Đế quốc Akkad
Dẫn nguồn

↑  Taagepera, Rein (1978). “Size and duration of empires growth-decline curves, 3000 to 600 B.C.”. Social Science Research. 7: 180–195. doi:10.1016/0049-089X(78)90010-8.
↑  Mish, Frederick C., Editor in Chief. "Akkad" Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary. ninth ed. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster 1985. ISBN 0-87779-508-8).
↑  Deutscher, Guy (2007). Syntactic Change in Akkadian: The Evolution of Sentential Complementation. Oxford University Press US. tr. 20–21. ISBN 978-0-19-953222-3.
↑  Woods, C. (2006). “Bilingualism, Scribal Learning, and the Death of Sumerian” (PDF). S.L. Sanders (ed) Margins of Writing, Origins of Culture: 91–120. Chicago. Bản gốc (PDF) lưu trữ ngày 29 tháng 4 năm 2013. Truy cập ngày 12 tháng 10 năm 2017.
↑  Zettler (2003), p. 20. "Brinkman's chronology places Sargon's accession at 2334, his successors, Naram-Suen and Sharkalisharri, under whom the dynasty presumably collapsed, at 2254–2218 and 2217–2193, respectively, and the Third Dynasty of Ur at 2112–2004. however, Brinkman noted that if Hallo's 40 year Gutian interregnum is correct then the Dynasty of Akkade would have to be dated 2293–2113. The middle chronology, however, is under attack, with various scholars arguing strongly in favor of a low(er) chronology and for various reasons. Without going into detail, Boese has placed Sargon's accession at shortly after 2250 (1982), Gasche, Armstrong, Cole and Gurzadyan at 2200 (1998) and Reade at 2180 (2001), with the Third Dynasty of Ur moved according."
↑  F Leo Oppenhiem - Ancient Mesopotamia
↑  Liverani (1993), p. 3. "The factual criticism is that empires existed even before Akkad: or more properly that the term and concept of 'empire' has been recently applied (on not worse grounds than in the case of Akkad) to other older cases, from the Uruk of the late-Uruk period to the Ebla of the royal archives, to the very state formations of the Sumerian south in the period called in fact 'proto-imperial'. In no case is the Akkad empire an absolute novelty [...] 'Akkad the first empire' istherefore subject to criticism not only as for the adjective 'first' but especially as for the noun 'empire'.
↑  Petrovich, Douglas N. (2013). “Identifying Nimrod of Genesis 10 with Sargon of Akkad by Exegetical and Archaeological Means”. Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society.
↑  Dalley, Stephanie (1997). The Legacy of Mesopotamia. New York: Oxford University Press. tr. 116. ISBN 9780198149460.
1 2  Bagnall, Roger S. biên tập (2013). The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. Chicago: Blackwell. tr. 6045–6047. doi:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah24182. ISBN 9781444338386.
1 2  Schrakamp, Ingo (2013). “Sargon of Akkad and his dynasty”.  Trong Bagnall, Roger S. (biên tập). The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. Chicago: Blackwell. tr. 6045–6047. doi:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah24182.
1 2  Wall-Romana, Christophe (1990). “An Areal Location of Agade”. Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 49 (3): 205–245. doi:10.1086/373442. JSTOR 546244.
↑  Weiss, Harvey (1975), “Kish, Akkad and Agade”, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 95 (3): 434–453, doi:10.2307/599355, JSTOR 599355
↑  McMahon, Augusta (2006). The Early Dynastic to Akkadian Transition. The Area WF Sounding at Nippur (PDF). Chicago: Oriental Institute. ISBN 1-885923-38-4. Truy cập ngày 19 tháng 3 năm 2015.
↑  Buccellati, Giorgio; Kelly-Buccellati, Marilyn (2002). “Tar'am-Agade, Daughter of Naram-Sin, at Urkesh” (PDF).  Trong Al-Gailani Werr, Lamia (biên tập). Of Pots and Plans. Papers on the Archaeology and History of Mesopotamia and Syria presented to David Oates in Honour of his 75th Birthday. London: Nabu. tr. 11–31. ISBN 1897750625. Bản gốc (PDF) lưu trữ ngày 2 tháng 4 năm 2015. Truy cập ngày 18 tháng 3 năm 2015.
