PATENT DOCUMENT

Publication Number: US-10209830-B2
Application Number: US-201615273577-A
Country: US
Kind Code: B2

Title: Electronic device having direction-dependent strain elements

Abstract:
A force sensor is disclosed. The force sensor includes a force-sensitive structure that compensates for temperature and other environmental changes through the use of a strain-sensitive element and one or more reference elements. An array of such force-sensitive structures forms a force-sensing layer.

Claims:
What is claimed is: 
     
       1. An electronic device, comprising:
 an enclosure; 
 a display positioned at least partially within the enclosure; 
 a transparent cover positioned over the display; and 
 an opaque force-sensing layer positioned beneath the display, comprising:
 a substrate; 
 an array of force-sensitive structures disposed on the substrate, a force-sensitive structure of the array comprising:
 a strain-sensitive element configured to produce a first electrical response in response to a deflection of the transparent cover; 
 a first reference element positioned proximate to the strain-sensitive element and configured to produce a second electrical response in response to the deflection of the transparent cover; and 
 a second reference element positioned proximate to the strain-sensitive element and configured to produce a third electrical response in response to the deflection of the transparent cover; and 
 
 a strain concentrating structure comprising a group of stiffener segments, each stiffener segment coupled to the substrate to define a group of strain concentration regions located between pairs of stiffener segments; 
 
 wherein a magnitude of each of the second and third electrical responses is smaller than the first electrical response. 
 
     
     
       2. The electronic device of  claim 1 , wherein the electronic device further comprises:
 force-sensing circuitry operatively coupled to the array of force-sensitive structures and configured to estimate a temperature-compensated strain using the first and second electrical responses of the force-sensitive structure. 
 
     
     
       3. The electronic device of  claim 1 , wherein:
 the strain-sensitive element is formed from conductive material defining a first set of interconnected traces formed along a first direction; 
 the first and second reference elements are formed from the conductive material defining a second and third set of interconnected traces formed along a second direction; and 
 the second direction is transverse to the first direction. 
 
     
     
       4. The electronic device of  claim 1 , wherein
 the substrate comprises a first substrate layer and a second substrate layer; 
 a first strain-relief feature is formed into the first substrate layer between the strain-sensitive element and the first reference element; and 
 a second strain-relief feature is formed into the first substrate layer between the strain-sensitive element and the second reference element. 
 
     
     
       5. The electronic device of  claim 4 , wherein the first substrate layer comprises one or more of: a polyimide sheet, a glass sheet, or a polyethylene terephthalate sheet. 
     
     
       6. The electronic device of  claim 1 , wherein:
 the strain-sensitive element is positioned within one of the group of strain-concentration regions; 
 the strain-sensitive element is positioned on a first side of the substrate; and 
 the strain concentrating structure is positioned on a second side of the substrate opposite the first side. 
 
     
     
       7. The electronic device of  claim 1 , wherein the first electrical response is a change in resistance of the strain-sensitive element. 
     
     
       8. The electronic device of  claim 1 , wherein the strain-sensitive element and the first and second reference elements comprise one or more of: a constantan, a karma, or an isoelastic material. 
     
     
       9. A force-sensing layer for sensing a force applied to an electronic device, the force-sensing layer comprising:
 a substrate; 
 an array of force-sensitive structures arranged on the substrate, each force-sensitive structure comprising:
 a strain-sensitive element positioned on the substrate and configured to produce a first change in resistance in response to strain along a direction; and 
 a reference element positioned on the substrate proximate to the strain-sensitive element and configured to produce a second change in resistance in response to strain along the direction that is smaller than the first change in resistance; wherein
 the strain-sensitive element and the reference element are disposed in an interlocking spiral pattern. 
 
 
 
     
     
       10. The force-sensing layer of  claim 9 , wherein the electronic device further comprises:
 force-sensing circuitry operatively coupled to the strain-sensitive element and the reference element and configured to estimate a temperature-compensated strain using the first and the second changes in resistance. 
 
     
     
       11. The force-sensing layer of  claim 9 , wherein the strain-sensitive element and the reference element are formed on a same surface of the substrate. 
     
     
       12. The force-sensing layer of  claim 10 , wherein:
 the strain-sensitive element comprises a first conductive material disposed in a first spiral pattern; 
 the reference element comprises a second conductive material disposed in a second spiral pattern interlocked with the first spiral pattern; and 
 the force-sensing circuitry is configured to compensate for strain based on a known relationship between a material property of the first conductive material and the second conductive material. 
 
     
     
       13. An electronic device, comprising:
 a component forming an exterior surface of the electronic device; 
 a force-sensing layer positioned below the exterior surface and comprising:
 a substrate attached to the component and configured to, in response to a deflection in the exterior surface, produce strain along a series of radial paths extending between a middle region of the substrate and a perimeter of the substrate; 
 an array of force-sensitive structures disposed on the substrate, each force-sensitive structure comprising:
 a first strain-sensitive element configured to exhibit a primary sensitivity to strain along a first direction substantially aligned with a respective radial path; and 
 a second strain-sensitive element positioned adjacent the first strain-sensitive element and configured to exhibit a primary sensitivity to strain along a second direction that is transverse to the first direction; wherein
 the substrate includes a group of strain-relief features formed along the first direction; 
 the first strain-sensitive element is positioned between a pair of strain-relief features of the group of strain-relief features; and 
 in response to the deflection in the exterior surface, the first strain-sensitive element exhibits a first change in resistance and the second strain-sensitive element exhibits a second change in resistance that is smaller than the first change in resistance. 
 
 
 
 
     
     
       14. The electronic device of  claim 13 , wherein the electronic device further comprises:
 force-sensing circuitry operatively coupled to the first and second strain-sensitive elements and configured to estimate a temperature-compensated strain using the first and second changes in resistance. 
 
     
     
       15. The electronic device of  claim 13 , wherein the group of strain-relief features includes an array of slits formed into a first side of the substrate. 
     
     
       16. The electronic device of  claim 13 , wherein:
 the first strain-sensitive element is formed on a first surface of the substrate; and 
 the second strain-sensitive element is formed on a second surface of the substrate opposite the first surface. 
 
     
     
       17. The electronic device of  claim 13 , wherein:
 the first strain-sensitive element and the second strain-sensitive element are formed on a same surface of the substrate; and 
 each force-sensitive structure further comprises a third strain-sensitive element positioned on the same surface and adjacent the first strain-sensitive element, and configured to exhibit a primary sensitivity to strain along the second direction. 
 
     
     
       18. The electronic device of  claim 13 , wherein:
 the electronic device further comprises a display and a transparent cover positioned over the display; 
 the first strain-sensitive element is positioned between the transparent cover and the display; and 
 the first and second strain-sensitive elements comprise indium tin oxide. 
 
     
     
       19. An electronic device, comprising:
 a component forming an exterior surface of the electronic device; 
 a force-sensing layer positioned below the exterior surface and comprising:
 a substrate attached to the component and configured to strain in response to a deflection in the exterior surface; 
 a first force-sensitive structure comprising:
 a first strain-sensitive element disposed on a first surface of the substrate and configured to exhibit a first primary sensitivity to the strain along a first direction; and 
 a second strain-sensitive element disposed on a second surface of the substrate and aligned vertically with the first strain-sensitive element; 
 
 a second force-sensitive structure comprising:
 a third strain-sensitive element disposed on the first surface of the substrate and configured to exhibit a second primary sensitivity to the strain along a second direction different from the first direction; and 
 a fourth strain-sensitive element disposed on the second surface of the substrate and aligned vertically with the third strain-sensitive element, 
 wherein
 the substrate includes a group of strain-relief features formed along the first direction; 
 the first strain-sensitive element is positioned between a pair of strain-relief features of the group of strain-relief features; 
 the first direction is based on a first location of the first strain-sensitive element on the first surface of the substrate; and 
 the second direction is based on a second location of the third strain-sensitive element on the first surface of the substrate. 
 
 
 
 
     
