Hunting and fishing, often referred to as sportsmen and sportswomen (sportsperson) activities, on federal lands is a perennial issue for Congress. Members of Congress routinely introduce legislation and debate issues pertaining to recreational opportunities and access, federal land use, and the federal government's regulatory roles related to sportsperson activities. Hunting and fishing are also regularly addressed in the executive branch through executive and secretarial orders and federal rulemakings. These issues cut across all of the federal land management agencies—including Department of the Interior (DOI) agencies and the U.S. Forest Service (FS) in the Department of Agriculture (USDA) and other land management agencies and departments such as the Department of Defense (DOD) and U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). This report addresses hunting and fishing activities on federal lands. It includes background information on the status of hunting and fishing activities in the United States (including related statistics), as well as major federal statutes that address hunting and fishing. It also discusses administrative actions relating to hunting and fishing and concludes with a section on potential hunting and fishing issues facing Congress, including a discussion of selected legislative proposals. This report focuses on recreational hunting and freshwater fishing activities on federal lands and freshwaters; it generally does not address hunting and fishing activities on state or private property, commercial activities, or ocean/marine recreational fishing. Similarly, although policy debates related to firearms are central to hunting issues, this report does not address in detail issues and legislation pertaining specifically to firearms and firearm-tax-related topics. Hunting and fishing are considered by many to be traditional American pastimes and are frequently cited as being integral to conservation and wildlife management. Sportsperson activities are further put forth as a means to connect participants to the land, promote conservation activities, and generate revenue. Proponents of this view often contend that throughout history, conservation leaders—such as President Theodore Roosevelt or Aldo Leopold—were avid sportspersons and supported land conservation needed for hunting and fishing. However, some have raised concerns that conservation interests and sportsperson activities can potentially conflict. For example, some have noted that unless closely regulated using sound science, hunting and fishing can become unsustainable and negatively affect some ecosystems and species. Identifying an appropriate balance among multiple authorized uses for federal lands is seen by some as a role for Congress. Hunting and fishing activities are included in the management plans for many federally owned areas, and are authorized under law for some federal lands (see " Hunting and Fishing on Federal Lands " section below). The extent to which sportsperson activities should be allowed or prioritized on federal lands is often debated by Congress and stakeholders. Although hunting and fishing occur on federal, state, and private properties, some stakeholders claim that federal lands offer many participants their only or best opportunity to conduct sportsperson activities. Proponents of greater access to sportsperson activities on federal lands cite the importance of federal lands for these activities and contend that federal lands should be managed in a way that benefits and provides opportunities for all Americans, including hunters and anglers. Others have expressed concerns that prioritizing sportsperson activities can marginalize other users and negatively affect conservation efforts. Hunting and fishing are also drivers of local and regional economies and contribute to the multibillion-dollar outdoor economy, which includes other outdoor activities such as wildlife viewing, hiking, and camping. Since 1955, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) has conducted a national survey of hunting, fishing, and wildlife-associated recreation (i.e., wildlife-watching and other related activities) every five years. As part of the survey, the FWS estimates both the number of participants taking part in these activities and expenditures arising from them. Figure 1 displays data on hunting and fishing participation between 1996 and 2016 as well as wildlife watching over the same period. Between 1996 and 2016, participation in hunting ranged from 11.5 million to 14.0 million sportspersons. Participation in fishing has been similarly variable, with a range between 30.0 million and 35.8 million individuals. For both hunting and fishing, there has not been a consistent trend across the 20-year period. During the same time period, however, participation in wildlife watching was estimated to have increased, from 62.9 million individuals in 1996 to 86.0 million in 2016. For 2016, FWS found that over 101 million Americans, or approximately 40% of the population, participated in one or more wildlife-related activity, which resulted in an estimated $156 billion in expenditures, or approximately 1% of U.S. gross domestic product (GDP); see Figure 2 . Within that total, nearly 40 million people were estimated to have participated in hunting and fishing, each spending an average of over $2,000. However, the 2016 survey estimated that there were 2.2 million fewer hunters in the United States in 2016 than in 2011, a fact highlighted by DOI in subsequent administrative actions. Wildlife watching accounted for 86.0 million participants, who spent an average of $882 per participant. Overall, the survey results consistently indicate that a large portion of the U.S. population participates in hunting and fishing activities and that these activities contribute to both local and national economies. Supporters of hunting and fishing point to the wide base of participants in these activities and use these data to support arguments for providing greater access to federal lands and waters for hunting and fishing. Others have highlighted that, in light of the increase in wildlife watching, land management agencies may need to shift management plans to support nonconsumptive wildlife-related activities, such as bird watching. Still others have highlighted the importance of hunting and fishing for conservation and have suggested that wildlife watchers could disturb habitats. Federal lands and waters are a significant provider of opportunities for sportspeople to participate in hunting and fishing. The federal government owns approximately 640 million acres of land, accounting for about 28% of land within the United States. In 2011, 36% of hunters (4.9 million of 13.7 million hunters total) used public lands, which include federal lands as well as state, local, and municipal lands, although the percentage of hunters using public lands varied across U.S. regions. For example, in the western United States, nearly 1.5 million hunters (71% of hunters in this region) utilized public lands; in the eastern United States, 1.3 million hunters (33% of hunters in this region) used public lands. Within the public lands utilized by hunters and anglers, the federal lands and waters are managed by a number of different agencies, including agencies within the DOI and USDA as well as the DOD. However, states maintain ownership over some of the submerged lands (e.g., lakebeds) within some federal land units (e.g., certain national wildlife refuges and Bureau of Land Management [BLM] lands). Four agencies—BLM, National Park Service (NPS), and FWS in DOI and FS in USDA—account for roughly 95% of all federal acreage; DOD and USACE manage about 2% each; and the remainder is managed by a variety of other agencies. Each land management agency has its own established mission and purpose, which can lead to different approaches to managing specific activities on lands they oversee. Policies related to hunting and fishing on federal lands and waters are variable and reflect overall agency missions and the specified unit or installation purposes. For example, although a land management agency may have a policy to allow hunting and fishing, an individual unit within the agency may not allow hunting and fishing in parts of the unit because of a specific purpose or need at the unit level. Furthermore, many federal and state laws can influence how hunting and fishing is regulated in agency units (see " Federal Statutes Related to Hunting, Fishing, and Recreational Shooting " for more information). In particular, states are responsible for managing wildlife within their borders, and hunters and anglers are, almost always, required to have relevant state licenses. Hunting and fishing management on federal lands and waters can be roughly divided into two categories based on agency policy. Land can be managed for hunting and fishing as open unless closed (e.g., BLM lands), or, conversely, as closed unless open (e.g., hunting on NPS lands). These two management conditions reflect the default status of the land management agency under its authorities, and whether the responsible agency head is tasked with justifying closing or opening of lands to hunting and fishing. This justification is typically derived as a result of whether these sportsperson activities are deemed compatible or consistent with the mission of the agency and the purpose of an individual unit. Implementation of these laws is outlined in agency policies, service manuals, and the Code of Federal Regulations . Overall, there appears to be a wide variation in the portion of lands that are open to hunting and fishing. Among open unless closed lands, over 246 million acres (99%) of BLM lands are open to hunting and fishing, while the FS reports that 99% of the 193 million acres it administers are open to hunting and at least 99% of FS administered rivers, streams, and lakes are open to fishing. Among closed unless opened lands, 374 (66%) of the 566 FWS-administered wildlife refuges offer some form of hunting and/or fishing (hunting is allowed on 336, and fishing is allowed on 277), and 37 of 38 wetland management districts allow hunting and 34 permit fishing. In total, FWS administers about 86 million acres that allow hunting. Within the National Park System, 70 (17%) of 417 units managed by the NPS are statutorily mandated to allow hunting, and 6 units (1%) are authorized but not mandated to allow it.