Human factors is a discipline concerned with, among other things, designing products that are efficient for people to use. As such, human factors combines features of many disciplines, including psychology, engineering, anthropology, sociology, and linguistics. Human factors R&D focuses on people as they interact with the design of products. The goal of human factors is to minimize the potential for design-induced error by ensuring that the equipment is suitable for the users and their environment. The human factors discipline can be described as having two components: human factors research, which seeks to acquire information, and human factors engineering, which seeks to apply the information gained from research to equipment, systems, software, and training, among other things. Recognizing the importance of human factors considerations, FAA issued a Human Factors Policy Order in 1993 that requires human factors issues to be integrated into the planning and execution of all FAA activities associated with system acquisitions and operations. FAA offers several guidance documents on implementing human factors considerations, which, FAA officials told us, helped aviation stakeholders, such as contractors and research institutions, meet the requirement. For example, officials with the MITRE Corporation told us that—in collaboration with FAA, airlines, and others—they researched human factors issues in the development of the Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast System, which is an information-reporting technology that, when used in conjunction with other navigation technologies, is expected to enable more precise information about aircraft position. MITRE collected human factors data on how pilots use the broadcast system, collaborated with human factors engineers, and asked human factors personnel to observe pilots’ in-flight interaction with the system while it was being tested. FAA has several offices that are tasked with ensuring that FAA programs integrate human factors issues. FAA’s Human Factors Research and Engineering Group (HFREG) is responsible for conducting the human factors R&D for NextGen, with the program director serving as the principal advisor to the FAA Administrator on human factors issues. HFREG is divided into three R&D areas: (1) Flight Deck/Aviation Maintenance/System Integration, which develops human performance information that the agency uses in fulfilling its regulatory responsibility and provides to the aviation industry for use in designing and operating aircraft and training pilots and maintenance personnel; (2) Air Traffic Control/Technical Operations, which researches human factors issues with respect to the roles of air traffic controllers, air traffic managers, and maintenance technicians; and (3) general Human Factors Research and Engineering, which attempts to ensure that the incorporation of human factors engineering is explicit, timely, systematic, comprehensive, efficient, and effective. In fiscal year 2009, HFREG conducted dozens of R&D activities including the following: Mitigating fatigue in flight operations. Collecting data on fatigue variables (such as sleep patterns, alertness, and mood) to develop better fatigue-mitigating duty and rest schedules, and outline limits of acceptable performance and flight safety. Improving pilots’ visual approaches through perceptual training. Investigating the skills pilots need in order to effectively conduct a visual approach, and developing training and performance metrics that will improve training and evaluation of pilots on visual approach tasks. Assessing safety risks. Calculating the safety risks of an error occurring in relation to the amount of time a controller spends on a task. In addition, FAA has assigned human factors experts to several offices involved in the development of new systems and in the oversight of aircraft operation and maintenance in order to ensure that human factors issues are addressed. FAA has established chief systems engineers to focus on agencywide, cross-cutting technical and operational issues pertaining to NextGen. Because of the scope of NextGen, FAA contracted with Volpe to provide a chief system engineer for human factors to identify and help the agency better ensure that human factors issues are integrated into the development of NextGen aviation systems. As a result of the observations and recommendations of that Volpe expert, FAA has designated a new position for human factors integration lead and assigned that position to FAA’s System Engineering and Safety organization. NASA has two units primarily responsible for ensuring human factors consideration in aviation: the Airspace Systems Program and the Aviation Safety Program, both within its Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate. The Airspace Systems Program is the unit chiefly responsible for NASA’s input into NextGen. The primary research role for the Airspace Systems Program is to contribute to the operations of the airspace system by developing concepts, capabilities, and technologies for high-capacity, efficient, and safe airspace systems. The Aviation Safety Program is dedicated to improving the safety of current and future aircraft operating in the national airspace system. The research focus is on the way aircraft are designed, built, operated, and maintained. Scientists and engineers in this program develop concepts and tools to address aircraft aging and durability, among other areas. FAA and NASA have each invested about $121 million in human factors R&D from