Vương quốc Ấn-Hy Lạp
Chú thích

↑  "Of the Sanskrit Yavana, there are other forms and derivatives, viz. Yona, Yonaka, Javana, Yavana, Jonon or Jononka, Ya-ba-na etc... Yona is a normal Prakrit form from Yavana", Narain "The Indo-Greeks", p.228
↑  Tarn, p.391: "Somewhere I have met with the zhole-hearted statement that every Greek in India ended by becoming a Buddhist (...) Heliodorus the ambassador was a Bhagavatta, a worshiper of Vshnu-Krishna as the supreme deity (...) Theodorus the meridrarch, who established some relics of the Buddha "for the purpose of the security of many people", was undoubtedly Buddhist". Images of the Zoroastrian divinity Mithra – depicted with a radiated phrygian cap – appear extensively on the Indo-Greek coinage of the Western kings. This Zeus-Mithra is also the one represented seated (with the gloriole around the head, and a small protrusion on the top of the head representing the cap) on many coins of Hermaeus, Antialcidas hoặc Heliokles II.
↑  "It is not unlikely that "Dikaios", which is translated Dhramaika in the Kharosthi legend, may be connected with his adoption of the Buddhist faith." Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.124
↑  "Menander, the probable conqueror of Pataliputra, seems to have been a Buddhist, and his name belongs in the list of important royal patrons of Buddhism along with Asoka and Kanishka", McEvilley, p.375
↑  "It is probable that the wheel on some coins of Menander is connected with Buddhism", Narain, The Indo-Greeks, p.122
↑  Stupavadana, Chapter 57, v15. Quotes in E.Seldeslachts.
↑  "The extraordinary realism of their portraiture. The portraits of Demetrius, Antimachus and of Eucratides are among the most remarkable that have come down to us from antiquity" Hellenism in Ancient India, Banerjee, p134
↑  "Just as the Frank Clovis had no part in the development of Gallo-Roman art, the Indo-Scythian Kanishka had no direct influence on that of Indo-Greek Art; and besides, we have now the certain proofs that during his reign this art was already stereotyped, of not decadent" Hellenism in Ancient India, Banerjee, p147
↑  "The survival into the 1st century AD of a Greek administration and presumably some elements of Greek culture in the Punjab has now to be taken into account in any discussion of the role of Greek influence in the development of Gandharan sculpture", The Crossroads of Asia, p14
↑ On the Indo-Greeks and the Gandhara school:
1) "It is necessary to considerably push back the start of Gandharan art, to the first half of the first century TCN, or even, very probably, to the preceding century.(...) The origins of Gandharan art... go back to the Greek presence. (...) Gandharan iconography was already fully formed before, or at least at the very beginning of our era" Mario Bussagli "L'art du Gandhara", p331–332
2) "The beginnings of the Gandhara school have been dated everywhere from the first century B.C. (which was M.Foucher's view) to the Kushan period and even after it" (Tarn, p394). Foucher's views can be found in "La vieille route de l'Inde, de Bactres a Taxila", pp340–341). The view is also supported by Sir John Marshall ("The Buddhist art of Gandhara", pp5–6).
3) Also the recent discoveries at Ai-Khanoum confirm that "Gandharan art descended directly from Hellenized Bactrian art" (Chaibi Nustamandy, "Crossroads of Asia", 1992).
4) On the Indo-Greeks and Greco-Buddhist art: "It was about this time (100 TCN) that something took place which is without parallel in Hellenistic history: Greeks of themselves placed their artistic skill at the service of a foreign religion, and created for it a new form of expression in art" (Tarn, p393). "We have to look for the beginnings of Gandharan Buddhist art in the residual Indo-Greek tradition, and in the early Buddhist stone sculpture to the South (Bharhut etc...)" (Boardman, 1993, p124). "Depending on how the dates are worked out, the spread of Gandhari Buddhism to the north may have been stimulated by Menander's royal patronage, as may the development and spread of the Gandharan sculpture, which seems to have accompanied it" McEvilley, 2002, "The shape of ancient thought", p378.
↑  Boardman, p141
↑  Boardman, p.115
↑  "Those tiny territories of the Indo-Greek kings must have been lively and commercially flourishing places", India: The ancient past, Burjor Avari, p.130
↑  "No doubt the Greeks of Bactria and India presided over a flourishing economy. This is clearly indicated by their coinage and the monetary exchange they had established with other currencies." Narain, "The Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.275
↑  Bopearachchi, "Monnaies", p.27
↑  Rapson, clxxxvi-
1 2  Science and civilisation in China: Chemistry and chemical technology by Joseph Needham, Gwei-Djen Lu p.237ff
↑  Tư Mã Thiên, Sử Ký, mục "Đại Uyển liệt truyện"
↑  “Strabo II.3.4‑5 on Eudoxus”.
↑  "Since the merchants of Alexandria are already sailing with fleets by way of the Nile and of the Persian Gulf as far as India, these regions also have become far better known to us of today than to our predecessors. At any rate, when Gallus was prefect of Egypt, I accompanied him and ascended the Nile as far as Syene and the frontiers of Ethiopia, and I learned that as many as one hundred and twenty vessels were sailing from Myos Hormos for India, whereas formerly, under the Ptolemies, only a very few ventured to undertake the voyage and to carry on traffic in Indian merchandise." Strabo II.5.12
↑  "It is curious that on his copper Zoilos used a Bow and quiver as a type. A quiver was a badge used by the Parthians (Scythians) and had been used previously by Diodotos, who we know had made a treaty with them. Did Zoilos use Scythian mercenaries in his quest against Menander perhaps?" Senior, Indo-Scythian coins, p.xxvii
↑  Photographic reference on a coin of Menander II, circa 90 TCNE: Image:MenanderIIQ.jpg
↑  “Polybius 10.49, Battle of the Arius”.
