تاريخ روما (مومسن)
مراجع

↑  G. P. Gooch  ‏, History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century (London: Longmans, Green 1913, 4th impr. 1928) at 456.
↑  "Facts on the Nobel Prize in Literature: Awarded for a particular literary work:" While the Nobel Prize in Literature is for a writer's life work, there are nine Literature Laureates for whom the Swedish Academy singled out a specific work for particular recognition. "Theodor Mommsen in 1902: 'the greatest living master of the art of historical writing, with special reference to his monumental work, A history of Rome'" http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/shortfacts.html. نسخة محفوظة 2023-11-03 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  G. P. Gooch, History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century (1913, 1928) at 456, quoting Mommsen's letter to the novelist Freytag.
↑  Cf., Alexander Demandt, "Introduction" at 1–35, 1, in Mommsen, A History of Rome under the Emperors (London: Routledge 1996).
↑  Sauders and Collins, "Introduction" at 1–17, 5–6, to their edition of Mommsen, The History of Rome (New Haven: Meridian Books 1958).
↑  Gooch, History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century (1913, 1928) at 456, quoting Mommsen's correspondence to Henzen.
↑  On a different note, Mommsen would marry Marie Reimer, the daughter of his Leipzig publisher; together they had sixteen children. T. Wiedemann, "Mommsen, Rome, and the German "Kaiserreich" 36–47, at 44, in Mommsen, A History of Rome under the Emperors (1992; 1996).
↑  Mommsen, Römische Geschichte, 3 volumes (Leipzig: Reimer & Hirsel 1854–1856). Although published in three volumes, this part of the History Mommsen organised into five "books".
↑  W. P. Dickson, "Preface by the Translator" (1894) at v–x, viii, to Mommsen's A History of Rome, volume one (1854; 1862; reprint by The Free Press/The Falcon's Wing Press, Glencoe IL, 1957).
↑  Alexander Demandt, "Introduction" 1–35, at 1, in Mommsen, A History of Rome under the Emperors (London: Routledge 1996).
↑  The 1880 fire at Mommsen's home office, due to a gas explosion, has been proposed as the reason for no volume four, but Alexander Demandt dismisses such speculation. A. Demandt, "Introduction" 1–35, at 7, 22–23, in Mommsen, A History of Rome under the Emperors (1992; London: Routledge 1996). There has been much scholarly discussion about the fate of the 'missing' fourth volume. Cf., A. Demandt, "Introduction" at 1–13 ("Why no volume IV?"), in Mommsen (1992; 1996).
↑  Cf., "Commentary" section here below.
↑  Mommsen's fifth volume is subtitled Die Provinzen von Caesar bis Diokletian (Berlin: Weidmann 1885).
↑  Cf., "Review of contents" section below.
↑  Published decades earlier, 1854 to 1856.
↑  Mommsen (1885; London: Macmillan 1909; reprint New York 1996) at 4–5.
↑  Theodore Mommsen, Römische Kaisergeschichte (München: C.H.Beck'sche 1992), edited by B. and A. Demandt; translated as A History of Rome under the Emperors (London: Routledge 1996).
↑  The Hensel family was distinguished. The father composed a family history (1879) that included composer فيلكس مندلسون, his mother's brother. The son became a philosophy professor. The paternal grandfather was a Prussian court painter. A. Demandt, "Introduction" 1–35, at 14–15, 17, in Mommsen (1992; 1996).
↑  Theodore Mommsen (1992; 1996), the "Introduction" at 1-35 by A. Demandt, pp. 9–10, 13–14.
↑  Dickson's translation of Mommsen's first three volumes were published in four English volumes.
↑  Dickson, "Preface by the Translator" (1894) at viii, as published by أبناء تشارلز سكرايبنر  ‏, New York, 1895.
↑  E.g., as listed here by earliest date of the following publishers. London: R. Bentley (1862), J. M. Dent (1868), Macmillan (1894), Routledge/Thoemmes (1996). New York: أبناء تشارلز سكرايبنر  ‏ (1866). Glencoe IL: The Free Press (1894).
