التأثيرات العصبية والحيوية للتمارين الرياضية
مراجع

1 2 3 4 5 6  Erickson KI، Hillman CH، Kramer AF (أغسطس 2015). "Physical activity, brain, and cognition". Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences. ج. 4: 27–32. DOI:10.1016/j.cobeha.2015.01.005.
1 2 3  Paillard T، Rolland Y، de Souto Barreto P (يوليو 2015). "Protective Effects of Physical Exercise in Alzheimer's Disease and Parkinson's Disease: A Narrative Review". J Clin Neurol. ج. 11 ع. 3: 212–219. DOI:10.3988/jcn.2015.11.3.212. PMC:4507374. PMID:26174783. Aerobic physical exercise (PE) activates the release of neurotrophic factors and promotes angiogenesis, thereby facilitating neurogenesis and synaptogenesis, which in turn improve memory and cognitive functions. ... Exercise limits the alteration in dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra and contributes to optimal functioning of the basal ganglia involved in motor commands and control by adaptive mechanisms involving dopamine and glutamate neurotransmission.
1 2  McKee AC، Daneshvar DH، Alvarez VE، Stein TD (يناير 2014). "The neuropathology of sport". Acta Neuropathol. ج. 127 ع. 1: 29–51. DOI:10.1007/s00401-013-1230-6. PMC:4255282. PMID:24366527. The benefits of regular exercise, physical fitness and sports participation on cardiovascular and brain health are undeniable ... Exercise also enhances psychological health, reduces age-related loss of brain volume, improves cognition, reduces the risk of developing dementia, and impedes neurodegeneration.
1 2  Denham J، Marques FZ، O'Brien BJ، Charchar FJ (فبراير 2014). "Exercise: putting action into our epigenome". Sports Med. ج. 44 ع. 2: 189–209. DOI:10.1007/s40279-013-0114-1. PMID:24163284. Aerobic physical exercise produces numerous health benefits in the brain. Regular engagement in physical exercise enhances cognitive functioning, increases brain neurotrophic proteins, such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and prevents cognitive diseases [76–78]. Recent findings highlight a role for aerobic exercise in modulating chromatin remodelers [21, 79–82]. ... These results were the first to demonstrate that acute and relatively short aerobic exercise modulates epigenetic modifications. The transient epigenetic modifications observed due to chronic running training have also been associated with improved learning and stress-coping strategies, epigenetic changes and increased c-Fos-positive neurons ... Nonetheless, these studies demonstrate the existence of epigenetic changes after acute and chronic exercise and show they are associated with improved cognitive function and elevated markers of neurotrophic factors and neuronal activity (BDNF and c-Fos). ... The aerobic exercise training-induced changes to miRNA profile in the brain seem to be intensity-dependent [164]. These few studies provide a basis for further exploration into potential miRNAs involved in brain and neuronal development and recovery via aerobic exercise.
1 2 3 4 5 6  Gomez-Pinilla F، Hillman C (يناير 2013). The influence of exercise on cognitive abilities. ج. 3. ص. 403–428. DOI:10.1002/cphy.c110063. ISBN:9780470650714. PMC:3951958. PMID:23720292. {{استشهاد بكتاب}}: |صحيفة= تُجوهل (مساعدة)
1 2 3 4 5  Erickson KI، Leckie RL، Weinstein AM (سبتمبر 2014). "Physical activity, fitness, and gray matter volume". Neurobiol. Aging. 35 Suppl 2: S20–528. DOI:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2014.03.034. PMC:4094356. PMID:24952993.
1 2 3  Guiney H، Machado L (فبراير 2013). "Benefits of regular aerobic exercise for executive functioning in healthy populations". Psychon Bull Rev. ج. 20 ع. 1: 73–86. DOI:10.3758/s13423-012-0345-4. PMID:23229442. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-04-05.
1 2 3 4  Erickson KI، Miller DL، Roecklein KA (2012). "The aging hippocampus: interactions between exercise, depression, and BDNF". Neuroscientist. ج. 18 ع. 1: 82–97. DOI:10.1177/1073858410397054. PMC:3575139. PMID:21531985.
