The Fair Housing Act was enacted as Title VIII of the Civil Rights Act of 1968 (P.L. 90-284). As initially enacted, the Fair Housing Act prohibited discrimination in the sale, rental, or financing of housing based on race, color, religion, and national origin. In 1974, Congress added sex as a protected category (the Housing and Community Development Act, P.L. 93-383 ), and in 1988 it added familial status and handicap (the Fair Housing Amendments Act, P.L. 100-430 ). The Fair Housing Act also prohibits retaliation when individuals attempt to exercise their rights (or assist others in exercising their rights) under the law. This report discusses the Fair Housing Act from the perspective of the activities undertaken and programs administered by the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) and its Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity (FHEO). For information about legal aspects of the Fair Housing Act, such as types of discrimination, exceptions to the law, and discussion of court precedent, see CRS Report 95-710, The Fair Housing Act (FHA): A Legal Overview . HUD and FHEO play a role in enforcing the Fair Housing Act by receiving, investigating, and making determinations regarding complaints of Fair Housing Act violations. FHEO also oversees federal funding to state, local, and nonprofit organizations that investigate fair housing complaints based on federal, state, or local laws through the Fair Housing Assistance Program and Fair Housing Initiatives Program. The Fair Housing Act also requires that HUD affirmatively further fair housing. While not defined in statute, affirmatively furthering fair housing has been found by courts to mean doing more than simply refraining from discrimination, and working to end discrimination and segregation. In July 2015, HUD released new regulations that govern how certain recipients of HUD funding (those receiving Community Planning and Development formula grants and Public Housing Authorities) must affirmatively further fair housing. However, as of the date of this report, HUD had delayed implementation of new regulations. Additionally, HUD and FHEO have taken steps to protect against discrimination not explicitly directed against members of classes protected under the Fair Housing Act—issuing regulations to prevent discrimination in HUD programs based on sexual orientation and gender identity, and providing guidance to prevent discrimination that may arise from criminal background checks, nuisance ordinances, and failure to provide housing to those who do not speak English. After a brief summary of the Fair Housing Act, this report discusses each of these Fair Housing activities, as well as two other initiatives administered by FHEO, Limited English Proficiency and Section 3, the latter of which provides economic opportunities for low- and very low-income persons. The Fair Housing Act protects specified groups from discrimination in obtaining and maintaining housing. The act applies to the rental or sale of dwelling units with exceptions for single-family homes (as long as the owner does not own more than three single-family homes) and dwellings with up to four units where one is owner-occupied. Discrimination based on the following characteristics is prohibited under the act: Race Color Religion—The statute provides an exemption for religious organizations to rent or sell property they own or operate to members of the same religion (as long as membership is not restricted based on race, color, or national origin). National origin Sex—Courts have found discrimination based on sex to include sexual harassment, and HUD regulations establish standards for quid pro quo and hostile environment sexual harassment that violates the Fair Housing Act. However, sex does not expressly include sexual orientation. Note, however, that discrimination based on nonconformity with gender stereotypes may be covered by the Fair Housing Act as discrimination based on sex. For more information, see CRS Report 95-710, The Fair Housing Act (FHA): A Legal Overview , by David H. Carpenter. Familial status—The statute defines familial status to mean parents or others having custody of one or more children under age 18. Familial status discrimination does not apply to housing dedicated to older persons. Handicap —The statute defines handicap as having a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, having a record of such impairment, or being regarded as having such an impairment. Regulations provide lists of conditions that may constitute physical or mental impairments. Major life activities means "functions such as caring for one's self, performing manual tasks, walking, seeing, hearing, speaking, breathing, learning and working." Note that states and localities may have fair housing laws with broader protections than those encompassed in the federal Fair Housing Act, including such protected classes as age, sexual orientation, or source of income (prohibiting discrimination against those relying on government subsidies to pay for housing). The Fair Housing Act protects individuals in the covered classes from discrimination in a range of activities involving housing. Some of the specific types of activities that are prohibited include the following: Refusing to rent or