↑  Mommsen's Römische Geschichte has been translated into many languages, following publication into Italian, French, English, Russian, Polish, and Spanish. New York Times obituary, "Prof. Mommsen is Dead" at page one (November 2, 1903). Relatively recently the first volume was translated into Chinese by Li Jianian and published by the Commercial Press, Beijing, 1994. T. Wiedemann and Wang Naixin, "Mommsen's Roman History" in Histos, v.1 (April 1997). نسخة محفوظة 2022-10-30 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  Mommsen, The History of Rome. An account of events and persons from the conquest of Carthage to the end of the Republic (New Haven CN: Meridian/Greenwich 1958), edited by Saunders and Collins. Text chosen from Mommsen's 'Book IV' and 'Book V'.
↑  Concerning his writing here, Gooch opines: "Mommsen reaches full stride with Marius and Sulla, and portrays the dying struggles of the Republic with incomparable power and brilliance." Gooch (1913, 1928) at 456.
↑  Saunders and Collins in their edition of The History of Rome (1958), discuss their abridgement and their revision of the Dickson's translation, in the "Introduction" 1–17, at 12–15 and 15–16.
↑  Also published by R. Bentley & Son, London. The translation later was revised by F. Haverfield, evidently for a 1909 edition by Macmillan, London. See Haverfield's "Prefatory Note", included in the 1995 reprint by Barnes & Noble, New York.
↑  Theodore Mommsen, A History of Rome under the Emperors (London: Routledge 1996), edited with an essay by Thomas Wiedemann, from the German edition by B. Demandt and A. Demandt, introduction by A. Demandt, translated by Clare Krojzl.
↑  Summary of Mommsen's book in the "Presentation Speech" by Carl David af Wirsén, Permanent Secretary of the Swedish Academy, Stockholm, December 10, 1902. Nobel Prize Literature List – 1902:Theodore Mommsen. Af Wirsén was also a poet. نسخة محفوظة 2023-09-30 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  Mommsen, A History of Rome (1854–1856; 1862–1866; reprint 1957 by The Free Press) at I: 72–86 (Bk.I, ch.5 start). These social principles were not specific to Rome but held in common by all Latins.
↑  Mommsen, A History of Rome (1854–1856; 1862–1866; reprint 1957 by The Free Press) at I: 410–412 (Bk.II, ch.3 end).
↑  E.g., Mommsen, A History of Rome (1854–1856; 1862–1866; reprint 1957 by The Free Press) at III: 35–63 (Bk.III, ch.XI second half), and 293–296 (Bk.IV, ch.1 end).
↑  Mommsen, A History of Rome (1854–1856; 1862–1866; reprint 1957 by The Free Press) at III: 57–63 (Bk.III, ch.11 end).
↑  Mommsen, A History of Rome (1854–1856; 1862–1866; reprint 1957 by The Free Press), e.g., at IV: 163–166 (Bk.IV, ch.11 begin/mid).
↑  For example, the reform regarding certain agricultural lands proposed separately by the جراتشي, Tiberius (163–133) and Gaius (154–121), and similar reforms advanced by Drusus (d.91). Mommsen, A History of Rome (1854–1856; 1862–1866; reprint 1957 by The Free Press) at III: 297–333, 334–370 (Bk.IV, ch.2 & ch.3), and at III: 483–489 (Bk.IV, ch.6 end).
↑  Mommsen's term. It included the poorer plebs.
↑  Mommsen, A History of Rome (1854–1856; 1862–1866; reprint 1957 by The Free Press) at III: 65–75, & 96–97, 98–103 (Bk.III, ch.12 start & end), at III: 305–309, 311–314 (Bk.IV, ch.2 mid start), and, e.g., at IV: 171–172 (Bk.IV, ch.11 mid).
↑  Due to population decline of the poorer plebeians and "free peasantry" in general, foreigners and landless proletari had become eligible under Marius (157–86) to serve in the military. Their relatively weak state ties made them less likely to be as loyal to Roman politicians, but economic dependency encouraged their bonding with the commanding general, their paymaster. Mommsen, A History of Rome (1854–1856; 1862–1866; reprint 1957 by The Free Press) at III: 456–462 (Bk.IV, ch.6 near start), but compare at IV: 135–136 (Bk.IV, ch.10 mid/end).
