On May 10, 2010, President Obama transmitted the proposed text of the U.S.-Russian civilian nuclear cooperation agreement to Congress for approval, along with the required Nuclear Proliferation Assessment Statement (NPAS) and his determination that the agreement promotes U.S. national security. The annexed classified NPAS was to be submitted separately. The agreement was signed by the two countries in Moscow on May 6, 2008. President George W. Bush first submitted it to Congress on May 13, 2008, but in September 2008 rescinded the national security determination following Russian military actions in the Republic of Georgia. This had the effect of removing the agreement from congressional consideration. President Obama stated his commitment to seeing the agreement enter into force in summit statements with Russian President Medvedev in April and July 2009. President Obama's May 10, 2010, letter of transmittal says that the situation in Georgia is no longer an obstacle and that "the level and scope of U.S.-Russian cooperation on Iran are sufficient to justify resubmitting the proposed agreement." According to President Obama's letter, the agreement meets all the terms of the Atomic Energy Act and therefore does not require any exemptions from the law's requirements. Therefore, the agreement would enter into effect after a 30-day consultation period and a review period of 60 days of continuous session unless Congress enacted a joint resolution of disapproval. Congress also had the option of adopting either a joint resolution of approval with (or without) conditions, or standalone legislation that could approve or disapprove the agreement. The agreement permits the export, subject to licensing, of technology, material, equipment, and components for nuclear research and nuclear power production. The agreement does not permit transfer of restricted data. The agreement needs to be amended before any transfer of sensitive nuclear technology, sensitive nuclear facilities, and major critical components of those facilities. The parties would also need to agree to reprocessing of material transferred under the agreement. Some limited enrichment and blending or down-blending for LEU fuel production would be permitted. The bilateral nuclear cooperation agreement between the United States and Russia entered into force after an exchange of diplomatic notes on January 11, 2011. At the entry into force ceremony, U.S. officials emphasized that the agreement would improve cooperation in nuclear terrorism prevention, nonproliferation, and development of new nuclear technologies. Section 123 of the U.S. Atomic Energy Act (AEA) of 1954 (42 U.S.C. 2011 et seq.) governs significant nuclear cooperation between the United States and other states. The United States has agreements for civil nuclear cooperation in place with almost 50 countries. Such agreements, known as "123 agreements," provide the framework and authorization for cooperation, but do not guarantee certain exports, technology, or material. Before significant nuclear exports can occur, the State Department, with the advice of the Department of Energy, negotiates an agreement, which must meet criteria listed in Section 123.a., (1) through (9), 42 U.S.C. 2151. Cooperation between the United States and Russia on civilian nuclear energy is not new, but the level has fluctuated depending on broader political developments. The United States and the Soviet Union concluded a limited 10-year agreement for nuclear cooperation in 1973 to allow for cooperation in controlled thermonuclear fusion, fast breeder reactors, and fundamental research. The 1973 agreement also established a Joint Committee on Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy that was to meet annually. This agreement was extended in 1983 and in 1988, and exchanges on safety practices significantly increased after the 1986 Chernobyl power plant accident. The two superpowers convened a Joint Coordinating Committee for Civilian Reactor Safety starting in 1988. After the fall of the Soviet Union and prior to July 2006, Moscow's nuclear commerce with Iran presented the chief obstacle to concluding a broad U.S.-Russian nuclear cooperation under section 123. Project-specific agreements were concluded throughout this period. Several factors may have contributed to the shift in U.S. policy under the George W. Bush Administration: a tougher line by Moscow since 2003 with respect to Iran, especially Russia's agreement with Iran to take back spent nuclear fuel from the Russian-built Bushehr reactor; President Bush's embrace of nuclear power as an alternative to reliance on hydrocarbons; President Bush's proposals to multi-lateralize the nuclear fuel cycle and develop proliferation-resistant technologies through the Global Nuclear Energy Partnership (GNEP); and Russia's own proposals to host an international fuel center that would store and reprocess spent fuel and enrich uranium for fresh fuel. Under the Obama Administration, officials have expressed support for the nuclear cooperation agreement with Russia, but were waiting for the "appropriate time" to submit the agreement to Congress. President Obama's letter of May 10, 2010, outlines ways in which the current Administration sees this agreement as being beneficial for U.S. interests, primarily in