מערכת השמיעה
הערות שוליים

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11  N.R. Carlson, Physiology of Behavior, 8th ed. (Allyn & Bacon 2004). pages 203-218
1 2 3 4 5 6  י. גושן-גוטשטיין, ד. זכאי, נ. גרונאו, פסיכולוגיה קוגניטיבית, האוניברסיטה הפתוחה (2002). כרך ב' עמודים 141.
1 2 3  Fettiplace, R., & Hackney, C. M. (2006). The sensory and motor roles of auditory hair cells. Nature reviews neuroscience, 7(1), 19-29.
↑  Schwander, M., Kachar, B., & Müller, U. (2010). Review series: The cell biology of hearing. The Journal of cell biology, 190(1), 9.
1 2 3 4  Peelle, J. E., & Wingfield, A. (2016). The neural consequences of age-related hearing loss. Trends in neurosciences, 39(7), 486-497.
↑  Ashmore J. 2008. Cochlear outer hair cell mobility. Physiol Rev 88: 173–210.
↑  Nam JH, Fettiplace R. 2010. Force transmission in the organ of Corti micromachine. Biophys J 98: 2813–2821.
↑  Kiang, N. Y. S. (1965). Stimulus coding in the auditory nerve and cochlear nucleus. Acta Oto-Laryngologica, 59(2-6), 186-200.
↑  Pijl, S., & Schwarz, D. W. (1995). Melody recognition and musical interval perception by deaf subjects stimulated with electrical pulse trains through single cochlear implant electrodes. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 98(2), 886-895.
↑  Pijl, S., & Schwarz, D. W. (1995). Intonation of musical intervals by musical intervals by deaf subjects stimulated with single bipolar cochlear implant electrodes. Hearing Research, 89(1-2), 203-211.
↑  Brown, C. H., Beecher, M. D., Moody, D. B., & Stebbins, W. C. (1978). Localization of pure tones by Old World monkeys. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 63(5), 1484-1492.
↑  Perrott, D. R., & Saberi, K. (1990). Minimum audible angle thresholds for sources varying in both elevation and azimuth. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 87(4), 1728-1731.
↑  Oxenham, A. J., Oxenham, A. J., Plack, C. J., Popper, A. N., & Fay, R. R. (2005). Pitch: neural coding and perception.
↑  Tomlinson, R. W., & Schwarz, D. W. (1988). Perception of the missing fundamental in nonhuman primates. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 84(2), 560-565.
↑  Cynx, J., & Shapiro, M. (1986). Perception of missing fundamental by a species of songbird (Sturnus vulgaris). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 100(4), 356.
↑  Heffner, H., & Whitfield, I. C. (1976). Perception of the missing fundamental by cats. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 59(4), 915-919.
↑  Webster, D. B., & Fay, R. R. (Eds.). (2013). The mammalian auditory pathway: neuroanatomy (Vol. 1). Springer Science & Business Media.
↑  Srinivasan, S., Keil, A., Stratis, K., Carr, K. W., & Smith, D. W. (2012). Effects of cross-modal selective attention on the sensory periphery: cochlear sensitivity is altered by selective attention. Neuroscience, 223, 325-332.
↑  Lakatos, P., Musacchia, G., O’Connel, M. N., Falchier, A. Y., Javitt, D. C., & Schroeder, C. E. (2013). The spectrotemporal filter mechanism of auditory selective attention. Neuron, 77(4), 750-761.
1 2  Da Costa, S., van der Zwaag, W., Marques, J. P., Frackowiak, R. S., Clarke, S., & Saenz, M. (2011). Human primary auditory cortex follows the shape of Heschl's gyrus. Journal of Neuroscience, 31(40), 14067-14075.
1 2  Bendor, D., & Wang, X. (2006). Cortical representations of pitch in monkeys and humans. Current opinion in neurobiology, 16(4), 391-399.