↑  The several triumvirates, during the last decades of the Republic, functioned in some regard as military dictatorships 'lite'. Cf., Mommsen, A History of Rome (1854–1856; 1862–1866; reprint 1957 by The Free Press) at IV: 378–385 (Bk.V, ch.3 mid), and at IV: 504–518 (Bk.V, ch.6 end), concerning the two triumvirates of Pompey, Cassus, and Caesar.
↑  Among Roman generals who interfered with civil government: before Sulla, Marius (157–86) the commoner ببيولاريس؛ after Sulla, the commoner Optimate بومبيوس الكبير (106–48), whose chief opponent became the noble Populare يوليوس قيصر (100–44).
↑  Here ends the rendering of contents taken from af Wirsén's "Presentation Speech" per the 1902 Nobel Prize, regarding Mommsen's Römische Geschichte (1854–1856), translated as A History of Rome (1862–1866).
↑  A similar though longer review of the contents of the Roman History was earlier provided by W. P. Allen, "Theodor Mommsen" at 445–465, in the North American Review, v.112 (1870).
↑  For discussion of a contrary response to Mommsen, e.g. his portrayal of Julius Caesar, see "Commentary" section here below.
↑  Mommsen, The History of Rome (1854–1856; 1862–1866; reprint by The Free Press 1957) at V: 315–377 (Bk.V, ch.11).
↑  Mommsen, The History of Rome (1854–1856; 1862–1866; reprint by The Free Press 1957) at V: 377–406 (Bk.V, ch.11), quote at 406.
↑  Mommsen, The History of Rome (1854–1856; 1862–1866; reprint by The Free Press 1957) at V: 406–442 (Bk.V, ch.11), quotations at 427 and 442. Six centuries later the law codification occurred under جستينيان الأول (r.527–565), at 434–435.
↑  Another scholar conjectures that Mommsen must have considered the assassination of Julius Caesar "an incalculable disaster." W. P. Allen, "Theodor Mommsen" in the North American Review (1870) at 112: 445–465, at 456.
↑  مدونة النقوش اللاتينية (1867 and continuing), which under his editorship grew to 40 folio volumes occupying eight feet of shelf. W. Warde Fowler, Roman essays and interpretations (Oxford Univ. 1920), "Theodore Mommsen: His life and work" 250–268, at 261–262.
↑  Mommsen, Die unteritalischen Dialekte (Leipzig: Weidmann 1850). Mommsen helped show that اللغة اللاتينية and other لغات إيطاليقية were sister languages to ancient Greek, which was fatal to the Pelasgian theory favored by Niebuhr. W. P. Allen, "Theodor Mommsen" 445–465, at 446, in the North American Review, v.112 (1870).
↑  Zeitschrift für Numismatik; plus Mommsen's own large volume on ancient Roman coinage, Über das Römische Münzwesen (1850). From coins, standard weights, and the alphabet used by ancient Romans, Mommsen argued that their primary influence was ثقافة الإغريق, not Etruscan. W. P. Allen, "Theodor Mommsen" 445–465, at 448, in the North American Review, v.112 (1870).
↑  Mommsen, Römisches Staatsrecht, 3 volumes (Leipzig: Hirzel 1871–1876, 3d ed. 1887).
↑  Gooch calls Mommsen's Staatsrecht "the greatest historical treatise on political institutions ever written." History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century (1913, 1928) at 460.
↑  Mommsen, Römisches Strafrecht, 3 volumes (Leipzig: Duncker and Humblot 1899).
↑  Fritz Stern, The Varieties of History (Cleveland: World/Meridian 1956) at 191.
↑  A Mommsen bibliography prepared by Zangemeister in 1887 lists 920 items. "Nobel Prize Presentation Speech" [re Mommsen] given by af Wirsén (Stockholm, December 10, 1902).
↑  Mommsen, The Province of the Roman Empire (Leipzig 1865; London 1866; London: Macmillan 1909; reprint New York 1996) at 4–5.
↑  Theodore Mommsen, ''Römische Kaisergeschichte (München: C.H.Beck'sche 1992), edited by Barbara and Alexander Demandt; translated by Clare Krojzl as A History of Rome under the Emperors (London: Routledge 1996), edited by Thomas Wiedemann from German edition by B. and A. Demandt, essay by T. Wiedemann, introduction by A. Demandt.
↑  See here above, "Publication" at "Original".
