تاريخ اللغة الهندوستانية
مراجع

↑  "Jammu and Kashmir Burushaski: Language, Language contact and change" (PDF). Sadaf Munshi, Doctor of Philosophy, University of Texas. مؤرشف من الأصل (PDF) في 2016-09-21. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2016-08-24.
↑  "Hindustani". Columbia University press. encyclopedia.com. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2020-08-07.
1 2  "Women of the Indian Sub-Continent: Makings of a Culture - Rekhta Foundation" (بالإنجليزية). Google Arts & Culture. Archived from the original on 2020-08-22. Retrieved 2020-02-25. The "Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb" is one such instance of the composite culture that marks various regions of the country.  Prevalent in the North, particularly in the central plains, it is born of the union between the Hindu and Muslim cultures. Most of the temples were lined along the Ganges and the Khanqah (Sufi school of thought) were situated along the Yamuna river (also called Jamuna). Thus, it came to be known as the Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb, with the word "tehzeeb" meaning culture. More than communal harmony, its most beautiful by-product was "Hindustani" which later gave us the Hindi and Urdu languages.
1 2  Farooqi, M. (2012). Urdu Literary Culture: Vernacular Modernity in the Writing of Muhammad Hasan Askari (بالإنجليزية). Springer. ISBN:978-1-137-02692-7. Historically speaking, Urdu grew out of interaction between Hindus and Muslims.
↑  Dhulipala, Venkat (2000). The Politics of Secularism: Medieval Indian Historiography and the Sufis (بالإنجليزية). University of Wisconsin–Madison. p. 27. Persian became the court language, and many Persian words crept into popular usage. The composite culture of northern India, known as the Ganga Jamuni tehzeeb was a product of the interaction between Hindu society and Islam.
↑  Indian Journal of Social Work, Volume 4 (بالإنجليزية). Tata Institute of Social Sciences. 1943. p. 264. ... more words of Sanskrit origin but 75% of the vocabulary is common. It is also admitted that while this language is known as Hindustani, ... Muslims call it Urdu and the Hindus call it Hindi. ... Urdu is a national language evolved through years of Hindu and Muslim cultural contact and, as stated by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, is essentially an Indian language and has no place outside.
↑  Jain, Danesh; Cardona, George (2007). The Indo-Aryan Languages (بالإنجليزية). Routledge. ISBN:978-1-135-79711-9. The primary sources of non-IA loans into MSH are Arabic, Persian, Portuguese, Turkic and English. Conversational registers of Hindi/Urdu (not to mentioned formal registers of Urdu) employ large numbers of Persian and Arabic loanwords, although in Sanskritized registers many of these words are replaced by tatsama forms from Sanskrit. The Persian and Arabic lexical elements in Hindi result from the effects of centuries of Islamic administrative rule over much of north India in the centuries before the establishment of British rule in India. Although it is conventional to differentiate among Persian and Arabic loan elements into Hindi/Urdu, in practice it is often difficult to separate these strands from one another. The Arabic (and also Turkic) lexemes borrowed into Hindi frequently were mediated through Persian, as a result of which a thorough intertwining of Persian and Arabic elements took place, as manifest by such phenomena as hybrid compounds and compound words. Moreover, although the dominant trajectory of lexical borrowing was from Arabic into Persian, and thence into Hindi/Urdu, examples can be found of words that in origin are actually Persian loanwords into both Arabic and Hindi/Urdu.
↑  Kuiper, Kathleen (2010). The Culture of India (بالإنجليزية). Rosen Publishing. ISBN:978-1-61530-149-2. Urdu is closely related to Hindi, a language that originated and developed in the Indian subcontinent. They share the same Indic base and are so similar in phonology and grammar that they appear to be one language. {{استشهاد بكتاب}}: تحقق من التاريخ في: |سنة= / |تاريخ= mismatch (help)
1 2  Strnad, Jaroslav (2013). Morphology and Syntax of Old Hindī: Edition and Analysis of One Hundred Kabīr vānī Poems from Rājasthān (بالإنجليزية). Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN:978-90-04-25489-3. Quite different group of nouns occurring with the ending -a in the dir. plural consists of words of Arabic or Persian origin borrowed by the Old Hindi with their Persian plural endings.
