小節 (言語学)
定義 > 小節

(1) の例における命題単位は、その全てにおいて動詞の屈折を左右する要素 (三単現の -s、不定詞マーカーの to など) を含む。よって、命題を「屈折辞または時制辞を含む文法単位」と定義することも可能である (ただし、実際は「主語と述語のペアから成り、真理値を持つ文法単位」という定義が正しい)。
一方で、これらの要素を含まないにもかかわらず、命題を成す文法単位があることが Williams (1975)により指摘され、これは小節 (英: small clause) と呼ばれる。小節の典型例として、以下の動詞に後続する [NP XP] の構造がある。
consider や want などの目的語繰り上げ（英: raising-to-object）動詞またはECM動詞
call や name などの、目的語にNPと述語表現を選択する動詞
wipe や pound などの、結果述語との共起が可能な動詞
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| ()   | a.   | Susan considers [Sam a dope]. | Susan considers [Sam a dope]. | Susan considers [Sam a dope]. | Susan considers [Sam a dope]. | Susan considers [Sam a dope]. | Susan considers [Sam a dope]. | Susan considers [Sam a dope]. | Susan considers [Sam a dope]. | Susan considers [Sam a dope]. | Susan considers [Sam a dope]. | Susan considers [Sam a dope]. | Susan considers [Sam a dope]. | Susan considers [Sam a dope]. | Susan considers [Sam a dope]. | Susan considers [Sam a dope]. | Susan considers [Sam a dope]. | Susan considers [Sam a dope]. | Susan considers [Sam a dope]. | Susan considers [Sam a dope]. | Susan considers [Sam a dope]. |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | b.   | We want [you sober]. | We want [you sober]. | We want [you sober]. | We want [you sober]. | We want [you sober]. | We want [you sober]. | We want [you sober]. | We want [you sober]. | We want [you sober]. | We want [you sober]. | We want [you sober]. | We want [you sober]. | We want [you sober]. | We want [you sober]. | We want [you sober]. | We want [you sober]. | We want [you sober]. | We want [you sober]. | We want [you sober]. | We want [you sober]. |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | a.   | Jim called [me a liar]. | Jim called [me a liar]. | Jim called [me a liar]. | Jim called [me a liar]. | Jim called [me a liar]. | Jim called [me a liar]. | Jim called [me a liar]. | Jim called [me a liar]. | Jim called [me a liar]. | Jim called [me a liar]. | Jim called [me a liar]. | Jim called [me a liar]. | Jim called [me a liar]. | Jim called [me a liar]. | Jim called [me a liar]. | Jim called [me a liar]. | Jim called [me a liar]. | Jim called [me a liar]. | Jim called [me a liar]. | Jim called [me a liar]. |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | b.   | They named [him Pedro]. | They named [him Pedro]. | They named [him Pedro]. | They named [him Pedro]. | They named [him Pedro]. | They named [him Pedro]. | They named [him Pedro]. | They named [him Pedro]. | They named [him Pedro]. | They named [him Pedro]. | They named [him Pedro]. | They named [him Pedro]. | They named [him Pedro]. | They named [him Pedro]. | They named [him Pedro]. | They named [him Pedro]. | They named [him Pedro]. | They named [him Pedro]. | They named [him Pedro]. | They named [him Pedro]. |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | a.   | Fred wiped [the table clean]. | Fred wiped [the table clean]. | Fred wiped [the table clean]. | Fred wiped [the table clean]. | Fred wiped [the table clean]. | Fred wiped [the table clean]. | Fred wiped [the table clean]. | Fred wiped [the table clean]. | Fred wiped [the table clean]. | Fred wiped [the table clean]. | Fred wiped [the table clean]. | Fred wiped [the table clean]. | Fred wiped [the table clean]. | Fred wiped [the table clean]. | Fred wiped [the table clean]. | Fred wiped [the table clean]. | Fred wiped [the table clean]. | Fred wiped [the table clean]. | Fred wiped [the table clean]. | Fred wiped [the table clean]. |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | b.   | Larry pounded [the nail flat]. | Larry pounded [the nail flat]. | Larry pounded [the nail flat]. | Larry pounded [the nail flat]. | Larry pounded [the nail flat]. | Larry pounded [the nail flat]. | Larry pounded [the nail flat]. | Larry pounded [the nail flat]. | Larry pounded [the nail flat]. | Larry pounded [the nail flat]. | Larry pounded [the nail flat]. | Larry pounded [the nail flat]. | Larry pounded [the nail flat]. | Larry pounded [the nail flat]. | Larry pounded [the nail flat]. | Larry pounded [the nail flat]. | Larry pounded [the nail flat]. | Larry pounded [the nail flat]. | Larry pounded [the nail flat]. | Larry pounded [the nail flat]. |
