the approximation of laws , under and . allows measures that secure the harmonisation of laws affecting the common market , for example regarding the lead content of petrol . The rationale is that differing environmental standards distort competition , thus jeopardising the efficacy of the common market . Industrialists would have to spend more in some states to meet their higher standards hence many measures are "" attempts to ensure a level playing field "" . is a residual power where it is "" necessary to attain , in the course of the operation of the common market , of the objectives of the Community "" , for instance . Again , the focus is on economics , which left the Community without a coherent environmental policy . < fnote > Directive 85/210 . < /fnote><fnote > M. Sunkin - "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > Article 308 . < /fnote><fnote > Directive . < /fnote><heading > Later developments</heading > A major turning point came following the in , which "" gave a considerable impetus to environmental legislation "" . It provided a "" constitutional base "" for introducing environmental legislation and "" the objectives of the 's environment policy were enshrined in the Treaty "" . Most environmental legislation is now passed under , whereas the harmonising procedures are used in limited circumstances . The TEU added the environment to . Following TEU , decisions on the environment are made by coupled with co - decision , which makes the process easier and gives a more prominent role to and its MEPs . This represents a fundamental shift in the balance of power underpinning the legal order . Before , the member states could protect national environmental interests via their vetoes . Furthermore , TEU improved , which now refers to "" a high level of protection and improvement of the quality of the environment "" . By virtue of the , includes the environment , requiring environmental considerations to be integrated into every aspect of Community law and policy . These developments show that the has articulated a desire to pursue sustainable development whilst respecting the environment . Nonetheless , the was something of a "" tacit bargain "" between the "" green troika "" and the environmentally lagging countries . < fnote > Single European Act . < /fnote><fnote > Grant , Matthews & Newell - "" "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > Dirk Vandermeersch - "" and "" ( ) ELR - 429 , in "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > Jans . "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > Articles 94 and . < /fnote><fnote > M. Sunkin - "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > Treaty on . < /fnote><fnote > Qualified Majority Voting . < /fnote><fnote > Article , as amended by . < /fnote><fnote > Treaty of Amsterdam 1996 . < /fnote><fnote > Peterson & Bomberg - "" Decision - making in "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > Grant , Matthews & Newell - "" "" , page . < /fnote><heading > New instruments and principles</heading > There are various new principles that underpin environmental law , such as the precautionary principle and sustainable development . These often appear nebulous and there is ambiguity surrounding the meaning of a "" high level of protection "" . The is drifting away from traditional command and control regulation in favour of more flexible instruments , such as target standards and tradable permits . It has been acknowledged that command and control "" has reached the limits of its environmental effectiveness "" . There was no improvement in water quality evident from of regulation . It promotes an unnecessarily high level of uniformity , whereas target standards allow member states to choose the most cost - effective means respecting geographical and assimilative variations . < fnote > . < /fnote><fnote - "" 's Environment 3rd Assessment : Summary "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > Grant , Matthews & Newell - "" "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > Grant , Matthews & Newell - "" "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > Joanne Scott - "" Law "" , page . < /fnote><heading > Precautionary Principle</heading > The precautionary principle has been defined by the Environment Commissioner as to "" take action where the science is not clear , but where there is reasonable cause for concern "" and is an important legal principle currently in force . However , while specifically mentioned in ) , it is "" infamously vague and without concrete definition "" . It is similar to the prevention principle also cited in ) , but lowers the risk threshold as there is no need to prove a causal link . Nonetheless , the cases of and elevate its status to "" a legally binding norm that may be subject to challenge "" . However , it is uncertain whether the principle can be used as a sword to an action . The would only review its compatibility with on the grounds of a "" manifest error of appraisal "" . Additionally , the degree of risk needed to invoke the principle is not settled , illustrated by the discrepancies between and Alpharma . Moreover , although the precautionary principle "" could benefit hugely from a more explicit framework "" , it helps environmental law to carve out its own field of policy . < fnote > Margot Agra Europe 4 Feb 2000 p EP/6 , quoted in "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > Elen R Stokes - "" Precautionary Steps : the development of the precautionary principle in jurisprudence "" ( ) ( ) Env . Law Management , page . < /fnote><fnote > Elen R Stokes - "" Precautionary Steps : the development of the precautionary principle in jurisprudence "" ( ) ( ) Env . Law Management , page . < /fnote><fnote > Regulation B093/94 . < /fnote><fnote > Case C-341 - 95 Bettani v [ ] ECR 1 - 4435 , quoted in Bell and "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > Elen R Stokes - "" Precautionary Steps : the development of the precautionary principle in jurisprudence "" ( ) ( ) Env . Law Management , page . < /fnote><heading > Other ) principles</heading > The polluter pays principle means that "" an entity directly or indirectly responsible for damage to the environment must bear the costs "" . However , it is not failsafe at protecting the environment due to its economic basis . A company may find it more economical to pay for its pollution than invest in changing its harmful practices . The has banned state subsidies being granted to polluters to help them meet their environmental obligations . The principle has lost support and the has admitted that with its application . further principle listed in ) is that environmental damage should be rectified at source . This moves environmental law up the policy agenda as it requires environmental considerations to be examined at the outset of all major projects under the directive . < fnote > Ludwig Kramer - "" "" , page . < /fnote><fnote - "" "" . < /fnote><fnote > Environmental Impact Assessment Directive . < /fnote><heading > Action Programmes</heading > Another influential source of is , which are best described as "" political declarations of intent "" . The set out founding principles and concentrated on emission limits and targets . The programme reflected the new policy instruments mentioned above and typifies the modern approach to environmental protection . It is drawn up on the principles of sustainable development , preventive and precautionary action and shared responsibility . The programme builds on this bottom - up approach . It projects more accountability , public awareness and self - regulation . A change in the attitude of companies is vital , in that "" the aims for a situation where environmental care is as important to companies as customer care "" . This can only be achieved once environmental law attains the same specific prowess as areas such as trade or the economy . < fnote > M. Sunkin ed . - "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > European Commission - "" Environment : Our Future , Our Choice "" , page . < /fnote><heading > Integration</heading > In the ToA , was modified to say that environmental protection requirements must be integrated into all other Community policies . This key principle stems from the theory that "" the notion of a common market implies an environmental element "" . Each Community purpose in , including the environment , is of equal value . Thus , "" the Community can not adopt any measures that lead to the deterioration of the quality of the environment "" . Each Council formation , such as transport , is required to produce an environmental strategy , with a goal to promoting sustainable development . However , strategies should be viewed with caution as the is segmented into DGs that do not always co - operate . Thus , "" unravelling the 's tangled policy on vehicle pollution is as hard as cleaning a sooty engine "" . Furthermore , the integration principle "" is not always easy to apply in practice "" and it is unlikely that the will allow it to trounce their economic ambitions for . < fnote > Martin Wasmeier - "" as a General Rule for Interpreting Community Law "" ( ) ( ) , page . < /fnote><fnote > Martin Wasmeier - "" as a General Rule for Interpreting Community Law "" ( ) ( ) , page . < /fnote><fnote > Directorates General . < /fnote><fnote > Financial Times , , quoted in "" , page . < /fnote><fnote - "" Choices for a Greener Future : and the Environment "" , page . < /fnote><heading > Subsidiarity</heading > Certain member states feel that horizontal policy initiatives are eroding their discretion in environmental protection . It is feared that member states may use the subsidiarity principle to restrict the emergence of new environmental law and force the Commission into submission . The institutions are now competent to enact directives in areas that directly affect national industries , although there are subsidiarity safeguards in ) and ) . However , it is difficult to determine which environmental objectives can be better attained at Community level . Regional policy is necessary but member states can not be let off the hook as several view environmental protection as "" a barrier to development "" . If pollution standards were set nationally , this would distort the single market and "" endanger the whole rationale of the Community "" . Subsidiarity has hampered the programme , which was "" crippled by member states ' amendments in relation to subsidiarity "" . The principle of minimum harmonisation means that member states are free to set more stringent standards under . The sting in the tail is that such measures can fall foul of regarding free movement of goods . Restrictions must be proportionate by not going beyond what is necessary to achieve environmental protection . < fnote > E.g. Lord in ed . Protecting the European Environment "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > M. Sunkin ed . - "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > M. Sunkin ed . - "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > Specific Actions for Vigorous Energy Efficiency . < /fnote><fnote > Grant , Matthews & Newell - "" "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > Case C-131/93   Commission v < /fnote><heading > Central tension</heading > The Action Programmes and the improvements make promising reading for environmentalists . However , the environment 's rise to a specific area of policy - making is marred by a fundamental inconsistency between economic growth and environmental protection . of the aims of the is to secure the competitiveness of industries operating within the common market . Environmental measures can fall foul of such as in and . It is certain nonetheless that environmental protection can not be left to market forces as "" competition