↑  Rauschecker, J. P., & Tian, B. (2000). Mechanisms and streams for processing of “what” and “where” in auditory cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 97(22), 11800-11806.
1 2  Terao, Y., Mizuno, T., Shindoh, M., Sakurai, Y., Ugawa, Y., Kobayashi, S., ... & Mochizuki, H. (2006). Vocal amusia in a professional tango singer due to a right superior temporal cortex infarction. Neuropsychologia, 44(3), 479-488.
↑  Lomber, S. G., & Malhotra, S. (2008). Double dissociation of'what'and'where'processing in auditory cortex. Nature neuroscience, 11(5), 609.
↑  Poliva, O. (2015). From where to what: A neuroanatomically based evolutionary model of the emergence of speech in humans. F1000Research, 4, 67.
↑  Klinge, C., Eippert, F., Röder, B., & Büchel, C. (2010). Corticocortical connections mediate primary visual cortex responses to auditory stimulation in the blind. Journal of Neuroscience, 30(38), 12798-12805.
↑  Schneider, P., Scherg, M., Dosch, H. G., Specht, H. J., Gutschalk, A., & Rupp, A. (2002). Morphology of Heschl's gyrus reflects enhanced activation in the auditory cortex of musicians. Nature neuroscience, 5(7), 688-694.
↑  Steinbeis, N., Koelsch, S., & Sloboda, J. A. (2006). The role of harmonic expectancy violations in musical emotions: Evidence from subjective, physiological, and neural responses. Journal of cognitive neuroscience, 18(8), 1380-1393.
↑  Deouell, L. Y. (2007). The frontal generator of the mismatch negativity revisited. Journal of Psychophysiology, 21(3-4), 188-203.
↑  ראו שיטות ב-Rubin, J., Ulanovsky, N., Nelken, I., & Tishby, N. (2016). The representation of prediction error in auditory cortex. PLoS computational biology, 12(8), e1005058.
↑  Escera, C., & Corral, M. J. (2007). Role of mismatch negativity and novelty-P3 in involuntary auditory attention. Journal of Psychophysiology, 21(3-4), 251-264.
↑  Garrido, M. I., Friston, K. J., Kiebel, S. J., Stephan, K. E., Baldeweg, T., & Kilner, J. M. (2008). The functional anatomy of the MMN: a DCM study of the roving paradigm. Neuroimage, 42(2), 936-944.
↑  Näätänen, R., Paavilainen, P., Rinne, T., & Alho, K. (2007). The mismatch negativity (MMN) in basic research of central auditory processing: a review. Clinical neurophysiology, 118(12), 2544-2590.
↑  Winkler, I. (2007). Interpreting the mismatch negativity. Journal of Psychophysiology, 21(3-4), 147-163.
↑  Parras, G. G., Nieto-Diego, J., Carbajal, G. V., Valdés-Baizabal, C., Escera, C., & Malmierca, M. S. (2017). Neurons along the auditory pathway exhibit a hierarchical organization of prediction error. Nature communications, 8(1), 2148.
↑  Näätänen, R., Paavilainen, P., Titinen, H., Jiang, D., & Alho, K. (1993). Attention and mismatch negativity. Psychophysiology, 30(5), 436-450.
1 2 3 4  Bekinschtein, T. A., Dehaene, S., Rohaut, B., Tadel, F., Cohen, L., & Naccache, L. (2009). Neural signature of the conscious processing of auditory regularities. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(5), 1672-1677.
↑  Brandmeyer, A., Sadakata, M., Spyrou, L., McQueen, J. M., & Desain, P. (2013). Decoding of single-trial auditory mismatch responses for online perceptual monitoring and neurofeedback. Frontiers in neuroscience, 7, 265.
↑  Dürschmid, S., Reichert, C., Hinrichs, H., Heinze, H. J., Kirsch, H. E., Knight, R. T., & Deouell, L. Y. (2019). Direct evidence for prediction signals in frontal cortex independent of prediction error. Cerebral Cortex, 29(11), 4530-4538.