↑  See here above subsection "Later volumes" at Nota Bene. Alexander Demandt, "Introduction" 1–35, at 14–17, in Mommsen, A History of Rome under the Emperors (1992; 1996).
↑  "Presentation Speech" by Carl David af Wirsén, of the Swedish Academy, Stockholm, December 10, 1902. Mentioned in particular were: Hannibal, Scipio Africanus, Gaius Gracchus, Marius, Sulla, and Caesar. Nobel Prize Literature List – 1902:Theodore Mommsen نسخة محفوظة 2023-09-30 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  W. Warde Fowler, however, in his Roman essays and interpretations (Oxford University 1920), "Theodor Mommsen: His life and work" 250–268, at 259, writes that Mommsen went astray in judging Pompey and Caesar, Cicero and Cato.
↑  Mommsen, The History of Rome (1854–56; reprint: The Free Press 1957) at III: 318 (Bk.IV, ch.III mid). Cornelia enjoyed literary celebrity in Roman culture.
↑  Mommsen (1854–56; 1957) at III: 317–318, 319–320, 321–323 (Bk.IV, ch.III mid).
↑  Mommsen (1854–56; 1957) at III: 329–331, 333; 325–327 (Bk.IV, ch.II end).
↑  Adopted as Publius Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus Africanus. Mommsen, The History of Rome (1854–56; reprint 1957) at III: 314–317, 327, 331–332, 334, 337–339 (Bk.IV, ch.II mid to end & ch.III start).
↑  Mommsen (1854–56; 1957) III: 334–337, 342–344 (Bk.IV, ch.III start); 349, 353–361; 366–370 (Bk.IV, ch.III end).
↑  Mommsen, The History of Rome (1854–56; reprint: The Free Press 1957) at III: 452–453 (Bk.IV, ch.VI start).
↑  Mommsen (1854–56; 1957) at III: 453–454 (Bk.IV, ch.VI near start).
↑  Mommsen (1854–56; 1957) at III: 454–456 (Bk.IV, ch.VI near start); IV: 274 (Bk.V, ch.I early mid).
↑  Mommsen (1854–56; 1957) at III: 472 (Bk.VI, ch.IV mid); IV: 68 (Bk.I, ch.VI early mid). Cf., III: 467–478; and, IV: 60–69.
↑  Mommsen, A History of Rome (1854–56; 1957) III: 483–484, 486–489 (Bk.IV, ch.VI end); 497–498 (Bk.IV, ch.VII near start).
↑  Mommsen (1854–56; 1957) IV: 271–273 (Bk.V, ch.I late start).
↑  Mommsen (1854–56; 1957) IV: 274–275 (Bk.V, ch.I late start); V: 272–273 (Bk.V, ch.X early end).
↑  Mommsen (1854–56; 1957) IV: 454–455 (Bk.V, ch.V near start). كاتو الأكبر: III: 45–47 (Bk.III, ch.XI late middle).
↑  Mommsen, A History of Rome (1854–56; 1957) V: 299–300, 302–304 (Bk.V, ch.X near end).
↑  Mommsen, A History of Rome (1854–56; 1957) IV: 278, V: 305–314.
↑  Mommsen (1854–56; 1957) IV: 470–471 (Bk.V, ch.V mid); V: 503–506 (Bk.V, ch.XII near end), 132–133 (Bk.V, ch.VIII mid). Himself trained in the law Mommsen apparently did not much appreciate Cicero the lawyer. Regarding the figure of كاتيلين: IV: 470, 475, 478–479, 482–483 (Bk.V, ch.V near end); 516–518 (Bk.V, ch.VI end).
↑  Mommsen (1854–56; 1957) V: 507–509 (Bk.V, ch.XII near end).
↑  See Collingwood's critique and reflections below, under the subsection "Caesar".
↑  Barthold Georg Niebuhr, Romische Geschichte (Berlin 1811–1833); later edited by Leonhard Schmitz as Romische Geschichte, von dem ersten punische Kreig bis zum tode Constantine (Berlin: Realschulbuchh 1844).
↑  Thomas Wiedemann, "Mommsen, Rome, and the German Kaiserreich" 36–47, at 43, in Mommsen, A History of Rome under the Emperors (1992; 1996).
