PATENT DOCUMENT

Publication Number: US-10924303-B2
Application Number: US-201916291973-A
Country: US
Kind Code: B2

Title: Secure training sequence symbol structure

Abstract:
A secure training sequence (STS) is included in wireless packets communicated between electronic devices to assist with channel estimation and wireless ranging. The STS includes multiple STS segments generated based on outputs from a cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generator (CSPRNG), the STS segments being separated by guard intervals and formatted in accordance with an 802.15.4 data symbol format that uses burst position modulation (BPM) and binary phase shift keying (BPSK) to map bits from the CSPRNG to burst positions and pulse polarities for the STS symbols. Both a first electronic device, which generates the STS, and a second electronic device, which estimates a communication channel using the STS, have prior private knowledge of cryptographic keys required to generate a non-repetitive single-use pseudo-random (PR) sequence by the CSPRNG. The STS includes two burst position intervals per STS symbol and two possible burst positions within each burst position interval.

Claims:
What is claimed is: 
     
       1. A method to support channel estimation using secure training sequences, the method comprising:
 by a wireless device: 
 generating a first set of bits using a first cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generator (CSPRNG); 
 generating a second set of bits using a second CSPRNG; 
 forming, based at least in part on the first set of bits and the second set of bits, a secure training sequence (STS) comprising a plurality of STS segments, each STS segment comprising a plurality of STS symbols; and 
 transmitting the STS embedded in a wireless packet to a second wireless device, 
 wherein:
 an STS symbol of the plurality of STS symbols includes a burst comprising a single pulse at one of two possible burst position intervals, 
 selection of a position of the burst within a burst position interval of the two possible burst position intervals is based at least in part on the second set of bits, and 
 a polarity of the single pulse of the burst is based at least in part on the first set of bits. 
 
 
     
     
       2. The method as recited in  claim 1 , wherein each STS symbol includes the burst at a fixed burst position interval. 
     
     
       3. The method as recited in  claim 1 , wherein selection of the burst position interval for an STS symbol is based at least in part on a publicly known pseudo-noise sequence. 
     
     
       4. The method as recited in  claim 1 , wherein selection of the burst position interval for the STS symbol is based at least in part on the first set of bits. 
     
     
       5. The method as recited in  claim 1 , wherein the selection of the position of the burst within the burst position interval is further based at least in part on a publicly known pseudo-noise sequence. 
     
     
       6. The method as recited in  claim 5 , wherein the selection of the burst position of the burst within the burst position interval is based at least in part on the second set of bits combined with the publicly known pseudo-noise sequence using an exclusive or (XOR) function. 
     
     
       7. The method as recited in  claim 1 , wherein separate bits of the first set of bits generated by the first CSPRNG are used for selection of the burst position interval and for selection of the polarity of the single pulse of the burst within the burst position interval. 
     
     
       8. The method as recited in  claim 1 , wherein the STS symbol is formatted in accordance with an IEEE 802.15.4 data payload structure. 
     
     
       9. The method as recited in  claim 1 , wherein the STS symbol includes a guard interval after the burst position interval of the two possible burst position intervals. 
     
     
       10. The method as recited in  claim 1 , wherein:
 the STS includes a first STS segment and a second STS segment separated by an STS guard interval (GI), and 
 the first STS segment is separated from the second STS segment by an STS guard interval (GI). 
 
     
     
       11. The method as recited in  claim 10 , wherein the second STS segment is a repetition of the first STS segment. 
     
     
       12. The method as recited in  claim 10 , wherein the first STS segment and the second STS segment are based on different subsets of bits of the first set of bits generated by the CSPRNG. 
     
     
       13. The method as recited in  claim 1 , wherein:
 the wireless packet comprises a modified physical layer data unit (PPDU) that includes a preamble based on a publicly known pseudo-noise sequence followed by a start of frame delimiter (SFD); and 
 the STS is positioned after the SFD. 
 
     
     
       14. The method as recited in  claim 13 , wherein the STS is positioned immediately after the SFD in the modified PPDU. 
     
     
       15. An apparatus configurable for operation in a wireless device, the apparatus comprising:
 a processing subsystem communicatively coupled to a memory subsystem storing instructions that, when executed by the processing subsystem, cause the wireless device to perform operations that include: 
 generating a first set of bits using a first cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generator (CSPRNG); 
 generating a second set of bits using a second CSPRNG; 
 forming, based at least in part on the first set of bits and the second set of bits, a secure training sequence (STS) comprising a plurality of STS segments, each STS segment comprising a plurality of STS symbols; and 
 transmitting the STS embedded in a wireless packet to a second wireless device, 
 wherein:
 an STS symbol of the plurality of STS symbols includes a burst comprising a single pulse at one of two possible burst position intervals, 
 selection of a position of the burst within a burst position interval of the two possible burst position intervals is based at least in part on the second set of bits, and 
 a polarity of the single pulse of the burst is based at least in part on the first set of bits. 
 
 
     
     
       16. The apparatus as recited in  claim 15 , wherein selection of the burst position interval for the STS symbol is based at least in part on the first set of bits. 
     
     
       17. The apparatus as recited in  claim 15 , wherein the selection of the position of the burst within the burst position interval is further based at least in part on a publicly known pseudo-noise sequence. 
     
     
       18. The apparatus as recited in  claim 17 , wherein the selection of the burst position of the burst within the burst position interval is based at least in part on the second set of bits combined with the publicly known pseudo-noise sequence using an exclusive or (XOR) function. 
     
     
       19. The apparatus as recited in  claim 15 , wherein separate bits of the first set of bits generated by the first CSPRNG are used for selection of the the burst position interval and for selection of the polarity of the single pulse of the burst within the burst position interval. 
     
     
       20. A wireless device comprising:
 a networking subsystem including one or more antennas; and 
 a processing subsystem communicatively coupled to the networking subsystem and to a memory subsystem storing instructions that, when executed by the processing subsystem, cause the wireless device to perform operations that include: 
 generating a first set of bits using a cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generator (CSPRNG); 
 generating a second set of bits using a second CSPRNG; 
 forming, based at least in part on the first set of bits and the second set of bits, a secure training sequence (STS) comprising a plurality of STS segments, each STS segment comprising a plurality of STS symbols; and 
 transmitting, via the networking subsystem, the STS embedded in a wireless packet to a second wireless device, 
 wherein:
 an STS symbol of the plurality of STS symbols includes a burst comprising a single pulse at one of two possible burst position intervals, 
 selection of a position of the burst within a burst position interval of the two possible burst position intervals is based at least in part on the second set of bits, and 
 a polarity of the single pulse of the burst is based at least in part on the first set of bits.

