أبو الريحان البيروني
مراجع

↑  Ehsan Yarshater, ed. (1982), Encyclopædia Iranica (بالإنجليزية), United States: Columbia University, ISSN:2330-4804, OCLC:59605200, QID:Q1139550
↑  Ehsan Yarshater, ed. (1982), Encyclopædia Iranica (بالإنجليزية), United States: Columbia University, ISSN:2330-4804, OCLC:59605200, QID:Q1139550
↑  تاريخ ماكتوتور لأرشيف الرياضيات، QID:Q547473
1 2 3  تاريخ ماكتوتور لأرشيف الرياضيات، QID:Q547473
1 2  Ehsan Yarshater, ed. (1982), Encyclopædia Iranica (بالإنجليزية), United States: Columbia University, ISSN:2330-4804, OCLC:59605200, QID:Q1139550
↑  "Akhtar, Zia (2011). "Constitutional legitimacy: Sharia law, secularism and the social compact". Indonesia Law Review. 2 (1): 107–127. doi:10.15742/ilrev.v1n2.84. S2CID 153637958" (بالإنجليزية). {{استشهاد ويب}}: الوسيط |مسار= غير موجود أو فارع (help)
↑  Encyclopaedia of Islam (بالإنجليزية), Leiden: Brill, QID:Q61719553
1 2   https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentViewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000074875&file=/in/rest/annotationSVC/DownloadWatermarkedAttachment/attach_import_cccf600a-2c32-492f-8c42-4b1e52fd81d0%3F_%3D074875engo.pdf&updateUrl=updateUrl4740&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000074875/PDF/074875engo.pdf.multi&fullScreen=true&locale=en#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A172%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22XYZ%22%7D%2Cnull%2Cnull%2C0%5D. {{استشهاد ويب}}: |url= بحاجة لعنوان (مساعدة) والوسيط |title= غير موجود أو فارغ (من ويكي بيانات) (مساعدة)
↑  موسوعة علماء العرب والمسلمين..د.محمد فارس
↑
Bosworth, C. E. (1968), “The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World (A.D. 1000–1217)”, J.A. Boyle (ed.), Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 5: The Saljuq and Mongol Periods, Cambridge University Press: 1-202. [45]. Excerpt from page 7:"The Iranian scholar al-BIruni says that the Khwarazmian era began when the region was first settled and cultivated, this date being placed in the early 13th-century BC) "
↑
Richard Frye: "The contribution of Iranians to Islamic mathematics is overwhelming...The name of Abu Raihan Al-Biruni, from Khwarazm, must be mentioned since he was one of the greatest scientists in World History"(R.N. Frye, "The Golden age of Persia", 2000, Phoenix Press. pg 162)
↑
M. A. Saleem Khan, "Al-Biruni's discovery of India: an interpretative study", iAcademicBooks, 2001. pg 11: "It is generally accepted that he was Persian by origin, and spoke the Khwarizmian dialect"  نسخة محفوظة 22 مارس 2020 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑
Rahman، H. U. (1995). A Chronology of Islamic History : 570 - 1000 CE. London: Mansell Publishing. ص. 167. ISBN:1897940327. A Persian by birth, Biruni produced his writings in Arabic, though he knew, besides Persian, no less than four other languages
↑  "أبو ريحان البيروني". ثقف نفسك. 4 سبتمبر 2012. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2020-09-27. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2020-11-27.
1 2  Boilot، D.J.، Al-Biruni (Beruni), Abu'l Rayhan Muhammad b. Ahmad New Ed.، ج. 1، ص. 1236–1238، He was born of an Iranian family in 362/973 (according to al-Ghadanfar, on 3 Dhu'l-Hididja/ 4 September – see إدورد سخاو, Chronology, xivxvi), in the suburb (birun) of Kath, capital of Khwarizm....was one of the greatest scholars of mediaeval Islam, and certainly the most original and profound. He was equally well versed in the mathematical, astronomic, physical and natural sciences and also distinguished himself as a geographer and historian, chronologist and linguist and as an impartial observer of customs and creeds. He is known as al-Ustdadh, 'the Master'. in Bearman, Bianquis & Bosworth 2007
↑  Yano, Michio (1 Sep 2013). "al-Bīrūnī". Encyclopaedia of Islam, THREE (بالإنجليزية). Archived from the original on 2019-12-08.
↑  Healey، Christina (2006). Al-Biruni.
↑  Verdon، Noémie (2015). "Conceptualisation of al-Hind by Arabic and Persian writers". في Ray، Himanshu Prabha (المحرر). Negotiating Cultural Identity: Landscapes in Early Medieval South Asian History. Routledge. ص. 52. ISBN:978-1-317-34130-7.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8  Sparavigna، Amelia (2013). "The Science of Al-Biruni". International Journal of Sciences. ج. 2. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2019-04-11.
