Approximately 88,000 miles in length, the nation’s marine coastline is composed of a variety of coastal ecosystem types (see fig. 1). The potential effects of climate change on these ecosystems are complex and often difficult to predict, according to the 2014 National Climate Assessment. For example, climate scientists have indicated high confidence that climate change will increase the frequency and intensity of coastal storms, but the exact location and timing of these events is unknown. Similarly, the effects of sea level rise are expected to vary considerably from region to region and over a range of temporal scales, according to the assessment. The 2014 National Climate Assessment further indicated that marine coastal ecosystems are dynamic and sensitive to small changes in the environment, including warming air and ocean temperatures and sea- level rise. Climate change may cause shifts in species’ distributions and ranges along coasts that may impact ecosystem character and functioning, according to the assessment. For example, eel grass, one type of submerged vegetation that provides coastal protection from storm surges, may die if water temperatures exceed its maximum tolerance level. Ecosystems along the coast are also vulnerable to climate change because many have been altered by human stresses, and climate change will likely result in further reduction or loss of the services that these ecosystems provide, according to the assessment. The federal government has a limited role in project-level planning central to helping increase the resiliency of marine coastal ecosystems to climate change because state and local governments are primarily responsible for managing their coastlines. However, the federal government plays a critical role in supporting state government efforts to increase resiliency to climate change, according to the President’s State, Local, and Tribal Leaders Task Force on Climate Preparedness and Resilience. The federal role includes ensuring that federal policies and programs factor in potential risks from climate change, providing financial incentives for enhancing resilience, and providing information and assistance to help states and others better understand and prepare for climate risks. NOAA, as a key federal agency whose mission is, in part, to manage and conserve marine coastal ecosystems, has identified enhancing ecosystem resilience as an important part of its broader goal of building community resilience. NOAA works toward this goal, in part, through its administration of the CZMA. Specifically, NOAA’s Office for Coastal Management administers the National Coastal Zone Management Program. To participate, states are to submit comprehensive descriptions of their coastal zone management programs—approved by states’ governors—to NOAA for review and approval. As specified in the act, states are to meet the following requirements, among others, to receive NOAA’s approval for their state programs: designate coastal zone boundaries that will be subject to state define what constitutes permissible land and water use in coastal propose an organizational structure for implementing the state program, including the responsibilities of and relationships among local, state, regional, and interstate agencies; and demonstrate sufficient legal authorities for the management of the coastal zone in accordance with the program, which includes administering land and water use regulations to control development to ensure compliance with the program and resolve conflicts among competing uses in coastal zones. The act provides the states flexibility to design programs that best address states’ unique coastal challenges, laws, and regulations, and participating states have taken various approaches to developing and carrying out their programs. States’ specific activities also vary, with some states focusing on permitting, mitigation, and enforcement activities, and other states focusing on providing technical and financial assistance to local governments and nonprofits for local coastal protection and management projects. If states make changes to their programs, such as changes to their coastal zone boundaries, enforceable policies, or organizational structures, states are to submit those changes to NOAA for review and approval. NOAA officials are responsible for, among other things, approving state programs and any program changes; administering federal funding to the states; and providing technical assistance to states, such as on the development of 5-year coastal zone enhancement assessment and strategy reports that identify states’ priority needs and projects. One primary incentive to encourage states to develop coastal zone management programs and participate in the National Coastal Zone Management Program is states’ eligibility to receive federal grants from NOAA to support the implementation and management of their programs. Specifically, NOAA provides two primary types of National Coastal Zone Management Program grants to participating states: Coastal zone management grants support the administration and management of state programs and require states to match federal contributions. Coastal zone enhancement grants support improvements in state programs in specified enhancement areas. Coastal zone enhancement grants do not require state matching funds and include both formula and competitive grants for projects of special merit. To be eligible for coastal zone enhancement grants, state coastal zone management programs are to develop an assessment of each of nine enhancement areas for their state every 5 years, including those areas that are a priority for the state. In conjunction with the assessment, state programs are to also develop a strategy for addressing