Control of information has always been part of military operations, and the U.S. Strategic Command views information operations as a core military competency, with new emphasis on (1) use of electromagnetic energy, (2) cyber operations, and (3) use of psychological operations to manipulate an adversary's perceptions. Department of Defense (DOD) officials now consider cyberspace to be a domain for warfare, similar to air, space, land, and sea. A recent memo issued by the Secretary of Defense defines cyberspace as: "a global domain within the information environment consisting of the interdependent network of information technology infrastructures, including the internet, telecommunications networks, computer systems, and embedded processors and controllers." This definition is consistent with the one presented in the 2008 National Military Strategy for Cyberspace Operations (NMS-CO), which is the overall guidance for all the services. A September 29, 2008, memo signed by the Deputy Secretary of Defense defines cyberspace operations as: "The employment of cyber capabilities where the primary purpose is to achieve military objectives or effects in or through cyberspace. Such operations include computer network operations and activities to operate and defend the Global Information Grid." Cyberspace operations are a component of Information Operations (IO), which also includes Electronic Warfare (EW). Each service has organizations with IO and EW responsibilities: (1) the Naval Network Warfare Command (NETWARCOM) is the Navy's central operational authority for space, information technology requirements, network and information operations in support of naval forces afloat and ashore; (2) the Army Reserve Information Operations Command has responsibility for conducting information operations, the U.S. Army IO Proponent is responsible for developing requirements for IO doctrine and training, and the Army Intelligence and Electronic Warfare Directorate provides testing services for Electronic Warfare; and finally, (3) the Air Force has created what was to have been a major Cyber Command, but will now be a Numbered Air Force (NAF), the 24 th Air Force to the Air Force Space Command, with responsibility for its portion of cyberwarfare, electronic warfare, and protection of U.S. critical infrastructure networks that support telecommunications systems, utilities, and transportation. The DOD views information itself as both a weapon and a target in warfare. In particular, Psychological Operations (PSYOP) provides DOD with the ability to rapidly disseminate persuasive information to directly influence the decision making of diverse audiences, and is seen as a means for deterring aggression, and important for undermining the leadership and popular support for terrorist organizations. However, a 2006 report by the RAND Corporation describes how IO can also affect audiences outside of the intended target, stating, ... in contingencies involving an opponent, information operations planning and execution should include noncombatant considerations that may have nothing to do with affecting the enemy's activities or defending friendly force capabilities. In today's conflict environment the impact of information operations is seldom limited to two opposing sides. Second and higher-order effects will most likely influence all parties in opposition, impact various and varied noncombatant groups, and be interpreted in different ways by members of the media and audiences worldwide. Thus, new technologies for military IO also create new national security policy issues, including (1) consideration of psychological operations used to affect friendly nations or domestic audiences; and (2) possible accusations against the U.S. of war crimes if offensive military computer operations or electronic warfare tools severely disrupt critical civilian computer systems, or the systems of non-combatant nations. Because of the new communications technologies and the growth of the Internet, EW and IO have taken on new importance. Insurgents use cell phones, garage door openers, and other remotely controlled electronic devices to detonate roadside bombs, and afterwards transmit video images of successful attacks against U.S. troops for broadcast on the local news or the Internet to influence public opinion about the future outcome of the war. In some cases, populations may have these video broadcasts or local TV news stories in their native language as their only source of information. DOD is seeking methods to counter these actions where violence may be seen as secondary to the use and manipulation of information. This report describes current adversary threats in the information environment and DOD capabilities for conducting military information operations, gives the current state of federal cybersecurity efforts, and provides an overview of related policy issues. The electromagnetic spectrum is the arena in which information operations take place. Aspects of the electromagnetic spectrum can be used by adversaries to conduct kinetic attacts, disrupt access, influence targets, and steal data. A review of the types of activity currently being conducted by adversaries illustrates the overlap between the various pillars of information operations. The following are examples of current threats to the United States. The US military's dominance of the electromagnetic spectrum is being