التسلسل الزمني للتاريخ التطوري للحياة
مراجع

↑  "Measuring the sixth mass extinction - Cosmos". cosmosmagazine.com. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2019-05-10.
1 2  "History of life on Earth". مؤرشف من الأصل في 2016-08-16. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2016-08-09.
↑  "The big five mass extinctions - Cosmos". cosmosmagazine.com. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2019-05-17.
↑  
Myers، Norman؛ Knoll، Andrew H. (8 مايو 2001). "The biotic crisis and the future of evolution". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.  ‏. ج. 98 ع. 1: 5389–5392. Bibcode:2001PNAS...98.5389M. DOI:10.1073/pnas.091092498. ISSN:0027-8424. PMC:33223. PMID:11344283.{{استشهاد بدورية محكمة}}:  صيانة الاستشهاد: علامات ترقيم زائدة (link)
↑  صفحة معهد العلوم الكوكبية تتحدث عن فرضية التأثير الضخم. هارتمان وديفيس عادا إلى المعهد. هذه الصفحة تحتوي أيضاً على العديد من صور هذا التأثير من هارتمان نفسه. "نسخة مؤرشفة". مؤرشف من الأصل في 2011-06-08. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2007-05-22.{{استشهاد ويب}}:  صيانة الاستشهاد: BOT: original URL status unknown (link)
↑  "على أية حال, عندما تبرد الأرض إلى حد معين, في وقتاً ما في 700 مليون السنة الأولى من وجودها, تبدأ الغيوم بالتشكل في طبقة الجو الأرضية، وتدخل الأرض إلى طور جديد من التطور." كيف تشكلت المحيطات (URL دخلت في يناير / كانون الثاني 9، 2005)نسخة محفوظة 06 مارس 2016 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  " Between about 3.8 billion and 4.5 billion years ago, no place in the solar system was safe from the huge arsenal of asteroids and comets left over from the formation of the planets. Sleep and Zahnle calculate that Earth was probably hit repeatedly by objects up to 500 kilometers across" Geophysicist Sleep: Martian underground may have harbored early life (URL accessed on 9 يناير، 2005) نسخة محفوظة 10 أكتوبر 2009 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  Walker, Gabrielle, (2003) "Snowball Earth: The Story of the Great Global Catastrophe that Spawned Life as we know it" Bloomsbury ISBN 0-7475-6433-7
↑  John, Brian (Ed)(1979) "The Winters of the World: Earth under the Ice Ages" Jacaranda Press ISBN 0-470-26844-1
↑  
"'Experiments with sex have been very hard to conduct,' Goddard said. 'In an experiment, one needs to hold all else constant, apart from the aspect of interest. This means that no higher organisms can be used, since they have to have sex to reproduce and therefore provide no asexual control.'
 Goddard and colleagues instead turned to a single-celled organism, yeast, to test the idea that sex allows populations to adapt to new conditions more rapidly than asexual populations." Sex Speeds Up Evolution, Study Finds (URL accessed on 9 يناير، 2005) نسخة محفوظة 14 أكتوبر 2017 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  " What, then, was the selective advantage that led to the evolution of multicellular organisms?" From Single Cells to Multicellular Organisms (URL accessed on 9 يناير، 2005) نسخة محفوظة 16 أكتوبر 2007 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  "The evolutionary foundation for the organization of many animal body plans is segmental—we are made of rings of similar stuff, repeated over and over again along our body length" Pycnogonid tagmosis and echoes of the Cambrian 
 "Pycnogonids are primitive chelicerates related to ticks and mites, and they make their living as predators and scavengers. This one, Haliestes dasos, is the oldest sea spider known." Haliestes dasos, a sea spider 
"If you were a trilobite or other small Cambrian
animal, you did NOT want to see this coming" The Anomalocaris Homepage (animation) نسخة محفوظة 02 مارس 2009 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  "The oldest fossils of footprints ever found on land hint that animals may have beaten plants out of the primordial seas. Lobster-sized, centipede-like or slug like animals such as Protichnites and Climactichnites made the prints wading out of the ocean and scuttling over sand dunes about 530 million years ago. Previous fossils indicated that animals didn't take this step until 40 million years later." Oldest fossil footprints on land  نسخة محفوظة 2022-07-14 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  "The oldest fossils reveal evolution of non-vascular plants by the middle to late Ordovician Period (~450-440 m.y.a.) on the basis of fossil spores" Transition of plants to landنسخة محفوظة 26 سبتمبر 2013 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  "The land plants evolved from the algae, more specifically green algae, as suggested by certain common
biochemical traits" The first land plants نسخة محفوظة 01 يناير 2018 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  "The waxy cuticle of arachnids and insects prevents water loss and protects against desiccation" Natural history collection: arthropoda نسخة محفوظة 18 سبتمبر 2016 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  "For hundreds of millions of years, animal life resided only in the oceans. And then about 400 million years ago, fossil tracks suggest that an animal called a eurypterid left the water to walk on land. Maybe it was fleeing enemies, maybe it was searching for an easy meal, or maybe it was seeking a safe place to lay its eggs." The shape of life. The conquerors. PBS نسخة محفوظة 07 يونيو 2013 على موقع واي باك مشين.
