残割女性生殖器
参考资料

↑  Samuel Waje Kunhiyop, African Christian Ethics, Zondervan, 2008, p. 297: "Nowhere in all of Scripture or in any of recorded church history is there even a hint that women were to be circumcised."
For missionaries, Jocelyn Murray, "The Church Missionary Society and the 'Female Circumcision' Issue in Kenya 1929–1932" （页面存档备份，存于）, Journal of Religion in Africa, 8(2), 1976, pp. 92–104.
↑  Shaye J. D. Cohen, Why Aren't Jewish Women Circumcised? Gender and Covenant In Judaism, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005, p. 59 （页面存档备份，存于）; Adele Berlin (ed.), "Circumcision," The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion, New York: Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 173.
↑  Mary Knight, "Curing Cut or Ritual Mutilation?: Some Remarks on the Practice of Female and Male Circumcision in Graeco-Roman Egypt" （页面存档备份，存于）, Isis, 92(2), June 2001 (pp. 317–338), p. 330.
Also see Adriaan de Buck and Alan H. Gardiner, The Egyptian Coffin Texts, Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1961, Vol. 7, pp. 448–450.
↑  Mackie 1996 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 1003; Abusharaf 2007, p. 2.
↑  Mackie 2000, pp. 264, 267; UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 30; Shell-Duncan and Hernlund 2000, p. 13; Mackie 1996 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 1003.
Also see C. G. Seligman, "Aspects of the Hamitic problems in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan" （页面存档备份，存于）,The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 1913, 40(3), (pp. 593–705), pp. 639–646; Esther K. Hicks, Infibulation: Female Mutilation in Islamic Northeastern Africa, Transaction Publishers, 1996, p. 19ff.
↑  Knight 2001 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 330. Knight adds that Egyptologists are uncomfortable with the translation to uncircumcised, because there is no information about what constituted the circumcised state.
Paul F. O'Rourke, "The 'm't-Woman" （页面存档备份，存于）, Zeitschrift für Ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde, 134(2), February 2007 (pp. 166–172), pp. 166ff (hieroglyphs), 172 (menstruating woman). doi:10.1524/zaes.2007.134.2.166
↑  Knight 2001 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 329–330; F. G. Kenyon, Greek Papyri in the British Museum, British Museum, 1893, pp. 31–32 (also here ).
↑  Knight 2001 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 331, citing G. Elliot Smith, A Contribution to the Study of Mummification in Egypt, Cairo: L'Institut Egyptien, 1906, p. 30, and Marc Armand Ruffer, Studies in the Paleopathology of Egypt, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1921, p. 171.
↑  Knight 2001 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 318.
↑  Strabo, Geographica, Book VII, chapter 2, 17.2.5. Cohen 2005, p. 59ff （页面存档备份，存于）, argues that Strabo conflated the Jews with the Egyptians).
↑  Knight 2001 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 326.
↑  Knight 2001 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 333.
↑  Knight 2001 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 326 (Knight writes that the attribution to Galen is suspect).
↑  Knight 2001 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 327–328 (a paragraph break has been added for ease of reading).
↑  Knight 2001 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 328.
↑  Mackie 1996 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 1003.
↑  Mackie 1996 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 1009.
↑  J. F. C. "Isaac Baker Brown, F.R.C.S.", Medical Times and Gazette, 8 February 1873, p. 155.
↑  Sarah W. Rodriguez, "Rethinking the History of Female Circumcision and Clitoridectomy: American Medicine and Female Sexuality in the Late Nineteenth Century" （页面存档备份，存于）, Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 63(3), July 2008, pp. 323–347. PMID 18065832 doi:10.1093/jhmas/jrm044
↑  Robert Thomas, The Modern Practice of Physick, London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, 1813, pp. 585–586.
Edward Shorter, From Paralysis to Fatigue: A History of Psychosomatic Illness in the Modern Era, New York: Simon and Schuster, 2008, p. 82 （页面存档备份，存于）.
