תוניסיה העות'מאנית
הערות שוליים

1 2 3  Abadi, Jacob (2013). Tunisia Since the Arab Conquest: The Saga of a Westernized Muslim State (באנגלית). Ithaca Press. ISBN 978-0-86372-435-0.
↑  Moalla, Asma (2005). The Regency of Tunis and the Ottoman Porte, 1777-1814: Army and Government of a North-African Eyâlet at the End of the Eighteenth Century (באנגלית). RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 978-1-134-42983-7.
↑  Blili, Leïla Temime (2021). The Regency of Tunis, 1535–1666: Genesis of an Ottoman Province in the Maghreb (באנגלית). American University in Cairo Press. ISBN 978-1-64903-049-8.
↑  In formulating an African policy for Spain, the clergy argued for attempting a complete conquest; however, King Ferdinand ultimately decided on limited objectives: constructing strong forts in a string of port cities. See: Henry Kamen, Empire: How Spain Became a World Power 1492–1763 (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), pp. 29–31. After the reconquest, several such port cities, e.g., Oran, were favorable to Spanish influence. Kamen (2003), pp. 29–30.
↑  J. H. Elliot, Imperial Spain, 1469–1716 (New York: St. Martin's, 1963; reprint, Meridian, 1977), pp. 52–55.
↑  Wayne S. Vucinich, The Ottoman Empire: Its Record and Legacy (Princeton: C. Van Nostrand, 1965), pp. 15–18.
↑  Stanford J. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (Cambridge University Press, 1976), vol. I, pp. 55–66, 83–85.
↑  Henry Kamen, Empire. How Spain became a world power 1492–1763 (New York: HarperCollins 2003) at 30–31 (Mers-el-Kebir), 32–33 (Oran), 31–32 (Bougie and Tripoli), 32 (Algiers).
↑  Charles-André Julien, Histoire de l'Afrique du Nord (Paris: Payot 1931, 1961), translated as History of North Africa. From the Arab conquest to 1830 (London: Routledge, Kegan Paul 1970) at 279, 294 (Tlemcen), 282–284, 297–300 (Tunis).
↑  William Spencer, Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs (University of Oklahoma 1976) at 15–17, 22.
↑  Julian, History of North Africa (1961; 1970) at 148 (corsairs), 153 (Catalan bodyguard), 158 (European merchants).
↑  Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (Cambridge University 1971) at 148 (14th-century corsairs: Christian and Muslim), 148–149 (15th-century Hafsid's suzerainty over Tlemcen), 163–165 (early Spanish treaties), 177 (last three Hafsid sultans in the 16th century).
↑  Spencer, Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs (1976) at 11 (commercial treaty between Tunis and Aragon), 15 (piracy: European and North African), 17 (Hafsid early hub facilitating Turkish corsairs).
↑  The Spanish leader Ruy Díaz de Bivar in the 11th century was known to have fought alongside Muslims, even siding with Muslims against Christians, like for Almutamiz against García Ordóñez. His title "El Cid," meaning "lord," originates from the Arabic expression Siyyidi. Cf., Poema de Mio Cid (Madrid: Ediciones Rodas [1954] 1972) at 58–62 and note 15.
↑  During 1538–1540, King Carlos of Spain negotiated with Khayr al-Din Pasha (the younger Barbarossa). Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (1971) at 165, 169.
↑  Fernand Braudel, La Méditerranée et le Monde Méditerranéen à l'Epoque de Philippe II (Paris: Librairie Armand Colin 1949, 2d ed. 1966), translated as The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (New York: Harper & Row 1973, 1976) at II: 1144–1165. This flexible Spanish attitude continued into the 16th century, e.g., Philip II of Spain (r. 1556–1598) "for his part had always maintained diplomatic relations with the Turks." This Spanish King eventually treated the Ottoman Empire. Braudel at 1143.
↑  Stanford J. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (Cambridge University 1976) at I: 91, 102–103.
