การปรับตัว (ชีววิทยา)
เชิงอรรถและอ้างอิง

↑  Desmond 1989, pp. 31–32, fn 18
↑  Voltaire 1759 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFVoltaire1759 (help)
↑  Sober 1993, chpt. 2
↑  Darwin 1872, p. 397: "Rudimentary, Atrophied, and Aborted Organs"
↑  See, for example, the discussion in Bowler 2003, pp. 86–95: "Whatever the true nature of Lamark's theory, it was his mechanism of adaptation that caught the attention of later naturalists." (p. 90)
↑  Bowler, Peter J. (1989) [1983]. Evolution The History of an Idea (Revised ed.). University of California Press. p. 86. ISBN 0-520-06386-4.
↑  
Provine 1986
↑  Ford 1975
1 2  Orr, H. Allen (February 2005). "The genetic theory of adaptation: a brief history". Nature Reviews Genetics. London: Nature Publishing Group. 6 (2): 119–127. doi:10.1038/nrg1523. ISSN 1471-0056. PMID 15716908.
↑  Huxley 1942, p. 449
↑  Mayr 1982, p. 483: "Adaptation... could no longer be considered a static condition, a product of a creative past, and became instead a continuing dynamic process."
↑  Price 1980
↑  
Daintith, John; Martin, Elizabeth A., บ.ก. (2010) [First published 1984 as Concise Science Dictionary]. "adaptation". A Dictionary of Science. Oxford Paperback Reference (6th ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-19-956146-9. LCCN 2010287468. OCLC 444383696. Any change in the structure or functioning of successive generations of a population that makes it better suited to its environment.
↑  
Bowler 2003, p. 10
↑  
Patterson 1999, p. 1
↑  
Williams 1966, p. 5: "Evolutionary adaptation is a phenomenon of pervasive importance in biology."
↑  
Mayr 1963
↑  
Mayr 1982, pp. 562–566
↑  
Salzburger, Walter; Mack, Tanja; Verheyen, Erik; Meyer, Axel (2005-02-21). "Out of Tanganyika: Genesis, explosive speciation, key-innovations and phylogeography of the haplochromine cichlid fishes" (PDF). BMC Evolutionary Biology. London: BioMed Central. 5 (17). doi:10.1186/1471-2148-5-17. ISSN 1471-2148. PMC 554777. PMID 15723698. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2015-08-15.
↑  
Kornfield, Irv; Smith, Peter F. (November 2000). "African Cichlid Fishes: Model Systems for Evolutionary Biology". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews. 31: 163–196. doi:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.31.1.163. ISSN 1545-2069.
↑  Stebbins 1950, chpts. 8 and 9
↑  Margulis & Fester 1991
↑  Hutchinson 1965. The niche is the central concept in evolutionary ecology; see especially part II: "The niche: an abstractly inhabited hypervolume." (pp. 26-78)
1 2  Dobzhansky 1968, pp. 1–34
↑  Dobzhansky 1970, pp. 4–6, 79–82
↑  Dobzhansky, Theodosius (March 1956). "Genetics of Natural Populations. XXV. Genetic Changes in Populations of Drosophila pseudoobscura and Drosophila persimilis in Some Localities in California". Evolution. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons for the Society for the Study of Evolution. 10 (1): 82–92. doi:10.2307/2406099. JSTOR 2406099.
↑  
Price, Trevor D.; Qvarnström, Anna; Irwin, Darren E. (June 2003). "The role of phenotypic plasticity in driving genetic evolution". Proceedings of the Royal Society B. London: Royal Society. 270 (1523): 1433–1440. doi:10.1098/rspb.2003.2372. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 1691402. PMID 12965006.
↑  
Price, Trevor D. (June 2006). "Phenotypic plasticity, sexual selection and the evolution of colour patterns". The Journal of Experimental Biology. Cambridge, UK: The Company of Biologists. 209 (12): 2368–2376. doi:10.1242/jeb.02183. ISSN 0022-0949. PMID 16731813.
↑  Smith 1993, p. 33 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSmith1993 (help)
↑  Moore, Lorna G.; Regensteiner, Judith G. (October 1983). "Adaptation to High Altitude". Annual Review of Anthropology. Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews. 12: 285–304. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.12.100183.001441.
1 2  Endler 1986, pp. 33-51
↑  Sober 1984, p. 210
↑  Futuyma 1986, p. 552
↑  Fisher 1930, p. 25
↑  Wright 1932, pp. 356-366
↑  Eldredge 1995, p. 33
↑  Eldredge 1985, p. 136: "Of glaciers and beetles"
↑  Eldredge 1995, p. 64
↑  Hogan, C. Michael (2010-10-12). "Mutation".  ใน Monosson, Emily (บ.ก.). Encyclopedia of Earth. Washington, D.C.: Environmental Information Coalition, National Council for Science and the Environment. OCLC 72808636. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2015-08-18.
↑  Mayr 1982, pp. 481–483: This sequence tells how Darwin's ideas on adaptation developed as he came to appreciate it as "a continuing dynamic process."
↑  
Sterelny & Griffiths 1999, p. 217
↑  
Freeman & Herron 2007, p. 364
↑  Rabajante, J;  และคณะ (2016). "Host-parasite Red Queen dynamics with phase-locked rare genotypes". Science Advances. 2: e1501548. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1501548.
↑  Carpenter & Ford 1933
↑  Wickler 1968
↑  Moon 1976
↑  Mallet, James (November 2001). "The speciation revolution" (PDF). Journal of Evolutionary Biology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the European Society for Evolutionary Biology. 14 (6): 887–888. doi:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2001.00342.x. ISSN 1010-061X.
