小節 (言語学)
派生分析 > 構成素分析 > 述語範疇投射分析

2つ目の分析方法として、小節を述語主要部の投射として扱う方法が挙げられ、叙述関係上の主語は述語の最大投射の指定部に生起すると仮定する。この分析方法は、Chomsky (1970)の提唱した句構造モデルに基づき、Stowell (1981)とContreras (1987)が発展させたものである。
Stowell (1981)は、主語を指定部に生起するNPと定義し、さらに名詞句を構造上認可するために不可欠な格は指定部で認可されると議論した上で、小節の構造を提案している。この分析の利点として、NPは非定形節の指定部への投射が可能な一方、なぜこの種の節内に主語として生起できないのかを説明することができる。
この分析を採用すると、小節は以下の構造を持つことになる。
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| ()   | .   | I consider [AP John [A' very stupid]]. | I consider [AP John [A' very stupid]]. | I consider [AP John [A' very stupid]]. | I consider [AP John [A' very stupid]]. | I consider [AP John [A' very stupid]]. | I consider [AP John [A' very stupid]]. | I consider [AP John [A' very stupid]]. | I consider [AP John [A' very stupid]]. | I consider [AP John [A' very stupid]]. | I consider [AP John [A' very stupid]]. | I consider [AP John [A' very stupid]]. | I consider [AP John [A' very stupid]]. | I consider [AP John [A' very stupid]]. | I consider [AP John [A' very stupid]]. | I consider [AP John [A' very stupid]]. | I consider [AP John [A' very stupid]]. | I consider [AP John [A' very stupid]]. | I consider [AP John [A' very stupid]]. | I consider [AP John [A' very stupid]]. | I consider [AP John [A' very stupid]]. |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | .   | I expect [PP that sailor [P' off my ship]]. | I expect [PP that sailor [P' off my ship]]. | I expect [PP that sailor [P' off my ship]]. | I expect [PP that sailor [P' off my ship]]. | I expect [PP that sailor [P' off my ship]]. | I expect [PP that sailor [P' off my ship]]. | I expect [PP that sailor [P' off my ship]]. | I expect [PP that sailor [P' off my ship]]. | I expect [PP that sailor [P' off my ship]]. | I expect [PP that sailor [P' off my ship]]. | I expect [PP that sailor [P' off my ship]]. | I expect [PP that sailor [P' off my ship]]. | I expect [PP that sailor [P' off my ship]]. | I expect [PP that sailor [P' off my ship]]. | I expect [PP that sailor [P' off my ship]]. | I expect [PP that sailor [P' off my ship]]. | I expect [PP that sailor [P' off my ship]]. | I expect [PP that sailor [P' off my ship]]. | I expect [PP that sailor [P' off my ship]]. | I expect [PP that sailor [P' off my ship]]. |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | .   | I saw [VP John [V' come to the kitchen]]. | I saw [VP John [V' come to the kitchen]]. | I saw [VP John [V' come to the kitchen]]. | I saw [VP John [V' come to the kitchen]]. | I saw [VP John [V' come to the kitchen]]. | I saw [VP John [V' come to the kitchen]]. | I saw [VP John [V' come to the kitchen]]. | I saw [VP John [V' come to the kitchen]]. | I saw [VP John [V' come to the kitchen]]. | I saw [VP John [V' come to the kitchen]]. | I saw [VP John [V' come to the kitchen]]. | I saw [VP John [V' come to the kitchen]]. | I saw [VP John [V' come to the kitchen]]. | I saw [VP John [V' come to the kitchen]]. | I saw [VP John [V' come to the kitchen]]. | I saw [VP John [V' come to the kitchen]]. | I saw [VP John [V' come to the kitchen]]. | I saw [VP John [V' come to the kitchen]]. | I saw [VP John [V' come to the kitchen]]. | I saw [VP John [V' come to the kitchen]]. |
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また、小節が適格な文法単位を構成するためには、その内部要素も主動詞の選択制限に従わなければならない事実を説明できる。例として、以下の例は主動詞 consider の選択特性が小節の内部まで及んでいることを示唆している。
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | a.   | I consider [Mr. Nyman a genius]. | I consider [Mr. Nyman a genius]. | I consider [Mr. Nyman a genius]. | I consider [Mr. Nyman a genius]. | I consider [Mr. Nyman a genius]. | I consider [Mr. Nyman a genius]. | I consider [Mr. Nyman a genius]. | I consider [Mr. Nyman a genius]. | I consider [Mr. Nyman a genius]. | I consider [Mr. Nyman a genius]. | I consider [Mr. Nyman a genius]. | I consider [Mr. Nyman a genius]. | I consider [Mr. Nyman a genius]. | I consider [Mr. Nyman a genius]. | I consider [Mr. Nyman a genius]. | I consider [Mr. Nyman a genius]. | I consider [Mr. Nyman a genius]. | I consider [Mr. Nyman a genius]. | I consider [Mr. Nyman a genius]. | I consider [Mr. Nyman a genius]. |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | b.   | *I consider [Mr. Nyman in my shed]. | *I consider [Mr. Nyman in my shed]. | *I consider [Mr. Nyman in my shed]. | *I consider [Mr. Nyman in my shed]. | *I consider [Mr. Nyman in my shed]. | *I consider [Mr. Nyman in my shed]. | *I consider [Mr. Nyman in my shed]. | *I consider [Mr. Nyman in my shed]. | *I consider [Mr. Nyman in my shed]. | *I consider [Mr. Nyman in my shed]. | *I consider [Mr. Nyman in my shed]. | *I consider [Mr. Nyman in my shed]. | *I consider [Mr. Nyman in my shed]. | *I consider [Mr. Nyman in my shed]. | *I consider [Mr. Nyman in my shed]. | *I consider [Mr. Nyman in my shed]. | *I consider [Mr. Nyman in my shed]. | *I consider [Mr. Nyman in my shed]. | *I consider [Mr. Nyman in my shed]. | *I consider [Mr. Nyman in my shed]. |
