前王朝時期
參考資料

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↑  Ehret, Christopher. . Princeton: Princeton University Press. 20 June 2023: 82–85. ISBN 978-0-691-24409-9 （英语）.
↑  Zakrzewski, Sonia R. . American Journal of Physical Anthropology. April 2007, 132 (4): 501–509. PMID 17295300. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20569 （英语）.
↑  "There is no evidence, no archaeological signal, for a mass migration (settler colonization)" into Egypt from southwest Asia at the time of the writing. Core Egyptian culture was well established. A total peopling of Egypt at this time from the Near East would have meant the mass migration of Semitic speakers. The ancient Egyptian language – using the usual academic language taxonomy – is a branch within Afroasiatic with one member (not counting place of origin/urheimat is within Africa, using standard linguistic criteria based on the locale of greatest diversity, deepest branches, and least moves accounting for its five or six branches or sevem, if Ongota is counted".Template:Verify inline Keita, S. O. Y. . Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections. September 2022.
↑  Wengrow, David; Dee, Michael; Foster, Sarah; Stevenson, Alice; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk. . Antiquity. March 2014, 88 (339): 95–111. ISSN 0003-598X. S2CID 49229774. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00050249  （英语）.
↑  Redford, Donald. . Oxford University Press. 2001: 27–28. ISBN 978-0195102345.
↑  "P2 (PN2) marker, within the E haplogroup, connects the predominant Y chromosome lineage found in Africa overall after the modern human left Africa. P2/M215-55 is found from the Horn of Africa up through the Nile Valley and west to the Maghreb, and P2/V38/M2 is predominant in most of infra-Saharan tropical Africa". Shomarka, Keita. . . Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Routledge. 2022: 111–122. ISBN 978-0367434632.
↑  "Moreover, the available genetic evidence – relating in particular to the M35/215 Y-chromosome lineage – also accords with just this kind of demographic history. This lineage had its origins broadly in the Horn of Africa and East Africa." Ehret, Christopher. . Princeton University Press. 20 June 2023: 97. ISBN 978-0-691-24410-5 （英语）.
↑  Trombetta, B.; Cruciani, F.; Sellitto, D.; Scozzari, R. . PLOS ONE. 2011, 6 (1): e16073. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...616073T. PMC 3017091 . PMID 21253605. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0016073 .
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↑  Anselin, Alain H. . Oxford: Archaeopress. 2011: 43–54. ISBN 978-1407307602.
↑  Stiebing, William H. Jr.; Helft, Susan N. . Taylor & Francis. 3 July 2023: 209–212. ISBN 978-1-000-88066-3 （英语）.
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↑  Redford, Donald B. . Princeton: University Press. 1992: 8. ISBN 9780691036069.  含有內容需登入查看的頁面 (link)
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1 2 3  Gardiner, Alan, Egypt of the Pharaohs (Oxford: University Press, 1964), p. 389.
↑  Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. p.35. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988.
↑  Excell, Karen. . Oxford: Archaeopress. 2011: 43–54. ISBN 978-1407307602.
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1 2  Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. p.24. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988
↑  Gardiner, Alan, Egypt of the Pharaohs (Oxford: University Press, 1964), p. 391.
↑  Newell, G. D. (2012). "A re-examination of the Badarian Culture". MA thesis.
↑  "When Mahalanobis D2 was used,the Naqadan and Badarian Predynastic samples exhibited more similarity to Nubian, Tigrean, and some more southern series than to some mid- to late Dynasticseries from northern Egypt (Mukherjee et al., 1955). The Badarian have been found to be very similar to a Kerma sample (Kushite Sudanese), using both the Penrose statistic (Nutter, 1958) and DFA of males alone (Keita, 1990). Furthermore, Keita considered that Badarian males had a southern modal phenotype, and that together with a Naqada sample, they formed a southern Egyptian cluster as tropical variants together with a sample from Kerma". Zakrzewski, Sonia R. . American Journal of Physical Anthropology. April 2007, 132 (4): 501–509. PMID 17295300. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20569 （英语）.
↑  Keita, S. O. Y. . Journal of Black Studies. 2005, 36 (2): 191–208. ISSN 0021-9347. JSTOR 40034328. S2CID 144482802. doi:10.1177/0021934704265912.
↑  Godde, Kanya. .   [20 February 2022].
↑  S. O. Y., Keita; A. J., Boyce. . Human Biology. 2008, 80 (2): 141–159. ISSN 0018-7143. PMID 18720900. S2CID 25207756. doi:10.3378/1534-6617(2008)80[141:TVIPAO]2.0.CO;2 （英语）.