↑  Weiss, H;  và đồng nghiệp (1993). “The Genesis and Collapse of Third Millennium North Mesopotamian Civilization”. Science. 261 (5124): 995–1004. Bibcode:1993Sci...261..995W. doi:10.1126/science.261.5124.995. PMID 17739617.
↑  Wiener, Malcolm H. (2014). “The Interaction of Climate Change and Agency in the Collapse of Civilizations ca. 2300–2000 BC”. Radiocarbon. 56 (4): S1–S16. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.692.2170. doi:10.2458/azu_rc.56.18325.
↑  J. Oates (2004), pp. 5–8. "Following the destruction of the city sometime in the twenty-third century BC, Nagar was rebuilt by officials of the Akkadian Dynasty as a major centre of their provincial administration, a fact clearly attested in the cuneiform documents from this site."
↑  David Oates & Joan Oates, "Akkadian Buildings at Tell Brak"; Iraq 59, 1989.
↑  Pruß, Alexander (2004), “Remarks on the Chronological Periods”,  trong Lebeau, Marc; Sauvage, Martin (biên tập), Atlas of Preclassical Upper Mesopotamia, Subartu, 13, tr. 7–21, ISBN 2503991203
1 2  van de Mieroop, M. (2007). A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC. Malden: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-22552-2.
↑  Foster, Benjamin R. (2013), “Akkad (Agade)”,  trong Bagnall, Roger S. (biên tập), The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, Chicago: Blackwell, tr. 266–267, doi:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah01005
1 2  Foster, Benjamin R. (2015). The Age of Agade: Inventing Empire in Ancient Mesopotamia (bằng tiếng Anh). Routledge. tr. 3. ISBN 9781317415527.
↑  Nigro, Lorenzo (1998). “The Two Steles of Sargon: Iconology and Visual Propaganda at the Beginning of Royal Akkadian Relief”. Iraq. British Institute for the Study of Iraq. 60: 92. doi:10.2307/4200454. JSTOR 4200454.
↑  Nigro, Lorenzo (1998). “The Two Steles of Sargon: Iconology and Visual Propaganda at the Beginning of Royal Akkadian Relief”. Iraq. British Institute for the Study of Iraq. 60: 93–94. doi:10.2307/4200454. JSTOR 4200454.
↑  Georges Roux (1996), Ancient Iraq (3rd Edition) (Penguin Harmondsworth)
↑  Stiebing Jr, H. William (2009). Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture. Pearson Longman; University of New Orleans. tr. 69.
↑  Sargon
↑  Samuel Noah Kramer, The Sumerians, Chicago University Press, 1971, ISBN 0-226-45238-7
↑  Stiebing Jr, H. William (2009). Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture. Pearson Longman; University of New Orleans. tr. 70.
↑  Dalley proposes that these sources may have originally referred to Sargon II of the Assyria rather than Sargon of Akkad.
↑  Stiebing Jr, H. William (2009). Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture. Pearson Longman; University of New Orleans. tr. 71.
↑  “Musée du Louvre-Lens - Portail documentaire - Stèle de victoire du roi Rimush (?)”. ressources.louvrelens.fr (bằng tiếng Pháp).
↑  Hamblin, William J. (2006). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History (bằng tiếng Anh). Routledge. tr. 93–94. ISBN 978-1-134-52062-6.
1 2  Hamblin, William J. (2006). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History (bằng tiếng Anh). Routledge. tr. 93–94. ISBN 978-1-134-52062-6.
↑  Crowe, D. (2014). War Crimes, Genocide, and Justice: A Global History (bằng tiếng Anh). Springer. tr. 10. ISBN 978-1-137-03701-5.
↑  Stiebing Jr, H. William (2009). Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture. Pearson Longman; University of New Orleans. tr. 72.
↑  Hamblin, William J. (2006). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History (bằng tiếng Anh). Routledge. tr. 93–94. ISBN 978-1-134-52062-6.
↑  Stiebing, H. William, Jr. (2009). Ancient Near Eastern History and Culture. Pearson Longman. tr. 74. ISBN 978-0-321-42297-2.
