Federal education legislation continues to emphasize the role of assessment in elementary and secondary schools. Perhaps most prominently, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), as amended by the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA; P.L. 114-95 ), requires the use of test-based educational accountability systems in states and specifies the requirements for the assessments that states must incorporate into state-designed educational accountability system. These requirements are applicable to states that receive funding under Title I-A of the ESEA, which authorizes aid to local educational agencies (LEAs) for the education of disadvantaged children. Title I-A grants provide supplementary educational and related services to low-achieving and other students attending elementary and secondary schools with relatively high concentrations of students from low-income families. All states currently accept Title I-A funds. For FY2017, the program was funded at $15.5 billion. More specifically, to receive Title I-A funds, states must agree to assess all students annually in grades 3 through 8 and once in high school in the areas of reading and mathematics. Students are also required to be assessed in science at least once within each of three specified grade spans (grades 3-5, 6-9, and 10-12). The results of these assessments are used as part of a state-designed educational accountability system that determines which schools will be identified for support and improvement based on their performance. The results are also used to make information about the academic performance of students in schools and school systems available to parents and other community stakeholders. These requirements have been implemented within a crowded landscape of state, local, and classroom uses of educational assessments, ranging from small-scale classroom assessments to high school exit exams. The emphasis on educational assessment within federal education policies, which has coincided with expanded assessment use in many states and localities, has led to considerable debate about the amount of time being spent taking tests and preparing for tests in schools, the fit between various types of assessments and intended uses, and optimal ways to increase the usefulness of assessments. As student assessments continue to be used for accountability purposes under the ESEA as well as in many other capacities related to federal programs (e.g., for identifying students eligible to receive extra services supported through federal programs), this report provides Congress with a general overview of assessments and related issues. It discusses different types of educational assessments and uses of assessment in support of the aims of federal policies. As congressional audiences sometimes seek clarification on how the assessments required under federal programs fit into the broader landscape of educational assessments, the report situates the types of assessment undertaken in conjunction with federal programs within the broader context of assessments used for varied purposes within schools. The report explains basic concepts related to assessment in accessible language, and it identifies commonly discussed considerations related to the use of assessments. The report provides background information that can be helpful to readers as they consider the uses of educational assessment in conjunction with policies and programs. This report accompanies CRS Report R45049, Educational Assessment and the Elementary and Secondary Education Act , by [author name scrubbed], which provides a more detailed examination of the assessment requirements under the ESEA. This report begins by briefly discussing the current types of assessments used in elementary and secondary education. It then provides a framework for understanding various types of assessments that are administered in elementary and secondary schools. It broadly discusses several purposes of educational assessment and describes the concept of balanced assessment systems. The report also provides a description of technical considerations in assessments, including validity, reliability, and fairness, and discusses how to use these technical considerations to draw appropriate conclusions based on assessment results. This report does not comprehensively or exclusively discuss specific assessments required by federal legislation. The information herein can be applied broadly to all assessments used in elementary and secondary schools, including those required by federal legislation. Examples from federal legislation, such as the ESEA and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA; P.L. 108-446 ), are used to highlight assessment concepts. The examples provided are not exhaustive but rather serve to demonstrate the application of assessment concepts to actual assessments administered in schools. Students in elementary and secondary education participate in a wide range of assessments, from small-scale classroom assessments to large-scale international assessments. Some assessments are required, and some are voluntary. Some assessment results are reported on an individual level, and some are reported at a group level. Some assessments have high-stakes consequences, and some do not. The most common type of assessment used in educational settings is achievement testing. Although educational assessment involves more than testing, this report uses "assessment" and "test" interchangeably. Among the assessments discussed, state assessments required by the ESEA receive considerable attention in this report. These assessments are administered annually in reading and mathematics to all students in grades 3 through 8 and once in high school. In addition, science assessments are administered once in each of three grade spans (grades 3-5, 6-9, and 10-12). The results of reading and mathematics assessments are used as indicators in the state accountability systems required by Title I-A. Results are aggregated and reported for various groups of students. Though they are not required to do so by federal law, states may require students to pass exit exams to graduate from high school. A state "exit exam" typically refers to one or more tests in different subject areas, such as English, mathematics, science, and social studies. Exit exams can take several forms, including minimum competency exams, comprehensive exams, end-of course exams, or some combination of the three. Students may also participate in national assessments. The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) is a series of assessments that have been used since 1969. The NAEP tests are administered to students in grades 4, 8, and 12. They cover a variety of content areas, including reading, mathematics, science, writing, geography, history, civics, social studies, and the arts. The NAEP is a voluntary assessment for students; however, states that receive funding under Title I-A of the ESEA are required to participate in the reading and mathematics assessment for grades 4 and 8. A sample of students in each state is selected to participate in the NAEP. Some students are selected to participate in international assessments. There are currently three international assessments that are periodically administered: (1) the Programme for International Student Achievement (PISA), (2) the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS), and (3) the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS). Participation in international assessments is voluntary, and the countries that choose to participate can vary from one administration to the next. As with the NAEP, a sample of students from a participating country is selected to take the assessment. Certain students also take assessments to qualify for special services. States are required by the federal government to provide special services to students with disabilities and English learners (ELs). To receive special services, a student must be found eligible for services based on a variety of assessments. States are required to designate the specific assessments that determine eligibility. In addition, states are required to assess ELs in English language proficiency, which includes the domains of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. On the surface, it may be difficult to understand why students participate in so many assessments. Each assessment has a specific purpose and reports a specific kind of score. Teaching and learning can benefit from educational assessment, but there is a balance between the time spent on educational assessment and the time spent on teaching and learning. Determining the number and type of assessments to administer in elementary and secondary education is important, and the information in this report is intended to help policymakers as they contribute to these decisions. Educational assessment is a complex task involving gathering and analyzing data to support decision-making about students and the evaluation of academic programs and policies. There are many ways to classify assessments in frameworks. The framework offered below is meant to provide a context for the remainder of the report and present an easily accessible vocabulary for discussing assessments. This framework addresses the various purposes of assessment, the concept of balanced assessment systems, and the scoring of assessments. After outlining a general assessment framework, this report discusses technical considerations in assessment and how to draw appropriate conclusions based on assessment results. A glossary containing definitions of commonly used assessment and measurement terms is provided at the end of this report. The glossary provides additional technical information that may not be addressed within the text of the report. Educational assessments are designed with a specific purpose in mind, and the results should be used for the intended purpose. Although it is possible that a test was designed for multiple purposes and results could be interpreted and used in multiple ways, it is often the case that test results are used for multiple purposes when the test itself was designed for only one. This "over-purposing" of tests is an issue of concern in education and can undermine test validity. In the sections below, four general purposes of assessment are discussed: instructional, diagnostic (identification), predictive, and evaluative. Instructional assessments are used to modify and adapt instruction to meet students' needs. These assessments can be informal or formal and usually take place within the context of a classroom. Informal instructional assessments can include teacher questioning strategies or reviewing classroom work. A more formal instructional assessment could be a written pretest in which a teacher uses the results to analyze what the students already know before determining what to teach. Another common type of instructional assessment is progress monitoring. Progress monitoring consists of short assessments throughout an academic unit that can assess whether students are learning the content that is being taught. The results of progress monitoring can help teachers determine if they need to repeat a certain concept, change the pace of their instruction, or comprehensively change their lesson plans. Commercially available standardized tests are often not appropriate to use as instructional assessments. It may be difficult for teachers to access assessments that are closely aligned with the content they are teaching.