התפשטות מוקדמת של הומינינים אל מחוץ לאפריקה
הערות שוליים

↑  The term "Out of Africa I" is informal and somewhat rare.
The phrase Out of Africa used on its own generally refers to "Out of Africa II", the expansion of anatomically modern humans into Eurasia.
"Out of Africa I" is used in 2004, in Marco Langbroek,  'Out of Africa': an investigation into the earliest occupation of the Old World, p. 61,
and as the title of a collection of essays, J. G. Fleagle et al. (eds.), Out of Africa I: The First Hominin Colonization of Eurasia (2010).
see also: Herschkovitz, Israel;  et al. (26 בינואר 2018). "The earliest modern humans outside Africa". Science. 359 (6374): 456–459. Bibcode:2018Sci...359..456H. doi:10.1126/science.aap8369. PMID 29371468. {{cite journal}}:  (עזרה);
Hurtley, Stella; Szuromi, Phil (2005). "Out of Africa Revisited". Science. 308 (5724): 922. doi:10.1126/science.308.5724.921g.
1 2 3  Zhu Zhaoyu (朱照宇); Dennell, Robin; Huang Weiwen (黄慰文); Wu Yi (吴翼); Qiu Shifan (邱世藩); Yang Shixia (杨石霞); Rao Zhiguo (饶志国); Hou Yamei (侯亚梅); Xie Jiubing (谢久兵); Han Jiangwei (韩江伟); Ouyang Tingping (欧阳婷萍) (2018). "Hominin occupation of the Chinese Loess Plateau since about 2.1 million years ago". Nature. 559 (7715): 608–612. Bibcode:2018Natur.559..608Z. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0299-4. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 29995848.
"Eight major magnetozones are recorded in the Shangchen section, four of which have normal polarity (N1 to N4) and four of
which have reversed polarity (R1 to R4). By comparison with the geomagnetic polarity timescale [...] magnetozone N4 corresponds to the Réunion excursion (2.13–2.15 Ma) in L28."
1 2 3  Bar-Yosef, O.; Belfer-Cohen, A. (2001). "From Africa to Eurasia – early dispersals". Quaternary International. 75 (1): 19–28. Bibcode:2001QuInt..75...19B. doi:10.1016/S1040-6182(00)00074-4.
1 2 3 4  Lahr, M. M. (2010). "Saharan Corridors and Their Role in the Evolutionary Geography of 'Out of Africa I'".  In Baden, A.;  et al. (eds.). Out of Africa I: The First Hominin Colonization of Eurasia. Springer Netherlands. pp. 27–46. ISBN 978-9048190355.
1 2  Straus, L. G.; Bar-Yosef, O. (2001). "Out of Africa in the Pleistocene: an introduction". Quaternary International. 75 (1): 2–4. Bibcode:2001QuInt..75....1S. doi:10.1016/s1040-6182(00)00071-9.
↑  Gierliński, Gerard D.; Niedźwiedzki, Grzegorz; Lockley, Martin G.; Athanassiou, Athanassios; Fassoulas, Charalampos; Dubicka, Zofia; Boczarowski, Andrzej; Bennett, Matthew R.; Ahlberg, Per Erik (2017-10-01). "Possible hominin footprints from the late Miocene (c. 5.7 Ma) of Crete?". Proceedings of the Geologists' Association (באנגלית). 128 (5): 697–710. doi:10.1016/j.pgeola.2017.07.006. ISSN 0016-7878.
↑  Semaw, S (2000). "The World's Oldest Stone Artefacts from Gona, Ethiopia: Their Implications for Understanding Stone Technology and Patterns of Human Evolution Between 2·6–1·5 Million Years Ago". Journal of Archaeological Science. 27 (12): 1197–1214. doi:10.1006/jasc.1999.0592.
↑  Van Arsdale, A. P. (2013). "Homo erectus – A Bigger, Smarter, Faster Hominin Lineage". Nature Education Knowledge. 4 (1): 2.
↑  Spoor, F.; Leakey, M. G.; Gathogo, P. N.; Brown, F. H.; Antón, S. C.; McDougall, I.; Leakey, L. N. (2007). "Implications of new early Homo fossils from Ileret, east of Lake Turkana, Kenya". Nature. 448 (7154): 688–691. Bibcode:2007Natur.448..688S. doi:10.1038/nature05986. PMID 17687323.