challenged. Terrorist groups use wireless electronics to detonate roadside bombs (Improvised Explosive Devices). They also use the Internet to transmit financial transactions, and use free Global Positioning System (GPS) signals and commercial satellite video and images to direct their ground attacks against U.S. and coalition troops. In addition, peer competitors are focusing on electronic warfare as a crucial element of their military operations by attempting to deny US forces' access to the spectrum, which enables such equipment as radars, communication links, computer networks, and sensors to work. In what some have termed the "Battle of Ideas," electronic media plays an important role in influencing populations. Reportedly, only a small portion of the Iraqi populace watch and listen to the current government run television and radio news broadcasts, with the majority preferring instead to support the foreign satellite news stations such as Al-Jazeera and Al-Arabiya. Observers say that most Arabs believe that U.S. sponsored news broadcasts are managed too closely by the coalition powers and do not objectively present the news. When the Iraqi Governing Council (IGC) prohibited Al-Jazeera and Al-Arabiya from covering all IGC events during a short period in early 2004, this action reportedly gave many Iraqi people the impression that the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) was manipulating their information. Some observers have also stated that terrorist groups, through use of the Internet, are now challenging the monopoly over mass communications that both state-owned and commercial media have long exercised. A strategy of the terrorists is to propagate their messages quickly and repeat them until they have saturated cyberspace. Internet messages by terrorist groups have become increasingly sophisticated through use of a cadre of Internet specialists who operate computer servers worldwide. Other observers have also stated that al-Qaeda has relied on a Global Islamic Media Unit to assist with its public outreach efforts. As Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff James Cartwright told Congress in March 2007 "America is under widespread attack in cyberspace." The low cost of entry (for example, a laptop connected to the Internet), and the ability to operate anonymously, are factors that makes information operations in cyberspace attractive to adversaries who know they cannot challenge the United States in a symmetrical war. Cyber-based threats against U.S. information infrastructures are now a growing area of concern for national security. The US CERT recently revealed that attacks on US government systems increased by 40% in 2008. Assaults on these systems have been sustained for nearly a decade. In 1999, a series of attacks with the US codename "Moonlight Maze"were aimed at DOD's unclassified Non-Classified Internet Protocol Router Network (NIPRnet), the network which is used to exchange information internally. These attacks may have compromised massive amounts of sensitive military data, and appeared to originate from a mainframe in Russia. In 2003, a series of cyberattacks designed to copy sensitive data files was launched against DOD systems, and the computers belonging to DOD contractors. The cyberespionage attack apparently went undetected for many months. This series of cyberattacks was labeled "Titan Rain," and was suspected by DOD investigators to have originated in China. The attacks were directed against the U.S. Defense Information Systems Agency (DISA), the U.S. Redstone Arsenal, the Army Space and Strategic Defense Installation, and several computer systems critical to military logistics. Although no classified systems reportedly were breached, many files were copied containing information that is sensitive and subject to U.S. export-control laws. In 2006, an extended cyberattack against the U.S. Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island, prompted officials to disconnect the entire campus from the Internet. A similar attack against the Pentagon in 2007 led officials to temporarily disconnect part of the unclassified network from the Internet. DOD officials acknowledge that the Global Information Grid, which is the main network for the U.S. military, experiences more than three million daily scans by unknown potential intruders. Lt. General Charles Croom (JTF-Global Net Operations) has stated that cyber attackers "are not denying, disrupting, or destroying [American military] operations – yet. But that doesn't mean they don't have the capability." Potential adversaries, such as China, Russia, Cuba, Iran, Iraq, Libya, North Korea, and several non-state terrorist groups are reportedly developing capabilities to attack or degrade U.S. civilian and military networks. "Titan Rain" is an example of successful attacks against non-classified military systems which DOD officials claim were directed by other governments. Maj. Gen. William Lord (Air Force) stated publicly in 2007 that "China has downloaded 10 to 20 terabytes of data from the NIPRNet already." According to the Defense Department's annual report to Congress on China's military prowess, the Chinese military is enhancing its information operations capabilities. The report finds that China is placing specific emphasis on the ability to perform information operations designed to weaken an enemy force's command and control systems.