     
       20. The electronic device of  claim 19 , wherein
 the strain comprises a series of radial paths extending outward from a location of a deflection of the substrate; 
 the first direction and the second direction are substantially transverse to respective radial paths; and 
 in response to the deflection in the exterior surface:
 the first strain-sensitive element exhibits a first change in resistance and the second strain-sensitive element exhibits a second change in resistance that is smaller than the first change in resistance; and 
 the third strain-sensitive element exhibits a third change in resistance and the fourth strain-sensitive element exhibits a fourth change in resistance that is smaller than the third change in resistance.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION 
     This application is a nonprovisional patent application of U.S. Patent Application No. 62/315,921, filed Mar. 31, 2016 and titled “Electronic Device Having Direction-Dependent Strain Elements,” the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. 
     FIELD 
     The described embodiments relate generally to a force sensor for an electronic device and, more particularly, to force sensors that use direction-dependent strain elements to compensate for environmental conditions. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Electronic devices may include various forms of user-input devices. Traditionally, electronic devices use buttons, keys, or other types of electromechanical actuators to receive user input. Increasingly, electronic devices are using electronic touch-enabled sensors to receive user input directly from a user&#39;s finger or stylus. However, the performance of some touch-enabled sensors may be affected by temperature and other environmental factors, which tend to vary over time. 
     SUMMARY 
     Embodiments described herein generally relate to an electronic device including an array of force sensors which detect and measure an amount of force applied to a surface of the electronic device. In an example embodiment, an electronic device includes an enclosure housing a display, with a transparent cover over the display. The electronic device also includes an opaque force-sensing layer beneath the display. The force-sensing layer includes an array of force-sensitive structures disposed on a substrate 
     A force-sensitive structure includes a strain-sensitive element, a first reference element positioned proximate to the strain-sensitive element, and a second reference element positioned proximate to the strain-sensitive element. When the transparent cover is deflected, each of the strain-sensitive element, the first reference element, and the second reference element produces an electrical response to the deflection. The magnitude of the electrical responses of the first reference element and the second reference element are less than the electrical response of the strain-sensitive element. The electronic device may also include force-sensing circuitry operatively coupled to the array of force-sensitive structures and configured to estimate a temperature-compensated strain using the electrical responses of the force-sensitive structure. 
     In some cases, the strain-sensitive element is formed from conductive material defining a first set of interconnected traces formed along a first direction. The first and second reference elements may be formed from the same conductive material defining a second and third set of interconnected traces formed along a second direction, the second direction being transverse to the first direction. 
     In some cases, the substrate includes a first substrate layer and a second substrate layer. A first strain-relief feature is formed into the first substrate layer between the strain-sensitive element and the first reference element. A second strain-relief feature is formed into the first substrate layer between the strain-sensitive element and the second reference element. 
     Some example embodiments are directed to a force-sensing layer for sensing a force applied to an electronic device. The force-sensing layer may include a substrate and an array of force-sensitive structures arranged on the substrate. Each of the force-sensitive structures may include a strain-sensitive element positioned on the substrate and a reference element positioned on the substrate proximate to the strain-sensitive element. The strain-sensitive element and the reference element are disposed in an interlocking spiral pattern. The strain-sensitive element and the reference element each produce a change in resistance in response to strain along a given direction, with the strain-sensitive element producing a larger change in resistance than the reference element. 
     Some example embodiments are directed to an electronic device having a component forming an exterior surface of the electronic device and a force-sensing layer structure positioned below the exterior surface. The force-sensing layer includes a substrate attached to the component and an array of force-sensitive structures disposed on the substrate. In response to a deflection in the exterior surface, the substrate produces strain along a series of radial paths extending between a middle region of the substrate and a perimeter of the substrate. 
     Each force-sensitive structure includes a first strain-sensitive element and a second strain-sensitive element positioned adjacent the first strain-sensitive element. The first strain-sensitive element exhibits a primary sensitivity to strain along a first direction substantially aligned with a respective radial path. The second strain-sensitive element exhibits a primary sensitivity to strain along a second direction that is transverse to the first direction. In response to the deflection in the exterior surface, the first strain-sensitive element exhibits a first change in resistance and the second strain-sensitive element exhibits a second change in resistance that is smaller than the first change in resistance. 
     Some example embodiments are directed to a device including an enclosure and a display positioned at least partially within the enclosure. A transparent cover may be positioned over the display and may define a perimeter surrounding a middle region. A force-sensing layer may be positioned beneath the transparent cover. The force-sensing layer may include a substrate and an array of force-sensitive structures on the substrate. Each force-sensitive structure may include a first strain-sensitive element having a first set of traces aligned along a first direction defined as extending between the perimeter and the middle region, and a second strain-sensitive element positioned proximate to the first strain-sensitive element and having a second set of traces aligned transverse to the first set of traces of the first strain-sensitive element. In some embodiments, the electronic device also includes force-sensing circuitry operatively coupled to the first and second strain-sensitive elements and configured to estimate a temperature-compensated strain based on a change in resistance of both the first and second strain-sensitive elements. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The disclosure will be readily understood by the following detailed description in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein like reference numerals designate like structural elements. 
         FIG. 1  depicts an electronic device with an input surface configured to receive force input from a user. 
         FIG. 2  depicts a cross-section of  FIG. 1  viewed along line B-B, depicting a force-sensing layer within the electronic device. 
         FIG. 3  depicts an example force-sensitive structure. 
         FIGS. 4A-4C  depict additional example force-sensitive structures. 
         FIGS. 5A-5D  depict other example configurations for force-sensitive structures. 
         FIGS. 6A-6E  depict force-sensitive structures with spiral patterns. 
         FIGS. 7-8  depict additional features which may be formed in a force-sensing layer. 
         FIGS. 9A-9B  depict a cross-sectional view of the electronic device of  FIG. 1 , viewed along line A-A, according to an example embodiment as depicted in  FIG. 3 . 
         FIGS. 10A-10B  depict a cross-sectional view of the electronic device of  FIG. 1 , viewed along line A-A, according to an example embodiment as depicted in  FIG. 4A . 
         FIGS. 11A-11C  depict examples of the force-sensing layer as a stack of further sub-layers. 
         FIGS. 12A-12C  depict examples of the force-sensing layer as a stack of further sub-layers. 
         FIG. 13  depicts a top view of a force-sensing layer including an array of force-sensitive structures. 
         FIG. 14  depicts another force-sensing layer including an array of force-sensitive structures. 
         FIG. 15  depicts example components of an electronic device. 
     
    
    