1 2 3  Buckley J، Cohen JD، Kramer AF، McAuley E، Mullen SP (2014). "Cognitive control in the self-regulation of physical activity and sedentary behavior". Front Hum Neurosci. ج. 8: 747. DOI:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00747. PMC:4179677. PMID:25324754.{{استشهاد بدورية محكمة}}:  صيانة الاستشهاد: دوي مجاني غير معلم (link)
1 2  Cox EP، O'Dwyer N، Cook R، Vetter M، Cheng HL، Rooney K، O'Connor H (أغسطس 2016). "Relationship between physical activity and cognitive function in apparently healthy young to middle-aged adults: A systematic review". J. Sci. Med. Sport. ج. 19 ع. 8: 616–628. DOI:10.1016/j.jsams.2015.09.003. PMID:26552574. A range of validated platforms assessed CF across three domains: executive function (12 studies), memory (four studies) and processing speed (seven studies). ... In studies of executive function, five found a significant ES in favour of higher PA, ranging from small to large. Although three of four studies in the memory domain reported a significant benefit of higher PA, there was only one significant ES, which favoured low PA. Only one study examining processing speed had a significant ES, favouring higher PA.
CONCLUSIONS: A limited body of evidence supports a positive effect of PA on CF in young to middle-aged adults. Further research into this relationship at this age stage is warranted. ...
Significant positive effects of PA on cognitive function were found in 12 of the 14 included manuscripts, the relationship being most consistent for executive function, intermediate for memory and weak for processing speed.
↑  Schuch FB، Vancampfort D، Rosenbaum S، Richards J، Ward PB، Stubbs B (يوليو 2016). "Exercise improves physical and psychological quality of life in people with depression: A meta-analysis including the evaluation of control group response". Psychiatry Res. ج. 241: 47–54. DOI:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.04.054. PMID:27155287. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2019-08-24. Exercise has established efficacy as an antidepressant in people with depression. ... Exercise significantly improved physical and psychological domains and overall QoL. ... The lack of improvement among control groups reinforces the role of exercise as a treatment for depression with benefits to QoL.
↑  Pratali L، Mastorci F، Vitiello N، Sironi A، Gastaldelli A، Gemignani A (نوفمبر 2014). "Motor Activity in Aging: An Integrated Approach for Better Quality of Life". International Scholarly Research Notices. ج. 2014: 257248. DOI:10.1155/2014/257248. PMC:4897547. PMID:27351018. Research investigating the effects of exercise on older adults has primarily focused on brain structural and functional changes with relation to cognitive improvement. In particular, several cross-sectional and intervention studies have shown a positive association between physical activity and cognition in older persons [86] and an inverse correlation with cognitive decline and dementia [87]. Older adults enrolled in a 6-month aerobic fitness intervention increased brain volume in both gray matter (anterior cingulate cortex, supplementary motor area, posterior middle frontal gyrus, and left superior temporal lobe) and white matter (anterior third of corpus callosum) [88]. In addition, Colcombe and colleagues showed that older adults with higher cardiovascular fitness levels are better at activating attentional resources, including decreased activation of the anterior cingulated cortex. One of the possible mechanisms by which physical activity may benefit cognition is that physical activity maintains brain plasticity, increases brain volume, stimulates neurogenesis and synaptogenesis, and increases neurotrophic factors in different areas of the brain, possibly providing reserve against later cognitive decline and dementia [89, 90].{{استشهاد بدورية محكمة}}:  صيانة الاستشهاد: دوي مجاني غير معلم (link)
1 2  Basso JC, Suzuki WA (مارس 2017). "The Effects of Acute Exercise on Mood, Cognition, Neurophysiology, and Neurochemical Pathways: A Review". Brain Plasticity. ج. 2 ع. 2: 127–152. DOI:10.3233/BPL-160040. PMC:5928534. PMID:29765853. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2019-03-10. A large collection of research in humans has shown that a single bout of exercise alters behavior at the level of affective state and cognitive functioning in several key ways. In terms of affective state, acute exercise decreases negative affect, increases positive affect, and decreases the psychological and physiological response to acute stress [28]. These effects have been reported to persist for up to 24 hours after exercise cessation [28, 29, 53]. In terms of cognitive functioning, acute exercise primarily enhances executive functions dependent on the prefrontal cortex including attention, working memory, problem solving, cognitive flexibility, verbal fluency, decision making, and inhibitory control [9]. These positive changes have been demonstrated to occur with very low to very high exercise intensities [9], with effects lasting for up to two hours after the end of the exercise bout (Fig. 1A) [27]. Moreover, many of these neuropsychological assessments measure several aspects of behavior including both accuracy of performance and speed of processing. McMorris and Hale performed a meta-analysis examining the effects of acute exercise on both accuracy and speed of processing, revealing that speed significantly improved post-exercise, with minimal or no effect on accuracy [17]. These authors concluded that increasing task difficulty or complexity may help to augment the effect of acute exercise on accuracy. ... However, in a comprehensive meta-analysis, Chang and colleagues found that exercise intensities ranging from very light (<50% MHR) to very hard (>93% MHR) have all been reported to improve cognitive functioning [9].
