通用語
外部連結

维基词典中的词条「」。
English - the universal language on the Internet?（页面存档备份，存于）
Lingua franca del Mediterraneo o Sabir of professor Francesco Bruni (in Italian).
Sample texts from Juan del Encina, Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme, Carlo Goldoni's L'Impresario da Smyrna, Diego de Haedo and other sources.
An introduction to the original Mediterranean Lingua Franca.
↑  . www.zgbk.com. 2022-12-23. （原始内容存档于2024-03-08）.
↑  Sue Wright. .   [2023-05-15]. （原始内容存档于2023-05-18）. French has been both an international elite language and the language of a large empire and provides an illustration of many of the points made about lingua francas. Its rise and fall show the complex relationship that lingua francas have to power. Interestingly, its spread as the major European lingua franca in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries predates its adoption as the national language of all those on French territory.
↑  "vehicular, adj." OED Online. Oxford University Press, July 2018. Web. 1 November 2018.
↑   (PDF).   [2020-07-13]. ISBN 9789279189876. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2020-02-27）.
↑  Intro Sociolinguistics （页面存档备份，存于） – Pidgin and Creole Languages: Origins and Relationships – Notes for LG102, – University of Essex, Prof. Peter L. Patrick – Week 11, Autumn term.
↑  Romaine, Suzanne. . Longman. 1988.
↑  . 3 April 2015  [29 April 2019]. （原始内容存档于2020-08-21）.
↑  . Teacher Finder.   [29 April 2019]. （原始内容存档于2020-08-21）.
↑  Directorate-General for Translation, European Commission.  (PDF). Europa (web portal). 2011  [2020-07-13]. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2012-11-15）.
↑  Bae, Chul-hyun. . Journal of Universal Language. 2004-03-31, 5 (1): 1–20  [2020-07-13]. ISSN 1598-6381. doi:10.22425/jul.2004.5.1.1. （原始内容存档于2018-12-21） （英语）.
↑  Ostler, 2005 pp. 38–40
↑  Ostler, 2010 pp. 163–167
1 2 3 4 5 6 7  Howard, Michael C. . McFarland. 2014-01-10: 21  [2020-03-01]. ISBN 978-0-7864-9033-2. （原始内容存档于2021-04-12） （英语）.
1 2 3  Andriotis, Nikolaos P. History of the Greek language
↑  胡适. . 百花文艺出版社. ISBN 7530632493.
↑  Mohammad Tahsin Siddiqi, , University of Wisconsin, 1994, ... Hindustani is the lingua franca of both India and Pakistan ...
↑  Pulsipher, Lydia Mihelic; Pulsipher, Alex; Hapke, Holly M. . Macmillan. 2005-01-05  [2020-12-30]. ISBN 978-0-7167-1904-5. （原始内容存档于2020-08-24） （英语）. ... By the time of British colonialism, Hindustani was the lingua franca of all of northern India and what is today Pakistan ...
↑  . Government of India Ministry of Human Resource Development Department of Education.   [16 May 2016]. （原始内容存档于2012-02-22）.
↑  Chandra, Abhimanyu. . Scroll.in.   [2020-12-30]. （原始内容存档于2016-12-11） （美国英语）.
↑  .   [2020-07-13]. （原始内容存档于2020-08-03）.
↑  Roychowdhury, Adrija (27 February 2018). "How Hindi Became Arunachal Pradesh's Lingua Franca." （页面存档备份，存于） The Indian Express. Retrieved 12 March 2019.
↑  Mollin, Sandra. . Tübingen: Narr. 2005. ISBN 382336250X.
↑  . United Nations.   [25 January 2008]. （原始内容存档于2007-10-12）.
↑  Canfield L., Robert. . Cambridge University Press. 2002: 12. ISBN 9780521522915.
↑  Hodgson, Marshall G. S. .  2. Chicago, USA. 1974: 293.
↑  Hodgson says, "It could even be said that Islamicate civilization, historically, is divisible in the more central areas into an earlier 'caliphal' and a later 'Persianate' phase; with variants in the outlying regions—Maghrib, Sudanic lands, Southern Seas, India,... (p. 294)"
↑  Houston, Stephen; Robertson, John; Stuart, David. . Current Anthropology. 2000-06, 41 (3): 321–356  [2020-12-29]. ISSN 0011-3204. doi:10.1086/300142. （原始内容存档于2021-04-12） （英语）.
↑  Kettunen & Helmke 2014，第13頁. sfn error: no target: CITEREFKettunenHelmke2014 (help)
↑  Kerry M. Hull. . 2019  [2020-03-02]. （原始内容存档于2021-04-12）.
↑  Houston, S, J Robertson, and D Stuart. "The language of Classic Maya inscriptions." Current Anthropology 41.3 (2000): 321-356. Print.
↑  Rupley, Lawrence; Bangali, Lamissa; Diamitani, Boureima (2013). Historical Dictionary of Burkina Faso. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 123
↑  . University of Cambridge.   [2021-04-02]. （原始内容存档于2021-02-08）.
↑  .   [2023-08-25]. （原始内容存档于2023-08-25）.
↑  Bokamba, Eyamba G. . McLaughlin, Fiona  (编). . London, New York: Continuum. 2009: 50–70  [21 July 2011]. ISBN 978-1-84706-116-4. （原始内容存档于2021-04-12）.
↑  Nurse & Thomas Spear (1985) The Swahili
↑  Meyer, Ronny. . Lissan: Journal of African Languages and Linguistics. 2006, 20 (1/2): 117–131  [2021-04-02]. （原始内容存档于2021-04-24） –Academia.edu （英语）.
↑  Irving Kaplan. . 1977: 72  [2022-09-12]. （原始内容存档于2022-10-14）.
↑  . Nations Online Project.   [2021-04-02]. （原始内容存档于2021-05-13）.
1 2  . Encyclopædia Britannica. 27 August 2014  [29 April 2019]. （原始内容存档于2019-07-23）.
↑  E. A. Alpers, Ivory and Slaves in East Central Africa, London, 1975.., pp. 98–99 ; T. Vernet, "Les cités-Etats swahili et la puissance omanaise (1650–1720), Journal des Africanistes, 72(2), 2002, pp. 102–105.
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