tends to stimulate increased production "" . It is now broadly accepted that "" Community Law must be applied with regard not only to the economic , but also to the environmental objectives of the Treaty "" . In , the said that "" a choice has to be made between competing interests , namely economic gains and environmental protection "" . It is not yet evident whether this choice has been consciously made . < fnote > - "" "" ( ) , quoted in Law "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > Martin Wasmeier - "" as a General Rule for Interpreting Community Law "" ( ) ( ) . < /fnote><fnote > Quoted in "" ( ) ( ) ELR . < /fnote><heading > Role of the Courts</heading > The role of the courts must not be underestimated regarding the rise of environmental law to a specific policy area . The 's record is "" almost entirely positive "" regarding environmental protection . For example , in , the held that "" the directive must be seen in the perspective of environmental protection , which is of the 's essential objectives "" . The has been accused of excessive activism , especially in cases such as . Here , a rule that drinks should be sold in reusable bottles was challenged as contrary to . The held that the "" mandatory requirements "" relating to non - discriminatory rules outlined in could be extended to include environmental protection . This was extended in Walloon Waste to favour environmental protection when the measure appeared to be discriminatory . A ban on imported waste into the region of was justified because of the "" special character "" of waste . Moreover , all the decisions mentioned point towards a green outlook of the courts . < fnote > J. H. Jans - "" "" , page . < /fnote><heading > Implementation and Enforcement</heading > Many of the legal principles analysed so far mean nothing for the environment unless they are implemented . The implementation process has improved due to the creation of "" in Simmenthal . This is enhanced by the concept of direct effect that emerged in . Environmental provisions can be relied upon by individuals if they are unambiguous and confer individual rights . Directives are only vertically directly effective , but fortunately , the definition of an emanation of the state has been widely construed by the Courts , promoting environmental protection . Nevertheless , direct effect is not universal and it has been criticised that the ToA "" failed to establish a citizen 's right ... to a healthy environment "" . Directives are "" flexible means of ensuring harmonised standards "" . Hence , they are often vague , such as , which led to some member states failing to submit poor quality sites for inspection . Other directives can be unimplemented altogether , including . Another difficulty centres on enforcement . The disparities between member states ' procedures support the conclusion that "" poor enforcement is the black hole in the policy process "" . < fnote > Foster v British Gas Case C-188/89 [ ] 1 ECR 3313 ; v South West Water [ ] Water Law 5 . < /fnote><fnote > "" ( ) ( ) ELR , page . < /fnote><fnote > Wolf & Stanley - "" Environmental Law "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > Council Directive 76/160 / EEC . < /fnote><fnote > Case C-337/89 Commission v [ ] . < /fnote><fnote > Grant , Matthews & Newell - "" "" , page . < /fnote><heading > The future</heading > The accession in of new member states creates some big challenges regarding harmonised environmental protection . announced that it "" is of the view that it is one of the main tasks of the candidate countries to implement environmental legislation "" . This could prove troublesome , given the emergent nature of industry in certain and countries . Moreover , "" their challenge is to ensure that they do not repeat of environmental neglect that occurred in "" . has boldly announced that "" we must put growth centre stage "" . It is vital that this does not usurp the environment 's role as a specific area of policy . Enlargement means that there are fewer Green MEPs to lobby for the environment . Perhaps of greater concern is that "" the draft constitution is not strengthening the environmental aims and policies of the Union "" . It is worrying that after so much progress , "" a new era of a paler green hue "" may be on the horizon . < fnote > Quoted in , Lowther - "" Environmental Law "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > European Environment Agency - "" at the Turn of the Century "" , page . < /fnote><fnote > Dr in : a new era of a paler green hue ? "" ( ) . < /fnote><fnote > Dr in : a new era of a paler green hue ? "" ( ) 187 ... < /fnote><fnote > Dr in : a new era of a paler green hue ? "" ( ) 187 . < /fnote><heading > Conclusion</heading > environmental law has taken great strides towards becoming a specific area of policy - making , yet it is still a tier below the 's economic aims . However , there is still a lack of overall policy coherence , underpinned by a shifting agenda and early ad - hoc evolution . A turning point was the in , which occurred on the back of increased global awareness and disasters such as the chemical spill in . The elevation of the environment has been catalysed by the adoption of legal principles , most notably the precautionary principle and the integration principle . Nevertheless , the environment is not yet fully integrated into the spirit of the , despite . Moreover , environmental law is of "" patchwork character "" and has feet in many camps of policy - making . Its inconsistencies are best explained by shortcomings in implementation . Furthermore , the incongruity still exists between economic growth and environmental protection . A truly successful and prioritised environmental policy can only be reached once each member state acknowledges and fulfils its role in the "" shared responsibility "" for protecting the environment . < fnote > Rehbinder & Stewart - "" Environmental Protection Policy : Legal Integration in and "" , page . < /fnote><fnote>5th , quoted in Bell and "" , page . < /fnote >",0
"I have chosen to look at these novels because they incorporate mythic and/or fairytale elements , sometimes in similar ways and even to similar ends . Some are obvious but I have included some ideas that are not explicitly myths / fairytales , and I would like to begin by explaining the choices I have made . 's novel relies heavily on Biblical ideology , as well as fairytale elements , and is even structured by it , the chapter titles named for biblical books of . The Oxford English Dictionary defines ' myth ' as ' A traditional story , typically involving supernatural beings or forces , which embodies and provides an explanation , aetiology , or justification for something such as the early history of a society , a religious belief or ritual , or a natural phenomenon ' . , whilst following the historical story of the nation searching for freedom , also includes stories that fall under this category , so I will be including references to biblical texts in my analysis . I will also be including references to concepts . The dictionary offers a definition of the word ' myth ' as ' A widespread but untrue or erroneous story or belief ; a widely held misconception ; a misrepresentation of the truth . ' In his time Freud was widely respected as pioneer in psychological studies but many of his ideas have been disproved are and a lot of his research has been dismissed , especially in relationo to sexual theory . Much of the criticism I have come across refers to them as ' myths ' or ' social myths ' and it is for these reasons that I will also be including them in my analysis . < fnote > Both definitions found at   URL   < /fnote><fnote > Wyatt , : Castration Images in , The Passion of New Eve and Peter and the in ed . : Essays p77 < /fnote > The plot of itself resembles a fairytale . points out the journey , the dumb mute and metamorphoses as prominent fairytale motifs . Others are clearly the tyrannical character of and the death of the children 's parents leaving them orphaned . < fnote > Peach , p64 < /fnote > Uncle Philip is a difficult character to analyse . On reading the novel I found him to be one dimensional , and many critics are in agreement , claiming him to be ' less a character than a barely embodied principle ' and a ' parody patriarch ' . Many critics writing in the view him as so ridiculous that it makes the ' model of dominant masculinity ' that he clearly represents seem ' implausible ' . However earlier critics take him as a serious character , placing the relationship between , his puppets and his family as ' symbolic of the control exerted by a partiarchal culture on women and the roles available to them ' . This is clearly a feminist assertion , with as a symbol of a dominant and oppressive patriarchal system . There are many other ways in which uses fairytale and myth to challenge a male dominated world , what is interesting is that she turns these stories on themselves to point out the ways in which they themselves have constructed the patriarchal society that women find themselves trapped in . < fnote > Gamble , : Writing From The Front Line p71 < /fnote><fnote > Sage , quoted in ed . Pg . < /fnote><fnote , : Castration Images in , The Passion of New Eve and Peter and the in ed . : p75 < /fnote><fnote > Palmer , Pauline From Coded Mannequin to Bird Woman : in ed . pg < /fnote > The most obvious reference to myth is to and the Swan . uses parody here again to mock the role that the myth places the woman in and the masculine values that drive it . The swan itself is ridiculous , like himself ' It was dumpy and homely and eccentric . She nearly laughed to see its lumbering progress ' pg165 . points out that the systems greatest weakness is that it is ' sustained by the force of its subjects belief ' . The myths and fairytales which work to place women as subject to the force of men can be very simply overturned when we cease to believe that what we are being told is true . On a more serious note , the swan parody juxtaposes romantic , artistic notions of femininity with the very real facts of sexual violence . As suggests , any version of and the completely romantices the fact that a rape is occuring e.g. ' poem . This consistent placing of women as inferior in traditional stories is what has led to the construction of feminine identities in society . uses the story itself to reveal how unrealistic and prejudiced these stories are . < fnote > Carter , Virago 2003 ( This edition is used for all further page references ) < /fnote><fnote > Gamble , : Writing From The Front Line p72 < /fnote><fnote , : Castration Images in , The Passion of New Eve and Peter and the in ed . : pg < /fnote > However Linden Peach also points out that on level the novel works as a simple reactionary fairytale . Traditionally fairytales were used as cautionary tales , according to , for the ' socialisation of young women ' . In a way the novel follows this pattern . believes that because she stole her mother 's wedding dress she has somehow caused the death of her parents . This could be seen , in a very simple light , as a warning to little girls that they should be wary of trying to grow up too fast . However the novel begins by going into detail about 's exploration of her own maturing body . Peach points out , correctly in my view , that the novel here is emphasising something that traditional fairytales would have suppressed . Girls in fairytales are generally obedient , virginal figures of purity and they do not feel the excitement which experiences discovering the changes in her body . In this way is writing her own version of a fairytale , placing a female character at the forefront and pitting her against traditional female roles . clearly has the intelligence and sexual freedom to take on the