The three stamps issued thus far in the nation’s semipostal program have all been authorized through separate congressional acts pertaining solely to those stamps. The Stamp Out Breast Cancer Act required that the Service issue a Breast Cancer Research stamp, the nation’s first semipostal. Two additional semipostals—the Heroes of 2001 and Stop Family Violence stamps—were mandated by Congress in the 9/11 Heroes Stamp Act of 2001 and the Stamp Out Domestic Violence Act of 2001. Figure 2 shows the three semipostals. Following the authorization of these semipostals by Congress, a number of stakeholders became involved with the semipostals, including the Service, designated federal agencies, and advocacy groups. For example, after Congress mandated the semipostals, the Service issued the stamps and then transferred semipostal proceeds to the designated federal agencies, which then directed the funds toward the identified causes. Additionally, advocacy groups involved with the charitable causes have assisted in promoting the semipostals. Table 1 identifies the various stakeholders and summarizes their primary roles related to the semipostals. Authorized for 2 years in 1998, the Breast Cancer Research stamp has subsequently been reauthorized three times, and there are proposals in Congress to further extend the sales period through December 31, 2007. The Breast Cancer Research stamp raises money for breast cancer research programs at NIH and DOD, with the former receiving 70 percent of the funds raised and the latter receiving the remaining 30 percent. The Heroes of 2001 stamp was offered for sale from June 7, 2002, to December 31, 2004, and funds raised were transferred to FEMA to provide assistance to the families of emergency relief personnel who were killed or permanently disabled in the line of duty in connection with the terrorist attacks against the United States on September 11, 2001. The Service started selling the Stop Family Violence stamp on October 8, 2003, and it is scheduled to expire on December 31, 2006. Proceeds from the Stop Family Violence stamp are being transferred to HHS for domestic violence programs. For a period of just over 1 year, between October 8, 2003, and December 31, 2004, all three semipostals were on sale simultaneously. Figure 3 shows the authorized sales periods for each of the semipostals. Separately from the provisions that authorized the three semipostals, the Semipostal Authorization Act gave the Service the authority to issue semipostals that it considers to be appropriate and in the national public interest; however, the Service has not yet exercised this authority. Further, the Service has indicated that it does not plan to issue any semipostals under its own authority until sales of the Breast Cancer Research stamp and other congressionally authorized semipostals have concluded. However, legislative proposals to establish new semipostals continue to be made. In the 109th Congress, for example, a bill has been introduced to establish a new semipostal to benefit the Peace Corps. In February 2005, the House Committee on Government Reform, the oversight committee for the Service, adopted a rule that stated that the Committee will not give consideration to legislative proposals specifying the subject matter of new semipostals. That rule also stated that the Service should determine the subject matter of new semipostals. In September 2005, a bill was introduced to establish a semipostal to provide disaster relief for residents of Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama who were affected by Hurricane Katrina. The proceeds are to be transferred to the American Red Cross Disaster Relief Fund for Hurricane Katrina, which is not a government entity. This contrasts with the existing semipostals that transfer their proceeds to designated federal agencies. In our previous work, we reported that the Breast Cancer Research stamp has been an effective fund-raiser and that funds raised through sales of the stamp had contributed to key insights and approaches for the treatment of breast cancer. Most of the key stakeholders we spoke with and, according to our survey, members of the public viewed the stamp as an appropriate way of raising funds for a nonpostal purpose. We expressed some concerns, however, about the Service’s identification and recovery of costs associated with carrying out the act. We recommended that the Service reexamine and, as necessary, revise its Breast Cancer Research stamp cost- recovery regulations. We also suggested that Congress consider establishing annual reporting requirements for NIH and DOD. Semipostals have raised over $56 million to date, and sales were likely impacted by several factors. In addition to variations in the amounts raised by each of the semipostals, sales patterns were also different, and on the basis of our discussions with Service officials, advocacy groups, and other stakeholders, we identified four key factors that affected sales, including (1) fund-raising cause, (2) support of advocacy groups, (3) stamp design, and (4) Service promotional activities. The funds raised by the semipostals vary from $44 million for the Breast Cancer Research stamp to over $10.5 million for the