残割女性生殖器
参考资料

↑  Masinde, Andrew. "FGM: Despite the ban, the monster still rears its ugly head in Uganda" （页面存档备份，存于）, New Vision, Uganda, 5 February 2013.
1 2  "Classification of female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于）, Geneva: World Health Organization, 2014 .
1 2 3 4  Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Statistical Overview and Exploration of the Dynamics of Change （页面存档备份，存于）, New York: United Nations Children's Fund, July 2013.
1 2 3  "Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Global Concern" （页面存档备份，存于）, New York: United Nations Children's Fund, February 2016.
1 2 3 4 5  The State of the World's Children 2015: Executive Summary （页面存档备份，存于）, New York: UNICEF, November 2014, Table 9, pp. 84–89.
.   [2016-03-18]. （原始内容存档于2015-11-07）.
Female genital mutilation中文 （页面存档备份，存于），國家教育研究院雙語詞彙、學術名詞暨辭書資訊網，2016-03-16
↑  . www.who.int.   [2016-03-27]. （原始内容存档于2020-07-15）.
↑  "Classification of female genital mutilation", World Health Organization, 2013 (hereafter WHO 2013).
↑  有關殘割、麻醉，請參見：UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 2, 44–46。女陰殘割盛行地區報告，請參見：UNICEF 2016 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 2.
↑  Jasmine Abdulcadira, et al., "Care of women with female genital mutilation/cutting" （页面存档备份，存于）, Swiss Medical Weekly, 6(14), January 2011. doi:10.4414/smw.2011.13137 PMID 21213149
↑  "Female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于）, Geneva: World Health Organization, February 2016.
↑  .   [2015-12-25]. （原始内容存档于2015-12-25）.
↑  Nahid F. Toubia（英语：）, Eiman Hussein Sharief, "Female genital mutilation: have we made progress?" （页面存档备份，存于）, International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 82(3), September 2003, pp. 251–261. doi:10.1016/S0020-7292(03)00229-7 PMID 14499972
1 2  "Frequently Asked Questions on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting" （页面存档备份，存于）, UNFPA, April 2010: "Types I and II are the most common, with variation among countries. Type III, infibulation, constitutes about 20 percent of all affected women and is most likely in Somalia, northern Sudan and Djibouti."
1 2  P. Stanley Yoder, Shane Khan, "Numbers of women circumcised in Africa: The Production of a Total" （页面存档备份，存于）, USAID, DHS Working Papers, No. 39, March 2008, pp. 13–14. Also see Appendix B, Table 2 ("Types of FGC"), p. 19.
1 2  "67/146. Intensifying global efforts for the elimination of female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于）, United Nations General Assembly, adopted 20 December 2012.

Emma Bonino, "Banning Female Genital Mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于）, The New York Times, 19 December 2012.
↑  Eric K. Silverman（英语：）, "Anthropology and Circumcision," Annual Review of Anthropology, 33, 2004, pp. 419–445. JSTOR 25064860
↑  Martha Nussbaum, Sex and Social Justice, New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 119 （页面存档备份，存于）.
↑  James Karanja, The Missionary Movement in Colonial Kenya: The Foundation of Africa Inland Church, Göttingen: Cuvillier Verlag, 2009, p. 93 （页面存档备份，存于）, n. 631.
↑  "Eliminating Female genital mutilation: An Interagency Statement" （页面存档备份，存于）, New York: World Health Organization, 2008 (hereafter WHO 2008), p. 22.
↑  Claire C. Robertson, "Getting beyond the Ew! Factor: Rethinking U.S. Approaches to African Female Genital Cutting," in Stanlie M. James and Claire C. Robertson (eds.), Genital Cutting and Transnational Sisterhood, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2002 (pp. 54–86), p. 60.
Fran Hosken, The Hosken Report: Genital and Sexual Mutilation of Females, Lexington: Women's International Network, 1994 [1979].
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 6–7.
↑  WHO 2008 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 4, 22.
1 2 3 4  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 48.
↑  Fadwa El Guindi, "Had This Been Your Face, Would You Leave It as Is?" in Rogaia Mustafa Abusharaf (ed.), Female Circumcision: Multicultural Perspectives, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007, p. 30 （页面存档备份，存于）.