male defined visions of feminity which she is constantly pushed into . However does not , arguably make her entirely successful . The and the episode suggests that these roles , though ridiculous and grandiose , are so established that in a sense she must experience them before she can escape them . It appears that she is not strong enough to immediately overthrow them by herself . This poses problems for the novel as a feminist text . As suggests it is difficult to ' represent a female protagonist as a victim ... while at the same tme portraying her as an autonomous individual . "" When falls victim to the swan , she falls victim to male dominance . Perhaps is criticising the system but finds that she can offer no alternative ? Dworkin suggests that these myths are not ' adequately revisioned ' and that fails in her attempt to create a ' female erotic '   < fnote > Peach , pg < /fnote><fnote > Peach , pg < /fnote><fnote > Palmer , Pauline From Coded Mannequin to Bird Woman : in ed . pg36/37 < /fnote><fnote > Dworkin , quoted in , pg74 < /fnote > One aspect of this failure could be the fact that some critics see as successor , meaning that even at the end , when is gone , the system of patriarchy will continue . points out that it is not who imposes the dress and behaviour code on , but ' he said violently "" No , you ca n't wear them!""'pg62 . She also claims that the two ' do not just share a pheonetic similarity of names , they also share a fascnation with women as spectacular commodity ' . I think that taking into account 's paintings of and the peep hole he creates to watch her undress is evidence to support the latter claim . However is clearly not to be placed in the same category . He fails to perform the rape he is ordered to and clearly despises not only his uncle as a person , but also what he stands for . ' "" He wanted me to do you and he set the scene . Ah he 's evil ! "" ' . < fnote > Armitt , Lucie Contemporary Women 's Fiction and the quoted in ed . pg < /fnote > The peep hole can also be read as a reference to the story by , The . In the as well as it is the male who is the voyeur . This is another example of myth and culture overriding subjectivity . Women are generally seen from the perspective of a man . reverses the gaze , and simply by doing this , according to , makes gender roles more flexible , bringing her and closer to being equals . < fnote > Palmer , Pauline From Coded Mannequin to Bird Woman : in ed . pg < /fnote > disagrees with this . He claims that ' rewrites 's account of a girl 's oedipal transformation ' , exploring the ' pressures exerted to ... coerce a girl into accepting the limitations of feminity ' but also offering an ' alternative masculinity ' . takes a post - feminist stance by positing as a victim of the patriarchal system too . He claims that takes the concept of ' castration ' and twists it by having ' castrate ' himself , symbolised in his chopping up of the swan ' "" I dismembered it ... I chopped it into small pieces""'pg171 . Finn thereby forefeits his ' privilege of masculinity ' and creates a a different relationship between men and women , in which they are presented as equals . ' Their experience ran parallel'pg173 He quotes saying ' psychological domination is ultimately the failure to recognise the other person as like , although separate from oneself . "" When sees and herself as equals they can build an entirely new relationship and , eventually , destroy the system that separated them in the place . In this way uses the myth to criticise the system , but also takes a myth and manipulates it to offer a different system , based on equality . < fnote > Wyatt , : Castration Images in , The Passion of New Eve and Peter and the in ed . : Contemporary Critical Essays pg 59/60 < /fnote><fnote , : Castration Images in , The Passion of New Eve and Peter and the in ed . : pg < /fnote><fnote > Haffenden , in Interview pg quoted in , : Castration Images in , The Passion of New Eve and Peter and the in ed . : Contemporary Critical Essays pg < /fnote > Another idea which tackles is the theory of female maturity . Freud empasised a woman 's anatomical ' lack ' when compared to that of a man , and claimed that is was the recognition of this ' lack ' which finally compelled her to take her place as a passive being . In 's case it is the swan - rape which forces her to see this ' She felt she cast no shadow'pg68 and puts her in her place in the system . But this is not something which subconciously discovers about herself , it is forced upon her . takes this to be symbolic of the myth itself , a theory so strong that it itself has the power to be a ' castrating process that strips a girl of her active impulses ' . < fnote > Wyatt , : Castration Images in , The Passion of New Eve and Peter and the in ed . : pg65 < /fnote > At the start of the novel however , it appears that has already placed herself in the system , without the help of or his phallic swan . She poses for male artists such as Lautrec and wraps white veils around her face , almost in parallel with vision of how a girl should be ' "" That is how he sees you . White chiffon and flowers in your hair . ""'pg141 . says ' she unwittingly acknowledges her subjection ' by seeing herself from a male perspective . However Gamble counters this by suggesting that ' a ... self - absorbed auto - eroticism keeps breaking through ... showing that the real desire is in fact herself . "" ' forgetting the fantasy in sudden absorption in the mirrored play of muscle as she flexed her leg . 'pg2 From Gamble 's perspective this is a much more feminist assertion and has given even more power to break away from patriarchy . However the fact remains that she can not do this by herself , she has to endure regime before she can escape it . It seems that these myths are ingrained into society , constantly overriding our own subjectivity , and that although there is the possibility of destroying them , it can not be done simply or easily . < fnote > Wyatt , : Castration Images in , The Passion of New Eve and Peter and the in ed . : pg < /fnote><fnote > Gamble , : Writing From The Front Line pg < /fnote > One story which has obviously had huge influence is the Biblical story of creation . The use of it challenges a myth which clearly endorses women 's inferiority to men , placing it in a paganistic setting and looking at it from a female perspective makes obvious reference to it at the start as climbs up the apple tree to get to her window , very self - conscious of her own nakedness ' She felt a new and final kind of nakedness'pg21 . It is also mentioned in the end when and look from the garden to the burning toyshop . This ending has prompted a number of responses . Gamble makes the point that having destroyed , and along with him his patriarchal system of living , neither of these characters really know what to do . ' is unable to think beyond the breakdown of ideological structures which it itself has initiated . "" This is of course dismissing theory that they have in fact created a new system of equality . takes a more positive view of the ending : ' they are not about to leave ... as the sinful children of a wrathful patriarchal God . The mythology of sin has been purged . "" Again this rings true , but still does not appear to offer a future for the victors of the war against patriarchy . It appears that even if we destroy stories which create such cultural boundaries , ideals and gender roles , we are not at the point where we can cope without them . < fnote > Gamble , : Writing From The Front Line pg < /fnote><fnote > Day , quoted in ed . pg < /fnote > Carter has described the toyshop in interviews as a ' secularized ' and took the story of the ' Fortunate Fall ' to mean that it was fortunate that ' Adam and Eve ' could escape from it . Peach suggests that the fall was indeed fortunate but that the of them , being again in a garden , and clearly in a position which reflects that of Adam and Eve , have not escaped the myth , they are still trapped by it . ' everything is gone but the myth remains . "" This would back up 's argument that 's myths have not been successfully revisioned , but then for many of these stories , if they were revised to the point of reversal , would simply create a matriarchy . Her characters are not out to reverse gender roles or stereotypes , they are simply looking for what creates them , attempting to unravel them . They are on a journey of discovery , but this journey does not necessarily lead to a discernible conclusion . < fnote > Haffenden , in Interview in Novelists in Interview < /fnote><fnote > Peach , quoted in ed . pg < /fnote > Jeanette Winterson 's novel also uses parody but her target is the . The most obvious use of this is the way that the narrative is structured , using the names of books of to title each chapter . The fact that this book is very autobiographical means that this is not just a cultural reference for but a personal one too . She takes words which relate to the story of the quest of a nation for its freedom and applies them to individual lives , making light of the grandiose view that the characters have of their own lives and works . goes through each one and points out the parallels between the biblical chapters and 's narrative . Genesis desbcribes Jeanette 's origins but does not refer to the many stories within itself . This is the of many instances where clearly takes a story and uses only the details relevant to her story , changing it to fit her argument . However Jeanette 's origins do contrast with the ' predominantly male image of creation ' . Rather than a loving father , it is Jeanette 's mother who has the power of creation for her , her father remains passive . Whether this is positive or negative is hard to say , as Jeanette takes an ambiguous attitude towards her mother . Giving her control of creation makes her appear a strong , capable woman with powerful feelings about her faith . However she uses this strength to reject the daughter she apparently wanted so much , because of her sexuality . This ambiguity arises in many places in the novel , especially in the fantasy sections . < fnote > Bollinger , for Female Loyalty : The Biblical Ruth in Oranges Are Not The Only Fruit in in Women 's Literature , Vol . , No . pg accessed from   URL   on 19/4/06 < /fnote > Exodus refers to leaving home to school , referring to the ' pillar of cloud ' which she , like the escaping Israelites has to guide her . Leviticus and are used to parody they Biblical texts as being ' The Law ' , as uses them to explore the influences Jeanette 's mother and her evangelicalism have on her . Numbers , which involves the wandering of ths Israelites through the desert shows also ' wandering ' from the church and from heterosexuality . Deuteronomy is a short chapter and mirrors the biblical text in that it is a non narrative chapter . Whereas the original talks about human behaviour , focuses on history and how people should approach it . Judges is the chapter in which is forbidden to preach and exiled when she refuses to renounce her lesbianism , however the judges who are male in the , are predominantly female . In Joshua the prophet of the same name is referred to as Jeanette explains her pain at being separated from her mother . Each chapter takes main element from the chapter but sometimes plays with it to fit with her parody . Putting women in traditionally masculine roles is a continuing pattern , and both and write from a female perspective , using these stories to challenge a tradition in which men are often in positions of power and women must simply obey . Finally refers to the book of . Bollinger asserts that this book is specifically folkloric in genre , referring to 's ' structural analysis of the folktale ' . Many of the