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مراجع

↑  وليد عبد الغني كعكة (2006). معجم مصطلحات علوم الحشرات والإدارة المتكاملة للآفات: الآفات الحشرية الزراعية و الطبية و البيطرية - إنجليزي - عربي. مطبوعات جامعة الامارات العربية المتحدة (87) (بالعربية والإنجليزية) (ط. 1). العين: جامعة الإمارات العربية المتحدة. ص. 313. ISBN:978-9948-02-125-4. OCLC:1227861266. QID:Q125602383.
↑  إدوار غالب (1988). الموسوعة في علوم الطبيعة: تبحث في الزراعة والنبات والحيوان والجيولوجيا (بالعربية واللاتينية والألمانية والفرنسية والإنجليزية) (ط. 2). بيروت: دار المشرق. ج. 2. ص. 784. ISBN:978-2-7214-2148-7. OCLC:44585590. OL:12529883M. QID:Q113297966.
↑  Michael Kent (2000). Advanced biology. دار نشر جامعة أكسفورد. ص. 250–253. ISBN:0199141959. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-10-14. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2015-10-21.
↑  "Copulation". The Free Dictionary. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-11-19. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2012-09-06.
↑  Cecie Starr؛ Christine Evers؛ Lisa Starr (2010). Cengage Advantage Books: Biology: A Human Emphasis. Cengage Learning. ص. 630–631. ISBN:978-1133170051. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-10-08. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2010-12-09.
↑  Edward J. Denecke Jr. (2006). New York State Grade 8 Intermediate Level Science Test. Barron's Educational Series. ص. 105. ISBN:0764134337. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2014-12-09.
↑  Donna M. Jackson (2004). The Bug Scientists. هوتون ميفلين هاركورت. ص. 13. ISBN:0618432329. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-04-07. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2017-03-07.
↑  Fred F. Ferri (2016). Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2017: 5 Books in 1. إلزيفير. ص. 178. ISBN:978-0323448383. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-04-20. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2017-03-07.
↑  Ruppert, E.E.؛ Fox, R.S. & Barnes, R.D. (2004). "Chelicerata: Araneae". Invertebrate Zoology (ط. 7th). Brooks/Cole. ص. 571–584. ISBN:0-03-025982-7. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-05-17.
↑  M. Yadav (2003). Breeding in Insects. Discovery Publishing House. ص. 59. ISBN:817141737X. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-10-01. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2014-12-09.
↑  Franz Engelmann (2013). The Physiology of Insect Reproduction: International Series of Monographs in Pure and Applied Biology: Zoology. إلزيفير. ص. 58–59. ISBN:978-1483186535. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-10-06. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2014-12-09.
↑  Janet Leonard؛ Alex Cordoba-Aguilar (2010). The Evolution of Primary Sexual Characters in Animals. دار نشر جامعة أكسفورد. ص. 334. ISBN:978-0199717033. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-10-06. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2014-12-09.
↑  P. J. Gullan؛ P. S. Cranston (2009). The Insects: An Outline of Entomology. وايلي (ناشر). ص. 124. ISBN:978-1405144575. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2022-10-01. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2014-12-09.
1 2 3 4 5  Georgiadis JR، Kringelbach ML، Pfaus JG (سبتمبر 2012). "Sex for fun: a synthesis of human and animal neurobiology". Nature Reviews. Urology. ج. 9 ع. 9: 486–98. DOI:10.1038/nrurol.2012.151. PMID:22926422. S2CID:13813765. The sexual pleasure cycle adheres to the basic structure of pleasure cycles related to other rewards (such as food), and can therefore also be expressed in terms of motivation–consummation–satiety or wanting–liking–inhibition (Figure 1; Box 2).6,11,1 ... Similar to other forms of learning, sexual behaviour develops over time as people learn to associate stimuli such as bodily features, personality, and contextual cues with genitally-induced sexual pleasure.7 Adolescence is arguably the most critical phase in sexual development ... Popular belief holds that humans also respond to some distal sexual incentive stimuli (breasts, pheromones) in an unconditioned manner, but this has been difficult to evaluate empirically (Box 1) ... Sexual wanting in both rats and humans involves interaction between gonadal hormones and external stimuli that become sexual incentives through association with genitally-induced sexual reward; pleasurable genital stimulation is thus a major factor in sexual learning ...
