For the purposes of this report, an air-rail connection refers to a connection between an airport terminal and an intercity passenger rail station (in other contexts, an air-rail connection may refer to a connection between an airport terminal and an intracity rail station that serves other forms of local rail, such as commuter rail or a subway system). An air-rail connection facilitates mobility between a rail station and an airport terminal through a variety of modes and methods, such as an airport shuttle, local transit connection, automated people mover or guideway car, or by walking. Depending on the extent of the connectivity, intercity passenger rail can perform three main roles for air passengers. First, intercity passenger rail may serve as a short-distance connection to the nearest local airport from a metropolitan area along a more extensive intercity rail corridor. Second, intercity passenger rail may serve as a competitive alternative to air travel. For example, for distances less than 500 miles, our prior work has shown that intercity passenger rail, particularly high-speed rail, offers some potential advantages over air travel, including reduced times for security screening and baggage checks. Third, intercity passenger rail can serve as part of an integrated intercity transportation solution with air travel, where the passenger travels significant distances using both modes. For these types of air- rail connections, travel may be further integrated by code-sharing, which refers to the practice of airlines applying their names and selling tickets to rail service operated by other organizations, such as Amtrak. Amtrak provides intercity passenger service to 46 states and the District of Columbia, operating over a 22,000-mile network, mainly using track owned by freight railroads. Amtrak owns about 655 miles of rail lines, primarily on the Northeast Corridor between Boston, Massachusetts, and Washington, D.C. Most of Amtrak’s passengers travel within the Northeast Corridor or over relatively short-distances, though Amtrak also operates a number of long distance routes across the country. The speed of service varies across the country. For example, according to Amtrak, its Heartland Flyer service connecting Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, and Fort Worth, Texas, averages about 50 miles per hour (mph) over the 206- mile corridor while its Acela Express higher-speed service averages less than 80 mph throughout the Northeast Corridor (reaching top speeds up to 150 mph). While Amtrak’s Acela Express service is currently the fastest intercity passenger rail service in the United States, California has begun developing a 520-mile high-speed rail line designed to operate at speeds up to 220 mph. Transportation projects at airports are typically initiated and developed by local transportation agencies, including some combination of state departments of transportation, local planning bodies, and other local agencies. While roles may vary, one or more state and local transportation agency will generally take the lead in project development and implementation. Airports typically are also heavily involved with developing intermodal capabilities on airport property. This is especially true if the project involves construction of a major intermodal facility. For example, the Miami International Airport, working in cooperation with the Florida Department of Transportation, has been one of the leaders in the development of the Miami Intermodal Center, which will provide on-site access to Amtrak, multiple other rail systems, local transit services, and a rental car center through the use of an automated people mover. Airlines also play a role in developing intermodal projects at airports. Use and lease agreements between airlines and airports are a major revenue source for most large airports, and because of this financial arrangement, airlines may have influence in or participate in airport decision making. The ability of airlines to participate in decision making depends on the specific airport and the structure of the lease agreements between the airport and airlines serving that airport. Amtrak generally becomes involved in the planning process at airports when a state or local government proposes a project that could potentially affect its intercity passenger rail service. An automated people mover is a guided transit mode with fully automated operation, featuring vehicles that operate on “guideways” with exclusive right-of-way, such as an automated monorail system. development. Additionally, FAA’s 2012 reauthorization legislation directs the Secretary of Transportation to encourage airport planners to consider passenger convenience, airport ground access, and access to airport facilities during the development of intermodal connections on airport property. Similarly, the Passenger Rail Investment and Improvement Act of 2008 (PRIIA) authorized development of high-speed intercity passenger rail corridors and the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (Recovery Act) appropriated $8 billion to fund development of these corridors and intercity passenger-rail projects. In June 2009, the Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) established the High-Speed Intercity Passenger Rail (HSIPR) program that provides discretionary grants for high-speed or intercity passenger rail projects. In allocating funds, PRIIA directed FRA to give greater consideration to projects that, among other things, encourage intermodal connectivity among train stations, airports, subways, transit, and