↑  "In the words of Mommsen, all historians, so far as they are worthy of the name, are Niebuhr's pupils, not least those who are not of his school." G. P. Gooch, History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century (London: Longmans, Green 1913, 4th impr. 1928), "Niebuhr" at 14–24, Mommsen quote at 24.
↑  Peter Gay and Victor G. Wexler, Historians at Work (New York: Harper and Row 1975) at 1–3.
↑  G. P. Gooch, History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century (London: Longmans, Green 1913, 1928) at 454–465.
↑  Cf., Mommsen, "Rector's Address" (University of Berlin 1874), second half translated in Varieties of History edited by Fritz Stern (Cleveland: World/Meridian 1956) at 192–196.
↑  T. Wiedemann, "Mommsen, Rome, and the German Kaiserreich" 36–47, at 43, in Mommsen, A History of Rome under the Emperors (1992; 1996).
↑  G. P. Gooch, History and Historians of the Nineteenth Century (1913, 1928) at 456–457.
↑  Apparently Mommsen mentions Romulus only once in connection with determining the early boundary line of Roman territory. Mommsen (1854–56; 1957) at I: 58–59 (Bk.I, ch.4 mid).
↑  Saunders and Collins, "Introduction" 1–17, at 6, in their shorter edition of Mommsen, The History of Rome (Leipzig 1854–56; New Haven CN: Greenwich/Meridian 1957).
↑  Cf., Gary Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome. From prehistory to the first Punic war (University of California 2005), e.g., his chapter 3, "The ancient sources for early Roman history" at 59–77.
↑  Gooch, History and Historians of the Nineteenth Century (1913, 1928) at 456–457, 455, 464–465.
↑  Gooch, History and Historians (1913, 1928) at 457–458, quoting Mommsen the four times.
↑  Saunders and Collins, "Introduction" 1–17, at 8–9, to their shortened 1958 edition of Mommsen's The History of Rome.
↑  Here Saunders and Collins appear to be summarizing Mommsen, The History of Rome (1854–1856; 1862–1866; reprint by The Free Press 1957) at III: 297–304 (Bk.IV, ch.2 start).
↑  ليلي روس تايلور, Party politics in the age of Caesar (University of California 1949) at 8–14, with notes 18–54 at 187–193; especially at 10–12 and the historians in footnote 51.
1 2  Taylor, Party politics in the age of Caesar (University of California 1949) at 12.
↑  Lily Ross Taylor (1949) at 12 text note 50 (at 192) cites to Mommsen, The History of Rome (1854–1856; 1862–1866; reprint by The Free Press 1957) at III: 303 (Bk.IV, ch.2 start/mid): "Both parties contended alike for shadows and numbered in their ranks none but enthusiasts and hypocrites." Both were equally corrupt and "in fact equally worthless". Neither had a plan reaching much beyond the status quo of the moment. Their contests were more over political tactics than over state policy.
↑  Edward Hallett Carr, What is History (New York: Random House 1961) at 28–29, 35; regarding Mommsen at 43–45.
↑  Such reaction to Mommsen's The History of Rome (1854–1856) began in the mid-1850s. Gooch, History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century (London: Longmans, Green 1913) at 457.
↑  Lily Ross Taylor, Party politics in the age of Caesar (University of California 1949) at 12, where the comparison between ancient Rome and Mommsen's Germany is expressly noted and drawn out.
↑  Some see an analogy not between ancient Rome and Mommsen's Germany, but Rome and the modern West. In 1931 ايغون فريدل summed it up: "ماركوس ليسينيوس كراسوس becomes a مضاربة in the manner of Louis Philippe, the brothers جراتشي are اشتراكية leaders, and the Gauls are Indians, etc." Friedell, Kulturgeschichte der Neuzeit (1931), at III: 270.
1 2  Carr، Edward Hallett (1961). What is History. New York: Knopf. ص. 43–44. OCLC:397273.
↑  Mommsen quoted in G. P. Gooch, History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century (London: Longmans, Green 1913) at 457.
↑  See discussion here above in section "Novel style".
↑  Carr, What is History? (New York: Random House/Vintage 1961) at 43.
↑  Carr, What is History? (1961) at 44.
↑  Carr, What is History? (1961) at 29–31.