↑  Chantal Zabus, "The Excised Body in African Texts and Contexts," in Merete Falck Borch (ed.), Bodies and Voices: The Force-field of Representation and Discourse in Colonial and Postcolonial Studies, New York: Rodopi, 2008, p. 47 （页面存档备份，存于）.
For "a young woman must 'have her bath' before she has a baby," Chantal Zabus, "'Writing with an Accent': From Early Decolonization to Contemporary Gender Issues in the African Novel in French, English, and Arabic," in Simona Bertacco (ed.), Language and Translation in Postcolonial Literatures, New York: Routledge, 2013, p. 40 （页面存档备份，存于）.
↑  Ibrahim Lethome Asmani, Maryam Sheikh Abdi, "De-linking Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting from Islam" （页面存档备份，存于）, USAID/UNFPA, 2008, p. 3.

That sunna can refer to more severe forms, Ellen Gruenbaum, The Female Circumcision Controversy: An Anthropological Perspective, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2001, p. 2.
1 2  Leonard J. Kouba, Judith Muasher, "Female Circumcision in Africa: An Overview" （页面存档备份，存于）, African Studies Review, 28(1), March 1985 (pp. 95–110), pp. 96–97.
↑  Rossella Lorenzi. . How Did Female Genital Mutilation Begin?.  缺少或|url=为空 (帮助); 使用|accessdate=需要含有|url= (帮助)
↑  Raqiya D. Abdalla, "'My Grandmother Called it the Three Feminine Sorrows': The Struggle of Women Against Female Circumcision in Somalia," in Abusharaf 2007, p. 190 （页面存档备份，存于）.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 42–44 and Table 5, p. 181 (for cutters), p. 46 (for home and anaesthesia).
↑  Michael Miller and Francesca Moneti, Changing a harmful social convention: Female genital cutting/mutilation （页面存档备份，存于）, Florence: UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, 2005, p. 7.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 43–45.
↑  Elizabeth Kelly, Paula J. Adams Hillard, "Female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于）, Current Opinion in Obstetrics & Gynecology, 17(5), October 2005 (pp. 490–494), p. 491. PMID 16141763
↑  Wairagala Wakabi, "Africa battles to make female genital mutilation history" （页面存档备份，存于）, The Lancet, 369 (9567), 31 March 2007, pp. 1069–1070. PMID 17405200 doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60508-X
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 46 (two percent were missing/don't know).
↑  WHO 2008 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 4.
↑  P. Stanley Yoder, Shanxiao Wang, Elise Johansen, "Estimates of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting in 27 African Countries and Yemen" （页面存档备份，存于）, Studies in Family Planning, 44(2), June 2013 (pp. 189–204), p. 190. PMID 23720002 doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2013.00352.x
Elizabeth F. Jackson, et al., "Inconsistent reporting of female genital cutting status in northern Ghana: Explanatory factors and analytical consequences," Studies in Family Planning, 34(3), 2003, pp. 200–210. PMID 14558322
Elise Klouman, Rachel Manongi, Knut-Inge Klepp, "Self-reported and observed female genital cutting in rural Tanzania: Associated demographic factors, HIV and sexually transmitted infections" （页面存档备份，存于）, Tropical Medicine and International Health 10(1), 2005, pp. 105–115. PMID 15655020 doi:10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01350.x
In Sudan in 2006, a significant percentage of infibulated women and girls reported a less severe type. See Susan Elmusharaf, Nagla Elhadi, Lars Almroth, "Reliability of self reported form of female genital mutilation and WHO classification: cross sectional study" （页面存档备份，存于）, British Medical Journal, 332(7559), 27 June 2006. PMID 16803943 PMC 1502195 doi:10.1136/bmj.38873.649074.55
1 2  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 47, Table 5.2; 
Yoder, Wang and Johansen, 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 189.
↑  WHO 2014 （页面存档备份，存于）; WHO 2008 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 4, and Annex 2, p. 24, for Types I–IV; Annex 2, pp. 23–28, for a more detailed discussion.
↑  WHO 2008 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 25. Also see Nahid Toubia, "Female Circumcision as a Public Health Issue" （页面存档备份，存于）, The New England Journal of Medicine, 331(11), 1994, pp. 712–716. PMID 8058079 doi:10.1056/NEJM199409153311106

Carol R. Horowitz, J. Carey Jackson, Mamae Teklemariam, "Female Circumcision" (letters) （页面存档备份，存于）, The New England Journal of Medicine, 332, 19 January 1995, pp. 188–190; Toubia's reply （页面存档备份，存于）. doi:10.1056/NEJM199501193320313
↑  Susan Izett, Nahid Toubia, Female Genital Mutilation: An Overview, World Health Organization, 1998.
