科学哲学
引用和注释

↑  . www.britannica.com.   [2025-01-14] （英语）.
↑  Thornton, Stephen. . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2006  [2007-12-01]. （原始内容存档于2007-06-27）.
↑  Laudan, Larry. . Adolf Grünbaum, Robert Sonné Cohen, Larry Laudan  (编). . Springer. 1983. ISBN 90-277-1533-5.
↑  Uebel, Thomas. . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2006  [2007-12-01]. （原始内容存档于2007-06-26）.
↑  Popper, Karl.  reprint. London & New York: Routledge Classics. 2004. ISBN 0-415-27844-9  First published 1959 by Hutchinson & Co.
↑ Hansson, Sven Ove. . Zalta, Edward N. (编). Fall 2021. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2021.
For example, Hewitt et al. Conceptual Physical Science Addison Wesley; 3 edition (July 18, 2003) ISBN 978-0-321-05173-8, Bennett et al. The Cosmic Perspective 3e Addison Wesley; 3 edition (July 25, 2003) ISBN 978-0-8053-8738-4; See also, e.g., Gauch HG Jr. Scientific Method in Practice (2003).
A 2006 National Science Foundation report on Science and engineering indicators quoted Michael Shermer（英语：）'s (1997) definition of pseudoscience: '"claims presented so that they appear [to be] scientific even though they lack supporting evidence and plausibility"(p. 33). In contrast, science is "a set of methods designed to describe and interpret observed and inferred phenomena, past or present, and aimed at building a testable body of knowledge open to rejection or confirmation"(p. 17)'.Shermer M. . New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. 1997. ISBN 0-7167-3090-1.  as cited by National Science Foundation; Division of Science Resources Statistics. . . 2006  [2015-10-01]. （原始内容存档于2011-08-22）.
"A pretended or spurious science; a collection of related beliefs about the world mistakenly regarded as being based on scientific method or as having the status that scientific truths now have," from the Oxford English Dictionary, second edition 1989.
↑  .   [2025-01-14]. （原始内容存档于2005-03-04）.
↑  Hempel, Carl G.; Oppenheim, Paul. . Philosophy of Science. 1948-04, 15 (2): 135-175. ISSN 0031-8248. doi:10.1086/286983 （英语）.
↑  Salmon, Merrilee; John Earman; Clark Glymour; James G. Lenno; Peter Machamer; J.E. McGuire; John D. Norton; Wesley C. Salmon; Kenneth F. Schaffner. . Prentice-Hall. 1992. ISBN 0-13-663345-5.
↑  Salmon, Wesley. . Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press. 1971.
1 2  Woodward, James. . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2003  [2007-12-07]. （原始内容存档于2007-07-06）.
1 2  Vickers, John. . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2013  [2014-02-25]. （原始内容存档于2014-04-07）.
↑  Baker, Alan. . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2013  [2014-02-25]. （原始内容存档于2014-03-26）.
1 2  Bogen, Jim. . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2013  [2014-02-25]. （原始内容存档于2014-02-27）.
↑  Levin, Michael. . Jarrett Leplin  (编). . Berkeley: University of California Press. 1984: 124–1139. ISBN 0-520-05155-6.
1 2  Boyd, Richard. . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2002  [2007-12-01]. （原始内容存档于2007-07-06）.
↑ Specific examples include:
Popper, Karl. . London & New York: Routledge Classics. 2002. ISBN 0-415-28594-1  First published 1963 by Routledge and Kegan Paul
Smart, J. J. C. . New York: Random House. 1968.
Putnam, Hilary. . London: Cambridge University Press. 1975.
Putnam, Hilary. . London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. 1978.
Boyd, Richard. . Jarrett Leplin  (编). . Berkeley: University of California Press. 1984: 41–82. ISBN 0-520-05155-6.
↑  Stanford, P. Kyle. . Oxford University Press. 2006. ISBN 978-0-19-517408-3.
↑  Laudan, Larry. . Philosophy of Science. 1981, 48: 218–249. doi:10.1086/288975.
1 2  
van Fraassen, Bas. . Oxford: The Clarendon Press. 1980. ISBN 0-19-824424-X.
↑  Winsberg, Eric. . Synthese. September 2006, 152: 1–19. doi:10.1007/s11229-004-5404-6.
↑  Stanford, P. Kyle. . Philosophy of Science. June 2000, 67 (2): 266–284. doi:10.1086/392775.
↑  Longino, Helen. . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2013  [2014-03-06]. （原始内容存档于2014-03-26）.
↑  Douglas Allchin, "Values in Science and in Science Education," in International Handbook of Science Education, B.J. Fraser and K.G. Tobin (eds.), 2:1083–1092, Kluwer Academic Publishers (1988).
↑  
Aristotle, "Prior Analytics（英语：）", Hugh Tredennick (trans.), pp. 181–531 in Aristotle, Volume 1, Loeb Classical Library, William Heinemann, London, UK, 1938.
↑  Lindberg, David C. . University of Chicago Press. 1980: 350–351  [2017-04-26]. ISBN 978-0-226-48233-0. （原始内容存档于2021-04-05）.
