美国宪法第十四修正案
参考资料

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1 2 3 4  李道揆. . 北京: 商务印书馆. 1999: 775–799. ISBN 9787100025294.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7  Goldstone, Lawrence. . Walker & Company. 2011  [2013-09-02]. ISBN 978-0-8027-1792-4. （原始内容存档于2013-10-09）.
1 2  Stromberg, Joseph R. . Journal of Libertarian Studies. 2002.
↑  Nelson, William E. . Harvard University Press. 1988: 47  [2013-09-03]. ISBN 978-0-674-04142-4. （原始内容存档于2013-10-09）.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8  Foner, Eric. . HarperCollins. 1988  [2013-09-02]. ISBN 978-0-06-203586-8. （原始内容存档于2021-05-05）.
↑  Rosen, Jeffrey. . MacMillan. 2007: 79.
↑  Newman, Roger.  4. Macmillan. 1999: 8.
↑  Soifer, Aviam.  (PDF) 112 (7). Columbia Law Review: 1614. 2012-11. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2014-03-16）.
1 2  Carter, Dan. . LSU Press. 1985: 242–243.
1 2 3  Graber, Mark A.  (PDF) 112 (7). Columbia Law Review: 1501-1549. 2012-11. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2015-06-10）.
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↑  .   [2013-09-04]. （原始内容存档于2021-04-12）.
1 2 3 4  . US Government Printing Office.   [2013-09-04]. （原始内容存档于2013-06-23）.
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↑  . Department of State. : 533–543. ISBN 0-8377-2045-1.
↑  . Library of Congress. : 707  [2013-09-04]. （原始内容存档于2021-04-12）.
1 2  Killian, Johnny H.;  et al. . Government Printing Office. : 31  [2013-09-04]. ISBN 9780160723797. （原始内容存档于2017-01-07）.
↑  Chin, Gabriel; J. Abraham, Anjali. . Arizona Law Review. 2008, 50: 25  [2013-09-04]. （原始内容存档于2012-10-16）.
↑  P.L. 2003, Joint Resolution No. 2; 4/23/03
1 2  Civil Rights Cases, 109（英语：） U.S. 3 (1883)
1 2  Eric Foner. . Jonathan Birnbaum; Clarence Taylor  (编). . Civil Rights Since 1787. New York University Press. 2000. ISBN 0814782493.
↑  . Akron Law Review, Vol. 36, No. 671, 2003 (Ssrn.com). 2009-04-02. SSRN 1120308 .
↑  Harrell, David; Gaustad, Edwin.  1. Eerdmans Publishing. 2005: 520. The most important, and the one that has occasioned the most litigation over time as to its meaning and application, was Section One.
↑  Stephenson, D. . ABC-CLIO. 2003-11-12: 147  [2013-09-04]. ISBN 978-1576078297. （原始内容存档于2021-04-12）.
↑  . Arizona State Law Journal, Vol. 39, 2008 (Ssrn.com). SSRN 1023809 .
↑  McDonald v. Chicago, 130 S. Ct. 3020, 3060 (2010) ("This [clause] unambiguously overruled this Court's contrary holding in Dred Scott.")
↑  Messner, Emily. . Washington Post. 2006-03-30  [2013-09-04]. （原始内容存档于2011-11-06）.
↑  Pear, Robert. . The New York Times. 1996-08-07  [2013-09-04]. （原始内容存档于2013-01-20）.
1 2  LaFantasie, Glenn. . Salon. 2011-03-20. （原始内容存档于2013-01-01）.
↑  . the Library of Congress.   [2013-09-04]. （原始内容存档于2021-04-12）. Senator Reverdy Johnson said in the debate: "Now, all this amendment provides is, that all persons born in the United States and not subject to some foreign Power--for that, no doubt, is the meaning of the committee who have brought the matter before us--shall be considered as citizens of the United States...If there are to be citizens of the United States entitled everywhere to the character of citizens of the United States, there should be some certain definition of what citizenship is, what has created the character of citizen as between himself and the United States, and the amendment says citizenship may depend upon birth, and I know of no better way to give rise to citizenship than the fact of birth within the territory of the United States, born of parents who at the time were subject to the authority of the United States."
↑  . the Library of Congress.   [2013-09-04]. （原始内容存档于2021-04-12）.