Description:
CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS 
     This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/638,826, entitled “SECURE TRAINING SEQUENCE SYMBOL STRUCTURE,” filed Mar. 5, 2018, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety for all purposes. 
    
    
     FIELD 
     The described embodiments relate generally to wireless communication, including the use of ultra-wideband packets with embedded cryptographically secure training sequences. 
     BACKGROUND 
     Ultra-wideband (UWB) systems provide for wireless communication using low power, short range, moderate data rate pulse streams that spread their energy across a very wide frequency bandwidth. UWB transmissions use a combination of burst position modulation (BPM) and binary phase shift keying (BPSK) to transform binary data into a stream of pulses (the time interval associated with a pulse is also referred to as a chip). The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.15 working group specifies wireless personal area networking (WPAN) standards, including a lower power WPAN communication protocol 802.15.4 that defines data packet formats for various low rate and high rate wireless WPANs. Wireless packet transmissions typically begin with a preamble used for detecting the transmission, acquiring synchronization timing and frequency, adaptively training receiver settings, and estimating a transmission channel. The preamble usually includes a series of repeated pre-determined pseudo-random (PR) sequences having desired autocorrelation properties. As the PR sequences are known in advance, a receiver can correlate received data to locate the PR sequence and detect the start of a wireless packet transmission. As the set of possible preamble PR sequences used are known and each preamble includes multiple repetitions of a selected PR sequence, a malicious actor may monitor wireless transmissions, detect the PR sequence, and transmit using the detected PR sequence as part of an attempt to spoof a receiver into falsely detecting the malicious actor as a valid transmitter. Thus, there exists a need for a more secure physical layer training sequence. 
     SUMMARY 
     A secure training sequence (STS) is included in wireless packets communicated between electronic devices to assist with accurate channel estimation and wireless ranging. The STS includes multiple STS segments generated based on outputs from a cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generator (CSPRNG), the multiple STS segments being separated by STS guard intervals, which are time periods when no energy is transmitted. The STS segments include multiple STS symbols that are each formatted in accordance with an 802.15.4 data symbol format that uses binary pulse modulation (BPM) and binary phase shift keying (BPSK) to map bits from the CSPRNG to pulse positions within an STS symbol and pulse polarities for the STS symbols. Both a first electronic device that generates the STS and a second electronic device that receives the STS and uses the STS to estimate a communication channel between the first and second electronic devices can have prior private knowledge of cryptographic keys required to generate a non-repetitive single-use pseudo-random (PR) sequence by the CSPRNG. The STS does not include repetitions of published known PR sequences as used for preambles of wireless packets, thus thwarting malicious attackers from sniffing for PR sequences to send as spoofed transmissions to the second electronic device. In some embodiments, the STS includes two burst position intervals per STS symbol and two possible burst positions within each burst position interval, with each burst position interval followed by a guard interval of zero transmitted energy. In some embodiments, a burst includes a single pulse having a polarity determined by bits from the CSPRNG. In some embodiments, a time hopping position of a burst within a burst interval varies for successive STS symbols based on a combination of one or more of: a subset of bits output from the CSPRNG, a set of bits output by a second separate CSPRNG, or a set of bits output by a separate IEEE 802.15.4 PN generator. In some embodiments, the second electronic device derives channel estimates from each STS segment of an STS and compares the channel estimates to each other for consistency and to improve channel estimate accuracy. 
     This Summary is provided merely for purposes of summarizing some example embodiments so as to provide a basic understanding of some aspects of the subject matter described herein. Accordingly, it will be appreciated that the above-described features are merely examples and should not be construed to narrow the scope or spirit of the subject matter described herein in any way. Other features, aspects, and advantages of the subject matter described herein will become apparent from the following Detailed Description, Figures, and Claims. 
    
    
     
       BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS 
       The disclosure will be readily understood by the following detailed description in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein like reference numerals designate like structural elements. 
         FIG. 1A  illustrates a diagram of an exemplary set of electronic devices with multi-path reflection, in accordance with some embodiments. 
         FIG. 1B  illustrates a diagram of an exemplary set of electronic devices with attenuation and multi-path reflection, in accordance with some embodiments. 
         FIG. 2  illustrates a diagram of an exemplary format for an IEEE 802.15.4 ultra-wideband (UWB) physical layer data packet, in accordance with some embodiments. 
         FIG. 3  illustrates a diagram of an example of a malicious actor electronic device interfering with communication between a set of electronic devices, in accordance with some embodiments. 
         FIG. 4  illustrates a diagram of an exemplary structure for an IEEE 802.15.4 physical layer symbol, in accordance with some embodiments. 
         FIG. 5  illustrates a diagram of an exemplary structure for a secure training sequence symbol, in accordance with some embodiments. 
         FIG. 6  illustrates a diagram of an exemplary structure for a secure training sequence, in accordance with some embodiments. 
         FIG. 7  illustrates a graph of a likelihood probability for detection of a secure training sequence, in accordance with some embodiments. 
         FIG. 8  illustrates a block diagram of an exemplary set of components of an electronic device, in accordance with some embodiments. 
     
