Pemotongan kelamin perempuan
Kutipan dari rujukan

↑  Martha Nussbaum (Sex and Social Justice, 1999): "Although discussions sometimes use the terms 'female circumcision' and 'clitoridectomy', 'female genital mutilation' (FGM) is the standard generic term for all these procedures in the medical literature ... The term 'female circumcision' has been rejected by international medical practitioners because it suggests the fallacious analogy to male circumcision ..."
↑  Contohnya, "seorang gadis muda harus 'sudah dimandikan' sebelum ia memiliki bayi."
↑  UNICEF 2005: "The large majority of girls and women are cut by a traditional practitioner, a category which includes local specialists (cutters or exciseuses), traditional birth attendants and, generally, older members of the community, usually women. This is true for over 80 percent of the girls who undergo the practice in Benin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinea, Mali, Niger, Tanzania and Yemen. In most countries, medical personnel, including doctors, nurses and certified midwives, are not widely involved in the practice."
↑  UNICEF 2013: "These categories do not fully match the WHO typology. Cut, no flesh removed describes a practice known as nicking or pricking, which currently is categorized as Type IV. Cut, some flesh removed corresponds to Type I (clitoridectomy) and Type II (excision) combined. And sewn closed corresponds to Type III, infibulation."
↑  Diagram pada WHO 2016, yang disalin dari Abdulcadir et al. 2016, merujuk Tipe 1a sebagai sirkumsisi.
↑  WHO (2018): Type 1 ... the partial or total removal of the clitoris ... and in very rare cases, only the prepuce (the fold of skin surrounding the clitoris)."
WHO (2008): "[There is a] common tendency to describe Type I as removal of the prepuce, whereas this has not been documented as a traditional form of female genital mutilation. However, in some countries, medicalized female genital mutilation can include removal of the prepuce only (Type Ia) (Thabet and Thabet, 2003), but this form appears to be relatively rare (Satti et al., 2006). Almost all known forms of female genital mutilation that remove tissue from the clitoris also cut all or part of the clitoral glans itself."
↑  Susan Izett dan Nahid Toubia (WHO, 1998): "[T]he clitoris is held between the thumb and index finger, pulled out and amputated with one stroke of a sharp object."
↑  WHO 2014: "Narrowing of the vaginal orifice with creation of a covering seal by cutting and appositioning the labia minora and/or the labia majora, with or without excision of the clitoris (infibulation)."Type IIIa, removal and apposition of the labia minora; Type IIIb, removal and apposition of the labia majora."
↑  USAID 2008: "Infibulation is practiced largely in countries located in northeastern Africa: Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan. ... Sudan alone accounts for about 3.5 million of the women. ... [T]he estimate of the total number of women infibulated in [Djibouti, Somalia, Eritrea, northern Sudan, Ethiopia, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Senegal, Chad, Nigeria, Cameroon and Tanzania, for women 15–49 years old] comes to 8,245,449, or just over eight million women."
↑  Jasmine Abdulcadir (Swiss Medical Weekly, 2011): "In the case of infibulation, the urethral opening and part of the vaginal opening are covered by the scar. In a virgin infibulated woman the small opening left for the menstrual fluid and the urine is not wider than 2–3 mm; in sexually active women and after the delivery the vaginal opening is wider but the urethral orifice is often still covered by the scar."
↑  Elizabeth Kelly, Paula J. Adams Hillard (Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 2005): "Women commonly undergo reinfibulation after a vaginal delivery. In addition to reinfibulation, many women in Sudan undergo a second type of re-suturing called El-Adel, which is performed to recreate the size of the vaginal orifice to be similar to the size created at the time of primary infibulation. Two small cuts are made around the vaginal orifice to expose new tissues to suture, and then sutures are placed to tighten the vaginal orifice and perineum. This procedure, also called re-circumcision, is primarily performed after vaginal delivery, but can also be performed before marriage, after cesarean section, after divorce, and sometimes even in elderly women as a preparation before death."
↑  WHO 2005: "In some areas (e.g. parts of Congo and mainland Tanzania), FGM entails the pulling of the labia minora and/or clitoris over a period of about 2 to 3 weeks. The procedure is initiated by an old woman designated for this task, who puts sticks of a special type in place to hold the stretched genital parts so that they do not revert back to their original size. The girl is instructed to pull her genitalia every day, to stretch them further, and to put additional sticks in to hold the stretched parts from time to time. This pulling procedure is repeated daily for a period of about two weeks, and usually no more than four sticks are used to hold the stretched parts, as further pulling and stretching would make the genital parts unacceptably long."
↑  Berg dan Underland (Norwegian Knowledge Centre for the Health Services, 2014): "There was evidence of under-reporting of complications. However, the findings show that the FGM/C procedure unequivocally causes immediate, and typically several, health complications during the FGM/C procedure and the short-term period. Each of the most common complications occurred in more than one of every ten girls and women who undergo FGM/C. The participants in these studies had FGM/C types I through IV, thus immediate complications such as bleeding and swelling occur in setting with all forms of FGM/C. Even FGM/C type I and type IV 'nick', the forms of FGM/C with least anatomical extent, presented immediate complications. The results document that multiple immediate and quite serious complications can result from FGM/C. These results should be viewed in light of long-term complications, such as obstetric and gynecological problems, and protection of human rights."