↑  . the Library of Congress.   [2013-09-04]. （原始内容存档于2021-04-12）.
↑  . the Library of Congress.   [2013-09-04]. （原始内容存档于2020-03-19）.
↑  . the Library of Congress.   [2013-09-04]. （原始内容存档于2021-04-18）. Trumbull, during the debate, said, "What do we [the committee reporting the clause] mean by 'subject to the jurisdiction of the United States'? Not owing allegiance to anybody else. That is what it means." He then proceeded to expound upon what he meant by "complete jurisdiction": "Can you sue a Navajoe Indian in court?...We make treaties with them, and therefore they are not subject to our jurisdiction.... If we want to control the Navajoes, or any other Indians of which the Senator from Wisconsin has spoken, how do we do it? Do we pass a law to control them? Are they subject to our jurisdiction in that sense?.... Would he [Sen. Doolittle] think of punishing them for instituting among themselves their own tribal regulations? Does the Government of the United States pretend to take jurisdiction of murders and robberies and other crimes committed by one Indian upon another?... It is only those persons who come completely within our jurisdiction, who are subject to our laws, that we think of making citizens."
↑  . the Library of Congress.   [2013-09-04]. （原始内容存档于2021-04-12）. Howard additionally stated the word jurisdiction meant "the same jurisdiction in extent and quality as applies to every citizen of the United States now" and that the U.S. possessed a "full and complete jurisdiction" over the person described in the amendment.
↑  Elk v. Wilkins, 112（英语：） U.S. 94 (1884)
↑  Urofsky, Melvin I.;Finkelman, Paul.  1 2nd. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 2002  [2013-09-04]. ISBN 0-19-512635-1.
↑  Reid, Kay. . Oregon Historical Quarterly.  – HighBeam Research  . 2012-09-22  [2013-09-04]. （原始内容存档于2013-09-04）.
1 2  Lee, Margaret.  (PDF). Congressional Research Service. 2010-08-12  [2013-09-04]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2012-09-11）. Over the last decade or so, concern about illegal immigration has sporadically led to a re-examination of a long-established tenet of U.S. citizenship, codified in the Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment of the U.S. Constitution and §301(a) of the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA) (8 U.S.C. §1401(a)), that a person who is born in the United States, subject to its jurisdiction, is a citizen of the United States regardless of the race, ethnicity, or alienage of the parents. [...] "some scholars argue that the Citizenship Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment should not apply to the children of unauthorized aliens because the problem of unauthorized aliens did not exist at the time the Fourteenth Amendment was considered in Congress and ratified by the states.
↑  . the Library of Congress.   [2013-09-04]. （原始内容存档于2021-04-12）. The debate on the Civil Rights Act contained the following exchange:
Mr. Cowan: "I will ask whether it will not have the effect of naturalizing the children of Chinese and Gypsies born in this country?"
Mr. Trumbull: "Undoubtedly."
...
Mr. Trumbull: "I understand that under the naturalization laws the children who are born here of parents who have not been naturalized are citizens. This is the law, as I understand it, at the present time. Is not the child born in this country of German parents a citizen? I am afraid we have got very few citizens in some of the counties of good old Pennsylvania if the children born of German parents are not citizens."
Mr. Cowan: "The honorable Senator assumes that which is not the fact. The children of German parents are citizens; but Germans are not Chinese; Germans are not Australians, nor Hottentots, nor anything of the kind. That is the fallacy of his argument."
Mr. Trumbull: "If the Senator from Pennsylvania will show me in the law any distinction made between the children of German parents and the children of Asiatic parents, I may be able to appreciate the point which he makes; but the law makes no such distinction; and the child of an Asiatic is just as much of a citizen as the child of a European."
↑  . the Library of Congress.   [2013-09-04]. （原始内容存档于2021-04-12）. During the debate on the Amendment, Senator John Conness of California declared, "The proposition before us, I will say, Mr. President, relates simply in that respect to the children begotten of Chinese parents in California, and it is proposed to declare that they shall be citizens. We have declared that by law [the Civil Rights Act]; now it is proposed to incorporate that same provision in the fundamental instrument of the nation. I am in favor of doing so. I voted for the proposition to declare that the children of all parentage, whatever, born in California, should be regarded and treated as citizens of the United States, entitled to equal Civil Rights with other citizens."