↑  WHO 2014 （页面存档备份，存于）.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9  Abdulcadira, Jasmine; Margairaz, C.; Boulvain, M; Irion, O. "Care of women with female genital mutilation/cutting" （页面存档备份，存于）, Swiss Medical Weekly, 6(14), January 2011 (review).
1 2  Comfort Momoh, "Female genital mutilation" in Comfort Momoh (ed.), Female Genital Mutilation, Oxford: Radcliffe Publishing, 2005, p. 7 （页面存档备份，存于）; also see Edna Adan Ismail, "Female genital mutilation survey in Somaliland" （页面存档备份，存于）, Edna Adan Maternity and Teaching Hospital, 2009, pp. 12–14.
↑  Ismail 2009 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 12; also see Abusharaf 2007, p. 190 （页面存档备份，存于）.
↑  Abdulcadira et al. 2011 （页面存档备份，存于）.
↑  For a twig, Momoh 2005, p. 7 （页面存档备份，存于）.
↑  Kelly and Hillard 2005 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 491; for the poultice, Ismail 2009 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 14.
↑  Kelly and Hillard 2005 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 491 (Kelly and Hillard say the girls are tied for 2–6 weeks); Momoh 2005, pp. 6–7 （页面存档备份，存于）; for progressive loosening of the binding, Ismail 2009 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 14.
↑  Abdalla 2007, p. 190 （页面存档备份，存于）.
↑  Abdalla 2007, pp. 191, 198 （页面存档备份，存于）; for the relatives, Ismail 2009 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 14.
↑  Hanny Lightfoot-Klein, "The Sexual Experience and Marital Adjustment of Genitally Circumcised and Infibulated Females in The Sudan" （页面存档备份，存于）, The Journal of Sex Research, 26(3), 1989 (pp. 375–392), p. 380.
Also see El Dareer 1982, pp. 42–49; Hanny Lightfoot-Klein, Prisoners of Ritual: An Odyssey Into Female Genital Circumcision in Africa, New York: Routledge, 1989.
↑  Kelly and Hillard 2005 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 491.
↑  Asma El Dareer, Woman, Why Do You Weep: Circumcision and its Consequences, London: Zed Press, 1982, pp. 56–64.
Also see Rebecca J. Cooke, Bernard M. Dickens, "Special commentary on the issue of reinfibulation" （页面存档备份，存于）, International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, 109(2), May 2010, pp. 97–99. PMID 20178881 doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2010.01.004
Gamal I. Serour, "The issue of reinfibulation" （页面存档备份，存于）, International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics, 109(2), May 2010, pp. 93–96. PMID 20138274 doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2010.01.001
Olukunmi O. Balogun, et al., "Interventions for improving outcomes for pregnant women who have experienced genital cutting" （页面存档备份，存于）, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2, 2013. PMID 23450610 doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009872.pub2
↑  WHO 2008 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 24; UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 7.
1 2  WHO 2008 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 27.
↑  "Female Genital Mutilation: A Teachers' Guide", World Health Organization, 2005, p. 31.
↑  For the countries in which labia stretching is found (Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe), see Nkiru Nzegwu, "'Osunality' (or African eroticism)" in Sylvia Tamale (ed.), African Sexualities: A Reader, Cape Town: Fahamu/Pambazuka, 2011, p. 262.
For the rest, Brigitte Bagnol and Esmeralda Mariano, "Politics of Naming Sexual Practices," in Tamale 2011, pp. 272–276 （页面存档备份，存于） (p. 272 for Uganda).
↑  Mairo Usman Mandara, "Female genital cutting in Nigeria: View of Nigerian Doctors on the Medicalization Debate," in Bettina Shell-Duncan and Ylva Hernlund (eds.), Female "Circumcision" in Africa: Culture Controversy and Change, Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000 (pp. 253–282), pp. 98 （页面存档备份，存于）, 100; for fistulae, p. 102.
Mairo Usman Mandara, "Female genital mutilation in Nigeria" （页面存档备份，存于）, International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics, 84(3), pp. 291–298. PMID 15001386 doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2003.06.001
↑  Stephanie Sinclair, "Inside a Female-Circumcision Ceremony" （页面存档备份，存于）, The New York Times Magazine, April 2006, slideshow of images from Indonesia (article （页面存档备份，存于）).
