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เชิงอรรถและอ้างอิง

↑  "Age of the Earth". United States Geological Survey. July 9, 2007. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2015-05-29.
↑  Dalrymple 2001, pp. 205–221
↑  Manhesa, Gérard; Allègre, Claude J.; Dupréa, Bernard; Hamelin, Bruno (May 1980). "Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 47 (3): 370–382. Bibcode:1980E&PSL..47..370M. doi:10.1016/0012-821X(80)90024-2.
↑  Schopf, J. William; Kudryavtsev, Anatoliy B.; Czaja, Andrew D.; Tripathi, Abhishek B. (October 5, 2007). "Evidence of Archean life: Stromatolites and microfossils". Precambrian Research. 158 (3–4): 141–155. Bibcode:2007PreR..158..141S. doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2007.04.009.
↑  Schopf, J. William (June 29, 2006). "Fossil evidence of Archaean life". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 361 (1470): 869–885. doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1834. PMC 1578735. PMID 16754604.
↑  Raven & Johnson 2002, p. 68
↑  Borenstein, Seth (13 November 2013). "Oldest fossil found: Meet your microbial mom". Excite. Yonkers, NY: Mindspark Interactive Network. Associated Press. คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ 2015-06-29. สืบค้นเมื่อ 30 May 2015.
↑  
Pearlman, Jonathan (13 November 2013). "'Oldest signs of life on Earth found'". The Daily Telegraph. London: Telegraph Media Group. สืบค้นเมื่อ 15 December 2014.
↑  
Noffke, Nora; Christian, Daniel; Wacey, David; Hazen, Robert M. (16 November 2013). "Microbially Induced Sedimentary Structures Recording an Ancient Ecosystem in the ca. 3.48 Billion-Year-Old Dresser Formation, Pilbara, Western Australia". Astrobiology. New Rochelle, NY: Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. 13 (12): 1103–1124. Bibcode:2013AsBio..13.1103N. doi:10.1089/ast.2013.1030. ISSN 1531-1074. PMC 3870916. PMID 24205812.
↑  Ohtomo, Yoko; Kakegawa, Takeshi; Ishida, Akizumi;  และคณะ (January 2014). "Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks". Nature Geoscience. London: Nature Publishing Group. 7 (1): 25–28. Bibcode:2014NatGe...7...25O. doi:10.1038/ngeo2025. ISSN 1752-0894.
1 2  Borenstein, Seth (19 October 2015). "Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth". Excite. Yonkers, NY: Mindspark Interactive Network. Associated Press. คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ 2018-10-01. สืบค้นเมื่อ 20 October 2015.
↑  Bell, Elizabeth A.; Boehnike, Patrick; Harrison, T. Mark;  และคณะ (19 October 2015). "Potentially biogenic carbon preserved in a 4.1 billion-year-old zircon" (PDF). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences. 112: 201517557. doi:10.1073/pnas.1517557112. ISSN 1091-6490. PMC 4664351. PMID 26483481. คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิม (PDF)เมื่อ 6 November 2015. สืบค้นเมื่อ 20 October 2015. Early edition, published online before print.
↑  
Stearns, Beverly Peterson; Stearns, S. C.; Stearns, Stephen C. (2000). Watching, from the Edge of Extinction. Yale University Press. p. preface x. ISBN 978-0-300-08469-6. สืบค้นเมื่อ 30 May 2017.
↑  
Novacek, Michael J. (8 November 2014). "Prehistory's Brilliant Future". The New York Times. New York: The New York Times Company. ISSN 0362-4331. สืบค้นเมื่อ 25 December 2014.
↑  Miller & Spoolman 2012, p. 62 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMillerSpoolman2012 (help)
↑  Mora, Camilo; Tittensor, Derek P.; Adl, Sina;  และคณะ (23 August 2011). "How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean?". PLOS Biology. San Francisco, CA: PLOS. 9 (8): e1001127. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127. ISSN 1545-7885. PMC 3160336. PMID 21886479.
↑  "Researchers find that Earth may be home to 1 trillion species". National Science Foundation. 2 May 2016. สืบค้นเมื่อ 6 May 2016.
↑  "Misconceptions about evolution". Understanding Evolution. University of California, Berkeley. สืบค้นเมื่อ 26 September 2015.
