Over the past decade, Congress has substantially increased Department of State and Department of Defense (DOD) efforts to train, equip, and otherwise engage with foreign military and other security forces. As these efforts have increased, congressional questions and concerns have multiplied. Such concerns range from broad to specific—for example, the perceived lack of an overarching strategy for such assistance or, more specifically, the utility of the current legal framework, appropriate State Department and DOD roles and modes of coordination, and program effectiveness. The legal and institutional framework through which the State and Defense departments share responsibility for providing such assistance has evolved over time, creating what some have labeled a complex and confusing "patchwork" of authorities and arrangements. For most of the past half-century, Congress has authorized such assistance programs under Title 22 of the U.S. Code (Foreign Relations), specifically the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, as amended (1961 FAA, P.L. 87-195), and the Arms Export Control Act, as amended (AECA, P.L. 90-629), and appropriated the bulk of funds to State Department accounts. A DOD agency has administered those funds under the Secretary of State's direction and oversight. After the attacks on the United States of September 11, 2001 (9/11), policymakers have increasingly come to view the United States as facing new military threats and challenges to which the State Department authorities could not appropriately respond. As a result, Congress has increasingly provided DOD with the means to provide such assistance under its own Title 10 U.S. Code (Armed Services) and the annual National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) authority and funding under the DOD budget. As U.S. assistance to foreign forces has risen, and increasingly been provided under DOD budgets, some policymakers have questioned the utility of such aid, as well as the efficacy of the legal and institutional framework under which it is provided. Current State and DOD security assistance and engagement efforts involve a range of activities, including "traditional" programs transferring conventional arms for defense posture purposes, training and equipping regular and irregular forces for combat, conducting counterterrorism programs, and expanding education and training programs. Obama Administration officials have argued that such efforts are cost-effective in the long run, potentially generating considerable savings in U.S. defense costs. Some policymakers, however, look at the mixed record of success and question whether the expenditure of billions of dollars on such programs is justified. Some wonder whether reforming such programs may improve results. This report provides an overview of U.S. assistance to and engagement with foreign military and other security forces. It focuses on various aspects of the respective State Department and DOD roles, particularly their broad "shared responsibility" for security assistance. It includes information on the historical evolution and current status of State Department and DOD responsibilities, an overview of current State Department, DOD, and joint State-DOD authorities, and a discussion of key oversight questions. In the issues section, the report identifies certain questions Congress may wish to raise: How should security assistance/cooperation effectiveness be assessed? Should the current statutory and institutional framework be modified or changed? Are agencies provided sufficient resources to carry out their institutional roles? How might congressional oversight and public transparency be improved? Two concepts merit emphasizing as they are key to understanding the legal and institutional framework governing U.S. assistance (i.e., weapons, supplies, training, and other support) to and engagement with foreign military and other security forces: U.S. assistance to and engagement with foreign forces is often a shared responsibility among two or more U.S. government agencies, principally between the State Department and DOD, but also with others. U.S. assistance to and engagement with foreign forces serves multiple purposes. Several terms are often related to such assistance and engagement, but no standard government-wide terminology exists. This section briefly discusses those concepts and terms. For a fuller listing of terms and definitions, see Appendix A . Foreign military and other security assistance is a shared responsibility across the U.S. government. Although the State Department and DOD are the major players, other U.S. agencies also contribute to U.S. security assistance efforts, including the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), the Departments of Energy (DOE), Homeland Security (DHS), Justice, and Treasury, along with members of the intelligence community. Conducting foreign relations is the State Department's responsibility, and the Secretary of State, as the President's primary foreign policy advisor, contributes to the development of the President's foreign policy and ensures its coherent implementation. Defending the country against foreign threats is the DOD's core mission. The State Department-DOD shared responsibility is a result of the overlap in these functions when assisting foreign militaries and other security forces for the mutual benefit of a foreign government and the United States. The United States has long recognized that it may at times be required to act alone to deter or combat