     The use of cross-hatching or shading in the accompanying figures is generally provided to clarify the boundaries between adjacent elements and also to facilitate legibility of the figures. Accordingly, neither the presence nor the absence of cross-hatching or shading conveys or indicates any preference or requirement for particular materials, material properties, element proportions, element dimensions, commonalities of similarly illustrated elements, or any other characteristic, attribute, or property for any element illustrated in the accompanying figures. 
     Additionally, it should be understood that the proportions and dimensions (either relative or absolute) of the various features and elements (and collections and groupings thereof) and the boundaries, separations, and positional relationships presented therebetween, are provided in the accompanying figures merely to facilitate an understanding of the various embodiments described herein and, accordingly, may not necessarily be presented or illustrated to scale, and are not intended to indicate any preference or requirement for an illustrated embodiment to the exclusion of embodiments described with reference thereto. 
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Reference will now be made in detail to representative embodiments illustrated in the accompanying drawings. It should be understood that the following descriptions are not intended to limit the embodiments to one preferred embodiment. To the contrary, they are intended to cover alternatives, modifications, and equivalents as can be included within the spirit and scope of the described embodiments as defined by the appended claims. 
     Embodiments described herein may relate to or take the form of an electronic device that incorporates a force sensor with a strain-sensitive element used to detect touch or force input on a surface of the electronic device. In particular, the force sensor may include an arrangement of strain-sensitive elements, each having a direction-dependent strain response. The output from two or more strain-sensitive elements may be used to reduce or eliminate adverse effects due to variations in environmental conditions. The output of the force sensor may be combined with the output of a touch sensor or other user-input device to control aspects of the electronic device. 
     Generally and broadly, a user touch event may be sensed on a cover sheet over a display, enclosure, or other surface associated with an electronic device using input sensors that include a touch sensor to detect the presence and location of the touch event and a force sensor adapted to determine the magnitude of force of the touch event. The force sensor may produce a non-binary output that corresponds to an amount of applied force. In particular, a force output generated using the force sensor may correspond to the magnitude of a force applied to the surface of the electronic device. 
     The determined magnitude of force may be used as an input signal, input data, or other input information to the electronic device. Because the output of the force sensor is non-binary or scaled, the force sensor may be used to control functions or operations that are responsive to a varying input. For example, the force sensor may be used to adjust the audio volume of a speaker, the brightness of a display, or the line weight of a stylus pen. 
     The force sensor may also be used to distinguish different user-input commands based on a force threshold value. In one example, a high force input event (having a magnitude greater than a force threshold) may be interpreted differently from a low force input event (having a magnitude less than a force threshold). For example, a smart phone may unlock a display screen with a high force input event and may pause audio output for a low force input event. The device&#39;s responses or outputs may thus differ in response to the two input events, even though they occur at the same point and may use the same input device. In further examples, a change in applied force may be interpreted as an additional type of input event. For example, a user may hold a wearable device force sensor proximate to an artery in order to evaluate blood pressure or heart rate. One may appreciate that a force sensor may be used for collecting a variety of user inputs. 
     The force sensor may be used to create or define a force-sensitive surface over a portion of the electronic device. In some embodiments, a force sensor includes a strain-sensitive element and is configured to measure a change in a strain-responsive electrical property of the strain-sensitive element. In some cases, the strain-sensitive element may exhibit a change in resistance in response to a change in strain. The change in resistance may be correlated to or used to estimate an applied force. 
     The performance of the force sensor is dependent, in part, on the precision, accuracy, and resolution with which the strain experienced by the strain-sensitive element may be estimated. As discussed above, the force sensor may be configured to measure a change in the resistance of the strain-sensitive element due to applied force. However, an actual measurement of the element resistance may also be sensitive to variations in temperature, both across the device and localized over a portion of a force-sensitive surface. In some cases, a strain-sensitive element may exhibit a change in resistance due to a combination of strain- and temperature-based effects. Variations in temperature may also cause thermal expansion or contraction within the electronic device, which may also adversely affect a force measurement. The embodiments described herein may be used to reduce or eliminate effects due to temperature or other environmental conditions. 
     In general, the force sensor may be transparent or optically opaque for integration within a laminated display stack of an electronic device. The electronic device may be, for example, a mobile phone, a tablet computing device, a computer display, a notebook computing device, a desktop computing device, a computing input device (such as a touch pad, keyboard, or mouse), a wearable device, a health monitor device, a sports accessory device, and so on. 
     In many cases, a force sensor is implemented on an opaque force-sensing layer below a transparent cover (e.g., cover sheet) of an electronic device. The force-sensing layer may include a substrate having an array of force-sensitive structures on one or more surfaces of the substrate. Each force-sensitive structure may in turn include multiple strain-sensitive elements which may include independent conductive traces having a direction-dependent strain response. In some cases, two or more strain-sensitive elements having traces arranged transverse to each other may be formed into sensing groups also referred to as force-sensitive structures. The output from the force-sensitive structures may be used to mitigate or eliminate variations in measurements as a result of changing environmental conditions, such as changes in temperature. 
     In one configuration, a force sensor includes a force-sensing layer that is integrated into one or more layers of a display stack (e.g., an optically opaque layer within or below a display stack). The force-sensing layer may include an array of force-sensitive structures that are configured to detect a localized deflection of the display stack. Each force-sensitive structure may include two or more strain-sensitive elements. In one configuration, a force-sensitive structure includes a strain-sensitive element (e.g., a first strain-sensitive element) and a pair of reference elements (e.g., a second and third strain-sensitive element) positioned proximate to the strain-sensitive element. The strain-sensitive element and reference elements may be formed from the same material but may have major or dominant traces that are arranged transverse (e.g., orthogonal) to one another. Because the elements are positioned proximate to each other, environmental conditions affect the strain-sensitive element and the reference elements in substantially the same manner. Thus, variations in electrical response from the strain-sensitive element that are due to environmental conditions can be canceled using the reference elements using, for example, a differential measurement technique. 
     The various strain-sensitive elements may be disposed on the same side of a single substrate, on opposing sides of the single substrate, or disposed on different substrates. Regardless of the configuration, it may be advantageous to arrange the strain-sensitive elements proximate to each other so that adverse effects due to localized variations in temperature may be reduced. 
     The shape or geometry of the strain-sensitive and/or reference elements may vary. In some embodiments, the strain-sensitive and/or reference elements may include a set of (primary) traces that all extend along a primary or dominant strain-sensing direction. For example, the strain-sensitive elements may be formed from a set of traces arranged in a forked or comb-shaped configuration. The traces may also have a serpentine shape having elongated portions forming the primary traces. A forked- or serpentine-shaped set of traces may increase the sensitivity of the force sensor by increasing an overall or effective length of the resistive structure that is subject to strain. Other shapes include, but are not limited to: linear serpentine shapes, radial serpentine shapes, spiral shapes, doubled-back spiral shapes, and so on. 
     Each force-sensitive structure may be configured to maximize a strain response along a particular direction. For example, the length and/or direction of the traces of one or more of the strain-sensitive elements may be oriented along a primary direction. The force-sensitive structure may also include or be formed in conjunction with stress-relieving or stress-concentrating features that help isolate or concentrate the strain along a particular direction. 
     In some embodiments, the primary direction for each force-sensitive structure varies with respect to its location within the array. The force-sensitive structures may be configured to sense the natural deflected shape of the display stack given a set of boundary conditions. For example, a transparent cover of the electronic device may define a perimeter region surrounding a middle region. Each of the force-sensitive structures may be oriented such that a primary direction is defined as extending between the perimeter region and the middle region of the transparent cover. 
     These and other embodiments are discussed below with reference to  FIGS. 1-15 . However, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that the detailed description given herein with respect to these Figures is for explanatory purposes only and should not be construed as limiting. 
       FIG. 1  illustrates an electronic device  100  that can include a force-sensing layer with one or more force-sensitive structures, as described herein. In particular, the force-sensitive structures of the force-sensing layer may be configured to reduce or eliminate variations in a force measurement due to variations in temperature or other environmental conditions. The force-sensing layer may be integrated or incorporated with a display  104  and/or an enclosure  102  of the electronic device  100 . Example force-sensing layers and force-sensing configurations are described in more detail below with respect to  FIGS. 2-15 . 
     As shown in  FIG. 1 , the electronic device  100  includes an enclosure  102  to retain, support, and/or enclose various components of the electronic device  100 , such as a display  104 . The display  104  can provide a visual output to the user. The display  104  can be implemented with any suitable technology, including, but not limited to: a liquid-crystal display (LCD) element, an organic light emitting diode (OLED) element, an electroluminescent display (ELD), and the like. 
     A cover sheet  105  may be positioned over the front surface (or a portion of the front surface) of the electronic device  100 . At least a portion of the cover sheet  105  can function as an input surface  106  that receives touch and/or force inputs. The cover sheet  105  can be formed with any suitable material, such as glass, plastic, sapphire, or combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the cover sheet  105  covers the display  104 . Touch and force inputs can be received by the portion of the cover sheet  105  that covers the display  104 . In some embodiments, an input surface  106  may be defined over a non-display portion of the electronic device  100 , for example, over a region of the exterior of the enclosure  102 . 
     The electronic device may also include a touch sensor that is configured to determine a location of a finger or touch over the input surface  106  of the device  1100 . The touch sensor may be implemented in a touch sensor layer, and may include a capacitive array of electrodes or nodes that operate in accordance with a mutual-capacitance or self-capacitance scheme. 
     Various layers of a display stack (such as the cover sheet  105 , display  104 , touch sensor layer, and so on) may be adhered together with an optically transparent adhesive and/or may be supported by a common frame or portion of the enclosure  102 . A common frame may extend around a perimeter, or a portion of the perimeter, of the layers, may be segmented around the perimeter, a portion of the perimeter, or may be coupled to the various layers of the display stack in another manner. 