↑  Collingwood's essay here explicates Croce's Teoria e Storia della Storiografia (Bari 1917). Collingwood (1921, 1965) at 5.
1 2  كولينجوود, "Croce's Philosophy of History" in The Hibbert Journal, XIX: 263–278 (1921), collected in his Essays on a Philosophy of History (University of Texas 1965) at 3–22, 11.
↑  Carr، Edward Hallett (1961). What is History. New York: Knopf. ص. 43–44. OCLC:397273. Other historians mentioned by Carr (at 48) include: Trevelyan، Namier, and Meinecke.
↑  E.g., Luciano Canfora, Giulio Cesare. Il dittatore democratico (Roma-Bari: Gius. Laterza & Figli 1999) translated as Julius Caesar. The life and times of the peoples dictator (University of California 2007). In addition to the usual attacks and praise associated with the name of Julius Caesar, here Canfora also mentions the great devastation said to be caused by the conquest of Gaul under the command of Caesar, including enormous loss of life and enslavement of populations, as reported by بلينيوس الأكبر (23–79) in his التاريخ الطبيعي (موسوعة) VII: 91–99, and also found in other ancient authors. Canfora (1999, 2007) at 118–123, 121.
↑  Mommsen, A History of Rome (1854–1856; 1862–1864; reprint by The Free Press 1957), e.g., at IV: 278–280 (Bk.V, ch.1 mid) and V: 107, 174, 305–315 (Bk.V, ch. 8 start, ch.9 mid, ch.11 start).
↑  Mommsen, A History of Rome (1854–1856; 1862–1864; reprint by The Free Press 1957), e.g., at III: 297–299 (Bk.IV, ch.2 start).
↑  Saunder & Collins, "Introduction" 1–17, at 8, to their short edition of Mommsen, A History of Rome (New Haven CN: Meridian 1957).
↑  Cf., إريك إس. غروين, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (University of California 1974, 1995) at 498–507. Gruen is not given to judge Caesar, but at 504 he concludes that the Republic might well have survived but for the severe damage wrought by the ferocious civil war fought between Pompey and Caesar.
↑  Cf., W. Warde Fowler, Roman essays and interpretations (Oxford Univ. 1920), "Thomas Mommsen: His Life and Work" 250–268, at 259.
↑  W. P. Allen, "Theodor Mommsen" in the North Atlantic Review (1970) at 112: 445–465, at 452: "His lawyer's reverence for authority too often leads him to side with power and prerogative against impotent cravings after freedom." Of course, to the contrary, Mommsen the revolutionary of 1848 might have shaken his head to read this comment.
↑  Compare: وليم شكسبير, The Tragedy of Julius Caesar [1599], in The Complete Plays and Poems of William Shakespeare, edited by Wm. A. Neilson and Chs. J. Hill (Cambridge MA: Houghton and Mifflin 1942) at 1012–1042. Shakespeare's play might yet influence how Caesar is regarded, although the above editors at 1011 comment:
↑  شيشرون in his published writings refers to Caesar's assassins as "the company who did that most glorius of deeds". Cicero, Second Philippic against Anthony [October, 44 BCE]؛ in Cicero, Selected Works, edited by Michael Grant (Penguin Books 1962, 1971) at 102–153, 113.
↑  Cicero in a private letter to his friend Atticus writes about one having "feasted his eyes on the just death of a tyrant." Quoted by D. R. Shackleton Bailey in his Cicero (New York: Chs. Scribner's Sons 1971) at 228. Bailey at 227 remarks:
↑  "The murder of Caesar brought Cicero nothing but satisfaction." J.P.V.D. Balsdon, "Cicero the Man" in Dudley and Dorey, editors, Cicero (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1964) at 171–214, 186.
↑  H. H. Scullard, "The Political Career of a 'Novus Homo'", in Dudley and Dorey, editors, Cicero (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1964) at 1–25, 24. Scullar calls it "the greatest period of his life" with regard to Cicero's "series of speeches, the Philippics."
↑  Erich S. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (University of California 1974, 1995) at 53–55.
↑  Cicero, Selected Letters, edited by D. R. Shackleton Bailey (Penguin Books [1965–1980], 1982) at 13 (Cicero), at 239 (C. Cassius Longinus), at 245–246 (D. Junius Brutus).