↑  1.85-1.78 Ma 95% CI. Ferring, R.; Oms, O.; Agusti, J.; Berna, F.; Nioradze, M.; Shelia, T.; Tappen, M.; Vekua, A.; Zhvania, D.; Lordkipanidze, D. (2011). "Earliest human occupations at Dmanisi (Georgian Caucasus) dated to 1.85-1.78 Ma". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (26): 10432–10436. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10810432F. doi:10.1073/pnas.1106638108. PMC 3127884. PMID 21646521.
↑  Garcia, T.; Féraud, G.; Falguères, C.; de Lumley, H.; Perrenoud, C.; Lordkipanidze, D. (2010). "Earliest human remains in Eurasia: New 40Ar/39Ar dating of the Dmanisi hominid-bearing levels, Georgia". Quaternary Geochronology. 5 (4): 443–451. doi:10.1016/j.quageo.2009.09.012.
↑  Bauer, H. R. (1977). "Chimpanzee Bipedal Locomotion in the Gombe National Park, East Africa". Primates. 18 (4): 913–921. doi:10.1007/bf02382940.
↑  Kimbel, William H.; Villmoare, Brian (2016). "From Australopithecus to Homo: the transition that wasn't". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 371 (1698): 20150248. doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0248. PMC 4920303. PMID 27298460.
↑  Sahnouni, M.; Hadjois, D.; van der Made, J.; Derradji, A. Canals; Medig, M.; Belahrech, H.; Harichane, Z.; Rabhi, M. (2002). "Further research at the Oldowan site of Ain Hanech, North-eastern Algeria". Journal of Human Evolution. 43 (6): 925–937. doi:10.1006/jhev.2002.0608. PMID 12473489.
↑  Geraads, D.; Raynal, J.-P.; Eisenmann, V. (2004). "The earliest occupation of North Africa: a reply to Sahnouni et al. (2002)". Journal of Human Evolution. 46 (6): 751–761. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.01.008. PMID 15183674.
↑  Rightmire, G. P. (2001). "Patterns of hominid evolution and dispersal in the Middle Pleistocene". Quaternary International. 75 (1): 77–84. Bibcode:2001QuInt..75...77R. doi:10.1016/S1040-6182(00)00079-3.
↑  Ferring, R.; Oms, O.; Agusti, J.; Berna, F.; Nioradze, M.; Shelia, T.; Tappen, M.; Vekua, A.; Zhvania, D.; Lordkipanidze, D. (2011). "Earliest human occupations at Dmanisi (Georgian Caucasus) dated to 1.85-1.78 Ma". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 108 (26): 10432–10436. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10810432F. doi:10.1073/pnas.1106638108. PMC 3127884. PMID 21646521.
↑  Augusti, Jordi; Lordkipanidze, David (ביוני 2011). "How "African" was the early human dispersal out of Africa?". Quaternary Science Reviews. 30 (11–12): 1338–1342. Bibcode:2011QSRv...30.1338A. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.04.012. {{cite journal}}:  (עזרה)
1 2  Toro-Moyano, I.; Martínez-Navarro, B.; Agustí, J.; Souday, C.; de Castro, Bermúdez; Martinón-Torres, M.; Palmqvist, P. (2013). "The oldest human fossil in Europe, from Orce (Spain)". Journal of Human Evolution. 65 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.01.012. PMID 23481345.
1 2  Arzarello, M.; Marcolini, F.; Pavia, G.; Pavia, M.; Petronio, C.; Petrucci, M.; Sardella, R. (2007). "Evidence of earliest human occurrence in Europe: the site of Pirro Nord (Southern Italy)". Die Naturwissenschaften. 94 (2): 107–112. Bibcode:2007NW.....94..107A. doi:10.1007/s00114-006-0173-3. PMID 17061119.
1 2  Croitor, Roman (2018). "Paleobiogeography of early human dispersal in western Eurasia: Preliminary results". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 17 (4–5): 276–286. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2017.09.004.
↑  Croitor, Roman (2018). "A Description of Two New Species of the Genus Rucervus (Cervidae, Mammalia) from the Early Pleistocene of Southeast Europe, with Comments on Hominin and South Asian Ruminants Dispersals". Quaternary. 1 (2): 17. doi:10.3390/quat1020017.
↑  the northernmost
known Middle Pleistocene site is Whithlingham, at 52.6° N.
Mourre, V., Implications culturelles de la technologie des hachereaux, doctoral thesis, Université de Paris X – Nanterre (2003) Fig. 48 (p. 115).
1 2  Martínez-Navarro, B.; Belmaker, M.; Bar-Yosef, O. (2009). "The large carnivores from 'Ubeidiya (early Pleistocene, Israel): biochronological and biogeographical implications". Journal of Human Evolution. 56 (5): 514–524. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2009.02.004. PMID 19427671.
