منهج علمي
مراجع

↑  Garland, Jr.، Theodore (20 March 2015). "The Scientific Method as an Ongoing Process". U C Riverside. مؤرشف من الأصل في 19 August 2016. اطلع عليه بتاريخ أكتوبر 2020. {{استشهاد ويب}}: تحقق من التاريخ في: |تاريخ الوصول= (مساعدة)
↑  Nola، Robert؛ Sankey، Howard (2001). "Chapter 1: A Selective Survey of Theories of Scientific Method". في Nola، Robert؛ Sankey، Howard (المحررون). After Popper, Kuhn and Feyerabend. Recent Issues in Theories of Scientific Method. ولترز كلوير. ص. 1. ISBN:1402002467.
↑  Popper 1959، صفحة 273
↑  " The thesis of this book, as set forth in Chapter One, is that there are general principles applicable to all the sciences." __ Gauch 2003، صفحة xv
↑  Gauch 2003، صفحة 1 The scientific method can function in the same way; This is the principle of noncontradiction.
↑  فرانسيس بيكون(1629) الأورجانون الجديد, lists 4 types of error: Idols of the tribe (error due to the entire human race), the cave (errors due to an individual's own intellect), the marketplace (errors due to false words), and the theater (errors due to incredulous acceptance).
↑ For example, the concept of قابلية دحض (first proposed in 1934) formalizes the attempt to disprove hypotheses rather than prove them. Karl R. Popper (1963), 'The Logic of Scientific Discovery'. The Logic of Scientific Discovery pp. 17–20, 249–52, 437–38, and elsewhere.
ليون ليدرمان, for teaching الفيزياء أولا, illustrates how to avoid confirmation bias: يان شيلتون, in Chile, was initially skeptical that مستعر أعظم 1987A was real, but possibly an artifact of instrumentation (null hypothesis), so he went outside and disproved his null hypothesis by observing SN 1987a with the naked eye. The Kamiokande experiment, in Japan, independently observed نيوترينوs from مستعر أعظم 1987A at the same time. نسخة محفوظة 17 أبريل 2016 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  Elizabeth Asmis (1985) Epicurus' Scientific Method. Cornell University Press
↑  Gauch 2003، صفحة 3
↑  This phrasing is attributed to مارشال نيرنبرغ.
↑  Schuster and Powers (2005), Translational and Experimental Clinical Research, Ch. 1. Link. This chapter also discusses the different types of research questions and how they are produced. نسخة محفوظة 20 يونيو 2020 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  Note: for a discussion of multiple hypotheses, see استدلال بايزي
↑  Jim Al-Khalili (4 يناير 2009). "The 'first true scientist'". BBC News. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2018-07-07. {{استشهاد ويب}}: |archive-date= / |archive-url= timestamp mismatch (مساعدة)
↑  Tracey Tokuhama-Espinosa (2010). Mind, Brain, and Education Science: A Comprehensive Guide to the New Brain-Based Teaching. W. W. Norton & Company. ص. 39. ISBN:9780393706079. Alhazen (or Al-Haytham; 965–1039 CE) was perhaps one of the greatest physicists of all times and a product of the Islamic Golden Age or Islamic Renaissance (7th–13th centuries). He made significant contributions to anatomy, astronomy, engineering, رياضيات, medicine, ophthalmology, philosophy, physics, psychology, and visual perception and is primarily attributed as the inventor of the scientific method, for which author Bradley Steffens (2006) describes him as the "first scientist".
↑  Stanovich, Keith E. (2007). How to Think Straight About Psychology. Boston: Pearson Education. p. 123
↑  Tow، David Hunter (11 سبتمبر 2010). The Future of Life: A Unified Theory of Evolution. Future of Life Series. Future of Life Media (نُشِر في 2010). ص. 262. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2019-12-24. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2016-12-11. On further examination however, the scientific method bears a striking similarity to the larger process of evolution itself. [...] Of great significance is the evolutionary algorithm, which uses a simplified subset of the process of natural evolution applied to find the solution to problems that are too complex to solve by traditional analytic methods. In essence it is a process of accelerated and rigorous trial and error building on previous knowledge to refine an existing hypothesis, or discarding it altogether to find a better model. [...] The evolutionary algorithm is a technique derived from the evolution of knowledge processing applied within the context of science and technology, itself an outcome of evolution. The scientific method continues to evolve through adaptive reward, trial and error and application of the method to itself.