↑  More than merely anti-Spain provisions were included in the Franco-Ottoman agreements. France also gained trading privileges in the East and a protectorate over Christian pilgrimage destinations there. Lucien Romier, L'Ancienne France: des Origenes a la Revolution (Paris: Hachette 1948), translated and 'completed' by A.L.Rouse as A History of France (New York: St. Martin's Press 1953) at 198–199.
↑  Cf., Kenneth J. Perkins, Tunisia. Crossroads of the Islamic and European worlds (Boulder: Westview 1986) at 51–52, 53–54.
↑  Abdallah Laroui, L'Histoire du Maghreb: Un essai de synthèse (Paris: Libraire François Maspero 1970), translated as A History of the Maghrib. An interpretive essay (Princeton University 1977) at 250–251. Spain managed a tacit alliance with Sa'did Morocco circa 1549.
↑  The Spanish alliance with Sa'did Morocco was renewed in 1576, and again with Ahmad al-Mansur (1578–1609). Henri Terrasse, Histoire du Maroc (Casablanca: Editions Atlantides 1949–1950), translated as History of Morocco (Atlantides 1952) at 120–124.
↑  Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (1971) at 162–163. However, Prof. Abun-Nasr noted:
↑  Perkins, Tunisia (Westview 1986) at 54.
↑  Henri Terrasse, Histoire du Maroc (Casablanca: Editions Atlantides 1949–1950), translated as History of Morocco (Atlantides 1952) at 120–124. The Ottoman efforts to control Morocco failed when the sultan they backed, although successful in gaining power, quickly entered into a Spanish alliance to counter Turkish designs. Terrasse (1952) at 121.
↑  Thus, Ottoman corsairs were denied use of Morocco's ports on the Atlantic. Later, the English approached Morocco, seeking an anti-Span treaty. Julien, A History of North Africa (Paris 1931, 1961; London 1970) at 230–232, 235.
↑  Piracy was then almost common across the entire Mediterranean, there being both Muslim and Christian corsairs. Fernand Braudel, La Méditerranée et le Monde Méditerranéen à l'Epoque de Philip II (Librairie Armand Colin 1949, 2d ed. 1966), translated by Siân Reynolds as The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (Wm. Collins/Harper & Row 1973, reprint 1976) at II: 865–891.
1 2  Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (1971) at 163.
↑  Arrudj and Khayruddin is the style used by Prof. M. H. Cherif of the Faculté des sciences humaines et sociales, Tunis. Cherif, "Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya", 120–133, at 123, in General History of Africa, volume V (UNESCO 1992, 1999).
↑  The younger but more renowned Khizr [Khidr] received the epithet 'kheireddin' ("gift of God"). Aruj was known to his crew as 'baba Aruj' ("father Aruj"), which might be the origin of the nickname 'Barbarossa'. They were raised Muslim. Their father may have been either a pirate, a renegade, or a janissary, their mother either a Greek priest's daughter or an Andalusian taken captive. Wm. Spencer, Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs (University of Oklahoma 1976) at 17–19. Other Muslim sailors also were attracted by the opportunities in the Maghrib.
↑  There exists a 16th-century anonymous manuscript written in Arabic, Ghazawat 'Aruj wa Khair al-Din, which was translated into French in 1837. Cited by Spencer (1976) at 20–21, 174.
1 2  Julien, History of North Africa (Paris 1931, 1961; London 1970) at 278.
↑  Spencer, Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs (1976) at 18–19.
↑  Spencer, Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs (1976) at 19.
↑  Understandably, the Andalucian Mudéjars and Moriscos expelled from Spain could be "uncompromising in their hatred of the Christians" and often "engaged in piracy against the Christians, especially the Spaniards." Cf., Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (1971) at 238.
↑  Cf., Richard A. Fletcher, Moorish Spain (New York: Henry Holt 1992) at 166–169. The Muslim corsair raids long afflicting Spain's coastal residents led Spaniards to view their Morisco (and Mudéjar) neighbors with suspicion.
↑  Spencer, Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs (1976) at 19–22.
↑  Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (1971) at 163–164.
↑  Julien, History of North Africa (Paris 1931, 1961; London 1970) at 279–280.
↑  Julien, History of North Africa (Paris 1931, 1961; London 1970) at 280–281.