↑  Rigmor C. Berg, et al., "Effects of female genital cutting on physical health outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis" （页面存档备份，存于）, BMJ Open, 4(11), 2014: e006316. PMID 25416059 doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-006316
1 2  Dan Reisel, Sarah M. Creighton, "Long term health consequences of Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)" （页面存档备份，存于）, Maturitas, 80(1), January 2015 (pp. 48–51), p. 49. PMID 25466303 doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2014.10.009
↑  "Female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于）, New York: World Health Organization, February 2014.
↑  Rigmor C. Berg, Vigdis Underland, Immediate health consequences of female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) （页面存档备份，存于）, Kunnskapssenteret (Norwegian Knowledge Centre for the Health Services), systematic review no. 8, 2014, pp. 4–5 (full text （页面存档备份，存于）). ISBN 978-82-8121-856-7
↑  Christos Iavazzo, Thalia A. Sardi, Ioannis D. Gkegkes, "Female genital mutilation and infections: a systematic review of the clinical evidence" （页面存档备份，存于）, Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 287(6), June 2013, pp. 1137–1149. PMID 23315098 doi:10.1007/s00404-012-2708-5
↑  UNICEF 2005 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 16.
1 2 3 4  Reisel and Creighton 2015 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 50.
1 2 3  Kelly and Hillard 2005 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 491–492
↑  Amish J. Dave, Aisha Sethi, Aldo Morrone, "Female Genital Mutilation: What Every American Dermatologist Needs to Know" （页面存档备份，存于）, Dermatologic Clinics, 29(1), January 2011, pp. 103–109. PMID 21095534 doi:10.1016/j.det.2010.09.002
↑  Hamid Rushwan, "Female genital mutilation: A tragedy for women's reproductive health" （页面存档备份，存于）, African Journal of Urology, 19(3), September 2013, pp. 130–133. doi:10.1016/j.afju.2013.03.002
↑  El Dareer 1982, p. 37. Also see Asma El Dareer, "Preliminary report on a study on prevalence and epidemiology of female circumcision in Sudan today," WHO seminar, Khartoum, 10–15 February 1979; Asma el Dareer, "Female circumcision and its consequences for mother and child," Yaounde, 12–15 December 1979, cited in Rushwan 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）.
↑  Nahid Toubia, Caring for Women with Circumcision: A Technical Manual for Health Care Providers, New York: RAINBO, 1999, cited in Mumtaz Rashid, Mohammed H. Rashid, "Obstetric management of women with female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于）, The Obstetrician and Gynaecologist, 9(2), April 2007, pp. 95–101. doi:10.1576/toag.9.2.095.27310
↑  Rashid and Rashid 2007 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 99.
↑  Rashid and Rashid 2007 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 97.
↑  Emily Banks, et al, "Female genital mutilation and obstetric outcome: WHO collaborative prospective study in six African countries" （页面存档备份，存于）, The Lancet, 367(9525), 3 June 2006, pp. 1835–1841. PMID 16753486 doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68805-3"New study shows female genital mutilation exposes women and babies to significant risk at childbirth" （页面存档备份，存于）, World Health Organization, 2 June 2006.
↑  Rigmor C. Berg, Eva Denison, "A Tradition in Transition: Factors Perpetuating and Hindering the Continuance of Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C) Summarized in a Systematic Review" （页面存档备份，存于）, Health Care for Women International, 34(10), March 2013. PMID 23489149 PMC 3783896 doi:10.1080/07399332.2012.721417.
For a summary of Berg and Denison, see Reisel and Creighton 2015 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 51.
Also see S. Sibiani and A. A. Rouzi, "Sexual function in women with female genital mutilation" （页面存档备份，存于）, Fertility and Sterility, 93(3), September 2008, pp. 722–724. PMID 19028385 doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.10.035
↑  Gerry Mackie, John LeJeune, "Social Dynamics of Abandonment of Harmful Practices: A New Look at the Theory", Innocenti Working Paper No. 2008-XXX, UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre, 2008, p. 5.
↑  UNICEF 2014 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 3.
↑  UNICEF 2013, p. 2.
↑  UNFPA–UNICEF 2012 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 12.
