قائمة أشخاص يعدون آباء لمجالات علمية
المراجع والهوامش

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↑  Chemistry Contexts. by Irwin, D; Farrelly, R; Garnett, P. Longman Sciences, (2001)
↑  Jacob Darwin Hamblin (2005). Science in the Early Twentieth Century: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ص. 9. ISBN:9781851096657. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2021-04-23. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2012-07-03. His interest in both fields would serve him well, because he became a principal founder of physical chemistry.
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↑  p. 12, Plotting the globe: stories of meridians, parallels, and the international date line, Avraham Ariel and Nora Ariel Berger, Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006, ISBN 0-275-98895-3.
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↑  Jack Repcheck: The Man Who Found Time: James Hutton and the Discovery of the Earth's Antiquity. London and Cambridge, Massachusetts: Simon & Schuster (2003).
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↑  p. 19, Reader's guide to the history of science, Arne Hessenbruch, Taylor & Francis, 2000, ISBN 1-884964-29-X.
↑  Lewis, Charles Lee, associate professor of the أكاديمية الولايات المتحدة البحرية: Pathfinder of the Seas (book).
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↑  Acierno، LJ؛ Worrell، LT (يناير 2007). "Peter Safar: father of modern cardiopulmonary resuscitation". Clinical Cardiology. ج. 30 ع. 1: 52–4. DOI:10.1002/clc.20042. ISSN:0160-9289. PMID:17262769.
↑  Mitka، Mike (May 2003). "Peter J. Safar, MD: 'father of CPR,' innovator, teacher, humanist" (PDF). JAMA. ج. 289 ع. 19: 2485–6. DOI:10.1001/jama.289.19.2485. ISSN:0098-7484. PMID:12759308. مؤرشف من الأصل (PDF) في 30 سبتمبر 2011. اطلع عليه بتاريخ أغسطس 2020. {{استشهاد بدورية محكمة}}: تحقق من التاريخ في: |تاريخ الوصول= (مساعدة)
↑  UK ديلي تلغراف obituary 12/29/2004.
↑  Father of fitness, Jack La Lanne, turns 90, MSNBC, September 24, 2004. "He continues to live by his motto, 'I can't die, it would ruin my image!'" "نسخة مؤرشفة". مؤرشف من الأصل في 2008-06-19. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2016-04-30.{{استشهاد ويب}}:  صيانة الاستشهاد: BOT: original URL status unknown (link)
↑  Log In Problems نسخة محفوظة 01 أغسطس 2017 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  History of Women and Science, Health, and Technology "نسخة مؤرشفة". مؤرشف من الأصل في 2008-07-06. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2016-04-30.{{استشهاد ويب}}:  صيانة الاستشهاد: BOT: original URL status unknown (link)
↑  Vallejo-Manzur F et al. (2003) "The resuscitation greats. Andreas Vesalius, the concept of an artificial airway." Resuscitation" 56:3-7
↑  Geneticists Mourn Loss of the ‘Father of Genetic Medicine’ نسخة محفوظة 15 يناير 2018 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  Mostafa Shehata MD (2004). "The Father of Medicine: A Historical Reconsideration". J Med Ethics. ج. 12: 171–176 [176].
↑  How Imhotep gave us medicine, ديلي تلغراف, 10/05/2007. "نسخة مؤرشفة". مؤرشف من الأصل في 2007-11-24. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2022-11-09.{{استشهاد ويب}}:  صيانة الاستشهاد: BOT: original URL status unknown (link)
↑  Nirupama Laroia M.D., Sharma Deeksha (2006). "The Religious and Cultural Bases for Breastfeeding Practices Among the Hindus". Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. ج. 1 ع. 2: 94–98. DOI:10.1089/bfm.2006.1.94.
↑  Grammaticos، P. C.؛ Diamantis، A. (2008). "Useful known and unknown views of the father of modern medicine, Hippocrates and his teacher Democritus". Hellenic journal of nuclear medicine. ج. 11 ع. 1: 2–4. PMID:18392218.
