動詞句内主語仮説
課題 > 詳細 > 意味表示の同一性

Postal (1974) 以降、以下のような文は統語的・意味的なミニマルペアを成すと考えられてきた。
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| ()   | a.   | It seems that John sleeps all day. | It seems that John sleeps all day. | It seems that John sleeps all day. | It seems that John sleeps all day. | It seems that John sleeps all day. | It seems that John sleeps all day. | It seems that John sleeps all day. | It seems that John sleeps all day. | It seems that John sleeps all day. | It seems that John sleeps all day. | It seems that John sleeps all day. | It seems that John sleeps all day. | It seems that John sleeps all day. | It seems that John sleeps all day. | It seems that John sleeps all day. | It seems that John sleeps all day. | It seems that John sleeps all day. | It seems that John sleeps all day. | It seems that John sleeps all day. | It seems that John sleeps all day. |
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| ()   | b.   | John seems to sleep all day. | John seems to sleep all day. | John seems to sleep all day. | John seems to sleep all day. | John seems to sleep all day. | John seems to sleep all day. | John seems to sleep all day. | John seems to sleep all day. | John seems to sleep all day. | John seems to sleep all day. | John seems to sleep all day. | John seems to sleep all day. | John seems to sleep all day. | John seems to sleep all day. | John seems to sleep all day. | John seems to sleep all day. | John seems to sleep all day. | John seems to sleep all day. | John seems to sleep all day. | John seems to sleep all day. |
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この2つの文では、(5a) の主語位置には虚辞のitが生起している一方、(5b) の主語位置にはJohnという指示表現が生起しているという点で全く異なる構造を持つように思えるが、どちらの文も「ジョンは一日中寝ているようだ」という同一の意味を持つ。これを1つの動機とし、2つ目の文の主語は埋め込み主語位置に基底生成され、主節主語位置に移動することで派生されると広く考えられている。
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| ()   |    | Johni seems [ti to sleep all day]. | Johni seems [ti to sleep all day]. | Johni seems [ti to sleep all day]. | Johni seems [ti to sleep all day]. | Johni seems [ti to sleep all day]. | Johni seems [ti to sleep all day]. | Johni seems [ti to sleep all day]. | Johni seems [ti to sleep all day]. | Johni seems [ti to sleep all day]. | Johni seems [ti to sleep all day]. | Johni seems [ti to sleep all day]. | Johni seems [ti to sleep all day]. | Johni seems [ti to sleep all day]. | Johni seems [ti to sleep all day]. | Johni seems [ti to sleep all day]. | Johni seems [ti to sleep all day]. | Johni seems [ti to sleep all day]. | Johni seems [ti to sleep all day]. | Johni seems [ti to sleep all day]. | Johni seems [ti to sleep all day]. |
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この派生の特徴から、この種の文は繰り上げ構文（英語版） (英: raising construction) と呼ばれる。
また、(5) の文は、どちらも以下の意味表示を持つ。
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   |    | SEEM(SLEEP(John)) | SEEM(SLEEP(John)) | SEEM(SLEEP(John)) | SEEM(SLEEP(John)) | SEEM(SLEEP(John)) | SEEM(SLEEP(John)) | SEEM(SLEEP(John)) | SEEM(SLEEP(John)) | SEEM(SLEEP(John)) | SEEM(SLEEP(John)) | SEEM(SLEEP(John)) | SEEM(SLEEP(John)) | SEEM(SLEEP(John)) | SEEM(SLEEP(John)) | SEEM(SLEEP(John)) | SEEM(SLEEP(John)) | SEEM(SLEEP(John)) | SEEM(SLEEP(John)) | SEEM(SLEEP(John)) | SEEM(SLEEP(John)) |