other forms of transportation. However, federal policy for surface transportation, aviation, and passenger rail is established through separate legislation. For example, the planning and funding for highway and transit projects are addressed under the Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act,planning and funding of U.S. airports is addressed under the FAA Modernization and Reform Act of 2012, and the planning and funding for intercity passenger rail is addressed under PRIIA. While the federal government does not provide funding specifically for air- rail connections, it has established a number of other funding mechanisms that can be used to enhance elements of air-rail connectivity. (See app. III.) Most federal funding for transportation projects is provided through grant programs through the individual specific modal administration and reserved for improvements specific to that mode. For example, most direct federal financial support for airport capital projects has been provided through grants from FAA’s Airport Improvement Program (AIP). While AIP grants may be used to fund intermodal projects, an airport’s use of its funds is generally restricted to an airport project that is owned or operated by the airport sponsor and that is directly and substantially related to the air transportation of passengers or property. Airports have funded portions of light rail and transit (such as subway or bus) using AIP funds at airports meeting these restrictions. Funding for intercity passenger rail has been provided in the form of operating and capital subsidies to Amtrak, as well as the HSIPR grant program. Federal oversight of air-rail projects is primarily divided across DOT’s respective modal administrations, though DOT has established some practices to coordinate oversight of intermodal projects. For example, for an air-rail connection project, the aviation component is overseen by FAA, while the rail component is overseen by FRA. As another example, according to DOT, its Research and Innovative Technology Administration (RITA) works closely with DOT’s modal administrations to improve intermodal cooperation, solve transportation challenges that cut across modal boundaries, and remove barriers to intermodal projects In addition to these efforts, in 2012 through a variety of research efforts. DOT established a working group consisting of representatives from each modal administration to track intermodal initiatives and projects. The goal of the working group is to provide non-monetary resources such as recommendations of policies to promote intermodal transportation projects, including air-rail connectivity projects. RITA is responsible for coordinating, facilitating, and reviewing DOT’s programs and activities to identify research duplication and opportunities for joint efforts and to ensure that research, development, and technology activities are meeting intended goals. European Commission has periodically published a common transportation policy in response to increased ground and air congestion, as well as concerns about the dependence on oil and the level of carbon emissions resulting from the current transportation system. A key component of the European Commission’s transportation policy is improving the connections between air and rail, thereby transforming competition between those modes into complementary service using high-speed train connections located at European airports. The current European Commission transportation policy, adopted in 2011, aims to connect all 37 core airports to the rail network, preferably through high- speed rail, and shift a majority of medium-distance passenger transportation (which the European Commission defines as under 300 kilometers or 186 miles) to the passenger rail network by 2050. Beyond these policy differences, our prior work has also noted that differences related to population density, geography, and private automobile use have contributed to differences in the development and use of air-rail connections in Europe compared to the United States. This prior work has highlighted the greater population density of European cities and that downtowns are major destination points for passengers as key differences that affect the use of intermodal systems. While some U.S. cities have population densities comparable to European cities, in general, U.S. cities are more decentralized. Furthermore, distances between many major cities in the United States are generally greater than in Europe, which can affect the ability of intercity passenger rail to be competitive with air travel, depending on price and the speed of service. In addition, private automobile use has affected air-rail connections. Specifically, the rate of car ownership is generally higher in the United States compared to Europe, while at the same time, retail gasoline prices in the United States are much lower than in Europe because of substantially lower taxes. Furthermore, in the United States, surface transportation policy has primarily focused on developing and improving highways, while the transportation policy of European countries have placed a greater comparative emphasis on the development of intercity passenger rail and public transportation. Accordingly, people traveling to airports in the United States are more likely than in Europe to drive and park their cars at the airports, which could reduce the demand for (as well as the benefits of) intercity passenger rail connections at U.S. airports. Beyond Europe and the United States, the integration of air travel and intercity passenger rail varies.