↑  Hippocrates, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006. Microsoft Corporation.  2009-10-31. نسخة محفوظة 2009-10-29 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  p. 4, Surgery: Basic Science and Clinical Evidence, Jeffrey A. Norton, Philip S. Barie, R. Randal Bollinger, Alfred E. Chang, Stephen F. Lowry, Sean J Mulvihill, M.D., Harvey I Pass, M.D., Robert W Thompson, M.D., Springer, 2008, ISBN 0-387-30800-8.
↑  de Vaux، Jean Claude. "The Pierre Fauchard Academy". مؤرشف من الأصل في 2009-05-21. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2006-07-22.
↑  Black، Rebecca. The Support of Breastfeeding: Module 1. Jones and Bartlett Publishers. ص. 9. ISBN:0-7637-0208-0.
↑  Lavoisier, Antoine. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24 July 2007.
↑  Wilhelm Wundt in Psychology Biographies at ALLPSYCH Online نسخة محفوظة 19 نوفمبر 2014 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  Cronin، Mike (29 يناير 2010). "Starzl, Tribune-Review reporters claim Carnegie Science Awards". Pittsburgh Tribune-Review. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2010-01-31. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2010-01-29.
↑  Tschanz David W., PhD (2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine". Heart Views. ج. 4: 2.
↑  Bernard, Claude. An Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine, 1865. First English translation by Henry Copley Greene, published by Macmillan & Co., Ltd., 1927; reprinted in 1949. The Dover Edition of 1957 is a reprint of the original translation with a new Foreword by I. Bernard Cohen of Harvard University.
↑  Oursler، Fulton؛ Will Oursler (1949). Father Flanagan of Boys Town. Doubleday. ص. 270.
1 2  A. Singh and D. Sarangi (2003). "We need to think and act", Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery.
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↑  Sigmund Freud [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy] نسخة محفوظة 03 يوليو 2009 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  Aaen-Stockdale، Craig (2008)، "Ibn al-Haytham and psychophysics"، Perception، ج. 37، ص. 636–638، DOI:10.1068/p5940، PMID:18546671
↑  Lee، Martin A.؛ Bruce Shlain (1986). Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD: The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond. Grove Press. ص. 6. ISBN:0-8021-3062-3.. See also هاري جورج أرمسترونغ.
↑  Martin-Araguz A., Bustamante-Martinez C., Fernandez-Armayor Ajo V., Moreno-Martinez J. M. (2002). "Neuroscience in al-Andalus and its influence on medieval scholastic medicine". Revista de neurología. ج. 34 ع. 9: 877–892. PMID:12134355.{{استشهاد بدورية محكمة}}:  صيانة الاستشهاد: أسماء متعددة: قائمة المؤلفين (link)
↑  p. 283, Old-Time Makers of Medicine, James J. Walsh, New York: Fordham University Press, 1911. نسخة محفوظة 02 مايو 2016 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  Pare, Ambroise." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Aug. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9058441>. نسخة محفوظة 2007-11-24 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  Gray C (مايو 1983). "The remarkable surgical collection of John Hunter". Can Med Assoc J. ج. 128 ع. 10: 1225–8. PMC:1875296. PMID:6340814.
↑  The knife man: the extraordinary life and times of John Hunter, father of modern surgery, Wendy Moore, Random House, 2005, ISBN 0-7679-1652-2.
↑  pp. 51-55, Pioneers of microbiology and the Nobel prize, Ulf Lagerkvist, World Scientific, 2003, ISBN 981-238-234-8.
↑  Joseph Lister, Father of Modern Surgery, Rhoda Truax, Bobbs Merrill, Indianapolis and New York, 1944.
↑  "William S. Halsted and Harvey W. Cushing: reflections on their complex association", J. R. Voorhees, R. S. Tubbs, B. Nahed, and A. A. Cohen-Gadol, Journal of Neurosurgery 110, #2 (February 2009), pp. 384-390, دُوِي:10.3171/2008.4.17516, ببمد: 18976064.
