The policy of the U.S. government is to have in place a comprehensive and effective program to ensure continuity of essential federal functions under all circumstances. COOP planning is an effort conducted by individual agencies to fulfill that policy and assure that the capability exists to continue essential agency functions across a wide range of potential emergencies. COOP has been closely associated with continuity of government programs, which are meant to ensure the survival of our constitutional form of government. COOP was first conceived during the Cold War to ensure that the U.S. government would be able to continue to function in case of a nuclear war. However, in the wake of the demise of the Soviet Union and the reduced threat of nuclear attack in the early 1990s, COOP planning languished. Following the World Trade Center bombing in 1993 and the Oklahoma City bombing in 1995, COOP as a program was given renewed attention based on the recognition of emerging threats and the need to continue essential functions of the federal government in an all-hazards environment, which includes acts of nature, accidents, technological emergencies, and incidents related to military or terrorist attacks. A series of Presidential Decision Directives (PDD) was issued that began to link programs for terrorism, critical infrastructure protection, and COOP. In addition, as we approached the turn of the century, federal agencies also dealt with the Year 2000 computer problem by developing business continuity and contingency plans to ensure program delivery in the event of a technology failure or malfunction. Federal COOP efforts have evolved by building upon the planning for each of these events that focused on protecting critical infrastructure, both physical systems and cyber-based systems. The events of September 11, 2001, highlighted in dramatic fashion the vulnerabilities agencies face in each of these areas and focused new attention on the effects such events have on agencies’ most important assets—their people, or human capital. FEMA, the General Services Administration (GSA), and OPM are the three agencies that have the most direct impact on individual agency efforts to develop viable COOP capabilities. PDD 67, which outlined individual agency responsibilities for COOP, identified FEMA as the executive agent for federal COOP planning. As executive agent, FEMA has the responsibility for formulating guidance, facilitating interagency coordination, and assessing the status of COOP capability across the federal executive branch. PDD 67 also required GSA to work with FEMA in providing COOP training for federal agencies and to assist agencies in acquiring alternate facilities. In addition, the Federal Management Regulation requires GSA to lead federal Occupant Emergency Program (OEP) efforts, which are short-term emergency response programs that establish procedures for safeguarding lives and property during emergencies in particular facilities. As the President’s agent and advisor for human capital matters, OPM has been actively involved in federal emergency preparedness efforts. OPM has issued a series of emergency preparedness guides for federal managers, employees, and their families; issued a number of memorandums relating to planning, preparedness, and the flexibilities available to agencies in emergency situations; and held emergency planning and preparedness forums to help agencies select emergency personnel. In addition, FEMA, GSA, and OPM collaborate to implement the Federal Workforce Release Decision and Notification Protocol when emergency situations occur in the Washington, D.C., area. The current literature indicates, and experts that we consulted confirmed, that the immediate response to a crisis should give priority to securing the safety of all employees and addressing the needs of employees who perform or directly support essential operations. For example, the standard for emergency management and business continuity, which was developed by the National Fire Protection Association and endorsed by FEMA, recommends that organizations include the following priorities in their continuity program: ensuring the safety and health of employees, establishing critical functions and processes, and identifying essential representatives. Consequently, the experts said that these priorities have received most of the human capital attention in continuity efforts for both the private and public sectors, including federal agencies. Appropriately, organizations focus on minimizing the loss of life and injuries, which is key to all other recovery efforts. Such efforts commonly include first aid training, evacuation plans and drills, and dismissal policies. Organizations also focus on identifying the core group of employees that will establish and maintain essential operations as dictated by an organization’s mission. Organizations, for example, commonly identify leadership structures to manage crisis response. Even so, experts noted that organizations vary widely in their effectiveness in addressing these priorities. The continuity process, however, extends beyond the goals of life safety and the performance of essential operations. The experts identified a number of human capital considerations beyond these goals that are not well addressed. For example, the priorities discussed above do not address human capital considerations for employees who are not involved in providing essential functions. Such employees would be associated with efforts to fully resume all other operations and represent the majority of an organization. The experts identified two principles that should guide actions to more fully address human capital considerations applicable to all continuity planning and implementation efforts. The first is recognizing and remaining sensitive to employees’ personal needs during emergencies when shaping the appropriate organizational