小節 (言語学)
派生分析 > 非構成素分析 > Williams (1975, 1980, 1983)

小節とは、短縮関係節 (英: reduced relative) 、付加詞句、および動名詞句に焦点を当てた研究であるWilliams (1975)の用語である。Williams式の分析は、叙述 (英: predication) 理論に則り、小節主語を最大投射の外項として扱う (すなわち、小節主語は語彙範疇投射の外側に位置し、構成素を成さないと仮定する)。
Williams (1975) は、下記のような例における角括弧部を小節として扱っている。
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | .   | [The man driving the bus] is Norton's best friend.  | [The man driving the bus] is Norton's best friend.  | [The man driving the bus] is Norton's best friend.  | [The man driving the bus] is Norton's best friend.  | [The man driving the bus] is Norton's best friend.  | [The man driving the bus] is Norton's best friend.  | [The man driving the bus] is Norton's best friend.  | [The man driving the bus] is Norton's best friend.  | [The man driving the bus] is Norton's best friend.  | [The man driving the bus] is Norton's best friend.  | [The man driving the bus] is Norton's best friend.  | [The man driving the bus] is Norton's best friend.  | [The man driving the bus] is Norton's best friend.  | [The man driving the bus] is Norton's best friend.  | [The man driving the bus] is Norton's best friend.  | [The man driving the bus] is Norton's best friend.  | [The man driving the bus] is Norton's best friend.  | [The man driving the bus] is Norton's best friend.  | [The man driving the bus] is Norton's best friend.  | [The man driving the bus] is Norton's best friend.  |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | .   | [John's evading his taxes] infuriates me.  | [John's evading his taxes] infuriates me.  | [John's evading his taxes] infuriates me.  | [John's evading his taxes] infuriates me.  | [John's evading his taxes] infuriates me.  | [John's evading his taxes] infuriates me.  | [John's evading his taxes] infuriates me.  | [John's evading his taxes] infuriates me.  | [John's evading his taxes] infuriates me.  | [John's evading his taxes] infuriates me.  | [John's evading his taxes] infuriates me.  | [John's evading his taxes] infuriates me.  | [John's evading his taxes] infuriates me.  | [John's evading his taxes] infuriates me.  | [John's evading his taxes] infuriates me.  | [John's evading his taxes] infuriates me.  | [John's evading his taxes] infuriates me.  | [John's evading his taxes] infuriates me.  | [John's evading his taxes] infuriates me.  | [John's evading his taxes] infuriates me.  |
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Williams (1980)の分析では、ある2つの構成素が叙述関係を構築するには、C統御の関係が必要であり、この条件が満たされるとき、主語要素と述語要素間に [NPi ... XPi] のように同一指標がふられることで叙述関係が成立する。
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | .   | John loaded the wagon full with hay. | John loaded the wagon full with hay. | John loaded the wagon full with hay. | John loaded the wagon full with hay. | John loaded the wagon full with hay. | John loaded the wagon full with hay. | John loaded the wagon full with hay. | John loaded the wagon full with hay. | John loaded the wagon full with hay. | John loaded the wagon full with hay. | John loaded the wagon full with hay. | John loaded the wagon full with hay. | John loaded the wagon full with hay. | John loaded the wagon full with hay. | John loaded the wagon full with hay. | John loaded the wagon full with hay. | John loaded the wagon full with hay. | John loaded the wagon full with hay. | John loaded the wagon full with hay. | John loaded the wagon full with hay. |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | .   | John loaded the hay into the wagon green. | John loaded the hay into the wagon green. | John loaded the hay into the wagon green. | John loaded the hay into the wagon green. | John loaded the hay into the wagon green. | John loaded the hay into the wagon green. | John loaded the hay into the wagon green. | John loaded the hay into the wagon green. | John loaded the hay into the wagon green. | John loaded the hay into the wagon green. | John loaded the hay into the wagon green. | John loaded the hay into the wagon green. | John loaded the hay into the wagon green. | John loaded the hay into the wagon green. | John loaded the hay into the wagon green. | John loaded the hay into the wagon green. | John loaded the hay into the wagon green. | John loaded the hay into the wagon green. | John loaded the hay into the wagon green. | John loaded the hay into the wagon green. |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | .   | *John loaded the wagon with hay green. | *John loaded the wagon with hay green. | *John loaded the wagon with hay green. | *John loaded the wagon with hay green. | *John loaded the wagon with hay green. | *John loaded the wagon with hay green. | *John loaded the wagon with hay green. | *John loaded the wagon with hay green. | *John loaded the wagon with hay green. | *John loaded the wagon with hay green. | *John loaded the wagon with hay green. | *John loaded the wagon with hay green. | *John loaded the wagon with hay green. | *John loaded the wagon with hay green. | *John loaded the wagon with hay green. | *John loaded the wagon with hay green. | *John loaded the wagon with hay green. | *John loaded the wagon with hay green. | *John loaded the wagon with hay green. | *John loaded the wagon with hay green. |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | .   | *John loaded the hay into the wagon full. | *John loaded the hay into the wagon full. | *John loaded the hay into the wagon full. | *John loaded the hay into the wagon full. | *John loaded the hay into the wagon full. | *John loaded the hay into the wagon full. | *John loaded the hay into the wagon full. | *John loaded the hay into the wagon full. | *John loaded the hay into the wagon full. | *John loaded the hay into the wagon full. | *John loaded the hay into the wagon full. | *John loaded the hay into the wagon full. | *John loaded the hay into the wagon full. | *John loaded the hay into the wagon full. | *John loaded the hay into the wagon full. | *John loaded the hay into the wagon full. | *John loaded the hay into the wagon full. | *John loaded the hay into the wagon full. | *John loaded the hay into the wagon full. | *John loaded the hay into the wagon full. |
