STEM fields include a wide range of disciplines and occupations, including agriculture, physics, psychology, medical technology, and automotive engineering. Many of these fields require completion of advanced courses in mathematics or science, subjects that are first introduced and developed at the kindergarten through 12th grade level. The federal government, universities and colleges, and other entities have taken steps to help improve achievement in these and other subjects through such actions as enforcement of NCLBA, which addresses both student and teacher performance at the elementary and secondary school levels, and implementation of programs to increase the numbers of women, minorities, and students with disadvantaged backgrounds in the STEM fields at postsecondary school levels and later in employment. The participation of domestic students in STEM fields—and in higher education more generally—is affected both by the economy and by demographic changes in the U.S. population. Enrollment in higher education has declined with upturns in the economy because of the increased opportunity costs of going to school when relatively high wages are available. The choice between academic programs is also affected by the wages expected to be earned after obtaining a degree. Demographic trends affect STEM fields because different races and ethnicities have had different enrollment rates, and their representation in the population is changing. In particular, STEM fields have had a relatively high proportion of white or Asian males, but the proportion of other minorities enrolled in the nation’s public schools, particularly Hispanics, has almost doubled since 1972. Furthermore, as of 2002, American Indians, Asians, African- Americans, Hispanics, and Pacific Islanders constituted 29 percent of all college students. Students and employees from foreign countries have pursued STEM degrees and worked in STEM occupations in the United States as well. To do so, these students and employees must obtain education or employment visas. Visas may not be issued to students for a number of reasons, including concerns that the visa applicant may engage in the illegal transfer of sensitive technology. Many foreign workers enter the United States annually through the H–1B visa program, which assists U.S. employers in temporarily filling specialty occupations. Employed workers may stay in the United States on an H–1B visa for up to 6 years, and the current cap on the number of H–1B visas that can be granted is 65,000. The law exempts certain workers from this cap, including those in specified positions or holding a master’s degree or higher from a U.S. institution. The federal government also plays a role in helping coordinate federal science and technology initiatives. The National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) was established in 1993 and is the principal means for the Administration to coordinate science and technology policies. One objective of NSTC is to establish clear national goals for federal science and technology investments in areas ranging from information technologies and health research to improving transportation systems and strengthening fundamental research. From the 1994–1995 academic year to the 2003–2004 academic year, the number of graduates with STEM degrees increased, but the proportion of students obtaining degrees in STEM fields fell. Teacher quality, academic preparation, collegiate degree requirements, and the pay for employment in STEM fields were cited by university officials and Education as factors affecting the pursuit of degrees in these fields. The number of graduates with degrees in STEM fields increased from approximately 519,000 to approximately 578,000 from the 1994–1995 academic year to the 2003–2004 academic year. However, during this same period, the number of graduates with degrees in non-STEM fields increased from about 1.1 million to 1.5 million. Thus, the percentage of students with STEM degrees decreased from about 32 percent to about 27 percent of total graduates. The largest increases at the bachelor’s and master’s levels were in mathematics and the computer sciences, and the largest increase at the doctoral level was in psychology. However, the overall number of students earning degrees in engineering decreased in this period, and the number of students earning doctoral degrees in the physical sciences and bachelor’s degrees in technology-related fields, as well as several other fields, also declined. Figure 1 shows the number of graduates for STEM and non-STEM fields in the 1994–1995 through 2003– 2004 academic years. From the 1994–1995 academic year to the 2002–2003 academic year, the proportion of women earning degrees in STEM fields increased at the bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral levels, and the proportion of domestic minorities increased at the bachelor’s level. Conversely, the total number of men graduates decreased, and the proportion of men graduates declined in the majority of STEM fields at all educational levels in this same period. However, men continued to constitute over 50 percent of the graduates in most STEM fields. The proportion of domestic minorities increased at the bachelor’s level but did not change at the master’s or doctoral level. In the 1994–1995 and 2002–2003 academic years, international students earned about one-third or more of the degrees at both the master’s and doctoral levels in engineering, math and computer science, and the physical sciences. University officials told us and researchers reported that the quality of