Open ocean aquaculture is broadly defined as the rearing of marine organisms in exposed areas beyond significant coastal influence. Open ocean aquaculture operations would be located at a considerable distance from shore and subject to relatively harsh environmental conditions resulting from wind and wave action. Open ocean aquaculture employs less control over organisms and the surrounding environment than do inshore and land-based aquaculture, which are often undertaken in enclosures such as ponds. Development of offshore aquaculture has become a controversial topic for aquaculturalists, environmentalists, recreational fishermen, and commercial fishermen. Many environmentalists and fishermen have asserted that poorly regulated aquaculture development could degrade the environment and have negative affects on wild fish populations. Proponents of open ocean aquaculture believe it is the beginning of the "blue revolution"—a period of broad advances in culture methods and associated increases in production. Potential outcomes are difficult to characterize because of the diverse nature of potential operations and the lack of aquaculture experience in open ocean areas. However, most agree that industry regulation is needed for orderly development of aquaculture while minimizing its effects on the environment. During the 110 th Congress, the National Offshore Aquaculture Act of 2007 was introduced as H.R. 2010 in the House and as S. 1609 in the Senate, both by request of the Administration. Both bills focused on developing a framework to regulate aquaculture in the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), generally 3 to 200 miles from the coastline. A hearing concerning H.R. 2010 was held before the House Committee on Natural Resources, Subcommittee on Fisheries, Wildlife, and Oceans, but no further action was taken on either of these bills. On January 28, 2009, the Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council voted to approve a plan to issue aquaculture permits and regulate aquaculture in the Gulf of Mexico. On September 3, 2009, the plan took effect because the Secretary of Commerce declined to oppose it within the required statutory period. Environmentalists and some fishing industry representatives have opposed the plan because of concerns related to environmental protection and potential negative effects on wild fish populations. Many who oppose the plan support a precautionary approach and development of national aquaculture standards. On September 8, 2009, H.R. 3534 , the Consolidated Land, Energy, and Aquatic Resources Act of 2009, was introduced. Section 704 of the bill would have rescinded the authority of the Secretary of Commerce, the Administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, or Regional Fishery Management Councils to develop or approve fishery management plans to permit or regulate offshore aquaculture. On July 30, 2010, H.R. 3534 was passed by the House, but the section related to offshore aquaculture was removed from the bill. On December 16, 2009, H.R. 4363 , the National Sustainable Offshore Aquaculture Act of 2009, was introduced. The bill would establish a regulatory system for offshore aquaculture in the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone. On May 25, 2010, S. 3417 , the Research in Aquaculture Opportunity and Responsibility Act of 2010 was introduced. It would prohibit offshore aquaculture until three years after the submission of a report on the impacts of offshore aquaculture. Several terms for open ocean aquaculture are used interchangeably, including offshore aquaculture and offshore fish farming . Open ocean aquaculture facilities generally consist of systems (e.g., cages, net-pens, longline arrays) that can be free-floating, secured to a structure, moored to the ocean bottom, or towed by a vessel. Currently operating commercial aquaculture farms in nearshore waters and estuaries use a variety of methods including ponds with earthen dikes, cages and net-pens moored to the ocean bottom, enhancement and seeding of the bottom, and suspended lines. There has been some experimentation in offshore shellfish culture on the seabed and from suspended ropes and longlines. Internationally, research and commercial open ocean aquaculture facilities are in operation or under development in Australia, Chile, China, France, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Mexico, and Norway. Currently, four commercial open ocean facilities are operating in U.S. state/territorial waters. Cates International, Inc., cultivates moi (Pacific threadfin) near Hawaii, and Snapperfarms, Inc., cultivates cobia (ling) near Puerto Rico. In September 2005, Kona Blue Water Farms of Hawaii celebrated its first harvest of kahala reared in deepwater pens in state waters. In 2007, A. E. Lang Fisheries began cultivating blue mussels off the coast of New Hampshire in collaboration with the University of New Hampshire's Atlantic Marine Aquaculture Center. Although these are open ocean operations, all four are currently sited in waters under state or territorial jurisdiction. Thus far, only a few aquaculture research facilities have operated farther offshore in the U.S. EEZ. Should such operations be located beyond coastal state jurisdiction within the EEZ, they would be regulated primarily by federal