In 1992, the U.S. government initiated a program known as the Lisbon Initiative on Multilateral Nuclear Safety. This program is designed to help improve the safety of Soviet-designed reactors. The U.S. program is part of a larger international effort to improve the safety of these reactors. As of February 1996, 22 donors, including the United States, had pledged or contributed more than $1.4 billion in assistance to this effort. The 60 operational Soviet-designed nuclear power reactors pose significant risks because of deficiencies in their design and operation. Of greatest concern are 26 of these reactors that western safety experts generally agree fall well below accepted international safety standards and cannot be economically upgraded. These include 15 reactors known as RBMKs and 11 reactors known as VVER 440 Model 230s. The RBMK reactors—considered the least safe by western safety experts—and VVER 440 Model 230 reactors are believed to present the greatest safety risk because of inherent design deficiencies, including the lack of a containment structure, inadequate fire protection systems, unreliable instrumentation and control systems, and deficient systems for cooling the reactor core in an emergency. Most of these reactors are located in countries that do not have independent or effective nuclear regulatory bodies to oversee plant safety. Figure 1 shows the type and location of the 60 Soviet-designed reactors operating in the Newly Independent States and in central and eastern Europe. Several federal agencies share responsibility for the U.S. nuclear safety assistance program. The Department of State provides overall policy guidance, with assistance from the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID). DOE is responsible for implementing projects involving training, operational safety, and safety-related equipment. Three of DOE’s national laboratories support the program. The Pacific Northwest National Laboratory provides the primary management support, and along with the Brookhaven National Laboratory and the Argonne National Laboratory, manages specific safety projects. NRC is responsible for assisting the recipient countries’ nuclear regulatory organizations. The goals of the U.S. safety assistance program have remained the same since its inception—encouraging the shutdown of the highest-risk Soviet-designed nuclear power reactors and reducing the risk of accidents. However, none of these reactors have been closed, and one has been restarted. In addition, DOE’s portion of the program has evolved and expanded to cover a broader range of safety projects. Although the United States remains committed to securing the closure of the highest-risk nuclear power reactors, none have been closed. Furthermore, Armenia recently restarted one of its VVER 440 Model 230 reactors. Department of State officials told us that progress has been made in getting closure agreements for some reactors in Bulgaria, Lithuania, and Ukraine, but these officials also recognize that it may be difficult for these countries to meet these agreements on a timely basis. For example, Bulgaria has agreed to a phased shutdown of its highest-risk reactors by 1998 as adequate replacement energy, such as hydroelectric power, becomes available. Department of State officials said the closure date will probably be delayed by 2 or 3 years because, among other things, the pace of economic reform in Bulgaria has been slow. In 1995, the G-7 nations (major industrialized nations) and Ukraine signed an agreement that includes Ukraine’s commitment to close the Chornobyl nuclear power reactor by 2000. State Department and USAID officials said that successful implementation of the agreement hinges on Ukraine’s progress in reforming the energy sector. Such progress is key to continuing the international financial assistance that may ease the impact of closure. DOE, national laboratory, and Department of State officials acknowledge that many of the highest-risk reactors may continue to operate for several more years. Many factors complicate U.S. and western nations’ efforts to obtain early closure of the highest-risk reactors, including (1) a lack of consensus, particularly among Russian nuclear safety experts, about the safety of their reactors; (2) concerns about the social and economic well-being of workers who would be displaced if reactors were closed; (3) a commitment to expanding nuclear power, particularly in Russia, to meet future energy needs; and (4) the need to obtain financing to support the development of replacement energy. DOE’s Director of the Office of Nuclear Energy, Science, and Technology said that Russia does not intend to close its highest-risk reactors for many years, and he believes that the United States should continue to provide assistance so that these reactors can operate as safely as possible until they are closed. Department of State and USAID officials also noted that it is sound policy to continue to reduce the risks of accidents at the highest-risk reactors. In keeping with this policy, DOE plans to increase technical assistance to RBMK plants, including Chornobyl. The Chornobyl initiative is part of a