↑  Cunha GS, Ribeiro JL, Oliveira AR (Jun 2008). "[Levels of beta-endorphin in response to exercise and overtraining]". Arq Bras Endocrinol Metabol (بالبرتغالية). 52 (4): 589–598. DOI:10.1590/S0004-27302008000400004. PMID:18604371. Interestingly, some symptoms of OT are related to beta-endorphin (beta-end(1-31)) effects. Some of its effects, such as analgesia, increasing lactate tolerance, and exercise-induced euphoria, are important for training.
↑  Boecker H، Sprenger T، Spilker ME، Henriksen G، Koppenhoefer M، Wagner KJ، Valet M، Berthele A، Tolle TR (2008). "The runner's high: opioidergic mechanisms in the human brain". Cereb. Cortex. ج. 18 ع. 11: 2523–2531. DOI:10.1093/cercor/bhn013. PMID:18296435. The runner's high describes a euphoric state resulting from long-distance running.
↑  Josefsson T، Lindwall M، Archer T (2014). "Physical exercise intervention in depressive disorders: meta-analysis and systematic review". Scand J Med Sci Sports. ج. 24 ع. 2: 259–272. DOI:10.1111/sms.12050. PMID:23362828.
1 2  Szuhany KL، Bugatti M، Otto MW (أكتوبر 2014). "A meta-analytic review of the effects of exercise on brain-derived neurotrophic factor". J Psychiatr Res. ج. 60C: 56–64. DOI:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.10.003. PMC:4314337. PMID:25455510. Consistent evidence indicates that exercise improves cognition and mood, with preliminary evidence suggesting that brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) may mediate these effects. The aim of the current meta-analysis was to provide an estimate of the strength of the association between exercise and increased BDNF levels in humans across multiple exercise paradigms. We conducted a meta-analysis of 29 studies (N = 1111 participants) examining the effect of exercise on BDNF levels in three exercise paradigms: (1) a single session of exercise, (2) a session of exercise following a program of regular exercise, and (3) resting BDNF levels following a program of regular exercise. Moderators of this effect were also examined. Results demonstrated a moderate effect size for increases in BDNF following a single session of exercise (Hedges' g = 0.46, p < 0.001). Further, regular exercise intensified the effect of a session of exercise on BDNF levels (Hedges' g = 0.59, p = 0.02). Finally, results indicated a small effect of regular exercise on resting BDNF levels (Hedges' g = 0.27, p = 0.005). ... Effect size analysis supports the role of exercise as a strategy for enhancing BDNF activity in humans.
1 2  Lees C، Hopkins J (2013). "Effect of aerobic exercise on cognition, academic achievement, and psychosocial function in children: a systematic review of randomized control trials". Prev Chronic Dis. ج. 10: E174. DOI:10.5888/pcd10.130010. PMC:3809922. PMID:24157077. This omission is relevant, given the evidence that aerobic-based physical activity generates structural changes in the brain, such as neurogenesis, angiogenesis, increased hippocampal volume, and connectivity (12,13). In children, a positive relationship between aerobic fitness, hippocampal volume, and memory has been found (12,13). ... Mental health outcomes included reduced depression and increased self-esteem, although no change was found in anxiety levels (18). ... This systematic review of the literature found that [aerobic physical activity (APA)] is positively associated with cognition, academic achievement, behavior, and psychosocial functioning outcomes. Importantly, Shephard also showed that curriculum time reassigned to APA still results in a measurable, albeit small, improvement in academic performance (24).  ... The actual aerobic-based activity does not appear to be a major factor; interventions used many different types of APA and found similar associations. In positive association studies, intensity of the aerobic activity was moderate to vigorous. The amount of time spent in APA varied significantly between studies; however, even as little as 45 minutes per week appeared to have a benefit.
