國際音標
參考資料

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17  International Phonetic Association. . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1999-06-28. ISBN 0-521-65236-7.
1 2 3 4 5 6  MacMahon, Michael K. C. . P. T. Daniels; W. Bright  (编). . New York: Oxford University Press. 1996: 821–846. ISBN 0-19-507993-0.
↑  Wall, Joan. . Pst. 1989  [2007-08-01]. ISBN 1877761508. （原始内容存档于2007-08-09）.
↑  . Langsci.ucl.ac.uk.   [2012-11-20]. （原始内容存档于2012-10-10）.
↑  . International Phonetic Association.   [2017-04-24]. （原始内容存档于2017-02-27）.
↑  , International Phonetic Association: 195-196, Originally, the aim was to make available a set of phonetic symbols which would be given different articulatory values, if necessary, in different languages.
↑  Passy, Paul. . The Phonetic Teacher. 1888: 57–60.
↑  . .
1 2 3  Geoffrey K. Pullum, William A. Ladusaw. . University of Chicago Press. : 152, 209. ISBN 978-0226685366.
↑  Nicolaidis, Katerina. . International Phonetic Association. 2005-09  [2006-09-17]. （原始内容存档于2006-09-02）.
↑  , International Phonetic Association: 27, From its earliest days [...] the International Phonetic Association has aimed to provide 'a separate sign for each distinctive sound; that is, for each sound which, being used instead of another, in the same language, can change the meaning of a word'.
↑  Laver, Principles of Phonetics, pp. 174–175
↑  Cf. the notes at the Unicode IPA EXTENSIONS code chart （页面存档备份，存于） as well as blogs by Michael Everson （页面存档备份，存于） and John Wells here  （页面存档备份，存于） and here  （页面存档备份，存于）
↑  , International Phonetic Association: 196, The new letters should be suggestive of the sounds they represent, by their resemblance to the old ones.
↑  Hans Basboll. . Oxford University Press. 2005: 45, 59. ISBN 978-0198242680.
↑  Association phonétique internationale.  [Votes sur l'alphabet]. Le Maître Phonétique. 1895-01: 16–17.
↑  Association phonétique internationale.  [Acte officiel]. Le Maître Phonétique. 1900-02至1900-03: 20.  请检查|date=中的日期值 (帮助)
↑  Association phonétique internationale.  [Décisions officielles]. Le Maître Phonétique. 1931-07至1931-09, (35): 40–42.  请检查|date=中的日期值 (帮助)
↑  Jones, Daniel.  [Décisions officielles]. Le Maître Phonétique. 1948-07至1948-12, (90): 28–30.  请检查|date=中的日期值 (帮助)
↑  International Phonetic Association. . Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 1993, 23 (1): 32–34. doi:10.1017/S002510030000476X.
↑  International Phonetic Association. . Department of Phonetics, University College, London. 1949. Supplement to Le Maître Phonétique 91, January–June 1949. Reprinted in Journal of the International Phonetic Association 40 (3), December 2010, pp. 299–358, doi:10.1017/S0025100311000089.
↑  Wells, John C. . John Wells's phonetic blog. Department of Phonetics and Linguistics, University College London. 2006-11-06  [2019-09-08]. （原始内容存档于2018-06-13）.
↑  International Phonetic Association (1999)，第19頁. sfnp模板錯誤: 多個指向目標 (2個): CITEREFInternational_Phonetic_Association1999 (幫助)
↑  John Esling (2010) "Phonetic Notation", in Hardcastle, Laver & Gibbon (eds) The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences, 2nd ed., pp 688, 693.
↑  Martin J. Ball; Joan Rahilly. . Journal of the International Phonetic Association (Cambridge Journals Online). 2011-08, 41 (2): 231–237  [2018-03-14]. （原始内容存档于2020-12-01）.
↑  . Journals.cambridge.org. 2012-10-23  [2012-11-22]. （原始内容存档于2013-03-09）.
↑  . Langsci.ucl.ac.uk.   [2012-11-20]. （原始内容存档于2012-10-10）.
↑  . Langsci.ucl.ac.uk.   [2012-11-20]. （原始内容存档于2012-10-10）.
↑  . Langsci.ucl.ac.uk.   [2012-11-20]. （原始内容存档于2012-11-11）.
↑  . Langsci.ucl.ac.uk.   [2012-11-20]. （原始内容存档于2012-11-11）.
1 2  Sally Thomason. . Language Log. 2008-01-02  [2019-09-08]. （原始内容存档于2011-08-24）.
↑  例如，由I. N. Vereshagina、K. A. Bondarenko和T. A. Pritykina編寫的英語教科書。
↑  例如，《Le Français à la portée de tous》，作者K. K. Parchevsky與E. B. Roisenblit（1995）；《English Through Eye and Ear》，作者L.V. Bankevich（1975）。
↑  . Cambridge Dictionaries Online. 2002  [2007-03-11]. （原始内容存档于2011-08-24）.
↑  .   [2007-06-04]. （原始内容存档于2011-08-24）. 
Agnes, Michael. . New York: Macmillan. 1999. xxiii. ISBN 0-02-863119-6. 
详细比对参见英语发音重拼法
↑  Fronek, J. . Praha: Leda. 2006. ISBN 80-7335-022-X （捷克语）. In accordance with long-established Czech lexicographical tradition, a modified version of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is adopted in which letters of the Czech alphabet are employed.
↑  Principles of the International Phonetic Association, 1949:17.
↑  Severens, Sara E. . 2017  [2019-09-08]. （原始内容存档于2018-09-05） （英语）.