↑  Futuyma 2005a
1 2  Gould 2002
1 2  Gregory, T. Ryan (June 2009). "Understanding Natural Selection: Essential Concepts and Common Misconceptions". Evolution: Education and Outreach. 2 (2): 156–175. doi:10.1007/s12052-009-0128-1.
1 2  Cavalier-Smith, Thomas (June 29, 2006). "Cell evolution and Earth history: stasis and revolution". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 361 (1470): 969–1006. doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1842. PMC 1578732. PMID 16754610.
↑  "How many species are there?". Enviroliteracy.org. Washington, D.C.: Environmental Literacy Council. June 17, 2008. คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ 2015-01-07. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2015-01-11.
↑  Garvin-Doxas, Kathy; Klymkowsky, Michael W. (Summer 2008).  Alberts, Bruce (บ.ก.). "Understanding Randomness and its Impact on Student Learning: Lessons Learned from Building the Biology Concept Inventory (BCI)". CBE—Life Sciences Education. Bethesda, MD: American Society for Cell Biology. 7 (2): 227–233. doi:10.1187/cbe.07-08-0063. ISSN 1931-7913. PMC 2424310. PMID 18519614.
↑  Raup 1992, p. 210 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFRaup1992 (help)
↑  Rhee, Seung Yon. "Gregor Mendel (1822–1884)". Access Excellence. Atlanta, GA: National Health Museum. คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ 2014-12-27. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2015-01-07.
↑  
Farber 2000, p. 136
↑  
Darwin 2005
1 2  Eldredge, Niles (Spring 2006). "Confessions of a Darwinist". Virginia Quarterly Review. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia. 82 (2): 32–53. คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ 2015-09-06. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2015-01-07.
1 2 3  Quammen, David (November 2004). "Was Darwin Wrong?". National Geographic (Online extra). Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ December 15, 2007. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2007-12-23.
1 2  van Wyhe, John (2002). "Charles Darwin: gentleman naturalist". The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online. OCLC 74272908. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2008-01-16.
↑  van Wyhe, John (2002). "Fertilisation of Orchids". The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online. OCLC 74272908. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2008-01-07.
1 2  Delgado, Cynthia (July 28, 2006). "Finding the Evolution in Medicine". NIH Record. 58 (15): 1, 8–9. คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ September 24, 2015. สืบค้นเมื่อ January 9, 2015.
↑  Darwin 1872, p. 108, "Effects of the increased Use and Disuse of Parts, as controlled by Natural Selection"
↑  Ghiselin, Michael T. (September–October 1994). "The Imaginary Lamarck: A Look at Bogus 'History' in Schoolbooks". The Textbook Letter. Sausalito, CA: The Textbook League. OCLC 23228649. คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ 2008-02-12. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2008-01-23.{{cite journal}}:  CS1 maint: unfit URL (ลิงก์)
↑  "Sex and genetic shuffling". Understanding Evolution. University of California, Berkeley. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2015-01-08.
↑  "Gene flow". Understanding Evolution. University of California, Berkeley. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2015-01-08.
↑  Gould 1980, p. 24
↑  Bejder, Lars; Hall, Brian K. (November 2002). "Limbs in whales and limblessness in other vertebrates: mechanisms of evolutionary and developmental transformation and loss". Evolution & Development. 4 (6): 445–458. doi:10.1046/j.1525-142X.2002.02033.x. PMID 12492145. S2CID 8448387.
↑  Boughner, Julia C.; Buchtová, Marcela; Fu, Katherine;  และคณะ (June 25, 2007). "Embryonic development of Python sebae – I: Staging criteria and macroscopic skeletal morphogenesis of the head and limbs". Zoology. 110 (3): 212–230. Bibcode:2007Zool..110..212B. doi:10.1016/j.zool.2007.01.005. PMID 17499493.
↑  "Frequently Asked Questions About Evolution". Evolution Library (Web resource). Evolution. Boston, MA: WGBH Educational Foundation; Clear Blue Sky Productions, Inc. 2001. OCLC 48165595. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2008-01-23.
↑  "A Modern Mass Extinction?". Evolution Library (Web resource). Evolution. Boston, MA: WGBH Educational Foundation; Clear Blue Sky Productions, Inc. 2001. OCLC 48165595. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2008-01-23.
↑  Bambach, Richard K.; Knoll, Andrew H.; Wang, Steve C. (December 2004). "Origination, extinction, and mass depletions of marine diversity" (PDF). Paleobiology. 30 (4): 522–542. Bibcode:2004Pbio...30..522B. doi:10.1666/0094-8373(2004)030<0522:OEAMDO>2.0.CO;2. S2CID 17279135.