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Representative applications of methods and apparatus according to the present application are described in this section. These examples are being provided solely to add context and aid in the understanding of the described embodiments. It will thus be apparent to one skilled in the art that the described embodiments may be practiced without some or all of these specific details. In other instances, well known process steps have not been described in detail in order to avoid unnecessarily obscuring the described embodiments. Other applications are possible, such that the following examples should not be taken as limiting. 
     In the following detailed description, references are made to the accompanying drawings, which form a part of the description and in which are shown, by way of illustration, specific embodiments in accordance with the described embodiments. Although these embodiments are described in sufficient detail to enable one skilled in the art to practice the described embodiments, it is understood that these examples are not limiting; such that other embodiments may be used, and changes may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the described embodiments. 
     Wireless packets communicated between electronic devices include pseudo-random sequences to assist with adaptive receiver algorithms, including for channel estimation of a communication channel between the electronic devices. The wireless packets can include a preamble that uses a known, published pseudo-random sequence with perfect autocorrelation properties. The wireless packets can also include a separate, secure training sequence (STS) to assist with accurate channel estimation and wireless ranging. The STS can be composed of an initial STS guard interval, at least two concatenated STS segments, each STS segment separated from the other by another STS guard interval, and a final STS guard interval. The STS guard intervals can be generated by not transmitting any energy over the time period spanning the STS guard interval. The STS segments can be generated based on outputs from a cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generator (CSPRNG). The STS segments include multiple STS symbols that are each formatted in accordance with an 802.15.4 data symbol format that uses binary pulse modulation (BPM) and binary phase shift keying (BPSK) to map bits from the CSPRNG to pulse positions within an STS symbol and pulse polarities for the STS symbols. Both a first electronic device that generates the STS and a second electronic device that receives the STS and uses the STS to estimate a communication channel between the first and second electronic devices can have prior private knowledge of cryptographic keys required to generate a non-repetitive single-use pseudo-random (PR) sequence by the CSPRNG. The STS does not include repetitions of published known PR sequences as used for preambles of wireless packets, thus thwarting malicious attackers from sniffing for PR sequences to send as spoofed transmissions to the second electronic device. In some embodiments, the STS includes two burst position intervals per STS symbol and two possible burst positions within each burst position interval, with each burst position interval followed by a guard interval of zero transmitted energy. In some embodiments, which burst position interval to use in a given STS symbol is determined by certain bits from the CSPRNG. In some embodiments, a burst of an STS symbol includes a single pulse having a polarity determined by certain other bits from the CSPRNG. In some embodiments, a time hopping position of a burst within a burst interval varies for successive STS symbols based on a combination of one or more of: a subset of bits output from the CSPRNG, a set of bits output by a second separate CSPRNG, or a set of bits output by a separate IEEE 802.15.4 PN generator. In some embodiments, the second electronic device derives channel estimates from each STS segment of an STS and compares the channel estimates to each other for consistency and to improve channel estimate accuracy in the presence of noise and/or interferers. 
     In accordance with various embodiments described herein, the terms “wireless communication device,” “wireless device,” “mobile device,” “mobile station,” and “user equipment” (UE) may be used interchangeably herein to describe one or more common consumer electronic devices that may be capable of performing procedures associated with various embodiments of the disclosure. In accordance with various implementations, any one of these consumer electronic devices may relate to: a cellular phone or a smart phone, a tablet computer, a laptop computer, a notebook computer, a personal computer, a netbook computer, a media player device, an electronic book device, a MiFi® device, a wearable computing device, as well as any other type of electronic computing device having wireless communication capability that can include communication via one or more wireless communication protocols such as used for communication on: a wireless wide area network (WWAN), a wireless metro area network (WMAN) a wireless local area network (WLAN), a wireless personal area network (WPAN), a near field communication (NFC), a cellular wireless network, a fourth generation (4G) Long Term Evolution (LTE), LTE Advanced (LTE-A), and/or fifth generation (5G) or other present or future developed advanced cellular wireless networks. 
     The wireless communication device, in some embodiments, can also operate as part of a wireless communication system, which can include a set of client devices, which can also be referred to as stations, client wireless devices, or client wireless communication devices, interconnected to an access point (AP), e.g., as part of a WLAN, and/or to each other, e.g., as part of a WPAN and/or an “ad hoc” wireless network. In some embodiments, the client device can be any wireless communication device that is capable of communicating via a WLAN technology, e.g., in accordance with a wireless local area network communication protocol. In some embodiments, the WLAN technology can include a Wi-Fi (or more generically a WLAN) wireless communication subsystem or radio, the Wi-Fi radio can implement an Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 802.11 technology, such as one or more of: IEEE 802.11a; IEEE 802.11b; IEEE 802.11g; IEEE 802.11-2007; IEEE 802.11n; IEEE 802.11-2012; IEEE 802.11ac; or other present or future developed IEEE 802.11 technologies. 
     Additionally, it should be understood that the UEs described herein may be configured as multi-mode wireless communication devices that are also capable of communicating via different third generation (3G) and/or second generation (2G) RATs. In these scenarios, a multi-mode UE can be configured to prefer attachment to LTE networks offering faster data rate throughput, as compared to other 3G legacy networks offering lower data rate throughputs. For instance, in some implementations, a multi-mode UE may be configured to fall back to a 3G legacy network, e.g., an Evolved High Speed Packet Access (HSPA+) network or a Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) 2000 Evolution-Data Only (EV-DO) network, when LTE and LTE-A networks are otherwise unavailable. 
     These and other embodiments are discussed below with reference to  FIGS. 1A-8 ; however, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that the detailed description given herein with respect to these figures is for explanatory purposes only and should not be construed as limiting. 
       FIG. 1A  illustrates a diagram  100  of a set of electronic devices  102 ,  104  with multi-path reflection. A first electronic device  102  may send a transmission, e.g., one or more wireless packets, using wireless subsystem  106 - 1  to a second electronic device  104 , which receives the transmission using wireless subsystem  106 - 2 . The transmission may traverse a direct path  110 , which may represent a shortest distance path, from the first electronic device  102  to the second electronic device  104 . The transmission may also traverse an indirect path  112  from the first electronic device  102  to the second electronic device  104 , which may represent a longer distance path due to an echo from a reflective surface  108 . While there may be any number of propagation paths, with any combination of strong and weak path strengths, the two-path description that follows is chosen for the sake of simplicity and is not to be taken as limiting. The second electronic device  104  can correlate pre-determined sequences included in the transmission to estimate a channel impulse response  114  based on received samples that include a combination of the transmissions via the direct path  110  and the indirect path  112 . The channel impulse response  114  can include a stronger direct path peak  116  and a weaker indirect path peak  118 . The second electronic device  104  can use the estimated channel impulse response  114  to estimate a distance between the first electronic device  102  and the second wireless device, which can also be referred to as wireless ranging. For wireless ranging, the second electronic device  104  must distinguish between different peaks in the channel impulse response  114  to locate the direct path  110  and also separate the channel impulse response from ambient noise. 
