Seaports are critical gateways for the movement of international commerce. More than 95 percent of our non-North American foreign trade (and 100 percent of certain commodities, such as foreign oil, on which we are heavily dependent) arrives by ship. In 2001, approximately 5,400 ships carrying multinational crews and cargoes from around the globe made more than 60,000 U.S. port calls each year. More than 6 million containers (suitable for truck-trailers) enter the country annually. Particularly with “just-in-time” deliveries of goods, the expeditious flow of commerce through these ports is so essential that the Coast Guard Commandant stated after September 11, “even slowing the flow long enough to inspect either all or a statistically significant random selection of imports would be economically intolerable.” This tremendous flow of goods creates many kinds of vulnerability. Drugs and illegal aliens are routinely smuggled into this country, not only in small boats but also hidden among otherwise legitimate cargoes on large commercial ships. These same pathways are available for exploitation by a terrorist organization or any nation or person wishing to attack us surreptitiously. Protecting against these vulnerabilities is made more difficult by the tremendous variety of U.S. ports. Some are multibillion- dollar enterprises, while others have very limited facilities and very little traffic. Cargo operations are similarly varied, including containers, liquid bulk (such as petroleum), dry bulk (such as grain), and iron ore or steel. Amidst this variety is one relatively consistent complication: most seaports are located in or near major metropolitan areas, where attacks or incidents make more people vulnerable. The federal government has jurisdiction over harbors and interstate and foreign commerce, but state and local governments are the main port regulators. The entities that coordinate port operations, generally called port authorities, differ considerably from each other in their structure. Some are integral administrative arms of state or local governments; others are autonomous or semi-autonomous self-sustaining public corporations. At least two—The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and the Delaware River Port Authority—involve two states each. Port authorities also have varying funding mechanisms. Some have the ability to levy taxes, with voter approval required. At other port authorities, voter approval is not required. Some have the ability to issue general obligation bonds, and some can issue revenue bonds. Some ports receive funding directly from the general funds of the governments they are a part of, and some receive state funding support through trust funds or loan guarantees. A terrorist act involving chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear weapons at one of these seaports could result in extensive loss of lives, property, and business; affect the operations of harbors and the transportation infrastructure (bridges, railroads, and highways) within the port limits; cause extensive environmental damage; and disrupt the free flow of trade. Port security measures are aimed at minimizing the exploitation or disruption of maritime trade and the underlying infrastructure and processes that support it. The Brookings Institution reported in 2002 that a weapon of mass destruction shipped by container or mail could cause damage and disruption costing the economy as much as $1 trillion. Port vulnerabilities stem from inadequate security measures as well as from the challenge of monitoring the vast and rapidly increasing volume of cargo, persons, and vessels passing through the ports. Port security is a complex issue that involves numerous key actors including federal, state, and local law enforcement and inspection agencies; port authorities; private sector businesses; and organized labor and other port employees. The routine border control activities of certain federal agencies, most notably the Coast Guard, Customs Service, and INS, seek to ensure that the flow of cargo, vessels, and persons through seaports complies with all applicable U.S. criminal and civil laws. Also, the Coast Guard, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Transportation Security Administration (TSA), and the Department of Defense (DOD) seek to ensure that critical seaport infrastructure is safeguarded from major terrorist attack. While no two ports in the United States are exactly alike, many share certain characteristics that make them vulnerable to terrorist attacks or for use as shipping conduits by terrorists. These characteristics pertain to both their physical layout and their function. For example: Many ports are extensive in size and accessible by water and land. Their accessibility makes it difficult to apply the kinds of security measures that, for example, can be more readily applied at airports. Most ports are located in or near major metropolitan areas; their activities, functions, and facilities, such as petroleum tank farms and other potentially hazardous material storage facilities, are often intertwined with the infrastructure of urban life, such as roads, bridges, and factories. The sheer amount of material being transported through ports provides a ready avenue for the introduction of many different types of threats. The combination of many different transportation modes (e.g., rail and roads) and the concentration of passengers, high-value