Introduction The Deepwater Horizon oil spill has caused significant socioeconomic injuries to the Gulf of Mexico fishing industry. Immediate economic injuries occurred because large areas of federal and state waters in or adjacent to the spill area were closed to fishing as a precautionary measure to ensure the safety of seafood. Perhaps of greater concern are intermediate and long-term harm to Gulf of Mexico ecosystems. Seafood production is dependent on Gulf ecosystems for spawning areas, nurseries, and growth. Over 84 days beginning on April 20, 2010, the Deepwater Horizon oil well released over 200 million gallons (4.9 million barrels). During the spill, oil was dispersed through the application of 1.8 million gallons of surface and subsurface chemical dispersants. By June 2, 2010, the area of federal waters closed to fishing had grown to its maximum of 88,522 square miles or nearly 37% of federal waters in the Gulf of Mexico. The maximum portions of state waters closed to fishing during the spill were Alabama (40%), Florida (2%), Louisiana (55%), and Mississippi (95%). Survey teams also have documented 1,053 total linear miles of oiled shoreline. At issue for Congress is whether current efforts will be sufficient to restore the fishery to pre-spill conditions. Congress may continue to conduct oversight of efforts to promote fishing industry recovery and Gulf restoration. Immediate issues are likely to focus on providing financial compensation to fishermen, ensuring seafood safety, and maintaining Gulf seafood markets. Congress also may consider long-term efforts to restore the Gulf environment and related fishery productivity. In addition to restoration requirements defined in statute by the Oil Pollution Act (OPA, P.L. 101-380 ) and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Natural Resource Damage Assessment (NRDA) regulations under OPA, the Administration has proposed a long-term plan to restore the Gulf region. The plan would redirect Clean Water Act penalty revenues for this purpose and establish a Gulf Restoration Council to coordinate restoration efforts. Congress may consider the Administration's proposal and related issues such as the allocation and use of restoration funds. The primary objective of this report is to summarize information related to damages caused by the oil spill to Gulf fisheries and efforts to mitigate these damages. Many uncertainties exist because of the complexity and scale of Gulf fisheries and ecosystems that have been affected by the oil spill. Direct and indirect damages to fisheries and the Gulf environment are still being assessed and these efforts are likely to continue for years to come. Commercial and Recreational Fisheries Other than Alaska, historically, the Gulf region has produced the greatest amount of seafood by volume and value in the United States. In 2008, Gulf commercial fishery landings totaled 1,273 million pounds with a dock-side value of $697 million. When related processor, wholesale, and retail businesses are included, the seafood industry of the Gulf states supported over 213,000 full- and part-time jobs with related income impacts of $5.5 billion. The top commercial species by value were shrimp ($366 million), menhaden ($64 million), oysters ($60 million), and blue crab ($39 million). Table 1 provides commercial landings and revenue for major species by state in the Gulf of Mexico region. Recreational fisheries also make significant contributions to the region's economy by supporting businesses such as charters, bait and tackle shops, restaurants, and hotels. In 2008, 5.7 million Gulf recreational fishermen, both visitors and residents, took 24 million fishing trips. In 2008, recreational fishermen spent over $12.5 billion on durable equipment and trips in the Gulf region. Some of the main species targeted by recreational fishermen include snappers, several types of drum, sheepshead, and Spanish mackerel. Although recreational expenditures cannot be directly compared to commercial revenues, these figures provide an indication of the magnitude of economic activity related to these fisheries. Commercial and recreational fisheries are among the main activities supporting the economy and social well-being of many Gulf coastal communities. The Deepwater Horizon oil spill has directly harmed the fishing industry through closures and changes in seafood demand. Large areas of federal and state waters were closed to fishing as a precautionary measure to ensure the safety of seafood. During the closures fisheries landings and associated revenues decreased significantly in central Gulf fishing ports. It is likely that demand for Gulf seafood has decreased because of changes in consumer perceptions related to the spill. The spill also has harmed the Gulf environment, resulting in mortality of organisms, eggs, and early life stages and harm to habitat and other elements of the Gulf ecosystem. The scale and nature of the spill make it difficult for the public or government to quantify these effects. The closing and opening of areas has involved a tradeoff between ensuring public safety and providing fishing opportunities to recreational and commercial fishermen. In addition to public health concerns, marketing of oil-tainted products would further compromise the reputation of Gulf seafood. On the other hand, closures directly constrain recreational