This colourful foraminifera, a Globigerinoides ruber (G. ruber), was found about 3 meters below the ocean surface near the coast of Puerto Rico. The dark shell at the centre is surrounded by symbiotic algae (the tiny yellow dots) and spines that will fall off when it dies, leaving the shell alone to be preserved in the fossil record. In fact, some ancient ancestors of this G. ruber enabled scientists to double the CO2 proxy record beyond the current 1 million-year age limit for ice cores.
Ice core records provide a high-resolution proxy record of past atmospheres and climates. Scientists combine many types of proxy records to reconstruct environmental conditions from thousands to many millions of years ago. Other examples of proxy evidence include sediments in lakes and oceans, and micro fossils. Multiple records are integrated with observations of the contemporary earth sysem to reconstruct past atmospheres and climates. This scientific work expands our understanding of how the earth system works and it helps predict future climates.
Of significance to the composition of past atmospheres, Bärbel Hönisch and other scientists (2009) analyzed a sediment core taken from the bottom of the Atlantic ocean west of Sierra Leone. From the ancient shells of G. ruber in the sediment core, they developed a high-resolution record of oxygen isotopes (δ18O). This provided evidene showing, among other things, that atmospheric CO2 levels fluctuated between 213 ppm (+30/-28) and 283 ppm (+30/-32) during the period from 900,000 years ago to 2.1 million years ago. This is similar to the range of 172 to 300 ppm established by the ice core record.
Hönisch and her co-investigators did not have air bubbles that were older than 800,000 years. The relied on less direct, geological evidence, to enhance and extend the resolution of knowledge about oceanic and atmospheric CO2 levels by more than a milllion years into 'deep time.'
As for climate states between 2.6 and 5.3 million years ago, during the Pliocene Epoch, atmospheric CO2 levels appear comparable to today, and models suggest that global temperatures were 3°C to 4°C warmer than pre-industrial climates (Yhang et al., 2014).
Scientists have studied the history of this planet since its formation 4.54 billion years ago. Evidence suggests that it has likely been millions of years since atmospheric CO2 and global temperatures were higher than they are today (Hönisch et al., 2009; Yhang et al., 2013; Zhang et al, 2014). As we learn about the past, the facts of warmer climates so long ago has less immediate relevance for our species that emerged just 200,000 years ago. It has less relevance for the stable conditions in which civilization developed over the past 12,000 years.
Human civilization emerged about 12,000 years ago. Socieiteis have developed during a period of relative climate stability when variations in average global temperature were less than temperature changes projected to occur this century.
In the late 1950s, Charles David Keeling figured out how to make precise measurements of CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere. Within two years of starting his measurements, he had discovered a clear seasonal pattern in the background CO2 level. Keeling reported his discovery in a journal article in 1960 (Keeling, 1960). A plot from that article is shown in Figure I (p. 200).
At the Mauan Loa Observatory, Keeling found that the CO2 level rose from about October to May, and it fell a little less about every May to October. This same seasonal cycle can be seen in the most recent CO2 readings at Mauna Loa. See the monthly averages that are plotted below in red:
For comparison, a global average of CO2 readings from monitoring stations in both hemispheres shows an amplitude in the seasonal changes that is smaller than the amplitude at Mauna Loa in the Northern Hemisphere. See the latest global CO2 average from NOAA below.
In 2013, NOAA produced its GlobalView-CO2 animation which is shown below. The animation shows different amplitudes in seasonal changes at different latitudes from the South Pole to the North Pole.
Notice where the seasonal changes are smallest and where they are largest. Can you think of why the amplitude at the Northern Pole is about average? To see the differences in source data, compare atmospheric readings in Barrow, Alaska and the South Pole.
In 2014, NOAA produced a similar animation in an HD video. As you watch, notice the clarity of the longer-term patterns and trends.
Last week Yahoo! Search Marketing updated its PPC gambling policy. It now accepts bids on general sports-related terms without modifiers for gambling clients. Examples include the following:
In essence, prior to this change Yahoo’s Gambling Guidelines did not permit advertisers to bid on keywords such as ‘football’, ‘wimbledon’ – basically general sports related terms (teams, sports, events, gambling games etc) without a modifier. This meant you had to bid on ‘football BET’ or ‘poker WAGER’.
However Yahoo now accept keywords without modifiers, so you can bid on terms such as ‘Arsenal vs Manchester Utd’ or ‘6 nations’…without putting a modifier in (e.g. bet, betting, wager, gamble).
In order to get new terms approved you will need to send these to your representative or support team at Yahoo!, they will then be added to the gambling filter database – and acceptable keywords will be uploaded to your account.
We expect this move is in keeping with Google also loosening their policies on gambling-related terms in recent weeks.
Richard Patch has been named among the best litigators for client service by corporate counsel in BTI’s 2014 Client Service All-Star list.
The annual list, developed by The BTI Consulting Group Inc., is based on direct feedback from general counsel of Fortune 1000 companies recognizing attorneys around the country for their dedication to client service. These lawyers were chosen by corporate counsel for being the most client-friendly due to their commitment to understanding business’ needs and goals and finding the right solution to problems that can seem to have many possible answers.
Patch is one of 142 litigators selected nationally, among only 22 litigators in California, and one of only a handful in a mid-sized firm. As a senior trial and appellate lawyer, Patch is widely regarded as one of the leading cable, satellite and telecommunications lawyers in the country.
“I am honored to have been listed among such other outstanding all-star litigators, especially for recognition in client service, a hallmark of the Coblentz firm’s philosophy and culture. We pride ourselves on providing comparable skills and experience to large, international law firms, yet we deliver focused client service and a creative approach to each case at a better value,” said Richard Patch.