↑  Michalowski, Piotr (2008). “The Mortal Kings of Ur: A Short Century of Divine Rule in Ancient Mesopotamia” (PDF). Oriental Institute Seminars. 4. The Oriental Institute. tr. 33–45. ISBN 978-1-885923-55-4. Bản gốc (PDF) lưu trữ ngày 5 tháng 9 năm 2012. Truy cập ngày 29 tháng 7 năm 2021.
↑  Tinney, Steve (1995). “A New Look at Naram-Sin and the Great Rebellion”. Journal of Cuneiform Studies. 47: 1–14. doi:10.2307/1359810. JSTOR 1359810.
1 2  Otto, Adelheid (2006). “Archaeological Perspectives on the Localization of Naram-Sin's Armanum”. Journal of Cuneiform Studies. 58: 1–26. doi:10.1086/JCS40025220.
↑  Foster, Benjamin R. (1982). “The Siege of Armanum”. Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society. 14: 27–36.
↑  Horowitz, Wayne; Horowitz, Alexandra (1998). Mesopotamian Cosmic Geography. ISBN 0-931464-99-4.
↑  Cyrus Herzl Gordon; Gary Rendsburg; Nathan H. Winter (1987). Eblaitica: Essays on the Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language, Volume 4. tr. 63–66. ISBN 1-57506-060-4.
↑  Fagan, Brian (2004). The Long Summer: how climate changed civilisation. Granta Books. ISBN 1-86207-644-8.
↑  Burroughs, William J. (2008). Climate Change in Prehistory: The end of the age of chaos. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-07010-2.
1 2  De Mieroop, Marc Van (2005). A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000–323 BC. Malden: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-22552-8.
↑   Chisholm, Hugh biên tập (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (ấn bản thứ 11). Cambridge University Press. |title= trống hay bị thiếu (trợ giúp)
↑  “Sumerian Dictionary”. oracc.iaas.upenn.edu. Bản gốc lưu trữ ngày 1 tháng 3 năm 2020. Truy cập ngày 30 tháng 7 năm 2021.
↑  Woolley, Leonard (1938). The Summerians. tr. 83.
↑  The Art Of Ancient Mesopotamia (Art Ebook) (bằng tiếng Anh). tr. 53.
↑  Seal image M4 in: The Art Of Ancient Mesopotamia (Art Ebook) (bằng tiếng Anh). tr. 53.
↑  Radau, Hugo (2005). Early Babylonian History: Down to the End of the Fourth Dynasty of Ur (bằng tiếng Anh). Wipf and Stock Publishers. tr. 6–7. ISBN 978-1-59752-381-3.
↑  “CDLI-Archival View RT 165”. cdli.ucla.edu.
↑  The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. 1971. tr. 436.
↑  "Puzur-Mama, who served as a "governor" of Lagash, in all probability during the reign of Shar-kali-sharri.
↑  The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. 1971. tr. 998.
1 2  Zettler (2003), pp. 24–25.
↑  Nicholas Kraus, The Weapon of Blood: Politics and Intrigue at the Decline of Akkad, Zeitschrift für Assyriologie & Vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 108, iss. 1, pp. 1-9, June 2018
↑  Georges Roux (1996), Ancient Iraq (3rd Edition)(Penguin Harmondsworth)
↑  Norman Yoffee, "The Collapse of Ancient Mesopotamian States and Civilization", In The Collapse of Ancient States and Civilizations, ed.
↑  Cookson, Evangeline; Hill, Daniel J.; Lawrence, Dan (ngày 1 tháng 6 năm 2019). “Impacts of long term climate change during the collapse of the Akkadian Empire”. Journal of Archaeological Science (bằng tiếng Anh). 106: 1–9. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2019.03.009. ISSN 0305-4403. Bản gốc lưu trữ ngày 2 tháng 5 năm 2019.
↑  Weiss, H;  và đồng nghiệp (1993). “The Genesis and Collapse of Third Millennium North Mesopotamian Civilization”. Science. 261 (5124): 995–1004. Bibcode:1993Sci...261..995W. doi:10.1126/science.261.5124.995. PMID 17739617.
