Geospatial information describes entities or phenomena that can be referenced to specific locations relative to the Earth’s surface. For example, entities, such as buildings, rivers, road intersections, power plants, and national parks can all be identified by their locations. In addition, phenomena, such as wildfires, the spread of the West Nile virus, and the thinning of trees due to acid rain can also be identified by their geographic locations. Users can analyze that data in geographic information systems (GIS)— systems of computer software, hardware, and data used to capture, store, manipulate, analyze, and graphically present a potentially wide array of geospatial information. The primary function of a GIS is to link multiple sets of geospatial data and display the combined information as maps with different layers of information. Assuming that all of the information is at the same scale and has been formatted according to the same geospatial standards, users can potentially overlay geospatial information about any number of specific topics to examine how the data in the various layers interrelate. Each layer of a GIS map typically represents a single theme comprised of one or more sets of data, each of which could be derived from a source completely different from the others. Figure 1 portrays the concept of visual representation of geospatial data themes in a GIS. Examples of geospatial data applications are provided in figures 2 and 3. Figure 2 demonstrates the usefulness of GIS in showing the scope, severity, and duration of the effects of the recent drought in the United States, which could be used to make drought relief and agricultural support activities more effective. Another use for GIS is tracking and responding to natural disasters, such as wildfires and hurricanes. Figure 3 demonstrates the usefulness of GIS in tracking the direction and estimated strength of an impending hurricane. The timely delivery of these data can be used to provide for orderly evacuation of people from affected areas, and lessen the impact of the storm on facilities, such as sewage treatment plants, hospitals, and nursing homes. For many years, the federal government has taken steps to coordinate geospatial activities both within and outside the federal government. In 1953, the Bureau of the Budget first issued Circular A-16, encouraging expeditious surveying and mapping activities across all levels of government and avoidance of duplicative efforts. In 1990, OMB revised Circular A-16 to, among other things, establish the FGDC within Interior to promote the coordinated use, sharing, and dissemination of geospatial data nationwide. Building on that guidance, in 1994 the President issued Executive Order 12906 for the purpose of addressing wasteful duplication and incompatibility of geospatial information, and assigned the FGDC the responsibility to coordinate the development of the NSDI. In 2002, OMB again revised Circular A-16 to further describe the components of the NSDI; clearly define agency responsibilities for acquiring, maintaining, distributing, using, and preserving geospatial data; and to reaffirm the FGDC’s role as the interagency coordinating body for NSDI-related activities. The circular established the following five components of the NSDI and described how these components were to be implemented. Data themes. Data themes are topics of national significance, such as transportation, which includes all modes of travel (e.g., road and rail data). OMB Circular A-16 currently identifies 34 data themes and identifies the “lead” agency or agencies for each theme. Each data theme is to be comprised of one or more electronic data records, known as datasets. Of the 34 themes, 9 are identified as “framework” themes—that is, themes identified in Circular A-16 as critical for many geospatial applications. Standards. Geospatial standards provide common and repeatable rules or guidelines for the development, documentation, and exchange of geospatial datasets. Metadata. Metadata are information about datasets, such as content, source, accuracy, method of collection, and point-of-contact. Metadata are used to facilitate the search of and access to datasets within a data library or clearinghouse, and enable potential users to determine the data’s applicability for their use. National Spatial Data Clearinghouse. The clearinghouse is intended to be a centralized geospatial metadata repository that contains geospatial metadata records from federal agencies, state and local governments, and academic and private sector organizations that can be searched to determine whether needed geospatial data exist and can be shared. Federal agencies are required to identify their existing and planned geospatial investments in the clearinghouse, and search the clearinghouse for cost-saving opportunities before acquiring geospatial data. In 2003, the FGDC created the Geospatial One-Stop to provide “one-stop” access to geospatial metadata from a centralized database and search function. In October 2011, the Geospatial One-Stop was retired, and the FGDC initiated a pilot project, known as the Geospatial Platform, which is envisioned to provide shared and trusted geospatial data, services, and