↑  Andrew Johnson. . teachingamericanhistory.org.   [2013-09-04]. （原始内容存档于2013-08-29）.
↑  . Christian Science Monitor. 2010-08-10  [2013-09-04]. （原始内容存档于2013-06-13）.
1 2  南博一. . 澎湃新闻. 2025-01-21  [2025-01-21].
↑  PROTECTING THE MEANING AND VALUE OF AMERICAN CITIZENSHIP
↑  United States v. Wong Kim Ark, 169（英语：） U.S. 649 (1898)
↑  Rodriguez, C.M.  (PDF). U. Pa. J. Const. L. 2009, 11: 1363–1475  [2011-07-15]. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2011-07-15）.
↑  U.S. Department of State. . 2008-02-01  [2013-09-05]. （原始内容存档于2013-08-28）.
↑  For example, see Perez v. Brownell, 356（英语：） U.S. 44 (1958), overruled by Afroyim v. Rusk, 387（英语：） U.S. 253 (1967)
↑  For the text of the first  Bancroft treaties see , VIII (Germany-Iran), Washington, DC: The Department of State, Government Printing Office, 1971  [2013-09-05], （原始内容存档于2021-04-12）
↑  See Oppenheim, Lassa, , I (Peace), London, New York, Bombay: Longmans, Green, Co.: 368, 1905  [2013-09-05]
↑  See Munde, Charles, , Würzburg: A. Stuber, 1868  [2013-09-05]
↑  There were bilateral treaties with Albania, Austria-Hungary, Baden, Bavaria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Brazil, Costa Rica, Czechoslovakia, Denmark, El Salvador, Haiti, Hesse, Honduras, Lithuania, Mexico, Nicaragua, Peru, Prussia, Portugal, the United Kingdom, Uruguay and Wurttemberg.  For the text of the treaty with Great Britain see , , Washington, DC: Government Printing Office: 405, 1873  [2013-09-05] . Norway and Sweden were included in a single treaty signed in 1869 when the two countries were joined in a personal union under the Swedish monarchy.  The Interamerican Convention of 1906 covered Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Cuba, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Ecuador, El Salvador, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Paraguay, Peru, Panama and Uruguay.   For the text of the 1906 Inter-American Convention see , , 1 (Multilateral) 1776-1917, Washington, DC: The Department of State, Government Printing Office: 544, 1968  [2013-09-05] . The treaties with each of the German states except Prussia became obsolete when the German Empire was proclaimed in 1871.  The treaties with Prussia and Austria-Hungary lapsed with the American declaration of war in 1917 and were never revived.  Brazil, Mexico and the United Kingdom terminated their treaties; and Bolivia, Brazil, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Guatemala, Mexico, Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay withdrew from the 1906 convention.
↑  For the 1937 Treaty with Lithuania see , , IX (Iraq-Muscat), Washington, DC: The Department of State, Government Printing Office: 690, 1972  [2013-09-05]
↑  Afroyim v. Rusk, 387（英语：） U.S. 253 (1967)
↑  444（英语：） U.S. 252 (1980)
↑  Yoo, John. . justice.gov. 2002-06-12  [2013-09-05]. （原始内容存档于2012-09-26）.
↑  Berger, Raoul.  2nd. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund. 1997: 58  [2013-09-05]. ISBN 0865971447. （原始内容存档于2012-10-22）.
1 2 3 4 5  Slaughter-House Cases, 83（英语：） U.S. 36 (1873)
1 2  Beatty, Jack. . New York: Vintage Books. 2008-04-08: 135  [2013-09-05]. ISBN 1400032423. （原始内容存档于2017-01-07）.
↑  e.g., United States v. Morrison, 529（英语：） U.S. 598 (2000)
↑  Shaman, Jeffrey M. . Praeger. 2000-11-30: 248. ISBN 978-0313314735.
