Sejarah alat hitung
Catatan kaki dan daftar rujukan > Rujukan

↑  Gischa, Serafica (2020).  Gischa, Serafica, ed. "Sempoa: Alat Hitung Paling Kuno". Kompas.com. Diakses tanggal 12 Maret 2021.
↑  Phill Schultz (7 September 1999). "A very brief history of pure mathematics: The Ishango Bone". University of Western Australia School of Mathematics. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2008-07-21.
↑  Nailufar, Nibras Nada (2020-08-07).  Nailufar, Nibras Nada, ed. "Sejarah Perkembangan Komputer Sebelum 1940". Kompas.com. Diakses tanggal 2021-03-16.
↑  Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology, and medicine in non-western cultures. Helaine Selin (edisi ke-2nd ed). Berlin: Springer. 2008. ISBN 978-1-4020-4425-0. OCLC 261324840. Pemeliharaan CS1: Teks tambahan (link)
↑  Pegg, Ed Jr. "Lebombo Bone". MathWorld.
↑  Darling, David (2004). The Universal Book of Mathematics From Abracadabra to Zeno's Paradoxes. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-27047-8.
↑  Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. "The Evolution of Writing". Diarsipkan dari versi asli (PDF) tanggal 2012-01-30.  Parameter |url-status= yang tidak diketahui akan diabaikan (bantuan)
↑  Robson, Eleanor (2008), Mathematics in Ancient Iraq, ISBN 978-0-691-09182-2 . p. 5: calculi were in use in Iraq for primitive accounting systems as early as 3200–3000 BCE, with commodity-specific counting representation systems. Balanced accounting was in use by 3000–2350 BCE, and a sexagesimal number system was in use 2350–2000 BCE.
↑  Eleanor Robson. "BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MESOPOTAMIAN MATHEMATICS". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2016-06-16. Diakses tanggal 2021-03-18.
↑  Anugrahana, Andi (2019). "Pengembangan Modul Sempoa sebagai Alternatif dalam Mata Kuliah Inovatif Matematika" (PDF). Jurnal Cendekia: Jurnal Pendidikan Matematika. 3 (2): 464.
↑  Gischa, Serafica (2020-03-29).  Gischa, Serafica, ed. "Sempoa: Alat Hitung Paling Kuno". Kompas.com. Diakses tanggal 2021-03-12.
↑  Lazos 1994
↑  Sharkey, Noel (5 Juli 2007). "A programmable robot from 60 AD". www.newscientist.com. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2018-01-13. Diakses tanggal 18 Maret 2021.
↑  "Episode 11: Ancient Robots", Ancient Discoveries, History Channel, diakses tanggal 2008-09-06
↑  Howard R. Turner (1997), Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction p. 184, University of Texas Press, ISBN 0-292-78149-0
↑  Hill, Donald Routledge (May 1991). "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East". Scientific American. hlm. 64–69.  (cf. Hill, Donald Routledge. "IX. Mechanical Engineering". History of Sciences in the Islamic World. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2007-12-25.  Parameter |url-status= yang tidak diketahui akan diabaikan (bantuan))
↑  Firdaus and Sri Andayani, Muh. Wildanul (2011). "Adapting the Concept of Napier's Bone to Teach Multiplication for Elementary Students" (PDF). International Seminar and Fourth National Conference on Mathematics Education: 3.
↑  Kells, Kern & Bland 1943, hlm. 92
↑  Kells, Kern & Bland 1943, hlm. 82
↑  Williams 1997, hlm. 128 "...the single-tooth gear, like that used by Schickard, would not do for a general carry mechanism.  The single-tooth gear works fine if the carry is only going to be propagated a few places but, if the carry has to be propagated several places along the accumulator, the force needed to operate the machine would be of such magnitude that it would do damage to the delicate gear works."
↑  (fr) La Machine d’arithmétique, Blaise Pascal, Wikisource
↑  Marguin 1994, hlm. 48
↑  Maurice d'Ocagne (1893), p. 245 Copy of this book found on the CNAM site
↑  "Definition of Pascaline". PCMAG (dalam bahasa Inggris). Diakses tanggal 2021-03-15.
↑  Mourlevat 1988, hlm. 12
↑  All nine machines are described in Vidal & Vogt 2011.
↑  Jim Falk. "Schickard versus Pascal - an empty debate?". Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2014-04-08. Diakses tanggal 2021-03-18.  • Jim Falk. "Things That Count".
↑  Smith 1929, hlm. 180–181. Kutipan dalam bahasa Inggris: "It is unworthy of excellent men to lose hours like slaves in the labour of calculation which could safely be relegated to anyone else if machines were used".
↑  Leibniz 1703
↑  Discovering the Arithmometer, Cornell University
↑  "Columbia University Computing History–Herman Hollerith". Columbia.edu. Diakses tanggal 2010-01-30.
↑  Truedsell, Leon E. (1965). The Development of Punch Card Tabulation in the Bureau of the Census 1890–1940. US GPO. hlm. 47–55.
↑  Report of the Commissioner of Labor In Charge of The Eleventh Census to the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1895. Washington, DC: United States Government Publishing Office. 29 July 1895. hlm. 9. hdl:2027/osu.32435067619882. OCLC 867910652.  "You may confidently look for the rapid reduction of the force of this office after the 1st of October, and the entire cessation of clerical work during the present calendar year. ... The condition of the work of the Census Division and the condition of the final reports show clearly that the work of the Eleventh Census will be completed at least two years earlier than was the work of the Tenth Census." — Carroll D. Wright, Commissioner of Labor in Charge
↑  "1920". IBM Archives. Diakses tanggal 2020-12-01.