and commercial fishermen and delays in reopening areas are costly to the fishing industry. On May 2, 2010, 12 days following the explosion and fire of the Deepwater Horizon, NOAA closed 6,817 square miles of the Gulf of Mexico to commercial and recreational fishing. The closure was implemented to ensure potentially contaminated seafood would not enter markets and pose a risk to human health. The closure grew to include portions of Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida state waters. At the peak of the closure, 88,522 square miles, or nearly 37%, of all federal waters in the Gulf of Mexico were off-limits to fishing. The maximum proportions of state waters closed to fishing during the spill were Alabama (40%), Florida (2%), Louisiana (55%), and Mississippi (95%). Since the flow of oil from the well-head was stopped in July, most of Louisiana state waters and all of Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida state waters have been re-opened to fishing. As of January 24, 2011, only 1,041 square miles of federal waters immediately surrounding the well-head remain closed to commercial and recreational fishing. FDA, NOAA, and coastal states established a protocol to determine when areas may be re-opened to fishing. Once areas have been determined to be free of oil from the spill, re-opening has been considered on a species-by-species basis. Seafood samples of the species in question must pass both sensory and chemical analyses to ensure there are no harmful oil residues. For sensory testing, edible portions of the species are tested by a panel of experts who check samples for oil and dispersant odor and taste. If all tested samples for a given site pass the sensory test, additional samples undergo chemical analysis to test for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and dispersants. All seafood samples from an area must pass both tests for the area to be reopened to fishing. Some have criticized the testing protocols because they believe seafood sampling coverage has been insufficient, the setting of PAH levels of concern should have incorporated additional factors, and the list of toxic substances being tested is too narrow. NOAA has collected samples from federal waters while state personnel have collected samples from state waters. On August 19, 2010, FDA officials stated the following in congressional testimony: To date all samples have passed sensory testing for oil or dispersants and, as with the surveillance sampling, the results of all chemical analyses have shown PAH levels well below the levels of concern, usually by a factor of 100 to 1,000 below those levels, essentially at the same level as were seen before the spill. For federal waters reopened through November 15, 2010, sensory analyses have found no detectable oil or dispersant odors or flavors, and results of chemical analyses have been well below levels of concern. Further, NOAA and FDA sampling from commercial landing sites and markets have not found seafood contaminated by oil or dispersant. According to the FDA, "fish and shellfish harvested from areas re-opened or unaffected by the oil spill are considered to be safe to eat." The areas affected by the closures are some of the richest fishing grounds in the Gulf for commercial species such as shrimp, menhaden, and oysters. Although many factors influence commercial landings, when compared to the same period in 2009 (January through December), total Gulf landings for all shrimp species in 2010 decreased by 35.6 million pounds (27%). On the state level, shrimp landings decreased by 32% in Louisiana, 60% in Mississippi, 56% in Alabama and nearly 15% in Texas, while increasing by nearly 15% for the Florida west coast. Menhaden landings in Louisiana also decreased by 171 million pounds (17%). The decreases in landings resulted in lower revenues in the harvesting sector. Immediate losses were dependent on target species, location, and alternative fishing opportunities. Landings information for other species and associated revenue information are not available at this time. In addition to impacts resulting directly from oil, the oyster industry has been harmed by efforts to protect Louisiana estuaries from oil intrusion. Following the oil spill, the state of Louisiana released freshwater from the Mississippi River into estuaries in greater amounts than usual in an attempt to keep oil from reaching Louisiana's estuaries. The strategy may have had limited success in keeping oil offshore, but with unintended consequences. The freshwater releases decreased salinity on the oyster grounds below the level that oysters can tolerate and resulted in significant mortality of oysters, by some estimates 50% of Louisiana's annual oyster crop. Some of the oyster industry's immediate concerns are related to documenting damage caused by the spill and freshwater diversion and effects of the spill on consumer perceptions and oyster markets. Prior to the oil spill, long-term restoration proposals to divert the Mississippi River for wetlands restoration raised concerns because of likely impacts on the productivity of oyster grounds. Some in the oyster industry have questioned whether current restoration efforts may need to consider retiring oyster grounds and developing new areas that are less likely to be affected by river diversions associated with restoration activities.