↑  "Keita (1992), using craniometrics, discovered that the Badarian series is distinctly different from the later Egyptian series, a conclusion that is mostly confirmed here. In the current analysis, the Badari sample more closely clusters with the Naqada sample and the Kerma sample". Godde, K. . Homo: Internationale Zeitschrift für die vergleichende Forschung am Menschen. 2009, 60 (5): 389–404. ISSN 1618-1301. PMID 19766993. doi:10.1016/j.jchb.2009.08.003.
1 2  Ehret, Christopher. . Princeton: Princeton University Press. 20 June 2023: 84–85. ISBN 978-0-691-24409-9 （英语）.
↑  Strohaul, Eugene.  (PDF). Puvodni.MZM.cz: 115.
↑  Keita, S. O. Y. . Journal of Black Studies. November 2005, 36 (2): 191–208. ISSN 0021-9347. S2CID 144482802. doi:10.1177/0021934704265912 （英语）.
1 2 3  Haddow, Scott Donald. . Institute of Archaeology, University College London. January 2012  [2 June 2017].
↑  "When Mahalanobis D2 was used, the Naqadan and Badarian Predynastic samples exhibited more similarity to Nubian, Tigrean, and some more southern series than to some mid- to late Dynasticseries from northern Egypt (Mukherjee et al., 1955). The Badarian have been found to be very similar to a Kerma sample (Kushite Sudanese), using both the Penrose statistic (Nutter, 1958) and DFA of males alone (Keita, 1990). Furthermore, Keita considered that Badarian males had a southern modal phenotype, and that together with a Naqada sample, they formed a southern Egyptian cluster as tropical variants together with a sample from Kerma". Zakrzewski, Sonia R. . American Journal of Physical Anthropology. April 2007, 132 (4): 501–509. PMID 17295300. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20569 （英语）.
↑  Keita, S. O. Y. . History in Africa. 1993, 20: 129–154. ISSN 0361-5413. JSTOR 3171969. S2CID 162330365. doi:10.2307/3171969.
↑  Keita, Shomarka.  (PDF). 1996  [22 February 2022]. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于5 December 2022）.
↑  Godde, K. . Homo: Internationale Zeitschrift für die Vergleichende Forschung am Menschen. 2009, 60 (5): 389–404. ISSN 1618-1301. PMID 19766993. doi:10.1016/j.jchb.2009.08.003.
↑  Godde, Kanya. . Egypt at its Origins 6: Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference "Origin of the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt". Vienna: Peeters. 2020.  已忽略未知参数|orig-date= (帮助)
↑  Keita, Shomarka.  (PDF).   [2022-02-22]. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2022-12-05）.
↑  Lovell, Nancy; Prowse, Tracy. . American Journal of Physical Anthropology. October 1996, 101 (2): 237–246. PMID 8893087. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199610)101:2<237::AID-AJPA8>3.0.CO;2-Z. Table 3 presents the MMD data for Badari, Qena, and Nubia in addition to Naqada and shows that these samples are all significantly different from each other. ... 1) the Naqada samples are more similar to each other than they are to the samples from the neighbouring Upper Egyptian or Lower Nubian sites and 2) the Naqada samples are more similar to the Lower Nubian protodynastic sample than they are to the geographically more proximate Egyptian samples.
↑  Lovell, Nancy; Prowse, Tracy. . American Journal of Physical Anthropology. October 1996, 101 (2): 237–246. PMID 8893087. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199610)101:2<237::AID-AJPA8>3.0.CO;2-Z. ... the Naqada samples are more similar to each other than they are to the samples from the neighbouring Upper Egyptian or Lower Nubian sites ...
↑  Ehret, Christopher. . Princeton: Princeton University Press. 20 June 2023: 82–85, 97. ISBN 978-0-691-24409-9 （英语）.
↑  Shaw, Ian (编). . Oxford University Press. 2000: 479. ISBN 0-19-815034-2.
↑  Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. p.24. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988
1 2  Gardiner, Alan, Egypt of the Pharaohs (Oxford: University Press, 1964), p. 390.
1 2  Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. p. 28. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988
↑  Redford, Donald B. (1992). Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. Princeton: University Press, p. 7.
↑  Gardiner, Alan (1964), Egypt of the Pharaohs. Oxford: University Press, p. 393.
↑  Newell, G. D., "The Relative chronology of PNC I" (Academia.Edu: 2012)
↑  Shaw, Ian (编). . Oxford University Press. 2000: 479. ISBN 0-19-815034-2.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8  Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 16.