↑  Bosworth 1968
↑  Bosworth، C.E.، Ḵh̲ W Ārazm in Bearman, Bianquis & Bosworth 2007
↑  Kennedy, E.S. (26 Jun 1975). "The Exact Sciences". In Frye, R. N.; Fisher, William Bayne (eds.). The Cambridge History of Iran: The period from the Arab invasion to the Saljuqs (بالإنجليزية). Cambridge University Press. p. 394. ISBN:9780521200936.
↑  Hodgson, Marshall G. S. (1974). The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization (بالإنجليزية). University of Chicago Press. p. 68. ISBN:978-0226346779.
↑  Khan، M.S. (1976). "Al-Biruni and the Political History of India". Oriens. 25/26. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2019-12-08.
↑ "A Persian by birth, a rationalist in disposition, this contemporary of Avicenna and Alhazen not only studied history, philosophy, and geography in depth, but wrote one of the most comprehensive Muslim astronomical treatises, the Qanun Al-Masu'di." ; "نسخة مؤرشفة". مؤرشف من الأصل في 2008-01-13. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2011-11-01 . {{استشهاد ويب}} : صيانة الاستشهاد: BOT: original URL status unknown (link)
Biruni (2007). موسوعة بريتانيكا. Retrieved 22 April 2007;
David C. Lindberg, Science in the Middle Ages, دار نشر جامعة شيكاغو, p. 18:
↑
L. Massignon, "Al-Biruni et la valuer internationale de la science arabe" in Al-Biruni Commemoration Volume, (Calcutta, 1951). pp 217-219.
   
In a celebrated preface to the book of Drugs, Biruni says: And if it is true that in all nations one likes to adorn oneself by using the language to which one has remained loyal, having become accustomed to using it with friends and companions according to need, I must judge for myself that in my native Khwarezmian, science has as much as chance of becoming perpetuated as a camel has of facing الكعبة.
   
;
↑
Gotthard Strohmaier, "Biruni" in Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach, Medieval Islamic Civilization: A-K, index: Vol. 1 of Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, Taylor & Francis, 2006. excerpt from page 112: "Although his native Khwarezmian was also an لغات إيرانية, he rejected the emerging neo-Persian literature of his time (Firdawsi), preferring Arabic instead as the only adequate medium of science.";
↑
D. N. MacKenzie, Encyclopaedia Iranica, "CHORASMIA iii. The Chorasmian Language". Excerpt: "Chorasmian, the original Iranian language of Chorasmia, is attested at two stages of its development..The earliest examples have been left by the great Chorasmian scholar Abū Rayḥān Bīrūnī.";
↑
Helaine Selin, "Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology, and medicine in non-western cultures ", Springer, 1997. "Al-Biruni", pg 157: "his native language was the Khwarizmian dialect"
1 2  مجلة المؤرخ العربي في العراق، العدد الأول، ص 10.
↑  أبو الريحان البيروني وكتابه "الصيدنة" - IslamOnline اسلام اون لاين نسخة محفوظة 31 مايو 2009 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  George Saliba. "Al-Bīrūnī". Encyclopaedia Britannica. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2019-07-25. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2017-08-12.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7  Khan، M.S. (1976). "Al-biruni and the Political History of India". Oriens. 25/26.
↑  Bīrūnī، Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad (1910). "On the Hindus in General, as an Introduction to Our Account of Them". Alberuni's India: An Account of the Religion, Philosophy, Literature, Geography, Chronology, Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of India about A.D. 1030. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner. ج. 1. ص. 17. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2019-10-07see also Vol 2 of Al-Biruni's India.{{استشهاد بكتاب}}:  صيانة الاستشهاد: postscript (link)
↑  Kennedy، E.S.؛ Engle، Susan؛ Wamstad، Jeanne (1965). "The Hindu Calendar as Described in Al-Biruni's Masudic Canon". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. ج. 24.
↑  Ahmed، Akbar S. (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist". RAIN ع. 60: 9–10. DOI:10.2307/3033407. ISSN:0307-6776. JSTOR:3033407.
↑  Tapper، Richard (1995). ""Islamic Anthropology" and the "Anthropology of Islam"". Anthropological Quarterly. ج. 68 ع. 3: 185–193. DOI:10.2307/3318074. JSTOR:3318074. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-03-31.
↑  Saliba 1989.
↑  Al-Biruni, R. (1 Mar 2004). The Book of Instruction in the Elements of the Art of Astrology (بالإنجليزية). Kessinger Publishing. ISBN:9780766193079.
↑  Douglas (1973, p.210)
↑  Al-Biruni, trans. by إدورد سخاو (1888), Alberuni's India: an account of the religion, philosophy, and literature, p.277
↑  Berjak 2005، part 5.
↑  Berjak 2005، part 3.
↑  Berjak 2005، part 8.