↑  "National Legislation, Decrees and Statements Banning FGM/C" （页面存档备份，存于）, UNFPA Egypt.
↑  Alexandra Topping, "Nigeria's female genital mutilation ban is important precedent, say campaigners" （页面存档备份，存于）, The Guardian, 29 May 2015.
↑  Yoder, Wang and Johansen, 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 190.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, Box 1.1, p. 4.
↑  Yoder, Wang and Johansen, 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 190; "DHS overview" （页面存档备份，存于）, Demographic and Health Surveys; "Questionnaires and Indicator List" （页面存档备份，存于）, Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys, UNICEF.
↑  Yoder, Wang and Johansen, 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 191; Dara Carr, Female genital cutting: Findings from the Demographic and Health Surveys program, Calverton, MD: Macro International Inc., 1997.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 3, 5.
↑  Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: What Might the Future Hold? （页面存档备份，存于）, New York: UNICEF, 22 July 2014 (hereafter UNICEF 2014), pp. 3, 6.
↑  WHO 2008 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 29–30.
1 2  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 23.
↑  For Australia, New Zealand, Europe, Scandinavia, the United States and Canada, UNICEF 2005 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 4.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 34.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 28–37.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 27 (for eight percent), 31 (for the regions).
Berivan A. Yasin, et al, "Female genital mutilation among Iraqi Kurdish women: a cross-sectional study from Erbil city" （页面存档备份，存于）, BMC Public Health, 13, September 2013. PMID 24010850 PMC 3844478 doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-809
↑  Yoder, Wang and Johansen, 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 196, 198.
↑  Yoder, P. Stanley.  (PDF). MEASURE DHS+. 2001-06: 3  [2016-03-19]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2016-10-19）.
↑  For Chad, UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 35–36; for Nigeria, T. C. Okeke, et al, "An Overview of Female Genital Mutilation in Nigeria" （页面存档备份，存于）, Annals of Medical Health Sciences Research, 2(1), Jan–June 2012, pp. 70–73. PMID 23209995 PMC 3507121 doi:10.4103/2141-9248.96942 FGM is practised in Nigeria by the Yoruba, Hausa, Ibo, Ijaw and Kanuri people.
↑  . The Raw story.   [2014-09-16]. （原始内容存档于2013-05-15）.
↑  For rural areas, UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 28; for wealth, p. 40; for education, p. 41.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 134–135.
↑  Mohammed A. Tag-Eldin, "Prevalence of female genital cutting among Egyptian girls" （页面存档备份，存于）, Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 86(4), April 2008.
↑  Gerry Mackie, "Female Genital Cutting: A Harmless Practice?" （页面存档备份，存于）, Medical Anthropology Quarterly, 17(2), 2003 (pp. 135–158), p. 148.
1 2 3  Salah M. Rasheedemail, Ahmed H. Abd-Ellah, Fouad M. Yousef, "Female genital mutilation in Upper Egypt in the new millennium" （页面存档备份，存于）, International Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 114(1), July 2011, pp. 47–50. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2011.02.003 PMID 21513937
↑  For north and south, Okeke, et al 2012 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 70–73.
↑  Yoder and Khan 2008 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 13–14.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 47, Table 5.2.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 114: "In Somalia, Eritrea, Niger, Djibouti and Senegal, more than one in five girls have undergone the most radical form of the practice known as infibulation ..."
↑  "Nigeria: Statistical profile on female genital mutilation/cutting" （页面存档备份，存于）, UNICEF, July 2014.
1 2 3  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 50.
↑  Gerry Mackie, "Female Genital Cutting: The Beginning of the End", in Shell-Duncan and Hernlund 2000 (pp. 253–282), p. 275.
1 2  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 47, 183.
↑  UNICEF 2005 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 6.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 51.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 99.
↑  Yoder, Wang and Johansen, 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 193; UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 99, 114.
↑  UNICEF 2014 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 2.
↑  Togo （页面存档备份，存于）, UNICEF, July 2014, p. 4; Benin （页面存档备份，存于）, UNICEF, July 2014, p. 4.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 85, 113.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 25, 100; Yoder, Wang and Johansen, 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 196.
↑  Yoder, Wang and Johansen, 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 194; UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 25.
↑  Abdalla 2007, p. 187 （页面存档备份，存于）.
↑  Hayes 1975 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 620, 624.