       FIG. 1B  illustrates a diagram  150  in which communication between the set of electronic devices  102 ,  104  encounters both multi-path reflection and attenuation. The first electronic device  102  may send a transmission using the wireless subsystem  106 - 1  to the second electronic device  104 , which receives the transmission using the wireless subsystem  106 - 2 . The transmission may traverse an attenuated direct path  122 , which may represent the shortest distance path between the first and second electronic devices  102 ,  104 ; however, the signal received via the attenuated direct path  122  may be attenuated by the attenuating object  120 , thereby reducing the total energy received via the attenuated direct path  122 . The transmission may also traverse the indirect path  112  and be received by the second electronic device  104  later than via the attenuated direct path  122 . The resulting channel impulse response  124  estimated by the second electronic device  104  can include a weaker direct path peak  126  and a stronger indirect path peak  128 . A noted hereinabove, there may be any number of propagation paths, some stronger and some weaker resulting in a channel impulse response (CIR) having multiple peaks, and the CIR  124  shown in  FIG. 1B  is exemplary but not limiting. The second electronic device  104  may still distinguish between the peaks; however, the direct path peak  126  of  FIG. 1B , due to its reduced strength, may be more difficult to separate from receiver noise and other signal distortion phenomena than the direct path peak  116  of  FIG. 1A . 
     Accuracy of channel estimation by electronic devices  102 ,  104  may depend on the use of well-behaved sequences having desired auto-correlation properties. A pseudo-random (PR) sequence having a perfect autocorrelation property will produce a positive result with perfect alignment and zero results for all shifted alignments. Known finite length PR sequences having perfect autocorrelation may be included in preambles of wireless transmission packets, where the PR sequence may be repeated several times to aid detection for the start of a wireless transmission packet by a receiver, e.g., by the wireless subsystem  106 - 2  of electronic device  104 .  FIG. 2  illustrates a diagram  200  of an example format for a physical layer protocol data unit (PPDU)  210 , such as specified in IEEE 802.15.4 wireless communication protocols. The PPDU  210  includes a preamble  202 , which can include a repeated series of pseudo-random sequences followed by a start of frame delimiter (SFD)  204  separating the preamble  202  from the physical layer data, which includes a physical layer header (PHR)  206  followed by a physical layer service data unit (PSDU)  208 . As the pseudo-random sequences used for the preamble  202  are known, the wireless subsystem  106 - 2  of the second electronic device  104  can readily receive and detect the start of a wireless transmission packet; however, other electronic devices may also listen for and detect the same wireless transmission packet and may interfere with proper detection by the second electronic device  104 . 
       FIG. 3  illustrates a diagram  300  of a third electronic device  302 , which represents a malicious actor, that listens for transmissions from the first electronic device  102  and, based on information derived from listening to the transmissions from the first electronic device  102 , transmits separately to the second electronic device  104 . The first electronic device  102  sends a legitimate transmission  304  to the second electronic device  104 . The third electronic device  302  may receive a sniffed transmission  306 , such as a portion of the legitimate transmission  304 , and after recognizing a pseudo-random sequence used for a preamble of the legitimate transmission  304 , may send a spoofed transmission  308  to the second electronic device  104  reusing the pseudo-random sequence to potentially cause the second electronic device  104  to recognize the third electronic device  302  as a legitimate transmitter in place of the first electronic device  102 . In some malicious attacks, the third electronic device  302  can react quickly during the preamble transmission from the first electronic device  102  to the second electronic device  104  by injecting to the wireless medium its own preamble signal, using preamble intervals that are identical to those transmitted by the electronic device  102  such that the received spoofed transmission  308  appears time-advanced relative to the legitimate transmission  304  at the second electronic device  104 . When such preambles are used for wireless ranging, the second electronic device  104  may errantly determine that the third electronic device  302  is a closest (based on the timing advance), legitimate (based on the known pseudo-random sequence) electronic device, based on channel estimation at a physical layer. 
     Rather than use a preamble&#39;s repetitions of a known pseudo-random sequence, wireless ranging can improve security by using non-repetitive single-use pseudo-random sequences that do not necessarily have perfect autocorrelation properties but may be uniquely determined by the first electronic device  102  and the second electronic device  104  and may be not determinable by the third electronic device  302 . These sequences may be referred to as cryptographically secure pseudo-random sequences (CSPRSs). A malicious attacker cannot determine a portion of the CSPRS by listening and repeating sequence patterns. In some embodiments, an Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) cipher block can be used to generate a non-repetitive single-use pseudo-random sequence. Both the first electronic device  102  and the second electronic device  104  can have prior private knowledge of cryptographic keys required to generate the non-repetitive single-use pseudo-random sequence, while the third electronic device  302  will not have knowledge of the cryptographic keys. The non-repetitive single-use pseudo-random sequences generated by the AES cipher block will not have a perfect autocorrelation property but will have low amplitude autocorrelation side lobes relative to a single main autocorrelation peak. In some embodiments, the cryptographic keys are selected to realize a maximum side lobe peak relative to the main peak of an autocorrelation for the generated non-repetitive single-use pseudo-random sequence. In some embodiments, the cryptographic keys are selected to achieve a level of side lobes that are comparable to an estimated or predicted noise level. 
       FIG. 4  illustrates a diagram  400  of an IEEE 802.15.4 UWB physical layer symbol structure that can be repurposed for transmission of a CSPRS in an UWB communication system. A data symbol  402 , which spans a time interval T dsym , will include a burst of consecutive pulses (also referred to as chips) at one of multiple burst positions within either a first burst position interval  404 - 1  or a second burst position interval  404 - 2 . For any given data symbol  402 , a burst transmission will be included in one (and only one) of the burst position intervals  404 - 1 ,  404 - 2 . Each burst position interval  404 - 1 ,  404 - 2  abuts a corresponding guard interval  408 - 1 ,  408 - 2 . The guard intervals  408 - 1 ,  408 - 2  allow for multi-path and other forms of interference to die out between a burst transmission of a first data symbol  402  and a burst transmission of an immediately following second data symbol  402 . The burst position interval  404 - 1  and adjacent guard interval  408 - 1  together span a time interval T BPM , and the burst position interval  404 - 2  and adjacent guard interval  408 - 2  together span the same time interval T BPM . One bit of a data sequence may be used to determine whether the first burst position interval  404 - 1  or the second burst position interval  404 - 2  is used for a given data symbol  402 . Thus, the data symbol  402  uses a form of Burst Position Modulation (BPM) to transform a portion of a data sequence into a transmittable waveform. In addition to selection of a burst position interval  404 - 1  or  404 - 2 , the data symbol  402  based on a first bit, a number of additional bits are used to determine polarities for each pulse (chip) in a burst  406  of N cpb  consecutive pulses (chips), where the burst  406  spans a time interval T burst  and each pulse (chip) spans a time interval T c . As shown in  FIG. 4 , a burst of N cpb  pulses are encoded using N cpb  bits, each bit determining whether a corresponding pulse will have a positive polarity or a negative polarity. Additional side information, separate from the encoded data, is used to determine in which of N hop  adjacent burst positions within a burst position interval  404 - 1 ,  404 - 2  the burst is transmitted. The additional side information, e.g., a pseudo-noise (PN) scrambling sequence in 802.15.4, can determine a hopping sequence pattern to use for a sequence of data symbols and can also be used to scramble bit polarities within each burst. Moving the bursts to different positions within each burst position interval reduces burst transmission peak power levels in the frequency domain to satisfy power spectral density masks, such as required by communication regulatory bodies. Individual symbols of a secure training sequence can conform to the IEEE 802.15.4 physical layer symbol structure shown in  FIG. 4  as described further herein. 