sell, refusing to negotiate for a rental or sale, or otherwise making a dwelling unavailable based on protected class. Discriminating in the terms, conditions, or privileges of sale or rental or in the services and facilities provided in connection with a sale or rental. Making, printing, or publishing notices, statements, or advertisements that indicate preference, limitation, or discrimination in connection with a sale or rental based on protected class. Representing that a dwelling is not available for inspection, sale, or rental based on protected class. Inducing, for profit, someone to sell or rent based on the representation that members of a protected class are moving to the neighborhood (sometimes referred to as blockbusting). Refusing to allow reasonable modifications or reasonable accommodations for persons with a disability. Reasonable modifications involve physical changes to the property while reasonable accommodations involve changes in rules, policies, practices, or services to accommodate disabilities. Discriminating in "residential real estate related transactions," including the provision of loans and selling, brokering, or appraising property. Retaliating (i.e., coercing, intimidating, threatening, or interfering) against anyone attempting to exercise rights under the Fair Housing Act. HUD, together with state and local fair housing agencies and private fair housing organizations, investigates fair housing complaints. HUD receives complaints from individuals who believe they have been subject to discrimination or are about to experience discrimination. If the discrimination takes place in a state or locality with its own similar fair housing enforcement agency, sometimes referred to as a Fair Housing Assistance Program (FHAP) agency, HUD must refer the complaint to that agency. (See the " Fair Housing Assistance Program (FHAP) " section of this report for more information about state and local agencies.) In addition, if a complaint involves a challenge to zoning or land use laws, then HUD must refer the case to the Department of Justice (DOJ). HUD also refers complaints with possible criminal violations or patterns or practices of discrimination to DOJ. Once an individual has filed a complaint with HUD, or HUD has filed a complaint on its own initiative, a notice is served on the party alleged to have discriminated. That party, in turn, has the opportunity to file a response to the complaint. HUD investigates complaints to determine if there is reasonable cause to believe a discriminatory practice has occurred or is about to occur. While an investigation is ongoing, HUD may also engage in conciliation to try to reach an agreement between the parties. Conciliation requires voluntary participation of both parties. Relief can be sought both for the aggrieved party and for the public interest. If parties do not reach an agreement, then HUD determines whether there is reasonable cause to believe discrimination occurred or was about to occur. No Reasonable Cause: If HUD finds no reasonable cause to believe that discrimination occurred, then it dismisses the complaint. While not part of the statutory process, HUD may allow the person submitting the complaint to ask for reconsideration of the denial. Reasonable Cause: If HUD finds reasonable cause to believe that discrimination occurred, it issues a charge—a written statement of facts on which the determination of reasonable cause is based. Either party may request that the case be heard in court, but if neither party makes this election, then the case is heard before an administrative law judge. If the case goes to federal court, then HUD transfers the case to DOJ. Aggrieved parties may seek actual monetary damages. The law also allows an administrative law judge to impose a civil penalty "to vindicate the public interest" (amounts vary based on whether there have been previous infractions) and to order injunctive relief. If an individual withdraws a complaint, no longer cooperates, or cannot be reached for follow-up, then HUD closes the complaint as an administrative closure. In FY2016, there were 1,366 complaints filed with HUD. Of those, 2.5% led to HUD issuing a charge, 35.8% were settled through conciliation, and 37.7% resulted in a finding of no reasonable cause. The remainder of complaints either had an administrative closure (where complainants did not continue to pursue their complaints), were withdrawn with a resolution, or were referred to DOJ. For more information on complaints, see " HUD and FHAP Agency Complaint and Enforcement Data ." HUD oversees two programs that promote fair housing at the state and local level: the Fair Housing Assistance Program (FHAP) and the Fair Housing Initiatives Program (FHIP). FHAP funds state and local fair housing agencies, and FHIP funds eligible entities that largely include private nonprofit organizations. These recipients in turn supplement HUD's efforts to promote fair housing, detect discrimination, investigate complaints, and enforce the fair housing law. The following subsections describe FHAP and FHIP and provide funding levels for the programs. FHAP funds state and local agencies that HUD certifies as having their own laws, procedures, and remedies that are substantially equivalent to the federal Fair Housing Act.