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フレーゲの構成性原理 (英: principle of compositionality) 上、述語の範疇にあたるSEEMとSLEEPは意味上は関数であり、Johnは関数SLEEPの項である。自然言語における述語論理では、述語とは穴あき部分を埋める必要がある不飽和関数 (英: unsaturated function) であり、この部分に項が当てはめられることにより飽和関数 (英: saturated function) となり、これが命題に相当する。すなわち、SLEEP(John) という意味表現は、SLEEPという関数が項Johnにより飽和された命題 (または真理値) の単位である。
よって、上記の意味表示は以下の構造を成している。
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| ()   |    | SEEM [命題 SLEEP(John)] | SEEM [命題 SLEEP(John)] | SEEM [命題 SLEEP(John)] | SEEM [命題 SLEEP(John)] | SEEM [命題 SLEEP(John)] | SEEM [命題 SLEEP(John)] | SEEM [命題 SLEEP(John)] | SEEM [命題 SLEEP(John)] | SEEM [命題 SLEEP(John)] | SEEM [命題 SLEEP(John)] | SEEM [命題 SLEEP(John)] | SEEM [命題 SLEEP(John)] | SEEM [命題 SLEEP(John)] | SEEM [命題 SLEEP(John)] | SEEM [命題 SLEEP(John)] | SEEM [命題 SLEEP(John)] | SEEM [命題 SLEEP(John)] | SEEM [命題 SLEEP(John)] | SEEM [命題 SLEEP(John)] | SEEM [命題 SLEEP(John)] |
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| ()   |    | = (it) seems [命題 that John sleeps (all day)] | = (it) seems [命題 that John sleeps (all day)] | = (it) seems [命題 that John sleeps (all day)] | = (it) seems [命題 that John sleeps (all day)] | = (it) seems [命題 that John sleeps (all day)] | = (it) seems [命題 that John sleeps (all day)] | = (it) seems [命題 that John sleeps (all day)] | = (it) seems [命題 that John sleeps (all day)] | = (it) seems [命題 that John sleeps (all day)] | = (it) seems [命題 that John sleeps (all day)] | = (it) seems [命題 that John sleeps (all day)] | = (it) seems [命題 that John sleeps (all day)] | = (it) seems [命題 that John sleeps (all day)] | = (it) seems [命題 that John sleeps (all day)] | = (it) seems [命題 that John sleeps (all day)] | = (it) seems [命題 that John sleeps (all day)] | = (it) seems [命題 that John sleeps (all day)] | = (it) seems [命題 that John sleeps (all day)] | = (it) seems [命題 that John sleeps (all day)] | = (it) seems [命題 that John sleeps (all day)] |
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ここで重要となるのは、seemなどの動詞を繰り上げ述語としない場合に、どのように John seems to sleep all day の意味表示を導くかである。これには、主に2つの選択肢がある。
意味計算の段階で主語を繰り下げる。
it主語文と繰り上げ構文の間の意味的相関性を否定し、関数がさらに別の関数を項にとる (SEEM(SLEEP))(John) のような意味表示を仮定する。
これら2つの選択肢は、双方とも問題を孕んでいる。1つ目の選択肢は「繰り上げ」を逆にしたのみであるため有効な代替案とはなりえず、2つ目の選択肢は不可能ではないが、「seemという動詞の語彙項目は2つ存在する」ということを証左する強い証拠が必要となる。
さらに、論理上同じ意味となる下記のような文間の相関性も捉えられない。
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| ()   | a.   | Mary might sleep all day. | Mary might sleep all day. | Mary might sleep all day. | Mary might sleep all day. | Mary might sleep all day. | Mary might sleep all day. | Mary might sleep all day. | Mary might sleep all day. | Mary might sleep all day. | Mary might sleep all day. | Mary might sleep all day. | Mary might sleep all day. | Mary might sleep all day. | Mary might sleep all day. | Mary might sleep all day. | Mary might sleep all day. | Mary might sleep all day. | Mary might sleep all day. | Mary might sleep all day. | Mary might sleep all day. |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   |    | = (MIGHT(SLEEP))(Mary) ? | = (MIGHT(SLEEP))(Mary) ? | = (MIGHT(SLEEP))(Mary) ? | = (MIGHT(SLEEP))(Mary) ? | = (MIGHT(SLEEP))(Mary) ? | = (MIGHT(SLEEP))(Mary) ? | = (MIGHT(SLEEP))(Mary) ? | = (MIGHT(SLEEP))(Mary) ? | = (MIGHT(SLEEP))(Mary) ? | = (MIGHT(SLEEP))(Mary) ? | = (MIGHT(SLEEP))(Mary) ? | = (MIGHT(SLEEP))(Mary) ? | = (MIGHT(SLEEP))(Mary) ? | = (MIGHT(SLEEP))(Mary) ? | = (MIGHT(SLEEP))(Mary) ? | = (MIGHT(SLEEP))(Mary) ? | = (MIGHT(SLEEP))(Mary) ? | = (MIGHT(SLEEP))(Mary) ? | = (MIGHT(SLEEP))(Mary) ? | = (MIGHT(SLEEP))(Mary) ? |