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よって、上記の例文 (c) と (d) が非文となるのは、述語要素が主語要素にC統御されず、叙述関係が構築できないためである。
この叙述理論を小節の分析に拡張すると、Williams (1980)の定義による小節とは：
[NP XP] の構造を持ち、時制辞が生起しない。
XPは述語範疇である。
NPはXPをC統御する。
NPとXPは同一指標をもつ。
これらの条件を満たす文法単位である。
ただし、Williams (1983)は小節は構成素を成さないと仮定している点に注意が必要であり、これは [NP XP] の構造を棄却するのと遜色ない。この議論において、Williamsは下記のような文を考察している。
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | a.   | John seems sick.  | John seems sick.  | John seems sick.  | John seems sick.  | John seems sick.  | John seems sick.  | John seems sick.  | John seems sick.  | John seems sick.  | John seems sick.  | John seems sick.  | John seems sick.  | John seems sick.  | John seems sick.  | John seems sick.  | John seems sick.  | John seems sick.  | John seems sick.  | John seems sick.  | John seems sick.  |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | b.   | Johni seems [ti sick]  | Johni seems [ti sick]  | Johni seems [ti sick]  | Johni seems [ti sick]  | Johni seems [ti sick]  | Johni seems [ti sick]  | Johni seems [ti sick]  | Johni seems [ti sick]  | Johni seems [ti sick]  | Johni seems [ti sick]  | Johni seems [ti sick]  | Johni seems [ti sick]  | Johni seems [ti sick]  | Johni seems [ti sick]  | Johni seems [ti sick]  | Johni seems [ti sick]  | Johni seems [ti sick]  | Johni seems [ti sick]  | Johni seems [ti sick]  | Johni seems [ti sick]  |
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Stowell (1981)およびChomsky (1981)の分析では、上記 (a) の文は、主動詞 seem が補部に小節を選択し、主語は繰り上げにより派生される。しかし、この分析は主動詞のスコープ関係を捉えられないという欠点がある。
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | a.   | Someone seems sick.  | Someone seems sick.  | Someone seems sick.  | Someone seems sick.  | Someone seems sick.  | Someone seems sick.  | Someone seems sick.  | Someone seems sick.  | Someone seems sick.  | Someone seems sick.  | Someone seems sick.  | Someone seems sick.  | Someone seems sick.  | Someone seems sick.  | Someone seems sick.  | Someone seems sick.  | Someone seems sick.  | Someone seems sick.  | Someone seems sick.  | Someone seems sick.  |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | b.   | =There is someone who seems sick. [some > seem]  | =There is someone who seems sick. [some > seem]  | =There is someone who seems sick. [some > seem]  | =There is someone who seems sick. [some > seem]  | =There is someone who seems sick. [some > seem]  | =There is someone who seems sick. [some > seem]  | =There is someone who seems sick. [some > seem]  | =There is someone who seems sick. [some > seem]  | =There is someone who seems sick. [some > seem]  | =There is someone who seems sick. [some > seem]  | =There is someone who seems sick. [some > seem]  | =There is someone who seems sick. [some > seem]  | =There is someone who seems sick. [some > seem]  | =There is someone who seems sick. [some > seem]  | =There is someone who seems sick. [some > seem]  | =There is someone who seems sick. [some > seem]  | =There is someone who seems sick. [some > seem]  | =There is someone who seems sick. [some > seem]  | =There is someone who seems sick. [some > seem]  | =There is someone who seems sick. [some > seem]  |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | c.   | ≠There seems to be someone sick. [*seem > some]  | ≠There seems to be someone sick. [*seem > some]  | ≠There seems to be someone sick. [*seem > some]  | ≠There seems to be someone sick. [*seem > some]  | ≠There seems to be someone sick. [*seem > some]  | ≠There seems to be someone sick. [*seem > some]  | ≠There seems to be someone sick. [*seem > some]  | ≠There seems to be someone sick. [*seem > some]  | ≠There seems to be someone sick. [*seem > some]  | ≠There seems to be someone sick. [*seem > some]  | ≠There seems to be someone sick. [*seem > some]  | ≠There seems to be someone sick. [*seem > some]  | ≠There seems to be someone sick. [*seem > some]  | ≠There seems to be someone sick. [*seem > some]  | ≠There seems to be someone sick. [*seem > some]  | ≠There seems to be someone sick. [*seem > some]  | ≠There seems to be someone sick. [*seem > some]  | ≠There seems to be someone sick. [*seem > some]  | ≠There seems to be someone sick. [*seem > some]  | ≠There seems to be someone sick. [*seem > some]  |
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主語が繰り上げにより派生される場合、some は主動詞との位置関係上、上位でも下位でも解釈が可能であることが予測されるが、この予測に反し、前者の解釈 (すなわち some が主動詞よりも広い作用域（英語版）を取る解釈のみが許容される)。これは、この種の文の派生に移動は関与しないことを示しており、同時に叙述関係は構成素構造により認可されるのではなく、主語と述語を結びつける特別な文法メカニズムにより保障されることを示唆している。これが正しければ、小節の叙述構造も同様のメカニズムにより保障されることになり、帰結として小節の主語と述語が構成素を成している必要はないということになる。さらなる経験的議論については、Williams (1983)を参照のこと。