Our body of work on interagency collaboration has identified several key areas that are essential for collaboration among U.S. federal agencies in addressing security challenges. Three are particularly important for SOUTHCOM and AFRICOM: (1) developing and implementing overarching strategies, (2) creating collaborative organizations, and (3) building a well- trained workforce. Underlying the success of these key areas is committed and effective leadership. Developing and implementing overarching strategies: Our prior work, as well as that by national security experts, has found that strategic direction is required as a foundation for collaboration on national security goals. The means to operate across multiple agencies and organizations—such as compatible policies and procedures that facilitate collaboration across agencies and mechanisms to share information frequently—enhances and sustains collaboration among federal agencies. Strategies can help agencies develop mutually reinforcing plans and determine activities, resources, processes, and performance measures for implementing those strategies. Moreover, a strategy defining organizational roles and responsibilities can help agencies clarify who will lead or participate in activities, help organize their joint and individual efforts, facilitate decision making, and address how conflicts would be resolved. Creating collaborative organizations: Given the differences among U.S. government agencies—such as differences in structure, planning processes, and funding sources—developing adequate coordination mechanisms is critical to achieving integrated approaches. U.S. government agencies, such as DOD, State, and USAID, among others, spend billions of dollars annually on various defense, diplomatic, and development missions in support of national security. Without coordination mechanisms, the results can be a patchwork of activities that waste scarce funds and limit the overall effectiveness of federal efforts. Developing a well-trained workforce: Collaborative approaches to national security require a well-trained workforce with the skills and experience to integrate the government’s diverse capabilities and resources. A lack of understanding of other agencies’ cultures, processes, and core capabilities can hamper U.S. national security partners’ ability to work together effectively. However, training can help personnel develop the skills and understanding of other agencies’ capabilities needed to facilitate interagency collaboration. Effective leadership is essential to achieving success in each of these areas. The 2010 Quadrennial Defense Review states that by integrating U.S. defense capabilities with other elements of national security— including diplomacy, development, law enforcement, trade, and intelligence—the nation can ensure that the right mix of expertise is at hand to take advantage of emerging opportunities and to thwart potential threats. In addition, the 2010 National Security Strategy calls for a renewed emphasis on building a stronger leadership foundation for the long term to more effectively advance U.S. interests. Our work on SOUTHCOM and AFRICOM found that both commands have demonstrated some practices that will help enhance and sustain interagency collaboration, but areas for improvement remain. Moreover, our preliminary work on counterpiracy efforts in the Horn of Africa region suggests that U.S. agencies have made progress in leading and supporting international efforts to counter piracy, but implementation challenges exist. SOUTHCOM and AFRICOM have sought input from several federal agencies in developing overarching strategies and plans, but AFRICOM has not yet completed many specific plans to guide activities and ensure a U.S. government unity of effort in Africa. In addition, our preliminary work shows that a U.S. action plan has been developed which provides a framework for interagency collaboration, but the roles and responsibilities of the multiples agencies involved in countering piracy in the Horn of Africa region are not clearly assigned. In its Guidance for Employment of the Force, DOD required both SOUTHCOM and AFRICOM, as prototype test cases, to seek broader involvement from other departments in drafting their theater campaign and contingency plans. To meet this requirement, SOUTHCOM held a series of meetings with interagency officials that focused on involving and gathering input from interagency partners. In developing its 2009 theater campaign plan, which lays out command priorities and guides its resource allocations, SOUTHCOM coordinated with over 10 U.S. government departments and offices, including the Departments of State, Homeland Security, Justice, the Treasury, Commerce, and Transportation and the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (see fig. 1). According to both SOUTHCOM and interagency partners, this coordination helped SOUTHCOM understand the diverse missions of its interagency partners and better align activities and resources in the Americas and the Caribbean. As a result of this effort, SOUTHCOM’s 2009 theater campaign plan includes 30 theater objectives, of which 22 are led by interagency partners with SOUTHCOM serving in a supporting role. SOUTHCOM also provides input into State’s regional strategic plans. Both SOUTHCOM and interagency partners told us that this coordination has helped ensure that SOUTHCOM and interagency partner strategic goals were