↑  Bednarik, R. G. (2001). "Replicating the first known sea travel by humans: the Lower Pleistocene crossing of Lombok Strait". Journal of Human Evolution. 16 (3): 229–242. doi:10.1007/bf02437414.
1 2  Callaway, Ewan (7 ביוני 2017). "Oldest Homo sapiens fossil claim rewrites our species' history". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2017.22114. נבדק ב-11 ביוני 2017. {{cite journal}}:  (עזרה)
Posth, Cosimo;  et al. (4 ביולי 2017). "Deeply divergent archaic mitochondrial genome provides lower time boundary for African gene flow into Neanderthals". Nature Communications. 8: 16046. Bibcode:2017NatCo...816046P. doi:10.1038/ncomms16046. PMC 5500885. PMID 28675384. {{cite journal}}:  (עזרה)
↑  Armitage, Simon J.; Jasim, Sabah A.; Marks, Anthony E.; Parker, Adrian G.; Usik, Vitaly I.; Uerpmann, Hans-Peter (בינואר 2011). "The southern route "out of Africa": evidence for an early expansion of modern humans into Arabia". Science. 331 (6016): 453–456. Bibcode:2011Sci...331..453A. doi:10.1126/science.1199113. PMID 21273486. {{cite journal}}:  (עזרה)
↑  Pagani, Luca (13 באוקטובר 2016). "Genomic analyses inform on migration events during the peopling of Eurasia". Nature. 538 (7624): 238–242. Bibcode:2016Natur.538..238P. doi:10.1038/nature19792. PMC 5164938. PMID 27654910. {{cite journal}}:  (עזרה)
↑  Posth C, Renaud G, Mittnik M, Drucker DG, Rougier H, Cupillard C, Valentin F, Thevenet C, Furtwängler A, Wißing C, Francken M, Malina M, Bolus M, Lari M, Gigli E, Capecchi G, Crevecoeur I, Beauval C, Flas D, Germonpré M, van der Plicht J, Cottiaux R, Gély B, Ronchitelli A, Wehrberger K, Grigorescu D, Svoboda J, Semal P, Caramelli D, Bocherens H, Harvati K, Conard NJ, Haak W, Powell A, Krause J (2016). "Pleistocene Mitochondrial Genomes Suggest a Single Major Dispersal of Non-Africans and a Late Glacial Population Turnover in Europe". Current Biology. 26 (6): 827–833. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2016.01.037. PMID 26853362.
↑  Haber M, Jones AL, Connel BA, Asan, Arciero E, Huanming Y, Thomas MG, Xue Y, Tyler-Smith C (ביוני 2019). "A Rare Deep-Rooting D0 African Y-chromosomal Haplogroup and its Implications for the Expansion of Modern Humans Out of Africa". Genetics. 212 (4): 1421–1428. doi:10.1534/genetics.119.302368. PMC 6707464. PMID 31196864. {{cite journal}}:  (עזרה)
↑  J. R. Luis et al., "The Levant versus the Horn of Africa: Evidence for Bidirectional Corridors of Human Migrations" (אורכב 16.02.2012 בארכיון Wayback Machine), American Journal of Human Genetics, 74: 532-544.
↑  Redfield, T. F.; Wheeler, W. H.; Often, M. (2003). "A kinematic model for the development of the Afar depression and its paleogeographic implications". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 216 (3): 383–398. Bibcode:2003E&PSL.216..383R. doi:10.1016/s0012-821x(03)00488-6.
↑  Haq, B. U.; Hardenbol, J.; Vail, P. R. (1987). "Chronology of fluctuating sea levels since the Triassic". Science. 235 (4793): 1156–1167. Bibcode:1987Sci...235.1156H. doi:10.1126/science.235.4793.1156. PMID 17818978.
↑  Fernandes, C. A.; Rohling, E. J.; Siddall, M. (2006). "Absence of post-Miocene Red Sea land bridges: biogeographic implications". Journal of Biogeography. 33 (6): 961–966. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2006.01478.x.
↑  Groucutt, H. S.; Petraglia, M. D. (2012). "The prehistory of the Arabian peninsula: deserts, dispersals, and demography". Evolutionary Anthropology. 21 (3): 113–125. doi:10.1002/evan.21308. PMID 22718479.
↑  Carbonell, E. J. M.; Bermudez de Castro, J. L. A.; Allue, E.; Bastir, M.; Benito, A.; Caceres, I.; Verges, J. M. (2005). "An Early Pleistocene hominin mandible from Atapuerca-TD6, Spain". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (16): 5674–5678. Bibcode:2005PNAS..102.5674C. doi:10.1073/pnas.0501841102. PMC 556125. PMID 15824320.