↑  Farina N، Rusted J، Tabet N (يناير 2014). "The effect of exercise interventions on cognitive outcome in Alzheimer's disease: a systematic review". Int Psychogeriatr. ج. 26 ع. 1: 9–18. DOI:10.1017/S1041610213001385. PMID:23962667. Six RCTs were identified that exclusively considered the effect of exercise in AD patients. Exercise generally had a positive effect on rate of cognitive decline in AD. A meta-analysis found that exercise interventions have a positive effect on global cognitive function, 0.75 (95% CI = 0.32–1.17). ... The most prevalent subtype of dementia is Alzheimer's disease (AD), accounting for up to 65.0% of all dementia cases ... Cognitive decline in AD is attributable at least in part to the buildup of amyloid and tau proteins, which promote neuronal dysfunction and death (Hardy and Selkoe, 2002; Karran et al., 2011). Evidence in transgenic mouse models of AD, in which the mice have artificially elevated amyloid load, suggests that exercise programs are able to improve cognitive function (Adlard et al., 2005; Nichol et al., 2007). Adlard and colleagues also determined that the improvement in cognitive performance occurred in conjunction with a reduced amyloid load. Research that includes direct indices of change in such biomarkers will help to determine the mechanisms by which exercise may act on cognition in AD.
↑  Rao AK، Chou A، Bursley B، Smulofsky J، Jezequel J (يناير 2014). "Systematic review of the effects of exercise on activities of daily living in people with Alzheimer's disease". Am J Occup Ther. ج. 68 ع. 1: 50–56. DOI:10.5014/ajot.2014.009035. PMC:5360200. PMID:24367955. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurological disorder characterized by loss in cognitive function, abnormal behavior, and decreased ability to perform basic activities of daily living [(ADLs)] ... All studies included people with AD who completed an exercise program consisting of aerobic, strength, or balance training or any combination of the three. The length of the exercise programs varied from 12 weeks to 12 months. ... Six studies involving 446 participants tested the effect of exercise on ADL performance ... exercise had a large and significant effect on ADL performance (z = 4.07, p < .0001; average effect size = 0.80). ... These positive effects were apparent with programs ranging in length from 12 wk (Santana-Sosa et al., 2008; Teri et al., 2003) and intermediate length of 16 wk (Roach et al., 2011; Vreugdenhil et al., 2012) to 6 mo (Venturelli et al., 2011) and 12 mo (Rolland et al., 2007). Furthermore, the positive effects of a 3-mo intervention lasted 24 mo (Teri et al., 2003). ... No adverse effects of exercise on ADL performance were noted. ... The study with the largest effect size implemented a walking and aerobic program of only 30 min four times a week (Venturelli et al., 2011).
↑  Mattson MP (2014). "Interventions that improve body and brain bioenergetics for Parkinson's disease risk reduction and therapy". J Parkinsons Dis. ج. 4 ع. 1: 1–13. DOI:10.3233/JPD-130335. PMID:24473219.
↑  Grazina R، Massano J (2013). "Physical exercise and Parkinson's disease: influence on symptoms, disease course and prevention". Rev Neurosci. ج. 24 ع. 2: 139–152. DOI:10.1515/revneuro-2012-0087. PMID:23492553.
↑  van der Kolk NM، King LA (سبتمبر 2013). "Effects of exercise on mobility in people with Parkinson's disease". Mov. Disord. ج. 28 ع. 11: 1587–1596. DOI:10.1002/mds.25658. PMID:24132847.
↑  Tomlinson CL، Patel S، Meek C، Herd CP، Clarke CE، Stowe R، Shah L، Sackley CM، Deane KH، Wheatley K، Ives N (سبتمبر 2013). "Physiotherapy versus placebo or no intervention in Parkinson's disease". Cochrane Database Syst Rev. ج. 9 ع. 9: CD002817. DOI:10.1002/14651858.CD002817.pub4. PMID:24018704.