↑  Futuyma 1998, p. Glossary
↑  Ellstrand, Norman C.; Elam, Diane R. (November 1993). "Population Genetic Consequences of Small Population Size: Implications for Plant Conservation". Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 24 (1): 217–242. Bibcode:1993AnRES..24..217E. doi:10.1146/annurev.es.24.110193.001245.
↑  Ewens 2004
1 2  Campbell & Reece 2002, pp. 445–463
↑  Robinson, Richard, บ.ก. (2003). "Population Bottleneck". Genetics. New York: Macmillan Reference US. ISBN 978-0-02-865606-9. LCCN 2002003560. OCLC 49278650. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2011-04-07.
↑  Futuyma 1998, pp. 303–304
↑  Hoelzel, A. Rus; Fleischer, Robert C.; Campagna, Claudio;  และคณะ (July 2002). "Impact of a population bottleneck on symmetry and genetic diversity in the northern elephant seal". Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 15 (4): 567–575. doi:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2002.00419.x. S2CID 85821330.
↑  "Genetic Drift and the Founder Effect". Evolution Library (Web resource). Evolution. Boston, MA: WGBH Educational Foundation; Clear Blue Sky Productions, Inc. 2001. OCLC 48165595. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2009-04-07.
1 2  Larson 2004, pp. 231–237
↑  Moran, Laurance (January 22, 1993). "The Modern Synthesis of Genetics and Evolution". TalkOrigins Archive. Houston, TX: The TalkOrigins Foundation. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2015-01-09.
↑  Bowler 2003, pp. 325–339
↑  "The Fossil Record – Life's Epic". The Virtual Fossil Museum. Roger Perkins. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2007-08-31.
↑  Tattersall 1995, pp. 5–6
↑  Lyell 1830, p. 76
↑  NAS 2008, p. 22
↑  Gould 1995, p. 360
↑  Diamond 1992, p. 16
1 2  "Glossary". Evolution Library (Web resource). Evolution. Boston, MA: WGBH Educational Foundation; Clear Blue Sky Productions, Inc. 2001. OCLC 48165595. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2008-01-23.
↑  Mayr 2001, pp. 25–27
↑  Johnson, George B. "Convergent and Divergent Evolution". Dr. George Johnson's Backgrounders. St. Louis, MO: Txtwriter, Inc. คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ 2008-03-10. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2015-01-06.
↑  Weichert & Presch 1975, p. 8
↑  Miller, Kenneth R.; Levine, Joseph (1997). "Haeckel and his Embryos: A Note on Textbooks". Evolution Resources. Rehoboth, MA: Miller And Levine Biology. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2007-09-02.
↑  Theobald, Douglas (2004). "29+ Evidences for Macroevolution" (PDF). TalkOrigins Archive. Houston, TX: The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. Part 2: "Whales with hindlimbs". สืบค้นเมื่อ 2008-01-27.
↑  Johnson, George B. "Vestigial Structures". Dr. George Johnson's Backgrounders. St. Louis, MO: Txtwriter, Inc. คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ 2008-03-10. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2015-01-06.
↑  Bowler 2003, pp. 150–151, 174
↑  Coyne 2009, pp. 102–103
↑  Carr, Gerald D. "Adaptive Radiation and Hybridization in the Hawaiian Silversword Alliance". Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Botany Department. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2015-01-10.
1 2  NAS 1998, =5787&page=27 "Evolution and the Nature of Science"
↑  Lovgren, Stefan (August 31, 2005). "Chimps, Humans 96 Percent the Same, Gene Study Finds". National Geographic News. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society. คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ September 5, 2005. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2007-12-23.
↑  Carroll, Grenier & Weatherbee 2005
↑  "Cons 46-Way Track Settings". UCSC Genome Bioinformatics. Santa Cruz, CA: University of California, Santa Cruz. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2015-01-10.
↑  Ciccarelli, Francesca D.; Doerks, Tobias; von Mering, Christian;  และคณะ (March 3, 2006). "Toward Automatic Reconstruction of a Highly Resolved Tree of Life". Science. 311 (5765): 1283–1287. Bibcode:2006Sci...311.1283C. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.381.9514. doi:10.1126/science.1123061. PMID 16513982. S2CID 1615592.