↑  “Mi Tiên vấn đáp (Milinda Panha)”. Bản gốc lưu trữ ngày 30 tháng 3 năm 2012. Truy cập ngày 18 tháng 11 năm 2011.
↑  “Mi Tiên Vấn Đáp (Milinda Panha)”. Bản gốc lưu trữ ngày 30 tháng 3 năm 2012. Truy cập ngày 18 tháng 11 năm 2011.
↑  “Megasthenes Indica”. Bản gốc lưu trữ ngày 28 tháng 5 năm 2006. Truy cập ngày 12 tháng 10 năm 2014.
↑  Justin on Demetrius: "Multa tamen Eucratides bella magna uirtute gessit, quibus adtritus cum obsidionem Demetrii, regis Indorum, pateretur, cum CCC militibus LX milia hostium adsiduis eruptionibus uicit. Quinto itaque mense liberatus Indiam in potestatem redegit." Justin XLI,6
↑  On the size of Hellenistic armies, see accounts of Hellenistic battles by Diodorus, books XVIII and XIX
↑  "They are a nation of nomads, moving from place to place with their herds, and their customs are like those of the Xiongnu. They have some 100,000 or 200,000 archer warriors... The Yuezhi originally lived in the area between the Qilian or Heavenly mountains and Dunhuang, but after they were defeated by the Xiongnu they moved far away to the west, beyond Dayuan, where they attacked and conquered the people of Daxia (Bactria) and set up the court of their king on the northern bank of the Gui (Oxus) river" ("Records of the Great Historian", Sima Qian, trans. Burton Watson, p234)
↑  Tarn, p.494
↑  "Though the Indo-Greek monarchies seem to have ended in the first century TCN, the Greek presence in India and Bactria remained strong", McEvilley, p.379
↑  "The use of the Greek months by the Sakas and later rulers points to the conclusion that they employed a system of dating started by their predecessors." Narain, "Indo-Greeks" 2003, p.190
↑  "Evidence of the conquest of Saurastra during the reign of Chandragupta II is to be seen in his rare silver coins which are more directly imitated from those of the Western Satraps... they retain some traces of the old inscriptions in Greek characters, while on the reverse, they substitute the Gupta type (a peacock) for the chaitya with crescent and star." in Rapson "A catalogue of Indian coins in the British Museum. The Andhras etc...", p.cli
Apollodotus I (180–160 TCN) vị vua đầu tiên chỉ cai trị ở tiểu lục địa và do đó mới đích thực là người sáng lập vương quốc Ấn-Hy.
Sắc lệnh song ngữ của A-dục vương (viết bằng tiếng Hy Lạp và tiếng Aramaic), được tìm thấy ở Càn-đà-la. Khoảng 250 TCN, Bảo tàng Kabul.
Bức tượng của người Hy Lạp-Bactria, có thể là một triết gia, Ai Khanoum, Bactria, thế kỉ thứ 2 TCN
Người sáng lập vương quốc Ấn-Hy Lạp Demetrios I (khoảng 205– c.170 TCN)
Vương quốc Ấn-Hy, cùng với các chiến dịch và trận đánh được biết đến.
Menandros I là vị vua Ấn-Hy Lạp quan trọng nhất.
Eucratides I đã thiết lập nên triều đại Hy Lạp-Bactria, nhà Euthydemos, và tấn công vương quốc Ấn-Hy từ phía tây.
Tiền xu của Philoxenus (khoảng năm 100 TCN).
Tiền của Yaudheya.
Châu Á năm 1 CN, cho thấy vương quốc cuối cùng của người Ấn-Hy Lạp.
Đồng bạc của vua Ấn-Scythia Azes II (r.c. 35-12 TCN).
Đồng đram song ngữ của Menandros I. Dòng chữ Hy Lạp phía bên phải "BASILEOS SOTĒROS MENANDROY" và dòng chữ Kharosthi bên trái "MAHARAJA TRATASA MENADRASA": "của Menandros, Vua cứu độ". Phía bên trái là hình thần Athena cùng với sấm sét và khiên
Đồng tiền kiểu chuẩn Ấn Độ của Menandros I với hình pháp luân và lá có chiến thắng ở phía ngược lại (British Museum).
Bảng đá miêu tả một khung cảnh thần thoại, thế kỷ thứ 2-1 TCN.
Tiền hợp kim đồng-nickel của vua Pantaleontos cho thấy xuất xứ từ Trung Quốc của kim loại này,
Binh lĩnh Ấn-Hy Lạp (trên một đồng xu của Menandros II), khoảng 90 TCN, với một áo giáp, phiến giáp cho đùi, và bảo vệ chân, làm một cử chỉ phước lành.
bảng đồng Taxila của nguời Ấn-Scythia sử dụng loại lịch của người Macedonia "Panemos" (British Museum).
Cặp vợ chồng Hy Lạp từ Taxila (IV).