fiscal year 2004 to fiscal year 2009 (see fig. 1). Starting in fiscal year 2005, NASA adjusted the size of its human factors research staff by reassigning some staff to other programs and reducing the contractor and academic technical support for human factors R&D. NASA reorganized its aeronautical research plan to focus on what it calls “fundamental research,” which takes a technology to a point where it can be further matured by manufacturers and eventually integrated into new aircraft or engine designs. FAA’s investment in human factors R&D is increasing, along with additional appropriations for overall research development, though overall R&D appears to be increasing at a higher rate (see fig. 2). NASA takes the lead in both identifying human factors concepts that need to be implemented to support a particular technology or system and developing the human factors engineering models and algorithms. NASA then works with FAA on testing the new concept and hands off the responsibility to FAA to make the concept operational. NASA officials told us that it generally takes a concept 5 to 7 years to become operational after NASA transfers responsibility to FAA. Furthermore, in June 2010, NASA officials informed us of a new Integrated Systems Research Program that is to focus on maturing and integrating NextGen technologies into operational systems. The program began in fiscal year 2010 at a funding level of $62.4 million. NextGen is a major transformation of the aviation system that will have significant implications for human factors considerations. NextGen will transform aviation procedures and the design of the aviation system and introduce new technologies that pose dramatic changes to the roles and responsibilities of both air traffic controllers and pilots and change the way they interface with their systems. According to FAA, under NextGen, a satellite-based system would guide all phases of a flight, including climb, cruise, descent, and taxi. Instead of monitoring aircraft movements using ground-based radar and transmitting voice flight instructions to aircraft, air traffic controllers would primarily monitor automated systems and intervene when anomalies and emergencies occur. As a result, FAA and NASA need to research the human factors considerations associated with the new roles of both flight crew and air traffic management staff, and incorporate the results into the implementation of the new system. In addition, FAA and NASA will have to identify and develop the training necessary for these changing roles, including the time frame before NextGen is fully realized, when some aircraft will be equipped with NextGen systems and others will not. FAA and NASA structure their NextGen human factors R&D according to a planned three-phase implementation of the NextGen system to align and prevent duplication of NextGen R&D efforts. FAA—which is ultimately in charge of implementing NextGen—is mainly responsible for the R&D to help address near-term implementation (2009-2013), which addresses the day-to-day promotion of the safe and efficient operation of the current aviation system and the implementation of some NextGen systems, and midterm implementation (2012-2018), which consists of leveraging existing aircraft capabilities and introducing new aircraft capabilities to establish a foundation for a longer-term evolution of the aviation system. Within FAA, the Air Traffic Organization is responsible for implementing near- and midterm improvements in coordination with other FAA lines of business. Within the Air Traffic Organization, several offices have different roles in the development of NextGen. For example, within the NextGen and Operations Planning Office, the NextGen Integration and Implementation (NGII) office is tasked with monitoring the progress of NextGen development and implementation and facilitating necessary coordination. These offices are also responsible for ensuring that human factors R&D conducted by HFREG is integrated into NextGen. NASA is responsible for conducting research to help address far-term implementation (2018-2025). As researchers better define system concepts, NASA officials inform FAA officials about research results and FAA officials then use the results to further develop the system. Figure 3 shows the key FAA and NASA organizations involved in human factors activities. FAA and NASA officials take advantage of a number of existing mechanisms to coordinate their human factors R&D efforts. First, they use the Research, Engineering, and Development Advisory Committee (REDAC), which advises on FAA’s research, engineering, and development activities with experts from industry, academia, and other government agencies. REDAC was established in 1989 to advise the FAA Administrator on research and development needs in human factors, air traffic services, airport technology, aircraft safety, and environmental issues. According to officials from both agencies, their collaboration on REDAC helps to coordinate human factors R&D efforts. One of the REDAC subcommittees is devoted to human factors, and according to officials with HFREG and NGII, has provided important perspectives on research management and coordination among agencies, including human factors R&D. Several REDAC subcommittees have held meetings at NASA to facilitate its participation and ensure that REDAC is briefed on relevant NASA human factors projects as well as FAA’s human factors R&D efforts. NASA officials also use REDAC to brief FAA officials on their human factors R&D efforts as well.