applications for use by government agencies, their partners, and the public. According to Interior officials, Interior is the managing partner of the Geospatial Platform. As of August 2012, there were approximately 835,000 geospatial metadata records in the central repository, of which about 373,000 were from federal sources. Users can search the metadata repository through two primary portals: geo.data.gov and the Geospatial Platform. The General Services Administration is responsible for managing the clearinghouse database and the associated web portal geo.data.gov. Partnerships. Partnerships are efforts aimed at involving all stakeholders (e.g., federal, tribal, state, local government, and academic institutions) in the development of the NSDI. In November 2010, OMB issued supplemental guidance specifically regarding how agencies are to manage data themes.guidance expands upon and clarifies some of the language and responsibilities contained in OMB Circular A-16 in order to facilitate the adoption and implementation of a geospatial asset management capability. To fulfill its responsibilities, the FGDC is governed by a steering committee—an interagency decision making body that provides leadership and policy direction in support of the development of the NSDI. The Secretary of the Interior chairs the committee; the Vice-Chair is the Deputy Director for Management of OMB. All departments or agencies responsible for geospatial data themes or that have activities in geographic information or geospatial data collection or use are required to be members of the FGDC. Thirty-two agencies are currently members of the Steering Committee and are to be represented by their senior agency officials for geospatial information. These senior agency officials are responsible for overseeing, coordinating, and facilitating their respective agency’s implementation of geospatial requirements, policies, and activities. The FGDC is supported by an Office of the Secretariat that consists of about 10 people located in USGS who do the day-to-day work of supporting, managing, and coordinating the activities of the FGDC. In addition, in December 2007, the Secretary of the Interior created the National Geospatial Advisory Committee to provide the department and the FGDC with advice and recommendations related to the management of federal and national geospatial programs, development of the NSDI, and the implementation of related federal guidance. Members of the committee include approximately 30 officials from federal, state, local, and tribal governments, the private sector, and academia. OMB has specific oversight responsibilities for federal information technology (IT) systems and acquisition activities—including GIS—to help ensure their efficient and effective use. Two key laws that outline these responsibilities are the Clinger-Cohen Act of 1996 and the E- Government Act of 2002. The Clinger-Cohen Act of 1996—The act requires OMB to establish processes to analyze, track, and evaluate the risks and results of major capital investments in information systems made by federal agencies and report to Congress on the net program performance benefits achieved as a result of these investments. The E-Government Act of 2002—The act establishes an e- government initiative, which encourages the use of web-based Internet applications to enhance the access to and delivery of government information and service to citizens, to business partners, to employees, and among all levels of government. The act also requires OMB to report annually to Congress on the status of e- government initiatives. In these reports, OMB is to describe the administration’s use of e-government principles to improve government performance and the delivery of information and services to the public. OMB subsequently began initiatives to fulfill the requirements established by these laws: In February 2002, OMB established the Federal Enterprise Architecture, which is intended to facilitate governmentwide improvement through cross-agency analysis and identification of duplicative investments, gaps, and opportunities for collaboration, interoperability, and integration within and across agency programs. The Federal Enterprise Architecture is composed of five “reference models” describing the federal government’s (1) business (or mission) processes and functions, independent of the agencies that perform them; (2) performance goals and outcome measures; (3) means of service delivery; (4) information and data definitions; and (5) technology standards. In March 2004, OMB established multiple “lines of business” to consolidate redundant IT investments and business processes across the federal government. Later, in March 2006, OMB established the Geospatial Line of Business. Each line of business is led by an individual agency and supported by other relevant agencies. Interior is the managing partner for the Geospatial Line of Business and the FGDC Secretariat provides project management support. OMB reports to Congress each year on the costs and benefits of these initiatives. In carrying out its responsibilities, OMB uses several data collection mechanisms to oversee federal IT spending during the annual budget formulation process.