Toryum
Not listesi

↑  Bismuth is very slightly radioactive, but its half-life (1.9×1019 years) is so long that its decay is negligible even over geological timespans.
↑  Behind osmium, tantalum, tungsten, and rhenium; higher boiling points are speculated to be found in the 6d transition metals, but they have not been produced in large enough quantities to test this prediction.Şablon:Fricke1975
↑  The name ionium for 230Th is a remnant from a period when different isotopes were not recognised to be the same element and were given different names.
↑  Unlike the previous similarity between the actinides and the transition metals, the main-group similarity largely ends at thorium before being resumed in the second half of the actinide series, because of the growing contribution of the 5f orbitals to covalent bonding. The only other commonly-encountered actinide, uranium, retains some echoes of main-group behaviour. The chemistry of uranium is more complicated than that of thorium, but the two most common oxidation states of uranium are uranium(VI) and uranium(IV); these are two oxidation units apart, with the higher oxidation state corresponding to formal loss of all valence electrons, which is similar to the behaviour of the heavy main-group elements in the p-block.
↑  An even number of either protons or neutrons generally increases nuclear stability of isotopes, compared to isotopes with odd numbers. Elements with odd atomic numbers have no more than two stable isotopes; even-numbered elements have multiple stable isotopes, with tin (element 50) having ten.
↑  Other isotopes may occur alongside 232Th, but only in trace quantities. If the source contains no uranium, the only other thorium isotope present would be 228Th, which occurs in the decay chain of 232Th (the thorium series): the ratio of 228Th to 232Th would be under 10−10. If uranium is present, tiny traces of several other isotopes will also be present: 231Th and 227Th from the decay chain of 235U (the actinium series), and slightly larger but still tiny traces of 234Th and 230Th from the decay chain of 238U (the uranium series). 229Th is also been produced in the decay chain of 237Np (the neptunium series): all primordial 237Np is extinct, but it is still produced as a result of nuclear reactions in uranium ores. 229Th is mostly produced as a daughter of artificial 233U made by neutron irradiation of 232Th, and is extremely rare in nature.
↑  Thorianite refers to minerals with 75–100 mol% ThO
2; uranothorianite, 25–75 mol% ThO
2; thorian uraninite, 15–25 mol% ThO
2; uraninite, 0–15 mol% ThO
2.
↑  At the time, the rare-earth elements, among which thorium was found and with which it is closely associated in nature, were thought to be divalent; the rare earths were given atomic weight values two-thirds of their actual ones, and thorium and uranium are given values half of the actual ones.
↑  The main difficulty in isolating thorium lies not in its chemical electropositivity, but in the close association of thorium in nature with the rare-earth elements and uranium, which collectively are difficult to separate from each other. Swedish chemist Lars Fredrik Nilson, the discoverer of scandium, had previously made an attempt to isolate thorium metal in 1882, but was unsuccessful at achieving a high degree of purity. Lely and Hamburger obtained 99% pure thorium metal by reducing thorium chloride with sodium metal. A simpler method leading to even higher purity was discovered in 1927 by American engineers John Marden and Harvey Rentschler, involving the reduction of thorium oxide with calcium in presence of calcium chloride.
↑  Thorium also appears in the 1864 table by British chemist John Newlands as the last and heaviest element, as it was initially thought that uranium was a trivalent element with an atomic weight of around 120: this is half of its actual value, since uranium is predominantly hexavalent. It also appears as the heaviest element in the 1864 table by British chemist William Odling under titanium, zirconium, and tantalum. It does not appear in the periodic systems published by French geologist Alexandre-Émile Béguyer de Chancourtois in 1862, German-American musician Gustav Hinrichs in 1867, or German chemist Julius Lothar Meyer in 1870, all of which exclude the rare earths and thorium.
↑  The filling of the 5f subshell from the beginning of the actinide series was confirmed in 1964 when the next element, rutherfordium, was first synthesised and found to behave like hafnium, as would be expected if the filling of the 5f orbitals had already finished by then. Today, thorium's similarities to hafnium are still sometimes acknowledged by calling it a "pseudo group 4 element".
↑  The thirteen fissile actinide isotopes with half-lives over a year are 229Th, 233U, 235U, 236Np, 239Pu, 241Pu, 242mAm, 243Cm, 245Cm, 247Cm, 249Cf, 251Cf, and 252Es. Of these, only 235U is naturally occurring, and only 233U and 239Pu can be bred from naturally occurring nuclei with a single neutron capture.
↑  "Arşivlenmiş kopya". 3 Şubat 2023 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 20 Haziran 2023.
↑  https://www.ntv.com.tr/teknoloji/cinde-ilk-toryum-reaktoru-icin-isletim-izni-verildi,ejXbPgVCkEq0Bbt8ZVDqFw [yalın URL]
↑  Negre, César et al.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54  Wickleder, Fourest & Dorhout 2006.
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↑  Wickleder, Fourest & Dorhout 2006, ss. 61–63.