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| ()   | b.   | It might be that Mary sleeps all day. | It might be that Mary sleeps all day. | It might be that Mary sleeps all day. | It might be that Mary sleeps all day. | It might be that Mary sleeps all day. | It might be that Mary sleeps all day. | It might be that Mary sleeps all day. | It might be that Mary sleeps all day. | It might be that Mary sleeps all day. | It might be that Mary sleeps all day. | It might be that Mary sleeps all day. | It might be that Mary sleeps all day. | It might be that Mary sleeps all day. | It might be that Mary sleeps all day. | It might be that Mary sleeps all day. | It might be that Mary sleeps all day. | It might be that Mary sleeps all day. | It might be that Mary sleeps all day. | It might be that Mary sleeps all day. | It might be that Mary sleeps all day. |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   |    | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) |
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特に、mightのような助動詞はI0に生起するため、この問題は根本的に、「主語は動詞句の外に基底生成される」という仮定から生まれる問題である。一方、動詞句内主語仮説のもとでは、上記の文は同一の論理的意味構造を持つ。
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| ()   | a.   | [IP __ might [VP Mary [V' sleep all day]]]. | [IP __ might [VP Mary [V' sleep all day]]]. | [IP __ might [VP Mary [V' sleep all day]]]. | [IP __ might [VP Mary [V' sleep all day]]]. | [IP __ might [VP Mary [V' sleep all day]]]. | [IP __ might [VP Mary [V' sleep all day]]]. | [IP __ might [VP Mary [V' sleep all day]]]. | [IP __ might [VP Mary [V' sleep all day]]]. | [IP __ might [VP Mary [V' sleep all day]]]. | [IP __ might [VP Mary [V' sleep all day]]]. | [IP __ might [VP Mary [V' sleep all day]]]. | [IP __ might [VP Mary [V' sleep all day]]]. | [IP __ might [VP Mary [V' sleep all day]]]. | [IP __ might [VP Mary [V' sleep all day]]]. | [IP __ might [VP Mary [V' sleep all day]]]. | [IP __ might [VP Mary [V' sleep all day]]]. | [IP __ might [VP Mary [V' sleep all day]]]. | [IP __ might [VP Mary [V' sleep all day]]]. | [IP __ might [VP Mary [V' sleep all day]]]. | [IP __ might [VP Mary [V' sleep all day]]]. |
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| ()   | b.   | It might be [CP that Mary sleeps all day]. | It might be [CP that Mary sleeps all day]. | It might be [CP that Mary sleeps all day]. | It might be [CP that Mary sleeps all day]. | It might be [CP that Mary sleeps all day]. | It might be [CP that Mary sleeps all day]. | It might be [CP that Mary sleeps all day]. | It might be [CP that Mary sleeps all day]. | It might be [CP that Mary sleeps all day]. | It might be [CP that Mary sleeps all day]. | It might be [CP that Mary sleeps all day]. | It might be [CP that Mary sleeps all day]. | It might be [CP that Mary sleeps all day]. | It might be [CP that Mary sleeps all day]. | It might be [CP that Mary sleeps all day]. | It might be [CP that Mary sleeps all day]. | It might be [CP that Mary sleeps all day]. | It might be [CP that Mary sleeps all day]. | It might be [CP that Mary sleeps all day]. | It might be [CP that Mary sleeps all day]. |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | c.   | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) | = MIGHT(SLEEP(Mary)) |
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