↑  "Chronological History of IBM: 1930s". IBM Archives. Diakses tanggal 2020-12-01.
↑  Eckert 1935
↑  Light, Jennifer S. (July 1999). "When Computers Were Women". Technology and Culture. 40 (3): 455–483. doi:10.1353/tech.1999.0128.  Parameter |s2cid= yang tidak diketahui akan diabaikan (bantuan)
↑  Hunt 1998, hlm. xiii–xxxvi
↑  Coriolis 1836, hlm. 5–9
↑  Karl L. Wildes and Nilo A. Lindgren, A Century of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at MIT, 1882-1982 (Cambridge, Massachusetts:  MIT Press, 1985), pages 90-92.
↑  Robinson, Tim (June 2005). "The Meccano Set Computers A history of differential analyzers made from children's toys". IEEE Control Systems Magazine. 25 (3): 74–83. doi:10.1109/MCS.2005.1432602. . Hartree, D.R. (September 1940), op. cit.
↑  Bush's differential analyser used mechanical integrators. The output of each integrator was intended to drive other parts of the machine; however, the output was too feeble to do so. Hazen recognized that a "torque amplifier", which had been invented in 1925 by Henry W. Nieman and which was intended to allow workers to control heavy machinery, could be used to provide the necessary power.  See:  Stuart Bennett, A History of Control Engineering 1930-1955 (London, England:  Peter Peregrinus Ltd., 1993), page 103.  See also Nieman's U.S. patents:  (1) "Servo mechanism", U.S. patent no. 1,751,645 Diarsipkan 2018-08-07 di Wayback Machine. (filed: 28 January 1925; issued:  25 March 1930); (2) "Servo mechanism", U.S. patent no. 1,751,647 Diarsipkan 2018-08-07 di Wayback Machine. (filed: 8 January 1926; issued: 25 March 1930); (3) "Synchronous amplifying control mechanism", U.S. patent no. 1,751,652 Diarsipkan 2014-06-28 di Wayback Machine. (filed: 8 January 1926; issued: 25 March 1930).
↑  Irwin, William (July 2009). "The Differential Analyser Explained". Auckland Meccano Guild. Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2018-11-24. Diakses tanggal 2010-07-21.  Archived
↑  "Friden Model STW-10 Electro-Mechanical Calculator". Diakses tanggal 11 August 2015.
↑  "Simple and Silent". Office Magazine. December 1961. hlm. 1244.
↑  "'Anita' der erste tragbare elektonische Rechenautomat" ['Anita' the first portable electronic computer]. Buromaschinen Mechaniker. November 1961. hlm. 207.
↑  "World's first handheld calculator, Cal-Tech, from TI". digitalcollections.smu.edu. Diakses tanggal 19 Maer 2021.  Parameter |first1= tanpa |last1= di Authors list (bantuan); Periksa nilai tanggal di: |access-date= (bantuan)
1 2  Sartika, Resa Eka Ayu (2018-02-01).  Sartika, Resa Eka Ayu, ed. "Penemuan yang Mengubah Dunia: Kalkulator". Kompas.com. Diakses tanggal 2021-03-15.
↑  Halacy, Daniel Stephen (1970). Charles Babbage, Father of the Computer. Crowell-Collier Press. ISBN 0-02-741370-5.
↑  "Babbage". Online stuff. Science Museum. 2007-01-19. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-01.
↑  "Let's build Babbage's ultimate mechanical computer". opinion. New Scientist. 23 December 2010. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-01.
↑  Tim Robinson (2007-05-28). "Difference Engines". Meccano.us. Diakses tanggal 2012-08-01.
↑  Menabrea & Lovelace 1843
↑  Randell, B. (1971). "Ludgate's Analytical Machine of 1909". Analytical Machine. 14 (3): 14.
↑  "The John Gabriel Byrne Computer Science Collection" (PDF). Diarsipkan dari versi asli tanggal 2019-04-16. Diakses tanggal 2019-08-08.  Parameter |url-status= yang tidak diketahui akan diabaikan (bantuan)
↑  Ingenious Ireland
↑  Sari, Annisa Ratna. Modul Pengantar Aplikasi Komputer (PDF). Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Akuntansi UNY. hlm. 1.  Parameter |url-status= yang tidak diketahui akan diabaikan (bantuan)
↑  "Manfaat Mesin Penghitung Uang". Mitra Berkat Bersama (dalam bahasa Inggris). 2019-09-03. Diakses tanggal 2021-03-16.
Tulang Ishango diperkirakan sebagai tongkat hitungan masa Paleolitikum Akhir.
Sempoa atau Abacus diciptakan dalam berbagai macam media. Ada yang terbuat dari kayu, ada yang terbuat dari bambu, ada yang terbuat dari plastik, adapula yang terbuat dari besi. Buah hitung yang dipasang pun bervariasi, yakni biji-bijian, batu-batuan, dan manik-manik.
Mistar hitung modern
Mesin akuntansi kartu pons ciptaan IBM tahun 1936.
Kalkulator Curta juga dapat melakukan operasi perkalian dan pembagian.
Kalkulator modern menjadi sebuah alat hitung aritmatika yang dapat menghitung banyak digit angka.
Gambar sebuah bagian difference engine ciptaan Babbage
Model percobaan dari bagian Analytical Engine, dibangun oleh Babbage, seperti yang ditampilkan di Science Museum, London
Komputer yang merupakan perangkat pengolah data dan angka.