↑  results, search.  Reprint edition. Da Capo Press. 2004-06-20  [2017-04-26]. ISBN 9780786713585. （原始内容存档于2021-05-16） （英语）.  引文格式1维护：冗余文本 (link)
↑  Bacon, Francis Novum Organum (The New Organon), 1620. Bacon's work described many of the accepted principles, underscoring the importance of empirical results, data gathering and experiment.  Encyclopædia Britannica (1911), "Bacon, Francis" states: [In Novum Organum, we ] "proceed to apply what is perhaps the most valuable part of the Baconian method, the process of exclusion or rejection. This elimination of the non-essential, ... , is the most important of Bacon's contributions to the logic of induction, and that in which, as he repeatedly says, his method differs from all previous philosophies."
1 2  McMullin, Ernan. . www.paricenter.com. Pari Center for New Learning.   [2015-10-29]. （原始内容存档于2015-10-24）.
↑  . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.   [2009-07-31]. （原始内容存档于2010-01-06）.
↑  Michael Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p xiv （页面存档备份，存于）.
↑  See "Vienna Circle" （页面存档备份，存于） in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
↑  Smith, L.D. . Stanford University Press. 1986: 314  [2017-04-26]. ISBN 978-0-8047-1301-6. LCCN 85030366. （原始内容存档于2016-05-01）. The secondary and historical literature on logical positivism affords substantial grounds for concluding that logical positivism failed to solve many of the central problems it generated for itself. Prominent among the unsolved problems was the failure to find an acceptable statement of the verifiability (later confirmability) criterion of meaningfulness. Until a competing tradition emerged (about the late 1950's), the problems of logical positivism continued to be attacked from within that tradition. But as the new tradition in the philosophy of science began to demonstrate its effectiveness—by dissolving and rephrasing old problems as well as by generating new ones—philosophers began to shift allegiances to the new tradition, even though that tradition has yet to receive a canonical formulation.
↑  Bunge, M.A. . Yale University Press. 1996: 317  [2017-04-26]. ISBN 978-0-300-06606-7. LCCN lc96004399. （原始内容存档于2016-06-04）. To conclude, logical positivism was progressive compared with the classical positivism of Ptolemy, Hume, d'Alembert, Compte, John Stuart Mill, and Ernst Mach. It was even more so by comparison with its contemporary rivals—neo-Thomisism, neo-Kantianism, intuitionism, dialectical materialism, phenomenology, and existentialism. However, neo-positivism failed dismally to give a faithful account of science, whether natural or social. It failed because it remained anchored to sense-data and to a phenomenalist metaphysics, overrated the power of induction and underrated that of hypothesis, and denounced realism and materialism as metaphysical nonsense. Although it has never been practiced consistently in the advanced natural sciences and has been criticized by many philosophers, notably Popper (1959 [1935], 1963), logical positivism remains the tacit philosophy of many scientists. Regrettably, the anti-positivism fashionable in the metatheory of social science is often nothing but an excuse for sloppiness and wild speculation.
↑  . 2000-08-07  [2014-01-07]. （原始内容存档于2014-01-07）. The upshot is that the positivists seem caught between insisting on the V.C. [Verifiability Criterion]—but for no defensible reason—or admitting that the V.C. requires a background language, etc., which opens the door to relativism, etc. In light of this dilemma, many folk—especially following Popper's "last-ditch" effort to "save" empiricism/positivism/realism with the falsifiability criterion—have agreed that positivism is a dead-end.
↑  Friedman, Reconsidering Logical Positivism (Cambridge U P, 1999), p xii （页面存档备份，存于）.
↑  Outhwaite, William, 1988 Habermas: Key Contemporary Thinkers, Polity Press (Second Edition 2009), ISBN 978-0-7456-4328-1 p.68
↑  Bird, Alexander. Zalta, Edward N. , 编. . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2013  [2015-10-26]. （原始内容存档于2017-07-13）.
↑  T. S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd. ed., Chicago: Univ. of Chicago Pr., 1970, p. 206. ISBN 0-226-45804-0
↑  Olsson, Erik. Zalta, Edward N. , 编. . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2014  [2015-10-26]. （原始内容存档于2018-09-14）.
↑  Sandra Harding. . Springer Science & Business Media. 1976: 9–  [2017-05-19]. ISBN 978-90-277-0630-0. （原始内容存档于2016-06-28）.
↑  Popper, Karl.  Taylor & Francis e-Library. London and New York: Routledge / Taylor & Francis e-Library. 2005. chapters 3–4  [2017-05-19]. ISBN 0-203-99462-0. （原始内容存档于2016-06-28）.
1 2  Paul Feyerabend, Against Method: Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge (1975), ISBN 0-391-00381-X, ISBN 0-86091-222-1, ISBN 0-86091-481-X, ISBN 0-86091-646-4, ISBN 0-86091-934-X, ISBN 0-902308-91-2
↑  Preston, John. . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2007-02-15  [2017-12-23]. （原始内容存档于2017-12-11）.