the high priority needs for program enhancement within one or more enhancement area(s). NOAA reviews and approves this “assessment and strategy” document for each state and, if approved, states are eligible for formula grants and may also apply annually for competitive grants. In fiscal year 2016, a total of almost $50 million was allocated to the 22 participating marine coastal states for these two types of grants. By statute, a maximum of $10 million of the amount appropriated for CZMA management grants may be used for the coastal zone enhancement formula and competitive grants. States received a maximum of approximately $0.9 to $2.7 million per state for the two types of grants under the National Coastal Zone Management Program in fiscal year 2016. In addition, the CZMA authorizes NOAA to provide technical assistance, including by entering into financial agreements, to support the development and implementation of state coastal zone management program enhancements. The CZMA also established the National Estuarine Research Reserve System—a network of 28 coastal estuary reserves (25 of which are located in marine coastal states) managed through a state-federal partnership between NOAA and coastal states. NOAA provides financial assistance, coordination, national guidance for program implementation, and technical assistance, and coastal states are responsible for managing reserve resources and staff, providing matching funds, and implementing programs locally. The reserve system was established on the principle that long-term protection of representative estuaries provides stable platforms for research and education and the application of management practices that will benefit the nation’s estuaries and coasts, according to its 2011-16 strategic plan. State coastal zone managers may take various actions to manage marine coastal ecosystems and help increase their resilience to the potential effects of climate change. For example, managers may target land acquisition and conservation activities to areas of higher ground adjacent to coastal wetlands, mangroves, and other natural habitats to allow the habitats to migrate so they do not disappear if sea levels rise. In addition, state coastal zone managers may remove physical barriers, such as concrete structures, that prevent beach migration over time in favor of installing living shorelines along areas with a low impact from waves. Living shorelines are natural habitats, or a combination of natural habitat and manmade elements, put in place along coastal shorelines to reduce shoreline erosion. Management decisions about what actions may be appropriate for a specific area often depend upon detailed information about the current and expected future conditions of the area in question, such as shoreline elevation data, expected rates of sea level rise, and how the ecosystem may be expected to respond to future environmental changes. As we concluded in our 2009 report on climate change and strategic federal planning, new approaches may be needed to match new realities, and old ways of doing business—such as making decisions based on the assumed continuation of past climate conditions—may not work in a world affected by climate change. NOAA is taking a variety of actions under the CZMA to support states’ efforts to make their marine coastal ecosystems more resilient to climate change, and states generally view NOAA’s actions as positive steps. According to NOAA officials, the agency’s actions are largely embedded in its broader efforts to build community resilience, and through these efforts NOAA has emphasized the importance of healthy ecosystems, as there is increasing recognition of the critical role that ecosystems play in supporting resilient communities. The CZMA provides a foundation for managing marine coastal ecosystems and partnering with states to work towards the agency’s goals of achieving resilient coastal communities and healthy coastal ecosystems, according to the officials. Within this context, NOAA is taking such actions as providing financial incentives and technical assistance and supporting research through the National Estuarine Research Reserve System to help coastal states understand the potential effects of climate change and plan or implement projects to respond to these effects and enhance marine coastal resilience. We found that state coastal zone managers generally had positive views of the actions NOAA is taking. NOAA has targeted some of the financial incentives it provides to states under the CZMA for activities aimed at addressing the impacts of climate change and enhancing marine coastal resilience. For example, within the National Coastal Zone Management Program for fiscal years 2016 to 2020, NOAA designated coastal hazards—physical threats to life and property, such as sea level rise—as an enhancement area of national importance. In so doing, NOAA indicated that coastal zone enhancement competitive grants would be focused on projects that will further support approved state strategies related to this enhancement area. NOAA also increased the total amount available for these competitive grants from $1 million in fiscal years 2014 and 2015 to $1.5 million for fiscal year 2016. NOAA officials said that many of the applications they received in 2015 and 2016 were for projects that were intended to directly or indirectly address climate risks and enhance the resilience of states’ coastal ecosystems. For example, in 2015, NOAA awarded one grant for about $200,000 to a state to undertake a mapping study to identify vulnerable habitats along its coastline and use the results of the study to prioritize those habitats considered most vulnerable to climate change for the state’s restoration and resilience efforts.