teachers in kindergarten through 12th grades and the levels of mathematics and science courses completed during high school affected students’ success in and decisions about pursuing STEM fields. University officials said that some teachers were unqualified and unable to impart the subject matter, causing students to lose interest in mathematics and science. In 2002, Education reported that, in the 1999–2000 school year, 45 percent of the high school students enrolled in biology/life science classes and approximately 30 percent of those enrolled in mathematics, English, and social science classes were instructed by teachers without a major, minor, or certification in these subjects—commonly referred to as “out-of-field” teachers. Also, states reported that the problem of underprepared teachers was worse on average in districts that serve large proportions of high-poverty children. In addition to teacher quality, students’ high school preparation in mathematics and science was cited by university officials and researchers as a factor that influenced students’ participation and success in the STEM fields. For example, university officials said that, because many students had not taken higher-level mathematics and science courses such as calculus and physics in high school, they were immediately behind other students. A study of several hundred students who had left the STEM fields reported that about 40 percent of those college students who left the science fields reported some problems related to high school science preparation. Several other factors were cited by university officials, students, and others as influencing decisions about participation in STEM fields. These factors included the relatively low pay in STEM occupations, additional tuition costs to obtain STEM degrees, and the availability of mentoring, especially for women and minorities, in the STEM fields. For example, officials from five universities told us that low pay in STEM occupations relative to other fields such as law and business dissuaded students from pursuing STEM degrees. Also, in a study that solicited the views of college students who left the STEM fields as well as those who continued to pursue STEM degrees, researchers found that students experienced greater financial difficulties in obtaining their degrees because of the extra time needed to obtain degrees in certain STEM fields. University officials, students, and other organizations suggested a number of steps that could be taken to encourage more participation in the STEM fields. University officials and students suggested more outreach, especially to women and minorities from kindergarten through the 12th grade. One organization, Building Engineering and Science Talent (BEST), suggested that research universities increase their presence in pre- kindergarten through 12th grade mathematics and science education in order to strengthen domestic students’ interests and abilities. In addition, the Council of Graduate Schools called for a renewed commitment to graduate education by the federal government through actions such as providing funds to support students trained at the doctoral level in the STEM fields and expanding participation in doctoral study in selected fields through graduate support awarded competitively to universities across the country. University officials suggested that the federal government could enhance its role in STEM education by providing more effective leadership through developing and implementing a national agenda for STEM education and increasing federal funding for academic research. Although the total number of STEM employees increased from 1994 to 2003, particularly in mathematics and computer science, there was no evidence that the number of employees in engineering and technology- related fields did. University officials, researchers, and others cited the availability of mentors as having a large influence on the decision to enter STEM fields and noted that many students with STEM degrees find employment in non-STEM fields. The number of foreign workers declined in STEM fields, in part because of declines in enrollment in U.S. programs resulting from difficulties with the U.S. visa system. Key factors affecting STEM employment decisions include the availability of mentors for women and minorities and opportunities abroad for foreign workers. From 1994 to 2003, employment in STEM fields increased from an estimated 7.2 million to an estimated 8.9 million—representing a 23 percent increase, as compared to a 17 percent increase in non-STEM fields. While the total number of STEM employees increased, this increase varied across STEM fields. Coinciding with the spread of the Internet and the personal computer, employment increased by an estimated 78 percent in the mathematics/computer sciences fields and by an estimated 20 percent in the sciences. There was no evidence that the number of employees in the engineering and technology-related fields increased. Further, a 2006 National Science Foundation report found that about two- thirds of employees with degrees in science or engineering were employed in fields somewhat or not at all related to their degree. Figure 2 shows the estimated number of employees in STEM fields. Women and minorities employed in STEM fields increased between 1994 and 2003, and the number of foreign workers declined. While the estimated number of women employees in STEM fields increased from about 2.7 million to about 3.5 million in this period, this did not result in a change in the proportion of women employees in the STEM fields relative to men.