↑  Chladniite: A New Mineral Honoring the Father of Meteoritics, McCoy, T. J.; Steele, I. M.; Keil, K.; Leonard, B. F.; Endress, M., Meteoritics, vol. 28, no. 3, volume 28, page 394, 07/1993
↑  "Cayley, Sir George." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 25 Aug. 2007  <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9360092>. نسخة محفوظة 2020-06-01 على موقع واي باك مشين.
1 2  Milestones in the birth of Cosmology  نسخة محفوظة 26 أغسطس 2013 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  Christianson, Gale (1984). In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton & his times. New York: Free Press.
↑  ميريام وبستر Collegiate Dictionary, 2000, CD-ROM, version 2.5.
↑  He also invented the electrical generator, which is the basic source for producing electricity to begin with. (1831 Frank Ashall, Remarkable Discoveries!, Cambridge University Press - 1996. page 1
↑  André-Marie Ampère - Encyclopedia Britannica نسخة محفوظة 17 مايو 2015 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  Josiah Willard Gibbs - Britannica, 1911نسخة محفوظة 17 مايو 2013 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  Thiele، Rüdiger (2005)، "In Memoriam: Matthias Schramm"، Arabic Sciences and Philosophy، مطبعة جامعة كامبريدج، ج. 15، ص. 329–331، DOI:10.1017/S0957423905000214
↑  Thiele، Rüdiger (أغسطس 2005)، "In Memoriam: Matthias Schramm, 1928–2005"، Historia Mathematica، ج. 32، ص. 271–274، DOI:10.1016/j.hm.2005.05.002
↑  Danielson, Dennis, "The First Copernican: Georg Joachim Rheticus and the Rise of the Copernican Revolution", Walker & Company, 2006
↑  Weidhorn, Manfred (2005). The Person of the Millennium: The Unique Impact of Galileo on World History. iUniverse, p. 155. ISBN 0-595-36877-8.
↑  Pasachoff، Naomi (2005). Ernest Rutherford: Father Of Nuclear Science (Great Minds of Science). ISBN:0-7660-2441-5.
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↑  R. L. Verma (1969). Al-Hazen: father of modern optics.
↑  Heilbron, J. L. The Dilemmas of an Upright Man: Max Planck and the Fortunes of German Science (Harvard, 2000)
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↑  Perrot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics. Oxford University Press. ISBN:0-19-856552-6.
↑  Solomon Gandz (1936), The sources of al-Khwarizmi's algebra, Osiris I, p. 263–277: "In a sense, Khwarizmi is more entitled to be called the father of algebra than Diophantus, because Khwarizmi is the first to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake, Diophantus is primarily concerned with the theory of numbers."
↑  Serish Nanisetti, Father of algorithms and algebra, الصحيفة الهندوسية, June 23, 2006. نسخة محفوظة 06 نوفمبر 2012 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  Boyer، Carl B. (1991). "The Arabic Hegemony". A History of Mathematics (ط. Second Edition). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ص. 228. ISBN:0-471-54397-7. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2019-12-17. Diophantus sometimes is called "the father of algebra," but this title more appropriately belongs to al-Khwarizmi. It is true that in two respects the work of al-Khwarizmi represented a retrogression from that of Diophantus. First, it is on a far more elementary level than that found in the Diophantine problems and, second, the algebra of al-naren is thoroughly rhetorical, with none of the syncopation found in the Greek Arithmetica or in Brahmagupta's work. Even numbers were written out in words rather than symbols! It is quite unlikely that al-Khwarizmi knew of the work of Diophantus, but he must have been familiar with at least the astronomical and computational portions of Brahmagupta; yet neither al-Khwarizmi nor other Arabic scholars made use of syncopation or of negative numbers. {{استشهاد بكتاب}}: |طبعة= يحتوي على نص زائد (مساعدة)
↑  Derbyshire، John (2006). "The Father of Algebra". Unknown Quantity: A Real And Imaginary History of Algebra. Joseph Henry Press. ص. 31. ISBN:0-309-09657-X. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2020-01-11. Diophantus, the father of algebra, in whose honor I have named this chapter, lived in Alexandria, in Roman Egypt, in either the 1st, the 2nd, or the 3rd century CE.