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(b) が非文であるのは、 「consider は補部にNPは選択するが、PPは選択しないため」という説明が可能である。
一方、この選択制限に関する議論については研究者間で意見の相違があり、例として、小節の述語にPPが使用されていても文法的となる場合がある。
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | a.   | I consider [the team in no fit state to play]. | I consider [the team in no fit state to play]. | I consider [the team in no fit state to play]. | I consider [the team in no fit state to play]. | I consider [the team in no fit state to play]. | I consider [the team in no fit state to play]. | I consider [the team in no fit state to play]. | I consider [the team in no fit state to play]. | I consider [the team in no fit state to play]. | I consider [the team in no fit state to play]. | I consider [the team in no fit state to play]. | I consider [the team in no fit state to play]. | I consider [the team in no fit state to play]. | I consider [the team in no fit state to play]. | I consider [the team in no fit state to play]. | I consider [the team in no fit state to play]. | I consider [the team in no fit state to play]. | I consider [the team in no fit state to play]. | I consider [the team in no fit state to play]. | I consider [the team in no fit state to play]. |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | b.   | *I consider [my friends on the roof]. | *I consider [my friends on the roof]. | *I consider [my friends on the roof]. | *I consider [my friends on the roof]. | *I consider [my friends on the roof]. | *I consider [my friends on the roof]. | *I consider [my friends on the roof]. | *I consider [my friends on the roof]. | *I consider [my friends on the roof]. | *I consider [my friends on the roof]. | *I consider [my friends on the roof]. | *I consider [my friends on the roof]. | *I consider [my friends on the roof]. | *I consider [my friends on the roof]. | *I consider [my friends on the roof]. | *I consider [my friends on the roof]. | *I consider [my friends on the roof]. | *I consider [my friends on the roof]. | *I consider [my friends on the roof]. | *I consider [my friends on the roof]. |
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また、小節が認可されるか否かには、意味的な要素も関わってくる。
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| ()   | a.   | *The doctor considers [that patient dead tomorrow]. | *The doctor considers [that patient dead tomorrow]. | *The doctor considers [that patient dead tomorrow]. | *The doctor considers [that patient dead tomorrow]. | *The doctor considers [that patient dead tomorrow]. | *The doctor considers [that patient dead tomorrow]. | *The doctor considers [that patient dead tomorrow]. | *The doctor considers [that patient dead tomorrow]. | *The doctor considers [that patient dead tomorrow]. | *The doctor considers [that patient dead tomorrow]. | *The doctor considers [that patient dead tomorrow]. | *The doctor considers [that patient dead tomorrow]. | *The doctor considers [that patient dead tomorrow]. | *The doctor considers [that patient dead tomorrow]. | *The doctor considers [that patient dead tomorrow]. | *The doctor considers [that patient dead tomorrow]. | *The doctor considers [that patient dead tomorrow]. | *The doctor considers [that patient dead tomorrow]. | *The doctor considers [that patient dead tomorrow]. | *The doctor considers [that patient dead tomorrow]. |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | b.   | Our pilot considers [that island off our route]. | Our pilot considers [that island off our route]. | Our pilot considers [that island off our route]. | Our pilot considers [that island off our route]. | Our pilot considers [that island off our route]. | Our pilot considers [that island off our route]. | Our pilot considers [that island off our route]. | Our pilot considers [that island off our route]. | Our pilot considers [that island off our route]. | Our pilot considers [that island off our route]. | Our pilot considers [that island off our route]. | Our pilot considers [that island off our route]. | Our pilot considers [that island off our route]. | Our pilot considers [that island off our route]. | Our pilot considers [that island off our route]. | Our pilot considers [that island off our route]. | Our pilot considers [that island off our route]. | Our pilot considers [that island off our route]. | Our pilot considers [that island off our route]. | Our pilot considers [that island off our route]. |
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なお、通常は非文と見做される用例も、特定の文脈においては容認される場合がある。これは、主動詞と小節の意味的関係性が、文全体の容認度に影響を表すことを示している。