↑  Kuhn, T. S. . . [Univ. of Chicago Pr]. 1996: 176. ISBN 0-226-45808-3. A paradigm is what the members of a community of scientists share, and, conversely, a scientific community consists of men who share a paradigm.
↑  Quine, Willard Van Orman. . . Harvard University Press. 1980  [2017-11-04]. ISBN 0-674-32351-3. （原始内容存档于2017-11-13）.
↑  Ashman, Keith M.; Barringer, Philip S. (编). . London, UK: Routledge. 2001  [2015-10-29]. ISBN 0-415-21209-X. （原始内容存档于2021-04-05）. The 'war' is between scientists who believe that science and its methods are objective, and an increasing number of social scientists, historians, philosophers, and others gathered under the umbrella of Science Studies.
↑  Woodhouse, Edward. Science Technology and Society. Spring 2015 ed. N.p.: U Readers, 2014. Print.
↑  Hatab, Lawrence J. . The Journal of Nietzsche Studies. 2008, (35/36): 107  [2018-09-14]. （原始内容存档于2016-03-04）.
↑  Gutting, Gary (2004), Continental Philosophy of Science, Blackwell Publishers, Cambridge, MA.
↑  Wheeler, Michael. . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2015  [2015-10-29]. （原始内容存档于2015-10-16）.
↑  Cat, Jordi. . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2013  [2014-03-01]. （原始内容存档于2014-04-07）.
↑  Levine, George. . Princeton University Press. 2008: 104  [2015-10-28]. ISBN 978-0-691-13639-4. （原始内容存档于2021-04-05）.
↑  Kitcher, P. Science, Truth, and Democracy, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001
↑  Dennett, Daniel. . Simon and Schuster. 1995: 21. ISBN 978-1-4391-2629-5.
1 2  Bickle, John; Mandik, Peter; Landreth, Anthony. Zalta, Edward N. , 编. . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2010  [2017-12-21]. （原始内容存档于2013-12-02）(Summer 2010 Edition)
↑  Romeijn, Jan-Willem. Zalta, Edward N. , 编. . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2014  [2015-10-29]. （原始内容存档于2018-09-14）.
↑  Horsten, Leon. Zalta, Edward N. , 编. . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2015  [2015-10-29]. （原始内容存档于2021-05-16）.
↑  Ismael, Jenann. Zalta, Edward N. , 编. . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2015  [2015-10-29]. （原始内容存档于2015-11-06）.
↑  Weisberg, Michael; Needham, Paul; Hendry, Robin. . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2011  [2014-02-14]. （原始内容存档于2014-04-07）.
↑  Hull D. (1969), What philosophy of biology is not, Journal of the History of Biology, 2, p. 241–268.
↑  Recent examples include Okasha S. (2006), Evolution and the Levels of Selection. Oxford: Oxford University Press, and Godfrey-Smith P. (2009), Darwinian Populations and Natural Selection. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
↑  Witzany G. (2010). "Biocommunication and Natural Genome Editing". Dortrecht: Springer Sciences and Business Media.
↑  Papineau, D. . British Journal for the Philosophy of Science. 1994, 45 (2): 437–450. doi:10.1093/bjps/45.2.437.
↑  Jstor （页面存档备份，存于）, Worrall, J., 2002. What Evidence in Evidence-Based Medicine?" Philosophy of Science 69(3), p.S316-S330.
↑  Worrall, J. . British Journal for the Philosophy of Science. 2007, 58: 451–488. doi:10.1093/bjps/axm024.
↑  Lee, K., 2012. The Philosophical Foundations of Modern Medicine, London/New York, Palgrave/Macmillan.
↑  Grünbaum, A. . Behavioural Research & Therapy. 1981, 19 (2): 157–167. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(81)90040-1.
↑  Gøtzsche, P.C. . Lancet. 1994, 344 (8927): 925–926. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(94)92273-x.
↑  Nunn, R., 2009. It's time to put the placebo out of our misery" British Medical Journal 338, b1568.
↑  Turner, A. . Biology & Philosophy. 2012, 27 (3): 419–432. doi:10.1007/s10539-011-9289-8. [永久]
↑  Worrall, J. . Preventive Medicine. 2011, 53 (4–5): 235–238. PMID 21888926. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2011.08.009.
↑  Cartwright, N. . Philosophical Studies. 2009, 147 (1): 59–70. doi:10.1007/s11098-009-9450-2. [永久]
1 2  Mason, Kelby; Sripada, Chandra Sekhar; Stich, Stephen.  (PDF). Moral, Dermot  (编). . London: Routledge. 2010  [2017-12-21]. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2017-05-17）.
↑  . NobelPrize.org. 1998-10-14  [2017-12-21]. （原始内容存档于2017-08-12）.
↑  Hausman, Daniel. . Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University. 2012-12-18  [2014-02-20]. （原始内容存档于2014-04-03）.
↑  Hollis, Martin. . Cambridge. 1994. ISBN 0-521-44780-1.
↑  .   [2017-12-21]. （原始内容存档于2017-10-11）.
↑  Giddens, Positivism and Sociology, 1
↑  Schunk, Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective, 5th, 315