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↑  "The ancestry of sharks dates back more than 200 million years before the earliest known dinosaur. Introduction to shark evolution, geologic time and age determination نسخة محفوظة 07 ديسمبر 2017 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  "Cladoselache was something of an oddball among ancient sharks. A four-foot (1.2-metre) long inhabitant of late Devonian seas (about 370 million years ago), it exhibited a strange combination of ancestral and derived characteristics. Ancient sharks نسخة محفوظة 23 نوفمبر 2017 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  "Sharks have undergone a lot of evolutionary experimentation since their earliest beginnings. Over hundreds of millions of years, sharks were tested by a mercurial and often violently changeable environment." A Golden Age of Sharks نسخة محفوظة 31 ديسمبر 2017 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  “Here we report the isolation and growth of a previously unrecognized spore-forming bacterium (Bacillus species, designated 2-9-3) from a brine inclusion within a 250 million-year-old salt crystal from the Permian Salado Formation. Complete gene sequences of the 16S ribosomal DNA show that the organism is part of the lineage of Bacillus marismortui and Virgibacillus pantothenticus.” Isolation of a 250 million-year-old halotolerant bacterium from a primary salt crystal (URL accessed on 30 أبريل، 2006) نسخة محفوظة 19 مارس 2017 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  "The second major radiation of sharks occurred during the Jurassic Period, 208 to 144 million years ago. At this time, pterosaurs ruled the skies and the first birds were taking to the air." The Origin of Modern Sharks (URL accessed on 9 يناير، 2005) نسخة محفوظة 25 نوفمبر 2017 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  "Viruses of nearly all the major classes of organisms—animals, plants, fungi and bacteria/archaea—probably evolved with their hosts in the seas, given that most of the evolution of life on this planet has occurred there. This means that viruses also probably emerged from the waters with their different hosts, during the successive waves of colonisation of the terrestrial environment." Origins of Viruses (URL accessed on 9 يناير، 2005)  نسخة محفوظة 20 يوليو 2015 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  "A comparison of the two genomes reveals that both have about 30,000 genes, and they share the bulk of them—the human genome shares 99% of its genes with mice. Humans and mice diverged about 75 million years ago, too little time for many evolutionary differences to accumulate." Comparing genomes نسخة محفوظة 1 مارس 2012 على موقع واي باك مشين. 
 " Their conclusion: although the mouse and human genomes are very similar, genome rearrangements occurred more commonly than previously believed, accounting for the evolutionary distance between human and mouse from a common ancestor 75 million years ago." The Hindu نسخة محفوظة 14 نوفمبر 2010 على موقع واي باك مشين.
