# Short Selling: Your Step-by-Step Guide for Shorting Stocks

What investors need to know about this strategy

> **Definition**
>
> Short selling is a trading strategy in which a trader aims to profit from a decline in a security's price by borrowing shares and selling them in the hopes that the stock price will eventually fall, enabling them to buy the shares back for less money.

## What Is Short Selling?

Short selling is a trading strategy where investors speculate on a stock's decline. Short sellers bet on (and thus profit from) a drop in a security’s price. Traders use short selling as [speculation](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/speculation.asp), and investors or portfolio managers may use it as a [hedge](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/h/hedge.asp) against the [downside risk](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/downsiderisk.asp) of a long position.

### Key Takeaways

*   Short selling occurs when an [investor](https://www.investopedia.com/best-online-brokers-4587872) borrows a security and sells it on the open market, planning to repurchase it later for less money.
*   Short sellers are essentially betting that a security's price will fall.
*   Short selling has a high [risk/reward ratio](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/riskrewardratio.asp), offering big profits, but losses can mount quickly and may result in margin calls.

![Short Selling Definition: What Is Shorting Stocks?](https://www.investopedia.com/thmb/MCTEZs1mg1bO2OfxaenXzK6WeCQ=/1500x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/shortselling-final-48f38e2ea0974806af4cde1c24ddedec.png)

*Successful short selling can hinge on timing the market and being alert for bearish developments. — Investopedia / Jessica Olah*

## How Short Selling Works

Traders commonly engage in short selling for speculation and hedging. To open a short position, a trader must have a [margin account](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/marginaccount.asp) with a broker and pay interest on the value of the borrowed shares while the position is open.

The Financial Industry Regulatory Authority (FINRA), which enforces the rules and regulations governing registered brokers and broker-dealer firms in the United States; the [New York Stock Exchange (NYSE)](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/n/nyse.asp); and the [Federal Reserve](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/f/federalreservebank.asp) have set minimum values for the amount that the margin account must maintain—known as the [maintenance margin](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/maintenancemargin.asp).

A broker locates shares that can be borrowed and returns them at the end of the trade. Opening and closing the trade can be done through regular trading platforms with brokers qualified to perform margin trading.

### A Step-by-Step Process for Short Selling

To short-sell a security, traders commonly follow these steps:

*   **Step 1. Open a margin account**: Before they engage in short selling, traders open margin accounts so that they'll be able to borrow shares. Margin accounts require minimum balances (i.e., the maintenance margins), which are used to cover potential losses.
*   **Step 2. Identify a stock to short**: Next, traders analyze financial reports, industry trends, technical indicators, and/or broad market sentiment to identify stocks that may decline in value.
*   **Step 3. Locate borrowable shares**: Before the trader can short-sell, the broker must locate shares that can be borrowed. Brokerage firms now handle this process automatically, finding shares from other clients' accounts or even institutional lenders.
*   **Step 4. Place the short sale order**: The shares will typically be available on the brokerage platform, or a list of shares that can be shorted will be made available to the trader. The trader then enters a market order or a limit order to short the stock.
*   **Step 5. Monitor the position**: After opening the short position, experienced traders actively monitor the market and the stock's performance. Since the trader sold borrowed shares, they're expecting the stock price to decline so that they can repurchase the stock at a lower price. However, if the stock price increases, their losses can grow. In theory, there's no limit to how high a stock price can rise. Traders also need to account for any interest charges on the borrowed shares and keep track of the margin requirements.

> **Important**
>
> If the stock price rises significantly and the value of the trader's account falls below the maintenance margin level, the broker will issue a margin call. This means the trader will need to deposit additional funds into their margin account to bring the account back to the required level. If the trader fails to meet the margin call, the broker may close the position automatically to prevent further losses.

*   **Step 6. Close the short position**: To close the short position, traders must buy back the borrowed shares and return them to the lender. This is known as covering the short. Ideally, the shares are repurchased at a lower price than what the trader sold them for, allowing the trader to keep the difference as profit (less interest charges and commissions). Closing the short position can be achieved by entering a buy order on the brokerage platform for the same number of shares that were sold short.
*   **Step 7. Review the trade outcome**: Experienced traders review the outcome of the transaction after the position is closed. Analyzing the trade's success or failure helps the trader refine their strategy for future short-selling opportunities.