↑  Gerry Mackie, "Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account" （页面存档备份，存于）, American Sociological Review, 61(6), December 1996 (pp. 999–1017), pp. 999–1000. Also see Mackie 2000, p. 256.
↑  "Stephanie Welsh" （页面存档备份，存于）, 1996 Pulitzer Prize winners
↑  Rogaia Mustafa Abusharaf, "Introduction: The Custom in Question," in Abusharaf 2007, p. 8 （页面存档备份，存于）; El Guindi 2007, pp. 36–37.
↑  Fuambai Ahmadu, "Rites and Wrongs: An Insider/Outsider Reflects on Power and Excision," in Shell-Duncan and Hernlund 2000, pp. 284–285.
↑  Janice Boddy, Civilizing Women: British Crusades in Colonial Sudan, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007, pp. 112. Also see Silverman 2004 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 429.
↑  Ellen Gruenbaum, "Socio-Cultural Dynamics of Female Genital Cutting: Research Findings, Gaps, and Directions" （页面存档备份，存于）, Culture, Health & Sexuality, 7(5), September–October 2005 (pp. 429–441), pp. 435–436.
↑  Gruenbaum 2005 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 437; Gruenbaum 2001, p. 140; Janice Boddy, Wombs and Alien Spirits: Women, Men, and the Zar Cult in Northern Sudan, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989, p. 52 （页面存档备份，存于）.
↑  Gruenbaum 2005 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 437.
↑  Bagnol and Mariano 2011, pp. 277–281; for Type IV, WHO 2008 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 27–28.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 67.
↑  Asma El Dareer, "Attitudes of Sudanese People to the Practice of Female Circumcision" （页面存档备份，存于）, International Journal of Epidemiology, 12(2), 1983 (pp. 138–144), p. 140. PMID 6874206 doi:10.1093/ije/12.2.138
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 178.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 52: "The highest levels of support can be found in Mali, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Somalia, Gambia and Egypt, where more than half the female population think the practice should continue." Also see Figure 6.1, p. 54 and Figures 8.1A – 8.1D, pp. 90–91.
1 2  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 15.
↑  Gruenbaum 2005 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 432–433.
↑  Mackie 2003 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 147–148.
↑  UNICEF-UNFPA 2012 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 21–22.

Nafissatou J. Diop, Amadou Moreau, Hélène Benga, "Evaluation of the Long-term Impact of the TOSTAN Programme on the Abandonment of FGM/C and Early Marriage: Results from a qualitative study in Senega" （页面存档备份，存于）, UNICEF, January 2008.

Louisa Kasdon, "A Tradition No Longer" （页面存档备份，存于）, World & I, November–December 2005, pp. 66–73.

Jean Faraca, "Confronting Female Genital Cutting", Wisconsin Public Radio, interview with Molly Melching and Gerry Mackie, 3 November 2011, from 2:43 mins.
↑  For Malicounda Bambara, Mackie 2000, p. 256ff; for over 7,000 communities, "Our Success" （页面存档备份，存于）, Tostan, accessed 25 October 2014.
↑  Malick Gueye, "Social Norm Change Theorists meet again in Keur Simbara, Senegal" （页面存档备份，存于）, Tostan, 4 February 2014.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 69–70; Figure 6.12, p. 71.
↑  Gruenbaum 2001, p. 50; Mackie and LeJeune 2008, p. 8.
↑  UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme on Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: Accelerating Change[], Summary Report of Phase I, 2008–2013 (hereafter 2013 UNFPA-UNICEF Joint Programme evaluation), p. 26.
↑  Mackie 1996 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 1008.
↑  Mackie 1996 （页面存档备份，存于）, pp. 1004–1005.
↑  Also see Ibrahim Lethome Asmani, Maryam Sheikh Abdi, "De-linking Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting from Islam" （页面存档备份，存于）, USAID/UNFPA, 2008.
↑  "Fresh progress toward the elimination of female genital mutilation and cutting in Egypt" （页面存档备份，存于）, UNICEF, 2 July 2007; UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 70.
↑  Maggie Michael, "Egypt Officials Ban Female Circumcision" （页面存档备份，存于）, Associated Press, 29 June 2007, p. 2.
↑  For animist groups, UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, p. 175; for Christians, p. 73.
↑  UNICEF 2013 （页面存档备份，存于）, front page: "Niger. 55% of Christian girls and women have undergone FGM/C, compared to 2% of Muslim girls and women," and p. 73.