↑  Ioan Mackenzie James، المحرر (1999). History of Topology. Elsevier. ص. 544. ISBN:9780444823755. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2012-07-04. Poincaré: the founder of algebraic topology
↑  Poincaré, Henri, "Analysis situs", Journal de l'École Polytechnique ser 2, 1 (1895) pp. 1–123
↑  p. 750, Rudiments of Mathematics Part 1, M. N. Mukherjee, P. Mukhopadhyay, S. Sinha Roy & U. Dasgupta, Academic Publishers, 2008, 5th ed., ISBN 81-89781-54-5.
↑  p. 147, Collisions, rings, and other Newtonian N-body problems, Donald Saari, American Mathematical Society, 2005, ISBN 0-8218-3250-6.
↑  Gullberg, Jan  ‏ (1997). Mathematics From The Birth Of Numbers. W. W. Norton
↑  Bell, E.T. [1937] (1986). Men of Mathematics, Touchstone edition, New York: Simon & Schuster, pp. 91–2.
↑  George Gheverghese Joseph (2000). The Crest of the Peacock. دار نشر جامعة برنستون.
↑  "Monge, Gaspard, comte de Peluse." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 24 Aug. 2007  <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9053349>. نسخة محفوظة 2007-12-24 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  Artmann, Benno (1999). Euclid: The Creation of Mathematics. New York: Springer.
↑  Biggs, N. Lloyd, E. and Wilson, R. (1986). Graph Theory, 1736-1936. London: Oxford University Press
↑  H.F. Baker (1926), "Corrado Segre", جمعية الرياضيات في لندن 1:269
↑  Marvin Jay Greenberg, Euclidean and Non-Euclidean geometries: Development and history New York: W. H. Freeman, 1993.
↑  p. 46, Aristarchus of Samos: The Ancient Copernicus, Thomas Heath, Oxford, 1913.
↑  Stigler, Stephen M. (1990). The History of Statistics: The Measurement of Uncertainty before 1900. Belknap Press/Harvard University Press.
↑  O'Connor, John J; Edmund F. Robertson "Gérard Desargues". MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
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↑  Boyer (1991). "Greek Trigonometry and Mensuration". A History of Mathematics (ط. Second Edition). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ص. 162. ISBN:0-471-54397-7. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2019-12-17. For some two and a half centuries, from Hippocrates to Eratosthenes, Greek mathematicians had studied relationships between lines and circles and had applied these in a variety of astronomical problems, but no systematic trigonometry had resulted. Then, presumably during the second half of the second century B.C., the first trigonometric table apparently was compiled by the astronomer Hipparchus of Nicaea (ca. 180-ca. 125 B.C.), who thus earned the right to be known as the father of trigonometry. Aristarchus had known that in a given circle the ratio of arc to chord decreases from 180° to 0°, tending toward a limit of 1. However, it appears that not until Hipparchus undertook the task had anyone tabulated corresponding values of arc and chord for a whole series of angles. {{استشهاد بكتاب}}: |طبعة= يحتوي على نص زائد (مساعدة)
↑  Boyer's opinion may constructively be compared to Øystein Ore's opinion, that the Babylonians constructed trigonometric tables ca 1600 BCE (Ore (1988). "Diophantine Problems". Number Theory and its History. Dover Publications, Inc. ص. 176–179. ISBN:0-486-65620-9. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2021-10-26. The tablet, catalogued as بليمبتون 322, is composed in Old Babylonian script so that it must fall in the period from 1900 B.C. and 1600 B.C., at least a millennium before the Pythagoreans… It is evident, however, that at this early date the Babylonians not only had completely mastered the Pythagorean problem, but also had used it as the basis for the construction of trigonometric tables.)
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