↑  Shorter 2008, p. 82 （页面存档备份，存于）; Uriel Elchalal, et al., "Ritualistic Female Genital Mutilation: Current Status and Future Outlook" （页面存档备份，存于）, Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey, 52(10), October 1997, pp. 643–651. PMID 9326757
↑  Elchalal, et al, 1997 （页面存档备份，存于）; Peter Lewis Allen, The Wages of Sin: Sex and Disease, Past and Present, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000, p. 106 （页面存档备份，存于）.
↑  J. F. C. 1873, p. 155; Allen 2000, p. 106 （页面存档备份，存于）.
↑  John Black, "Female genital mutilation: a contemporary issue, and a Victorian obsession" （页面存档备份，存于）, Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 90, July 1997 (pp. 402–405), p. 403, 404–405. PMID 9290425 PMC 1296388
Allen 2000, p. 106 （页面存档备份，存于）; also see Elizabeth Sheehan, "Victorian Clitoridectomy: Isaac Baker Brown and His Harmless Operative Procedure" （页面存档备份，存于）, Medical Anthropology Newsletter, 12(4), August 1981. PMID 12263443
↑  Deborah Kuhn McGregor, From Midwives to Medicine: The Birth of American Gynecology, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1998, p. 146.
↑  John Milton Hoberman, Testosterone Dreams: Rejuvenation, Aphrodisia, Doping, University of California Press, 2005, p. 63.
↑  Lawrence Cutner, "Female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于）, Obstetrical & Gynecological Survey, 40(7), July 1985, pp. 437–443. PMID 4022475 Cited in Nawal M. Nour, "Female Genital Cutting: A Persisting Practice" （页面存档备份，存于）, Reviews in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 1(3), Summer 2008, pp. 135–139. PMID 19015765 PMC 2582648Also see G. J. Barker-Benfield, The Horrors of the Half-Known Life: Male Attitudes Toward Women and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century America, New York: Routledge, 1999, p. 113.
↑  Kenneth Mufuka, "Scottish Missionaries and the Circumcision Controversy in Kenya, 1900–1960" （页面存档备份，存于）, International Review of Scottish Studies, 28, 2003, p. 55.
↑  Lynn M. Thomas,"'Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': Lessons from Colonial Campaigns to Ban Excision in Meru, Kenya" in Shell-Duncan and Hernlund, 2000, p. 132 （页面存档备份，存于）.
For irua, Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya, New York: Vintage Books, 1962 [1938], p. 129; for irugu being outcasts, Kenyatta, p. 127, and Zabus 2008, pp. 48–49.
↑  Kenyatta 1962 [1938], pp. 127–130.
↑  Klaus Fiedler, Christianity and African Culture, Leiden: Brill, 1996, p. 75.
↑  Boddy 2007, pp. 241–245 （页面存档备份，存于）.
Also see Ronald Hyam, Empire and Sexuality: The British Experience, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990; Murray 1976 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 92–104.
↑  Thomas 2000, p. 132; for the "sexual mutilation of women", Karanja 2009, p. 93 （页面存档备份，存于）, n. 631.
Also see Robert Strayer, Jocelyn Murray, "The CMS and Female Circumcision", in Robert Strayer (ed.), The Making of Missionary Communities in East Africa, New York: State University of New York Press, 1978, p. 139ff.
↑  Boddy 2007, pp. 241 （页面存档备份，存于）, 244 （页面存档备份，存于）.
Dana Lee Robert, American Women in Mission: A Social History of Their Thought and Practice, Macon: Mercer University Press, 1996, p. 230.
↑  Thomas 2000, pp. 129–131 （页面存档备份，存于） (p. 131 for the girls as "central actors"); Lynn Thomas, Politics of the Womb: Women, Reproduction, and the State in Kenya, Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003, pp. 89–91.
Also see Lynn M. Thomas, Ngaitana (I will circumcise myself)': The Gender and Generational Politics of the 1956 Ban on Clitoridectomy in Meru, Kenya" （页面存档备份，存于）, Gender and History, 8(3), November 1996, pp. 338–363.