multinational effort to provide safety upgrades that can be completed quickly. DOE is planning to spend about $13.8 million at the Chornobyl nuclear power plant, including upgrades for fire safety at one of the two operating reactors and instituting operational safety and training programs for both reactors. In total, DOE plans to spend about $33 million for safety parameter display systems for plants with RBMK reactors. This system provides information, which is displayed on a monitor, to operators about plant conditions that are important for safety. In addition, DOE plans to spend about $8.5 million on a project to transfer western maintenance practices, training methods, and technology to staff at RBMK reactors. DOE officials noted that the project will not extend the life of the RBMK reactors but will improve safety. Our review of the RBMK maintenance initiative indicates that the repair or replacement of any component that a plant relies on would support the plant’s continued operations. While these efforts will not by themselves extend the lifetime of the plant, they will serve to keep the plant’s components in service longer. In 1993, the Chairman of NRC at that time said that it is difficult to draw a fine line between short-term safety improvements and upgrades that could encourage a plant’s operator to think in terms of long-term operations. DOE’s program was initially viewed as short- to mid-term, totaling between $25 million and $40 million, with additional funding planned of about $100 million. However, DOE’s portion of the program has grown because of the complexities and challenges involved in improving the safety of Soviet-designed plants. As of March 1996, DOE had initiated more than 150 projects in this program, and DOE’s Director of the Office of Nuclear Energy, Science, and Technology told us that approximately $500 million would be required over the next 10 years to address the program’s long-term safety and training needs. (According to Department of State and USAID officials, this estimate has not been agreed upon by other U.S. government agencies participating in the program.) In contrast, NRC views its regulatory assistance program, totaling about $28 million, as limited in terms of its size and scope. DOE and Pacific Northwest National Laboratory officials said that while it remains important to address short-term safety problems at the plant level, it is equally important to approach safety at a systemic level to help bring about sustainable improvements. As a result, the program has placed increased emphasis on transferring U.S. technology and encouraging the recipient countries to analyze and fix their own safety problems. According to DOE officials, the technology transfer aspect of the program is having a positive impact. DOE has developed a short- to mid-term plan that provides an overview of the program’s objectives, performance measurements and ongoing projects. Although they plan to do so, DOE officials have not yet established a long-term plan linking the program’s objectives to measurable goals or providing a date for meeting those goals. As a result, it is unclear how DOE will demonstrate when and how it has achieved the program’s goals. It is also unclear, without such a plan, when the program will end. According to DOE’s Deputy Associate Director for International Nuclear Safety, the 10-year approach is based on an intuitive view of the time needed to complete the program’s overall objectives. DOE officials told us in September 1996 that the agency has begun to develop a plan that will link objectives to goals and set a date for achieving these goals. DOE and NRC have received $208 million for their programs in the Newly Independent States and countries of central and eastern Europe. USAID has provided about 80 percent of the total funds received through various interagency agreements with DOE and NRC. The remainder of the funds has come from DOE ($30 million) and the Department of Defense ($11 million). Beginning in fiscal year 1996, DOE began receiving direct appropriations for the program but is still obtaining some funds from USAID for special projects, such as Chornobyl. (App. I provides greater detail on DOE’s and NRC’s costs for the safety assistance program and fig. I.1 provides information about the Chornobyl project.) The U.S. nuclear safety program has focused on several types of assistance, including management and operational safety, engineering and technology (including fire safety and other plant-specific improvements), plant safety evaluations, and regulatory enhancements. Operational improvements can be implemented at all plants regardless of reactor type. Plant-specific measures are generally directed toward reactors such as the oldest RBMKs and VVER 440 Model 230s. As figure 2 shows, the greatest percentage of the funds—36 percent—has or will be spent on management and operational safety, which includes training and safety procedures. As of March 31, 1996, DOE had obligated $119.2 million and had spent $78.3 million of the $180.1 million it had received. NRC had obligated $16.5 million and spent $11 million of the $27.9 million received. (See table I.1).