     In some embodiments, each of the layers of the display stack may be attached or deposited onto separate substrates that may be laminated or bonded to each other. The display stack may also include other layers for improving the structural or optical performance of the display  104 , including, for example, polarizer sheets, color masks, and the like. Additionally, the display stack may include a touch sensor for determining the location of one or more touches on the input surface  106  of the electronic device  100 . In some examples, the touch sensor may be a capacitive touch sensor configured to detect the location and/or area of one or more touches of a user&#39;s finger and/or a passive or active stylus on the input surface  106 . 
     In many cases, the electronic device  100  can also include a processor, memory, power supply and/or battery, network connections, sensors, input/output ports, acoustic components, haptic components, digital and/or analog circuits for performing and/or coordinating tasks of the electronic device  100 , and so on. One or more processors may be configured to perform, monitor, or coordinate one or more tasks of the electronic device  100 . For example, a processor may be configured to operate, and/or communicate with, a force-sensitive structure having a strain-sensitive element such as described herein. For simplicity of illustration, the electronic device  100  is depicted in  FIG. 1  without many of these components, each of which may be included, partially and/or entirely, within the enclosure  102 . An example depiction of various internal components is provided below with respect to  FIG. 15 . 
     By way of example, the electronic device  100  is depicted as a cellular phone in  FIG. 1 . However, the systems and techniques described herein may be applied to other types of electronic devices, either stationary or portable, taking a larger or smaller form factor than illustrated. For example, in certain embodiments, the electronic device may be a laptop computer, a tablet computer, a cellular phone, a wearable device, a health monitoring device, a home or building automation device, a home or building appliance, a craft or vehicle entertainment, control, and/or information system, a navigation device, and so on. 
     As noted above, the electronic device  100  can also include one or more force-sensitive structures, which may be disposed within a force-sensing layer. The force-sensing layer may be positioned within the display stack or below the display  104 . For simplicity of illustration, as with the example components of the electronic device  100  listed above,  FIG. 1  is depicted without the force-sensing layer which may be included, partially and/or entirely, within the enclosure  102 . 
       FIG. 2  illustrates a cross-sectional view of the device  100  of  FIG. 1  viewed along section B-B and illustrates a force-sensing layer  208  disposed within the enclosure  202  of the electronic device  200 . The force-sensing layer  208  includes an array of force-sensitive structures  210  disposed on a substrate  212 . While the force-sensitive structures  210  are depicted as squares in  FIG. 2 , it should be understood that this is for illustrative purposes, and the force-sensitive structures  210  may take on a variety of shapes. 
     In some embodiments, each force-sensitive structure  210  may be disposed on one or more surfaces of a substrate  212 . For example, a single force-sensitive structure  210  may be formed on opposite sides of the substrate  212 . The force-sensitive structure  210  may include a strain-sensitive element (e.g., a first strain-sensitive element) and one or more reference elements (e.g., a second, third, etc. strain-sensitive element). The strain-sensitive element may be configured to output an electrical response when the area of the force-sensing layer corresponding to the strain-sensitive element is put under strain, which may be in response to a deflection of the transparent cover or an exterior surface of the electronic device  200 . 
     One or more reference elements are placed very near to the strain-sensitive element, and may be placed adjacent to the strain-sensitive element and on the same surface of the substrate  212 , or a reference element may be placed opposite the strain-sensitive element on an opposing surface of the substrate  212 . This configuration thermally couples the reference elements to the strain-sensitive element. The reference elements may be further configured such that a magnitude of the electrical response may be smaller as a result of the force-sensing layer  208  being strained, such that the reference elements can approximate thermal or other environmental changes in the strain-sensitive element and their effects on the electrical response of the strain-sensitive element. 
     Each force-sensitive structure  210  may further be coupled to force-sensing circuitry to measure or estimate an amount of strain registered along the corresponding portion of the force-sensing layer  208 . The force-sensing circuitry may be electrically coupled to the strain-sensitive element and the one or more reference elements. The circuitry may further be configured to compare electrical responses in the strain-sensitive element with the reference elements in order to compensate for any temperature or other environmental effects on the response of the strain-sensitive element. The circuitry may then output a temperature-compensated electrical response or electrical signal that estimates or represents a temperature-compensated strain in the corresponding area of the force-sensing layer  208 . 
     As an example of the temperature-compensation function of the force-sensing circuitry, a first region  214  of the force-sensing layer  208  may experience an elevated temperature from a second region  216  of the force-sensing layer  208 . The difference in temperature may be a result of proximity to heat-producing underlying components, the presence of a user&#39;s finger in thermal contact with the transparent cover of the electronic device  200 , or other environmental conditions. 
     Assuming an array of force-sensitive structures  210  is implemented without temperature compensation, a deflection in the transparent cover equidistant between the first region  214  and second region  216  may result in equal strain in the force-sensing layer  208  across the two regions. If the temperature of the two regions is the same the response of strain-sensitive elements in the two regions may be the same. However, without temperature compensation and with a higher temperature in the first region  214  than the second region  216 , even though the strain in the force-sensing layer  208  across the regions may be the same, the electrical response of a strain-sensitive element in the first region  214  may be higher than the response of a strain-sensitive element in the second region  216 . 
     Because of this temperature-dependent response, the force-sensitive structures  210  may be configured to compensate for local and/or ambient variations in temperature. In one implementation, each force-sensitive structure  210  includes one or more reference elements, which may be used to reduce or eliminate variations due to temperature. The reference elements may be configured to be less responsive to strain and, therefore, may produce an electrical response that is primarily due to variations in environmental conditions like temperature. Using a differential measurement, the electrical response of one or more reference elements may be used to compensate for thermal effects within the force-sensitive structure  210 . 
     With respect to the temperature variation example, a force-sensitive structure  210  in the first region  214  may have a strain-sensitive element which exhibits a higher electrical response than a corresponding strain-sensitive element in the second region  216  due to temperature difference. Using the electrical response from a corresponding reference element, the increase due to the temperature difference may be compensated for or reduced. The compensation may be performed using force-sensing circuitry, in accordance with some embodiments, which may output temperature-compensated signals from force-sensitive structures  210  in the first region  214  and second region  216 . 
     Turning in further detail to the force-sensitive structure,  FIGS. 3-12C  depict various examples of force-sensitive structures. A force-sensitive structure includes a strain-sensitive element which exhibits a higher electrical response to strain along a direction and one or more reference elements which exhibit a lower electrical response to strain along the direction. In many embodiments, the force-sensitive structure is disposed on a substrate which may be strained along a series of paths in response to force being applied to the input surface of the electronic device. The force-sensitive structure may be aligned on the substrate such that the direction of the higher electrical response of the strain-sensitive element may be aligned with one of the set of strain paths, as further illustrated in  FIGS. 13-14 . 
       FIG. 3  illustrates a simplified model of a force-sensitive structure  310 , including a strain-sensitive element  318  configured to exhibit a primary sensitivity to strain along a first direction  322  and reference elements  320   a ,  320   b  positioned proximate to the strain-sensitive element  318  and configured to exhibit a smaller response to strain along the first direction  322 , or exhibit a primary sensitivity to strain along a second direction transverse to the first direction. Also illustrated is a schematic of the strain-sensitive element  318  and reference elements  320   a ,  320   b  electrically coupled to force-sensing circuitry  323 . The force sensing circuitry  323  may include a voltage divider and balancing network to form a Wheatstone bridge in order to compensate for temperature variation within the force-sensitive structure  310 . 
       FIG. 3  thus illustrates a force-sensitive structure  310  which includes a strain-sensitive element (e.g., a first strain-sensitive element)  318  formed on a substrate  312 . The strain-sensitive element  318  is depicted with a resistive structure having an array of major parallel lines (e.g., traces) of conductive material along a first direction  322  connected by minor lines of the same material in order to induce an electrical response in the strain-sensitive element  318  when strain is applied along the first direction  322 . A first reference element (e.g., a second strain-sensitive element)  320   a  is formed on the same surface of the substrate  312  proximate to the strain-sensitive element  318 . A second reference element (e.g., a third strain-sensitive element)  320   b  is formed on the same surface of the substrate  312  proximate to the strain-sensitive element  318  and opposite the first reference element  320   a . Both reference elements  320   a ,  320   b  are depicted with a resistive structure having an array of major parallel lines of conductive material along a second direction  324 , which may be transverse or orthogonal to the first direction  322  in order to induce a smaller electrical response in the reference elements  320   a ,  320   b  when strain is applied to the force-sensitive structure  310  along the first direction  322 . 
     The strain-sensitive element  318  and reference elements  320   a ,  320   b  may be formed from the same conductive material and be disposed in the same pattern but arranged and aligned transverse or orthogonal to one another. In this configuration, the strain-sensitive element  318  and reference elements  320   a ,  320   b  may be thermally matched and thermally coupled by their proximity such that changes in environmental conditions affect the strain-sensitive element  318  and the reference elements  320   a ,  320   b  in substantially the same manner. When connected to force-sensing circuitry  323 , any variation in electrical response in the strain-sensitive element  318  introduced by environmental conditions (e.g., temperature change) can be reduced or compensated for by the electrical response of the reference elements  320   a ,  320   b , for example by using a Wheatstone bridge. 
     In one example of force-sensing circuitry  323 , the strain-sensitive element  318  and reference elements  320   a ,  320   b  may be coupled to one or more legs of a Wheatstone bridge or similar circuitry configured to measure a change in resistance or other electrical response. In the example illustrated the reference elements  320   a ,  320   b  are coupled to a same node of the force-sensing circuitry  323  (e.g., in parallel to form a leg of a Wheatstone bridge), but in other embodiments the reference elements  320   a ,  320   b  may be separately coupled to the force-sensing circuitry  323  in a different configuration. 