Kenya banned FGM in 2011; see UNFPA–UNICEF 2012 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 14.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 10, calls the Egyptian Doctors' Society opposition the "first known campaign" against FGM; for independence, Boddy 2007, p. 147.
↑  Boddy 2007, pp. 202, 299.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 2, 9.
↑  Elizabeth Heger Boyle, Female Genital Cutting: Cultural Conflict in the Global Community, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002, pp. 92, 103.
↑  Boyle 2002, p. 41.
↑  Bagnol and Mariano 2011, p. 281.
↑  Gruenbaum 2001, p. 22.
Homa Khaleeli, "Nawal El Saadawi: Egypt's radical feminist" （页面存档备份，存于）, The Guardian, 15 April 2010.
Jenna Krajeski, "The Books of Nawal El Saadawi" （页面存档备份，存于）, The New Yorker, 7 March 2011.
Jenna Krajeski, "Rebellion" （页面存档备份，存于）, The New Yorker, 14 March 2011.
↑  Nawal El Saadawi, The Hidden Face of Eve, London: Zed Books, 2007 [1980], p. 14.
↑  Hayes 1975 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 618; Gruenbaum 2001, p. 21.
↑  Yoder and Khan 2008 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 2.
↑  Mackie 2003 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 139.
↑  Hosken 1994 [1979], p. 5.
↑  Boyle 2002, p. 47; Bagnol and Mariano 2011, p. 281.
↑  Shahira Ahmed, "Babiker Badri Scientific Association for Women's Studies", in Abusharaf 2007, pp. 176–180.
↑  Ahmed 2007, p. 180.
↑  Anika Rahman and Nahid Toubia, Female Genital Mutilation: A Guide to Laws and Policies Worldwide, New York: Zed Books, 2000, p. 10–11; for Vienna, UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于） p. 8.
↑  Emma Bonino, "A brutal custom: Join forces to banish the mutilation of women" （页面存档备份，存于）, The New York Times, 15 September 2004; Maputo Protocol, pp. 7–8.
1 2  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 8.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 8–9;UNFPA–UNICEF 2012 annual report （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 12].
↑  "48/104. Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women" （页面存档备份，存于）, United Nations General Assembly, 20 December 1993.
Charlotte Feldman-Jacobs, "Commemorating International Day of Zero Tolerance to Female Genital Mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于）, Population Reference Bureau, February 2009.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 15; Francesca Moneti, David Parker, The Dynamics of Social Change （页面存档备份，存于）, Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, October 2010, p. 6.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 15; Michael Miller and Francesca Moneti, Changing a harmful social convention: Female genital cutting/mutilation （页面存档备份，存于）, Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, 2005.
↑  WHO 2008 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 8; Yoder, Wang and Johansen, 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 190.
↑  "No time to lose: New UNICEF data show need for urgent action on female genital mutilation and child marriage" （页面存档备份，存于）, UNICEF, 22 July 2014; "Girl Summit" （页面存档备份，存于）, The Guardian.
↑  "UNFPA–UNICEF Joint Programme on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Accelerating Change"[], Volume 1, 2008–2012, September 2013, p. viii.
↑  2013 UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme evaluation[], p. 38.
↑  "Joint Programme on the Abandonment of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting. Funding Proposal for a Phase II"[], UNFPA–UNICEF, January 2014.
"Joint Programme on the Abandonment of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting. Management Response and Key Actions" （页面存档备份，存于）, UNFPA–UNICEF, 19 February 2014.
↑  2013 UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme evaluation[], pp. 4, 16–17; for alternative rites of passage and the Saleema initiative, pp. 22–23.
↑  UNFPA–UNICEF 2012 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 48.
↑  UNFPA–UNICEF 2012 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 12–13.
↑  UNICEF 2005 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 4.
↑  Australia: "Review of Australia's Female Genital Mutilation Legal Framework" （页面存档备份，存于）, Attorney General's Department, Government of Australia.
New Zealand: "Section 204A – Female genital mutilation – Crimes Act 1961" （页面存档备份，存于）, New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office.