 · Unconditioned sexual stimuli (that is, those for which the pleasurable effect requires no learning) include proximal genital tactile stimulation in humans and distal stimuli such as pheromones, odours, and certain auditory vocalizations in rats.7,16
 · Sexual inhibition involves similar brain mechanisms in rats and humans
 · Rats show a similar pattern of brain activation to humans in response to cues related to sexual reward
 · Cortical, limbic, hypothalamic, and cerebellar regions are activated by sex-related stimuli in both humans and rats
1 2  Schultz W (2015). "Neuronal reward and decision signals: from theories to data". Physiological Reviews. ج. 95 ع. 3: 853–951. DOI:10.1152/physrev.00023.2014. PMC:4491543. PMID:26109341. Sexual behavior follows hormonal imbalances, at least in men, but is also strongly based on pleasure. To acquire and follow these primary alimentary and mating rewards is the main reason why the brain's reward system has evolved in the first place. Note that "primary" reward does not refer to the distinction between unconditioned versus conditioned reward; indeed, most primary rewards are learned and thus conditioned (foods are primary rewards that are typically learnt). ... Pleasure is not only one of the three main reward functions but also provides a definition of reward. As homeostasis explains the functions of only a limited number of rewards, the prevailing reason why particular stimuli, objects, events, situations, and activities are rewarding may be pleasure. This applies first of all to sex (who would engage in the ridiculous gymnastics of reproductive activity if it were not for the pleasure) and to the primary homeostatic rewards of food and liquid, and extends to money, taste, beauty, social encounters and nonmaterial, internally set, and intrinsic rewards. ... Desire makes behavior purposeful and directs it towards identifiable goals. Thus desire is the emotion that helps to actively direct behavior towards known rewards, whereas pleasure is the passive experience that derives from a received or anticipated reward. Desire has multiple relations to pleasure; it may be pleasant in itself (I feel a pleasant desire), and it may lead to pleasure (I desire to obtain a pleasant object). Thus pleasure and desire have distinctive characteristics but are closely intertwined. They constitute the most important positive emotions induced by rewards. They prioritize our conscious processing and thus constitute important components of behavioral control. These emotions are also called liking (for pleasure) and wanting (for desire) in addiction research (471) and strongly support the learning and approach generating functions of reward. ... Some of the stimuli and events that are pleasurable in humans may not even evoke pleasure in animals but act instead through innate mechanisms. We simply do not know. Nevertheless, the invention of pleasure and desire by evolution had the huge advantage of allowing a large number of stimuli, objects, events, situations, and activities to be attractive. This mechanism importantly supports the primary reward functions in obtaining essential substances and mating partners.
↑  Pfaff Donald W., Schwartz-Giblin Susan, Maccarthy Margareth M., Kow Lee-Ming : Cellular and molecular mechanisms of female reproductive behaviors, in Knobil Ernest, Neill Jimmy D. : The physiology of reproduction, Raven Press, 2nd edition, 1994
↑  Meisel Robert L., Sachs Benjamin D. : The physiology of male sexual behavior. In Knobil Ernest, Neill Jimmy D. The physiology of reproduction, Raven Press, 2nd edition, 1994
↑  Dixson A.F. Primate sexuality: Comparative studies of the Prosimians, Monkeys, Apes, and Human Beings. Oxford University Press, 2nd edition, 2012. نسخة محفوظة 2022-04-20 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  Dixson, Alan F. (15 May 2009). Sexual Selection and the Origins of Human Mating Systems (بالإنجليزية). OUP Oxford. ISBN:978-0-19-156973-9. Archived from the original on 2022-05-11.