1 2  Salimpoor, V. N., Benovoy, M., Longo, G., Cooperstock, J. R., & Zatorre, R. J. (2009). The rewarding aspects of music listening are related to degree of emotional arousal. PloS one, 4(10), e7487.
↑  Guhn, M., Hamm, A., & Zentner, M. (2007). Physiological and musico-acoustic correlates of the chill response. Music Perception, 24(5), 473-484.
↑  Poeppel, D., Emmorey, K., Hickok, G., & Pylkkänen, L. (2012). Towards a new neurobiology of language. Journal of Neuroscience, 32(41), 14125-14131.
↑  Peelle, J. E., & Davis, M. H. (2012). Neural oscillations carry speech rhythm through to comprehension. Frontiers in psychology, 3, 320.
↑  Rimmele, J. M., Golumbic, E. Z., Schröger, E., & Poeppel, D. (2015). The effects of selective attention and speech acoustics on neural speech-tracking in a multi-talker scene. Cortex, 68, 144-154.
↑  Golumbic, E. M. Z., Ding, N., Bickel, S., Lakatos, P., Schevon, C. A., McKhann, G. M., ... & Poeppel, D. (2013). Mechanisms underlying selective neuronal tracking of attended speech at a “cocktail party”. Neuron, 77(5), 980-991.
↑  Davis, M. H., & Johnsrude, I. S. (2007). Hearing speech sounds: top-down influences on the interface between audition and speech perception. Hearing research, 229(1-2), 132-147.
↑  Maqbool, M., & Maqbool, S. (2013). Textbook of Ear, Nose and Throat Diseases. JP Medical Ltd.
↑  Kumar, S., Sedley, W., Barnes, G. R., Teki, S., Friston, K. J., & Griffiths, T. D. (2014). A brain basis for musical hallucinations. Cortex, 52, 86-97.
↑  Lanting, C. P., De Kleine, E., & Van Dijk, P. (2009). Neural activity underlying tinnitus generation: results from PET and fMRI. Hearing research, 255(1-2), 1-13.
↑  Ropper, A. H., Adams, R., Victor, M., & Samuels, M. A. (2005). Adams and Victor's principles of neurology. McGraw Hill Medical,. Chapter 1
↑  Anderson, S., Parbery-Clark, A., White-Schwoch, T., & Kraus, N. (2012). Aging affects neural precision of speech encoding. Journal of Neuroscience, 32(41), 14156-14164.
↑  Cruickshanks, K. J., Wiley, T. L., Tweed, T. S., Klein, B. E., Klein, R., Mares-Perlman, J. A., & Nondahl, D. M. (1998). Prevalence of hearing loss in older adults in Beaver Dam, Wisconsin: The epidemiology of hearing loss study. American journal of epidemiology, 148(9), 879-886.
↑  Plack, C. J., Barker, D., & Prendergast, G. (2014). Perceptual consequences of “hidden” hearing loss. Trends in hearing, 18, 2331216514550621.
↑  Fellinger, J., Holzinger, D., Gerich, J., & Goldberg, D. (2007). Mental distress and quality of life in the hard of hearing. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 115(3), 243-245.
↑  Gates, G. A., & Mills, J. H. (2005). Presbycusis. The lancet, 366(9491), 1111-1120.
↑  Humes, L. E., Kewley-Port, D., Fogerty, D., & Kinney, D. (2010). Measures of hearing threshold and temporal processing across the adult lifespan. Hearing research, 264(1-2), 30-40.
↑  Kujawa, S. G., & Liberman, M. C. (2009). Adding insult to injury: cochlear nerve degeneration after “temporary” noise-induced hearing loss. Journal of Neuroscience, 29(45), 14077-14085.
↑  Sergeyenko, Y., Lall, K., Liberman, M. C., & Kujawa, S. G. (2013). Age-related cochlear synaptopathy: an early-onset contributor to auditory functional decline. Journal of Neuroscience, 33(34), 13686-13694.