↑  Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (1971) at 164–165.
↑  Abdallah Laroui, The History of the Maghrib (Paris 1970; Princeton 1977) at 249 (italics added).
↑  Rinehart, "Historical Setting," 1–70, at 21–22, in Tunisia. A country study (3d ed., 1986), edited by Nelson. "The Hafsid sultan, Hassan, took refuge in Spain, where he sought the Habsburg king-emperor Charles V's aid to restore him to his throne. Spanish troops and ships recaptured Tunis in 1535 and reinstalled Hassan. Protected by a large Spanish garrison at La Goulette, the harbor of Tunis, the Hafsids became the Muslim ally of Catholic Spain in its struggle with the Turks... ."
↑  R. Trevor Davies, The Golden Century of Spain. 1501–1621 (London: Macmillan 1937; reprint NY: Harper 1961) at 92–102, 105 (versus the Ottomans), 94–97 (Tunis 1535).
↑  Stanford J. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (Cambridge University 1976) at I: 96–97.
↑  Henry Kamen, Empire. How Spain became a world power 1492–1763 (New York: HarperCollins 2003) at 72–74 (Barbarossa escapes).
↑  Abu-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (Cambridge University 1971) at 164–165.
↑  In foreground (by the pictured Ottoman fleet) the Spanish presidio of Goletta (Arb: Halk el Oued [or Halk el Wadi], "Throat of the River"). Behind it lies the Lake of Tunis (Arb: El Bahira). At the top of the drawing, the city of Tunis spreads out in the back of the lake and green fields.
↑  Abdallah Laroui, The History of the Maghrib (Paris 1970; Princeton: 1977) at 251.
↑  Uluj Ali, also spelled Ochiali, was a Christian renegade of Italian (Neapolitan, Calabrian) origin. Later the Ottoman Sultan gave him the name Kilij [Turkish for "sword"] so that he might also be known as Kilij Ali. J.P.D.B.Kinross, The Ottoman Centuries. The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire (New York: Wm. Morrow, Quill 1977) at 271.
↑  Uluj Ali's most commonly used epithet, "Uluj" signifies "renegade." Abdallah Laroui, A History of the Maghrib (Paris 1970; Princeton University 1977) at 251, n.19.
↑  Miguel de Cervantes called Uluj Ali "el Uchalí" in his El Ingenioso Hidalgo Don Quíjote de la Mancha (Madrid: Juan de la Cuesta 1605; reprint Barcelona: Editorial Ramón Sopena 1981), at chapters XXXIX and XL. El Uchalí's escape from the Ottoman defeat at Lepanto in 1571 is mentioned, and his later 1574 capture of Tunis is described by Cervantes, who was once his captive. About el Uchalí the Spanish author writes, "Era calabrés de nación, y moralmente fue hombre de bien, y trataba con mucha humanidad a sus cautivos... ." ["He was Calabrian by birth, and morally a good man, who treated with much humanity his captives... ."] Chapter XL, first page of prose.
↑  Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (Paris 1949, 1966; New York 1973, 1976) at II: 1066–1068. Here Uluj Ali is called Euldj 'Ali.
↑  Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (1971) at 173.
↑  The combined fleets of various Christian powers, including Spain as well as Venice and Genoa, under the leadership of Don Juan de Austria (half-brother of Philip II of Spain) met and defeated the Turkish fleet off the coast of western Greece. Algerian ships under Uluj Ali escaped. J. Beeching, The Galleys at Lepanto (New York: Scribner's 1982) at 184–187, 219, 233–234.
↑  Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (1971) at 177.
↑  Abu-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (Cambridge University 1971) at 169-170.
↑  Robert Rinehart, "Historical Setting" 1–70 at 22, in Tunisia. A country study (Washington, D.C.: American University 3rd ed. 1986), edited by Harold D. Nelson.
↑  Abdallah Laroui, The History of the Maghrib (Paris 1970, Princeton 1977) at 215–223, 227–228.
↑  Cf., Stanford J. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (Cambridge University 1976) at I: 96–97.
↑  Wm. Spencer, Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs (University of Oklahoma 1976) at 47.
