# Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM) Collapse: Causes and U.S. Intervention

![Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM): A large hedge fund that blew up in 1998, forcing the U.S. government to intervene to prevent financial markets from collapsing.](https://www.investopedia.com/thmb/IFQH9mNwyXzAewODUsuNN9qw-RE=/1500x0/filters:no_upscale():max_bytes(150000):strip_icc()/Longtermcapita_final-92a82f6af4a746ea8eb290ab4b386fa5.png)

*— Investopedia / Michela Buttignol*

## What Was Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM)?

Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM), founded by Nobel Prize-winning economists and renowned Wall Street traders, was a successful [hedge fund](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/h/hedgefund.asp) that faced a catastrophic collapse in 1998. This downfall stemmed from highly leveraged trading strategies and was exacerbated by Russia's debt default, compelling the U.S. government to orchestrate a bailout to avert a potential global [financial crisis](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/f/financial-market.asp).

### Key Takeaways

*   Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM) was a high-profile hedge fund led by Nobel laureates and Wall Street traders that failed spectacularly in 1998.  
    
*   LTCM's investment strategy relied on highly leveraged arbitrage opportunities, which collapsed following Russia's debt default.  
    
*   By 1998, LTCM's leverage meant controlling over $100 billion in assets and holding massive derivative positions valued at more than $1 trillion.  
    
*   The U.S. government coordinated a $3.625 billion bailout to prevent a potential global financial crisis due to LTCM's massive losses.  
    
*   LTCM's failure highlighted the systemic risks associated with excessive leverage in financial markets.

## How Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM) Operated and Succeeded Initially

 Founded in 1994, LTCM quickly became successful, drawing in $3.5 billion from investors by 1998. They promised an arbitrage strategy that exploited temporary market changes to, theoretically, reduce all risk.

However, LTCM's highly [leveraged](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/l/leverage.asp) trading strategies failed to pan out and it suffered monumental losses. The reverberations were felt across the financial landscape and nearly collapsed the global financial system in 1998. Ultimately, the U.S. government had to step in and arrange a [bailout](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/bailout.asp) of LTCM by a consortium of Wall Street banks in order to prevent systemic contagion.

### The Trading Strategies Behind LTCM's Business Model

LTCM began with over $1 billion in assets, focusing on [bond](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/b/bond.asp) trading. They aimed to make convergence trades by exploiting price differences between [securities](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/security.asp). To be successful, these securities must be incorrectly priced relative to one another at the time of the trade.

An example of an arbitrage trade would be a change in [interest rates](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/i/interestrate.asp) not yet adequately reflected in securities prices. This could open opportunities to trade such securities at values different from what they will soon become—once the new rates have been priced in.

> **Fast Fact**
>
> LTCM was formed in 1994 and was founded by renowned Salomon Brothers bond trader John Meriwether, along with Nobel-prize winning Myron Scholes of the Black-Scholes model.

LTCM also dealt in [interest rate swaps](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/i/interestrateswap.asp), which involve the exchange of one series of future interest payments for another, based on a specified principal among two counterparties. Often interest rate swaps consist of changing a [fixed rate for a floating rate](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/f/fixed_floatswap.asp) or vice versa, in order to minimize exposure to general interest rate fluctuations.

Due to the small spread in arbitrage opportunities, LTCM had to leverage itself highly to make money. At the fund’s height in 1998, LTCM had approximately $5 billion in [assets](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/a/asset.asp), controlled over $100 billion, and had derivative positions whose total worth was over $1 trillion. At the time, LTCM also had borrowed more than $155 billion in assets.

## The Collapse of Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM) and Its Impact

 In August 1998, Russia [defaulted](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/d/default2.asp) on its debt, and LTCM held a large position in Russian [government bonds](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/g/government-bond.asp) (GKO). Even as they lost hundreds of millions daily, LTCM's models advised keeping the positions.

LTCM's highly leveraged nature, coupled with a financial crisis in Russia, led the hedge fund to [sustain massive losses](https://www.investopedia.com/articles/investing/101515/3-biggest-hedge-fund-scandals.asp) and be in danger of defaulting on its own loans. This made it difficult for LTCM to cut its losses in its positions. LTCM held huge positions, totaling roughly 5% of the total global [fixed-income](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/f/fixedincome.asp) market, and had borrowed massive amounts of money to finance these leveraged trades.

> **Important**
>
> If LTCM had gone into default, it would have triggered a global financial crisis due to the massive write-offs its creditors would have had to make.

When the losses approached $4 billion, the federal government of the United States feared that the imminent collapse of LTCM would precipitate a larger financial crisis and orchestrated a bailout to calm the markets. A $3.625-billion loan fund was created, which enabled LTCM to pay off enough of its loans over the following months to survive any market volatility and subsequently [liquidate](https://www.investopedia.com/terms/l/liquidate.asp) in a timely and orderly manner in early 2000.

## The Bottom Line

Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM) exemplifies both the potential and perils of high-stakes investment strategies. Founded by finance experts and Nobel laureates, LTCM attracted significant investor capital due to its initially successful arbitrage strategy.

However, its downfall was precipitated by over-leverage and external financial shocks, such as Russia's 1998 debt default. The U.S. government intervened to avert a broader financial crisis, orchestrating a bailout to stabilize markets. This event underscores the importance of managing risk and the potential systemic impact of financial institutions' collapse.  

> **Article Sources**
>
> 1.  Congressional Research Service. "[Systemic Risk And The Long-Term Capital Management Rescue](https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/RL/RL30232/3)." Page 9.
>     
> 2.  Federal Reserve History. "[Near Failure of Long-Term Capital Management](https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/RL/RL30232/3)."
>     
> 3.  CFA Institute. "[Financial Scandals, Scoundrels & Crises Series: Long-Term Capital Management](https://www.econcrises.org/2016/04/18/long-term-capital-management/)."
>     
> 4.  C. T. Bauer, College of Business, University of Houston. "[Case Study: LTCM](https://www.bauer.uh.edu/rsusmel/7386/ltcm-2.htm)."