↑  . Castel Opera Arts.   [2008-09-29]. （原始内容存档于2011-08-24）.
↑  Cheek, Timothy. . The Scarecrow Press. 2001: 392  [2019-09-12]. ISBN 978-0-8108-4003-4. （原始内容存档于2011-10-07）.
↑  Zimmer, Benjamin. . Language Log（英语：）. University of Pennsylvania. 2008-05-14  [2009-09-29]. （原始内容存档于2011-08-24）.
↑  "Segments can usefully be divided into two major categories, consonants and vowels." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 3)
↑  International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 6.
↑  , International Phonetic Association: 18, for presentational convenience [...] because of [their] rarity and the small number of types of sounds which are found there.
↑  A chart of IPA numbers can be found on the IPA website.IPA number chart （页面存档备份，存于）
↑  Fromkin, Victoria; Rodman, Robert.  6th. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. 1998 [1974]. ISBN 0-03-018682-X.
↑  Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996, Sounds of the World's Languages, §2.1.
↑  Ladefoged and Maddieson, 1996, Sounds of the World's Languages, §9.3.
↑  Amanda L. Miller et al., "Differences in airstream and posterior place of articulation among Nǀuu lingual stops". Submitted to the Journal of the International Phonetic Association. Retrieved 3007-05-27.
↑  . Ajol.info.   [2012-11-20]. It is traditional to place the tie bar above the letters. It may be placed below to avoid overlap with ascenders or diacritic marks, or simply because it is more legible that way, as in Niesler, Louw, & Roux (2005)
↑  Ladefoged, Peter; Ian Maddieson（英语：）. . Oxford: Blackwell. 1996: 329–330. ISBN 0-631-19815-6.
1 2  The global rise and fall arrows come before the affected syllable or prosodic unit, like stress and upstep/downstep. This contrasts with the Chao tone letters, which come after.
↑  Payne, E. M. (2005) "Phonetic variation in Italian consonant gemination", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 35: 153–181.
↑  Bloomfield (1933) Language p. 91
↑  Passy, 1958, Conversations françaises en transcription phonétique. 2nd ed.
↑  Chao 1968, p. xxiii
↑  Asu & Teras (2009:369頁)
↑  Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian. . Oxford: Blackwell. 1996: 314. ISBN 0-631-19814-8 （英语）.
↑  Peter Ladefoged. . 1971: 35. ISBN 978-0226467870.
↑  Paul D. Fallon. . Routledge. 2013: 267. ISBN 978-0415938006.
↑  Heselwood (2013) Phonetic Transcription in Theory and Practice, p. 233.
↑  E.g. in Laver (1994) Principles of Phonetics, pp. 559–560
↑  PRDS Group. . London: The King's Fund. 1983. doi:10.1097/00011363-200121040-00007.
↑  , International Phonetic Association: 186, At the 1989 Kiel Convention of the IPA, a sub-group was established to draw up recommendations for the transcription of disordered speech.
↑  , International Phonetic Association: 186–187, Extensions to the IPA: An ExtIPA Chart"
↑  , International Phonetic Association: 27, Diacritics may also be employed to create symbols for phonemes, thus reducing the need to create new letter shapes.
↑  Martin J. Ball, Joan Rahilly, Orla Lowry, Nicola Bessell, Alice Lee. . 2017. ISBN 9781781791790.
↑  Olson, Kenneth S.; & Hajek, John. (1999). The phonetic status of the labial flap. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 29 (2), pp. 101–114.
↑  , International Phonetic Association: 16, The diacritics...can be used to modify the lip or tongue position implied by a vowel symbol.
↑  . Phonetic-blog.blogspot.com. 2009-09-09  [2010-10-18]. （原始内容存档于2018-11-30）.
↑  Yip, Moira. . New York: Cambridge University Press. 2002: 19-21. ISBN 0-511-07614-2.
↑  Bonny Sands, introduction to forthcoming (as of 2019) vol on click consonants.
↑  Perry, Jill Rosamund.  (Masters论文). Memorial University of Newfoundland. 2000  [2019-09-08]. （原始内容存档于2022-03-24）.
↑  John Laver. . Cambridge University Press. 1994: 374. ISBN 9780521450317.
↑  "...the International Phonetic Association has never officially approved a set of names..." (International Phonetic Association, Handbook, p. 31)
↑  Wells, J.C.  (PDF). UCL Phonetics and Linguistics. University College London.   [2016-03-16]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2016-03-04）.
↑  Allen, George D. . Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 1988, 18 (1): 9–25. doi:10.1017/S0025100300003509.
↑  Boersma, Paul; Weenink, David. . Praat. 2009-08-04  [2019-09-09]. （原始内容存档于2019-05-28）.
↑  Reetz, Henning. . Universität Frankfurt. 2018-05-23  [2019-09-09]. （原始内容存档于2018-10-31）.
↑  Kirshenbaum, Evan.  (PDF). 2011-09-06  [2019-09-09]. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2016-04-19）.
↑  Hieronymus, James L. . AT&T Bell Laboratories Technical Memorandum. 1994.
↑  Online IPA keyboard utilities like IPA i-chart by the Association （页面存档备份，存于）, IPA character picker 19 at GitHub （页面存档备份，存于）, TypeIt.org （页面存档备份，存于）, and IPA Chart keyboard at GitHub （页面存档备份，存于）
↑  .   [2019-09-04]. （原始内容存档于2019-09-04）.
↑  .   [2019-09-04]. （原始内容存档于2019-04-13）.