     Two additional legs of the bridge may each include a reference resistor. A current through the bridge may be monitored to determine the variable resistance of the strain-sensitive element  318  and/or reference elements  320   a ,  320   b . In some cases, the resistance ratio of the reference resistors may be equal to the resistance ratio of the unstrained elements  318 ,  320   a ,  320   b . The resistance ratio of the elements  318 ,  320   a ,  320   b  may remain the same as temperature varies, but the resistance ratio may change in response to strain exhibited at the strain-sensitive element, causing a change in current through the bridge which may be measured as strain at the strain-sensitive element. In this or a similar manner the force-sensing circuitry  323  may measure a temperature-compensated force applied to the input surface of the electronic device. 
     The conductive material of the strain-sensitive element  318  and reference elements  320   a ,  320   b  may include materials such as, but not limited to: copper, gold, constantan, karma, isoelastic, indium tin oxide, or any combination thereof. The substrate  312  on which the conductive material is deposited may include materials such as, but not limited to: plastic, metal, ceramic, glass, polyimide, polyethylene terephthalate, or any combination thereof. The conductive material of the strain-sensitive element  318  and reference elements  320   a ,  320   b  may be formed or deposited on a surface using a suitable disposition technique such as, but not limited to: vapor deposition, sputtering, printing, roll-to-roll processing, gravure, pick and place, adhesive, mask-and-etch, and so on. 
     In some cases, the strain-sensitive element  318  and reference elements  320   a ,  320   b  are formed in two stages of the same manufacturing process. In other cases, the strain-sensitive element  318  and reference elements  320   a ,  320   b  are formed simultaneously onto the substrate. In many embodiments, the force-sensitive structure  310  may be disposed in an optically opaque layer (e.g., below a display). In these embodiments, the material of the strain-sensitive element  318 , the reference elements  320   a ,  320   b , and the substrate  312  may be formed from non-transparent materials. In other embodiments, it may be preferable for the conductive material and substrate to be made from optically transparent materials (e.g., where the force-sensing layer is above the display). 
       FIGS. 4A-4C  illustrate example force-sensitive structures  410  having pairs of strain-sensitive elements  418  and reference elements  420  within separate layers of the force-sensitive structures. Each of  FIGS. 4A-4C  also illustrates a schematic of a strain-sensitive element  418  and reference element  420  electrically coupled to force-sensing circuitry  423 . The force sensing circuitry  423  may include a voltage divider and balancing network to form a Wheatstone bridge in order to compensate for temperature variation within the force-sensitive structure  410  (such as described above with respect to  FIG. 3 ). 
       FIG. 4A  illustrates an exploded view of a force-sensitive structure  410  which includes a strain-sensitive element (e.g., a first strain-sensitive element)  418  formed on a first side of a substrate  412 . The strain-sensitive element  418  is configured to exhibit sensitivity to strain along a first direction  422 . The strain-sensitive element is depicted with a resistive structure having an array of major parallel lines (e.g., traces) of conductive material along the first direction  422  connected by minor lines of the same material in order to induce an electrical response in the strain-sensitive element  418  when strain is applied along the first direction  422 . 
     A reference element (e.g., a second strain-sensitive element)  420  is formed on a second side of the substrate  412  opposite the strain-sensitive element  418 . The reference element  420  is configured to have a smaller response to strain along the first direction  422 , or configured to exhibit sensitivity to strain along a second direction  424 . The reference element  420  is depicted with a resistive structure having an array of major parallel lines of conductive material along the second direction  424 , which may be transverse or orthogonal to the first direction  422  in order to induce a smaller electrical response in the reference element  420  when strain is applied to the force-sensitive structure  410  along the first direction  422 . 
     Similar to the example illustrated in  FIG. 3 , the strain-sensitive element  418  and reference element  420  may be formed with the same conductive material and be disposed in the same pattern but arranged and aligned transverse or orthogonal to one another. In this configuration, the strain-sensitive element  418  and reference element  420  may be thermally matched and thermally coupled across the substrate  412  such that changes in environmental conditions affect the strain-sensitive element  418  and reference element  420  in substantially the same manner. When connected to force-sensing circuitry  423 , any variation in electrical response in the strain-sensitive element  418  introduced by environmental conditions (e.g., temperature change) can be reduced or compensated for by the electrical response of the reference element  420 , for example by using a Wheatstone bridge. As with the example illustrated in  FIG. 3 , the substrate and conductive material of the strain-sensitive element  418  and reference element  420  may include a variety of materials, including optically opaque materials. 
     In other embodiments, as illustrated in  FIG. 4B , the strain-sensitive element  418  and reference element  420  may be configured to exhibit sensitivity to strain along non-orthogonal directions, including along a same direction. The force-sensitive structure  410  illustrated in  FIG. 4B  includes a strain-sensitive element (e.g., a first strain-sensitive element)  418  formed on a first side of a substrate  412 . The strain-sensitive element  418  is configured to exhibit sensitivity to strain along direction  422 , and may have an array of major parallel lines (e.g., traces) of conductive material along the first direction  422  connected by minor lines of the same material. 
     A reference element (e.g., a second strain-sensitive element)  420  is formed on a second side of the substrate  412  opposite the strain-sensitive element  418 . The reference element  420  is configured to exhibit sensitivity to strain along the same direction  422  as the strain-sensitive element  418 , and may have an array of major parallel lines of conductive material along the same direction  422 . When strain is applied along the direction  422  of sensitivity, both the strain-sensitive element  418  and the reference element  420  may exhibit an electrical response which can be measured by the force-sensing circuitry  423 . 
     In some embodiments, the force-sensitive structure  410  depicted in  FIG. 4B  may be bonded to one or more additional layers (see  FIGS. 9A-10B ). Due to the bonding, when a force is applied at the input surface, the neutral axis of the compressive system may be above the force-sensitive structure  410 . Accordingly, the strain-sensitive element  418  and the reference element  420  may both be placed under tension, with the strain-sensitive element  418  experiencing a larger amount of tension as it is positioned further below the neutral axis of the compressive system. 
     The strain-sensitive element  418  and reference element  420  may be formed with the same conductive material and disposed in the same pattern and orientation. In this configuration, the strain-sensitive element  418  and reference element  420  may be thermally matched and thermally coupled across the substrate  412  such that changes in environmental conditions affect the strain-sensitive element  418  and reference element  420  in substantially the same manner. Thus the electrical response of the strain-sensitive element  418  and the reference element  420  may be approximately the same. When placed under strain, however, the larger tension experienced by the strain-sensitive element  418  may be measured by force-sensing circuitry  423 . The force-sensing circuitry  423  may subtract or otherwise compare the electrical response of the reference element  420  from the response of the strain-sensitive element  418  (e.g., by using a Wheatstone bridge), yielding a temperature-compensated strain measurement. As with the example illustrated in  FIG. 3 , the substrate  412  and conductive material of the strain-sensitive element  418  and reference element  420  may include a variety of materials, including optically opaque materials. 
     As depicted in  FIG. 4C , in other embodiments the strain-sensitive element  418  and the reference element  420  may be positioned in a stacked configuration on a same side of the substrate  412 . The force-sensitive structure  410  illustrated in  FIG. 4C  includes a strain-sensitive element (e.g., a first strain-sensitive element)  418  formed on a first side of a thin dielectric layer  413 . The strain-sensitive element  418  is configured to exhibit sensitivity to strain along a first direction  422 . The strain-sensitive element  418  is depicted with a resistive structure having an array of major parallel lines (e.g., traces) of conductive material along the first direction  422  connected by minor lines of the same material in order to induce an electrical response in the strain-sensitive element  418  when strain is applied along the first direction  422 . 
     A reference element (e.g., a second strain-sensitive element)  420  is formed below the strain-sensitive element  418 , with the thin dielectric layer  413  disposed between the strain-sensitive element  418  and the reference element  420 . The dielectric layer  413  may be formed from an appropriate material, such as, but not limited to: plastic, metal, ceramic, glass, polyimide, polyethylene terephthalate, or any combination thereof. The reference element  420  may be deposited or otherwise disposed on a second side of the thin dielectric layer  413  opposite the strain-sensitive element  418 , with the thin dielectric layer  413  being affixed to the substrate  412  by an adhesive layer. In some embodiments, the reference element  420  may be formed on a surface of the substrate  412 , to which the thin dielectric layer  413  is affixed by an adhesive layer. 
     The reference element  420  is configured to have a smaller response to strain along the first direction  422 , or configured to exhibit sensitivity to strain along a second direction  424 . The reference element  420  is depicted with a resistive structure having an array of major parallel lines of conductive material along the second direction  424 , which may be transverse or orthogonal to the first direction  422  in order to induce a smaller electrical response in the reference element  420  when strain is applied to the force-sensitive structure  410  along the first direction  422 . 
     Similar to the example illustrated in  FIG. 3 , the strain-sensitive element  418  and reference element  420  may be formed with the same conductive material and be disposed in the same pattern but arranged and aligned transverse or orthogonal to one another. In this configuration, the strain-sensitive element  418  and reference element  420  may be thermally matched and thermally coupled across the thin dielectric layer  413  such that changes in environmental conditions affect the strain-sensitive element  418  and reference element  420  in substantially the same manner. When connected to force-sensing circuitry  423 , any variation in electrical response in the strain-sensitive element  418  introduced by environmental conditions (e.g., temperature change) can be reduced or compensated for by the electrical response of the reference element  420 , for example by using a Wheatstone bridge. As with the example illustrated in  FIG. 3 , the substrate and conductive material of the strain-sensitive element  418  and reference element  420  may include a variety of materials, including optically opaque materials. 
       FIGS. 5A-5D  illustrate other example configurations for force-sensitive structures according to the force-sensitive structure of  FIGS. 3 and 4 .  FIGS. 5A and 5B  illustrate different optional serpentine geometries for resistive structures on the same side of a substrate (similar to the example embodiment of  FIG. 3 ), but each can also be applied to force-sensitive structures having strain-sensitive elements and reference elements on opposite sides of a substrate (similar to the example embodiments of  FIGS. 4A and 4B ) or in a stacked configuration on a side of a substrate (similar to the example embodiment of  FIG. 4C ). 
       FIG. 5A  illustrates serpentine geometries for a strain-sensitive element  518  and reference elements  520   a ,  520   b , the strain-sensitive element  518  being sensitive to strain along the Y-axis. The reference elements  520   a ,  520   b  are arranged orthogonal to the strain-sensitive element  518 . In this manner, when the reference elements  520   a ,  520   b  are strained in the Y-axis direction, the reference elements  520   a ,  520   b  may not experience substantial tension in order to serve as a thermal reference for the strain-sensitive element  518 . 