       FIG. 5  illustrates a diagram  500  of a secure training sequence (STS) symbol structure that can be used to construct an STS to include in a wireless packet. An STS symbol  502  can span a time interval T tsym  and include two burst position intervals  504 - 1 ,  504 - 2  and two guard intervals  508 - 1 ,  508 - 2 . Within each burst position interval  504 - 1 ,  504 - 2 , a burst  506  of one pulse (chip) can occupy one of two different burst positions as the number of possible burst positions per burst position interval N hop =2. The burst  506  spans a burst time interval T burst , which also corresponds to a pulse (chip) time interval T c  as the number of pulses (chips) per burst N cpb =1. In some embodiments, each guard interval  508 - 1 ,  508 - 2  spans a time interval equal to the time interval allocate for a burst position interval  504 - 1 ,  504 - 2 . 
     A cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generator (CSPRG) can output a sequence of bits that are mapped to burst position intervals  504 - 1 ,  504 - 2  and to polarities for pulses (chips) of bursts  506 . As there are two possible burst position intervals, a first bit of the CSPRG sequence determines whether the burst is transmitted in the first burst position interval or in the second burst position interval. As there are two possible polarities for a burst, a second bit of the CSPRG sequence determines whether the burst is transmitted with a positive polarity or with a negative polarity. Additionally, in some embodiments, an additional bit determines a time hopping position within a burst position interval (one of N hop =2 possible burst positions). 
     Table  510  outlines several options for mapping bits to position, polarity, and time hopping for an STS. In a first configuration, labeled option 1 in Table  510 , alternating bits output from CSPRG-A determine burst position intervals and pulse polarities, e.g., even bits of the CSPRNG-A sequence determine which burst position interval  504 - 1 ,  504 - 2  of an STS symbol  502  is used, while odd bits of the CSPRNG-A sequence determine pulse polarity of burst  506  pulses. Alternatively, the assignment of bits of the CSPRNG-A sequence to burst position interval and burst polarity can be reversed, e.g., even bits of the CSPRNG-A sequence can determine burst position intervals  504 - 1 ,  504 - 2  and odd bits of the CSPRNG-A sequence can determine pulse polarities of bursts  506 . Additional, bursts  506  are positioned in one of two different positions within burst position intervals  504 - 1 ,  504 - 2  of STS symbols  502  based on a separate pseudo-random number (PN) generator, e.g., in accordance with the IEEE 802.15.4 PN generator used for time hopping for 802.15.4 transmissions. 
     In a second configuration, labeled option 2 in Table  510 , one of every three bits of the CSPRNG-A sequence determines the burst position interval  504 - 1 ,  504 - 2 , one of every three bits determines the burst polarity, and one of every three bits determines a burst position within a burst position interval  504 - 1 ,  504 - 2 . Using CSPRNG bits, rather than a pre-determined PN generator such as the IEEE 802.15.4 PN generator, the time hopping burst position pattern provides an additional level of robustness, as a malicious attacker will not have knowledge of the time hopping pattern. 
     In a third configuration, labeled option 3 in Table  510 , alternating bits output from CSPRNG-A determine burst position intervals and pulse polarities, while bursts  506  are positioned in one of two different positions within burst position intervals  504 - 1 ,  504 - 2  based on a separate cryptographically secure pseudo-random number (PN) generator, e.g., CSPRNG-B. Cryptographic keys used to generate sequences for CSPRNG-A and CSPRNG-B can be known to a transmitting first electronic device  102  and a receiving second electronic device  104  and can be unknown to malicious attacker third electronic device  302 . The use of CSPRNG sequences provide for robustness against malicious attacks as the pattern of burst position intervals, burst polarities, and burst positions within a burst position interval (time hopping) cannot be ascertained by sniffing for transmissions from the transmitting first electronic device  102 . 
     In some embodiments, time hopping of burst positions within burst position intervals and/or pulse polarities within bursts can be determined by a combination of bits from a CSPRNG sequence and bits from an IEEE 802.15.4 PN generator, e.g. by taking an exclusive or (XOR) of bits from the CSPRNG sequence and bits from the IEEE 802.15.4 PN generator. For example, for the IEEE 802.15.4 data symbol  402  encoding, the IEEE 802.15.4 PN generator can be used to determine a hopping slot (chip) position within the burst position interval  404 - 1 ,  404 - 2  and can also be used to scramble (e.g., via an exclusive or, XOR, function) the pulse polarities of the pulses within the bursts  406 . Thus, for each of the options illustrated by Table  510 , the burst position interval can be determined by a portion of bits from the CSPRNG-A sequence, the burst polarity can be determine bay a combination of another portion of bits from the CSPRNG-A sequence and bits from the IEEE 802.15.4 PN generator, and time hopping of burst positions within a burst position interval can be determined by one of: the IEEE 802.15.4 PN generator, another portion of bits from the CSPRNG-A sequence, or bits from the CSPRNG-B sequence. 
       FIG. 6  illustrates a diagram  600  of a structure for a complete secure training sequence (STS). The STS includes a first STS segment  604 - 1  and second STS segment  604 - 2 , each STS segment  604 - 1 ,  604 - 2  including multiple, typically a large number of, concatenated STS symbols  502 . The first STS segment  604 - 1  can be preceded by an STS guard interval (GI)  602 , which is distinct from the guard intervals  508 - 1 ,  508 - 2  for the individual STS symbols  502 . An STS GI  602  separates the first STS segment  604 - 1  and the second STS segment  604 - 2 , and another STS GI  602  follows the second STS segment  604 - 2 . In some embodiments, each STS GI  602  can span a time interval of one micro-second, while each STS segment  604 - 1 ,  604 - 2  can span a time interval of thirty-two micro-seconds. In some embodiments, STS GIs  602  are generated by not transmitting any energy during the time period spanning the STS GI  602 . An STS segment  604 - 1 ,  604 - 2  can include 2048 concatenated STS symbols. In some embodiments, the STS includes at least two STS segments. In some embodiments, the STS includes more than two, e.g., three or four, STS segments (not shown). In some embodiments, each STS segment is only known to the first electronic device  102  and the second electronic device  104 , and the STS segments  604 - 1 ,  604 - 2 , etc., can differ from each other. Each STS segment  604 - 1 ,  604 - 2  can be used to estimate a channel response for a communication channel between a transmitting first electronic device  102  and a receiving second electronic device  104 . In some embodiments, the STS segments  604 - 1 ,  604 - 2  can provide separate channel estimates that can be compared with each other for consistency to thwart a malicious attacker that may interfere with one of the STS segments. In some embodiments, the STS segments  604 - 1 ,  604 - 2  can provide a single channel estimate with improved processing gain (relative to a channel estimate based on only a single STS segment). By using the CSPRNG sequence divided across multiple STS segments, the likelihood that a malicious attacker can spoof multiple STS segments to provide an identical result for channel estimation for each STS segment is extremely low. While  FIG. 6  illustrates an STS that uses two STS segments, more generally, an STS can be constructed beginning with a first STS guard interval, followed by multiple STS segments separated from each other by STS guard intervals, and ending with a final STS guard interval. The multiple STS segments can be used to provide individual channel estimates, which can be compared with each other for consistency to determine an overall more accurate channel estimate. In some embodiments, the total time span of the STS can be selected based on a coherence time of a communication channel to ensure channel variation is kept below a threshold level so that channel estimates from different STS segments of the STS can be expected to consistent (in the absence of malicious attacker interference). In general, the length of each STS segment and the number of STS segments per STS  610  may vary between different embodiments and for different modes of operation. 
