# Understanding the Correlation Coefficient: A Guide for Investors

![Correlation Coefficient](https://www.investopedia.com/thmb/qTyVrZDYu52rZGjhignG_SpimSY=/1500x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/Correlation_Coefficient-168d916406e24a21b08e18f837fe416a.png)

*— Investopedia / Lara Antal*

## What Is the Correlation Coefficient?

The correlation coefficient quantifies the strength and direction of a [linear relationship](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/l/linearrelationship.asp) between two variables, key in assessing investment risks and optimizing portfolios. With values ranging from -1 to 1, it provides insights into how variables move in tandem, crucial for investors aiming to enhance diversification and manage volatility.

### Key Takeaways

*   The correlation coefficient ranges from -1 to 1, indicating the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables.  
    
*   A Pearson correlation coefficient of 1 shows a perfect positive correlation, while -1 indicates a perfect negative correlation.  
    
*   In investing, correlation coefficients help assess portfolio diversification and manage risk by showing potential impacts of adding new investments.  
    
*   While the correlation coefficient can measure linear relationships, it cannot determine causation or assess non-linear relationships.  
    
*   Different fields have varying thresholds for what is considered a significant correlation, with stricter criteria often applied in physics compared to social sciences.

## Deep Dive into the Correlation Coefficient

Different types of [correlation](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/correlation.asp) coefficients are used to assess correlation based on the properties of the compared data. The most common is the [Pearson coefficient](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/pearsoncoefficient.asp), "Pearson's R," which measures how two variables linearly relate in terms of strength and direction.

The Pearson coefficient uses a mathematical statistics formula to measure how closely the data points combining the two variables (with the values of one data series plotted on the x-axis and the corresponding values of the other series on the y-axis) approximate the [line of best fit](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/l/line-of-best-fit.asp). The line of best fit can be determined through regression analysis.  

> **Important**
>
> The Pearson coefficient can't assess nonlinear relationships or distinguish between dependent and independent variables.

The further the coefficient is from zero, whether it is [positive](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/positive-correlation.asp) or negative, the better the fit and the greater the correlation. The values of -1 (for a negative correlation) and 1 (for a positive one) describe perfect fits in which all data points align in a straight line, indicating that the variables are perfectly correlated.

This means one variable's value can be predicted from the other's value. The closer the correlation coefficient is to zero, the weaker the correlation, until at zero no linear relationship exists at all.

![Graphs showing positive, negative, and no correlation](https://www.investopedia.com/thmb/2b8kkUpoknl2tKdZfbsCzI-2X54=/1500x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/TC_3126228-how-to-calculate-the-correlation-coefficient-5aabeb313de423003610ee40.png)

*Graphs showing positive, negative, and no correlation.*

Assessments of correlation strength based on the correlation coefficient value vary by application. In physics and chemistry, a correlation coefficient should be lower than -0.9 or higher than 0.9 for the correlation to be considered meaningful, while in social sciences the threshold could be as high as -0.5 and as low as 0.5.

For correlation coefficients derived from [sampling](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/sampling.asp), the determination of statistical significance depends on the [p-value](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/p-value.asp), which is calculated from the data sample’s size as well as the value of the coefficient.  

## How to Calculate the Correlation Coefficient

To calculate the Pearson correlation, start by determining each variable’s [standard deviation](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/standarddeviation.asp) as well as the [covariance](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/covariance.asp) between them. The correlation coefficient is covariance divided by the product of the two variables’ standard deviations.

$\begin{aligned} &\rho_{xy} = \frac { \text{Cov} ( x, y ) }{ \sigma_x \sigma_y } \\ &\textbf{where:} \\ &\rho_{xy} = \text{Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient} \\ &\text{Cov} ( x, y ) = \text{covariance of variables } x \text{ and } y \\ &\sigma_x = \text{standard deviation of } x \\ &\sigma_y = \text{standard deviation of } y \\ \end{aligned}$

Standard deviation is a measure of the dispersion of data from its average. Covariance shows whether the two variables tend to move in the same direction, while the correlation coefficient measures the strength of that relationship on a normalized scale, from -1 to 1.