Europe: "Eliminating female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于）, European Commission.
United States: "18 U.S. Code § 116 – Female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于）, Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School.
Canada: Section 268 （页面存档备份，存于）, Criminal Code.
↑  Birgitta Essén, Sara Johnsdotter, "Female Genital Mutilation in the West: Traditional Circumcision versus Genital Cosmetic Surgery", Acta Obstetricia Gynecologica Scandinavica, 83(7), July 2004 (pp. 611–613), p. 611. PMID 15225183
↑  Boyle 2002 p. 97.
↑  Clyde H. Farnsworth, "Canada Gives Somali Mother Refugee Status" （页面存档备份，存于）, The New York Times, 21 July 1994.
↑  Section 268 （页面存档备份，存于）, Criminal Code; UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 8.
Also see Audrey Macklin, "The Double-Edged Sword: Using the Criminal Law Against Female Genital Mutilation," in Abusharaf 2007, p. 211ff; "Female Genital Cutting" （页面存档备份，存于）, Clinical practice guidelines, No. 299, The Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada, November 2013.
↑  Also see Mobina S. B. Jaffer, "Criminal Code, Bill to Amend – Second Reading （页面存档备份，存于）, Debates of the Senate (Hansard), 1st Session, 41st Parliament, 148(79), 15 May 2012.
↑  Wanda K. Jones, et al., "Female Genital Mutilation/Female Circumcision: Who Is at Risk in the U.S.?" （页面存档备份，存于）, Public Health Reports, 112, September/October 1997 (pp. 368–377), p. 372.
↑  Julie Turkewitz, "Effects of Ancient Custom Present New Challenge to U.S. Doctors: Genital Cutting Cases Seen More as Immigration Rises" （页面存档备份，存于）, The New York Times, 6 February 2015.
Alexandra Topping, "FGM affects three times more people in the US than previously thought" （页面存档备份，存于）, The Guardian, 5 February 2015.
↑  Patricia Dysart Rudloff, "In Re: Oluloro: Risk of female genital mutilation as 'extreme hardship' in immigration proceedings" （页面存档备份，存于）, 26 Saint Mary's Law Journal, 877, 1995.
↑  Nussbaum 1999, pp. 118–119.
Celia W. Dugger, "June 9–15; Asylum From Mutilation",The New York Times, 16 June 1996.
"In re Fauziya KASINGA, file A73 476 695" （页面存档备份，存于）, U.S. Department of Justice, Executive Office for Immigration Review, decided 13 June 1996.
↑  Alida Yvonne Lasker, "NOTE: Solomon's Choice: The Case for Granting Derivative Asylum to Parents" （页面存档备份，存于）, 32 Brooklyn Journal of International Law, 231, 2006.
↑  "§116. Female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于）, U.S. Government Printing Office; "18 U.S. Code § 116 – Female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于）, Legal Information Institute, Cornell University Law School.
"Legislation on Female Genital Mutilation in the United States" （页面存档备份，存于）, Center for Reproductive Rights, November 2004, p. 3.
Abusharaf 2007, p. 22.
Susan Deller Ross, Women's Human Rights: The International and Comparative Law Casebook, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008, pp. 509–511 （页面存档备份，存于）.
↑  "Public Law 112–239 - Jan. 2, 2013 - National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2013" （页面存档备份，存于）, 2 January 2013, Sec 1088, p. 340.
↑  Current policy: "Female Genital Mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于）, Pediatrics, 102(1), 1 July 1998, pp. 153–156. PMID 9651425
Withdrawn policy: "Ritual Genital Cutting of Female Minors" （页面存档备份，存于）, Pediatrics, 25(5), 1 May 2010, pp. 1088–1093. PMID 20530070 doi:10.1542/peds.2010-0187
Pam Belluck, "Group Backs Ritual 'Nick' as Female Circumcision Option" （页面存档备份，存于）, The New York Times, 6 May 2010.Susan Bewley, Sarah Creighton and Comfort Momoh, "Female genital mutilation: Paediatricians should resist its medicalisation" （页面存档备份，存于）, British Medical Journal, 340(7760), 19 June 2010, pp. 1317–1318.
