The Republic of the Union of Myanmar (Burma) held parliamentary by-elections on April 1, 2012. Depending on the conduct of the election, the official election results, and the treatment of the newly elected members of parliament, U.S. policy toward Burma may undergo a major shift, possibly including the waiver or removal of some of the current U.S. sanctions. Other nations and the European Union (EU) are reportedly also considering removing sanctions or restrictions on Burma depending on their assessments of the by-elections. The by-elections originally were to fill 48 vacant seats in Burma's various parliaments. Burma's parliamentary system consists of the bicameral Union Parliament ( Pyidaungsu Hluttaw ) plus separate local parliaments for each of the nation's seven states and seven regions. The two chambers of the Union Parliament are the lower house People's Assembly ( Pyithu Hluttaw ) with 440 seats, and the upper house National Assembly ( Amyotha Hluttaw ) with 224 seats. The number of seats in the local parliaments vary. One-quarter of the seats in each chamber of the Union Parliament and in each of the local parliaments are appointed by the commander-in-chief of Burma's military, the Tatmadaw. The April by-elections were to fill 40 vacant seats in People's Assembly, 6 seats in the National Assembly, 1 seat in Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy) Region, and 1 seat in the Bago (Pegu) Region (see Figure 1 ). However, on March 23, 2012, the Union Election Commission (UEC) postponed voting for three People's Assembly seats in the Kachin State for security reasons. Forty-five of the seats are vacant because the elected member accepted a position in the Union Government. Two seats are vacant because the elected member was removed from office, and the last seat is vacant due to the member's death. All 48 seats were previously held by members of the pro-military Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP). In terms of the overall balance of power in the Union Parliament, the by-elections will have only a marginal impact. Less than 9% of the total seats in the People's Assembly and under 3% in the National Assembly were contested (see Table 1 ). The by-elections are largely considered significant because of the participation of the NLD, and its Chair Aung San Suu Kyi, who is viewed both domestically and internationally as the leader of Burma's democracy movement. The election campaign unofficially began in March 2012, after each party registered its slate of candidates with the Union Election Commission (UEC). President Thein Sein and the Union Government pledged to make the by-elections free and fair. However, a number of incidents during the campaign period revealed efforts by government officials to undermine the ability of the NLD to carry out its campaign, as well as intimidate or coerce people to support the USDP. The exclusion of certain political parties and the campaign irregularities also raised doubts about how free and fair the by-elections were. On March 20, 2012, it was reported that the Burmese government had notified the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) that it could send election observers to Burma as of March 28, 2012. Invitations to send election observers soon went out to the European Union, the United States, and a number of other nations. In contrast to election day in November 2010, voting on April 1 went comparatively smoothly. Of particular note, there was no repeat of the mysterious appearance of "advance votes" that had marred the previous parliamentary elections. According to the official results released by the UEC, the NLD won all 37 seats in the People's Assembly, 4 seats in the National Assembly, and both of the seats in the regional assemblies. The USDP won 1 seat in the National Assembly in Sagaing Region. The Shan Nationalities Democratic Party (SNDP) won the seat in the National Assembly in the Shan State. As a result of the by-elections, the pro-military parties—the USDP and the National Unity Party (NUP)—and the military control 77.5% of the seats in the People's Assembly, 82.6% of the seats in the National Assembly, and 79.2% of the seats in the combined Union Parliament. This is more than enough votes to pass laws or amend the constitution without the support of any opposition party members. The initial international response to the by-elections was generally positive. The White House issued a short statement congratulating the people of Burma for the elections. A statement attributable to the Spokesperson for Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon also congratulated "the people, Government, and political parties of Myanmar for the peaceful and largely orderly manner in which Sunday's by-elections for vacant parliamentary seats were held." The 10 ASEAN leaders, who were meeting in Cambodia, called for the removal of all sanctions on their fellow ASEAN member. A spokesperson for the European Commission reportedly hinted that the EU would consider removing some of its sanctions on Burma when it meets in late April. A total of 17 political parties registered the minimum number of three candidates running for office in the by-elections including the pro-democracy NLD and the pro-military USDP (see textbox ). Two newly registered parties—the 88-Forces of People's Party and the Democratic Alliance Party—were abolished for failing to field at least three candidates for the by-elections. The NLD and the USDP reportedly filed candidates for all 48 seats initially to be contested. A spin-off party from the NLD, the National Democratic Front (NDF), and military's political party in the 1990 elections, the National Unity Party, contested approximately 20 seats. A number of political parties did not participate in the by-elections for a variety of reasons. In addition to the two parties abolished for failing to field enough candidates, at least four political parties were be unable to participate in the by-election because the UEC did not act on their applications. Two political parties—the Chin National Party and the Rakhine National Development Party (RNDP)—are not participating because none of the contested seats are located in their home states of Chin and Rakhine, respectively. Four political parties—the Arakan League for Democracy, the Mon National Democratic Front, the Shan Nationalities League for Democracy, and the Zomi National Congress—announced plans to register with the UEC, but not run candidates in the by-elections. Members of the 88-Generation students group, an informal association of the student leaders of Burma's 8888 Uprising, also announced that they would not run candidates as part of a separate political party, but would support the NLD. Several political parties—such as the Karen National Union, the Karenni National Progressive Party, and the Pa-O National Liberation Organization—also decided not to participate in the by-elections because some of their members remain in detention and/or because the Burmese militia continue to attack their associated militias. President Thein Sein and the Union Government repeatedly promised free and fair by-elections. Each of the 17 political parties was provided air time on the radio and television during the month of March. In addition, each party was allowed to print a party policy statement in the government-run newspaper, The New Light of Myanmar . However, both the texts of the broadcasts and the printed policy statements had to be submitted in advance and were subject to censorship. The election campaign was marred by reports of government officials using their official powers to hinder the NLD's ability to hold political rallies, as well as intimidating and threatening voters to support USDP candidates. In addition, the USDP allegedly developed a "dirty tricks" campaign to ensure their candidates win the elections. The Union Election Commission (UEC) took steps to undo the roadblocks placed before the NLD candidates, but reports of unfair campaign practices continue to appear in the press. One of the most common impediments placed before the NLD campaign was the refusal of the Ministry of Sports to allow the NLD to hold rallies in football (soccer) stadia. NLD rallies at which Aung San Suu Kyi spoke routinely drew over 10,000 people, making it desirable to use the stadia. On February 17, 2012, the NLD wanted to hold a rally at Pyapon Stadium in the Irrawaddy region, but the sports ministry refused permission and the event was relocated to the outskirts of the city. Previous requests to use a football stadium on February 15 in the Rangoon region and in Mandalay on February 4 were also denied by the sports ministry. On February 20, 2012, the UEC instructed the sports ministry to lift its restrictions on the use of sports stadia. While the block on NLD access to sports stadia seemed over, the Mon State Election Commission refused to grant permission for the NLD to hold a rally at Than Lwin Garden in the city of Moulmein. Besides their apparent attempts to block NLD rallies, it was alleged that local government officials and the USDP intimidated and threatened voters to support the USDP as part of what opposition groups saw as a larger "dirty tricks" campaign. Civil servants in the capital of Nay Pyi Taw (Naypyidaw) were reportedly told not to attend NLD rallies. The residents of one village were told they would not be connected to the electric grid if someone in their household attended an NLD rally. Factory workers reportedly were warned that they will lose their jobs if they do not vote for the USDP.