that it would contribute to "the growth of clean, safe and secure nuclear energy for peaceful purposes." The letter cites several areas of recent "progress" in cooperation between the United States and Russia: Russian support for a new United Nations Security Council Resolution on Iran. Signature on April 8, 2010, of the New START Treaty that would reduce the number of deployed strategic nuclear weapons. Signature on April 13, 2010, of the Protocol to amend the 2000 U.S. Russian Plutonium Management and Disposition Agreement, which will dispose of at least 34 metric tons of excess weapons plutonium in each country. Russia's establishment of an international nuclear fuel reserve in Angarsk. Continued joint support for the Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism. Congressional debate over the agreement in the past has focused on several key issues: the nature of Russian-Iranian cooperation, the impact of a U.S.-Russian agreement on the future of nuclear fuel cycle policies, and the impact of the agreement on bilateral relations including nuclear nonproliferation cooperation. While some view the agreement as promoting bilateral cooperation on U.S. nonproliferation goals and as a recognition of recent Russian cooperation, others believe the United States could gain leverage on negotiations with Russia on Iran and other matters by delaying approval of the agreement. Congressional consideration of the agreement ended on December 8, 2010. No joint resolutions disapproving the agreement were adopted, paving the way for entry into force. Even before the crisis in the Republic of Georgia in August 2008, approval of a U.S.-Russia 123 agreement by Congress was not certain. Legislation both supporting and opposing the agreement was introduced in the 110 th Congress: Representative Edward Markey on May 14, 2008, introduced H.J.Res. 85 expressing disfavor of the agreement. On June 24, 2008, Chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee Joseph Biden and Senator Richard Lugar submitted a joint resolution of approval, S.J.Res. 42 . It was discharged from committee but indefinitely postponed by unanimous consent in September 2008. Chairman of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs Howard Berman and Ranking Member Ileana Ros-Lehtinen introduced a resolution of disapproval, H.J.Res. 95 , on June 24, 2008. The House Committee on Foreign Affairs reported H.R. 6574 on July 23, 2008. This bill would have approved the U.S.-Russia 123 agreement, notwithstanding the AEA, with certain conditions. Under this resolution, no license could be issued for the export of nuclear material, equipment, or technology to Russia unless the President certified to Congress that Russia (1) is not transferring sensitive nuclear, biological- or chemical-weapons-related, ballistic or cruise missile technologies, goods, or services to Iran; (2) is cooperating with the United States on international sanctions on Iran; and (3) had ratified appropriate nuclear liability conventions or enacted domestic laws to protect U.S. firms. In response to Russian actions in August over the conflict in Georgia, some members of Congress called on the Bush Administration to withdraw the agreement from congressional consideration. There was no precedent for the President withdrawing a 123 from congressional consideration, and the Atomic Energy Act does not specify procedures for doing so. On September 8, 2008, the Secretary of State issued a statement saying that the President would notify Congress that "he has today rescinded his prior determination" regarding the agreement and therefore there is no basis for Congress to consider it. Secretary Rice states that "the U.S. nonproliferation goals contained in the proposed Agreement remain valid: to provide a sound basis for U.S.-Russian civil nuclear cooperation, create commercial opportunities, and enhance cooperation with Russia on important global nonproliferation issues." She expresses regret for the decision but says that "unfortunately, given the current environment, the time is not right for this agreement." In his message to Congress, President Bush wrote that this decision is "in view of recent actions by the Government of the Russian Federation incompatible with peaceful relations with its sovereign and democratic neighbor Georgia." In the original determination of May 5, 2008 (Presidential Determination 2008-19), the President determined that the agreement will promote and will not pose an unreasonable risk "to the common defense and security." The President's message of September 8 says this determination "is no longer effective." It also says that "if circumstances should permit future reconsideration of the proposed Agreement, a new determination will be made and the proposed Agreement will be submitted for congressional review pursuant to section 123 of the Act." Additional legislation proposed in the 110 th Congress focused on Iran's nuclear programs and also sought to condition nuclear cooperation with Russia. The Iran Counter-Proliferation Act of 2007 ( H.R. 1400 ), passed by the House, would prohibit any "agreement for cooperation between the United States and the government of any country that is assisting the nuclear program of Iran or transferring advanced conventional weapons or missiles to Iran."