↑  Medawar 1960
↑  Jacob, François (1977-06-10). "Evolution and Tinkering". Science. Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science. 196 (4295): 1161–1166. doi:10.1126/science.860134. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 860134.
↑  Mayr 1982, p. 589
↑  Gould, Stephen Jay (June 1974). "The Origin and Function of 'Bizarre' Structures: Antler Size and Skull Size in the 'Irish Elk,' Megaloceros giganteus". Evolution. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons for the Society for the Study of Evolution. 28 (2): 191–220. doi:10.2307/2407322. ISSN 0014-3820. JSTOR 2407322.
↑  Tarkhnishvili, David N. (1994). "Interdependences between Populational, Developmental and Morphological Features of the Caucasian salamander, Mertensiella caucasica" (PDF). Mertensiella. Bonn, Germany: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Herpetologie und Terrarienkunde. 4: 315–325. ISSN 0934-6643. คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิม (PDF)เมื่อ 2016-03-04. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2015-08-18.
↑  Darwin 1871, p. 256
↑  The case was treated by Fisher 1930, pp. 134–139
↑  Cronin 1991
↑  
Rosenberg, Karen R. (1992). "The evolution of modern human childbirth". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons for the American Association of Physical Anthropologists. 35 (Supplement S15): 89–124. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330350605. ISSN 0002-9483.
↑  
Friedlander, Nancy J.; Jordan, David K. (October–December 1994). "Obstetric implications of Neanderthal robusticity and bone density". Human Evolution. Kluwer Academic Publishers. 9 (4): 331–342. doi:10.1007/BF02435519. ISSN 0393-9375.{{cite journal}}:  CS1 maint: date format (ลิงก์)
↑  
Miller 2007
↑  Williams 2010, p. 29
↑  Altwegg, Robert E.; Simmons, Res (September 2010). "Necks-for-sex or competing browsers? A critique of ideas on the evolution of giraffe". Journal of Zoology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. 282 (1): 6–12. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2010.00711.x. ISSN 0952-8369.
↑  Huxley 1942, p. 417
↑  Huskins, C. Leonard (1930). "The origin of Spartina Townsendii". Genetica. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague/Kluwer Academic Publishers. 12 (6): 531–538. doi:10.1007/BF01487665. ISSN 0016-6707.
↑  Lamoreux, Wilfred F.; Hutt, Frederick B. (1939-02-15). "Breed differences in resistance to a deficiency in vitamin B1 in the fowl". Journal of Agricultural Research. Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Agriculture. 58 (4): 307–316. ISSN 0095-9758. คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิม (PDF)เมื่อ 2016-02-23. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2015-08-20.
↑  Dobzhansky 1981
↑  Allin & Hopson 1992, pp. 587–614
↑  Panchen 1992, chpt. 4, "Homology and the evidence for evolution"
↑  Gould, Stephen Jay; Vrba, Elizabeth S. (Winter 1982). "Exaptation-A Missing Term in the Science of Form". Paleobiology. Boulder, CO: Paleontological Society. 8 (1): 4–15. ISSN 0094-8373. JSTOR 2400563.
↑   Wagner, Günter P (2014). "Chapter 1: The Intellectual Challenge of Morphological Evolution: A Case for Variational Structuralism". Homology, Genes, and Evolutionary Innovation. Princeton University Press. pp. 7.{{cite book}}:  CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (ลิงก์)
↑  Barrett et al. 1987. Charles Darwin was the first to put forward such ideas.
↑  Van Valen, Leigh (July 1973). "A New Evolutionary Law" (PDF). Evolutionary Theory. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago. 1: 1–30. ISSN 0093-4755. คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิม (PDF)เมื่อ 2014-12-22. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2015-08-22.
↑  Koh, Lian Pin; Dunn, Robert R.; Sodhi, Navjot S.;  และคณะ (September 2004). "Species Coextinctions and the Biodiversity Crisis". Science. Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science. 305 (5690): 1632–1634. doi:10.1126/science.1101101. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 15361627.
↑  Darwin 1872, pp. 57-58. Darwin in tells the story of "a web of complex relations" involving heartsease (Viola tricolor), red clover (Trifolium pratense), humble-bees (bumblebees), mice and cats.
↑  
Sober 1993, pp. 85–86
↑  
Williams 1966, pp. 8–10
↑  
Nagel, Ernest (May 1977). "Goal-Directed Processes in Biology". The Journal of Philosophy. New York: The Journal of Philosophy, Inc. 74 (5): 261–279. doi:10.2307/2025745. ISSN 0022-362X. JSTOR 2025745. Teleology Revisisted: The Dewy Lectures 1977 (first lecture)
↑  
Nagel, Ernest (May 1977). "Functional Explanations in Biology". The Journal of Philosophy. 74 (5): 280–301. doi:10.2307/2025746. ISSN 0022-362X. JSTOR 2025746. Teleology Revisisted: The Dewy Lectures 1977 (second lecture)
↑  
Pittendrigh 1958
↑  
Mayr 1965, pp. 33–50
↑  
Mayr 1988, chpt. 3, "The Multiple Meanings of Teleological"
↑  
Williams 1966, "The Scientific Study of Adaptation"
↑  
Monod 1971
↑  
Allaby, Michael, บ.ก. (2003). "teleonomy". A Dictionary of Zoology. Oxford Paperback Reference (Reissued with new cover and corrections ed.). Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860758-X. LCCN 2003278285. OCLC 444678726. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2015-08-24.
↑  Hull 1982