The various uses and management of federal lands administered by the Bureau of Land Management and the Forest Service raise a variety of issues for Congress. Actions discussed in this report include legislation, administrative or regulatory proposals, and litigation and judicial decisions. Issue areas include onshore energy resources, administration of hardrock mining, wildfire protection, management of wild horses and burros, designation of the National Landscape Conservation System, wilderness designation, management of national forest roadless areas, Forest Service implementation of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), BLM land sales, and national forest planning. Many of these issues have been of interest to Congress and the nation for decades. The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) in the Department of the Interior (DOI) and the Forest Service (FS) in the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) manage 449 million acres of land, more than two-thirds of the land owned by the federal government and one-fifth of the total U.S. land area. The BLM manages 255.8 million acres of land, predominantly in the West. The FS administers 192.8 million acres of federal land, also concentrated in the West. The BLM and FS have similar management responsibilities for their lands, and many key issues affect both agencies' lands. Thus, merging the two agencies often has been proposed. By law, BLM and FS lands are to be administered for multiple uses, although slightly different uses are specified for each agency. In practice, land uses considered by the agencies include recreation, range, timber, minerals, watershed, wildlife and fish, and conservation. BLM and FS lands also are required to be managed for sustained yield—a high level of resource outputs in perpetuity—without impairing the productivity of the lands. However, each agency also has unique emphasis and functions. For instance, most rangelands are managed by the BLM, and the BLM administers mineral development on all federal lands. Most federal forests are managed by the FS, and the FS has a cooperative program to assist nonfederal forest landowners. Moreover, development of the two agencies has differed, and historically they have focused on different issues. Nonetheless, there are many parallels. For the BLM, many of the issues traditionally center on the agency's responsibilities for land disposal, range management (particularly grazing), and minerals development. The BLM assumed these three key functions when it was created in 1946 by the merger of the General Land Office (created in 1812) and the U.S. Grazing Service (created in 1934). The General Land Office had helped convey land to settlers, issued leases, and administered mining claims on the public lands, among other functions. The U.S. Grazing Service had been established to manage the public lands best suited for livestock grazing under the Taylor Grazing Act of 1934 (43 U.S.C. §§315, et seq.). Congress frequently has debated how to manage federal lands, and whether to retain or dispose of the remaining public lands or to expand federal land ownership. Congress enacted the Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 (FLPMA, 43 U.S.C. §§1701, et seq. ), sometimes called BLM's Organic Act because it consolidated and articulated the agency's responsibilities. Among other provisions, the law established a general national policy that BLM-managed public lands be retained in federal ownership, established management of the public lands based on the principles of multiple use and sustained yield, and generally required that the federal government receive fair market value for the use of public lands and resources. BLM public land management encompasses diverse uses, resources, and values, such as energy and mineral development, timber harvesting, livestock grazing, recreation, wild horses and burros, fish and wildlife habitat, and preservation of natural and cultural resources. The FS was created in 1905, when forest lands reserved by the President (beginning in 1891) were transferred from DOI into the existing USDA Bureau of Forestry (initially an agency for private forestry assistance and forestry research). Management direction for the national forests, first enacted in 1897 and expanded in 1960, identifies the purposes for which the lands are to be managed—including timber, grazing, recreation, wildlife and fish, and water—and directs "harmonious and coordinated management" to provide for multiple uses and sustained yields of the many resources found in the national forests. Many issues concerning national forest management and use have focused on the appropriate level and location of timber harvesting. In part to address these issues, Congress enacted the National Forest Management Act of 1976 (NFMA; 16 U.S.C. §§1600-1614, et al.) to revise timber sale authorities and to elaborate on considerations and requirements in land and resource management plans. Wilderness protection also is a continuing issue for the FS. The Multiple-Use Sustained-Yield Act of 1960 (16 U.S.C. §528-531) authorizes wilderness as a use of national forest lands, and possible national forest wilderness areas have been reviewed under the 1964 Wilderness Act (16 U.S.C. §§1131-1136) as well as in the national forest planning process. Pressures persist to protect the wilderness character of areas in pending wilderness recommendations and other roadless areas. The missions of the BLM and FS are similar, and many issues, programs, and policies affect both agencies. For these reasons, BLM and FS lands often are discussed together, as in this report. This report focuses on several issues affecting the agencies' lands that appear to be of interest to the 111 th Congress, including access to energy resources, administration of hardrock mining, wildfire protection, wild horses and burros management, the National Landscape Conservation System, wilderness designation, protection and use of national forest roadless areas and FS implementation of NEPA. It does not comprehensively cover general issues affecting management of these and other federal lands. For background on federal land management generally, see CRS Report R40225, Federal Land Management Agencies: Background on Land and Resources Management , coordinated by [author name scrubbed]. For other information on the BLM, FS, and natural resources issues and agencies generally, see the CRS website at http://www.crs.gov/ . (by [author name scrubbed]) Access to federal lands for energy and mineral development has been a controversial issue. A BLM-coordinated study (issued May 2008) found that 62% of the estimated oil resources and 41% of the estimated natural gas resources on the 279 million acres of federal land inventoried are classified as "inaccessible"—that is, unavailable for drilling and development. The oil and gas industry contends that entry into currently unavailable areas is necessary to ensure future domestic oil and gas supplies. Opponents maintain that the restricted lands are unique or environmentally sensitive and that the United States could realize equivalent energy gains through conservation and increased exploration on current leases or elsewhere. Development of oil, gas, and coal on BLM and FS lands (and other federal lands) is governed primarily by the Mineral Leasing Act of 1920 (30 U.S.C. §181). Leasing on BLM lands goes through a multi-step approval process. If the minerals are located on FS lands, the FS must perform a leasing analysis and approve leasing decisions for specific lands before the BLM may lease the land for mineral development. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct05, P.L. 109-58 ) made significant changes to the laws governing federal energy resources, including management of energy development on BLM and FS lands. Geothermal leasing on federal lands is conducted under the authority of the Geothermal Steam Act of 1970, as amended (30 U.S.C. §§1001-1028). Much of the nation's geothermal energy potential is located on federal lands. Increasing geothermal production on federal lands while mitigating environmental impacts from increased production are at issue. The BLM administers more than 400 geothermal leases, with 29 operating geothermal power plants generating an estimated 1,250 megawatts of energy annually (equivalent to a single large nuclear power plant). Development of renewable energy such as solar and wind are governed by right-of-way authorities under Title V of FLPMA (43 U.S.C. §§1761-1771). Large tracts of land would be needed for new solar and wind energy projects if the goal is to replace or add significant capacity. In addition, new transmission capacity would be needed, increasing the need for new rights-of-way. The extent of some of the environmental impacts of renewable energy production, such as impacts on wildlife and on environmentally sensitive areas, have been controversial. The Bush Administration responded to provisions of EPAct05 with a series of actions. Under §369, the BLM completed environmental assessments and issued leases for five oil shale research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) projects on federal lands in Colorado and one in Utah. On October 20, 2009, the Obama Administration announced a second round of oil shale RD&D leases. The terms and conditions—much different than those of the first round—include a smaller preference right area (480 acres) and potential commercial lease size (640 acres), higher application fees ($6,500), and diligent development milestones. Royalty rates would be determined by the Secretary or established in regulation. For commercial oil shale development, the BLM completed a final programmatic environmental impact statement (PEIS) on September 4, 2008, and published its final rule for a commercial oil shale and tar sands leasing program on November 17, 2008. In addition, a 2008 BLM report highlighted the progress of a pilot project to improve efficiency of processing oil and gas permits. The report claimed improved interagency communication and a reduction in the time needed to review and process permit applications.