This formula is further detailed as:

_$\begin{aligned}&r = \frac { n \times ( \sum (X, Y) - ( \sum (X) \times \sum (Y) ) ) }{ \sqrt { ( n \times \sum (X ^ 2) - \sum (X) ^ 2 ) \times ( n \times \sum( Y ^ 2 ) - \sum (Y) ^ 2 ) } } \\&\textbf{where:}\\&r=\text{Correlation coefficient}\\&n=\text{Number of observations}\end{aligned}$_​  

## Applying Correlation Statistics in Investment Strategies

The correlation coefficient is particularly helpful in [assessing and managing investment risks](https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/032315/how-do-i-calculate-correlation-between-market-indicators-and-specific-stocks.asp). For example, [modern portfolio theory](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/modernportfoliotheory.asp) suggests diversification can reduce the volatility of a portfolio’s returns, curbing risk. The correlation coefficient between historical returns [can indicate](https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/030515/how-correlation-used-modern-portfolio-theory.asp) whether adding an investment to a portfolio will improve its diversification.

Correlation calculations are key in [factor investing](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/f/factor-investing.asp), constructing a portfolio on factors linked to excess returns. Meanwhile, quantitative traders use historical correlations and correlation coefficients to anticipate near-term changes in securities prices.  

## Key Limitations of the Pearson Correlation Coefficient

Correlation does not imply causation, as the saying goes, and the Pearson coefficient cannot determine whether one of the correlated variables is dependent on the other.

It also doesn't show how much of the dependent variable's variation is due to the independent variable. That's shown by the [coefficient of determination](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/coefficient-of-determination.asp), also known as “[R-squared](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/r-squared.asp),” which is simply the correlation coefficient squared.

The correlation coefficient doesn't describe the best-fit line's slope, which is found using regression analysis.

The Pearson correlation coefficient can’t be used to assess nonlinear associations or those arising from sampled data not subject to a normal distribution. It can also be distorted by outliers—data points far outside the scatterplot of a distribution.

Those relationships can be analyzed using nonparametric methods, such as Spearman’s correlation coefficient, the Kendall rank correlation coefficient, or a polychoric correlation coefficient.  

## How to Find Correlation Coefficients in Excel

There are a few ways to [calculate correlation in Excel](https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/031015/how-can-you-calculate-correlation-using-excel.asp). The simplest way is to input two data series in adjacent columns and use the built-in correlation formula:  

![Understanding and calculating correlation](https://www.investopedia.com/thmb/xX0Rk1KirAWYOfKw5qzKTFqKqYU=/1290x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/corr_ex1-5bfd884246e0fb002640aa66)

**

If you want to create a correlation matrix across a range of data sets, Excel has a data analysis plugin.  To use it, you must first enable the data analysis ToolPak. This can be done by clicking on "file," and then "options," which should open the Excel options dialogue box. In the box, click on "add-ins" and then on the "manage" dropdown select "Excel add-ins" and click on "go." This will cause the add-ins box to appear. Check the checkbox for "analysis TookPak," then click "ok." The enable process should now be complete.

To use the data analysis plugin, click on the "data" ribbon and then select "data analysis," which should open a box. In the box, click on "correlation" and then "ok." The correlation box will now open and you can enter the input ranges, either manually or by selecting the relevant cells.

In this case, our columns are titled, so we want to check the box “labels in first row,” so Excel knows to treat these as titles. Then you can choose to output on the same sheet or on a new sheet.  

![Understanding and calculating correlation](https://www.investopedia.com/thmb/lmueLr-oSDZ3NFzOGHvtdTqIHcc=/1235x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/corr_ex2-5bfd884046e0fb005158c709)

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Hitting enter will produce the correlation matrix. You can add some text and conditional formatting to clean up the result.

![Understanding and calculating correlation](https://www.investopedia.com/thmb/099gpSrbK1fxOXSSoWn81zMP0zY=/864x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/corr_matrix-5bfd883ec9e77c0026f45400)

**

## Are R and R2 the Same?

No, R and R2 are not the same when analyzing coefficients. R represents the value of the Pearson correlation coefficient, which is used to note strength and direction amongst variables, whereas R2 represents the coefficient of determination, which determines the strength of a model.  

## How Do You Calculate the Correlation Coefficient?

The correlation coefficient is calculated by determining the covariance of the variables and dividing that number by the product of those variables’ standard deviations.

## How Is the Correlation Coefficient Used in Investing?

Correlation coefficients play a key role in [portfolio risk assessments](https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/012615/whats-difference-between-rsquared-and-correlation.asp) and quantitative trading strategies. For example, some portfolio managers will monitor the correlation coefficients of their holdings to limit a portfolio’s volatility and risk.

## The Bottom Line

The correlation coefficient is a key statistical measure used to quantify the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables. It ranges from -1 to 1, where -1 represents a perfect inverse relationship, 1 represents a perfect positive relationship, and 0 indicates no linear relationship. Investors can use correlation coefficients to assess portfolio diversification and manage risk. However, it is important to remember that correlation does not imply causation, and non-linear associations require different methods of analysis.