↑  Jane Soames Nickerson, A Short History of North Africa. Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco from Pre-Roman days to the present (New York: Devin-Adair 1961) at 72.
↑  Muslim Egypt was conquered by the Ottomans in 1516–1517. The figurehead caliph of Egypt, Mutawekkil, last of the Abbasids, before he died in 1538, bequeathed "his title and rights to the sultan of Turkey." The legitimacy of it has been questioned, but "the sultans of Turkey have been the de facto caliphs of the greater part of orthodox Islam ever since" [i.e., until 1922, 1924]. Stanley Lane-Poole, A History of Egypt in the Middle Ages (London: Methuen 1901) at 355.
↑  Julien, History of North Africa (Paris 1961; London 1970) at 300–301.
↑  Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (Paris: 1949, 1966; New York 1973, 1976) at 1161–1165. Braudel opines that Spain did not walk out on her allies by this treaty, as Spain continued to protect Italy. Braudel at 1165.
↑  During this long back-and-forth contest, the two powerful Empires were also otherwise engaged. The Spanish contended with an ongoing Protestant challenge, including the later Dutch Revolt, with several Muslim insurgencies in Spain, e.g., the Morisco Revolt, and of course, with America. The Ottomans were entangled in intermittent warfare elsewhere, e.g., in Safavid Persia, and in Habsburg Hungary. Cf., Itzkowitz,Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition (University of Chicago 1972) at 66, 68–71.
↑  Julien, History of North Africa (Paris 1961; London 1970) at 280–281, 292, 301–302.
↑  Abun-Nasr, A History of North Africa (1971) at 166, 177–178.
↑  In Turkish, the western provinces were called "Garb-Ojaklari". Bohdan Chudoba, Spain and the Empire. 1519–1643 (University of Chicago 1952) at 66. Cf., Cherif (1992, 1999) at 123: "odjaks of the west".
↑  Julien, History of North Africa (Paris 1961; London 1970) at 301–302.
↑  Spencer, Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs (1976) at 119.
↑  Abun-Nasr, A History of North Africa (1971) at 177–178.
↑  M. H. Cherif, "Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya: The Ottomans and their heirs", 120–133, at 124, in General History of Africa, volume V: Africa from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century (UNESCO 1992, 1999).
↑  Perkins, Tunisia (Westview 1986) at 55–57.
↑  Cherif, "Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya: The Ottomans and their heirs," 120–133, at 126–127, in General History of Africa, vol. V (1992, 1999). Stripped of real power by the military, the Tunisian pasha remained as a symbolic figure representing Ottoman allegiance.
↑  Abun-Nasr, A History of North Africa (1971) at 178–179.
↑  Perkins, Tunisia (Westview 1986) at 56–57.
↑  Glasse, The Concise Encyclopedia of Islam (1989), "Caliph" at 84.
↑  Abun-Nasr, A History of North Africa (1971) at 177–178, quote at 178.
↑  Abun-Nasr, A History of North Africa (Cambridge University 1971) at 178.
↑  Charles-André Julien, History of North Africa (Paris 1931, 1961; London 1970) at 303–305, 304.
↑  Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, A History of North Africa (Cambridge University 1971) at 178–179.
↑  Compare: Kenneth J. Perkins, Tunisia (Westview 1986) at 56–57.
↑  Abun-Nasr, A History of North Africa (1971) at 177–179, quote at 178.
↑  Charles-André Julien, History of North Africa (Paris 1931, 1961; London 1970) at 303–305.
↑  Cf., Perkins, Tunisia (Westview 1986) at 56–57.
↑  Murad Curso's name indicates his Corsican origin ["Curso"]. A Spanish intelligence report in 1568 estimated that there were 10,000 renegades in Algiers, of whom 6,000 were Corsicans. Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II. (1949, 1966, 1973) at I: 159–160.
↑  Laroui, The History of the Maghrib (1970, 1977) at 255–256.
↑  Perkins, Tunisia (Westview 1986) at 56–58, 60.
↑  Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (1971) at 178–180.