narrative functions of 's theory are fulfilled as well as the main characters . The story begins with a lack , of food due to famine and of family as their husbands die , an interdiction is made an violated as disobeys , her mohter - in - law and stays with her , and there is interaction with a donor ( Boaz ) and a flase hero ( unknown kinsman ) . Bollinger also notes that the opening line ' Once , in when the Judges were judging ... there came ' as almost fairytale - like , and that it works to assert plausibility rather than to establish a sense of time and place . In addition it contains a story of female maturation , common to fairy tales such as or . < fnote > Bollinger , for Female Loyalty : The Biblical Ruth in Oranges Are Not The Only Fruit in in Women 's Literature , Vol . , No . pg accessed from   URL   on 19/4/06 < /fnote><fnote > Edward , : A New Translation With Introduction , and Commentary in Anchor Bible ed . and Freedman p81 quoted in , for Female Loyalty : The Biblical Ruth in Oranges Are Not The Only Fruit in in Women 's Literature , Vol . , No . pg accessed from   URL   on 19/4/06 < /fnote><fnote , for Female Loyalty : The Biblical Ruth in Oranges Are Not The Only Fruit in in Women 's Literature , Vol . , No . pg accessed from   URL   on 19/4/06 < /fnote > So , taking the book of as such , it is very clear that picks and chooses which parts she wants to emphasise . She intersperses the chapter with other fantastical storylines , and , which means she ' need not respond to the full story ' and there are no direct references to the . However this means that there are constant parallels and conradictions between version and the version . Both and seek female loyalty , both are responding to a maternal figure , yet neither are actually relating to their biological mothers . Both characters appear to have been abandoned by God yet keep their faith , Jeanette to a lesser extent , and both choose female loyalty when it is the most difficult option for them to take . However Tess Cosslett suggests that is not making such a specific comparison , that she is ' veering away from a close parallel ... using the name only to refer generally to strong themes of loneliness and woman identification . "" She also makes comment on the parts of the story that leaves out . She does not refer to parts of the story which refer to conventional female roles , the roles of wife and mother which are prominent , as is the idea of heterosexual marriage . interprets this as the ' effect that her lebianism has had on the stereotypical feminine story ' leaving the novel with a sense of ' loss .... hope and absence of closure . "" This may well be true . The roles of hereosexual wife and mother are ones which are not open to Jeanette , however even in stories such as , which many have cited as feminist because of the focalisation of female characters , these roles are the only ones avaiable for female fulfilment . Jeanette has no traditional model to follow , but the strong message of female loyalty in is something she can identify with and search for , even if she is unsure of ever finding it ' I knew a woman in another place ... what if she sleepwalked beside me and I never knew?'pg171 . < fnote > Bollinger , for Female Loyalty : The Biblical Ruth in Oranges Are Not The Only Fruit in in Women 's Literature , Vol . , No . pg accessed from   URL   on 19/4/06 < /fnote><fnote , in Oranges Are Not The Only Fruit : The , and in I 'm : and the Politics of Reading ed Helena Grice and pg < /fnote><fnote , in Oranges Are Not The Only Fruit : The , and in I 'm : and the Politics of Reading ed Helena Grice and pg < /fnote><fnote > Winterson , Jeanette Oranges Are Not The Only Fruit Vintage 2001 ( This edition is used for all future page references ) < /fnote > She treats the story in a similar way . The story of is found ( Perceval , le Conte du Graal ) , the unfinished romance of , but also appears in Sir and by . However the only parts of any of these stories we read are vaguely about Perceval , his quest and his relationship with , no other charcters or plot lines are mentioned . Perceval obviously represents , they are both tired of their quests , being to find acceptance and romantic fulfilment for herself . The sense of homessickness is evident , as is the inevitability of their choices ' could have turned back'pg ' he dreams ... of his stables and his faithful friends ' , and reference to being ' pulled like a bobbin ' echoes comments made by about her feelings towards her mother ' she had a thread around my button to tug when she pleased . ' The father in the Winnet sequence is clearly wicked , but for is a figure to which he is attached , showing again 's mixed feelings . The fact that Perceval is male puts a new perspective on Jeanette 's experience , some critics claim it makes the experience more universal , in the same way that the Winnet Stonejar sequence does by using a father figure condemning the protagonist for having feelings for a boy . However even though is male , suggesting 's identification with masculinity , this male hero is feminised ' He was a warrior who longed to grow herbs'pg161 . suggests that ' gender boundaries are crossed and blurred though not abolished . < fnote > URL   < /fnote > Throughout her article makes it clear that she believes that ' Winterson does not seem to be revising her originals as such , but appropriating and changing bits of them as she wants . "" involves roles which are inappropriate to her character , so she leaves them out ; the quest for the grail is far to complex for her to appropriate altogether , what she is interested in is the quest element and the relationship with a parental figure , representing her mother . This fits with the assertation she makes about history in Deuteronomy ' History should be ... a game for playing ... Claw it , chew it , rearrange it ' . , however , claims that these fantastical sections ' employ stratgeies of inversion ' and uses the example of friendly ' demon ' . For Palmer the fantasy sections of the novel empasise the part that storytelling and fantasy play in the construction of the psyche , allowing to escape the world of fundamentalist oppresion to a simpler realm , where she is not a victim and has more control . She also says that by revising stories , ' she challenges the patriarchal values associated with the genre [ fairytale ] ' and contrasts her approach directly with 's ' 's stories portray the girl accomodating to hereosexual relations ... Winterson highlights her resistance . '   < fnote > Cosslett , in Oranges Are Not The Only Fruit : The , and in I 'm : and the Politics of Reading ed Helena Grice and pg < /fnote><fnote > Palmer , : ed . pg < /fnote><fnote > Palmer , : ed . pg < /fnote > I think this is simply a way of pointing out that 's appropriation of farytales are simply less interested in a lesbian viewpoint . is interested in taking fairytales and myths themselves , as a whole and revising but not reversing them , mostly via parody , in order to show how they build a social structure which leaves women in a very unenviable position in a patriarchal system . Winterson 's stories are used in a different way , much more personally . She chops them up and takes the parts which are interesting to her , still focusing on women and their roles in society , but from a lesbian point of view , trying to make a new model , a new type of fairytale in which her protagonist , and arguable therefore she herself , will fit .","This quote refers to 's argument that depth of field is not simply a tool , or a piece or pieces of equipment , but that is it created a significant change in the way that cinema communicated with the audience , opening new , important doors for filmmakers . However deep focus cinematography is not without its faults , and other critics have picked up on questions regarding the real value of deep focus which has ignored . Bazin begins his essay by roughly dividing cinema into camps . Those who were interested in conveying reality , and those who were more involved with the idea of the image itself . He then separates the image in to more categories : firstly the ' plastics ' or general physical composition of the shot , and the resources of montage . He goes on to discuss the latter in more detail . He points out that in silent cinema , via the juxtaposition of certain images , meaning was created without the need for sound , quoting to suggest that it was montage which gave birth to cinema as an art form i.e. creating a language of meaning , separated from a simple recording of reality . He goes on to point out that ' the language of the cinema was not at a loss for ways of saying what it wanted to say . "" This suggests not only that silent cinema is complete as an art form in itself , distinctly separate from sound films , but could also be taken to mean that films which depend less on montage to convey meaning i.e. deep focus films , actually have a different message to put across . < fnote > Bazin André "" "" in André Bazin What is . trans . ( , ) pg < /fnote > Bazin then goes on to talk about realist films in which montage plays no part , but in which meaning is conveyed just as clearly . E.g. film of a seal hunt which records the actual length of time it took . There is no cutting ; the camera simply records what is there . Bazin claims that this natural , true - to - life , realistic style of filming is in fact more moving than images which are edited together to suggest meaning or connection , and that directors such as and have a style which , due to a distinct lack of montage editing , not only adds to the reality of what the viewer experiences on the screen , but also reveals truths about the reality of the subject which montage simply can not achieve . This claim goes on to back up his argument that deep focus offers a more realistic experience for the viewer and that this is what makes it so revolutionary . However I would argue that sometimes montage , simply for its manipulative qualities is actually more likely to extract an emotional reaction from a viewer . Sequences such as in quite clearly make deep impressions on an audience , in part because of the way they are edited . Both methods appear to communicate quite effectively with the audience ; they simply do so in different ways . Having discussed silent cinema as a language or art form in itself , moves on to post - war cinema , taking classical cinema as an example of matured art , a ' well defined style of photography and editing perfectly adapted to their subject matter , a complete harmony of image and sound . "" Confirming his previous insinuations , then claims that the phenomenon of the years 1940 - 1950 is the introduction of new themes , unexplored by classical film . So rather than having to find new ways of saying the same things , cinema was having to approach new subject matter , and finding that the best way to tackle this was to do so in a different style . So deep focus was indeed a step forward in film language , it allowed filmmakers to express new ideas in new ways , as they had not previously been able to . Bazin touches on the technological influences on this revolution but suggests that since the technology for deep focus was available previously , but was left unexplored , there must have been other factors which pushed the use of deep focus into view as a truly influential mode of representation . < fnote > Bazin André "" "" in André Bazin What is . trans . ( , ) pg < /fnote > Bazin then discusses editing since the introduction of sound . This continuity editing style was designed to be as invisible to the audience as possible , carrying them as naturally as possible through the narrative action and guiding them towards important dramatic points in the story . He claims that