       FIG. 6  further illustrates a diagram  650  of a modified PPDU  652  that includes an STS  610  positioned after the preamble  202  and SFD  204  and before the PHR  206  and PSDU  208 . The preamble  202  of the modified PPDU  652  can use a pre-determined repeated sequence as described earlier for synchronization, timing, gain control, and the adaptive receiver adjustments. The STS  610  can include multiple STS segments  604  formed from multiple STS symbols  502  based on bits output from a CSPRNG, where encryption keys for the CSPRNG are known privately to the transmitting first electronic device  102  and the receiving second electronic device  104  but not published publicly as for the sequence used for the preamble  202 . The receiving second electronic device  104  can derive channel estimates using the multiple STS segments  604  and can trust the accuracy of the channel estimate derived therefrom more readily than a channel estimate derived from the preamble  202  or from random data. In some embodiments, the STS  610  immediately follows the SFD  204 . In some embodiments, the STS  610  immediately follows the PHR  206 . In some embodiments, the STS  610  may follow the PSDU  208 . In some embodiments, the STS  610  is included somewhere in the modified PPDU  652  after the SFD  204 . In some embodiments, the STS  610  is positioned nearer to the preamble  202  and SFD  204  to reduce channel variation for adaptive receiver settings that are derived initially based on the preamble  202 . In some embodiments, the receiving second electronic device  104  compares one or more channel estimates derived from the STS  610  to a channel estimate derived from the preamble  202  for consistency. In some embodiments, the SFD  204  includes a value or a signaling property that indicates the modified PPDU  652  includes an STS  610 , e.g., to distinguish from a regular PPDU  210  that does not include an STS  610 . In some embodiments, different STS segments  604 - 1 ,  604 - 2 , etc., of an STS  610  can be distributed over different locations of the modified PPDU  652 , e.g., the STS segment  604 - 1  of the STS  610  can be located after the SFD  204 , while the STS segment  604 - 2  of the STS  610  can be located after the PSDU  208 . 
       FIG. 7  illustrates a graph  700  of a cumulative distribution function (CDF) for a probability of reliably detecting a direct peak (shortest path) of a channel estimate based on a measure (in dB) of a worst-case off-peak autocorrelation value relative to a peak autocorrelation value for different scenarios using a CSPRNG. The curve  702  represents a baseline case in which no STS BPM hopping (time hopping) is used, and the CSPRNG bits are mapped directly to pulses using BPSK. The curve  704  represents a simplified case in which STS BPM hopping is used but no time hopping is used. The curve  706  represents a exemplary case in which STS BPM hopping and time hopping (dithering) are both used (e.g., options 1, 2, or 3 of Table  510  in  FIG. 5 ), as described hereinabove. The scenario illustrated by curve  706 , which uses a combination of STS BPM hopping and time hopping (dithering), provides approximately 3 dB advantage over the scenario illustrated by curve  704 , which uses STS BPM hopping alone and more than 5 dB advantage over the regular pulses (no hopping) scenario illustrated by curve  702 . 
     In some embodiments, the secure training sequence (STS) communication technique described herein is used to perform wireless ranging, e.g., distance estimation, between electronic devices, e.g., between the first electronic device  102 , which sends an STS  610 , and the second electronic device  104 , which receives the STS  610 , estimates a channel based on the STS  610 , and further estimates a distance between the first electronic device  102  and the second electronic device  104  based on the channel estimate derived from the STS  610 . 
     Representative Embodiments 
     In some embodiments, a method to support channel estimation using secure training sequences includes a wireless device: (a) generating a set of bits using a cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generator (CSPRNG); (b) forming, based at least in part on the set of bits, a secure training sequence (STS) including a plurality of STS segments, each STS segment of the plurality of STS segments including a plurality of STS symbols; and (c) transmitting the STS in a wireless packet to a second wireless device, where an STS symbol of the plurality of STS symbols includes a burst comprising a single pulse at one of two possible burst position intervals, and selection of a position of the burst within a burst position interval of the two possible burst position intervals and a polarity of the single pulse of the burst are based at least in part on the set of bits generated by the CSPRNG. 
     In some embodiments, each STS symbol includes the burst at a fixed burst position interval. In some embodiments, selection of the burst position interval for an STS symbol is based at least in part on a publicly known pseudo-noise sequence. In some embodiments, selection of the burst position interval for an STS symbol is based at least in part on the set of bits generated by the CSPRNG. In some embodiments, the method further includes the wireless device generating a second set of bits using a second CSPRNG, where the forming the STS is further based at least in part on the second set of bits. In some embodiments, wherein selection of the burst position interval is based at least in part on the second set of bits generated by the second CSPRNG. In some embodiments, separate bits of the set of bits generated by the CSPRNG are used for selection of the position of the burst within the burst position interval and selection of the polarity of the single pulse of the burst. In some embodiments, wherein the STS symbol is formatted in accordance with an IEEE 802.15.4 data payload structure. In some embodiments, the STS symbol includes a guard interval after the burst position interval of the two possible burst position intervals. In some embodiments, the STS includes a first STS segment and a second STS segment separated by an STS guard interval (GI), and the first STS segment is separated from the second STS segment by an STS guard interval (GI). In some embodiments, the second STS segment is a repetition of the first STS segment. In some embodiments, the first STS segment and the second STS segment are based on different subsets of bits of the set of bits generated by the CSPRNG. In some embodiments, the wireless packet includes a modified physical layer data unit (PPDU) that includes a preamble based on a publicly known pseudo-noise sequence followed by a start of frame delimiter (SFD), and the STS is positioned after the SFD. In some embodiments, the STS is positioned immediately after the SFD in the modified PPDU. 
     In some embodiments, an apparatus configurable for operation in a wireless device includes a processing subsystem communicatively coupled to a memory subsystem storing instructions that, when executed by the processing subsystem, cause the wireless device to perform operations that include: (a) generating a set of bits using a cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generator (CSPRNG); (b) forming, based at least in part on the set of bits, a secure training sequence (STS) including a plurality of STS segments, each STS segment of the plurality of STS segments including a plurality of STS symbols; and (c) transmitting the STS in a wireless packet to a second wireless device, where an STS symbol of the plurality of STS symbols includes a burst comprising a single pulse at one of two possible burst position intervals, and selection of a position of the burst within a burst position interval of the two possible burst position intervals and a polarity of the single pulse of the burst are based at least in part on the set of bits generated by the CSPRNG. 