↑  McGourty, Christine (November 22, 2002). "Origin of dogs traced". BBC News. London: BBC. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2007-12-14.
↑  Hall, Hardy (7 November 2005). "Transgene Escape: Are Traditional Corn Varieties In Mexico Threatened by Transgenic Corn Crops". The Scientific Creative Quarterly. Vancouver and Kelowna, BC: University of British Columbia. สืบค้นเมื่อ 14 December 2007.
↑  "Maize COOP Information". National Plant Germplasm System. United States Department of Agriculture; Agricultural Research Service. 23 November 2010. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2015-01-10.
↑  Silverman, David (2002). "Better Books by Trial and Error". Life's Big Instruction Book. สืบค้นเมื่อ 4 April 2008.
↑  Wilner, Eduardo (March 2006). "Darwin's artificial selection as an experiment". Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences. 37 (1): 26–40. doi:10.1016/j.shpsc.2005.12.002. PMID 16473266.
↑  Janzen, Daniel H. (1974). "Swollen-Thorn Acacias of Central America" (PDF). Smithsonian Contributions to Botany. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. 13 (13): 1–131. doi:10.5479/si.0081024X.13. OCLC 248582653. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2007-08-31.
↑  Mayr 2001, pp. 165–169
↑  Sulloway, Frank J. (December 2005). "The Evolution of Charles Darwin". Smithsonian. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. ISSN 0037-7333. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2015-01-11.
↑  "How many species are there?". Enviroliteracy.org. Washington, D.C.: Environmental Literacy Council. June 17, 2008. คลังข้อมูลเก่าเก็บจากแหล่งเดิมเมื่อ 2015-01-07. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2015-01-11.
↑  Jiggins, Chris D.; Bridle, Jon R. (March 2004). "Speciation in the apple maggot fly: a blend of vintages?". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 19 (3): 111–114. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2003.12.008. PMID 16701238.
↑  Boxhorn, Joseph (September 1, 1995). "Observed Instances of Speciation". TalkOrigins Archive. Houston, TX: The TalkOrigins Foundation, Inc. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2007-05-10.
↑  Weinberg, James R.; Starczak, Victoria R.; Jörg, Daniele (August 1992). "Evidence for Rapid Speciation Following a Founder Event in the Laboratory". Evolution. 46 (4): 1214–1220. doi:10.2307/2409766. JSTOR 2409766. PMID 28564398.
↑  Mayr 1970, p. 348
↑  Mayr 1970
↑  Dobzhansky, Theodosius (March 1973). "Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution". The American Biology Teacher. 35 (3): 125–129. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.525.3586. doi:10.2307/4444260. JSTOR 4444260. S2CID 207358177.
↑  Scott, Eugenie C. (October 17, 2008) [Originally published on PBS Online, May 2000]. "Cans and Can'ts of Teaching Evolution". National Center for Science Education (Blog). Berkeley, CA: National Center for Science Education. สืบค้นเมื่อ 2008-01-01.
↑  Ayala, Francisco J. (2005). "The Structure of Evolutionary Theory: on Stephen Jay Gould's Monumental Masterpiece". Theology and Science. 3 (1): 104. doi:10.1080/14746700500039800. S2CID 4293004.
↑  Gould, Stephen Jay (August 1991). "Opus 200" (PDF). Natural History. Research Triangle Park, NC: Natural History Magazine, Inc. 100 (8): 12–18.
↑  Wright, Sewall (September 1980). "Genic and Organismic Selection". Evolution. 34 (5): 825–843. doi:10.2307/2407990. JSTOR 2407990. PMID 28581131.
↑  Dawkins 1976, p. 35 "Individuals are not stable things, they are fleeting. Chromosomes too are shuffled to oblivion, like hands of cards soon after they are dealt. But the cards themselves survive the shuffling. The cards are the genes. The genes are not destroyed by crossing-over, they merely change partners and march on. Of course they march on. That is their business. They are the replicators and we are their survival machines. When we have served our purpose we are cast aside. But genes are denizens of geological time: genes are forever."
↑  Gould, Stephen Jay; Lloyd, Elisabeth A. (October 12, 1999). "Individuality and adaptation across levels of selection: How shall we name and generalise the unit of Darwinism?". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 96 (21): 11904–11909. Bibcode:1999PNAS...9611904G. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.21.11904. PMC 18385. PMID 10518549.