mutually reinforcing and has helped align activities and resources in achieving broad U.S. objectives. Similarly, AFRICOM met with representatives from many agencies to gain interagency input into its theater campaign plan. We spoke with officials from State, USAID, and the U.S. Coast Guard who stated that they provided input into several additional strategy documents, including DOD’s Guidance for Employment of the Force and AFRICOM’s posture statement, and participated in activity planning meetings. Federal agency officials also noted progress in AFRICOM’s interagency coordination since its establishment. State officials said that AFRICOM had made improvements in taking their feedback and creating an environment that is conducive to cooperation across agencies. Similarly, USAID officials said that AFRICOM had improved its coordination with their agency at the USAID headquarters level. Notwithstanding this collaboration, AFRICOM officials told us that aligning strategies among partners can be difficult because of different planning horizons among agencies. For example, AFRICOM’s theater campaign plan covers fiscal years 2010 through 2014, whereas the State/USAID strategic plan spans fiscal years 2007 through 2012. While AFRICOM has collaborated with partners on overarching strategies, it has not yet completed some plans, which hinders planning and implementation efforts with partners. AFRICOM currently lacks regional engagement and country work plans for Africa, which are called for in its theater campaign plan and would provide specific information on conducting activities. One key requirement for the country work plans, for example, is to align them with embassy strategic plans to ensure unity of effort. Figure 2 shows AFRICOM’s plans in the context of national strategies, guidance, and other federal agencies’ planning efforts. AFRICOM’s Army component stated that perhaps the greatest challenge to creating positive conditions in Africa is ensuring that U.S. defense efforts remain synchronized; if plans are not coordinated, their efforts could have unintended consequences, such as the potential for Africans to perceive the U.S. military as trying to influence public opinion in a region sensitive to the military’s presence. At the time we completed our audit work, AFRICOM’s regional plans had not been approved by the command, and the country plans were still in the process of being developed. Therefore, we recommended that the Secretary of Defense direct AFRICOM to expedite the completion of its plans and to develop a process whereby plans are reviewed on a recurring basis to ensure that efforts across the command are complementary, comprehensive, and supportive of AFRICOM’s mission. DOD agreed with our recommendation, stating that some of the plans are in the final stages of review and approval by AFRICOM’s leadership. Our preliminary work on U.S. counterpiracy efforts off the Horn of Africa shows that the United States has an action plan that serves as an overarching strategy and provides a framework for interagency collaboration, but roles and responsibilities have not been clearly assigned. The action plan establishes three main lines of action for interagency stakeholders, in collaboration with industry and international partners, to take in countering piracy. These actions are (1) prevent pirate attacks by reducing the vulnerability of the maritime domain to piracy; (2) interrupt and terminate acts of piracy, consistent with international law and the rights and responsibilities of coastal and flag states; and (3) ensure that those who commit acts of piracy are held accountable for their actions by facilitating the prosecution of suspected pirates by flag, victim, and coastal states and, in appropriate cases, the United States. While piracy in the Horn of Africa region emanates primarily from Somalia, a country located within AFRICOM’s area of responsibility, most attacks are carried out in waters within U.S. Central Command’s jurisdiction. Outside DOD, many other stakeholders are involved in counterpiracy efforts. Specifically, the action plan states that, subject to the availability of resources, the Departments of State, Defense, Homeland Security, Justice, Transportation, and the Treasury and the Office of the Director of National Intelligence shall also contribute to, coordinate, and undertake initiatives. Our preliminary work indicates that the National Security Council, which authored the plan, has not assigned the majority of tasks outlined in the plan to specific agencies. As of July 2010, only one task, providing an interdiction-capable presence, had been assigned to the Navy and Coast Guard. Roles and responsibilities for other tasks—such as strategic communications, disrupting pirate revenue, and facilitating prosecution of suspected pirates—have not been clearly assigned. Without specific roles and responsibilities for essential tasks outlined in the action plan, the U.S. government cannot ensure that agencies’ approaches are comprehensive, complementary, and effectively coordinated. SOUTHCOM and AFRICOM have developed organizational structures to facilitate interagency collaboration, but challenges include fully leveraging interagency personnel and maintaining the ability to organize quickly for large-scale military operations when necessary. Both commands have established key leadership positions for interagency officials within their organizational structures.