cargo, and hazardous materials make ports potential targets. The Port of Tampa illustrates many of these vulnerability characteristics. The port is large and sprawling, with port-owned facilities interspersed among private facilities along the waterfront, increasing the difficulty of access control. It is Florida’s busiest port in terms of raw tonnage of cargo, and the cargoes themselves include about half of Florida’s volume of hazardous materials, such as anhydrous ammonia, liquid petroleum gas, and sulfur. The port’s varied business—bulk freighters and tankers, container ships, cruise ships, fishing vessels, and ship repair and servicing—brings many people onto the port to work daily. For example, in orange juice traffic alone, as many as 2,000 truck drivers might be involved in off loading ships. The Tampa port’s proximity to substantial numbers of people and facilities is another reason for concern. It is located close to downtown Tampa’s economic core, making attacks on hazardous materials facilities potentially of greater consequence than for more isolated ports. A number of busy public roads pass through the port. In addition, located nearby are facilities such as McDill Air Force Base (the location of the U.S. Central Command, which is leading the fighting in Afghanistan) and the Crystal River nuclear power plant, both of which could draw the attention of terrorists. Since September 11, the various stakeholders involved in ports have undertaken extensive initiatives to begin strengthening their security against potential terrorist threats. As might be expected given the national security aspects of the September 11 attacks, these activities have been most extensive at the federal level. However, states, port authorities, local agencies, and private companies have also been involved. The efforts extend across a broad spectrum of ports and port activities, but the levels of effort vary from location to location. While many federal agencies are involved in aspects of port security, three play roles that are particularly key—the Coast Guard, Customs Service, and INS. The Coast Guard, which has overall federal responsibility for many aspects of port security, has been particularly active. After September 11, the Coast Guard responded by refocusing its efforts and repositioning vessels, aircraft, and personnel not only to provide security, but also to increase visibility in key maritime locations. Some of its important actions included the following: Conducting initial risk assessments of ports. These limited risk assessments, done by Coast Guard marine safety personnel at individual ports, identified high-risk infrastructure and facilities within specific areas of operation. The assessments helped determine how the Coast Guard’s small boats would be used for harbor security patrols. The Port of Tampa received one of these assessments, and the Coast Guard increased the frequency of harbor patrols in Tampa. Redeploying assets. The Coast Guard recalled all cutters that were conducting offshore law enforcement patrols for drug, immigration, and fisheries enforcement and repositioned them at entrances to such ports as Boston, Los Angeles, Miami, New York, and San Francisco. Many of these cutters are now being returned to other missions, although some continue to be involved in security-related activities. Strengthening surveillance of passenger-related operations and other high-interest vessels. The Coast Guard established new guidelines for developing security plans and implementing security measures for passenger vessels and passenger terminals, including access controls to passenger terminals and security zones around passenger ships. In Tampa and elsewhere, the Coast Guard established security zones around moored cruise ships and other high-interest vessels, such as naval vessels and tank ships carrying liquefied petroleum gas. The Coast Guard also boarded or escorted many of those vessels to ensure their safe entry into the ports. In some areas, such as San Francisco Bay, the Coast Guard also established waterside security zones adjacent to large airports located near the water. Laying the groundwork for more comprehensive security planning. The Coast Guard began a process for comprehensively assessing the security conditions of 55 U.S. ports over a 3-year period. The agency has a contract with a private firm, TRW Systems, to conduct detailed vulnerability assessments of these ports. The first four assessments are expected to begin in mid-August 2002, following initial work to develop a methodology and identify security standards and best practices that can be used for evaluating the security environment of ports. Tampa is expected to be among the first eight ports assessed under this process. Driving Maritime Security Worldwide. The Coast Guard is working through the International Maritime Organization to improve maritime security worldwide. It has proposed accelerated implementation of electronic ship identification systems, ship and port facility security plans, and the undertaking of port security assessments. The proposals have been approved in a security-working group and will be before the entire organization in December 2002. According to the U.S. Customs Service, it has several initiatives under way in the United States and elsewhere to help ensure the security of cargo entering through U.S. ports. These initiatives include the following: Inspecting containers and other cargoes.