↑  Government control over economic wealth was prevalent in the region during the 16th century. See Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World (1949, 1966, 1973) at I: 449–451. This systematic policy in practice laid the foundation for the emergence of Mercantilist economic theory.
↑  Perkins, Tunisia (Westview 1986) at 58–61.
↑  Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1996). "The Husaynid Beys". The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual (באנגלית). Edinburgh University Press. pp. 55–56. ISBN 9780748696482.
↑  Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (Cambridge University 1971) p. 180.
↑  Perkins, Tunisia (Westview 1986) at 61–62.
↑  In Tunisian practice, non-Muslim slave youths were purchased in Ottoman markets, educated with royal scions in high government service and in the Muslim religion, converted, given high echelon posts, and often married to royal daughters. Mamluks would number about 100. Perkins, Tunisia (Westview 1986) at 63.
↑  Cf., Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (1971) at 182–185.
↑  Perkins, Tunisia (Westview 1986) at 62–63, 66.
↑  Perkins, Tunisia (Westview 1986) at 64.
↑  Cf., Julien, History of North Africa (Paris 1931, 1961; London 1970) at 328.
↑  Lucette Valensi, Le Maghreb avant la prise d'Alger (Paris 1969), translated as On the Eve of Colonialism: North Africa before the French conquest (New York: Africana 1977); cited by Perkins (1986) at 67.
↑  Perkins, Tunisia (Westview 1986) at 64–67.
↑  Perkins, Tunisia (Westview 1986) at 42.
↑  Jamil M. Abun-Nasr, History of the Maghrib (Cambridge University 1971) at 278–279, and 353–354.
↑  Perkins, Tunisia (Westview 1986) at 61–67, 85.
↑  Cemal Kafador, Between Two Worlds. The Construction of the Ottoman State (University of California 1995) at 62–90.
↑  Cf., Stanford J. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (Cambridge University 1976) at I: 1–9 (history); 139–143 (literature).
↑  Stories of such intermittent warfare may compare to those of the Spanish medieval frontier, i.e., Al-Andalus, e.g., the 12th-century Poema de Mio Cid (Santiago de Chile: Editorial Zig-Zag 1954, 1972), edited by Juan Luveluk, text established by Menéndez Pidal.
↑  Stanford J. Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (Cambridge University 1976) at I: 103–104, 134–139, 146. Shaw discusses earlier Ottoman law-making at 22–27 and 62.
↑  Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (Cambridge University 1976) at I: 62.
↑  Colin Imber, Ebu's-su'ud. The Islamic legal tradition (Stanford University 1997) at 269. Ebu us-Suud Efendi's legal writings are in both Arabic and Turkish, but his fatwas were in Turkish, which is the language of the elite. Imber (1997) at 14–15.
↑  The state-crafted laws qanun were often ultimately derived from customary usage 'urf. Cf., Shaw, History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey (Cambridge University 1976) at I: 22.
↑  Turkish was written in an Arabic script and incorporated words borrowed from Arabic and Persian. "634 words of Turkish origin [are] used today in Algeria." Spencer, Algier in the Age of the Corsairs (1976) at 70. The street lingua franca known as 'Franco' or 'Sabir' (from Spanish saber, "to know") combined Arabic, Spanish, Turkish, Italian, and Provençal. Ibid.
↑  Najib Ullah, Islamic Literature (New York: Washington Square 1963) at xi–xii. "Each of the three languages of the Islamic world belongs to a different language group. Turkish is a Ural-Altaic language." Ullah (1963) at 370.
↑  Cf., Wayne S. Vucinich, The Ottoman Empire: Its record and legacy (Princeton: C. Van Nostrand 1965) at 70–73.
↑  Vucinich, The Ottoman Empire (1965) at 76–77, 65–66, 122–123. Coffee derived from Turkish Yemen, ultimately from Ethiopia.
↑  Perkins, Tunisia (Westview 1986) at 55 (quotation).
↑  M. H. Cherif, "Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya: the Ottomans and their heirs" 120–133, at 124, in General History of Africa, Volume V (UNESCO 1992, 1999), edited by B. A. Ogot.
