Table:
|  | 2019 | 2018 | 2017 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Federal statutory income tax rate | 21.0 % | 24.5 % | 35.0 % |
| Increase (decrease) resulting from: |  |  |  |
| Foreign tax rate differences | (21.0) | (30.2) | (39.9) |
| Withholding tax on dividends | (5.4) | 23.7 | — |
| Permanent differences | (1.3) | 0.8 | 3.0 |
| Excess tax benefits related to share-based compensation | (1.3) | (2.7) | (2.0) |
| Global intangible low-taxed income ("GILTI") | 11.7 | — | — |
| Deemed repatriation tax | 5.6 | 92.2 | — |
| Non-deductible compensation | 1.5 | 0.2 | 0.2 |
| Valuation allowances | 1.5 | (30.6) | 12.2 |
| Rate changes | — | 9.0 | — |
| Other, net | 1.5 | 1.0 | (0.5) |
| Effective income tax rate | 13.8 % | 87.9 % | 8.0 % |
Paragraphs:
The following is a reconciliation of the federal statutory income tax rate to the effective income tax rates reflected in the Consolidated Statements of Comprehensive Income for fiscal 2019, 2018 and 2017:
The effective tax rate for fiscal 2019 was lower than the effective tax rate for fiscal 2018 primarily due to the impact of the U.S. Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (“Tax Reform”) that was recorded in fiscal 2018. During fiscal 2019, the Company reasserted that certain historical undistributed earnings of two foreign subsidiaries will be permanently reinvested which provided a $10.5 million benefit to the effective tax rate. The impact of the changes in the Company's assertion has been included in "Withholding tax on dividends" in the effective income tax reconciliation above. The reduction to the effective tax rate compared to fiscal 2018 was offset by an increase due to the GILTI provisions of Tax Reform in fiscal 2019. The GILTI impact in the table above includes the deduction allowed by the regulations as well as the foreign tax credits attributed to GILTI. The Company has elected to treat the income tax effects of GILTI as a period cost. The effective tax rate for fiscal 2018 was higher than the effective tax rate for fiscal 2017 primarily due to expenses related to Tax Reform.
During fiscal 2019, the Company recorded a $1.9 million increase to its valuation allowance due to continuing losses in certain jurisdictions within the AMER and EMEA segments, partially offset by an expiration of net operating losses that had a valuation allowance recorded.
During fiscal 2018, the Company recorded a $32.9 million reduction to its valuation allowance which includes $9.7 million related to the U.S. federal tax rate change as part of Tax Reform from 35% to 21%, $21.0 million of carryforward credits and net operating losses utilized against the deemed repatriation of undistributed foreign earnings and $3.6 million for the release of the U.S. valuation allowance due to the expected future U.S. taxable income related to the GILTI provisions of Tax Reform. These benefits were partially offset by a $1.4 million increase in foreign valuation allowances in the EMEA segment.
During fiscal 2017, the Company recorded a $14.9 million addition to its valuation allowance relating to continuing losses in certain jurisdictions within the AMER and EMEA segments.
Question:
Which years did the increase resulting from Non-deductible compensation exceed 1%?
Answer: Because (2019:1.5), the answer is: 2019.