↑  Saenz v. Roe, 526（英语：） U.S. 489 (1999), quote:Despite fundamentally differing views concerning the coverage of the Privileges or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, most notably expressed in the majority and dissenting opinions in the Slaughter-House Cases (1873), it has always been common ground that this Clause protects the third component of the right to travel. Writing for the majority in the Slaughter-House Cases, Justice Miller explained that one of the privileges conferred by this Clause "is that a citizen of the United States can, of his own volition, become a citizen of any State of the Union by a bona fide residence therein, with the same rights as other citizens of that State." (emphasis added)
↑  Bogen, David. . Praeger. 2003-04-30: 104  [2013-09-05]. ASIN B001ECQKR0. （原始内容存档于2021-04-12）.
↑  McDonald v. Chicago, 561（英语：） U.S. 3025 (2010)
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1 2  Cord, Robert L.  (PDF). Brigham Young University Law Review. 1987, (3): 868  [2013-09-05]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2010-06-22）.
↑  Allgeyer v. Louisiana, 165（英语：） U.S. 578 (1897)
1 2  . . Thomson Gale. 1998  [2013-09-05]. （原始内容存档于2013-06-06）.
↑  Lochner v. New York, 198（英语：） U.S. 45 (1905)
↑  Adkins v. Children's Hospital, 261（英语：） U.S. 525 (1923)
↑  Meyer v. Nebraska, 262（英语：） U.S. 390 (1923)
↑  . Cornell University Law School Legal Information Institute.   [2013-06-12]. （原始内容存档于2013-06-12）. [w]ithout doubt...denotes not merely freedom from bodily restraint but also the right of the individual to contract, to engage in any of the common occupations of life, to acquire useful knowledge, to marry, establish a home and bring up children, to worship God according to the dictates of his own conscience, and generally to enjoy those privileges long recognized at common law as essential to the orderly pursuit of happiness by free men.
↑  Mugler v. Kansas, 123（英语：） U.S. 623 (1887)
↑  Holden v. Hardy, 169（英语：） U.S. 366 (1898)
↑  Muller v. Oregon, 208（英语：） U.S. 412 (1908)
↑  Wilson v. New, 243（英语：） U.S. 332 (1917)
↑  United States v. Doremus, 249（英语：） U.S. 86 (1919)
↑  West Coast Hotel v. Parrish, 300（英语：） U.S. 379 (1937)
↑  Griswold v. Connecticut, 381（英语：） U.S. 479 (1965)
↑  . Encyclopedia of the American Constitution.  – HighBeam Research  . 2000-01-01  [2013-09-05]. （原始内容存档于2013-09-05）.
↑  Roe v. Wade, 410（英语：） U.S. 113 (1973)
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↑  Planned Parenthood v. Casey, 505（英语：） U.S. 833 (1992)
↑  505（英语：） U.S. 845 (1992), 505（英语：） U.S. 846 (1992)
↑  Lawrence v. Texas, 539（英语：） U.S. 558 (2003)
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↑  White, Bradford. . National Trust for Historic Preservation. 2008. ISBN 0-89133-573-0.
↑  See also Mathews v. Eldridge (1976), 424（英语：） U.S. 319 (1976)
↑  Caperton v. A.T. Massey Coal Co., 556（英语：） U.S. ___ (2009)
↑  Jess Bravin and Kris Maher. . The Wall Street Journal. 2009-06-08  [2013-09-05]. （原始内容存档于2012-11-11）.
↑  Barron v. Baltimore, 32（英语：） U.S. 243 (1833)
↑  Levy, Leonard W. . Encyclopedia of the American Constitution.  – HighBeam Research  .   [2013-09-05]. （原始内容存档于2015-03-29）.
↑  Foster, James C. . Finkleman, Paul  (编). . CRC Press: 145. 2006  [2013-09-05]. （原始内容存档于2017-01-07）.
↑  Amar, Akhil Reed. . Yale Law Journal (The Yale Law Journal, Vol. 101, No. 6). 1992, 101 (6): 1193–1284  [2013-09-05]. JSTOR 796923. doi:10.2307/796923. （原始内容存档于2013-09-03）.
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1 2  Levy, Leonard. . Da Capo Press. 1970. ISBN 0-306-70029-8.
↑  Engblom v. Carey, 677 F.2d 957 (1982)
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↑  Bolling v. Sharpe, 347 U.S. 497 (1954)
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↑  Strauder v. West Virginia, 100（英语：） U.S. 303 (1880)
↑  Yick Wo v. Hopkins, 118（英语：） U.S. 356 (1886)
↑  Plessy v. Ferguson, 163（英语：） U.S. 537 (1896)
↑  Abrams, Eve. . WWNO (University New Orleans Public Radio). 2009-02-12  [2013-09-05]. （原始内容存档于2013-01-15）.