     In some embodiments, selection of the burst position interval for the STS symbol is based at least in part on the set of bits generated by the CSPRNG. In some embodiments, execution of the instructions further causes the wireless device to generate a second set of bits using a second CSPRNG, and the forming the STS is further based at least in part on the second set of bits. In some embodiments, selection of the burst position interval is based at least in part on the second set of bits generated by the second CSPRNG. In some embodiments, separate bits of the set of bits generated by the CSPRNG are used for selection of the position of the burst within the burst position interval and selection of the polarity of the single pulse of the burst. 
     In some embodiments, a wireless device includes (i) a networking subsystem including one or more antennas; and (ii) a processing subsystem communicatively coupled to the networking subsystem and to a memory subsystem storing instructions that, when executed by the processing subsystem, cause the wireless device to perform operations that include: (a) generating a set of bits using a cryptographically secure pseudo-random number generator (CSPRNG); (b) forming, based at least in part on the set of bits, a secure training sequence (STS) including a plurality of STS segments, each STS segment of the plurality of STS segments including a plurality of STS symbols; and (c) transmitting, via the networking subsystem, the STS in a wireless packet to a second wireless device, where an STS symbol of the plurality of STS symbols includes a burst comprising a single pulse at one of two possible burst position intervals, and selection of a position of the burst within a burst position interval of the two possible burst position intervals and a polarity of the single pulse of the burst are based at least in part on the set of bits generated by the CSPRNG. 
       FIG. 8  illustrates a block diagram  800  of components of an electronic device, such as electronic devices  102 ,  104 , (which may be a station, a mobile device, an access point, a laptop computer, a smart-phone, a tablet, a smart-watch, etc.), in accordance with some embodiments. The electronic device includes processing subsystem  810 , memory subsystem  812 , and networking subsystem  814 . Processing subsystem  810  includes one or more units configured to perform computational operations. For example, processing subsystem  810  can include one or more microprocessors, application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs), microcontrollers, programmable-logic devices, and/or one or more digital signal processors (DSPs). 
     Memory subsystem  812  includes one or more units for storing data and/or instructions for processing subsystem  810  and networking subsystem  814 . For example, memory subsystem  812  can include dynamic random access memory (DRAM), static random access memory (SRAM), a read-only memory (ROM), flash memory, and/or other types of memory. In some embodiments, instructions for processing subsystem  810  in memory subsystem  812  include: one or more program modules or sets of instructions (such as program module  822  or operating system  824 ), which may be executed by processing subsystem  810 . For example, a ROM can store programs, utilities or processes to be executed in a non-volatile manner, and DRAM can provide volatile data storage, and may store instructions related to the operation of electronic device. Note that the one or more computer programs may constitute a computer-program mechanism, a computer-readable storage medium or software. Moreover, instructions in the various modules in memory subsystem  812  may be implemented in: a high-level procedural language, an object-oriented programming language, and/or in an assembly or machine language. Furthermore, the programming language may be compiled or interpreted, e.g., configurable or configured (which may be used interchangeably in this discussion), to be executed by processing subsystem  810 . In some embodiments, the one or more computer programs are distributed over a network-coupled computer system so that the one or more computer programs are stored and executed in a distributed manner. 
     In addition, memory subsystem  812  can include mechanisms for controlling access to the memory. In some embodiments, memory subsystem  812  includes a memory hierarchy that comprises one or more caches coupled to a memory in the electronic device. In some of these embodiments, one or more of the caches is located in processing subsystem  810 . 
     In some embodiments, memory subsystem  812  is coupled to one or more high-capacity mass-storage devices (not shown). For example, memory subsystem  812  can be coupled to a magnetic or optical drive, a solid-state drive, or another type of mass-storage device. In these embodiments, memory subsystem  812  can be used by the electronic device as fast-access storage for often-used data, while the mass-storage device is used to store less frequently used data. 
     Networking subsystem  814  includes one or more devices configured to couple to and communicate on a wired and/or wireless network (i.e., to perform network operations), including: control logic  816 , an interface circuit  818  and a set of antennas  820  (or antenna elements) in an adaptive array that can be selectively turned on and/or off by control logic  816  to create a variety of optional antenna patterns or ‘beam patterns.’ (While  FIG. 8  includes set of antennas  820 , in some embodiments the electronic device includes one or more nodes, such as nodes  808 , e.g., a pad, which can be coupled to set of antennas  820 . Thus, the electronic device may or may not include the set of antennas  820 .) The networking subsystem  814  can include a Bluetooth networking system, a cellular networking system (e.g., for a 3G/4G/5G network such as UMTS, LTE, etc.), a universal serial bus (USB) networking system, a networking system based on the standards described in IEEE 802.11 (e.g., a Wi-Fi® or UWB networking system), an Ethernet networking system, and/or another networking system. 
     Networking subsystem  814  includes processors, controllers, radios/antennas, sockets/plugs, and/or other devices used for coupling to, communicating on, and handling data and events for each supported networking system. Note that mechanisms used for coupling to, communicating on, and handling data and events on the network for each network system are sometimes collectively referred to as a ‘network interface’ for the network system. Moreover, in some embodiments a ‘network’ or a ‘connection’ between the electronic devices does not yet exist. Therefore, the electronic device may use the mechanisms in networking subsystem  814  for performing wireless communication between electronic devices, e.g., transmitting and/or receiving wireless packets. 
     Within the electronic device, processing subsystem  810 , memory subsystem  812 , and networking subsystem  814  are coupled together using bus  828  that facilitates data transfer between these components. Bus  828  may include an electrical, optical, and/or electro-optical connection that the subsystems can use to communicate commands and data among one another. Although only one bus  828  is shown for clarity, different embodiments can include a different number or configuration of electrical, optical, and/or electro-optical connections among the subsystems. 
     In some embodiments, the electronic device includes a display subsystem  826  for displaying information on a display, which may include a display driver and the display, such as a liquid-crystal display, a multi-touch touchscreen, etc. Display subsystem  826  may be controlled by processing subsystem  810  to display information to a user (e.g., information relating to incoming, outgoing, or an active communication session). 
     In some embodiments, the electronic device can include a user-input subsystem  830  that allows a user of the electronic device to interact with electronic device. For example, user-input subsystem  830  can take a variety of forms, such as: a button, keypad, dial, touch screen, audio input interface, visual/image capture input interface, input in the form of sensor data, etc. 
     In some embodiments, the electronic device can be (or can be included in) any electronic device with at least one network interface. For example, the electronic device may include: a cellular telephone or a smart-phone, a tablet computer, a laptop computer, a notebook computer, a personal or desktop computer, a netbook computer, a media player device, an electronic book device, a MiFi® device, a smart-watch, a wearable computing device, a portable computing device, a consumer-electronic device, an access point, a router, a switch, communication equipment, test equipment, as well as any other type of electronic computing device having wireless communication capability that can include communication via one or more wireless communication protocols. 