↑  "Man gets 10-year sentence for circumcision of 2-year-old daughter" （页面存档备份，存于）, Associated Press, 1 November 2006.In 2014 President Barack Obama spoke about FGM for the first time, calling it "a tradition that's barbaric and should be eliminated"; see Nedra Pickler, "Obama To Rename Africa Young Leaders Program For Nelson Mandela" （页面存档备份，存于）, Huffington Post, 28 July 2014.
↑  Douglas Martin, "Efua Dorkenoo Dies at 65; Key Foe of Genital Cutting in Africa, Middle East" （页面存档备份，存于）, The New York Times, 27 October 2014.
Efua Dorkenoo, Cutting the Rose: Female Genital Mutilation, the Practice and its Prevention, London: Minority Rights Group, 1994.
↑  Yoder, Wang and Johansen, 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 195.
1 2 3  Renée Kool and Sohail Wahedi, "Criminal Enforcement in the Area of Female Genital Mutilation in France, England and the Netherlands: A Comparative Law Perspective" （页面存档备份，存于）, International Law Research, 3(1), 2014, pp. 3–5. doi:10.5539/ilr.v3n1p1
↑  Colette Gallard, "Female genital mutilation in France" （页面存档备份，存于）, British Medical Journal, 310, 17 June 1995, p. 1592. PMID 7787655 PMC 2549952That one girl was three months old, Megan Rowling "France reduces genital cutting with prevention, prosecutions – lawyer" （页面存档备份，存于）, Thomson Reuters Foundation, 27 September 2012.
1 2  Megan Rowling. . Thomson Reuters Foundation. 2012-09-27  [2020-09-11]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-06-03）.
↑  For 1982, Gallard 1995 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 1593; for 1993, Farnsworth (New York Times) 1994 （页面存档备份，存于）.
↑  David Gollaher（英语：）, Circumcision: A History of the World's Most Controversial Surgery, New York: Basic Books, 2000, p. 189.
↑  Alison Macfarlane and Efua Dorkenoo, "Female Genital Mutilation in England and Wales" （页面存档备份，存于）, City University of London and Equality Now, 21 July 2014, p. 3.

"Female genital mutilation: the case for a national plan", House of Commons Home Affairs Committee, Second Report of Session 2014–15.

Also see "Female Genital Mutilation: Report of a Research Methodological Workshop on Estimating the Prevalence of FGM in England and Wales" （页面存档备份，存于）, Equality Now, 22–23 March 2012.

For an earlier report, Efua Dorkenoo, Linda Morison, Alison Macfarlane, "A Statistical Study to Estimate the Prevalence of Female Genital Mutilation in England and Wales" （页面存档备份，存于）, FORWARD, October 2007.

J. A. Black, G. D. Debelle, "Female genital mutilation in Britain" （页面存档备份，存于）, British Medical Journal, 310, 17 June 1995. PMID 7787654 PMC 2549951 doi:10.1136/bmj.310.6994.1590
↑  Kool and Wahedi 2014 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 5–7; "Prohibition of Female Circumcision Act 1985" （页面存档备份，存于）, legislation.gov.uk.
↑  "Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003" （页面存档备份，存于） and "Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation (Scotland) Act 2005" （页面存档备份，存于）, legislation.gov.uk.
↑  "Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003" （页面存档备份，存于）, legislation.gov.uk, and "Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003" （页面存档备份，存于） (legal guidance), Crown Prosecution Service: "The Act refers to 'girls', though it also applies to women."
↑  "Concluding observations on the seventh periodic report of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland" （页面存档备份，存于）, United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women, 26 July 2013, p. 6, paras 36, 37.
↑  Sandra Laville, "Doctor found not guilty of FGM on patient at London hospital" （页面存档备份，存于）, The Guardian, 4 February 2015.
↑  Silverman 2004 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 420 (for the quote), 427.