↑  UNICEF 2016: "Evidence suggests that FGM/C exists in some places in South America such as Colombia and elsewhere in the world including in India, Malaysia, Oman, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, with large variations in terms of the type performed, circumstances surrounding the practice and size of the affected population groups. In these contexts, however, the available evidence comes from (sometimes outdated) small-scale studies or anecdotal accounts, and there are no representative data as yet on prevalence."
↑  Tanya Sukhija (Equality Now, 8 Februari 2016): Asked whether FGM occurs in countries not accounted for in the latest UNICEF report: "There are many other places where the data is not robust. There is one particular community in India, the Dawoodi Bohra, that does practice FGM — but without the data we don't know the extent."
Pam Belluck (The New York Times, 10 Juni 2017): "The focus on the Dawoodi Bohra, a sect of about 1.2 million based in western India, with clusters in the United States, Pakistan and elsewhere, is spurring Bohra women to describe their experiences publicly. Some are doing so for the first time, defying the sect's historic secrecy about cutting and taking a risk that they or relatives will be ostracized."
↑  UNICEF 2013: "The percentage of girls and women of reproductive age (15 to 49) who have experienced any form of FGM/C is the first indicator used to show how widespread the practice is in a particular country ... A second indicator of national prevalence measures the extent of cutting among daughters aged 0 to 14, as reported by their mothers. Prevalence data for girls reflect their current – not final – FGM/C status, since many of them may not have reached the customary age for cutting at the time of the survey. They are reported as being uncut but are still at risk of undergoing the procedure. Statistics for girls under age 15 therefore need to be interpreted with a high degree of caution ..."
 Komplikasi tambahan dalam menilai prevalensi di kalangan anak perempuan adalah bahwa, di negara-negara yang menjalankan kampanye penentangan FGM, seorang wanita tidak melaporkan bahwa anak perempuan mereka telah dipotong.
↑  UNICEF 2014: "If there is no reduction in the practice between now and 2050, the number of girls cut each year will grow from 3.6 million in 2013 to 6.6 million in 2050. But if the rate of progress achieved over the last 30 years is maintained, the number of girls affected annually will go from 3.6 million today to 4.1 million in 2050."In either scenario, the total number of girls and women cut will continue to increase due to population growth. If nothing is done, the number of girls and women affected will grow from 133 million today to 325 million in 2050. However, if the progress made so far is sustained, the number will grow from 133 million to 196 million in 2050, and almost 130 million girls will be spared this grave assault to their human rights."
↑  Gerry Mackie (1996): "Virtually every ethnography and report states that FGM is defended and transmitted by the women."
Fadwa El Guindi (2007): "Female circumcision belongs to the women's world, and ordinarily men know little about it or how it is performed—a fact that is widely confirmed in ethnographic studies."
Bettina Shell-Duncan (2008): "[T]he fact that the decision to perform FGC is often firmly in the control of women weakens the claim of gender discrimination."
Bettina Shell-Duncan (2015): "[W]hen you talk to people on the ground, you also hear people talking about the idea that it's women's business. As in, it's for women to decide this. If we look at the data across Africa, the support for the practice is stronger among women than among men."
↑  Gerry Mackie, 1996: "Footbinding and infibulation correspond as follows. Both customs are nearly universal where practised; they are persistent and are practised even by those who oppose them. Both control sexual access to females and ensure female chastity and fidelity. Both are necessary for proper marriage and family honor. Both are believed to be sanctioned by tradition. Both are said to be ethnic markers, and distinct ethnic minorities may lack the practices. Both seem to have a past of contagious diffusion. Both are exaggerated over time and both increase with status. Both are supported and transmitted by women, are performed on girls about six to eight years old, and are generally not initiation rites. Both are believed to promote health and fertility. Both are defined as aesthetically pleasing compared with the natural alternative. Both are said to properly exaggerate the complementarity of the sexes, and both are claimed to make intercourse more pleasurable for the male."
↑  Delapan negara tersebut adalah Djibouti, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Mauritania, Senegal, Somalia, dan Gambia.
↑  Gerry Mackie, 1996: "FGM is pre-Islamic but was exaggerated by its intersection with the Islamic modesty code of family honor, female purity, virginity, chastity, fidelity, and seclusion."
↑  Gerry Mackie, 1996: "The Koran is silent on FGM, but several hadith (sayings attributed to Mohammed) recommend attenuating the practice for the woman's sake, praise it as noble but not commanded, or advise that female converts refrain from mutilation because even if pleasing to the husband it is painful to the wife."
↑  Maggie Michael, Associated Press, 2007: "[Egypt's] supreme religious authorities stressed that Islam is against female circumcision. It's prohibited, prohibited, prohibited," Grand Mufti Ali Gomaa said on the privately owned al-Mahwar network."
↑  Samuel Waje Kunhiyop, 2008: "Nowhere in all of Scripture or in any of recorded church history is there even a hint that women were to be circumcised."