↑  Tarumi T، Zhang R (يناير 2014). "Cerebral hemodynamics of the aging brain: risk of Alzheimer disease and benefit of aerobic exercise". Front Physiol. ج. 5: 6. DOI:10.3389/fphys.2014.00006. PMC:3896879. PMID:24478719. Exercise-related improvements in brain function and structure may be conferred by the concurrent adaptations in vascular function and structure. Aerobic exercise increases the peripheral levels of growth factors (e.g., BDNF, IFG-1, and VEGF) which cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and stimulate neurogenesis and angiogenesis (Trejo et al., 2001; Lee et al., 2002; Fabel et al., 2003; Lopez-Lopez et al., 2004).{{استشهاد بدورية محكمة}}:  صيانة الاستشهاد: دوي مجاني غير معلم (link)
↑  Silverman MN، Deuster PA (أكتوبر 2014). "Biological mechanisms underlying the role of physical fitness in health and resilience". Interface Focus. ج. 4 ع. 5: 20140040. DOI:10.1098/rsfs.2014.0040. PMC:4142018. PMID:25285199.
↑  Carvalho A، Rea IM، Parimon T، Cusack BJ (2014). "Physical activity and cognitive function in individuals over 60 years of age: a systematic review". Clin Interv Aging. ج. 9: 661–682. DOI:10.2147/CIA.S55520. PMC:3990369. PMID:24748784.{{استشهاد بدورية محكمة}}:  صيانة الاستشهاد: دوي مجاني غير معلم (link)
↑  Ehlert T، Simon P، Moser DA (فبراير 2013). "Epigenetics in sports". Sports Med. ج. 43 ع. 2: 93–110. DOI:10.1007/s40279-012-0012-y. PMID:23329609. Alterations in epigenetic modification patterns have been demonstrated to be dependent on exercise and growth hormone (GH), insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), and steroid administration. ... the authors observed improved stress coping in exercised subjects. Investigating the dentate gyrus, a brain region which is involved in learning and coping with stressful and traumatic events, they could show that this effect is mediated by increased phosphorylation of serine 10 combined with H3K14 acetylation, which is associated with local opening of condensed chromatin. Consequently, they found increased immediate early gene expression as shown for c-FOS (FBJ murine osteosarcoma viral oncogene homologue).
↑  Batouli SH، Saba V (يونيو 2017). "At least eighty percent of brain grey matter is modifiable by physical activity: A review study". Behavioural Brain Research. ج. 332: 204–217. DOI:10.1016/j.bbr.2017.06.002. PMID:28600001. The results of this study showed that a large network of brain areas, equal to 82% of the total grey matter volume, were associated with PA. This finding has important implications in utilizing PA as a mediator factor for educational purposes in children, rehabilitation applications in patients, improving the cognitive abilities of the human brain such as in learning or memory, and preventing age-related brain deteriorations. ... There is a significant association between the volume of the brain areas and their corresponding functions. Examples include the association of total and regional brain volumes (BV) with executive function and speed of processing, intelligence, working, verbal and spatial memory, and skill acquisition performance [27–29]. The connections between brain function and structure is due to the neural information processing being dependent on the size, arrangement, and configuration of the neurons, the number and type of the synaptic connections of the neurons, on the quality of their connection with distant neurons, and on the properties of non-neuronal cells such as glia [30]. ... This study showed that PA is positively associating with nearly all brain regions.
1 2  Erickson KI، Voss MW، Prakash RS، Basak C، Szabo A، Chaddock L، Kim JS، Heo S، Alves H، White SM، Wojcicki TR، Mailey E، Vieira VJ، Martin SA، Pence BD، Woods JA، McAuley E، Kramer AF (فبراير 2011). "Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. ج. 108 ع. 7: 3017–3022. Bibcode:2011PNAS..108.3017E. DOI:10.1073/pnas.1015950108. PMC:3041121. PMID:21282661.
1 2  Valkanova V، Eguia Rodriguez R، Ebmeier KP (يونيو 2014). "Mind over matter—what do we know about neuroplasticity in adults?". Int Psychogeriatr. ج. 26 ع. 6: 891–909. DOI:10.1017/S1041610213002482. PMID:24382194. Control group: Active
Intervention: Aerobic exercise
 [Increased GMV in:] Lobes (dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, supplementary motor area, middle frontal gyrus bilaterally); R inferior frontal gyrus, middle frontal gyrus and L superior temporal lobe; increase in the volume of anterior white matter tracts ... ↑GMV anterior hippocampus
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