International parental child abductions reported to the State Department have been increasing. The State Department reported that it received 1,135 new requests for assistance in international parental child abduction cases in fiscal year 2009, the most recent fiscal year with comparable data. The annual number of new requests received has increased each fiscal year since fiscal year 2000 (see fig. 1). According to literature we reviewed, such abductions can take an emotional toll on children—who can encounter serious psychological effects—and on the parent whose child has been abducted. Research shows that recovered children often experience a range of problems, including anxiety, eating problems, nightmares, mood swings, sleep disturbances, and aggressive behavior. Parents whose children have been abducted may encounter substantial psychological, emotional, and financial problems in fighting for the return of their children. When a child has been abducted across international borders, a parent may face an unfamiliar legal system, as well as significant cultural differences and linguistic barriers that can hinder a parent’s attempts to reunify with his or her child. Although we could not find definitive data on the extent to which parents and others have used airline flights to abduct children abroad, many international parental child abductions most likely involve airline flights. The State Department reported that, from fiscal year 2007 through 2009, it received 3,011 requests for assistance in returning 4,365 children to the United States from other countries. About 30 percent of these children were abducted to Mexico, while about 6 percent were abducted to Canada. The remaining 64 percent were abducted to other countries that do not share a border with the United States. The State Department and other organizations told us that an airline flight was likely the primary means of transportation for most abductions to these nonborder countries. Of the six nonborder countries that had the most child abductions, it is highly likely that an airline flight was used in many of these abductions (see fig. 2). Child custody and abduction issues have historically been addressed at the state and local level. State family courts determine child custody status, including issuing custody and court orders that can limit the travel of children. According to State Department officials, currently there is no nationwide database that captures information from custody and court orders. State and local law enforcement are generally tasked with enforcing the provisions of these custody and court orders. When a child is at risk of imminent abduction or harm, a judge may issue an order and direct law enforcement to take physical custody of a child. A court order can prohibit the removal of a child from the United States and that can allow a parent or law enforcement official to contact the airport authority police, who may assist in intercepting the abductor. However, enforcement of such orders is difficult, in part because of the lack of a nationwide database that maintains custody orders, and because the United States does not generally exercise exit controls on its borders that would prevent an adult U.S. citizen holding a valid passport from leaving the country with his or her child who also holds a valid passport. Generally, any citizen holding a valid passport may leave or enter the United States freely. According to a DOJ report on international child abductions, parents who fear that their children may be abducted can request a court order to have the other parent surrender his/her passport and the child’s passport to the court. Foreign governments, however, are not bound by U.S. custody orders and may issue passports to children who are their nationals. The lack of exit controls makes timing crucial in preventing international parental child abductions involving an airline flight. If a child has a valid passport, preventing an abduction on an international airline flight could be very difficult even if a parent has obtained a custody order barring such travel because that parent would not only need to involve law enforcement but do so with enough time to intercept the abducting parent and the child before they board an international flight. Once a parent reports a child as abducted, rapid communication and coordination among law enforcement, airport, and airline authorities are necessary to prevent a child from boarding an international flight. What can often happen in these cases, however, is that a parent does not know that another family member plans to board the child on an international flight, and thus may not contact law enforcement in time. For example, the American Bar Association led a survey of 97 left-behind parents that found that nearly half of the abductions reported by the left-behind parents occurred during a legal visitation between the abducting parent and abducted child. The left- behind parent was likely unaware of the other parent’s abduction intentions. As private sector entities, airlines in the United States do not have the authority to verify or enforce court and custody orders. Stakeholders we interviewed stated that the airline’s main role related to the prevention of international parental child abductions is cooperating upon request with law enforcement officials or prosecutors. For example, a few alleged abductions in progress have been intercepted when local court officials or law enforcement officers contacted airport police and airline personnel to prevent a suspected abducting parent and at-risk child from leaving on an international airline flight. Several airline stakeholders told us that law enforcement should take the main role in preventing international parental abductions, but that airlines work to support the law enforcement agencies in this role. While airlines may not be in a position to question the appropriateness of a child and adult traveling together, airlines have procedures in place for children traveling alone internationally or domestically. Although policies and procedures can vary by airline, most domestic airlines will permit children who have reached their fifth birthday to travel unaccompanied. Children aged 5 through 11 who are flying alone must usually travel pursuant to special “unaccompanied minor” procedures, which involve an additional fee. On many domestic carriers, children aged 5 through 7 may only fly unaccompanied on nonstop and through flights; children 8 and over may take connecting flights unaccompanied. As a common procedure for unaccompanied minors, airlines require the names and contact numbers of the persons dropping the child off and picking the child up. The person picking up the child may be asked to show his or her identification. However, because airlines do not have authority to verify court or custody orders, the unaccompanied minor procedures would not include checking the parentage or legal guardianship status of any of those persons dropping off or picking up children traveling unaccompanied. Once a child has reached the age of 12 (or 15 on some airlines), most domestic carriers do not apply “unaccompanied minor” procedures or seek parental permission for the child to travel. Airlines may apply some additional procedures for unaccompanied minors traveling internationally; for example, some airlines automatically apply the unaccompanied minor procedures to children through age 17 for international travel. For certain international destinations, airlines can request that children traveling with only one parent have a letter of consent from the nonaccompanying parent to help passengers meet the entry requirements of the country of destination. For example, according to the State Department, Mexico and Chile require that children entering or departing those countries by airline flight without both parents have such a letter of consent. As such, the airlines in our study reported instructing passengers to be ready with such documentation if traveling with children to countries that may have such requirements. Representatives of the Air Transport Association told us that any airline flying to these countries may be forced to provide the passengers with a free trip back to the United States for accepting children onto their flight without having documentation showing that both parents or guardians consented to the international travel. We discuss this parental-consent letter requirement in more detail later in our report. The State Department has preventative measures that are focused outside of the airport environment, before a suspected abductor reaches an airport with a child, while DHS’s measures focus on preventing child abductions once an abductor reaches an airport with a child. Figure 3 illustrates these measures, which are described in greater detail in the next section. The State Department has a signature requirement and a passport issuance alert program in place to directly address international parental child abductions. A law passed in 1999 requires both parents to execute and provide documentary evidence of custodial rights on any application for a passport for a minor. If this cannot be done, a parent can take certain steps, in accordance with the law, to execute the passport application, such as by providing documentary evidence that he or she has sole custody of the child, has the documented consent of the other parent to the issuance of the passport, or is acting in place of the parents and has the documented consent of both parents. The State Department also administers the Children’s Passport Issuance Alert Program, a service through which a parent can request State Department notification if a passport application is submitted for his or her child of less than 18 years of age. State Department officials told us that if a passport application is received for a child listed in the alert program, State Department officials would contact the parent who requested the alert notice to see if the parent’s concern still exists before determining whether to issue the passport. The issuance alert program enhances prevention opportunities since there are exceptions to the two- parent signature requirement. State Department officials told us that about 42,000 children are currently registered in the program and that the program’s database includes information such as name, date, and place of birth for each child. Before adding a child to this alert system and adding the parent as the person to alert, State Department officials verify the relationship between the parent and the child through documentation such as the birth certificate, custody orders, and other identifying documentation. State Department officials noted that, even if a parent requesting an issuance alert loses custody of the child after the child has been entered into the alert system, the State Department would still notify a parent if the other parent or another person applies for that child’s passport.