↑  Berea College v. Kentucky, 211（英语：） U.S. 45 (1908)
↑  Holmes, Oliver Wendell, Jr. . Cornell University Law School Legal Information Institute.   [2013-06-12]. （原始内容存档于2013-06-12）.
↑  Brown v. Board of Education, 347（英语：） U.S. 483 (1954)
↑  Patterson, James. . Oxford University Press. 2002. ISBN 0-19-515632-3.
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↑  Hernandez v. Texas, 347（英语：） U.S. 475 (1954)
↑  United States v. Virginia, 518（英语：） U.S. 515 (1996)
↑  Levy v. Louisiana, 361（英语：） U.S. 68 (1968)
↑  Gerstmann, Evan. . University Of Chicago Press. 1999. ISBN 0-226-28860-9.
↑  Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, 438（英语：） U.S. 265 (1978)
↑  Supreme Court Drama: Cases That Changed America. . Supreme Court Drama: Cases that Changed America.  – HighBeam Research  . 2001  [2013-09-05]. （原始内容存档于2016-02-06）.
↑  Gratz v. Bollinger, 539（英语：） U.S. 244 (2003)
↑  Grutter v. Bollinger, 539（英语：） U.S. 306 (2003)
↑  Alger, Jonathan. . University of Michigan. 2003-10-11  [2013-09-05]. （原始内容存档于2011-08-13）.
↑  Eckes, Susan B. . Journal of Law and Education.  – HighBeam Research  . 2004-01-01  [2013-09-05]. （原始内容存档于2016-02-06）.
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↑  Reed v. Reed, 404（英语：） U.S. 71 (1971)
1 2  . Supreme Court Drama: Cases that Changed America.  – HighBeam Research  . 2001-01-01  [2013-09-05]. （原始内容存档于2016-02-06）.
↑  Craig v. Boren, 429（英语：） U.S. 190 (1976)
↑  Karst, Kenneth L. . Encyclopedia of the American Constitution.  – HighBeam Research  . 2000-01-01  [2013-09-05]. （原始内容存档于2016-02-06）.
↑  Wesberry v. Sanders, 376（英语：） U.S. 1 (1964)
↑  Wesberry v. Sanders, 376 U.S. 1 .
↑  Reynolds v. Sims, 377（英语：） U.S. 533 (1964)
↑  Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U.S. 533 .
↑  Epstein, Lee; Walker, Thomas G.  6th. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press. 2007: 775. ISBN 0-87187-613-2. Wesberry and Reynolds made it clear that the Constitution demanded population-based representational units for the U.S. House of Representatives and both houses of state legislatures....
↑  Shaw v. Reno, 509（英语：） U.S. 630 (1993)
↑  T. Alexander Aleinikoff, Samuel Issacharoff. . Michigan Law Review (Michigan Law Review, Vol. 92, No. 3). 1993, 92 (3): 588–651. JSTOR 1289796. doi:10.2307/1289796.
↑  Bush v. Gore, 531（英语：） U.S. 98 (2000)
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↑  League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry, 548（英语：） U.S. 399 (2006)
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↑  Richardson v. Ramirez, 418（英语：） U.S. 24 (1974)
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↑  Goodman, Bonnie K. . History News Network. 2006  [2009-09-08]. （原始内容存档于2009-09-08）. 17/10/1978 - Pres Carter signs bill restoring Jefferson Davis citizenship
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↑  Liptak, Adam. . The New York Times. 2011-07-24  [2013-09-05]. （原始内容存档于2013-04-04）. In recent weeks, law professors have been trying to puzzle out the meaning and relevance of the provision. Some have joined Mr. Clinton in saying it allows Mr. Obama to ignore the debt ceiling. Others say it applies only to Congress and only to outright default on existing debts. Still others say the president may do what he wants in an emergency, with or without the authority of the 14th Amendment.
↑  . The Atlantic. 2011-05-04  [2013-09-05]. （原始内容存档于2013-05-21）.
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1 2  City of Boerne v. Flores, 521（英语：） U.S. 507 (1997)
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