     Similarly,  FIG. 5B  illustrates a serpentine geometry for a strain-sensitive element  518  which may be sensitive to strain along a 45 degree angle. The reference elements  520   a ,  520   b  are arranged at a 135 degree angle (orthogonal to the serpentine geometry) in order to be minimally strained along the 45 degree angle. In many embodiments, the angle or combination of angles of orientation for different strain-sensitive elements may be selected, at least in part based on the location of the particular strain-sensitive element along the surface of the force-sensing layer. The orientation of strain-sensitive elements within the force-sensing layer is further illustrated with reference to  FIGS. 13 and 14 . 
       FIGS. 5C and 5D  illustrate another example configuration of a force-sensitive structure  510 , having stiffeners to concentrate force at particular regions of the substrate  512 .  FIG. 5C  illustrates a transparent top view of the force-sensitive structure  510 , while  FIG. 5D  illustrates a cross-sectional view of the force-sensitive structure  510 . An array of stiffeners  540 ,  544  are disposed on a top surface of the substrate  512 , while strain-sensitive elements  518  and reference elements  520   a ,  520   b  are disposed on a bottom surface of the substrate  512 . 
     As depicted in  FIGS. 5C and 5D , one or more reference elements  520   a ,  520   b  are positioned below each stiffener  540 . A strain-sensitive element  518  is positioned between two stiffeners  540 ,  544 , and additional strain-sensitive elements  518  may be positioned between any two adjacent stiffeners  540 ,  544  within the array. When strain is applied to the force-sensitive structure  510 , the stiffeners  540 ,  544  concentrate strain to the region of the substrate  512  between stiffeners  540 ,  544 . Thus, strain may be concentrated at the strain-sensitive element  518 . 
     The reference elements  520   a ,  520   b , being directly below a stiffener  540 , may be isolated from strain applied to the force-sensitive structure  510 . The reference elements  520   a ,  520   b  may further be thermally coupled to a nearby strain-sensitive element  518  such that one or more reference elements  520   a ,  520   b  may provide a temperature reference to the strain-sensitive element  518 . In some embodiments, a first reference element  520   a  may be configured to be sensitive to strain along a first direction while a second reference element  520   b  is configured to be sensitive to strain along a direction orthogonal to the first direction. In other embodiments, the reference elements  520   a ,  520   b  may be sensitive to strain along the same direction. Further examples of embodiments with stiffener elements are illustrated below with respect to  FIGS. 11C and 12C . 
     Still other force-sensitive structures are illustrated in  FIGS. 6A-6E .  FIGS. 6A-6E  illustrate spiral patterns which may be implemented using indium tin oxide or another conductive material.  FIG. 6A  illustrates a spiral pattern  626  which may be positioned in the illustrated orientation to form a strain-sensitive element  618   a  on one surface of a substrate  612 . The same pattern may be rotated 90 degrees and positioned on the opposite surface of the substrate  612  to form a reference element  620   a , as illustrated in  FIG. 6B . 
     Alternatively, two similar spiral patterns may be interlocked, as illustrated in  FIG. 6C , to form a strain-sensitive element  618   b  and a reference element  620   b . This pattern may allow both the strain-sensitive element  618   b  and reference element  620   b  to be deposited on one side of a substrate  612 , as illustrated in  FIG. 6D . In other embodiments, it may be desirable to form interlocking strain-sensitive elements  618   b  and reference elements  620   b  on both sides of the substrate  612 , as illustrated in  FIG. 6E . 
     The performance of force-sensitive structures may be improved by cutting, etching, or otherwise forming reliefs in the substrate, as illustrated in  FIGS. 7-8 . These reliefs may isolate and/or amplify the electrical response of a strain-sensitive element in response to applied strain along a primary direction while maintaining the reference elements in thermal contact with the strain-sensitive element. The reliefs may further act as strain-breaks within the force-sensing layer to reduce the effect of strain along non-primary directions within a force-sensitive structure. 
     For example,  FIG. 7  illustrates a force-sensitive structure  710  within a force-sensing layer similar to the embodiment illustrated in  FIG. 3 . The force-sensitive structure  710  of  FIG. 7  includes a substrate  712  with a strain-sensitive element  718  configured to respond to strain along a first direction  722  and reference elements  720   a ,  720   b  positioned proximate to the strain-sensitive element  718  and configured to have a smaller response to strain along the first direction  722 . 
     The force-sensitive structure  710  of  FIG. 7  further includes several reliefs  728  within the substrate  712 . The reliefs  728  are configured as linear trenches (e.g., slits) along the first direction  722 , which may be a primary direction of sensitivity of the strain-sensitive element  718 . The reliefs  728  may have a length greater than a corresponding length of the strain-sensitive element  718  and/or reference elements  720   a ,  720   b . In other embodiments, the reliefs  728  may have other lengths, including a length equal to or less than the strain-sensitive element  718  and/or reference elements  720   a ,  720   b . The reliefs  728  may have a rectangular cross section, while in other embodiments the reliefs  728  may have a rounded cross section or another suitable geometric shape. The reliefs  728  may be formed in the substrate  712  by an appropriate means, such as molding, cutting, etching, etc. 
     The reliefs  728  are positioned on the sides of each of the strain-sensitive element  718  and the reference elements  720   a ,  720   b  in order to reduce the electrical response of the strain-sensitive element  718  and reference elements  720   a ,  720   b  in response to strain along non-primary directions. These reliefs  728  are further illustrated below with respect to  FIGS. 11B and 13 . 
     As another example,  FIG. 8  illustrates an exploded view of two force-sensitive structures within a force-sensing layer  808  similar to the embodiment illustrated in  FIG. 4A . Each force-sensitive structure includes a strain-sensitive element  818  configured to respond to strain along a first direction  822  and a reference element  820  positioned opposite the strain-sensitive element  818  and configured to have a smaller response to strain along the first direction  822 . 
     The substrate of the force-sensing layer  808  depicted in  FIG. 8  may have a first layer  812   a  and a second layer  812   b . The strain-sensitive elements  818  may be on a surface of the first layer  812   a  and the reference elements  820  may be between the first layer  812   a  and second layer  812   b . There may further be a relief formed through the first layer  812   a  between each force-sensitive structure in order to reduce the electrical response of the strain-sensitive elements  818  and reference elements  820  in response to strain along non-primary directions. The relief may be substantially similar to the relief described with respect to  FIG. 7 . 
       FIGS. 9A-9B  illustrate a cross-sectional view of the electronic device of  FIG. 1 , viewed along line A-A, according to an example embodiment as depicted in  FIG. 3 . For example, with reference to  FIG. 9A  there is shown a cross-section of a force-sensitive structure, specifically showing one example of a force-sensitive structure with a strain-sensitive element  918  and a pair of reference elements  920   a ,  920   b  on a side of a substrate  912 . The force-sensitive structure is on a force-sensing layer  908  positioned in a lower portion of a display stack  930  of an electronic device. Generally and broadly, the embodiment depicted in  FIG. 9A  shows a temperature-compensating force-sensitive structure disposed on a bottom surface of the display stack  930 . 
     As noted above, a display stack, such as the display stack  930 , typically includes one or more layers of material bonded together with optically clear adhesives. For example, the display stack  930  can include a transparent cover sheet layer  932  and an organic light emitting diode layer (e.g., a display layer)  934  positioned below the transparent cover sheet layer  932 . The display stack  930  may also include a touch sensor layer  936 , which may be positioned above or below the organic light emitting diode layer  934 . 
     The force-sensing layer  908  is coupled to the underside of the organic light emitting diode layer  934  with an adhesive layer  938 . In this example, the force-sensing layer  908  may be formed from optically opaque materials. The force-sensing layer  908  includes a substrate  912 . A strain-sensitive element  918  is formed on the substrate  912 , and may be either adjacent to the organic light emitting diode layer  934  (as shown) or opposite the organic light emitting diode layer  934 . Reference elements  920   a ,  920   b  are positioned proximate to the strain-sensitive element  918 . The strain-sensitive element  918  may be sensitive to strain along a primary direction, while the reference elements  920   a ,  920   b  may be sensitive to strain along a direction transverse to the primary direction. 
     Turning to  FIG. 9B , as a force F is applied to the display stack  930 , the substrate  912  may be placed under greater strain along the primary direction of sensitivity of the strain-sensitive element  918 . This may result in a greater electrical response (e.g., a larger change in resistance) in response to the strain in the strain-sensitive element  918  than the electrical response of the reference elements  920   a ,  920   b.    
     In another embodiment, the strain-sensitive element  1018  may be positioned on a first side of the force-sensing layer  1008  while the reference element  1020  may be positioned on an opposite side of the force-sensing layer  1008 . For example, with reference to  FIGS. 10A-10B , there is shown a cross-sectional view of the electronic device of  FIG. 1 , viewed along line A-A and showing a force-sensitive structure according to an example embodiment as depicted in  FIG. 4A . 
       FIG. 10A  shows an example of a force-sensitive structure with a strain-sensitive element  1018  on a first side of a substrate  1012  and a reference element  1020  on a second side of the substrate  1012  opposite the strain-sensitive element  1018 . The force-sensitive structure is on a force-sensing layer  1008  disposed below a display stack  1030  of an electronic device. Generally and broadly, the embodiment depicted in  FIG. 10A  shows a temperature-compensating force-sensitive structure disposed on a bottom surface of the display stack  1030 . 
     As illustrated in  FIG. 10A , the display stack  1030  can include a transparent cover sheet layer  1032  and an organic light emitting diode layer (e.g., a display layer)  1034  positioned below the transparent cover sheet layer  1032 . The display stack  1030  may also include a touch sensor layer  1036 , which may be positioned above or below the organic light emitting diode layer  1034 . 
     The force-sensing layer  1008  is coupled to the underside of the organic light emitting diode layer  1034  with an adhesive layer  1038 . In this example, the force-sensing layer  1008  may be formed from optically opaque materials. The force-sensing layer  1008  includes a substrate  1012 . A strain-sensitive element  1018  is formed on the substrate  1012 , and may be either adjacent to the organic light emitting diode layer  1034  (as shown) or opposite the organic light emitting diode layer  1034 . A reference element  1020  is positioned on an opposite side of the substrate  1012 . The strain-sensitive element  1018  may be sensitive to strain along a primary direction, while the reference element  1020  may be sensitive to strain along a direction transverse to the primary direction. 
     Turning to  FIG. 10B , as a force F is applied to the display stack  1030 , the substrate  1012  may be placed under greater strain along the primary direction of sensitivity of the strain-sensitive element  1018 . This may result in a greater electrical response (e.g., a larger change in resistance) in response to the strain in the strain-sensitive element  1018  than the electrical response of the reference element. 
     In some examples, the strain-sensitive element  1018  and the reference element  1020  may be sensitive to strain along a same direction, similar to the embodiment depicted in  FIG. 4B . The force-sensing layer  1008  may be bonded to the layers of the display stack  1030 . Due to the bonding, when a force F is applied to the display stack  1030 , the neutral axis of the compressive system may be above the force-sensing layer  1008 . Accordingly, the strain-sensitive element  1018  and the reference element  1020  may both be placed under tension, with the strain-sensitive element  1018  experiencing a larger amount of tension as it is positioned further below the neutral axis of the compressive system. In other examples, the neutral axis of the compressive system may be within the substrate  1012 . In these examples, the strain-sensitive element  1018  may be placed under compression and the reference element under tension in response to the force F being applied to the display stack  1030 . 