threats. Nevertheless, since the end of World War II, policymakers have asserted that U.S. long-term security also requires cultivating foreign governments as allies to counter potential mutual enemies (or the enemies that threaten U.S. allies). The State Department-DOD shared responsibility arises from the many decisions that must be made in providing allies' and partners' militaries and other security forces with the equipment and training necessary to combat those enemies. Determining what equipment and training a foreign government needs and can effectively utilize requires military expertise. Determining how the provision of that equipment will affect relations with a foreign government and its people (as well as the governments of neighboring countries) and regional/international balances of power requires diplomatic skills and international affairs expertise. Determining whether a country's economy can absorb the cost of maintaining adequate military forces, and acquiring and maintaining military equipment, is a judgment for economists and development specialists. In recent years, some policymakers and analysts have expressed concern over what they identify as a growing imbalance between the departments with the growing DOD role, leading to the "militarization" of U.S. foreign policy. Some contend that this trend stems from the substantial advantages of DOD personnel resources and Congress's provision of a growing number of new authorities to conduct security assistance missions. On the other hand, others perceive that weaknesses in the State Department's planning and implementation culture, limited personnel, and insufficient resources have compelled DOD to seek its own authorities and greater resources. Foreign military and other security assistance serves multiple purposes, both for the U.S. government and for recipient governments. As expressed in many documents since the immediate post-World War II period, foreign military assistance has been viewed as a means to foster international stability. U.S. security can be enhanced by spreading the burden for mutual defense, and by helping other governments deter or combat external aggression or internal subversion by countries or forces that may pose long-term risks to the United States. For the U.S. government, foreign military aid may also be a diplomatic asset. Such assistance may be used to cultivate goodwill and, in some cases, to persuade foreign governments to take positions or measures that the United States believes beneficial to its own and allied interests, or to express support for such actions. In addition, DOD uses foreign military and other security assistance as a tool to develop institutional ties with foreign militaries, cultivating relations that may be useful in dealing with future crises and fighting together in future conflicts. "Building partner capacity" through security assistance has been highlighted in recent defense strategy and guidance as a key component of defense planning and a significant means of decreasing DOD budgets in the long run. On the receiving end, the governments, military and security forces, and populations of recipient countries may incur both benefits and costs from such assistance. Foreign governments and militaries may use such aid to help them deter or actively counter aggression from other states. At times, foreign governments may use such aid to help battle or suppress domestic foes. In some cases, however, this aid may, from a U.S. perspective, upset the political balance within a country, enabling powerful militaries to unduly influence, pressure, or oust fledgling democratic governments or to suppress democratic opposition or movements in ways that may include, on some occasions, the violation of human rights. Moreover, maintaining or sustaining military and security forces may harm a country's economic prospects by diverting scarce funds from economic development to military purposes. Although U.S. military assistance is potentially beneficial, unless it is carefully calibrated and monitored, such assistance may have unintended consequences affecting U.S. interests in and relations with a recipient country, as well as the surrounding region. The discussion of U.S. assistance to foreign military and other security forces is complicated by the lack of a standard and adequate terminology. "Military assistance," "security assistance," "security cooperation," "security sector assistance," "security force assistance," and "defense articles and services" are all terms used in connection with the supply of weapons, equipment, supplies, and training to such forces and, in some cases, engagement with them. Some of these terms are defined by policy documents or in law (see Appendix A ). Some authorities are labeled with two more informal terms—"build partner capacity" or "train and equip"—which are used in the discussion of specific authorities below. The two terms most commonly used today for assistance to foreign military and security forces are "security assistance" and "security cooperation." Security assistance is the term most frequently used, regardless of the agency providing that assistance. There is no State Department definition for security assistance. The annual State Department congressional budget justification (CBJ), however, lists six budget accounts under the heading "International Security Assistance." These accounts, with their underlying Title 22 authorities (the 1961 FAA and the AECA), are commonly regarded as the State Department's security assistance portfolio.