1 2 3 4  Ahmad, Aijaz (2002). Lineages of the Present: Ideology and Politics in Contemporary South Asia (بالإنجليزية). Verso. p. 113. ISBN:9781859843581. On this there are far more reliable statistics than those on population. Farhang-e-Asafiya is by general agreement the most reliable Urdu dictionary. It twas compiled in the late nineteenth century by an Indian scholar little exposed to British or Orientalist scholarship. The lexicographer in question, Syed Ahmed Dehlavi, had no desire to sunder Urdu's relationship with اللغة الفارسية, as is evident even from the title of his dictionary. He estimates that roughly 75 per cent of the total stock of 55,000 Urdu words that he compiled in his dictionary are derived from Sanskrit and Prakrit, and that the entire stock of the base words of the language, without exception, are derived from these sources. What distinguishes Urdu from a great many other Indian languauges ... is that is draws almost a quarter of its vocabulary from language communities to the west of India, such as اللغة الفارسية, Turkish, and Tajik. Most of the little it takes from Arabic has not come directly but through Persian.
1 2  Mody, Sujata Sudhakar (2008). Literature, Language, and Nation Formation: The Story of a Modern Hindi Journal 1900-1920 (بالإنجليزية). University of California, Berkeley. p. 7. ...Hindustani, Rekhta, and Urdu as later names of the old Hindi (a.k.a. Hindavi).
↑  Khalid, Kanwal. "LAHORE DURING THE GHANAVID PERIOD."
↑  Alfred C. Woolner (1999). Introduction to Prakrit. Motilal Banarsidass. ص. 5. ISBN:978-81-208-0189-9.
↑  Kesavan, B. S. (1997). History Of Printing And Publishing In India (بالإنجليزية). National Book Trust, India. p. 31. ISBN:978-81-237-2120-0. It might be useful to recall here that Old Hindi or Hindavi, which was a naturally Persian- mixed language in the largest measure, has played this role before, as we have seen, for five or six centuries.
1 2  Taj, Afroz (1997). "About Hindi-Urdu" (بالإنجليزية). The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Archived from the original on 2010-04-19. Retrieved 2019-06-30.
1 2  First Encyclopaedia of Islam: 1913-1936 (بالإنجليزية). Brill Academic Publishers. 1993. p. 1024. ISBN:9789004097964. Whilst the Muhammadan rulers of India spoke Persian, which enjoyed the prestige of being their court language, the common language of the country continued to be Hindi, derived through Prakrit from Sanskrit. On this dialect of the common people was grafted the Persian language, which brought a new language, Urdu, into existence. Sir George Grierson, in the Linguistic Survey of India, assigns no distinct place to Urdu, but treats it as an offshoot of Western Hindi.
1 2  India Perspectives, Volume 8 (بالإنجليزية). PTI for the Ministry of External Affairs. 1995. p. 23. All verbs in Urdu are of Sanskrit origin. According to lexicographers, only about 25 percent words in Urdu diction have Persian or Arabic origin.
↑  Dalmia, Vasudha (31 Jul 2017). Hindu Pasts: Women, Religion, Histories (بالإنجليزية). SUNY Press. p. 310. ISBN:9781438468075. On the issue of vocabulary, Ahmad goes on to cite Syed Ahmad Dehlavi as he set about to compile the Farhang-e-Asafiya, an Urdu dictionary, in the late nineteenth century. Syed Ahmad 'had no desire to sunder Urdu's relationship with Farsi, as is evident from the title of his dictionary. He estimates that roughly 75 per cent of the total stock of 55.000 Urdu words that he compiled in his dictionary are derived from Sanskrit and Prakrit, and that the entire stock of the base words of the language, without exception, are from these sources' (2000: 112-13). As Ahmad points out, Syed Ahmad, as a member of Delhi's aristocratic elite, had a clear bias towards Persian and Arabic. His estimate of the percentage of Prakitic words in urdu should therefore be considered more conservative than not. The actual proportion of Prakitic words in everyday language would clearly be much higher.
↑  Taj, Afroz (1997). "About Hindi-Urdu" (بالإنجليزية). University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Archived from the original on 2017-11-07. Retrieved 2018-03-27.