## How to Time a Short Sale

Timing is crucial when it comes to short selling. Stocks typically decline much faster than they increase, and a sizable gain in the stock may be wiped out with an earnings miss or other bearish development. Conversely, entering the trade too early may make it difficult to hold on to the short position in light of the costs involved and potential losses, which rise if the stock increases rapidly. Short sellers commonly look for opportunities during the following conditions:

*   **Bear market**: Traders who believe that “the trend is your friend” have a better chance of making profitable short-sale trades during an entrenched bear market than they would during a strong bull phase. As such, short sellers revel in environments where the market decline is swift, broad, and deep.
*   **Decline in fundamentals**: A stock’s fundamentals can deteriorate for several reasons, including slowing revenue or profit growth, increasing challenges to the business, and rising input costs that pressure margins. Worsening fundamentals could indicate an economic slowdown, adverse geopolitical developments like a threat of war, or bearish technical signals like new highs on decreasing volume.
*   **Bearish technical indicators**: Short sales may succeed when technical indicators confirm the bearish trend. These indicators could include a breakdown below a key long-term support level or a bearish moving average crossover, such as the [death cross](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/deathcross.asp). An example of a bearish moving average crossover occurs when a stock’s 50-day moving average falls below its 200-day moving average. A [moving average](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/movingaverage.asp) is merely the average of a stock’s price over a set period. If the current price breaks the average, either down or up, it can signal a new trend in price.
*   **High valuations**: Occasionally, valuations for certain sectors or the market as a whole may reach highly elevated levels amid rampant optimism for the long-term prospects of such sectors or the broad economy. Market professionals call this phase of the investment cycle “priced for perfection,” since investors will invariably be disappointed at some point when their lofty expectations aren't met. Rather than rushing in on the short side, experienced short sellers may wait until the market or sector rolls over and commences its downward phase.  
    

## Short Selling Costs

Unlike buying and holding stocks or investments, short selling involves significant costs in addition to the usual trading commissions paid to brokers. Some costs include: 

*   **Margin interest**: Since short sales can only be made via margin accounts, the interest payable on short trades can add up, especially if short positions are kept open over an extended period.  
    
*   **Stock borrowing costs**: Shares that are difficult to borrow—because of high short interest, limited float, etc.—have “[hard-to-borrow](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/h/hardtoborrowlist.asp)” fees that can be substantial. The fee is based on an annualized rate that can range from a small fraction of a percent to more than 100% of the value of the short trade and is [prorated](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/pro-rata.asp) for the number of days that the short trade is open. The broker-dealer usually assesses the fee to the client’s account.
*   **Dividends and other costs**: The short seller is responsible for making dividend payments on the shorted stock to the entity from which the stock was borrowed. For [shorted bonds](https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/04/070904.asp), they must pay the lender the coupon or interest owed.

> **Warning**
>
> Shorting is also known as margin trading. Traders borrow money from the brokerage firm using the investment as collateral. Investors must meet the minimum maintenance requirement of 25%. If the account slips below this, traders are subject to a margin call and forced to put in more cash or liquidate their position.

## Short Selling Strategies

### Profit

Imagine a trader who believes that XYZ stock—currently trading at $50—will decline in price in the next three months. They borrow 100 shares and sell them to another investor. The trader is now “short” 100 shares since they sold something they didn't own but had borrowed.

A week later, the company whose [shares were shorted](https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/06/shortedstock.asp) reports dismal financial quarterly results, and the stock falls to $40. The trader closes the short position and buys 100 shares for $40 on the open market to replace the borrowed shares. The trader’s [profit on the short sale](https://www.investopedia.com/news/short-bitcoin/), excluding commissions and interest on the margin account, is $1,000, based on the following calculations: $50 - $40 = $10, and $10 x 100 shares = $1,000 profit.

### Loss

Using the scenario above, suppose the trader didn't close out the short position at $40 but decided to leave it open to capitalize on a further price decline. However, a competitor swoops in to acquire the company with a takeover offer of $65 per share, and the stock soars.