sound image , being more flexible then the visual image was bound to bring editing away from montage and closer to a more realistic , fluid style . However this would suggest to the read that deep focus , as a more realistic technique , was simply expanding on a ' dialectical step forward ' which sound had already begun to take . Thus the following claim of use of deep focus seems a little contradictory . Bazin suggests that this technique challenged the fashion of editing of the time . In a way this is true . Deep focus allowed whole scenes to be shot in one long take , without missing out on vital detail , so there was no reason for extensive cutting . However if we are also to take it that it provides a heightened sense of realism , ' bringing the spectator into a relation with the image closer to that which he enjoys with reality ' then this is simply an extension of what sound has already achieved , it is not accomplishing anything new or different . In addition some critics claim that deep focus in fact does not provide as much realism as claims and that it in fact fits in with classical codes . Comolli states ' it inscribes in the image .... The representational code of linear perspective ' and deep focus can produce a space that is ' composite and composed , fragmentary and discontinuous , heavily coded . "" I think there is merit in this argument simply because unless deep focus is used in documentary style to capture exactly what is in front of it , scenes using deep focus allow the director to cram meaning into every plane of focus . says ' they were more than mere backgrounds : they helped trace the rise and fall of the central character ' . There is so much space to fill and it can not be filled arbitrarily , so in a sense the overload of symbolism , which can be found in many deep focus shots , does mean that a sense of realism is lost . In this way the technique could in fact be a step backwards , becoming less realistic and more symbolic than even montage . < fnote > Bazin André "" "" in André Bazin What is . trans . ( , ) pg < /fnote><fnote > Comolli , , ' Machines of the Visible ' in de Lauretis and ( ed . ) The Cinematic Apparatus ( : Routledge ) pg < /fnote><fnote > Comolli , , ' Technique et Ideologie : Camera , Perspective , Profondeur de Champ ' cited in on ( Spring ) pg < /fnote><fnote > Toland Gregg , "" Realism for , ( ) < /fnote > Bazin continues , however and claims that deep focus is a system of representation which replaces montage and is interested in the ' continuity of dramatic space and of course ... its duration ' and that is it ' far superior to anything that could be achieved by the classical "" cut "" . ' This is an entirely debatable statement as the styles are so very different . In my opinion these are different styles suitable for totally different situations . Bazin himself points out that ' pictures are ' difficult to analyse because of their baroque excess . "" Deep focus may well be a fantastic way to allow the audience access to detail which they were previously denied , but if the mise - en - scene is too cluttered then this asset is wasted . The audience is left overpowered , suffocated by detail which exhausts them as they try to take it all in . Classical editing may deny a certain splendour in the scenes but allows the audience to have complete understanding of what they see in front of them and what it is supposed to mean . Bazin claims that when used skilfully , the deep focus shot makes it impossible to miss significance , and that the same result via montage editing would require a detailed succession of shots . But it seems to me that trying to take a deep focus shot and render it in montage would be ridiculous . Deep focus is used to a different effect than montage , but this difference does not give one a higher value than the other . Yet continues saying that the films of or have an advantage in that unlike films which use classical or montage editing it does not ' sacrifice the specific effects that can be derived from unity of image in space and time . "" This is true , but what deep focus sacrifices is the specificity and lack of ambiguity that can be derived from using such a system of editing . The appear to be direct opposites and should therefore not be compared but used in their own right . Bazin admits that montage has made a considerable contribution to the evolution of cinematic language , but can not help but place deep focus at a superior level . < fnote > Bazin André "" "" in André Bazin What is . trans . ( , ) pg < /fnote><fnote > Bazin André "" "" in André Bazin What is . trans . ( , ) pg < /fnote > He continues to praise the economy , subtlety and realism which he says , quite rightly , affects the interpretation made by the spectator . Here there is no singular interpretation for the scene and on this point I agree with . Deep focus most certainly forces the viewer to be more mentally aware of the image in from of them and encourages them to make their own judgement about what they see , rather than having a director point it our for them . This is essentially what validates the quote in discussion . Deep focus ' effectiveness and status as an important step forward in the language of cinema clearly relies heavily on its impact on the audience and their relation to it . Here a step is taken in a new direction . The viewer is released in a sense , to make whatever he wants out of the vast image in front of him . If reflects an entirely different way of understanding and communicating with an audience . But again I would emphasise that different does not mean better or worse than any other method of interacting with an audience . So 's ' argument does have merit , but he spends so much time contrasting deep focus with other methods of editing which fulfil completely different purposes , he skims over some of the problems with deep focus as a language of realism , and also disregards one particular fact : deep focus photography did not make a long - lasting impact . Few films after used it with such consistency and there is clearly a reason for that . He also ignores the possibility that rather than being a revolution in cinematic language , deep focus was more the result of excessive creative license on the part of people such as and , and that it is little more than a piece of spectacle when used to such excess , a display of what can be done with the newest technology to be found . picks up of the major flaws in deep focus cinematography . He highlights the fact that deep focus sound , in in particular , is very problematic when referring to the whole system as realistic . He quotes many critics who praise the accurate relationship e.g. ' precise correspondence of visual and aural space ' created between sound and space in the film . argues quite convincingly that this is not the case . Using many examples , particularly the sequence , he shows that often the sound scale does match the image scale , highlighting the incredible depth of the sequence , but as the audience becomes more aware of this they are also able to distinguish points when volume levels are sustained for the sake of dialogue , or changed in accordance with character emotions . also notes what he terms ' bookends ' , striking sound events that occur at the beginning and end of sequences , giving a sense of chapters and reinforcing the narrative . < fnote , David A History of Narrative Film 2nd ed . ( : Norton ) cited in , , ' : and in ( ed . ) Perspectives on ( : ) pg < /fnote > If deep focus is to be seen as a more realistic mode of representation then surely this must involve a realistic continuity in the sound as well ? The creation of realistic , deep space must be aural as well as visual . Additionally Altman claims that the sound used in in fact involves ' manipulation of audience reaction ' . This goes entirely against 's theory that it should leave the spectator with a sense of freedom in deciding what is important in a dramatic sequence and how to read its relevance . I would argue that what emerges here is the traditional value that narrative must be the most important aspect of the film . The dialectical leap which deep focus makes in freeing its audience visually is restricted by the overriding idea that the story much be told at all costs , and as observes , sometimes the cost of this is is the reproduction of accurate sound space ' the continued reverb and volume belie any attempt to reproduce the sound space faithfully . "" Altman comes to the conclusion that ' deep focus cinematography presents too many problems to be applicable to dialogue sequences ' and that this problem did not receive adequate consideration . < fnote , , ' : and in ( ed . ) Perspectives on ( : ) pg < /fnote><fnote > Altman , , ' : and in ( ed . ) Perspectives on ( : ) < /fnote><fnote , , ' : and in ( ed . ) Perspectives on ( : ) pg < /fnote > So perhaps here is where deep focus fits into the language of cinema . It has its place ad is effective in certain types of filming , but its sound problems are restricting and even though it does not force the audience to view a film in the way that classical editing does , it is still under the influence of classical narrative rules . Indeed Altman challenges 's view that deep focus is ' diametrically opposed to the shot - reverse - shot style of classical cinema . "" He points out that shot - reverse - shots are in fact used in deep focus , and that what makes them work is the fact that volume levels remain the same across cuts . So deep focus images must eventually be worked into the system but the sound must be sacrificed . The technique has too many problems to work effectively on its own . It can , paradoxically , only change aspects of the system if it works within the system itself . < fnote , , ' : and in ( ed . ) Perspectives on ( : ) pg < /fnote > He also offers the idea , also suggested by , and Staiger that deep focus was merely a source of technological spectacle rather than a serious step forward in cinematic language . ' has eagerly employed spectacle and technical virtuosity as means of artistic motivation ... in the sound cinema , depth of field ' . However Altman suggests that it is the sound problems which cause this , ' the difficulties of consolidating sound conventions with the deep focus style eventually turn deep focus into something of a special effect : a labour intensive flourish or ornament that may provide an aesthetic plus but can not possibly support the weight of full dialogue scenes . "" This is an argument that can be applied to many technological advances , that it is only being used as a sort of self - conscious display of what the latest special effects can achieve . Deep focus could be seen in this light , especially since unlike technology such as sound or colour it did not become standard practice in film making , in fact after it was pushed very much out of the limelight ' the general excitement about 's use of deep - focus photography was muted by the difficulties of copying 's style . To be sure deep - focus photography thrived ... but almost always in shots featuring immobile and more to the point silent foreground objects or characters . "" This can be seen in where deep focus shots are far more subtle and infrequent than in . It appears that has learnt a lesson , that deep focus shots , although effective , should be used sparingly , at appropriate moments . Deep focus therefore appears to be less a technique which changed the face of cinema , as seems to suggest , but one that did provide directors and cinematographers with another colour to add to a palette of effects . points out that it becomes ' possible means of conveying experience ' and that ' the primary contribution of and others in developing deep focus may have been in demonstrating that such