1 2  Brody 1993، صفحات 44–45
↑  Goldhaber & Nieto 2010، صفحة 942
↑  Hall، B.K.؛ Hallgrímsson، B.، المحررون (2008). Strickberger's Evolution (ط. 4th). Jones & Bartlett. ص. 762. ISBN:978-0-7637-0066-9. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2020-02-09.
↑  Cracraft، J.؛ Donoghue، M.J.، المحررون (2005). Assembling the tree of life. Oxford University Press. ص. 592. ISBN:978-0-19-517234-8. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2020-01-22.
↑  Needham & Wang 1954 p. 166 shows how the 'flying gallop' image propagated from China to the West.
↑  Goldhaber & Nieto 2010، صفحة 940
↑  "A myth is a belief given uncritical acceptance by members of a group ..." – Weiss, Business Ethics p. 15, as cited by Ronald R. Sims (2003) Ethics and corporate social responsibility: why giants fall p. 21
↑  "James (2003) "Complex Systems Theory?"" (PDF). مؤرشف من الأصل (PDF) في 2021-04-18.
↑  David Mermin (سبتمبر 1994). "A "Virtuosically Adaptive" System As Seen By A "Marginally Adaptive" One (Review of The Quark and the Jaguar, by Murray Gell-Mann (1994))". Physics Today. ج. 47 ع. 9: 89. DOI:10.1063/1.2808634.Murray Gell-Mann (11 مايو 2016). What the Quark and Jaguar is about. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2021-02-04 – عبر Youtube.
↑  Tow، David Hunter (11 سبتمبر 2010). The Future of Life: A Unified Theory of Evolution. Future of Life Series. Future of Life Media (نُشِر في 2010). ص. 262. مؤرشف من الأصل في 2021-08-18. اطلع عليه بتاريخ 2016-12-11. On further examination, however, the scientific method bears a striking similarity to the larger process of evolution itself. [...] Of great significance is the evolutionary algorithm, which uses a simplified subset of the process of natural evolution applied to find the solution to problems that are too complex to solve by traditional analytic methods. In essence, it is a process of accelerated and rigorous trial and error building on previous knowledge to refine an existing hypothesis, or discarding it altogether to find a better model. [...] The evolutionary algorithm is a technique derived from the evolution of knowledge processing applied within the context of science and technology, itself an outcome of evolution. The scientific method continues to evolve through adaptive reward, trial and error, and application of the method to itself.
↑  Anderson, Chris (2008) The End of Theory: The Data Deluge Makes the Scientiﬁc Method Obsolete. Wired Magazine 16.07 نسخة محفوظة 2 مايو 2021 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  Ludwik Fleck (1979) Genesis and Development of a Scientific Fact نسخة محفوظة 26 أغسطس 2021 على موقع واي باك مشين.
↑  Brown, C. (2005) Overcoming Barriers to Use of Promising Research Among Elite Middle East Policy Groups, Journal of Social Behaviour and Personality, Select Press.
1 2  Einstein, Albert (1936, 1956) One may say "the eternal mystery of the world is its comprehensibility." From the article "Physics and Reality" (1936), reprinted in Out of My Later Years (1956). 'It is one of the great realizations of Immanuel Kant that the setting up of a real external world would be senseless without this comprehensibility.'
↑  Hanson، Norwood (1958)، Patterns of Discovery، Cambridge University Press، ISBN:978-0-521-05197-2
↑  Kuhn، Thomas S. (2009). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. ص. 113. ISBN:978-1-4432-5544-8.
↑  Feyerabend, Paul K (1960) "Patterns of Discovery" The Philosophical Review (1960) vol. 69 (2) pp. 247–252
↑  Kuhn 1961، صفحة 166.
↑  بول فايراباند, Against Method, Outline of an Anarchistic Theory of Knowledge, 1st published, 1975. Reprinted, Verso, London, 1978.
↑ For example:
Higher Superstition: The Academic Left and Its Quarrels with Science, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997
Fashionable Nonsense: Postmodern Intellectuals' Abuse of Science, Picador. 1999
The Sokal Hoax: The Sham That Shook the Academy, University of Nebraska Press, 2000 (ردمك 0-8032-7995-7)
A House Built on Sand: Exposing Postmodernist Myths About Science, Oxford University Press, 2000
Intellectual Impostures, Economist Books, 2003