expectations of employees. The emergency event that activates continuity plans may also cause emergency events in the personal lives of individual employees. Similar to an organization placing its highest priority on the safety and well-being of its employees, employees may have high-priority responsibilities to others. These personal responsibilities may limit employees’ ability to contribute to mission accomplishment until these other obligations are satisfied. The second principle experts identified is maximizing the contributions of all employees, whether in providing essential operations or resuming full services. This should be done within the limits of an employee’s ability to contribute given the situation, as described in principle one, and within the limits of the organization to use those contributions effectively. According to the experts, the experience of organizations during emergencies has been that employees remain motivated to contribute to organizational results, which is increasingly felt the longer the emergency continues. Enabling employees to contribute promotes more effective delivery of essential operations and more rapid resumption of full operations. In addition, in extreme disruptions of employees’ personal circumstances, providing purposeful activities helps avoid the debilitating affects of a disruption on employees, including job-related anxiety and post–traumatic stress disorder. The experts we interviewed also identified six organizational actions to enhance continuity planning and implementation efforts, listed in figure 1. Each of these actions is described in more detail below. Our past work has shown that the demonstrated commitment of top leaders is perhaps the single most important element of successful change management and transformation efforts. Effective continuity efforts have the visible support and commitment of their organization’s top leadership. According to the experts, traditional continuity planning focuses on the operations side of recovery and often overlooks human capital considerations. As such, it is important for top leadership to ensure that the appropriate balance is achieved in considering physical infrastructure, technology, and human capital. In providing leadership prior to the emergency, leaders demonstrate their commitment to human capital by establishing plans that value the organization’s intention to manage employees with sensitivity to their individual circumstances, recover essential operations on a priority basis, and resume other operations as quickly as possible. Organizational leaders show commitment to continuity planning by allocating resources and setting policies that effectively meet the organization’s continuity needs. The experts told us that committed leaders provide sufficient funding and staff to conduct planning and preparation efforts effectively. While the resources needed vary from location to location within an organization, the experts said that organizations should have enough resources available to develop effective plans, test critical systems, train all staff, and conduct simulation exercises. Committed top leadership also ensures that clear policies and procedures are in place for all aspects of continuity to ensure that quick and effective decisions are made during times of emergencies. Those policies and procedures should be fair, shared with employees and their representatives in advance of an emergency, and able to be consistently applied to all employees. Experts and union leaders we met with agree that the cooperation and input from all components within the organization, including employees and their representatives, is important in developing these policies. Following a disruption to normal operations, top leadership sets the direction and pace of organizational recovery. According to the experts, top leadership sets direction by providing the legitimate and identifiable voice of the organization for employees to rally around during tumultuous times. An expert from Marsh & McLennan Companies, Inc., a company that lost over 350 people in the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001, noted that in the aftermath of an emergency there is a fundamental need for a strong, visible leader to provide constant reassurance. The expert added that “employees need to know that someone is in control, even if the leaders do not know all the answers.” In addition, top leaders set the pace of organizational recovery by providing leadership to both the management team leading recovery of essential operations and the management team leading the resumption of all other operations. As we have previously reported, effective organizations integrate human capital approaches as strategies for accomplishing their mission and programmatic goals. According to the experts, strategic decisions made to improve day-to-day operations, including human capital approaches, and those made to build continuity readiness are not exclusive of one another and may have synergies. For example, early in 2001, GAO made the business decision to supply all of its analysts with laptop computers for financial reasons and to provide employees with flexibility in carrying out their work. That business decision, however, also contributed to our ability to quickly adapt to unforeseeable circumstances in October 2001. In response to the release of anthrax bacteria on Capitol Hill, we opened our doors to the 435 members of the House of Representatives and selected members of their staffs. Over 1,000 GAO employees were immediately able to make use of their laptops to work from alternate locations. Consequently, we minimized the disruption to our operations and assisted the House of Representatives in continuing its operations. To take advantage of such synergies, the experts said that decisions regarding continuity efforts should be integrated with broader business decision making.