↑  Watanabe, Takaaki K.; Watanabe, Tsuyoshi; Yamazaki, Atsuko; Pfeiffer, Miriam (2019). “Oman corals suggest that a stronger winter shamal season caused the Akkadian Empire (Mesopotamia) collapse”. Geology. GeoScienceWorld. 47 (12): 1141–1145. Bibcode:2019Geo....47.1141W. doi:10.1130/G46604.1.
↑  “Strong winter dust storms may have caused the collapse of the Akkadian Empire” (Thông cáo báo chí). ngày 24 tháng 10 năm 2019.
↑   Lưu trữ 2017-10-10 tại Wayback Machine Tar'am-Agade, Daughter of Naram-Sin, at Urkesh, Buccellati, Giorgio and Marilyn Kelly-Buccellati, in of Pots and Plans.
↑  J. Oates (2004), p. 10.
↑  Thompson, William J. (2003), "Complexity, Diminishing Marginal Returns and Serial Mesopotamian Fragmentation," Journal of World Systems Research
↑  Leick Gwendolyn (2003), "Mesopotamia: The invention of the city" (Penguin)
↑  Kramer 1963:324, quoted in Charles Keith Maisels, The Emergence of Civilization ch.
↑  Bourke, Stephen (2008). The Middle East: the cradle of civilization revealed. Thames & Hudson. tr. 89. ISBN 9780500251478.
↑  Ray, Himanshu Prabha (2003). The Archaeology of Seafaring in Ancient South Asia (bằng tiếng Anh). Cambridge University Press. tr. 85. ISBN 9780521011099.
↑  “The Indus Civilization and Dilmun, the Sumerian Paradise Land”. www.penn.museum.
↑  Reade, Julian E. (2008). The Indus-Mesopotamia relationship reconsidered (Gs Elisabeth During Caspers) (bằng tiếng Anh). Archaeopress. tr. 14–17. ISBN 978-1-4073-0312-3.
↑  Stein, Stephen K. (2017). The Sea in World History: Exploration, Travel, and Trade [2 volumes] (bằng tiếng Anh). ABC-CLIO. tr. 38. ISBN 9781440835513.
↑  McKeon, John F. X. (1970). “An Akkadian Victory Stele”. Boston Museum Bulletin. 68 (354): 239. ISSN 0006-7997. JSTOR 4171539.
↑  Frankfort, Henri, The Art and Architecture of the Ancient Orient, Pelican History of Art, 4th ed 1970, Penguin (now Yale History of Art), ISBN 0140561072, pp. 83–91
↑  Frankfort, p. 91
↑  Art of the First Cities: The Third Millennium B.C. from the Mediterranean to the Indus (bằng tiếng Anh). Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2003. tr. 204–205. ISBN 978-1-58839-043-1.
↑  McKeon, John F. X. (1970). “An Akkadian Victory Stele”. Boston Museum Bulletin. 68 (354): 226–243. JSTOR 4171539.
↑  “The Adda Seal”. British Museum.
1 2 3  Deutscher, Guy (2007). Syntactic Change in Akkadian: The Evolution of Sentential Complementation. Oxford University Press US. tr. 20–21. ISBN 978-0-19-953222-3.
↑  Woods, C. (2006). “Bilingualism, Scribal Learning, and the Death of Sumerian” (PDF). S.L. Sanders (ed) Margins of Writing, Origins of Culture: 91–120. Chicago. Bản gốc (PDF) lưu trữ ngày 29 tháng 4 năm 2013. Truy cập ngày 12 tháng 10 năm 2017.
↑  “Sumerian language”. Encyclopædia Britannica.
↑  Enheduanna, The Exaltation of Inanna.
↑  “The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature”.
↑  Jerrold S. Cooper, "Paradigm and Propaganda: The Dynasty of Akkade in the 21st Century"; in Liverani (1993).
↑  Bill T. Arnold, "The Weidner Chronicle and the Idea of History in Israel and Mesopotamia"; in Faith, Tradition, and History: Old Testament Historiography in Its Near Eastern Context; Millard, Hoffmeier & Baker, eds.; Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 1994; ISBN 0-931464-82-X; p. 138.
↑  van de Mieroop, M. (2007). A History of the Ancient Near East, ca. 3000–323 BC. Malden: Blackwell. tr. 68–69. ISBN 978-0-631-22552-2.