↑  Carbonell, E.; Bermúdez de Castro, J. M.; Parés, J. M.; Pérez-González, A.; Cuenca-Bescós, G.; Ollé, A.; Arsuaga, J. L. (2008). "The first hominin of Europe" (PDF). Nature. 452 (7186): 465–469. Bibcode:2008Natur.452..465C. doi:10.1038/nature06815. PMID 18368116.
↑  Alimen, H. (1975). "Les 'Isthmes' hispano-marocain et Sicilo-Tunisien aux temps Acheuléens". L'Anthropologie, 79, 399–436.
↑  Bianchini, G. (1973). "Gli 'hacheraux' nei giacimenti paleolitici della Sicilia sud occidentale". Proceedings of the XV Scientific Meeting of the Italian Institute of Prehistory and Protohistory, 11–25 October 1972.
↑  Villa, P (2001). "Early Italy and the colonization of Western Europe". Quaternary International. 75 (1): 113–130. Bibcode:2001QuInt..75..113V. doi:10.1016/s1040-6182(00)00083-5.
↑  Brantingham, P. J. (1998). "Hominid–Carnivore Coevolution and Invasion of the Predatory Guild". Journal of Anthropological Archaeology. 17 (4): 327–353. doi:10.1006/jaar.1998.0326.
↑  Lewis, M. E., & Werdelin, L. (2007). "Patterns of change in the Plio-Pleistocene carnivorans of eastern Africa: Implications for hominin Evolution". In R. Bobe, Z. Alemseged, & A. K. Behrensmeyer (Eds.), Hominin environments in the East African Pliocene: An assessment of the faunal evidence. Springer, 77–106.
↑  Marean, C. W. (1989). "Sabertooth cats and their relevance for early hominid diet and evolution". Journal of Human Evolution. 18 (6): 559–558. doi:10.1016/0047-2484(89)90018-3.
↑  Eldredge, N.; Gould, S. J. (1997). "On Punctuated Equilibria". Science. 276 (5311): 337–341. doi:10.1126/science.276.5311.337c. PMID 9139351.
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↑  Cerling, T.E.; Harris, J.M.; MacFadden, B.J.; Leakey, M.G.; Quade, J.; Eisenmann, V.; Erleringer, J.R. (1997). "Global vegetation change through the Miocene/Pliocene boundary" (PDF). Nature. 389 (6647): 153–158. Bibcode:1997Natur.389..153C. doi:10.1038/38229.
↑  Shipman, P. A. T. (1984). Hunting in Early Hominids: Theoretical Framework and Tests, 27–43.
↑  Arribas, A.; Palmqvist, P. (1999). "On the Ecological Connection Between Sabre-tooths and Hominids: Faunal Dispersal Events in the Lower Pleistocene and a Review of the Evidence for the First Human Arrival in Europe". Journal of Archaeological Science. 26 (5): 571–585. doi:10.1006/jasc.1998.0346.
↑  Lewis, M.E., Werdelin, L. (2010). "Carnivoran Dispersal Out of Africa During the Early Pleistocene: Relevance for Hominins?". In: A. Baden et al. (Eds.), Out of Africa I: The First Hominin Colonization of Eurasia. Springer Netherlands, pp. 13-26.
↑  Turner, A (1999). "Assessing earliest human settlement of Eurasia: Late Pliocene dispersions from Afric". Antiquity. 73 (281): 563–570. doi:10.1017/s0003598x0006511x.
↑  Goodall, J., (1986). The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.
↑  Ruff, C (2009). "Relative limb strength and locomotion in Homo habilis". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 138 (1): 90–100. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20907. PMID 18711733.
↑  Steudel, K (1996). "Limb morphology, bipedal gait, and the energetics of hominid locomotion". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 99 (2): 345–355. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199602)99:2<345::AID-AJPA9>3.0.CO;2-X. PMID 8967332.
↑  Steudel, K. L. (1994). "Locomotor energetics and hominid evolution". Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews. 3 (2): 42–48. doi:10.1002/evan.1360030205.
↑  Wheeler, P. E. (1992). "The thermoragulatory advantages of large body size for hominids foraging in Savannah environments". Journal of Human Evolution. 23 (4): 351–362. doi:10.1016/0047-2484(92)90071-g.
↑  Klein, R. G. (1999). The human career: Human biological and human origins, (2nd ed.). Chicago: Chicago University Press. 249-250.
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