     The force-sensing layer may further be a stack of sub-layers, as depicted in  FIGS. 11A-11C and 12A-12C . The force-sensing layer may thus include a substrate layer and an adhesive layer, and may in some embodiments further include reliefs in the substrate layer and/or a stiffener layer. 
     For example,  FIGS. 11A-11C  depict a force-sensing layer  1108  according to embodiments similar to the embodiment illustrated in  FIG. 3 . As depicted in  FIG. 11A , the force-sensing layer  1108  includes a substrate layer  1112  with a strain-sensitive element  1118  formed on a surface of the substrate layer  1112 . A pair of reference elements  1120   a ,  1120   b  are formed proximate to and on the same surface as the strain-sensitive element  1118 . An adhesive layer  1138  is coupled to the substrate layer  1112 . The adhesive layer  1138  may include a pressure-sensitive adhesive, or another adhesive which couples the substrate layer  1112  to the display stack such that a deflection in the transparent cover is transferred through the display stack and the adhesive layer  1138  to the substrate layer  1112 . 
       FIG. 11B  illustrates a force-sensing layer  1108  which includes a substrate layer  1112  with a strain-sensitive element  1118  formed on a surface of the substrate layer  1112 . A pair of reference elements  1120   a ,  1120   b  are formed proximate to and on the same surface as the strain-sensitive element  1118 . An adhesive layer  1138  is coupled to the substrate layer  1112 , and may include a pressure-sensitive adhesive. Reliefs may be formed either partially or entirely through the substrate layer  1112  between the strain-sensitive element  1118  and reference elements  1120   a ,  1120   b . The reliefs may be configured as slits along a primary direction of strain-sensitivity of the strain-sensitive element  1118  (depicted here oriented outwardly from the force-sensing layer  1108 ). As depicted, the reliefs may have a rectangular cross-section, while in other embodiments the reliefs may have a rounded or other geometric cross-section. The reliefs may act as strain-breaks within the force-sensing layer  1108  to reduce the effect of strain along non-primary directions within a force-sensitive structure. These reliefs are further illustrated above with respect to  FIG. 7  and below with respect to  FIG. 13 . 
       FIG. 11C  illustrates a force-sensing layer  1108  which includes a substrate layer  1112  with a force-sensitive structure formed on the substrate layer  1112 . A first adhesive layer  1138  is coupled to the substrate layer  1112 , and may include a pressure-sensitive adhesive. The first adhesive layer  1138  is further coupled to a stiffener layer  1140 ,  1144 , which is in turn coupled to a second adhesive layer  1142 . The second adhesive layer  1142  may also be a pressure-sensitive adhesive and couple the force-sensing layer  1108  to the display stack. 
     The stiffener layer includes a first stiffener  1140  and a second stiffener  1144 . The first stiffener  1140  is separated from the second stiffener  1144  so as to define an opening in the stiffener layer above the substrate layer  1112 , forming a strain concentration region  1146 . As a result, tension within the substrate layer  1112  may be greater in the strain concentration region  1146  than elsewhere when a force is applied to the display stack. 
     A strain-sensitive element  1118  is disposed on the substrate layer  1112  within the strain concentration region  1146 . Particularly, in many embodiments, the strain-sensitive element  1118  is disposed at a midpoint between the first stiffener  1140  and the second stiffener  1144 . The strain concentration region  1146  may be configured to concentrate strain along a direction corresponding to the primary direction of sensitivity of the strain-sensitive element  1118 . 
     A reference element  1120   a  is disposed on the substrate layer  1112  below the first stiffener  1140  and another reference element  1120   b  is disposed on the substrate layer  1112  below the second stiffener  1144 . The reference elements  1120   a ,  1120   b  may serve as a temperature reference and an electrical response of the reference elements  1120   a ,  1120   b  may be measured in tandem with the response of the strain-sensitive element  1118 . 
     As another example,  FIGS. 12A-12C  depict a force-sensing layer  1208  according to embodiments similar to the embodiment illustrated in  FIG. 4A . As depicted in  FIG. 12A , the force-sensing layer  1208  includes a substrate layer  1212  with strain-sensitive elements  1218  formed on a surface of the substrate layer  1212 . Reference elements  1220  are formed on opposite surfaces of the substrate layer  1212  and positioned opposite the strain-sensitive elements  1218 . An adhesive layer  1238  is coupled to the substrate layer  1212 . The adhesive layer  1238  may include a pressure-sensitive adhesive, or another adhesive which couples the substrate layer  1212  to the display stack such that a deflection in the transparent cover is transferred through the display stack and the adhesive layer  1238  to the substrate layer  1212 . 
       FIG. 12B  illustrates a force-sensing layer  1208  which includes a substrate layer  1212  with strain-sensitive elements  1218  formed on a surface of the substrate layer  1212 . Reference elements  1220  are formed on opposite surfaces of the substrate layer  1212  and positioned opposite the strain-sensitive elements  1218 . An adhesive layer  1238  is coupled to the substrate layer  1212 , and may include a pressure-sensitive adhesive. Reliefs may be formed either partially or entirely through the substrate layer  1212  between strain-sensitive elements  1218 . The reliefs may be configured as slits along a primary direction of strain-sensitivity of the strain-sensitive elements  1218  (depicted here oriented outwardly from the force-sensing layer  1208 ). The reliefs may act as strain-breaks within the force-sensing layer  1208  to reduce the effect of strain along non-primary directions within a force-sensitive structure. These reliefs are further illustrated above with respect to  FIG. 8 . 
       FIG. 12C  illustrates a force-sensing layer  1208  which includes a substrate layer  1212  with force-sensitive structures formed on the substrate layer  1212 . A first adhesive layer  1238  is coupled to the substrate layer  1212 , and may include a pressure-sensitive adhesive. The first adhesive layer  1238  is further coupled to a stiffener layer  1240 ,  1244 ,  1248 , which is in turn coupled to a second adhesive layer  1242 . The second adhesive layer  1242  may also be a pressure-sensitive adhesive and couple the force-sensing layer  1208  to the display stack. 
     The stiffener layer includes a first stiffener  1240 , a second stiffener  1244 , and a third stiffener  1248 . The second stiffener  1244  is positioned between and separated from the first stiffener  1240  and the third stiffener  1248  so as to define a pair of openings in the stiffener layer above the substrate layer  1212 . The openings in the stiffener layer form strain concentration regions  1246 ,  1250 . As a result, tension within the substrate layer  1212  may be greater in the strain concentration regions  1246 ,  1250  than elsewhere when a force is applied to the display stack. 
     Strain-sensitive elements  1218  are disposed on the substrate layer  1212  within the strain concentration regions  1246 ,  1250 . Particularly, in many embodiments, the strain-sensitive elements  1218  are disposed at a midpoint between the first stiffener  1240  and the second stiffener  1244 , and/or between the second stiffener  1244  and the third stiffener  1248 . Reference elements  1220  are disposed on an opposite side of the substrate layer  1212  and also within the strain concentration regions  1246 ,  1250 . The strain concentration regions  1246 ,  1250  may be configured to concentrate strain along a direction corresponding to the primary direction of sensitivity of the strain-sensitive elements  1218 . At the same time, the reference elements  1220  may be sensitive to strain along a direction orthogonal to the primary direction and consequently serve as a temperature reference for the corresponding strain-sensitive elements  1218 . 
       FIG. 13  depicts a top view of a force-sensing layer  1308  including an array of force-sensitive structures, each having a strain-sensitive element with traces that are substantially aligned along a radial path extending between a middle region of the force-sensing layer and a perimeter of the force-sensing layer. The middle region of the force-sensing layer may correspond to a mid-point or center area of a transparent cover sheet positioned above the force-sensing layer. 
     Each force-sensitive structure  1310   a ,  1310   b ,  1310   c  may be formed according to any of the embodiments depicted above with respect to  FIGS. 3-12C . In one example, one force-sensitive structure  1310   a  may have a strain-sensitive element with traces that are oriented to respond to strain along a 45 degree angle, whereas another force-sensitive structure  1310   b  may have a strain-sensitive element with traces that are oriented to respond to strain along a 90 degree angle. In another example, a force-sensitive structure  1310   c  may have a strain-sensitive element with traces that are oriented to respond to strain along an angle between 0 and 45 degrees. 
     Each of the force-sensitive structures may alternatively or additionally include a strain-sensitive element (e.g., a first strain-sensitive element) configured to exhibit a primary sensitivity to strain along a direction that extends between the perimeter and the middle region (e.g., a radial path). Each force-sensitive structure may further include a reference element (e.g., a second strain-sensitive element) that is either less sensitive to strain along the radial path or that exhibits a primary sensitivity to strain along a direction transverse to the radial path. 
     In certain embodiments, the orientation of the force-sensitive structures or traces of the strain-sensitive elements may correspond to the position of the force-sensitive structure relative to the enclosure of an electronic device. The orientation of the strain sensitivity may be configured to correspond, for example, with the predicted strain due to the boundary conditions or constraints of the force-sensing layer  1308 . For example, a force-sensitive structure positioned proximate to the edge of a screen within or below a display stack may be oriented differently from a force-sensitive structure positioned at or near the center of the display. In some embodiments, as shown in  FIG. 13 , the orientation of the force-sensitive structures are approximately perpendicular to an edge of the force-sensing layer  1308 . 
     In some embodiments, as shown in  FIG. 13 , the grid may be formed from an array of force-sensitive structures that includes a subset of edge force-sensitive structures  1310   b ,  1310   c  positioned along an edge of the array. In some cases, the edge force-sensitive structures  1310   b ,  1310   c  are formed from traces that are oriented along a direction that is substantially perpendicular to the edge. As shown in  FIG. 13 , the array of force-sensitive structures may include a subset of corner force-sensitive structures  1310   a  positioned at corners of the array or grid. In some cases, the corner force-sensitive structures  1310   a  are formed from traces that are oriented along a diagonal direction. 
     Combining the array of force-sensitive structures of  FIG. 13  with the relief features of  FIG. 7 ,  FIG. 14  illustrates an array of force-sensitive structures having embodiments similar to those depicted in  FIGS. 3 and 7 . Each force-sensitive structure  1410  within the array may in other embodiments be formed according to any of the embodiments depicted above with respect to  FIGS. 3-12C . As depicted in  FIG. 14 , a force-sensing layer  1408  includes an array of force-sensitive structures  1410 , each having a strain-sensitive element  1418  with traces that are substantially aligned along a radial path extending between a perimeter and a middle region of the force-sensing layer or other element of the display stack. 
     Each of the force-sensitive structures  1410  may alternatively or additionally include a strain-sensitive element (e.g., a first strain-sensitive element)  1418  configured to exhibit a primary sensitivity to strain along a direction that is aligned along a radial path extending from the edge (e.g., perimeter) to a middle region. Each force-sensitive structure may further include a pair of reference elements (e.g., a second strain-sensitive element)  1420   a ,  1420   b  positioned proximate to the strain-sensitive element  1418  that are either less sensitive to strain along the radial path or that exhibit a primary sensitivity to strain along a direction transverse to the radial path. 
