Over the past decade, the United States has paid increased attention to the threat that unsecured weapons-usable nuclear material in the countries of the former Soviet Union, particularly Russia, could be stolen and fall into the hands of terrorists or countries seeking weapons of mass destruction. By some estimates, the former Soviet Union had about 30,000 nuclear weapons and over 600 metric tons of weapons-usable material when it collapsed about 10 years ago. Several cases of illicit trafficking in nuclear material in Germany and the Czech Republic in the early to mid-1990s underscored the proliferation threat. The United States responded to the threat by providing assistance to increase security at numerous nuclear facilities in the former Soviet Union, particularly in Russia, in order to prevent weapons-usable nuclear material from being stolen. In addition, the United States has provided portal monitors (stationary equipment designed to detect radioactive materials carried by pedestrians or vehicles) and smaller, portable radiation detectors at border crossings in many countries of the former Soviet Union and Central and Eastern Europe. The equipment, which is installed at car and truck crossings, railroad crossings, seaports, and airports, can serve two purposes: deterring smugglers from trafficking in nuclear material and detecting cases of actual nuclear smuggling. Radiation detection equipment can detect radioactive materials used in medicine and industry, patients who have recently had radiological treatment, commodities that are sources of naturally occurring radiation such as fertilizer, and—of primary concern in terms of nonproliferation— nuclear material that could be used in a nuclear weapon. Nuclear material includes radioactive source materials--such as natural uranium, low enriched uranium used as fuel in commercial nuclear power reactors, and plutonium and highly enriched uranium--that are key components of nuclear weapons. The capability of the equipment to detect nuclear material depends on a number of factors including the amount of material, the size of the detection device, and whether the material is shielded from detection. For example, a small amount of material shielded by a lead container would likely escape detection while a large amount of material with no shielding would be more likely to cause an alarm. Detecting actual cases of illicit trafficking in weapons-usable nuclear material is complicated because one of the materials that is of greatest concern in terms of proliferation—highly enriched uranium—is among the most difficult materials to detect due to its relatively low level of radioactivity. In contrast, medical and industrial radioactive sources, which could be used in a radiological dispersion device or “dirty bomb,” are highly radioactive and therefore easier to detect. Because of the complexity of detecting nuclear material, the customs officers or border guards who are responsible for operating the equipment must also be trained in how to use handheld radiation detectors to pinpoint the source of an alarm, identify false alarms, and respond to cases of illicit nuclear smuggling. From fiscal year 1992 through 2001, six federal agencies received $140 million and spent $86.1 million to combat the threat of nuclear smuggling in about 30 countries, including all of the countries of the former Soviet Union and numerous countries in Central and Eastern Europe. The Departments of State and Defense provide funding to four other agencies, and some agencies have carried over millions of dollars in program funds into fiscal year 2002 because they have received more funding than they have been able to spend. The Departments of Energy, State, and Defense; the U.S. Customs Service; the Federal Bureau of Investigation; and the U.S. Coast Guard have provided assistance to about 30 countries’ customs, border, and law enforcement agencies to detect, interdict, and investigate nuclear smuggling. Radiation detection equipment is one of the many types of assistance that the U.S. agencies are providing. Other equipment ranges from simple hand tools for taking apart and searching different compartments of a vehicle for hidden contraband to boats and vehicles for conducting patrols. Similarly, training ranges from hands-on instruction in using the equipment and conducting searches to high-level technical exchanges on establishing the legal and regulatory basis for preventing illicit trafficking and trade in sensitive goods and materials that could be used in a nuclear weapon. U.S. assistance began in the mid-1990s under DOD’s Cooperative Threat Reduction program and then expanded to State, DOE, and other DOD programs. While DOE, DOD, and State receive their own funding for their assistance programs, Customs, the FBI, and the Coast Guard receive their funding from State and/or DOD. DOE also receives part of its funding from State. DOE has two programs that have provided assistance to combat nuclear material smuggling—the Second Line of Defense program and the International Export Control Program (IECP). The Second Line of Defense Program focuses on providing radiation detection equipment to Russia. From fiscal year 1997 through 2001, DOE spent $11.2 million, including $2.7 million provided by the State Department, to install 70 portal monitors at eight sites in Russia, including a Moscow