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上記の例において、下線部は主語要素を、斜体部は述語要素を表している。これら全てにおいて、「NPがXPの性質を持つ」または「主語=述語」の関係が成立し、これは命題の定義である「主語と述語のペア」と遜色ない。また、主語に対応する述語が非動詞述語であることも重要であり、これを踏まえると、小節を「屈折辞を欠き、叙述関係を構築する主語と非動詞述語のペア」と定義することも可能である。
このように、小節は「動詞を含まないが命題を成す文法単位」と定義されることが多い  。一方、動詞句内主語仮説が提唱された1980年代以降はこの定義が曖昧になり、以下のような「動詞を含むが屈折辞を含まず、命題を成す文法単位」も小節と見做されることがある。
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | a.   | We saw [Fred leave]. | We saw [Fred leave]. | We saw [Fred leave]. | We saw [Fred leave]. | We saw [Fred leave]. | We saw [Fred leave]. | We saw [Fred leave]. | We saw [Fred leave]. | We saw [Fred leave]. | We saw [Fred leave]. | We saw [Fred leave]. | We saw [Fred leave]. | We saw [Fred leave]. | We saw [Fred leave]. | We saw [Fred leave]. | We saw [Fred leave]. | We saw [Fred leave]. | We saw [Fred leave]. | We saw [Fred leave]. | We saw [Fred leave]. |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | b.   | Did you hear [them arrive]? | Did you hear [them arrive]? | Did you hear [them arrive]? | Did you hear [them arrive]? | Did you hear [them arrive]? | Did you hear [them arrive]? | Did you hear [them arrive]? | Did you hear [them arrive]? | Did you hear [them arrive]? | Did you hear [them arrive]? | Did you hear [them arrive]? | Did you hear [them arrive]? | Did you hear [them arrive]? | Did you hear [them arrive]? | Did you hear [them arrive]? | Did you hear [them arrive]? | Did you hear [them arrive]? | Did you hear [them arrive]? | Did you hear [them arrive]? | Did you hear [them arrive]? |
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よって、現行の統語論では、小節は「屈折辞を欠く命題単位」と定義されることが多い。
なお、以下の例は屈折辞の to を含んでいる点で、上記の例とは異なる。
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| ()   | a.   | I consider [Mary to be smart]. | I consider [Mary to be smart]. | I consider [Mary to be smart]. | I consider [Mary to be smart]. | I consider [Mary to be smart]. | I consider [Mary to be smart]. | I consider [Mary to be smart]. | I consider [Mary to be smart]. | I consider [Mary to be smart]. | I consider [Mary to be smart]. | I consider [Mary to be smart]. | I consider [Mary to be smart]. | I consider [Mary to be smart]. | I consider [Mary to be smart]. | I consider [Mary to be smart]. | I consider [Mary to be smart]. | I consider [Mary to be smart]. | I consider [Mary to be smart]. | I consider [Mary to be smart]. | I consider [Mary to be smart]. |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | b.   | I consider [Mary to be my best friend]. | I consider [Mary to be my best friend]. | I consider [Mary to be my best friend]. | I consider [Mary to be my best friend]. | I consider [Mary to be my best friend]. | I consider [Mary to be my best friend]. | I consider [Mary to be my best friend]. | I consider [Mary to be my best friend]. | I consider [Mary to be my best friend]. | I consider [Mary to be my best friend]. | I consider [Mary to be my best friend]. | I consider [Mary to be my best friend]. | I consider [Mary to be my best friend]. | I consider [Mary to be my best friend]. | I consider [Mary to be my best friend]. | I consider [Mary to be my best friend]. | I consider [Mary to be my best friend]. | I consider [Mary to be my best friend]. | I consider [Mary to be my best friend]. | I consider [Mary to be my best friend]. |
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| ()   | c.   | I consider [Mary to be out of her mind]. | I consider [Mary to be out of her mind]. | I consider [Mary to be out of her mind]. | I consider [Mary to be out of her mind]. | I consider [Mary to be out of her mind]. | I consider [Mary to be out of her mind]. | I consider [Mary to be out of her mind]. | I consider [Mary to be out of her mind]. | I consider [Mary to be out of her mind]. | I consider [Mary to be out of her mind]. | I consider [Mary to be out of her mind]. | I consider [Mary to be out of her mind]. | I consider [Mary to be out of her mind]. | I consider [Mary to be out of her mind]. | I consider [Mary to be out of her mind]. | I consider [Mary to be out of her mind]. | I consider [Mary to be out of her mind]. | I consider [Mary to be out of her mind]. | I consider [Mary to be out of her mind]. | I consider [Mary to be out of her mind]. |
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これらの扱いは理論により違いがあり、完全節と見做す分析もあれば、この類も小節と見做す分析もある。(後者の立場では、屈折した動詞を含まない命題単位を包括的に小節と見做すことになる。)