     Further features, such as reliefs  1428  in the shape of slits, may be formed within a force-sensitive structure  1410 . The performance of the force-sensitive structures may be improved by cutting, etching, or otherwise forming reliefs  1428  in the substrate, between and/or around the force-sensitive element  1418  and reference elements  1420   a ,  1420   b . These reliefs  1428  may isolate and/or amplify the electrical response of a strain-sensitive element  1418  in response to applied strain along a radial path (which may align with a primary direction of strain sensitivity of the strain-sensitive element  1418 ) while maintaining the reference elements  1420   a ,  1420   b  in thermal contact with the strain-sensitive element  1418 . The reliefs  1428  may further act as strain-breaks within the force-sensing layer  1408  to reduce the effect of strain along directions other than the radial direction extending between the edge (e.g., perimeter) and the middle region of the force-sensing layer  1408 . 
       FIG. 15  depicts example components of an electronic device in accordance with the embodiments described herein. The schematic representation depicted in  FIG. 15  may correspond to components of the devices depicted in  FIGS. 1-14 , described above. However,  FIG. 15  may also more generally represent other types of devices that include a temperature-compensating force sensor in accordance with the embodiments described herein. 
     As shown in  FIG. 15 , a device  1500  includes a processing unit  1550  operatively connected to computer memory  1552  and computer-readable media  1554 . The processing unit  1550  may be operatively connected to the memory  1552  and computer-readable media  1554  components via an electronic bus or bridge. The processing unit  1550  may include one or more computer processors or microcontrollers that are configured to perform operations in response to computer-readable instructions. The processing unit  1550  may include the central processing unit (CPU) of the device  1500 . Additionally or alternatively, the processing unit  1550  may include other processors within the device  1500  including application specific integrated chips (ASIC) and other microcontroller devices. The processing unit  1550  may be configured to perform functionality described in the examples above. 
     The memory  1552  may include a variety of types of non-transitory computer-readable storage media, including, for example, read access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), erasable programmable memory (e.g., EPROM and EEPROM), or flash memory. The memory  1552  is configured to store computer-readable instructions, sensor values, and other persistent software elements. Computer-readable media  1554  also includes a variety of types of non-transitory computer-readable storage media including, for example, a hard-drive storage device, a solid state storage device, a portable magnetic storage device, or other similar device. The computer-readable media  1554  may also be configured to store computer-readable instructions, sensor values, and other persistent software elements. 
     In this example, the processing unit  1550  is operable to read computer-readable instructions stored on the memory  1552  and/or computer-readable media  1554 . The computer-readable instructions may adapt the processing unit  1550  to perform the operations or functions described above with respect to  FIGS. 1-14 . The computer-readable instructions may be provided as a computer-program product, software application, or the like. 
     As shown in  FIG. 15 , the device  1500  also includes a display  1506 . The display  1506  may include a liquid-crystal display (LCD), an organic light emitting diode (OLED) display, an electroluminescent display (ELD), or the like. If the display  1506  is an LCD, the display may also include a backlight component that can be controlled to provide variable levels of display brightness. If the display  1506  is an OLED or ELD type display, the brightness of the display  1506  may be controlled by modifying the electrical signals that are provided to display elements. 
     The device  1500  may also include a battery  1556  that is configured to provide electrical power to the components of the device  1500 . The battery  1556  may include one or more power storage cells that are linked together to provide an internal supply of electrical power. The battery  1556  may be operatively coupled to power management circuitry that is configured to provide appropriate voltage and power levels for individual components or groups of components within the device  1500 . The battery  1556 , via power management circuitry, may be configured to receive power from an external source, such as an AC power outlet. The battery  1556  may store received power so that the device  1500  may operate without connection to an external power source for an extended period of time, which may range from several hours to several days. 
     In some embodiments, the device  1500  includes one or more input devices  1558 . The input device  1558  is a device that is configured to receive user input. The input device  1558  may include, for example, a push button, a touch-activated button, or the like. In some embodiments, the input device  1558  may provide a dedicated or primary function, including, for example, a power button, volume buttons, home buttons, scroll wheels, and camera buttons. Generally, a touch sensor and a force sensor may also be classified as input devices. However, for purposes of this illustrative example, the touch sensor  1536  and force sensor  1508  are depicted as distinct components within the device  1500 . 
     The device  1500  may also include a touch sensor  1536  that is configured to determine a location of a touch over a touch-sensitive surface of the device  1500 . The touch sensor  1536  may include a capacitive array of electrodes or nodes that operate in accordance with a mutual-capacitance or self-capacitance scheme. The touch sensor  1536  may be integrated with an auxiliary display to form a touch-sensitive display similar to the example described above with respect to  FIG. 2 . The touch sensor  1536  may also be integrated with another component that forms an external surface of the device  1500  to define a touch-sensitive surface. 
     The device  1500  may also include a force sensor  1508  in accordance with the embodiments described herein. As previously described, the force sensor  1508  may be configured to receive force touch input over a touch-sensitive surface of the device  1500 . The force sensor  1508  may include one or more force-sensing layers including force-sensitive structures that are responsive to a force or pressure applied to an external surface of the device. In accordance with the embodiments described herein, the force sensor  1508  may be configured to operate using a dynamic or adjustable force threshold. The dynamic or adjustable force threshold may be implemented using the processing unit  1550  and/or circuitry associated with or dedicated to the operation of the force sensor  1508 . 
     The device  1500  may also include one or more sensors  1560  that may be used to detect an environmental condition, orientation, position, or some other aspect of the device  1500 . Example sensors  1560  that may be included in the device  1500  include, without limitation, one or more accelerometers, gyrometers, inclinometers, goniometers, or magnetometers. The sensors  1560  may also include one or more proximity sensors, such as a magnetic hall-effect sensor, inductive sensor, capacitive sensor, continuity sensor, and the like. The proximity sensor(s) may be configured to detect the presence of a support structure or support surface and used to determine a support configuration in accordance with some embodiments. 
     The sensors  1560  may also be broadly defined to include wireless positioning devices including, without limitation, global positioning system (GPS) circuitry, Wi-Fi circuitry, cellular communication circuitry, and the like. The device  1500  may also include one or more optical sensors including, without limitation, photodetectors, photosensors, image sensors, infrared sensors, and the like. While the camera  1562  is depicted as a separate element in  FIG. 15 , a broad definition of sensors  1560  may also include the camera  1562  with or without an accompanying light source or flash. The sensors  1560  may also include one or more acoustic elements, such as a microphone used alone or in combination with a speaker element. The sensors may also include a temperature sensor, barometer, pressure sensor, altimeter, moisture sensor or other similar environmental sensor. 
     The sensors  1560 , either alone or in combination, may generally be configured to determine an orientation, position, and/or movement of the device  1500 . The sensors  1560  may also be configured to determine one or more environmental conditions, such as a temperature, air pressure, humidity, and so on. 
     The device  1500  may also include a camera  1562  that is configured to capture a digital image or other optical data. The camera  1562  may include a charge-coupled device, complementary metal oxide (CMOS) device, or other device configured to convert light into electrical signals. The camera  1562  may also include one or more light sources, such as a strobe, flash, or other light-emitting device. The camera  1562  may be generally categorized as a sensor for detecting optical conditions and/or objects in the proximity of the device  1500 . However, the camera  1562  may also be used to create photorealistic images that may be stored in an electronic format, such as JPG, GIF, TIFF, PNG, raw image file, or other similar file types. 
     The device  1500  may also include a communication port  1564  that is configured to transmit and/or receive signals or electrical communication from an external or separate device. The communication port  1564  may be configured to couple to an external device via a cable, adaptor, or other type of electrical connector. In some embodiments, the communication port  1564  may be used to couple the device  1500  to an accessory, such as an external keyboard, a mouse, an external storage drive, or other device configured to send and/or receive electrical signals. The communication port  1564  may be configured to receive identifying information from an external accessory, which may be used to determine a communication configuration. 
     The foregoing description, for purposes of explanation, used specific nomenclature to provide a thorough understanding of the described embodiments. However, it will be apparent to one skilled in the art that the specific details are not required in order to practice the described embodiments. Thus, the foregoing descriptions of the specific embodiments described herein are presented for purposes of illustration and description. They are not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the embodiments to the precise forms disclosed. It will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art that many modifications and variations are possible in view of the above teachings.

Metadata:
Filing Date: 20160922
Publication Date: 20190219
Grant Date: 20190219
Priority Date: 20160331
Inventors: PEDDER, JAMES E.
SMITH, JOHN STEPHEN
VOSGUERITCHIAN, MICHAEL
GARG, VIKRAM
FILIZ, SINAN
CHRISTOPHY, MIGUEL C.
Assignee: APPLE INC
CPC Classifications: [{"code": "G06F3/044", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G01L5/00", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H01L27/323", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G06F3/0412", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G06F3/0418", "inventive": true, "first": true, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G06F2203/04105", "inventive": false, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G06F3/045", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G06F3/0414", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G06F2203/04103", "inventive": false, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G01L1/18", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G06F3/044", "inventive": false, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G06F3/04144", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G01L1/2281", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G01L1/205", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G06F3/04144", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H10K59/40", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G06F3/0418", "inventive": true, "first": true, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G01L5/00", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G01L1/18", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G01L1/2281", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G01L1/205", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G06F2203/04103", "inventive": false, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G06F3/0412", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G06F3/045", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G06F3/044", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G06F3/0418", "inventive": true, "first": true, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G06F2203/04105", "inventive": false, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G06F2203/04105", "inventive": false, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}]
Family ID: 59961565