a choice exists . "" When looks at the very different treatment of deep focus in and , this appears to be perfectly true . Ogle also reasons in the same article that one of the issues holding back the development of deep focus was that it simply was not fashionable and that cinematographers were notoriously conservative . During the softer and more diffused images were in style , so even with the evolution of faster film stock and lighting which lent itself to deep focus photography , cinematographers used it , but most underdeveloped it to keep with the trend . This was obviously not such a grand piece of technology that it would immediately sweep the industry . It was quietly experimented with by a few but its merits were not immediately obvious and it did not , as suggests , transform the language of cinema on its own . It required people who were willing to go against the grain and experiment with it in order for it to break through . < fnote > Bordwell , , Thompson ' in to ( : Routledge ) pg < /fnote><fnote > Altman , , ' : and in ( ed . ) Perspectives on ( : ) pg < /fnote><fnote > Altman , , ' : and in ( ed . ) Perspectives on ( : ) pg < /fnote><fnote > Ogle , Patrick ' Technological and Aesthetic Influences upon the Development of Deep Focus Cinematography in Screen 13:1 ( Spring ) pg < /fnote > However , having contradicted does make a comment that supports the quotation in question . He says ' the reintroduction of deep focus photography ... creates a disturbance in the very identity of cinema ' partly in that it ' foregrounds the artificiality of sound space conventions . "" This would suggest that it does indeed attempt to push cinema in a different direction . It may not be able to rectify the artificiality of sound space reproduction , partly because its own sound system is fundamentally flawed and partly because it can not escape conventions . However the fact that it clearly does highlight these issues does suggest that cinema needs to rethink its way of communicating sound space to the audience . The level volume treatment of dialogue does not fit with the more realistic sound / image scaling , and the use of both in points this very valid problem of trying to fit realism in with codes . < fnote , , ' : and in ( ed . ) Perspectives on ( : ) pg < /fnote > This reflects the overall validity of 's argument . Deep focus is clearly an important innovation in film technology and therefore film history . It creates and speaks in a new way to a new kind of audience , one that is alert and free to create its own interpretations . But it is not a technique without flaws , most notably in its treatment and sound , and neither is it one that can take cinema in a new direction without being held back by classical norms and rules . Comparing it to montage in the way that he does is fairly fruitless because these are in effect different languages , different ways of conveying different types of meaning , and the fact that it is not a technology which is used universally in the industry , points out that although it important , it was an addition to cinematic forms of representation , rather than a replacement for them .",1
"' Elite interviewing has filled our lives with adventure ' writes . It remains a research method with considerable potential to be ' challenging , informative ... and fun ' argues who sites this technique as the preferred empirical tool within political science . If successful the process can indeed provide considerable insight into political phenomena . Before one can establish why such a method is so popular we must first attempt to define such a term . The appeal of elite interviewing for researchers lies in its distinctive characteristics ; the strengths and its relevance to political science must not be seen as mutually exclusive and thus will be dealt with collectively . If we are to accept elitist theories of modern democracies , then elite interviewing enables the researcher to gain a unique insight into the mind of key decision makers within politics . It also certainly involves an elevated level of prestige on the part of the researcher but this should not blind us from the richness of data which may be obtained given the opportunities which may arise in the process . However there remains a host of difficulties which must be considered . Gaining access to one 's desired respondent is perhaps chief among such obstacles whilst the interview process itself can be incredibly time consuming . Critics question the honesty of responses given the often self - conscious manner of high profile political figures , and emphasise the influence of the ' interviewer effect ' . Producing unreliable and idiosyncratic data are common charges held against elite interviewing . A lack of experience is detrimental whilst feminist critiques have highlighted the naïve nature of the received wisdom about the interview process . The issue of recording can also cause difficulties for the researcher as can the matters of location , security and personal safety . One can draw on examples but must remain aware of the fact that researcher 's experiences have varied greatly depending upon how such difficulties have been managed . The lack of literature on the subject highlights the fact that it is hard to generalize from individual experiences . Despite the apparent imbalance between potential problems and the benefits of elite interviewing , if the former are overcome , this method can lead to significant advances in political science . < fnote > Quotation taken from On the Record : An Introduction to Interviewing ' in Surveying the Research Process in Politics ' , ( ) p.152 < /fnote > Before we can assess the strengths and limitations of elite interviewing it is necessary to define such a method . This can be done in terms of the target group - the elite being studied e.g. Members of , or by the research technique which commonly takes the form of a semi - structured interview . This form of interview means the interviewer is prepared to be flexible , in terms of the order in which topics are introduced and , perhaps more significantly , to let the interviewee develop ideas and speak more widely on issues raised . Thus , both questions and answers are open ended . The interviewer 's outline may contain varying degrees of specification and detail ; it may include a checklist of topics or a list of general questions providing a mere guideline . This way of conducting interviews is said to provide ample freedom for both the researcher and the elite member to enter discussion yet ensuring all relevant themes are covered . argues that there exists a continuum from which researchers select a line of enquiry . At end lies the free interview allowing the respondent to lead the discussion . At the other , there exists a highly structured questionnaire format . Where the elite interview lies is dependant upon factors such as time and rapport between researcher and respondent . In contrast with survey sampling , standardization is neither important nor necessary ; there is no standard technique involved unlike with surveying in which the same questionnaire is administered to large numbers of informants . Elite interviewing does not yield data of equal value - some elites are more valued than others . Emphasised within all definitions of elite interviewing is that it should not stand alone as an individual research method . Triangulation implies that ' the best research on elites has utilized a combination of methodological approaches to deepen the research findings ' . Let us now assess the relevance of elite interviewing for political science . < fnote > Steward G. ' On the Record : An Introduction to Interviewing ' in Surveying the Research Process in Politics ' , ( ) p.152 < /fnote><fnote > Quotation taken from , , , and in Politics ' Basingstoke Hampshire , Palgrave ( ) p.206 < /fnote > Within political science , data from behavioural analysis in has given rise to contrasting theories of modern democracy . However , the general conclusion drawn was that local politics was dominated by elites . 's ( ) exposed the formidable dominance of the military - industrial complex in during . produced a similar exposure of the elite in The State in Capitalist Society ( ) . argued the political elite are necessarily wise and able to act in the interests of the electorate providing moral and social leadership as intellectual members of society . Liberal and pluralist critics site the arguments of who advocated the developmental potential of democracy enabling individual moral and educational progression . Pure elitist theory denies political equality and regards the majority as passive and apathetic . Perhaps such a stark assessment is less suitable in 's modern western democracies . However there remains a measure of consensus concerning the considerable power of political elites . Thus , proponents argue elite interviewing remains the most appropriate means of gaining insight into the minds of significant actors within the decision making process . Political scientists such as , who emphasise the relevance of elite interviewing , adopt an interpretative approach . They are interested in the interpretations , perspectives and priorities of the respondent . It is argued that political science does not merely concern measured categories and standardized , quantifiable data but rather it is about investigating how key figures conceptualize and understand the political scene around them . It seems that one 's outlook on elite interviewing is dependant upon how defines political science . As a method of data collection interviews are highly flexible allowing changes to the line of enquiry even during the interview process . They require only limited equipment and in comparison to surveys , initiate a high response rate in that interviews are scheduled for a convenient time and location . Concerning validity argues ' direct contact at the point of interview means data can be checked for accuracy and relevance as they are collected ' . Elite interviewing is said to be highly suitable for data based on emotions or experiences , particularly those of a sensitive nature ; such issues may require a measure of coaxing and careful handling possible within an interview situation . It has been argued that central to the appeal of elite interviewing to political scientists is its associated level of prestige . Elite interviewing is said to bring a level of excitement to research - a measure of ' academic glamour ' . However , this should not overshadow the sheer depth of insight which can be gained from this method . It is argued that within elite interviewing there exists a distinctive yet advantageous balance of power at odds with any other research method available to the political scientist . When interviewing elites the balance of power is said to rest with the respondent . It is he or she who possesses an elevated status , a high degree of knowledge about the issue in question and commonly possesses high expressive abilities given the professional nature of their position . Whilst it remains important for the researcher to be well informed about the issues , the content of the interview depends less upon his or her knowledge but rather , upon the freedom given to the interviewee . Researchers also depend on interviewees for opening up further lines of enquiry . < fnote > Quotation taken from London , SAGE Publications Ltd ( 2003 ) p.136 < /fnote > Once access to one 's desired respondent has been achieved the researcher is likely to be given a number of opportunities to acquire additional information from his / her informant . Both and highlight the accommodating nature of many of their interviewees once they had agreed to be interviewed . Once an initial interview has been secured a common technique