↑  Perkins, Tunisia (Westview 1986) at 55–56.
↑  Abdallah Laroui, The History of the Maghrib (Paris 1970, Princeton 1977) at 252–253.
↑  Cf., Perkins, Tunisia (Westview 1986) at 169.
↑  Abun-Nasr, A History of North Africa (1971) at 177.
↑  Perkins, Tunisia (Westview 1986) at 56.
↑  The janissaries probably originated in the preexisting Ghulam practice of the Abbasids, which was then adopted by the Seljuk Turks, and later by the Ottomans. It began with the treatment of captured enemy soldiers. "A Ghulam was a slave highly trained for service in the ruler's palace and state structure." Eventually, instead of captured enemy soldiers, the recruits were taken from the levy on children of Christian subjects. Norman Itzkowitz, Ottoman Empire and Islamic Tradition (University of Chicago 1972) at 49.
↑  J. Spencer Trimingham, The Sufi Orders in Islam (Oxford University 1971) at 68, 80–83.
↑  Wayne S. Vucinich, The Ottoman Empire: Its record and legacy (Princeton: C. Van Nostrand 1965) at 30–33, 135–138, quotations herein are found at 137 and 138 (taken from Panzer). Vucinich at 135–138 provides a descriptive excerpt on the Janissaries taken from N. M. Penzer, The Harem (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, n.d.) at 89–93; the full title of Penzer's book being The Harem. An account of the institution as it existed in the Palace of the Turkish Sultans with a history of the Grand Seraglio from its foundation to modern times (London: George P. Harrap 1936); reprints, e.g., Dorset 1993; Dover 2005. The Palace being the Topkapi in Istanbul.
↑  Julien, History of North Africa (Paris 1931, 1961; London 1970) at 284.
↑  Cf., Spencer, Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs (1976) at 21–22. The janissary ruling class in Algiers was strictly organized to retain power in their hands alone. Spencer here describes an aspect of their government leadership:
↑  Abun-Nasr, A History of the Maghrib (Cambridge University 1971) at 166–167.
↑  Cf., Charles-André Julien, History of North Africa (Paris 1931, 1961; London 1970) at 284–285.
↑  William Spencer, Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs (University of Oklahoma 1976) at 46.
↑  The certificate the pirate lacks is the Letter of marque (in European law) issued by a sovereign state which here grants the recipient limited right to capture a specified class of vessels. Cf., Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II (Paris 1949, 1966; New York 1973, 1976) at 866–868.
↑  The word corsair evidently derives from Italian: il corso or "the course", a reference to the act of running down a merchant ship to capture it. Cf., Spencer, Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs (1976) at 46.
↑  Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World during the Age of Philip II (Paris 1949, 1966; New York 1973) at 870, 877–891.
↑  Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World during the Age of Philip II (Paris 1949, 1966; New York 1973) at 873. Later, in the 17th century, Protestant renegades (Dutch and English) assisted Algiers in acquiring pirate vessels capable of striking merchant ships in the Atlantic. Braudel (1973) at 884–885
↑  Perkins, Tunisia (Westview 1986) at 50–51 (1550s), 56 (mid-16th), 59 (late 17th), 64 (1819).
↑  Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World during the Age of Philip II (Paris 1949, 1966; New York 1973) at 873.
↑  The U.S.A. also then became involved in various negotiations, and its Navy with suppression activities along the Barbary coast, chiefly against Tripoli and against Algiers. Clark, Stevens, Alden, Krafft, A Short History of the United States Navy (Philadelphia: Lippincott 1910; Alden's revised edition 1927) at 43 (1793), 61–92 (1800–1805), 204–206 (1807, 1812–1815); 61, 206 (treaties with Tunis mentioned).
↑  Cf., William Spencer, Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs (1976) at 46, 47, et sequentia.
↑  Abdullah Laroui voices the common complaint that, in light of their importance, too often too much is made of the Barbary Corsairs. Larouri, The History of the Maghrib (Paris 1970; Princeton 1977), e.g., at 244.
↑  Spencer, Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs (University of Oklahoma 1976) at 47–48.