airport. DOE has identified close to 60 sites in Russia where it plans to install portal monitors over the next decade at a total cost of about $50 million and has begun work at 19 of these sites. In addition, DOE may expand the program beyond Russia to include other countries of the former Soviet Union. DOE’s International Export Control Program spent $22 million, including $2.4 million provided by State, from fiscal year 1992 through 2001 to help countries of the former Soviet Union control the export of goods and technologies that could be used in the development of nuclear weapons. Whereas the Second Line of Defense program focuses on the nuclear material needed to manufacture a nuclear bomb, the IECP focuses on the other high-technology components needed for a bomb such as equipment for enriching uranium. The program provides assistance to prevent legitimate enterprises, such as businesses that were affiliated with the Soviet Union’s nuclear weapons complex, from intentionally or unintentionally engaging in illicit trade in such goods and technologies. DOE also spent $1.8 million to support State and DOD programs to combat nuclear smuggling. The State Department has received the largest amount of funding through the end of fiscal year 2001 for assistance to combat nuclear smuggling in about 30 countries, mostly in the former Soviet Union and Central and Eastern Europe. State spent $11.4 million primarily through two programs—the Nonproliferation and Disarmament Fund and the Export Control and Related Border Security Assistance program. Through the Nonproliferation and Disarmament Fund, State spent $8.5 million from fiscal year 1994 through 2001 to, among other things, install portal monitors in countries other than Russia. In addition, State provided handheld radiation detectors, dosimeters (to measure levels of radiation), and mobile vans equipped with x-ray machines and radiation detectors that can be driven among a number of border crossings. From fiscal year 1998 through 2001, State’s Export Control and Related Border Security Assistance program spent $2.7 million to, among other things, purchase three vans equipped with radiation detectors for Russia and another van for Poland. State’s Georgia Border Security and Law Enforcement program (implemented by Customs) also spent $0.2 million to provide radiation detection equipment as part of its assistance to strengthen Georgia’s overall border infrastructure and security against any type of crime, including nuclear material smuggling. State also provided $58.8 million to DOE, Customs, and the Coast Guard to fund their assistance activities. DOD has provided assistance to combat nuclear smuggling under two programs—the Cooperative Threat Reduction program and the International Counterproliferation program. From fiscal year 1993 to 2001, the Cooperative Threat Reduction program spent $16.3 million to assist five countries. The assistance included $1 million for radiation detection equipment—36 pedestrian portal monitors (to screen people) and 100 handheld radiation detectors for one country and an additional 100 handheld detectors for another country—and about $10 million for other equipment to enable the countries to better patrol their borders, conduct searches for smuggled contraband, and equip their border posts. In addition, as part of the Cooperative Threat Reduction program, in fiscal year 2001 DOD began to work with DOE’s Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory to install seven portal monitors at three border crossings in another country. DOD has begun site surveys at about eight additional border crossings in that country where it plans to install portal monitors. As part of the International Counterproliferation program, DOD spent $10.2 million from fiscal year 1997 through 2001 to provide Customs and FBI training and equipment to 17 countries of the former Soviet Union and Central and Eastern Europe. The U.S. Customs Service, the largest recipient of funding provided by State and DOD, spent $11.1 million from fiscal year 1993 through 2001 on assistance to combat nuclear smuggling. Customs has provided training and equipment to customs agencies and border guards in close to 30 countries. The equipment includes radiation pagers (small detectors that can be worn on a belt to continuously monitor radiation levels or used as a handheld device to pinpoint the location of radioactive material detected by a portal monitor) as well as a variety of other high- and low-tech tools to conduct searches and detect sensitive goods and materials, such as fiber optic scopes for examining fuel tanks for contraband. Training includes assistance in operating the x-ray vans equipped with radiation detectors; providing hands-on instruction in using equipment to detect nuclear smuggling; teaching techniques for investigating smuggling operations; tracking the movements of smugglers between ports of entry, including through rough terrain; and providing “train-the-trainer” courses to enable countries to train more personnel than the U.S. assistance can reach. In addition to equipment and training, Customs has stationed 22 in- country advisors covering 25 countries on behalf of State to help implement and coordinate the assistance. From fiscal year 1997 through 2001, the FBI spent $0.4 million as part of the DOD International Counterproliferation program.