agencies. Development of commercial aquaculture facilities in federal waters is hampered by an unclear regulatory process in the EEZ and technical uncertainties related to working in offshore areas. Regulatory uncertainty has been identified by the Administration as the major barrier to developing offshore aquaculture in the United States. Uncertainty is one of the main barriers to commercial investment in many new industries. Potential environmental and economic impacts and associated controversy have also likely contributed to slowing potential expansion. Proponents of open ocean aquaculture position it as the beginning of the "blue revolution"—broad advances in culture methods and application with resulting increases in marine aquaculture production. They tout open ocean aquaculture as an option for meeting consumer demand for marine products, providing new employment opportunities, decreasing the U.S. trade deficit in seafood products, and developing a new economically viable industry. It is also asserted by proponents that development of open ocean sites would have the advantages of avoiding inshore user conflicts and reducing environmental impacts. Opponents raise a number of concerns related to environmental protection and potential impacts on existing commercial fisheries. They point to inshore aquaculture where mangrove forests have been replaced by shrimp ponds, and to waste from salmon culture that has harmed the seabed environment. Their environmental concerns include pollution from unused feed, fish wastes, and treatments (e.g., antibiotics); entanglement of marine wildlife in aquaculture gear; introduction of nonnative species; and escape of organisms that might affect the genetic makeup of wild species. They say that open ocean aquaculture could also have direct and indirect effects on commercial fisheries, such as degradation of wild fish habitat, preemption of commercial fishing grounds, and market competition between wild and cultured fish products. The future of aquaculture in the EEZ is still an open question. A complex and unpredictable mix of technological, biological, and economic elements will likely determine the profitability of open ocean aquaculture. However, the future will also likely depend on the tradeoffs between benefits associated with aquaculture production and costs of potential environmental and social impacts. A broad array of questions is associated with the viability and impacts of open ocean aquaculture initiation and expansion. These concerns are further complicated by factors such as evolving production technology, uncertain economic costs and benefits, and environmental and social impacts. Generalizations are also difficult to make because of the variety of candidate species, associated technologies, and potential scales of operation. Major categories of concerns related to open ocean aquaculture development include (1) biological, operational, and business concerns related to development of a new industry; (2) potential social and economic impacts; (3) potential environmental impacts; and (4) the legal and regulatory environment. Current species and culture techniques—including species selection, egg/larval production, and nutritional/dietary requirements—are somewhat limited. Development of open ocean aquaculture probably will need further research, and new culture techniques may be required for rearing species not presently grown. Many economically important species are currently being studied at various universities and research institutes for possible culture, including amberjack, black sea bass, blue mussels, cobia, cod, corvina, flounder, haddock, halibut, mahimahi, mutton snapper, red drum, striped bass, tuna, and yellowtail snapper. Other research topics being investigated include hatchery culture technologies; automated feeder design; culture of new species; disease identification and control; cages and husbandry technology for rough water environments; identification of alternative food sources; nutrition requirements; definition of carrying capacity of offshore waters; appropriate mooring systems; drifting and self-powered cages; federal regulatory structure; and environmental monitoring technology. Since open water aquaculture is a relatively new industry, many potential operators are inexperienced with the technical requirements for open ocean facilities. Historically, development has been limited by technology that requires water depths of 100-150 feet; this narrow band of acceptable depth exists from ¼ mile to about 50 miles offshore, depending on location. Open ocean aquaculture facilities, moored or floating miles off the coast in a high-energy environment, experience numerous environmental conditions that differ from nearshore aquaculture operations, including exposure to wind and wave action from all directions, short and steep wave patterns, strong currents, seasonal anoxic (oxygen-lacking) conditions, and other severe ocean conditions that can prevent operators from being able to access their cages for days to weeks. Systems have been developed to overcome these obstacles, including cage designs that do not deform under strong current and wave loads, submersible cages, and single-point moorings. Cage-mounted autonomous feeding systems have been developed that can operate both at the surface and submerged.