Japan and the United States are among the world's largest economic powers. Together they account for over 30% of world domestic product (2012 estimate). This economic clout makes the United States and Japan powerful forces that influence each other's economies and those of other countries. Economic conditions in the United States and Japan also have a significant impact on the rest of the world. Furthermore, the U.S.-Japan bilateral economic relationship itself can influence economic conditions in other countries. The two countries remain very important economic partners, accounting for significant shares of each other's foreign trade and investment, even though their relative significance has declined. The global financial crisis and economic downturn added another dimension to the relationship as the two countries have grappled with the severe impact of the crisis on their respective economies and simultaneously have worked with their partners in the G-20 to coordinate a multilateral response. The impact of the March 11, 2011, earthquake and subsequent tsunami and nuclear plant accidents in northern Japan added still another factor to the bilateral economic relationship. The U.S.-Japan economic relationship is important to U.S. national interests and to the U.S. Congress. It has been the subject of oversight hearings and trade legislation, and Congress plays a critical role in shaping U.S. economic policy toward Japan. The United States and Japan have taken perhaps the most important step in years in forging a closer economic relationship. After many months of internal political debate and changes in political leadership, Japan expressed interest on March 15, 2013, in joining the negotiations to establish the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) trade agreement to which the United States is a party. On April 12, after a series of informal bilateral discussions with Japan, the Obama Administration stated that it would support Japan's participation in the TPP and, with the other 10 TPP participants, it invited Japan to join. On July 23, 2013, Japan formally became a TPP participant. Congress must approve a TPP trade agreement in which the United States is a party before any U.S. commitments could enter into force. To help the 113 th Congress in fulfilling these and other responsibilities regarding U.S.-Japan economic relations, this report explores the significance and state of U.S.-Japan economic ties, major issues in the relationship, and the possible options for managing the relationship. The U.S. and Japanese economies remain closely intertwined through trade and capital flows. Many argue that U.S. and Japanese political leaders have not always given the U.S.-Japan relationship the priority commensurate with its economic importance; nevertheless, the data and other indicators suggest that the relationship bears attention. The U.S. and Japanese economies are in some respects very similar. They are both large industrialized economies that have provided their residents with a high standard of living. However, as Table 1 points out, they are very different in some critical ways. The U.S. economy is roughly 2½ times as large as Japan's both on a nominal and purchasing power parity (PPP) basis. The Japanese standard of living is slightly lower than the U.S. standard of living measured on a nominal per capita/GDP basis and even lower when measured on a PPP per capita/GDP basis. (The latter measurement reflects the high cost in Japan for food, fuel, and other basic necessities compared to the United States.) Japan has also endured slow economic growth or even recessions during the past two decades, while U.S. economic growth had been stronger, although both economies have suffered slow growth and even recession in the wake of the 2008-2009 financial crisis. The U.S. average annual GDP growth rate during the last 10 years (2003-2012) has been almost two times that of Japan's. Nevertheless, the economic recoveries in both countries are expected to be fragile, especially in Japan. Exports are slightly more important to the Japanese economy than are imports as measured as ratios to GDP, while imports are more significant than exports in the U.S. economy. The United States has continually incurred current account deficits. Japan had been earning current account surpluses, although the surpluses have been decreasing due to diminishing demand for Japan's exports and increasing imports of energy. Japan has continually exceeded the United States in terms of savings. Many economists consider the strong propensity to save in Japan relative to the United States as the primary reason why the United States has incurred current account trade deficits with Japan for many years and why Japan continues to be a major net creditor while the United States is a net debtor. At the same time, Japan has built up a huge volume of public debt, and its debt burden as a ratio of GDP is almost three times that of the United States. Japan's public debt has soared in the last several decades as it has attempted to stimulate growth with extra government spending. Japan was hit by two economic crises in the last few years that affected U.S.