Among the 1.4 million active duty servicemembers in fiscal year 2011, over half (57 percent) were married, according to DOD’s data. More than 90 percent of the spouses of active duty servicemembers were women. Recent studies have found that among those in the labor force, being a military spouse is correlated with a higher unemployment rate, compared to civilian spouses. In addition, among those employed, being a military spouse is correlated with a lower wage on average, relative to civilian spouses. Researchers have posited several possible reasons for this. First, military spouses tend to be a younger group than civilian spouses, as well as more likely to be caring for young children. As a result, a larger proportion of military spouses are more likely to be at the beginning of their careers compared to civilian spouses, and a larger proportion have childrearing responsibilities that may make obtaining or maintaining a job more challenging. Second, military spouses move more often than civilian spouses as a whole, which may make it more difficult to retain jobs and develop careers. Some have also speculated that employers may be less willing to hire military spouses than other populations, for example, if they are concerned that military spouses will relocate. Third, demanding work schedules for the servicemembers may mean that spouses bear a larger share of childrearing or other family responsibilities, particularly when servicemembers are deployed. One recent study controlled for many of these characteristics and found that they explained some, though not all, of the correlation between being a military spouse and having a higher unemployment rate and lower average wage, relative to civilian spouses. Recognizing the challenges that military spouses face in beginning or maintaining a career, DOD has historically had efforts to help military spouses obtain employment. The military services have operated employment assistance programs at military installations since the 1980s. While these programs serve spouses, they also serve many other populations in the military community, including dependent children, active duty servicemembers, active Reserve and National Guard members, DOD civilian personnel, servicemembers transitioning to civilian life, wounded warriors, and DOD retirees (see fig. 1). These programs assist in a variety of ways, including providing referrals to job openings, job fairs, one-on-one employment counseling, and workshops on resume writing, networking, entrepreneurship, and other topics. These programs are often located at military installations’ family centers, where a variety of “family readiness services” are provided. These services may include relocation assistance (e.g., providing information on housing, child care, and schooling options), non-medical counseling, financial education and counseling, deployment assistance (e.g., educating servicemembers and their families about challenges they may face and services to help them cope), services for family members with special needs, child abuse and domestic violence prevention and response, emergency family assistance, and transition assistance to help servicemembers separating from the military and their families to reenter the civilian workforce. Over the years, the Congress and the executive branch have sought to enhance the employment assistance provided to military spouses. In 2001, Congress directed DOD to examine its spouse employment programs and develop partnerships with private-sector firms to provide for improved job portability for spouses, among other things. A study we conducted in 2002 discussed a number of efforts DOD was making, including holding a “spouse employment summit” to identify needed actions, establishing partnerships with private-sector employers, and seeking the Department of Labor’s assistance to resolve issues with different state residency and licensing requirements for particular occupations. More recently, in 2008, Congress authorized DOD to establish programs to assist spouses of active duty servicemembers in obtaining the education and training required for a degree, credential, education prerequisites, or professional license that expands employment and portable career opportunities. Congress also authorized DOD to establish a pilot program to help military spouses secure internships at federal agencies by reimbursing agencies for the costs associated with the first year of employment of an eligible spouse. In 2011, the administration issued a report identifying commitments federal agencies made to help military spouses obtain employment. In that report, DOD committed to expanding an employer partnership program that the Army initiated in 2003 to the other military services, improving employment counseling, and providing financial assistance to help certain spouses obtain further education. Since 2009, DOD has established three programs targeted to military spouses to help them obtain employment: (1) the Military Spouse Career Advancement Accounts (MyCAA) tuition assistance program; (2) the Military Spouse Employment Partnership (MSEP), which connects military spouses with employers; and (3) the Military Spouse Career Center, consisting of a call center and a website through which spouses can obtain counseling and information. These