On February 27, 2010, an earthquake of magnitude 8.8 struck off the coast of central Chile. Centered 70 miles northeast of Chile's second-largest city, Concepción, at a depth of 22 miles, the earthquake was the second-largest ever recorded in Chile and the fifth-largest recorded worldwide since 1900. Over 100 aftershocks of magnitude 5.0 or greater were recorded following the initial earthquake. The earthquake and subsequent tsunami, which struck Chile's coast roughly 20 minutes after the earthquake and moved 2,000 feet onto shore in some places, have devastated portions of the country. Preliminary reports indicate that 2 million people have been affected out of a population of 16.6 million, with some 200,000 homes badly damaged or destroyed and more than 500 people confirmed dead. The Chilean government has declared six regions catastrophe zones: Valparaiso, Metropolitana, Libertador O'Higgins, Araucania, Biobío, and Maule. The Maule region was by far the hardest hit, however, accounting for most of the dead, and the humanitarian situation there remains the most pressing. Infrastructure across the country has been affected with roads destroyed, bridges and power lines down, and some ports forced to close. Early estimates suggest the economic damage could be between $15 and $30 billion U.S. dollars, the equivalent of 10% to 20% of Chile's gross domestic product (GDP). The infrastructure damage could also slow Chile's economy in the near term, jeopardizing the country's nascent recovery from the global financial crisis. Many believe the economic and human toll would have been much worse if not for Chile's stringent building codes and past experience with earthquakes. The Chilean government is leading the relief operation and coordinating assistance. Despite offers of assistance, thus far the international humanitarian relief operation has been limited pending further requests for assistance from the government. In addition, there are more than 16,000 Chilean military personnel providing humanitarian relief and maintaining public order. Although there are reports of varying casualty numbers, according to the Ministry of the Interior, the official death toll is 507 (497 bodies have been identified; 10 remain unidentified). The numbers of missing persons are not yet known. According to the Chilean government, approximately 200,000 houses have been badly damaged or destroyed. Estimates suggest as many as 2 million people may have been affected by the earthquake, an unknown number of whom were injured or displaced. Since the earthquake, the Chilean government has rushed to provide relief to the victims. In addition to dispatching search and rescue teams and undertaking preliminary needs assessments, the government has worked to reestablish basic services and has distributed food, blankets, and medical equipment in the affected regions. The Chilean National Emergency Office (ONEMI) is coordinating the relief effort. After its initial assessments, the Chilean government appealed to the international community for aid. Among other items, the Chilean government has requested field hospitals, electric generators, satellite communications equipment, water purification systems, and mobile bridges. Chilean officials have met with United Nations (U.N.) agencies to establish a clear plan for international assistance, and the United States and more than 20 other nations have begun to provide Chile with the aid it has requested. (See Appendix B .) Many aid agencies have offered assistance, pending further instructions from the government. President Michelle Bachelet called the consequences of the earthquake "an emergency without parallel." She issued a State of Catastrophe declaration for the regions of Maule and Biobío on February 28, 2010. The declaration, issued following increasing reports of riots and looting, restricts civil rights and liberties and places the regions under military control to maintain order and avoid social conflict. This is the first time that a State of Catastrophe measure has been employed by the Chilean government since its return to democracy in 1990. President Bachelet deployed approximately 14,000 military troops to the two regions to restore order based on outbreaks of looting and violence. The military commanders of the regions, in consultation with the Minister of the Interior and the Minister of Defense, declared a curfew for the city of Concepción. The curfew was extended to three cities in the Maule region—Talca, Cauquenes, and Constitución—on March 1. Enforcement of order has led to at least 160 arrests and one death. At least two elements of the Chilean government's initial response have been criticized in Chile. The first is that the coastal and island communities did not receive timely warning about the tsunami waves that caused so many of the reported casualties. The first tsunami waves hit the coastal city of Valparaiso (330 kilometers northeast of the epicenter) just 34 minutes after the initial earthquake, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). But some claim that the tsunami warnings in coastal areas were not clearly transmitted. The Chilean Navy acknowledged their response was