-Japan economic relations. The first was the global financial crisis, which began to hit in 2008 and intensified in 2009. Japan was hit hard by the decline in global demand for its exports, particularly in the United States and Europe. Japan had become dependent on net export growth as the engine for overall GDP growth, as domestic consumer demand and investment lagged. The second crisis was the March 11, 2011, earthquake, tsunami, and nuclear accidents in northeast Japan. The Japanese government has responded with a series of four supplemental fiscal packages to finance reconstruction. The implementation of the reconstruction efforts has been slower than expected, dampening the stimulus effect on economic growth. In addition, the country has had to cope with electricity shortages and search for alternative sources of power, including increased fossil fuel imports. The two crises and the economic problems in Europe, among other factors, have adversely affected Japan's economic growth. Japan incurred growth rates of -1.1% in 2008 and -5.5% in 2009 but recovered in 2010 to expand by 4.7%. The recovery proved short-lived as Japan experienced -0.4% growth in 2011, only 1.4% in 2011, and an estimated 1.7% in 2013. Prime Minister Abe has made it a priority of his administration to boost economic growth and to eliminate deflation, which has plagued Japan for many years. Abe is promoting a three-pronged, or "three-arrow," economic program. The first arrow consisted of a $122 billion fiscal stimulus package aimed at spending on infrastructure, particularly in areas affected by the March 2011 disaster. While the package appears to have boosted growth somewhat, its effects appear to have largely run their course and it has added to Japan's already large public debt, which at over 200% of the country's gross domestic product (GDP) is the highest of any advanced economy. The second arrow consists of monetary stimulus to arrest deflation. As a result, under pressure from Abe, the independent central bank (Bank of Japan, or BOJ) announced in the spring of 2013 a continued loose monetary policy with interest rates of 0%, quantitative easing measures, and a target inflation rate of 2%. The Japanese yen rapidly dropped in value against the U.S. dollar and other major currencies after that announcement. Although few observers think that the BOJ will reach its target, according to a number of measures it appears that inflationary pressures have re-emerged in the economy, at least in part due to the rise in import prices resulting from the yen's depreciation. The third arrow consists of economic reforms that are and will be aimed at restructuring the agricultural, medical services, and electricity sectors (among others) and the promotion of new services and industries. For Abe, Japan's participation in the TPP is a catalyst for those growth-promoting reforms, but many of the established economic interests are deeply entrenched, particularly within his own party, the LDP. Critics argue that Abe has pursued structural reforms cautiously, and has backtracked on many of them, such as liberalizing the sale of pharmaceuticals. Abe's government has said that in the spring of 2014 it will create a number of special economic zones (SEZs), areas that have lower taxes and fewer regulations, in order to stimulate private-sector investment. A likely by-product of these measures will be weakening of the yen. For the past five years, the yen had exhibited unprecedented strength in terms of the dollar. In January 2007 the yen's average value was ¥120.46=$1 during the month, but after rapid appreciation, it reached as high as ¥76.65=$1 in October 2011. Since that time, it has depreciated to ¥102.3=$1 on February 7, 2014. The growth in U.S.-Japanese bilateral trade in goods and services has been slow if not stagnant over the past two decades, reflecting, at least in part, the anemic state of the Japanese economy. Bilateral trade declined significantly in 2009 as a result of the global economic downturn. U.S.-Japan trade has picked up in 2010 and 21011 and, as Table 2 shows, regained its pre-2009 level in 2012, but declined in 2013. U.S. imports from Japan are concentrated within three main categories. About three-quarters of those imports have consisted of passenger cars and parts; computers and components; office machinery parts; and electrical machinery (primarily video cameras). U.S. exports to Japan are much more diverse, but a major portion of them are in computers and components; gas turbines (turbojets, turbo-propellers, etc. ); office machinery parts; electrical machinery (integrated circuits and electrical apparatus for line telephone systems); optical and medical equipment; and agricultural products, such as wheat and meat. Although Japan remains important economically to the United States, its importance has slid as it has been edged out by other trade partners. In 1989, Japan was the largest source of U.S. imports and the second-largest U.S. export market.