for determining who else to target is to ask one 's respondent . The ' Snowball ' method , as it is known , can unveil valuable contacts . states how of his correspondents were a result of this method . writes ' When interviewing officials in ... I found myself being propelled along corridors to meet ' X who 's working on a related topic ' or ' Y who 's interested in this area ' . ' significant advantage of interviewing ... proved to be the access to documentation which arose as a direct by - product ' states . goes on to describe how she was ' given the opportunity to use organization and personal archives ' . She emphasises the importance of not passing up these opportunities but allowing for extra time in which such occasions can be exploited - ' strike while the iron 's hot ' . ' Without the interviews it is clear little documentation would have come my way ' argues . Let us now turn to discuss some of the problems researchers face in elite interviewing and the limitations of this method . < fnote > Quotation taken from ( ) ' Interviewing Politicians : Political Quarterly col . , p.312 < /fnote><fnote > Quotation taken from On the Record : An Introduction to Interviewing ' in Surveying the Research Process in Politics ' , ( ) p.156 < /fnote><fnote > Quotation taken from ( ) ' Interviewing Politicians : Political Quarterly col . , p.313 < /fnote><fnote > Quotation taken from On the Record : An Introduction to Interviewing ' in Surveying the Research Process in Politics ' , ( ) p.157 < /fnote><fnote > Quotation taken from ( ) ' Interviewing Politicians : Political Quarterly col . , p.313 < /fnote > Perhaps considered most prominent among the limitations of this research method are the difficulties associated with gaining access and the sheer level of time consumption . High profile individuals may be particularly busy and will require convincing . It may prove particularly difficult to gain access to MPs and ministers who are frequently contacted by researchers and have a host of other professional commitments e.g. parliamentary , media and constituency sessions . Steward stresses the importance of 's initial contact with an informant . Concerted effort and careful preparation is required on the part of the researcher in the form of a letter in which one should briefly outline the research project and point out to the interviewee some benefit of their participation . The researcher needs to inform the prospective informant of how he or she can be contacted . highlights the importance of the use of departmental headed - notepaper so the recipient is aware of the one 's institutional affiliation . Telephone calls require the researcher to be ' prepared , polite and persistent ' . Researchers are commonly ' fobbed off ' by gatekeepers used to dealing with such people or directed to ' one size fits all ' programmes whereby the researcher 's contact with actual elites is minimal . , and Sarosvkii note ' respondents in more politically unstable environments may be a good deal more suspicious ' if approached by researchers . It may prove easier to gain access to elites in established democracies . However , elites in foreign countries may be more accommodating if they feel they are able to learn something of the politics within the researcher 's native country . Either way , these points illustrate the difficulties that researchers face concerning access . Estimates vary with regards to the average time spent on the interview process . Steward recommends interviews in although perhaps even this is a rather ambitious target when considers the implications of travel , analysis and review . For young and inexperienced researchers the interview process can be draining , demanding high levels of concentration . ' time ' needs to be accounted for so that unforeseen circumstances can be handled . Given the difficulties in gaining access and the time intensive nature of elite interviewing it is essential that the researcher has ensured the information he or she requires can not be found elsewhere - ' the golden rule is to make the most of the time you have allotted ' . Questions can be sorted into essential , necessary and desirable categories . It is also important that the researcher knows as much about the topic as possible prior to the interview . Many researchers are over - ambitious in the number of interviewees they seek to conduct . The researcher has to learn to recognise the point at which the interview return is minimal - the ' saturation point ' . This will commonly depend upon levels of experience . < fnote > Steward G. ' On the Record : An Introduction to Interviewing ' in Surveying the Research Process in Politics ' , ( ) p.153 < /fnote><fnote > Quotation taken from On the Record : An Introduction to Interviewing ' in Surveying the Research Process in Politics ' , ( ) p.154 < /fnote><fnote > Grant W. ' Elite Interviewing ' Lecture , University of Warwick ( 2005 ) < /fnote><fnote > Quotation taken from , , , and in Politics ' Basingstoke Hampshire , Palgrave ( ) p.208 < /fnote><fnote > Quotation taken from On the Record : An Introduction to Interviewing ' in Surveying the Research Process in Politics ' , ( 1997 ) p.155 < /fnote><fnote > Quotation taken from , , , and in Politics ' Basingstoke Hampshire , Palgrave ( ) p.208 < /fnote > A lack of experience itself can create limitations within the process of elite interviewing . The researcher has to decide whether the technique is suitable for his / her own personality . Techniques can be learned and skills can be developed but it remains only natural that some make better interviewers than others . argues that his own personal status as a biographer was influential in getting access to members of elites but goes on to say how he had , on occasion , failed to give politicians sufficient freedom to voice their opinions . Securing access can simply depend on who you know . describes how Labour MP happened to have been his closest friend as undergraduates and who was thus ' always entirely frank with me ' . describes how the process of conducting a semi - structured interview becomes easier with experience . The inherent paradox , she argues , is that with increased experience , the more an interview seems like a normal conversation - it is crucial to keep site on one 's objective and to remember that it never actually is . Related to experience is the realisation that some groups of elites make better interviewees than others . describes the difficulties he faced when it came to interviewing trade union leaders who tended to be ' difficult , hard to contact , sometimes reticent to the point of suspicion , in other cases talkative but rambling and irrelevant ' . In contrast civil servants are widely regarded as a valuable source - ' professional politician - watchers , forever comparing their style and approach ' writes , who made great use of interviews with civil servants in his biography of the former Labour Chancellor . highlights the self - conscious nature of politicians as respondents which caused numerous problems . Political opponents of would , perhaps subconsciously , go out of their way to find something favourable to say about him . More frequently politicians may adapt their views about the past to fit a stance they adopted later . This habit to interpret the past in the light of present events makes it impossible to accept all they say at face value . The question of honesty on the part of the interviewee is also questioned by critics who emphasise the influence of the interviewer effect . < fnote ( ) ' Interviewing Politicians : Political Quarterly col . < /fnote><fnote > Quotation taken from ( ) ' Interviewing Politicians : Political Quarterly col . , p.311 < /fnote><fnote > Quotation taken from ( ) ' Interviewing Politicians : Political Quarterly col . , p.304 < /fnote><fnote > Quotation taken from ( ) ' Interviewing Politicians : Political Quarterly col . , p.304 < /fnote > Aside from the common criticism that elite interviewing produces atypical and unrepresentative data , it is also argued that the validity of elite interviewing is threatened by the interviewer effect . The sex , age and ethnic origin of the interviewer affects the amount of information the interviewee is willing to divulge . The personal identity of the interviewer will affect the level of rapport between the participants . In 's stage interview model , building rapport is considered an essential stage and best set at the beginning if the interviewer is to obtain honest responses . Finch states that women interviewing women can often minimise the process of building rapport . Similarly , shared class , ethnicity or nationality can perform the same function . Such issues are rarely alluded to in literature upon elite interviewing argues , who questions the received wisdom on the interviewing technique - despite the interview situation , certain social norms have to be obeyed e.g. the interviewee may ask questions of the researcher . Politicians may ask researchers of their political ambitions . Sexism , homophobia or generally patronizing attitudes can all be involved in the interview process . Hogget writes that the accounts of methodology within textbooks represent ' sanitised versions of a much messier reality ' . Concerning presentation researchers are advised to be punctual and to dress in a manner that would suit the professional environment of the interviewee . Good interviewing requires sensitivity and attentiveness and for the interviewer to be able to tolerate silences without becoming anxious . The effective use of probes and prompts is also a skill an interviewer must acquire . The issue of how to record the interview is also a potential source of problems . The use of a tape recorder requires permission and may inhibit the informant - the situation may feel somewhat artificial . The use of a tape recorder and note - taking is advised . One must ensure sound quality is audible . For similar reasons , concerning location , researchers are advised against conducting interviews in bars or busy cafes or over lunch for all such circumstances can complicate proceedings . < fnote > Grant W. ' Elite Interviewing ' Lecture , University of Warwick ( 2005 ) < /fnote><fnote > Steward G. ' On the Record : An Introduction to Interviewing ' in Surveying the Research Process in Politics ' , ( ) p.160 < /fnote><fnote > Quotation taken from On the Record : An Introduction to Interviewing ' in Surveying the Research Process in Politics ' , ( ) p.160 < /fnote > One would perhaps not associate the issues of personal safety and security with political science research but within elite interviewing these are concerns which must be addressed . describes a time in which she could not meet an activist from an anti - racist organization at his office for fear of arson attacks from nearby extreme right - wing groups . Although infrequent , sexual harassment is more commonly conducted towards female interviewers than towards male researchers . In unfamiliar locations researchers often conduct interviews in pairs for matters of safety . < fnote > Steward G. ' On the Record : An Introduction to Interviewing ' in Surveying the Research Process in Politics ' , ( ) p.158 < /fnote > Thus , despite the host of difficulties and the perhaps perceived imbalance between the number of obstacles and limitations against the advantages and strengths of elite interviewing , if overcome , elite interview can be incredibly beneficial to the field of political science . If we are to accept a somewhat elitist approach towards modern democratic systems , that is say that significant decisions are now made by small groups of highly qualified and knowledgeable individuals , then elite interviewing remains the most relevant and insightful method in seeking to understand