If the trader decides to close the short position at $65, the loss on the short sale would be $1,500, based on the following calculations: $50 - $65 = -$15, and -$15 × 100 shares = $1,500 loss. In this case, the trader had to buy back the shares at a significantly higher price to cover their position.

### Hedge

The [primary objective of hedging](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/active-trading/021715/how-protect-short-position-options.asp) is protection, as opposed to the profit motivation of speculation. Hedging aims to protect gains or mitigate losses in a [portfolio](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/portfolio.asp). The costs of hedging are twofold. First, there's the actual cost of putting on the hedge, such as the expenses associated with short sales or the premiums paid for protective options contracts.

Second, there’s the opportunity cost of capping the portfolio’s upside if markets continue higher. If 50% of a portfolio with a close correlation to the S&P 500 is hedged, and the index moves up 15% over the next 12 months, the portfolio would only record approximately half of that gain, or 7.5%.

> **Tip**
>
> Investors can choose short selling through exchange-traded funds (ETFs), a safer strategy due to the lower risk of a short squeeze. Put options provide an alternative to short selling by enabling investors to profit from a stock price drop without the need for margin.

## Pros and Cons of Short Selling

If the seller predicts the price moves correctly, they can make a positive [return on investment (ROI)](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/r/returnoninvestment.asp), primarily if they use margin to initiate the trade. Using margin provides [leverage](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/l/leverage.asp), which means the trader doesn't need to put up much of their [capital](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/capital.asp) as an initial investment. If done carefully, short selling can be an inexpensive hedge (i.e., a [counterbalance to other portfolio holdings](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/z/zero-investment-portfolio.asp)).

A trader who has [shorted stock can also lose much more](https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/05/shortsaleloss.asp) than 100% of their original investment, as there's no ceiling on a stock’s price. Additionally, while the stocks were held, the trader had to fund the margin account.

When it comes time to close a position, a short seller may have trouble finding enough shares to buy if other traders are shorting the stock or if it's thinly traded. Conversely, sellers can get caught in a [short squeeze](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/shortsqueeze.asp) loop if the market, or a particular stock, starts to skyrocket. A short squeeze happens when a stock rises, and short sellers cover their trades by buying back their short positions.

Pros

*   Possibility of high profits
    
*   Little initial capital required
    
*   Leveraged investments possible
    
*   Hedge against other holdings
    

Cons

*   Potentially unlimited losses
    
*   Margin account necessary
    
*   Margin interest incurred
    
*   Risk of short squeezes
    

## Regulations

Each country [sets restrictions and regulates short selling](https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/012015/why-short-selling-illegal-some-countries-legal-us.asp) in its markets. In the U.S., short selling is regulated by the [Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/sec.asp) under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934. Regulation SHO, implemented in 2005, is the primary rule governing short selling that mandates short sales can only be executed in a tick-up or zero-plus tick market, meaning the security price must be moving upward at the time of the short sale.

According to Regulation SHO, brokers must locate a [party willing to lend the shorted shares](https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/011315/how-it-possible-trade-stock-you-dont-own-done-short-selling.asp), or they must have reasonable grounds to believe that the shares could be borrowed. This prevents naked short selling, where investors sell shares they haven't borrowed.The SEC can impose temporary short-selling bans on specific stocks under certain conditions, such as extreme market volatility.

In October 2023, the SEC added regulations requiring investors to report their short positions to the SEC and companies that lend shares for short selling to report this activity to FINRA. These new rules were implemented amid increased scrutiny of short selling, particularly following the GameStop ([GME](https://www.investopedia.com/markets/quote?tvwidgetsymbol=gme)) [meme stock](https://www.investopedia.com/meme-stock-5206762) craze in 2021, when retail investors drove up the stock price, resulting in losses for hedge funds that had shorted the company.

> **Important**
>
> Regulations vary by region. The European Securities and Markets Authority (ESMA) oversees short selling in the EU. Positions exceeding 0.2% of issued shares must be disclosed to regulators, and those exceeding 0.5% must be publicly disclosed. In Hong Kong, the Securities and Futures Commission (SFC) regulates short selling, which is only allowed for designated securities and must be backed by borrowed shares. Naked short selling is illegal.