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↑  Nagy, S.; Klencsár, Z.; Lovas, R. G.; Rösch, F., (Ed.) (2010). "Natural Radioactive Decay Chains". Handbook of Nuclear Chemistry. Springer Science+Business Media. s. 668. ISBN 978-1-4419-0719-6.  Yazar |ad1= eksik |soyadı1= (yardım); r eksik |soyadı1= (yardım)
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↑   (Basın açıklaması). 2013.  Eksik ya da boş |başlık= (yardım)
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↑  Ramdahl (September 2016). "An efficient chelator for complexation of thorium-227". Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters. 26 (17): 4318-4321. doi:10.1016/j.bmcl.2016.07.034. PMID 27476138.
↑  Deblonde (19 Kasım 2018). "Solution Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Metal Complexation with a Hydroxypyridinone Chelator Designed for Thorium-227 Targeted Alpha Therapy". Inorganic Chemistry. 57 (22): 14337-14346. doi:10.1021/acs.inorgchem.8b02430. PMID 30372069. 11 Mayıs 2021 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 13 Nisan 2023.
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↑  Bonetti (1995). "First observation of spontaneous fission and search for cluster decay of 232Th". Physical Review C. 51 (5): 2530-2533. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.51.2530. PMID 9970335. KB1 bakım: göster-yazarlar (link)
↑  "New isotope 207Th and odd-even staggering in α-decay energies for nuclei with Z > 82 and N < 126". Physical Review C. 105 (L051302). 2022. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.105.L051302.  Birden fazla yazar-name-list parameters kullanıldı (yardım); Yazar |ad1= eksik |soyadı1= (yardım)
↑  "Standard Atomic Weights: Thorium 25 Mart 2023 tarihinde Wayback Machine sitesinde arşivlendi.".
↑  Ruchowska (2006). "Nuclear structure of 229Th". Physical Review C. 73 (4): 044326. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.73.044326. 28 Nisan 2021 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 13 Nisan 2023. KB1 bakım: göster-yazarlar (link)
↑  Beck (2007). "Energy splitting in the ground state doublet in the nucleus 229Th". Physical Review Letters. 98 (14): 142501. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.98.142501. PMID 17501268. 13 Nisan 2023 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 13 Nisan 2023. KB1 bakım: göster-yazarlar (link)
↑  von der Wense (2016). "Direct detection of the 229Th nuclear clock transition". Nature. 533 (7601): 47-51. arXiv:1710.11398 $2. doi:10.1038/nature17669. PMID 27147026. KB1 bakım: göster-yazarlar (link)
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16  Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997.
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↑  Langeslay (2015). "Synthesis, structure, and reactivity of crystalline molecular complexes of the {[C5H3(SiMe3)2]3Th}1− anion containing thorium in the formal +2 oxidation state". Chemical Science. 6 (6): 517-521. doi:10.1039/C4SC03033H. PMC 5811171 $2. PMID 29560172.
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↑  Wickleder, Fourest & Dorhout 2006, ss. 55–56.
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↑  "Undersökning af ett nytt mineral (Thorit), som innehåller en förut obekant jord" [Investigation of a new mineral (thorite), as contained in a previously unknown earth]. Kungliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens Handlingar (İsveççe): 1-30. 1829.  Birden fazla yazar-name-list parameters kullanıldı (yardım); Yazar |ad1= eksik |soyadı1= (yardım)
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↑  "Über die vom Thorium und den Thoriumverbindungen ausgehende Strahlung" [On the radiation emitted by thorium and thorium compounds]. Verhandlungen der Physikalischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin (Almanca). 17: 14-16. 1898.  Birden fazla yazar-name-list parameters kullanıldı (yardım); Yazar |ad1= eksik |soyadı1= (yardım)
↑  "Über die von den Thorverbindungen und einigen anderen Substanzen ausgehende Strahlung" [On the radiation emitted by thorium compounds and some other substances]. Annalen der Physik und Chemie (Almanca). 65 (5): 141-151. 1898. doi:10.1002/andp.18983010512. 28 Nisan 2021 tarihinde kaynağından arşivlendi. Erişim tarihi: 13 Nisan 2023.  Birden fazla yazar-name-list parameters kullanıldı (yardım); Yazar |ad1= eksik |soyadı1= (yardım)
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↑  Türler, A.; Buklanov, G. V.; Eichler, B.; Gäggeler, H. W.; Grantz, M.; Hübener, S.; Jost, D. T.; Lebedev, V. Ya.; Piguet, D.; Timokhin, S. N.; Yakushev, A. B.; Zvara, I. (1998). "Evidence for relativistic effects in the chemistry of element 104". Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 271–273: 287. doi:10.1016/S0925-8388(98)00072-3.
↑  Kratz, J. V.; Nagame, Y. (2014). "Liquid-Phase Chemistry of Superheavy Elements".  Schädel, M.; Shaughnessy, D. (Ed.). The Chemistry of Superheavy Elements (2. bas.). Springer-Verlag. s. 335. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-37466-1. ISBN 978-3-642-37465-4.
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↑  Toepker (1996). "Thorium and yttrium in gas lantern mantles". American Journal of Physics. 64 (2): 109. doi:10.1119/1.18463.
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