Heroes of 2001 stamp and nearly $2 million for the Stop Family Violence stamp, totaling over $56 million. The length of time that each semipostal has been sold affected the amounts raised: the Breast Cancer Research stamp has been available for 7 years, the Heroes of 2001 stamp was available for just over 2½ years, and the Stop Family Violence stamp has been available for under 2 years. Semipostal sales patterns reveal marked differences. Breast Cancer Research stamp sales have fluctuated since the semipostal’s issuance in 1998 but have remained at a comparably high level over time (see fig. 4). The Heroes of 2001 and Stop Family Violence stamps each had initial sales surges—although at much different levels—with subsequent declines. Sales of the Breast Cancer Research stamp have averaged over 22 million semipostals per quarter since it was issued in 1998, with total sales of 606.8 million semipostals by May 31, 2005. Sales of the Heroes of 2001 stamp averaged over 13 million semipostals per quarter throughout its sales period and totaled 132.9 million, although over 50 percent of total sales occurred in the first two-quarters after issuance in 2002. Finally, as of May 31, 2005, sales of the Stop Family Violence stamp have averaged over 4 million semipostals per quarter and total 25.3 million since issuance. Public awareness about the fund-raising causes represented by the semipostals likely affected sales levels. The two semipostals addressing causes with high levels of public awareness—finding a cure for breast cancer and supporting the families of September 11 emergency personnel—had higher sales than the Stop Family Violence stamp, which raises funds for domestic violence programs, a cause that, while well known, has a lower profile. An official with the Komen Foundation pointed out that in the case of the Breast Cancer Research stamp, the fact that about one in eight women are affected by breast cancer keeps the subject in the public spotlight. Likewise, the national significance of the events surrounding the September 11 terrorist attacks ensured a high level of public awareness regarding the cause represented by the Heroes of 2001 stamp. In contrast, Service officials pointed to the lack of general coverage about domestic violence, which may have limited sales of the Stop Family Violence stamp. The appeal of the particular fund-raising cause was also a factor affecting semipostal sales. While the Breast Cancer Research and Heroes of 2001 stamps were associated with causes that generate a strong and supportive response, the Stop Family Violence stamp deals with a cause that may evoke a more complex response. Officials with the Association of Fundraising Professionals noted that certain causes generate a greater response than others, regardless of fund-raising methods. According to an official with the BBB Wise Giving Alliance, for example, four popular fund- raising causes currently are cancer, children’s issues, relief efforts, and animals, although the popularity of fund-raising causes fluctuates over time. Such an impact can be particularly acute for campaigns that use affinity fund-raising, whereby donors demonstrate their support for a specific cause with a public sign of their commitment. Fund-raising experts we spoke with at the Association of Fundraising Professionals stated that semipostals are examples of this kind of effort, and officials with the American Red Cross noted that other well-known examples of such marketing include the Lance Armstrong Foundation’s LiveStrong yellow bracelets and pink breast cancer awareness ribbons. Such branding can be problematic, however, for causes that, for a variety of reasons, may be more difficult to embrace. For example, officials with the National Coalition Against Domestic Violence and the Service mentioned that consumers may be reluctant to use the Stop Family Violence stamp given that the fund-raising cause is particularly sensitive. Service officials noted that some consumers pay close attention to the ways in which stamps can send intended or unintended messages about the sender or receiver of letters. The difference in appeal between fund-raising causes can also be seen in the degree to which they readily attract support or promotion by businesses or organizations. In the case of the semipostals, American Express and NASCAR approached the Service about partnership promotions for the Breast Cancer Research and Heroes of 2001 stamps, respectively. The partnerships resulted in promotion for the semipostals, done largely at the expense of the Service’s partners, who were able to affiliate themselves with these popular causes. American Express advertised the Breast Cancer Research stamp in print and inserts, while NASCAR placed an image of the Heroes of 2001 stamp prominently on a stock car at very little cost to the Service (see fig. 5). The Service did not receive any comparable offers in support of the Stop Family Violence stamp. While awareness and appeal may affect the size of the response, the length of the response may be related to another characteristic: whether the fund- raising cause is for an episodic event, such as a disaster, or for an ongoing concern, such as finding a cure for a disease.