three programs comprise DOD’s Spouse Education and Career Opportunities (SECO) initiative (see fig. 2). DOD has two goals for its SECO programs: (1) reduce unemployment among military spouses and (2) close their wage gap with civilian spouses. Military Spouse Career Advancement Accounts (MyCAA): DOD created the MyCAA program to help spouses obtain further education and training toward a portable career. To enroll in this program, spouses must identify the course of study they want to pursue, develop an educational plan, and apply to DOD for tuition assistance. The tuition funds must be used for education or training toward a portable career field, defined by DOD and the Department of Labor as a high-growth, high-demand career field that is likely to have job openings near military installations. Since its inception in 2009, there have been several changes to the program’s eligibility criteria and benefits. After a pilot period, DOD established that any spouse of an active duty servicemember could participate in the program and could receive up to $6,000 in tuition funds for any continuing education, including educational programs to obtain certificates and licenses, as well as bachelor’s and advanced degrees. Due to concerns about rising costs and enrollment requests, however, DOD (1) tightened the eligibility criteria to target the program to spouses of junior servicemembers, (2) reduced the benefit amount to $4,000, and (3) restricted the funds’ use to the attainment of certificates and licenses for portable careers, not for bachelor’s or advanced degrees. In our site visits and interviews with advocacy groups, some felt that the program should be expanded to allow spouses to obtain higher-level degrees or enable more spouses to use the program. DOD officials said that MyCAA’s revised criteria reflects the original intent of the program and ensures fiscal sustainability. In fiscal year 2011, DOD spent approximately $55 million on the MyCAA program; however, MyCAA’s expenditures have fluctuated as the program has changed. Specifically, DOD’s spending increased in the first 2 years after it was launched, and then declined 70 percent in its third year, after DOD changed the eligibility criteria, benefit amount, and types of training or educational programs for which the funds could be used (see appendix II for further information on MyCAA expenditures). According to a DOD official, approximately 125,000 spouses received MyCAA tuition assistance from October 2008 to May 2012. Military Spouse Employment Partnership (MSEP): DOD created MSEP in 2011 as an expansion of an Army program to connect spouses from all services to employment opportunities at Fortune 500 companies, nonprofits, and government agencies. Specifically, MSEP establishes partnerships with employers who pledge to offer spouses transferrable, portable career opportunities. Any spouse interested in working for these employers then registers for MSEP and accesses MSEP’s web-based portal. The MSEP portal allows spouses to search for job openings posted by participating employers, build their resume, and apply for jobs. Currently, MSEP is partnering with more than 125 companies, according to DOD. In fiscal year 2011, DOD spent $1.2 million on the MSEP program for the contractors that operate and enhance the web-based portal and work with employers (see appendix II for further information on MSEP expenditures). Military Spouse Career Center (the Career Center): The Career Center consists of a call center, through which spouses can speak with employment counselors, and a website with employment information. The counselors at the call center and the website provide assistance with spouses’ general employment needs, such as exploring career options, resume writing, interviewing, and job search. In addition, the Career Center helps spouses learn about and navigate DOD’s other spouse employment programs. For example, spouses interested in MyCAA may speak with a counselor at the Career Center to help them develop their education plan, which is a requirement for receiving MyCAA benefits. Until recently, the Career Center was part of DOD’s Military OneSource, which provides information and referral to services for servicemembers and their families. Information has not been available on the amount spent on the Career Center because expenditure data for the center was not separated from Military OneSource expenditures. DOD has recently separated the Career Center from Military OneSource. In addition to the three SECO programs, spouses can also receive employment assistance from the long-standing programs operated at military service installations. The services’ programs also provide counseling to spouses and information about DOD’s spouse employment programs, but they differ from the Career Center in that they are provided in-person. For example, some of the activities offered for spouses at installations we visited in the Washington, D.C. area include an annual spouse job fair, a dress-for-success workshop with stylists at a department store, and a spouse support group with guest speakers, such as MSEP representatives. DOD officials explained that they created the Career Center to supplement the services’ programs, which may not have been fully meeting the needs of all spouses.