↑  Rosenfeld، B. "Book review of Life and Works of al-Buruni by P. Bulgakov". Journal for the History of Astronomy. ج. 5: 135. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2019-12-08. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2018-07-06.
↑  Covington، Richard. "Rediscovering Arabic Science". Aramco World. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2019-01-01. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2018-10-05.
↑  Houtsma M. Th. in Encyclopaedia of Islam (Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P., eds.), (2007).
↑  Stephenson, F. Richard (24 Mar 2008). Historical Eclipses and Earth's Rotation (بالإنجليزية). Cambridge University Press. pp. 45, 457, 488–499. ISBN:9780521056335.
1 2  Alikuzai 2013.
↑  Rozhanskaya, Mariam; Levinova, I. S. (1996). Rushdī, Rāshid (ed.). Statics (بالإنجليزية). Psychology Press. p. 642. ISBN:9780415124119. Using a whole body of mathematical methods (not only those inherited from the antique theory of ratios and infinitesimal techniques, but also the methods of the contemporary algebra and fine calculation techniques), Muslim scientists raised statics to a new, higher level. The classical results of Archimedes in the theory of the centre of gravity were generalized and applied to three-dimensional bodies, the theory of ponderable lever was founded and the 'science of gravity' was created and later further developed in medieval Europe. The phenomena of statics were studied by using the dynamic approach so that two trends – statics and dynamics – turned out to be inter-related within a single science, mechanics. The combination of the dynamic approach with Archimedean hydrostatics gave birth to a direction in science which may be called medieval hydrodynamics. [...] Numerous fine experimental methods were developed for determining the specific weight, which were based, in particular, on the theory of balances and weighing. The classical works of al-Biruni and al-Khazini can by right be considered as the beginning of the application of experimental methods in medieval science. {{استشهاد بكتاب}}: الوسيط غير المعروف |موسوعة= تم تجاهله (help)
↑  Starr، S. Frederick (12 ديسمبر 2013). "So, Who Did Discover America? | History Today". www.historytoday.com. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2018-10-09. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2018-07-06.
↑  Kujundzić, E.; Masić, I. (1999). "[Al-Biruni—a universal scientist]". Med. Arh. (بالكرواتية). 53 (2): 117–120. PMID:10386051.
↑  Levey، Martin (1973). Early Arabic Pharmacology: An Introduction Based on Ancient and Medieval Sources. Brill Archive. ص. 179. ISBN:90-04-03796-9.
↑  Anawati 1989.
1 2  Pingree 2010.
↑  de Blois 2010.
↑  Rosenthal 1976، صفحة 10.
↑  Ataman 2005.
↑  أبو الريحان البيروني.. فيزيائي وعالم موسوعي قصة الإسلام، تايخ الولوج 4 سبتمبر 2012 نسخة محفوظة 10 مايو 2016 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  S.H. Nasr, "An introduction to Islamic cosmological doctrines: conceptions of nature and methods used for its study by the Ikhwān al-Ṣafāʾ, al-Bīrūnī, and Ibn Sīnā", 2nd edition, Revised. SUNY press, 1993. pp 111: "Al-Biruni wrote one of the masterpieces of medieval science, Kitab al-Tafhim, apparently in both Arabic and Persian, demonstrating how conversant he was in both tongues. The Kitab al-Tafhim is without doubt the most important of the early works of science in Persian and serves as a rich source for Persian prose and lexicography as well as for the knowledge of the Quadrivium whose subjects it covers in a masterly fashion"
↑  Patrologia Orientalis tom.10 p.291
↑  Patrologia orientalis. Robarts – University of Toronto. Paris Firmin-Didot. 1907 [1903]. ص. 291–312. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2019-07-09.{{استشهاد بكتاب}}:  صيانة الاستشهاد: آخرون (link)
↑  Kraus, Paul, ed. (1936), Epître de Berūnī (بالفرنسية), Paris: Maisonneuve
↑  "BBc Radio: In our Time – Al-Biruni". مؤرشف من الأصل في 2019-04-22.
↑  Abbasov، Shukhrat (14 أبريل 1975)، Abu Raykhan Beruni، Pulat Saidkasymov, Bakhtiyer Shukurov, Razak Khamrayev، مؤرشف من الأصل في 2019-06-11، اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2018-07-04
↑  UNIS. "Monument to Be Inaugurated at the Vienna International Centre, 'Scholars Pavilion' donated to International Organizations in Vienna by Iran". مؤرشف من الأصل في 2018-12-26. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2016-09-11.
↑  "Permanent mission of the Islamic Republic of Iran to the United Nations office – Vienna". en.viennaun.mfa.ir. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2019-04-02.
↑  Hosseini، Mir Masood. "Negareh: Persian Scholars Pavilion at United Nations Vienna, Austria". مؤرشف من الأصل في 2019-04-02. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2016-09-11.
↑  Lunar features نسخة محفوظة 21 أكتوبر 2000 على موقع واي باك مشين.