## Short Selling Example

Unexpected news events can initiate a short squeeze, forcing short sellers to buy at any price to cover their margin requirements. For example, due to a short squeeze, Volkswagen briefly became the most valuable publicly traded company on Earth.

In 2008, investors knew that Porsche was trying to build a position in Volkswagen and gain majority control. Short sellers expected that once Porsche had achieved control over the company, the stock would likely fall in value, so they heavily shorted the stock. However, in a surprise announcement, Porsche revealed that they had secretly acquired more than 70% of the company using [derivatives](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/derivative.asp), which triggered a massive feedback loop of short sellers buying shares to close their position.

Short sellers were at a disadvantage because 20% of Volkswagen was owned by a government entity that wasn’t interested in selling, and Porsche controlled over 70%, so there were very few shares available on the market to buy back the stock. Essentially, both the short interest and days-to-cover ratio exploded overnight, which caused the stock price to jump from the low €200s to more than €1,000.

## Explain Like I'm 5

Short selling is a type of investment activity wherein an investor sells a borrowed security with the intent of eventually repurchasing it for less. In doing so, the short seller is essentially gambling on whether the security's price will drop sometime in the near future.

This kind of investment can be quite lucrative, but successful short selling depends on how well you can time the sale. If you sell too early, you risk missing out on further profits should the price continue to drop. If the price instead rises, you could end up losing money waiting for it to fall below the purchase price. Commissions, interest on the margin account, and other associated costs can also cut into profits or further compound losses, making it harder to hold a short position for long.

## What Are Short-Selling Metrics?

Short-selling metrics help investors understand whether overall sentiment is [bullish](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/bull.asp) or bearish. The [short interest ratio (SIR)](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/shortinterestratio.asp)—also known as the short float—measures the ratio of shares currently shorted compared to the number of shares available or “floating” in the market. A very high SIR is associated with stocks that are falling or stocks that appear to be overvalued. The short interest-to-volume ratio—also known as the [days-to-cover](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/daystocover.asp) ratio—is the total shares held short divided by the average daily trading volume of the stock. A high value for the days-to-cover ratio is also a [bearish](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/bear.asp) indication for a stock.  

## Why Does Short Selling Have Negative Reputation?

[Short selling gets a bad name](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/investing/110614/why-short-selling-legal-brief-history.asp) due to the practices employed by unethical speculators who have used short-selling strategies and derivatives to deflate prices and conduct bear raids on vulnerable stocks artificially. Most forms of [market manipulation](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/m/manipulation.asp) like this are illegal in the U.S. but may still happen periodically.

## What Is a Short Squeeze?

Because shares are sold on margin in a short sale, relatively small rises in the price can lead to even more significant losses. The holder must buy back their shares at current market prices to close the position and avoid further losses. This need to buy can bid the stock price higher if many people do the same thing, which can ultimately result in a short squeeze.

## The Bottom Line

Short selling allows investors and traders to make money from a down market. Those with a bearish view can borrow shares on margin and sell them in the market, hoping to repurchase them at some point in the future at a lower price. While some have criticized short selling as a bet against the market, many economists believe that the ability to sell short makes markets more efficient and can be a stabilizing force.