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | a.   | *I consider [John off my ship]. | *I consider [John off my ship]. | *I consider [John off my ship]. | *I consider [John off my ship]. | *I consider [John off my ship]. | *I consider [John off my ship]. | *I consider [John off my ship]. | *I consider [John off my ship]. | *I consider [John off my ship]. | *I consider [John off my ship]. | *I consider [John off my ship]. | *I consider [John off my ship]. | *I consider [John off my ship]. | *I consider [John off my ship]. | *I consider [John off my ship]. | *I consider [John off my ship]. | *I consider [John off my ship]. | *I consider [John off my ship]. | *I consider [John off my ship]. | *I consider [John off my ship]. |
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | b.   | As soon as he sets foot on the gangplank, I'll consider [John off my ship]. | As soon as he sets foot on the gangplank, I'll consider [John off my ship]. | As soon as he sets foot on the gangplank, I'll consider [John off my ship]. | As soon as he sets foot on the gangplank, I'll consider [John off my ship]. | As soon as he sets foot on the gangplank, I'll consider [John off my ship]. | As soon as he sets foot on the gangplank, I'll consider [John off my ship]. | As soon as he sets foot on the gangplank, I'll consider [John off my ship]. | As soon as he sets foot on the gangplank, I'll consider [John off my ship]. | As soon as he sets foot on the gangplank, I'll consider [John off my ship]. | As soon as he sets foot on the gangplank, I'll consider [John off my ship]. | As soon as he sets foot on the gangplank, I'll consider [John off my ship]. | As soon as he sets foot on the gangplank, I'll consider [John off my ship]. | As soon as he sets foot on the gangplank, I'll consider [John off my ship]. | As soon as he sets foot on the gangplank, I'll consider [John off my ship]. | As soon as he sets foot on the gangplank, I'll consider [John off my ship]. | As soon as he sets foot on the gangplank, I'll consider [John off my ship]. | As soon as he sets foot on the gangplank, I'll consider [John off my ship]. | As soon as he sets foot on the gangplank, I'll consider [John off my ship]. | As soon as he sets foot on the gangplank, I'll consider [John off my ship]. | As soon as he sets foot on the gangplank, I'll consider [John off my ship]. |
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さらに、主動詞の格付与に関連する経験的事実も、小節の認可には選択制限が関わることの証拠となる。例として、動詞 consider の補部に生起する名詞句は対格表示されなければならず、主格は認可されない。
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| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |

| ()   | a.   | I consider [Natasha a visionary]. | I consider [Natasha a visionary]. | I consider [Natasha a visionary]. | I consider [Natasha a visionary]. | I consider [Natasha a visionary]. | I consider [Natasha a visionary]. | I consider [Natasha a visionary]. | I consider [Natasha a visionary]. | I consider [Natasha a visionary]. | I consider [Natasha a visionary]. | I consider [Natasha a visionary]. | I consider [Natasha a visionary]. | I consider [Natasha a visionary]. | I consider [Natasha a visionary]. | I consider [Natasha a visionary]. | I consider [Natasha a visionary]. | I consider [Natasha a visionary]. | I consider [Natasha a visionary]. | I consider [Natasha a visionary]. | I consider [Natasha a visionary]. |
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| ()   | b.   | I consider [her a visionary]. | I consider [her a visionary]. | I consider [her a visionary]. | I consider [her a visionary]. | I consider [her a visionary]. | I consider [her a visionary]. | I consider [her a visionary]. | I consider [her a visionary]. | I consider [her a visionary]. | I consider [her a visionary]. | I consider [her a visionary]. | I consider [her a visionary]. | I consider [her a visionary]. | I consider [her a visionary]. | I consider [her a visionary]. | I consider [her a visionary]. | I consider [her a visionary]. | I consider [her a visionary]. | I consider [her a visionary]. | I consider [her a visionary]. |
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| ()   | c.   | *I consider [she a visionary]. | *I consider [she a visionary]. | *I consider [she a visionary]. | *I consider [she a visionary]. | *I consider [she a visionary]. | *I consider [she a visionary]. | *I consider [she a visionary]. | *I consider [she a visionary]. | *I consider [she a visionary]. | *I consider [she a visionary]. | *I consider [she a visionary]. | *I consider [she a visionary]. | *I consider [she a visionary]. | *I consider [she a visionary]. | *I consider [she a visionary]. | *I consider [she a visionary]. | *I consider [she a visionary]. | *I consider [she a visionary]. | *I consider [she a visionary]. | *I consider [she a visionary]. |
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これは通言語的にも観察することができ、例としてセルビア・クロアチア語では、小節の主語は対格表示され、述語は具格表示される。
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| ()   | a.  | (Ja)  | smatram  | ga  | budalom.  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
|  |  | I.NOM  | consider  | him.ACC  | a fool.INSTR  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |

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