"Mice have many more olfactory genes compared to the human. Smell matters for mice, especially for sex and mating; they also have more genes involved in reproduction (such as aphrodisin, which stimulates mating behaviour in males) and immunity" San Francisco Chronicle نسخة محفوظة 14 نوفمبر 2010 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  "I also wish to completely dispel the myth that the modern Great White evolved from the megalodon shark. Is the proper way to do this to write this paper, publish it in a scientific journal, and subject it to peer review—yes? Is that what I am doing—no.......because I think there is no way to "win" with the opinions on this one as set in stone as they seem to be (on both sides)" Origin of the Modern Great White Shark (URL accessed on 9 يناير، 2005)
 "'Most scientists would probably say the Great Whites evolved from the megalodon line, which existed from two million to twenty million years ago. They were huge sharks, approximately the length of a Greyhound bus and possessing teeth that were up to six inches [150 mm] long,' explains Ciampaglio. 'However, our research, which is based on analyzing fossils of several hundred shark teeth, shows that the Great White shares more similarities with the mako shark.'"Great White Shark Evolution Debate (URL accessed on 9 يناير، 2005)
 ".. most paleontologists agree [..] that Megalodon is not a direct ancestor of the modern White Shark, more like a great uncle or aunt." The Origin of Megalodon (URL accessed on 9 يناير، 2005) "نسخة مؤرشفة". مؤرشف من الأصل في 2011-07-14. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2009-06-29.{{استشهاد ويب}}:  صيانة الاستشهاد: BOT: original URL status unknown (link)
↑  "Researchers have discovered fossilized remains of two previously unknown primate species that lived 37 million years ago in what is now the Egyptian desert." "The discovery, researchers say, is evidence that the common ancestor of living anthropoids arose in Africa and that anthropoids have been evolving on the now separated Africa-Arabia landmass for at least 45 million years." New Primate Fossils Support "Out of Africa" Theory (URL accessed on 9 يناير، 2005) نسخة محفوظة 26 مايو 2017 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  " Once humans could see in color the visual inspection of a potential mate yielded far more useful information and at a greater distance than was the case with scents. As a result of natural selection color-seeing primates came to have neuronal wiring that caused them to place much more importance on appearance in mate choice. In Zhang's view it is therefore not coincidental that around the time human males developed the ability to see color humans also lost the ability to respond to pheromones" Evolution Of Color Eyesight Led To Loss Of Pheromone Response (URL accessed on 9 يناير، 2005) نسخة محفوظة 28 فبراير 2017 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  ""'At a length of 50 feet (15 metres) and a mass of over 52 tons (47 tonnes), it would take more than a mere morsel to satisfy the megalodon.'"" The Origin of Megalodon (URL accessed on 9 يناير، 2005) نسخة محفوظة 31 ديسمبر 2017 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  Leakey, Richard and Roger Lewin, 1996, The Sixth Extinction: Patterns of Life and the Future of Humankind, Anchor, ISBN 0-385-46809-1
↑  "These stones were found in association with charcoal which has been dated to between 19,000 and 26,000 years old (Wendt 1974, 1976). Border Cave in Kwazulu has yielded engraved bone and wood dated between 35,000 and 37,500 years old (Butzer et al 1979); and a 20,000 year old incised stone was found at Matupi Cave, Zaire (Van Noten 1977)." Introduction to upper palaeolithic art (URL accessed on 9 يناير، 2005) نسخة محفوظة 5 يوليو 2008 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  "The 20 cm-long, 3 cm-wide stone object, which is dated to be about 28,000 years old, was buried in the famous Hohle Fels Cave near Ulm in the Swabian Jura. " Ancient phallus unearthed in cave (URL accessed on 9 يناير، 2005) نسخة محفوظة 29 يوليو 2017 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  An مكتب تعداد الولايات المتحدة estimate of the number of people alive on Earth at any given moment. United States census bureau نسخة محفوظة 06 أكتوبر 2013 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  The American Museum of Natural History National Survey Reveals Biodiversity Crisis (URL accessed on 23 فبراير، 2006) "نسخة مؤرشفة". مؤرشف من الأصل في 2012-04-04. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2009-06-29.{{استشهاد ويب}}:  صيانة الاستشهاد: BOT: original URL status unknown (link)
↑  إدوارد أوسبورن ويلسون, Harvard University, The Future of Life (2002)