> **Article Sources**
>
> 1.  Financial Industry Regulatory Authority. “[Margin Regulation](https://www.finra.org/rules-guidance/key-topics/margin-accounts).”
>     
> 2.  U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. "[Key Points About Regulation SHO](https://www.sec.gov/investor/pubs/regsho.htm)."
>     
> 3.  U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. "[Short Sale Restrictions](https://www.sec.gov/news/speech/2010/spch022410mls-shortsales.htm)."
>     
> 4.  U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. "[Short Position and Short Activity Reporting by Institutional Investment Managers](https://www.sec.gov/files/rules/final/2023/34-98738.pdf)," Pages 296, 299–301.
>     
> 5.  ESMA. "[Short Selling](https://www.esma.europa.eu/esmas-activities/markets-and-infrastructure/short-selling)."
>     
> 6.  IFEC. "[Short Selling](https://www.ifec.org.hk/web/en/investment/investment-products/stock/stock-trading/short-selling.page)."
>     
> 7.  Swiss Finance Institute. “[Market Efficiency and Limits to Arbitrage: Evidence From the Volkswagen Short Squeeze](https://download.ssrn.com/20/08/25/ssrn_id3680677_code623849.pdf?response-content-disposition=inline&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjECcaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJGMEQCIC8CwhLySoTvJgoGfHxUpCkLNtB929z%2BY2h%2F7%2BJuiyemAiAE1Xsz8abkxLSlEEgZDZtshBXjVstXbkys1nmTUMkpbirGBQjA%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F8BEAQaDDMwODQ3NTMwMTI1NyIMUKh65ZlORhCNLfWrKpoFk1vIOi6dFApFO6MXkyUHfwnbga0EMSAaJxNs9%2BfocIXLhqIz6L%2FeDjVNjCvr0CIS6TUAMxaM7BSMJXADVKyAiK9dXZ9dKK9gqwtTZxF07IYskPO4u5qAX6Xe6SrgpqLSiMxQ8H2kp23%2BOWaOaPNKnvhBHCjtpCgEZGVSu6EXAH2CEPWHt0f1uLk9mxdASnRjeZ7qRCVatlYcIHnQgTKKcUKRJjPkAzZW%2BxFiRPVnyekouOpsefuS7ifbG7smGAz7j%2F9TFY377je9qZoF6OiXbKwgRRU2xnqeFDQRxONkhQ2CbE6BUPfwlYMo2yIBo%2Bi7LqJpjQU6ZILF1bL5fxizL9KtkYAE9xC96ODZR8qiRz8QV4vxKma5gaBnpX1WZ6IDwZi6GIr%2BkDwmPrbXos%2Bt8nGLO9LFhv9eYXz6zxh25FlpC6dTCKgH48bDeGwDQWCdLd4WRM%2Bx4hT3OdlobS%2FDs%2BDud86A9n1usJdA0HhNdgGDSMe8E8TorK%2B01ZrO%2BInPN%2FwrhYPYiT7JsXr6IHSs4rHaoNeM8dafkaVa8l%2BAYZCTC7JrVc4spnHrN30Vq6QbEbUvLDpGKw9cc%2BxXdX3LsTk01wUEaRrZQH7DYiIuRRJyLav3x7QDEupqKKDmvqZ2Yb1eQhLgPApRaj1w7yZZfPX8XKsOU5UVw0VSLkTD3DX4CeNXCXNzXzaQkv3ECG51cLSlgB1zCXll9FOnq53CGY54ItNLgzzBckDwl%2FJuEhtzgZ%2FMVJ8RZDn9EzLgzP7bnxIxWPYhd%2B6jI5IG6gO%2F7uCh1zJOxFm243KMNiFHH3kFsJLL46yoPFIdeX7PMstdfNLZyOp5WwMdV78%2FwjLlWrQGmsYwqbHu1t82BGrvSq6u9rzQVBUlAz%2BGMOn6mccGOrIBxcDH%2BZnkRaxODq5jacb7ZR1Utcfb7M34rAKxJFD90mflQm3EVeXyhQT%2FW4r1MkTHWjLUZ2ajmw%2FM%2BWTQlzEIEyukC%2BgosKoYcWCLRFXPUKuuk8x2A0ELw%2BgeiyBimtLpFdyZcs7PBahwspuWwV7%2F9uwTktfLerhHgmbWzd8KyjE3OIb2cGsVeZ2%2BvSWmOnVw27PMxoWvRGrCzILf4gWuVV1A0X3CUvMXy0vXQYKHFTa1pA%3D%3D&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20251008T153946Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAUPUUPRWEU5ODECP7%2F20251008%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=08cfda85b1adf18376e59932e95548286b1b7a3c52d51a3792f6f670ed5ab20d&abstractId=2977019),” Page 11–12 (Page 13–14 of PDF).
>     
> 8.  Swiss Finance Institute. “[Market Efficiency and Limits to Arbitrage: Evidence From the Volkswagen Short Squeeze](https://download.ssrn.com/20/08/25/ssrn_id3680677_code623849.pdf?response-content-disposition=inline&X-Amz-Security-Token=IQoJb3JpZ2luX2VjECcaCXVzLWVhc3QtMSJGMEQCIC8CwhLySoTvJgoGfHxUpCkLNtB929z%2BY2h%2F7%2BJuiyemAiAE1Xsz8abkxLSlEEgZDZtshBXjVstXbkys1nmTUMkpbirGBQjA%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F%2F8BEAQaDDMwODQ3NTMwMTI1NyIMUKh65ZlORhCNLfWrKpoFk1vIOi6dFApFO6MXkyUHfwnbga0EMSAaJxNs9%2BfocIXLhqIz6L%2FeDjVNjCvr0CIS6TUAMxaM7BSMJXADVKyAiK9dXZ9dKK9gqwtTZxF07IYskPO4u5qAX6Xe6SrgpqLSiMxQ8H2kp23%2BOWaOaPNKnvhBHCjtpCgEZGVSu6EXAH2CEPWHt0f1uLk9mxdASnRjeZ7qRCVatlYcIHnQgTKKcUKRJjPkAzZW%2BxFiRPVnyekouOpsefuS7ifbG7smGAz7j%2F9TFY377je9qZoF6OiXbKwgRRU2xnqeFDQRxONkhQ2CbE6BUPfwlYMo2yIBo%2Bi7LqJpjQU6ZILF1bL5fxizL9KtkYAE9xC96ODZR8qiRz8QV4vxKma5gaBnpX1WZ6IDwZi6GIr%2BkDwmPrbXos%2Bt8nGLO9LFhv9eYXz6zxh25FlpC6dTCKgH48bDeGwDQWCdLd4WRM%2Bx4hT3OdlobS%2FDs%2BDud86A9n1usJdA0HhNdgGDSMe8E8TorK%2B01ZrO%2BInPN%2FwrhYPYiT7JsXr6IHSs4rHaoNeM8dafkaVa8l%2BAYZCTC7JrVc4spnHrN30Vq6QbEbUvLDpGKw9cc%2BxXdX3LsTk01wUEaRrZQH7DYiIuRRJyLav3x7QDEupqKKDmvqZ2Yb1eQhLgPApRaj1w7yZZfPX8XKsOU5UVw0VSLkTD3DX4CeNXCXNzXzaQkv3ECG51cLSlgB1zCXll9FOnq53CGY54ItNLgzzBckDwl%2FJuEhtzgZ%2FMVJ8RZDn9EzLgzP7bnxIxWPYhd%2B6jI5IG6gO%2F7uCh1zJOxFm243KMNiFHH3kFsJLL46yoPFIdeX7PMstdfNLZyOp5WwMdV78%2FwjLlWrQGmsYwqbHu1t82BGrvSq6u9rzQVBUlAz%2BGMOn6mccGOrIBxcDH%2BZnkRaxODq5jacb7ZR1Utcfb7M34rAKxJFD90mflQm3EVeXyhQT%2FW4r1MkTHWjLUZ2ajmw%2FM%2BWTQlzEIEyukC%2BgosKoYcWCLRFXPUKuuk8x2A0ELw%2BgeiyBimtLpFdyZcs7PBahwspuWwV7%2F9uwTktfLerhHgmbWzd8KyjE3OIb2cGsVeZ2%2BvSWmOnVw27PMxoWvRGrCzILf4gWuVV1A0X3CUvMXy0vXQYKHFTa1pA%3D%3D&X-Amz-Algorithm=AWS4-HMAC-SHA256&X-Amz-Date=20251008T153946Z&X-Amz-SignedHeaders=host&X-Amz-Expires=300&X-Amz-Credential=ASIAUPUUPRWEU5ODECP7%2F20251008%2Fus-east-1%2Fs3%2Faws4_request&X-Amz-Signature=08cfda85b1adf18376e59932e95548286b1b7a3c52d51a3792f6f670ed5ab20d&abstractId=2977019),” Pages 1, 11–12 (Pages 3, 13–14 of PDF).
>     
> 9.  U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. "[Short Sales](https://www.sec.gov/rules/1999/10/short-sales)."