↑  Kujawa, S. G., & Liberman, M. C. (2015). Synaptopathy in the noise-exposed and aging cochlea: Primary neural degeneration in acquired sensorineural hearing loss. Hearing research, 330, 191-199.
↑  Bao, J., & Ohlemiller, K. K. (2010). Age-related loss of spiral ganglion neurons. Hearing research, 264(1-2), 93-97.
↑  Gray, D. T., Engle, J. R., & Recanzone, G. H. (2014). Age‐related neurochemical changes in the rhesus macaque cochlear nucleus. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 522(7), 1527-1541.
↑  Engle, J. R., Gray, D. T., Turner, H., Udell, J. B., & Recanzone, G. H. (2014). Age-related neurochemical changes in the rhesus macaque inferior colliculus. Frontiers in aging neuroscience, 6, 73.
↑  Caspary, D. M., Ling, L., Turner, J. G., & Hughes, L. F. (2008). Inhibitory neurotransmission, plasticity and aging in the mammalian central auditory system. Journal of Experimental Biology, 211(11), 1781-1791.
↑  Walton, J. P., Simon, H., & Frisina, R. D. (2002). Age-related alterations in the neural coding of envelope periodicities. Journal of neurophysiology, 88(2), 565-578.
↑  Strouse, A., Ashmead, D. H., Ohde, R. N., & Grantham, D. W. (1998). Temporal processing in the aging auditory system. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 104(4), 2385-2399.
↑  Schneider, B. A., Pichora‐Fuller, M. K., Kowalchuk, D., & Lamb, M. (1994). Gap detection and the precedence effect in young and old adults. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 95(2), 980-991.
↑  Walton, J. P. (2010). Timing is everything: temporal processing deficits in the aged auditory brainstem. Hearing research, 264(1-2), 63-69.
↑  Pichora-Fuller, M. K., & Souza, P. E. (2003). Effects of aging on auditory processing of speech. International journal of audiology.
↑  Gordon-Salant, S., Yeni-Komshian, G. H., Fitzgibbons, P. J., & Barrett, J. (2006). Age-related differences in identification and discrimination of temporal cues in speech segments. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 119(4), 2455-2466.
↑  Skoe, E., Krizman, J., Anderson, S., & Kraus, N. (2015). Stability and plasticity of auditory brainstem function across the lifespan. Cerebral Cortex, 25(6), 1415-1426.
↑  Ng, C. W., Navarro, X., Engle, J. R., & Recanzone, G. H. (2015). Age-related changes of auditory brainstem responses in nonhuman primates. Journal of neurophysiology, 114(1), 455-467.
↑  Burianova, J., Ouda, L., Profant, O., & Syka, J. (2009). Age-related changes in GAD levels in the central auditory system of the rat. Experimental gerontology, 44(3), 161-169.
↑  Ling, L. L., Hughes, L. F., & Caspary, D. M. (2005). Age-related loss of the GABA synthetic enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase in rat primary auditory cortex. Neuroscience, 132(4), 1103-1113.
↑  Profant, O., Balogová, Z., Dezortová, M., Wagnerová, D., Hájek, M., & Syka, J. (2013). Metabolic changes in the auditory cortex in presbycusis demonstrated by MR spectroscopy. Experimental gerontology, 48(8), 795-800.
↑  Gao, F., Wang, G., Ma, W., Ren, F., Li, M., Dong, Y., ... & Edden, R. A. (2015). Decreased auditory GABA+ concentrations in presbycusis demonstrated by edited magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Neuroimage, 106, 311-316.
↑  Turner, J. G., Hughes, L. F., & Caspary, D. M. (2005). Affects of aging on receptive fields in rat primary auditory cortex layer V neurons. Journal of neurophysiology, 94(4), 2738-2747.