↑  Negara-negara tersebut yaitu Benin, Burkina Faso, Republik Afrika Tengah, Chad, Pantai Gading, Mesir, Eritrea, Etiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Kenya, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Sudan, dan Tanzania.
↑  Knight menambahkan bahwa para ahli Mesir Kuno merasa tidak nyaman dengan terjemahan "tidak disunat", karena tidak ada informasi tentang apa yang menghasilkan "kondisi yang disunat". Sementara itu, Paul F. O'Rourke berpendapat bahwa 'm't kemungkinan bukan merujuk pada wanita yang menstruasi.
↑  "Sometime after this, Nephoris [Tathemis's mother] defrauded me, being anxious that it was time for Tathemis to be circumcised, as is the custom among the Egyptians. She asked that I give her 1,300 drachmae ... to clothe her ... and to provide her with a marriage dowry ... if she didn't do each of these or if she did not circumcise Tathemis in the month of Mecheir, year 18 [163 BCE], she would repay me 2,400 drachmae on the spot."
↑  Strabo, Geographica, c. 25 BCE: "One of the customs most zealously observed among the Aegyptians is this, that they rear every child that is born, and circumcise [περιτέμνειν, peritemnein] the males, and excise [ektemnein] the females, as is also customary among the Jews, who are also Aegyptians in origin, as I have already stated in my account of them."
Book XVI, chapter 4, 16.4.9: "And then to the Harbour of Antiphilus, and, above this, to the Creophagi [meat-eaters], of whom the males have their sexual glands mutilated [kolobos] and the women are excised [ektemnein] in the Jewish fashion."
↑  Knight (2001) menulis bahwa ada satu referensi yang masih ada dari zaman kuno, oleh Xanthus dari Lydia pada abad kelima SM, yang mungkin menyinggung FGM di luar Mesir. Xanthus menulis, dalam sejarah Lydia: "The Lydians arrived at such a state of delicacy that they were even the first to 'castrate' their women." Knight berpendapat bahwa "pengebirian", yang tidak dijelaskan, mungkin telah membuat wanita awet muda, dalam arti memungkinkan raja Lydia untuk melakukan hubungan intim dengan mereka tanpa kehamilan. Knight menyimpulkan bahwa hal itu mungkin referensi untuk sterilisasi, bukan FGM.
↑  Knight menambahkan bahwa atribusi diduga dari Galenus.
↑  UNICEF 2013 menyebut penentangan Perhimpunan Dokter Mesir sebagai “kampanye pertama yang diketahui” melawan FGM.
↑  Beberapa negara bagian di Sudan melarang FGM pada 2008–2009, tetapi hingga 2013, tidak ada hukum yang berlaku secara nasional. Prevalensi FGM di antara perempuan berusia 14–49 yaitu 89 persen pada 2014.
↑  Sebagai contoh, UNICEF 2013 menggolongkan Mauritania sebagai negara yang telah mengesahkan undang-undang terhadap FGM, tetapi (pada tahun itu) FGM hanya dilarang dilakukan di fasilitas pemerintah atau oleh tenaga medis.Berikut ini adalah negara-negara yang umum mempraktikkan FGM dan menetapkan pembatasan yang berlaku pada 2013. Tanda bintang menunjukkan larangan:Benin (2003), Burkina Faso (1996*), Republik Afrika Tengah (1966, diamendemen 1996), Chad (2003), Pantai Gading (1998), Djibouti (1995, diamendemen 2009*), Mesir (2008*), Eritrea (2007*), Etiopia (2004*), Ghana (1994, diamendemen 2007), Guinea (1965, diamendemen 2000*), Guinea-Bissau (2011*), Irak (2011*), Kenya (2001, diamendemen 2011*), Mauritania (2005), Niger (2003), Nigeria (2015*), Senegal (1999*), Somalia (2012*), Sudan, beberapa negara bagian (2008–2009), Tanzania (1998), Togo (1998), Uganda (2010*), Yaman (2001*).
↑  Lima belas negara bergabung pada program ini: Djibouti, Mesir, Etiopia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Senegal, dan Sudan pada 2008; Burkina Faso, Gambia, Uganda, dan Somalia pada 2009; and Eritrea, Mali and Mauritania in 2011.
↑  Perkiraan CDC sebelumnya adalah 168.000 pada tahun 1990.
↑  Pada tahun 2010, American Academy of Pediatrics menyarankan bahwa "menusuk atau mengiris kulit klitoris" adalah prosedur yang tidak berbahaya yang dapat memuaskan orang tua, tetapi mereka menarik pernyataan tersebut setelah menerima keluhan.
↑  Female Genital Mutilation Act 2003: "A person is guilty of an offence if he excises, infibulates or otherwise mutilates the whole or any part of a girl's labia majora, labia minora or clitoris", unless "necessary for her physical or mental health". Although the legislation refers to girls, it applies to women too.
↑  WHO 2008: "Some practices, such as genital cosmetic surgery and hymen repair, which are legally accepted in many countries and not generally considered to constitute female genital mutilation, actually fall under the definition used here. It has been considered important, however, to maintain a broad definition of female genital mutilation in order to avoid loopholes that might allow the practice to continue."