     Although specific components are used to describe the electronic device, in alternative embodiments, different components and/or subsystems may be present in the electronic device. For example, the electronic device may include one or more additional processing subsystems, memory subsystems, networking subsystems, and/or display subsystems. Additionally, one or more of the subsystems may not be present in the electronic device. Moreover, in some embodiments, the electronic device may include one or more additional subsystems that are not shown in  FIG. 8 . Also, although separate subsystems are shown in  FIG. 8 , in some embodiments some or all of a given subsystem or component can be integrated into one or more of the other subsystems or component(s) in the electronic device. For example, in some embodiments program module  822  is included in operating system  824  and/or control logic  816  is included in interface circuit  818 . 
     Moreover, the circuits and components in the electronic device may be implemented using any combination of analog and/or digital circuitry, including: bipolar, PMOS and/or NMOS gates or transistors. Furthermore, signals in these embodiments may include digital signals that have approximately discrete values and/or analog signals that have continuous values. Additionally, components and circuits may be single-ended or differential, and power supplies may be unipolar or bipolar. 
     An integrated circuit (which is sometimes referred to as a ‘communication circuit’) may implement some or all of the functionality of networking subsystem  814 . This integrated circuit may include hardware and/or software mechanisms that are used for transmitting wireless signals from the electronic device and receiving signals at the electronic device from other electronic devices. Aside from the mechanisms herein described, radios are generally known in the art and hence are not described in detail. In general, networking subsystem  814  and/or the integrated circuit can include any number of radios. Note that the radios in multiple-radio embodiments function in a similar way to the described single-radio embodiments. 
     In some embodiments, networking subsystem  814  and/or the integrated circuit include a configuration mechanism (such as one or more hardware and/or software mechanisms) that configures the radio(s) to transmit and/or receive on a given communication channel (e.g., a given carrier frequency). For example, in some embodiments, the configuration mechanism can be used to switch the radio from monitoring and/or transmitting on a given communication channel to monitoring and/or transmitting on a different communication channel. (Note that ‘monitoring’ as used herein comprises receiving signals from other electronic devices and possibly performing one or more processing operations on the received signals.) 
     In some embodiments, an output of a process for designing the integrated circuit, or a portion of the integrated circuit, which includes one or more of the circuits described herein may be a computer-readable medium such as, for example, a magnetic tape or an optical or magnetic disk. The computer-readable medium may be encoded with data structures or other information describing circuitry that may be physically instantiated as the integrated circuit or the portion of the integrated circuit. Although various formats may be used for such encoding, these data structures are commonly written in: Caltech Intermediate Format (CIF), Calma GDS II Stream Format (GDSII) or Electronic Design Interchange Format (EDIF). Those of skill in the art of integrated circuit design can develop such data structures from schematic diagrams of the type detailed above and the corresponding descriptions and encode the data structures on the computer-readable medium. Those of skill in the art of integrated circuit fabrication can use such encoded data to fabricate integrated circuits that include one or more of the circuits described herein. 
     The communication techniques described herein may be used in a variety of network interfaces. Furthermore, while some of the operations in the preceding embodiments were implemented in hardware or software, in general the operations in the preceding embodiments can be implemented in a wide variety of configurations and architectures. Therefore, some or all of the operations in the preceding embodiments may be performed in hardware, in software or both. For example, at least some of the operations in the communication technique may be implemented using program module  822 , operating system  824  (such as a driver for interface circuit  818 ) or in firmware in interface circuit  818 . Alternatively or additionally, at least some of the operations in the communication technique may be implemented in a physical layer, such as hardware in interface circuit  818 . In some embodiments, the communication technique is implemented, at least in part, in a MAC layer and/or in a physical layer in interface circuit  818 . 
     The various aspects, embodiments, implementations or features of the described embodiments can be used separately or in any combination. Various aspects of the described embodiments can be implemented by software, hardware, or a combination of hardware and software. The described embodiments can also be embodied as computer readable code on a computer readable medium. The computer readable medium is any data storage device that can store data, which can thereafter be read by a computer system. Examples of the computer readable medium include read-only memory, random-access memory, CD-ROMs, HDDs, DVDs, magnetic tape, and optical data storage devices. The computer readable medium can also be distributed over network-coupled computer systems so that the computer readable code is stored and executed in a distributed fashion. 
     The foregoing description, for purposes of explanation, used specific nomenclature to provide a thorough understanding of the described embodiments. However, it will be apparent to one skilled in the art that the specific details are not required in order to practice the described embodiments. Thus, the foregoing descriptions of specific embodiments are presented for purposes of illustration and description. They are not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the described embodiments to the precise forms disclosed. It will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art that many modifications and variations are possible in view of the above teachings.

Metadata:
Filing Date: 20190304
Publication Date: 20210216
Grant Date: 20210216
Priority Date: 20180305
Inventors: BATRA, ANUJ
HAMMERSCHMIDT, JOACHIM S.
SASOGLU, Eren
Assignee: APPLE INC
CPC Classifications: [{"code": "H04L9/12", "inventive": true, "first": true, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04L2209/80", "inventive": false, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04L9/0662", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04L25/0212", "inventive": true, "first": true, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04B2001/6908", "inventive": false, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04B1/69", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04L25/4902", "inventive": false, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04L9/0869", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04B1/7163", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04L9/0662", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04L2025/0377", "inventive": false, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04L25/0226", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G06F7/582", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04B7/0413", "inventive": false, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04B1/711", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04B7/0413", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04L25/03343", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04L25/0228", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04B1/711", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04L2025/0377", "inventive": false, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04L9/0869", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04L25/0212", "inventive": true, "first": true, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "G06F7/582", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04B7/0413", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04L9/0662", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}, {"code": "H04L25/03343", "inventive": true, "first": false, "tree": "[]"}]
Family ID: 67767776