1 2  Gardiner, Alan, Egypt of the Pharaohs (Oxford: University Press, 1964), p. 390.
1 2  Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 17.
1 2  Gardiner, Alan, Egypt of the Pharaohs (Oxford: University Press, 1964), p. 391.
1 2  Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. p. 28. Librairie Arthéme Fayard, 1988
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↑  Cooper, Jerrol S. . Eisenbrauns. 1996: 10–14. ISBN 9780931464966 （英语）.
↑  Shaw, Ian & Nicholson, Paul, The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt (London: British Museum Press, 1995), p. 109.
↑  Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 18.
1 2 3  Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 22.
↑  Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. (Princeton: University Press, 1992), p. 20.
↑  Shaw, Ian (编). . Oxford University Press. 2000: 479. ISBN 0-19-815034-2.
↑  . Faiyum.com.   [1 May 2012].
↑  . University College London.   [3 April 2018].
↑  "There is now a sufficient body of evidence from modern studies of skeletal remains to indicate that the ancient Egyptians, especially southern Egyptians, exhibited physical characteristics that are within the range of variation for ancient and modern indigenous peoples of the Sahara and tropical Africa. The distribution of population characteristics seems to follow a clinal pattern from south to north, which may be explained by natural selection as well as gene flow between neighboring populations. In general, the inhabitants of Upper Egypt and Nubia had the greatest biological affinity to people of the Sahara and more southerly areas". Lovell, Nancy C. . Bard, Kathryn A.; Shubert, Steven Blake  (编). . London: Routledge: 328–331. 1999. ISBN 0415185890.
↑  Lovell, Nancy C.  (PDF). Bard, Kathryn A.; Shubert, Steven Blake  (编). . London: Routledge: 328–331. 1999. ISBN 0415185890.
↑  Slayman, Andrew L., , Archaeological Institute of America, May 27, 1998
↑  Wendorf, Fred; Schild, Romuald, , Comparative Archaeology Web, November 26, 2000, （原始内容存档于August 6, 2011）
↑  Margueron, Jean-Claude. . Hachette Éducation. 2012: 380. ISBN 9782011400963 （法语）.
↑  Wendorf, Fred; Schild, Romuald. . Springer Science & Business Media. 2013: 51–53. ISBN 9781461506539 （英语）.
↑  Wendorf, Fred. . New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. 2001: 489–502. ISBN 978-0-306-46612-0.
↑  McKim Malville, J. . . Springer. 2015: 1080–1090. ISBN 978-1-4614-6140-1. doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6141-8_101.
↑  Ehret, Christopher. . Princeton University Press. 20 June 2023: 107. ISBN 978-0-691-24409-9 （英语）.
↑  Malville, J. McKim, , Ruggles, C.L.N.  (编),  2, New York: Springer Science+Business Media: 1079–1091, 2015, ISBN 978-1-4614-6140-1
↑  Belmonte, Juan Antonio, , Ruggles, Clive; Cotte, Michel  (编), , Paris: International Council on Monuments and Sites/International Astronomical Union: 119–129, 2010, ISBN 978-2-918086-07-9
↑  . Digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk.   [1 May 2012].
↑  Shaw (2000), p. 61
↑  Brooks, Nick. . Quaternary International. 2006, 151 (1): 29–49. Bibcode:2006QuInt.151...29B. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2006.01.013.
↑  "Iron beads were worn in Egypt as early as 4000 B.C., but these were of meteoric iron, evidently shaped by the rubbing process used in shaping implements of stone", quoted under the heading "Columbia Encyclopedia: Iron Age" at Iron Age, Answers.com. Also, see History of ferrous metallurgy#Meteoric iron—"Around 4000 BC small items, such as the tips of spears and ornaments, were being fashioned from iron recovered from meteorites" – attributed to R. F. Tylecote, A History of Metallurgy (2nd edition, 1992), p.  3.
阿尔及利亚杰勒法省扎卡尔的阿特拉石器尖端
埃及地圖
下埃及地圖和法尤姆綠洲的位置
战场调色板上的俘虜可能属于布陀-马底文化，被涅伽达三期文化的埃及統治者所征服
拜达里文化的女性墓葬雕像，现藏于羅浮宮
埃及史前陶器風格的演變，從涅伽达一期文化、涅伽达二期文化到涅伽达三期文化
卵形奈加代一期文化（阿姆拉特時期）黑頂陶瓦花瓶，（約西元前 3800-3500 年）。
典型的涅伽达二期文化以船为主题的陶罐
涅伽达三期文化公牛調色板
納巴塔沙漠盆地「日曆」，在阿斯旺努比亞博物館重建。