partly at fault and a quicker warning would have saved many lives. According to one report, the Chilean Navy received word of the imminent tsunami threatening the coast just 11 minutes after the initial earthquake. However, no warning was issued locally. The President deflected the criticism saying the time is not right to assign blame. On the morning of the catastrophic quake, the President was unable to communicate with many areas in the country. However, after acknowledging their warning system was faulty, the Navy fired the head of its catastrophic warning unit. Bachelet's successor, Sebastián Piñera has called for a thorough "modernization" of the tsunami warning system as his government comes into office. The second Chilean government response that has been widely questioned is the speed with which the Chilean military was deployed to quell looting and violence in the disaster zone. Some critics have argued that President Bachelet moved too slowly, suggesting she was mistrustful of the military because of her imprisonment and torture under General Augusto Pinochet's military dictatorship more than two decades ago. She began to deploy troops within 48 hours of the earthquake and increased their numbers during the week to a total of 14,000. Troops were welcomed by Chileans both for restoring order and assisting with the ongoing disaster response. The rural poor were the most affected by the earthquake. In some small cities, food was unattainable when poorer customers were priced out of the market because merchants sharply raised prices. Some reports said that services were restored and aid provided first to middle class areas. The urban poor living near Santiago lost their electricity and water for much longer than those living in the capital which recovered quickly. One of the most vulnerable populations in Chile is the Mapuche, Chile's largest indigenous group comprising approximately 4% of the Chile's 16.6 million citizens. The Mapuche live mainly in Chile's central and southern regions with their seat of power in La Araucanía. They suffered many of the difficulties after the earthquake as other poor Chileans; water and electricity were cut off and houses were destroyed or seriously damaged. While critics point to weaknesses in the initial government response, later assessments by disaster managers gave the Chilean government higher marks. Aspects of the response that received special attention included: a careful assessment to target foreign assistance so it would complement Chile's rescue and relief efforts; quick restoration of major roads such as the critical North-South highway; and having the military handle logistics. Within ten days of the earthquake, 90% of homes in the disaster area had regular power and water, 500,000 survivors were getting water trucked in, and relief has been distributed by military helicopter, navy ships, and tractor trailers. Many credited the Bachelet government with success given the scope of the disaster and some labeled it a model. In a post quake poll, President Bachelet received an 84% approval rating, leaving office with the highest level of popular support of her presidency. The Chilean government's response to the earthquake has been complicated by the fact that President Bachelet departed office on March 11, 2010, and was succeeded by Sebastián Piñera, the leader of a center-right coalition that won the country's recent presidential election. Piñera was expected to replace all of Bachelet's cabinet ministers and political appointees, including many of those now overseeing relief operations. Recognizing the need for continuity, Piñera had earlier indicated that he would retain the head of ONEMI and would ask some of the subregional authorities of the six regions declared catastrophe zones to stay on temporarily. On March 9, 2010, President-elect Piñera named key regulators and regional authorities (or intendants as they are called in Chile) to his government before his inauguration, including a new deputy Interior Minister. On March 10, Carmen Fernandez, Director of ONEMI in the Bachelet government, resigned citing weaknesses in the agency's response. President Bachelet held a series of meetings with President-elect Piñera in order to ease the transition. Governments and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are conferring with President Bachelet and incoming President Piñera on the nation's needs to smooth the transition in power. President-elect Piñera has declared his government "will be the government of the reconstruction, not the government of the earthquake." He faces huge challenges in a recovery that has been estimated will take 3-4 years and will cost between $15 and $30 billion dollars by the outgoing administration. Piñera has toured the hardest hit regions, and continued to make appointments. He is re-orienting his strategy from promising to return Chile to an annual growth rate of 6% to rebuilding and reconstruction. He has also pledged to improve coordination between authorities and the armed forces; to repair damaged infrastructure such as ports, roads, airports and telecommunication and power lines; and to construct homes in the affected zones.