↑  Cf., Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World during the Age of Philip II (Paris 1949, 1966; New York 1973) at 884, which describes the foreign population (the source of renegade crews) in 16th-century Algiers, and a brief view of the city's business life, it is dependent on corsair activity.
↑  Spencer, Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs (University of Oklahoma 1976) at 48–49.
↑  Spencer, Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs (University of Oklahoma 1976) at 48.
↑  Spencer, Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs (University of Oklahoma 1976) at 49–50.
↑  Ellen G. Friedman, Spanish Captives in North Africa in the Early Modern Age (University of Wisconsin 1983), "Part 3. The Redemption" at 105–164. The Trinitarians (founded 1201) and the Mercedarians (founded 1218) (Sp: merced, "favor, grace, mercy") were two prominent religious orders, among others—Friedman (1983) at 106.
↑  Employed mostly in hard and difficult work (e.g., rowing oars in galleys [at 63–65], mining [at 65–66], and general slave labor [67–68]). A few managed better positions (trades, even management) [69–70]; wealthy captives might offer bribes [70–71]. Ellen G. Friedman, Spanish Captives in North Africa in the Early Modern Age (University of Wisconsin 1983).
↑  Ellen G. Friedman, Spanish Captives in North Africa in the Early Modern Age (University of Wisconsin 1983). Captive prisoners might enjoy "exceptional" religious privileges [at 77–90], including churches and liturgies, although sometimes the permitted clergy were subjected to retaliation for reports of anti-Muslim actions in Spain [at 87–88]. Later, the Trinitarian Order set up hospitals to care for the sick and dying [at 91–102]. In 1620, the Spanish founded a hospital with the help of the ruling Bey of Tunis [at 101–102]. Ellen G. Friedman, Spanish Captives in North Africa in the Early Modern Age (University of Wisconsin 1983).
↑  Spencer, Algiers in the Age of the Corsairs (University of Oklahoma 1976) at 50, 127.
↑  Julien, History of North Africa (Paris 1931, 1961; London 1970) at 308. "Important though piracy was to the economy of Tunis, it never acquired such exclusive importance as at Algiers." Julien (1970) at 308. Slave markets, where mute human captives are auctioned, now appear inherently indecent, whether in the East or the West.
↑  Jane Soames Nickerson, A Short History of North Africa (1961) at 86: "The capture of Christian ships and the enslavement of Christian crews was not only a profitable enterprise but also a holy war against the infidel who had driven the Moors out of Spain."
1 2 3 4 5  Bloom, Jonathan M. (2020). Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300218701.
↑  "Faiencetiles". The National Bardo Museum. ארכיון מ-2022-01-12. נבדק ב-2022-01-12.
↑  Binous, Jamila; Baklouti, Naceur; Ben Tanfous, Aziza; Bouteraa, Kadri; Rammah, Mourad; Zouari, Ali (2002). Ifriqiya: Thirteen Centuries of Art and Architecture in Tunisia (2nd ed.). Museum With No Frontiers, MWNF. ISBN 9783902782199.
אורוץ' (בערך 1474–1518), הבכור לבית ברברוסה
האימפריה העות'מאנית מ-1299 עד 1683, שנת המצור השני שלהם על וינה .
ח'יר א-דין פאשה (1483–1546 לערך), ברברוסה הצעיר
הצעדה על תוניס ב-1569 על ידי Uluç Ali : 5,000 יניצ'רים, בליווי חיילים קבילים.
לכידת תוניס מאת Uluj Ali, 1574.
מפה של תוניסיה העות'מאנית
מספר סיפורים (מדאה) בבית קפה באימפריה העות'מאנית.
יניצ'רי (המאה ה-15), מתואר ברישום של ג'נטילה בליני מוונציה.
מנהיג הפיראטים הברברי, אורוץ', עולה על גליאה.
כופר של נוצרים שנשבו על ידי הברברים במהלך המאה ה-17.
מתחם מסגד יוסף דאי בתוניס (1614–1639 לערך), עם מאוזוליאום וצריח גלויים
לוח אריחי קללין במוזיאון בארדו (המאה ה-18)