1 2  Nei M، Niimura Y، Nozawa M (ديسمبر 2008). "The evolution of animal chemosensory receptor gene repertoires: roles of chance and necessity". Nature Reviews. Genetics. ج. 9 ع. 12: 951–63. DOI:10.1038/nrg2480. PMID:19002141. S2CID:11135361. OR genes are predominantly expressed in sensory neurons of the main olfactory epithelium (MOE) in the nasal cavity. Mammals detect many types of chemicals in the air and some in the water as odorants, whereas fishes recognize water-soluble molecules, such as amino acids, bile acids, sex steroids and prostaglandins. Some mammalian OR genes are known to be expressed in other tissues, including the testis, tongue, brain and placenta17. However, the functional significance of such 'ectopic expression' of OR genes is not definitively known. TAARs are also expressed in the MOE. These receptors were first identified as brain receptors for the trace amines, a collection of amines that are present at low concentrations in the central nervous system18. TAARs were originally suspected to be involved in psychiatric disorders19 but are now known to function as a second class of olfactory receptors10. Some mouse TAARs recognize volatile amines that are present in urine, and it seems that the TAARs function to detect ligands associated with social cues10. ... Most mammals possess an additional olfactory organ called the vomeronasal organ (VnO). ... The VnO was previously thought to be a specialized organ for pheromone detection, but it is now known that the VnO and MOE share some overlapping functions22. ... However, at least one of the five V1R genes is expressed in the human olfactory mucosa72. Furthermore, a recent study suggests that these five genes can activate an OR-like signal transduction pathway in a heterologous expression system73. It is therefore possible that the products of these genes function as pheromone or olfactory receptors. Adult humans do not have a VnO but seem to be sensitive to pheromones74. Another interesting observation is that chickens have no functional or non-functional V1R and V2R genes or a VnO75, although birds use pheromones for mate choice and other behaviours76. It is possible that some OR genes in the MOE are able to detect pheromones, as in humans74,77.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8  Naguib, Marc (19 Apr 2020). Advances in the Study of Behavior (بالإنجليزية). Academic Press. ISBN:978-0-12-820726-0. Archived from the original on 2022-04-20.
1 2 3  Stallmann, Robert R., and A. H. Harcourt. "Size matters: the (negative) allometry of copulatory duration in mammals." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 87.2 (2006): 185-193. دُوِي:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2006.00566.x نسخة محفوظة 2022-04-20 على موقع واي باك مشين.
| ع ن جنس | ع ن جنس |
| --- | --- |
مصطلحات بيولوجية:  مثنوية الشكل الجنسية ذكر  أنثى  نظام تحديد الجنس نظام تحديد الجنس XY  نظام تحديد الجنس ZW  نظام تحديد الجنس Xo  تحديد الجنس بالاعتماد على درجة الحرارة  خنثى Sequential hermaphroditism  ثنائية الجنس 
تكاثر جنسي:  تطور التكاثر الجنسي جاميت  تكاثر متباين الأمشاج  تكاثر متماثل الأمشاج  انقسام منصف  تخصيب إخصاب خارجي  إخصاب داخلي  اصطفاء جنسي  تكاثر النبات  تكاثر الحيوانات جماع  تكاثر الإنسان  تكاثر الفطريات 
السلوك الجنسي:  الجنس عند النبات  سلوك الحيوانات الجنسي  سلوك الإنسان الجنسي 
بوابة علم الأحياء: بوابة علم الأحياء
بوابة طب
بوابة علم الحيوان
بوابة علم وظائف الأعضاء
بوابة علوم عصبية
| 0 | 1 |
| --- | --- |
التصنيفات الطبية:  نظام فهرسة المواضيع الطبية (MeSH): D003307  
المعرفات الخارجية:  علم وجود المورثات (GO): GO:0007620  نظام اللغة الطبية الموحدة (UMLS CUI): C0009990  
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