the perceptions of such actors . This said , those who advocate elite interviewing also stress the importance of triangulation . Elite interviewing must be used in tandem with other methods of political science research to produce coherent and supportive data . Whilst the emergence of online elite interviewing , developed at in , may minimise some of the potential problems such as lack of time and finances , it seems there can be no substitute for ample preparation and experience .","< heading > Introduction</heading>'Cabinet government is dead - it has no function to play ' whilst the Prime Minister acts ' like a president ' . These were the remarks of the late , former secretary , when she left office in . Her assessment reflects increasing debate within politics regarding the style of 's current Prime Minister and the apparent phenomenon of ' creeping presidentialism ' . An analysis of the validity of such concerns requires definition of the concepts of ' Prime Ministerial ' and ' Cabinet ' government whilst this apparent trend must not be considered a product of 's premiership alone . Much evidence of a growth in Prime Ministerial power at the expense of government can be drawn from the era . In addition there remain examples of when Cabinet government has flexed its political muscles and limited the executive strength of the Prime Minister . Some commentators have argued that the recent public furore over a ban on smoking and education reforms illustrates the vibrant health of government . It seems that the predominance of either Prime Ministerial or Cabinet government depends largely upon the context in which the government must operate e.g. the size of its parliamentary majority . The varied conclusions of this debate have led some political scientists to focus instead upon a wider network of power relations that spread both beyond Downing Street and the room and constitute the so - called ' Core Executive ' . < fnote > URL   < /fnote><fnote > Heywood A. ( ) ' Key Concepts in Politics ' Hampshire Palgrave p.226 < /fnote><picture/><heading > Defining the Terms</heading > In theory , the practice of operates through a dual role . The should meet regularly to propose legislation through informed debates and supervise administration . More specific functions include the control of parliament 's agenda , dealing with unforeseen crises , allocating government expenditure , formulating policy and ratifying policy made elsewhere e.g. in . The convention of collective responsibility states that all members of the are responsible for decisions made and should adopt a public stance of unity . The Prime Minister 's power to dismiss ministers who fail to abide by collective responsibility certainly strengthens his / her position . In dismissed of his Cabinet in his ' Knight of long knives ' . The constitutional convention of individual ministerial responsibility holds that a cabinet minister bears the ultimate responsibility for the actions of their ministry . One could argue that in the weak application of this doctrine may in part account for the decline in the perceived credibility of government . Prime Ministerial government refers to the theory that the office of the Prime Minister has become so powerful that he / she is no longer merely a ' among equals ' but forms a political executive similar to that of a President . < heading > Thatcher - Instigating Change</heading > Critics of Prime Ministerial power have often accused of being the instigator of the decline in government . As a self proclaimed conviction politician was well known for starting her discussions by stating her own views - ' the very forcefulness with which projected her views and style separated her from the ' . She reduced the frequency of and meetings - just meetings were held in comparison to 's . she removed rebels and dissenters appointing close allies such as and Cecil Parkinson in their place . suggests that for , meetings were in fact the least important aspect of membership . She preferred to make policy decisions in smaller and preferred further still to make use of informal groups made up of her closest allies . The role of the Policy Unit within the Prime Minister 's Office was of great significance under . 's decision to ban trade unions from the in is notable given the absence of policy discussion . However there were instances even before which suggested a decline in the prominence of government . In the Eden failed to consult his and even ignored his advisors during which was to have a fatal impact upon his premiership . White argues ' 's unique contribution was an abrasive , sometimes arbitrary , leadership style that constrained the choices that might have been made ... invented presidential politics ' . The era had a profound impact on the practice of . < fnote > Jones B , , , ( ) ' Politics UK ' Essex , < /fnote><picture/><heading the ? < /heading premiership has certainly advanced the decline in government . meetings have been known to finish within and often lack a structured agenda . has continued the trend of making greater use of to formulate policy ( of which he himself chairs ) . In newly formed discussed devolution and constitutional reform . Yet perhaps more significantly the frequency of informal groups has increased under . Bilateral meetings between and senior ministers have commonly been described as ' one way traffic ' . In expressed concerns regarding the increasing significance of special advisors within . ' Since Labour came to power , there has been growing concern about the role of special advisers , most of whom are political appointees paid for out of the public purse , and often act as personal ' spin doctors '' . argues ' Ministers have been regularly heard to moan about the constant meddling in their departmental affairs by . The more recent in criticized 's ' sofa style ' decision making . Butler stated that the ' informality and circumscribed procedures ' marginalized the cabinet role in decision taking on . ' No previous Labour leader ... has adopted such a personal style of control ' writes . concludes ' what is being witnessed under is yet further reinforcement of the PM 's position at the heart of the executive domain ' . Yet whilst is seen by some as a ' control freak ' it should be recognized that has allowed senior colleagues much autonomy notably regarding economic matters . Lord was right to concede that there never will be ' an ideal or unchangeable system of collective government ' . In addition , it can be argued that Prime Ministerial power is often determined by context according to which the power balance fluctuates . < fnote > URL   < /fnote><fnote > URL   < /fnote><fnote > Rawnsley A. ( ) ' If you look powerless , you soon are ' The Observer 30th Oct p.29 < /fnote><fnote > URL   < /fnote><fnote > Seldon A. ( ) ' ' , p.694 < /fnote><fnote > Dunleavy P , , , ( ) ' Developments in Politics 6 ' < /fnote><picture/><heading > The Importance of Context</heading > It can be argued that the prominence of Prime Ministerial or government largely depends upon the context within which a government must govern . writes ' many of the harsher criticisms leveled against are intellectually limited because they have little regard for the circumstances under which served his premiership ' . With a much reduced parliamentary majority , was forced to adopt a far more collegial and consensual approach within his although such a style correlated with his personal preferences . The itself was dogged by infighting and division notably over the issue of . argues that ' no modern government has contained ministers more puppet - like , more politically anaemic , more lacking in self - respect , or more cravenly submissive to the leader ' thus suggesting Ministers themselves are in part responsible for the decline in government . In marked contrast to , and achieved successive parliamentary landslides enabling Prime Ministerial government in accordance with their personal preferences . The Presidential thesis of PMs has been boosted by the advent of mass media attention given to PMs and the ' personalization ' of politics . For example The 's intensive focus on concerning the tragic kidnapping and murder of was noticeable from of the hostage crisis . On the front page article read - ' The over ' making reference to on occasions in contrast to ' the ' made reference to only once . It is perhaps inevitable himself is to be heavily associated with the action taken in . His attempts to persuade an uneasy public that conflict was necessary were numerous in the form of newspaper interviews , television appearances and frequent press statements is the ' communicating premiership ' argues . Yet it remains difficult toe establish cause and effect in the relationship between apparent ' creeping presidentialism ' and increasing media attention . has also been seen to extend the role and size of the Prime Minister 's office . He introduced a Strategic Communication Unit and has made full use of . 's notorious ex - Press Secretary even attended meetings , the ever to do so . It can be argued however that a weaker government in parliamentary terms would see a return in prominence of government . The permanency of any apparent trend should not be exaggerated whilst politics remains so unpredictable . < fnote > Seldon A. ( ) ' Major : A Political Life ' , p.737 - 739 < /fnote><fnote > URL   < /fnote><fnote > Brown C , Macleod H. ( 2004 ) ' The shadow over ' The Independent 27th Sept p.1 < /fnote><fnote > Jones B , , , ( ) ' Politics UK ' Essex , Longman p.419 < /fnote><picture/><heading > Cabinet Revival ? < /heading > Despite evidence to support the thesis of ' creeping presidentialism ' 's downfall serves as a powerful note of caution to PMs who look to exert disproportionate power . 's dominant style and increasing disregard for the opinions of Cabinet Ministers - as seen over the implementation of the Poll Tax , proved the ultimate cause of her downfall as she lost the confidence of several allies . Most recently some commentators have argued 's is beginning to reassert itself as division has appeared over the forthcoming ban on public smoking and on education reforms . argues that this is the consequence of 's decision to announce his intention to stand down before the next election - a decision which ironically , many of his supporters advised against . refers to 's ' hubristic belief in his powers of persuasion and the rightness of his own ' principled ' course of action ' . Whilst there remain powers at 's disposal to silence disloyal , quarrelsome and scheming colleagues , notably the ability to hire and fire through reshuffle , it remains to be seen whether 's dominant style will threaten his ability to decide the moment of his departure . < fnote > Rawnsley A. ( ) ' If you look powerless , you soon are ' The Observer 30th Oct p.29 < /fnote><fnote > Seldon A. ( ) ' ' , p.694 < /fnote><heading > Conclusion</heading > The actions of previous Prime Ministers , in particular and currently have indeed led to a decline in the role and powers of the . Yet the does retain the ability to remove its leader as it has shown in recent history , whilst it remains to be seen how its role may change in the event of a government being elected with a much smaller majority or if the media 's obsession with personality declines . Frustrated by endless controversy regarding this debate some political scientists have argued both and Prime Ministerial government exist within a wider network of power relations beyond and the room . The political executive now controls many other influential bodies , agencies and committees in both Whitehall and Westminster . This network has been termed ' the Core Executive ' whilst this change of focus is said to avoid outdated arguments and inconclusive debate .",1