↑  "Urdu's origin: it's not a "camp language"". dawn.com. 17 ديسمبر 2011. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2015-09-24. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2015-07-05. Urdu nouns and adjective can have a variety of origins, such as Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Pushtu and even Portuguese, but ninety-nine per cent of Urdu verbs have their roots in Sanskrit/Prakrit. So it is an Indo-Aryan language which is a branch of Indo-Iranian family, which in turn is a branch of Indo-European family of languages. According to Dr Gian Chand Jain, Indo-Aryan languages had three phases of evolution beginning around 1,500 BC and passing through the stages of Vedic Sanskrit, classical Sanskrit and Pali. They developed into Prakrit and Apbhransh, which served as the basis for the formation of later local dialects.
↑  Rahman، Tariq (2001). From Hindi to Urdu: A Social and Political History (PDF). Oxford University Press. ص. 1–22. ISBN:978-0-19-906313-0. مؤرشف من الأصل (PDF) في 2014-10-10. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2014-10-07.
↑  Delacy، Richard؛ Ahmed، Shahara (2005). Hindi, Urdu & Bengali. Lonely Planet. ص. 11-12. Hindi and Urdu are generally considered to be one spoken language with two different literary traditions. That means that Hindi and Urdu speakers who shop in the same markets (and watch the same Bollywood films) have no problems understanding each other -- they'd both say yeh kitne kaa hay for 'How much is it?' -- but the written form for Hindi will be यह कितने का है? and the Urdu one will be یہ کتنے کا ہے؟ Hindi is written from left to right in the Devanagari script, and is the official language of India, along with English. Urdu, on the other hand, is written from right to left in the Nastaliq script (a modified form of the Arabic script) and is the national language of Pakistan. It's also one of the official languages of the Indian states of Bihar and Jammu & Kashmir. Considered as one, these tongues constitute the second most spoken language in the world, sometimes called Hindustani. In their daily lives, Hindi and Urdu speakers communicate in their 'different' languages without major problems. ... Both Hindi and Urdu developed from Classical Sanskrit, which appeared in the Indus Valley (modern Pakistan and northwest India) at about the start of the Common Era. The first old Hindi (or Apabhransha) poetry was written in the year 769 AD, and by the European Middle Ages it became known as 'Hindvi'. Muslim Turks invaded the Punjab in 1027 and took control of Delhi in 1193. They paved the way for the Islamic Mughal Empire, which ruled northern India from the 16th century until it was defeated by the British Raj in the mid-19th century. It was at this time that the language of this book began to take form, a mixture of Hindvi grammar with Arabic, Persian and Turkish vocabulary. The Muslim speakers of Hindvi began to write in the Arabic script, creating Urdu, while the Hindu population incorporated the new words but continued to write in Devanagari script.
↑  Aijazuddin Ahmad. Geography of the South Asian Subcontinent: A Critical Approach. Concept Publishing Company, 2009. ص. 120. ISBN:8180695689.
↑  Bhatia، Tej K.؛ Ritchie، William C. (2006). The Handbook of Bilingualism. John Wiley and Sons. ص. 789. ISBN:9780631227359. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-05-13.{{استشهاد بكتاب}}:  صيانة الاستشهاد: التاريخ والسنة (link)
↑  Sigfried J. de Laet. History of Humanity: From the seventh to the sixteenth century UNESCO, 1994. (ردمك 9231028138) p 734 نسخة محفوظة 23 أغسطس 2020 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  Alam, Muzaffar. "The Pursuit of Persian: Language in Mughal Politics." In Modern Asian Studies, vol. 32, no. 2. (May, 1998), pp. 317–349.
↑  H. Dua, 2006, "Urdu", in the Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 2nd edition.
↑  Parthasarathy، R.؛ Kumar، Swargesh (2012). Bihar Tourism: Retrospect and Prospect. Concept Publishing Company. ص. 120. ISBN:978-8-180-69799-9. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2020-08-03.
↑  Pain and Grace: A Study of Two Mystical Writers of Eighteenth-century Muslim India, By Annemarie Schimmel, BRILL, 1976
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