↑  Hughes, L. F., Turner, J. G., Parrish, J. L., & Caspary, D. M. (2010). Processing of broadband stimuli across A1 layers in young and aged rats. Hearing research, 264(1-2), 79-85.
1 2  Vaden, K. I., Kuchinsky, S. E., Ahlstrom, J. B., Dubno, J. R., & Eckert, M. A. (2015). Cortical activity predicts which older adults recognize speech in noise and when. Journal of Neuroscience, 35(9), 3929-3937.
↑  Benichov, J., Cox, L. C., Tun, P. A., & Wingfield, A. (2012). Word recognition within a linguistic context: Effects of age, hearing acuity, verbal ability and cognitive function. Ear and Hearing, 32(2), 250.
↑  Lash, A., Rogers, C. S., Zoller, A., & Wingfield, A. (2013). Expectation and entropy in spoken word recognition: Effects of age and hearing acuity. Experimental Aging Research, 39(3), 235-253.
↑  DeCaro, R., Peelle, J. E., Grossman, M., & Wingfield, A. (2016). The two sides of sensory–cognitive interactions: Effects of age, hearing acuity, and working memory span on sentence comprehension. Frontiers in psychology, 7, 236.
↑  Wild, C. J., Yusuf, A., Wilson, D. E., Peelle, J. E., Davis, M. H., & Johnsrude, I. S. (2012). Effortful listening: the processing of degraded speech depends critically on attention. Journal of Neuroscience, 32(40), 14010-14021.
↑  Vaden, K. I., Kuchinsky, S. E., Cute, S. L., Ahlstrom, J. B., Dubno, J. R., & Eckert, M. A. (2013). The cingulo-opercular network provides word-recognition benefit. Journal of Neuroscience, 33(48), 18979-18986.
↑  Rönnberg, J., Lunner, T., Zekveld, A., Sörqvist, P., Danielsson, H., Lyxell, B., ... & Rudner, M. (2013). The Ease of Language Understanding (ELU) model: theoretical, empirical, and clinical advances. Frontiers in systems neuroscience, 7, 31.
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בקרת זהויות :  NLI: 987007295860405171  GND: 4279655-6  LCCN: sh85009495 
אנימציה הממחישה את ההתקדמות של גל קול במרחב

מבנה סכמטי של האוזן הפנימית
מנגנון פירוק צליל טהור בתדר גבוה
תרשים סכמטי המסכם את מסלול העברת המידע השמיעתי מהשבלול
איור המתאר את המפות הטונוטופיות במוח האנושי.
תרשים סכמטי של מסלולי העיבוד השמיעתיים בקורטקס השמיעתי האסוציאטיבי מסלול ה"מה?" ומסלול ה"איפה?" באדם (מימין) ובקוף (משמאל).
מדדים פיזיולוגים שנמדדו כאשר נבדקים שמעו מוזיקה שעוררה בהם צמרמורת. מרווח הזמן שבהם הופיעה הצמרמורת צבוע באדום, וניתן לראות כ דפוס הפעילות במדדים השונים במרווח זמן זה הוא שונה.
קולן מוצמד לראשה של נבדקת במסגרת מבחן ובר.
בתמונה זו ניתן לראות את ההבדלים בפעילות מערכת השמיעה בזקנה (בשחור) ובצעירות (באדום). למעלה מוצגת אודיוגרמה בה ניתן לראות הבדלים בעוצמת הסף המובילה לשמיעה, בתדרים שונים. ניתן להבחין בתמונה זו כי ההבדל העיקרי נמצא בתדרים הגבוהים. למטה בימין ניתן לראות תגובות גזע המוח לגירוי שמיעתי, כאשר אצל האוכלוסייה המבוגרת ניתן להבחין בהחלשת התנודות.
בתמונה ניתן לראות את פעילות הרשת הסינגולו-אופרקולרית אצל נבדקים מבוגרים שהושמעו להם קטעי דיבור בעלי איכות אקוסטית ירודה.