↑  David Shotter, The Fall of the Roman Republic (London: Routledge 1994) at 86.
↑  Mary Beard and Michael Crawford, Rome in the Late Republic (Cornell University 1985) at 68–71, 85–87.
↑  David Shotter, The Fall of the Roman Republic (London: Routledge 1994) at 86–87.
↑  Cf., Rudolph Stadelmann, Sozial und politische Geschichte der Revolution von 1848 (München: F. Bruckman 1948, 2d ed. 1970), translated as Social and Political History of the German 1848 Revolution (Ohio University 1975).
↑  ليلي روس تايلور, Party politics in the age of Caesar (University of California 1949) at 12.
↑  كولينجوود, "The Philosophy of History" (Oxford University, History Asn. #79, 1930), reprinted in his Essays in the Philosophy of History, edited by Wm. Debbins (University of Texas) at 121–139, 138–139.
↑  Luciano Canfora, Giulio Cesare. Il dittatore democratico (Roma-Bari: Gius. Laterza & Figli 1999) translated as Julius Caesar. The life and times of the peoples dictator (University of California 2007) at 348.
↑  Cf., H. H. Scullard, From the Gracchi to Nero. A History of Rome from 133 BC to AD 68 (London: Methuen 1959, 4th ed. 1976) at 157–158.
↑  Cf., Erich S. Gruen, The Last Generation of the Roman Republic (University of California 1974, 1995) at 490–497.
↑  Demandt. Changed circumstances, changed POV. Objective differences. Positivism.
↑  Allen at 452; Mommsen "sees things which others overlook, and gives weight to evidence where others find no evidence." at 452–453; intuitive insight" at 453.
↑  It's a serious defect that there are so few references to authority. Allen at 464.
↑  Allen quote. E.g., his 'portraits'.
↑  Mommsen, The History of Rome (New Haven: Meridian Books 1958), edited by Saunders and Collins, at 2.
↑  Encyclopædia Britannica, cited by Saunders and Collins, "Introduction" at 2, to Mommsen, The History of Rome (1958).
↑  Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History, volume one (Oxford University 1934, 2d ed. 1935, 1962) at I: 3./ref>
↑  History and Historians (1913, 1928) at 456 and 458.
↑  "The Nobel Prize in Literature 1902". nobelprize.org. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2023-06-14.
↑  Cf., Alexander Demandt, "Introduction" 1–35, at 1 (502 n.2), to Mommsen's A History of Rome under the Emperors (Munich 1992; London 1996). Demandt also mentions ونستون تشرشل.
↑  بيرتراند راسل in 1950 received the جائزة نوبل في الأدب. In the award presentation his then recent work تاريخ الفلسفة الغربية (كتاب) (1946) was mentioned first along with a few other books, 35 of his titles being referenced in all.
↑  ونستون تشرشل was a recipient of the جائزة نوبل في الأدب. He was selected in 1953 for his political oratory, his biographies, and his histories, e.g., his The Second World War  ‏ (1948–1953). The later work, of course, he wrote in his role as a leading participant, and it was a collaborative effort. Later Churchill would write his History of the English Speaking Peoples (1956–1958).
↑  The 1993 جائزة نوبل في العلوم الاقتصادية was awarded concurrently to روبرت فوغل and to دوغلاس نورث, both of whom separately wrote economic histories, each employing their discipline's analytic structures in order to better understand major events of the past.
↑  Encyclopædia Britannica, cited by Saunders and Collins, "Introduction" at 2, to Mommsen, The History of Rome (1958). Cf., "Theodor Mommsen" in the 11th edition, published in 1911.
↑  G. P. Gooch, History and Historians (1913, 1928) at 456 and 458.
↑  Arnold J. Toynbee, دراسة للتاريخ (كتاب), volume one (Oxford University 1934, 2d ed. 1935, 1962) at I: 3.
ثيودور مومسن في عام 1863.
مقاطعات الإمبراطورية الرومانية، 117.
مجلس الشيوخ الروماني ( شيشرون يهاجم كاتيلينا، 63 قبل الميلاد). لوحة جدارية من القرن التاسع عشر في مجلس الشيوخ الإيطالي في قصر ماداما.
الخطوط العريضة للدستور الروماني.