↑  Vicky Kirby, "Out of Africa: 'Our Bodies Ourselves?'" in Obioma Nnaemeka (ed.), Female Circumcision and the Politics of Knowledge: African Women in Imperialist Discourses, Westport: Praeger, 2005, p. 83.
↑  Obioma Nnaemeka, "African Women, Colonial Discourses, and Imperialist Interventions: Female Circumcision as Impetus," in Nnaemeka 2005, p. 33.
↑  Nnaemeka 2005, p. 34.
↑  Nnaemeka 2005, pp. 34–35.
1 2  Tamale 2011, pp. 19–20.
↑  Christine J. Walley, "Searching for 'Voices': Feminism, Anthropology, and the Global Over Female Genital Operations" in James and Robertson 2002, pp. 18, 34 (for false consciousness), 43.
For the statement, Bagnol and Mariano 2011, p. 281; for Hosken, Daly and Lightfoot-Klein, Robertson 2002, p. 60 （页面存档备份，存于）.
↑  Chima Korieh, "'Other' Bodies: Western Feminism, Race and Representation in Female Circumcision Discourse," in Nnaemeka 2005, pp. 121–122 （页面存档备份，存于）.
For the photographs, "Stephanie Welsh" （页面存档备份，存于）, 1996 Pulitzer Prize winners; for other examples, Nnaemeka 2005, pp. 30–33.
↑  Nnaemeka 2005, pp. 38–39.
↑  Sara Johnsdotter and Birgitta Essén, "Genitals and ethnicity: the politics of genital modifications" （页面存档备份，存于）, Reproductive Health Matters, 18(35), 2010 (pp. 29–37), p. 32. PMID 20541081 doi:10.1016/S0968-8080(10)35495-4
Samar A. Farage, "Female Genital Alteration: A Sociological Perspective", in Miranda A. Farage and Howard I. Maibach (eds.), The Vulva: Anatomy, Physiology, and Pathology, New York: Informa Healthcare USA, 2006, p. 267.
Marge Berer, "It's female genital mutilation and should be prosecuted" （页面存档备份，存于）, British Medical Journal, 334(7608), 30 June 2007, p. 1335. PMID 17599983 PMC 1906631 doi:10.1136/bmj.39252.646042.3A
↑  Ronán M. Conroy, "Female genital mutilation: whose problem, whose solution?" （页面存档备份，存于）, British Medical Journal, 333(7559), 15 July 2006. PMID 16840444 PMC 1502236
↑  El Guindi 2007, p. 33.
↑  Lora Wildenthal, The Language of Human Rights in West Germany, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012, p. 148.
↑  Obermeyer 1999 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 94.
↑  Rahim (Tahrir Institute) 2014 （页面存档备份，存于）.
↑  WHO 2008 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 28.
↑  Johnsdotter and Essén 2010 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 33.
↑  Johnsdotter and Essén 2010 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 33; Essén and Johnsdotter 2004, p. 613.
↑  Nussbaum 1999, pp. 123–124.

Also see Yael Tamir, "Hands Off Clitoridectomy" （页面存档备份，存于）, Boston Review, Summer 1996.

Martha Nussbaum, "Double Moral Standards?" （页面存档备份，存于）, Boston Review, October/November 1996.
↑  Nancy Ehrenreich, Mark Barr, （页面存档备份，存于）页面存档备份，存于）页面存档备份，存于）页面存档备份，存于）页面存档备份，存于） （页面存档备份，存于） （页面存档备份，存于） （页面存档备份，存于） （页面存档备份，存于） "Intersex Surgery, Female Genital Cutting, and the Selective Condemnation of 'Cultural Practices'" （页面存档备份，存于）, Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review, 40(1), 2005 (pp. 71–140), pp. 74–75.

Also see Cheryl Chase, "'Cultural Practice' or 'Reconstructive Surgery'? US Genital Cutting, the Intersex Movement, and Medical Double Standards", in James and Robertson (eds.) 2002, pp. 126–151.