Ownership and use of federal lands have stirred controversy for decades. Conflicting public values concerning federal lands raise many questions and issues: how much land the federal government should own, how managers should balance conflicting uses (e.g., grazing, timber, habitat, recreation), whether Congress should designate specially protected areas, and when and how agencies should collect and distribute fees for land and resource uses. Congress continues to examine these questions—particularly in assessing the various uses that might be made of the federal lands—through legislative proposals, program oversight, and annual appropriations for the four major federal land management agencies—the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), National Park Service, and Fish and Wildlife Service in the Department of the Interior, and the Forest Service in the Department of Agriculture. This report provides an overview of how federal lands and resources are managed, the agencies that administer the lands, and the authorities under which these agencies operate. The report is divided into nine sections: Introduction—a brief historical review and general background on the federal lands. Federal Lands Financing—revenues derived from activities on federal lands; the appropriations processes and the trust funds and special accounts that fund these agencies; federal land acquisition funding, especially from the Land and Water Conservation Fund; and programs that compensate state and local governments for the tax-exempt status of federal lands. One section for each of the four major federal land management agencies—the Forest Service in the Department of Agriculture and the Bureau of Land Management (BLM), National Park Service, and Fish and Wildlife Service in the Department of the Interior—history; organizational structure; management responsibilities; procedures for land acquisition, disposal, and designation, where relevant; and statutory authorities. One section for each of the three major protection systems that are administered by more than one agency—the National Wilderness Preservation System, the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System, and the National Trails System. In addition, two appendixes list acronyms used in the text and define selected terms used in the report. Many other CRS reports on issues covered here are available on the CRS website at http://www.crs.gov/ . The federal government owns and manages approximately 650 million acres of land in the United States—about 29% of the total land base of 2.27 billion acres. Table 1 provides data on the acreage of federal land administered by the four federal land management agencies in each state and the District of Columbia. The figures understate total federal land, since they do not include lands administered by the Department of Defense or other federal agencies; it should be recognized that these other federal lands are not uniformly distributed among the states, and that Table 1 thus understates total federal land by more in states with extensive military bases or other federal lands (e.g., Arizona, Florida, and Nevada). Table 1 also identifies the total size of each state, and the percentage of land in each state administered by the four federal land management agencies. These percentages point to significant variation in the federal presence within states. The figures range from 0.2% of land in Connecticut to 80.8% of land in Nevada. While fourteen states contain less than ½ million acres of land administered by the four federal land management agencies, another dozen have more than 10 million acres managed by these agencies within their borders. All 12 states where the federal government owns the most land are located in the West (including Alaska). This is a result of early treaties and land settlement laws and patterns. Management of these lands is often controversial, especially in states where the federal government is a predominant or majority landholder and where competing and conflicting uses of the lands are at issue. The nation's lands and resources have been important in American history, adding to the strength and stature of the federal government, serving as an attraction and opportunity for settlement and economic development, and providing a source of revenue for schools, transportation, national defense, and other national, state, and local needs. The formation of our current federal government was particularly influenced by the struggle for control over what were known as the "western" lands—the lands between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River claimed by the original colonies. Prototypical land laws enacted by the Continental Congress, such as the Land Ordinance of 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, established the federal system of rectangular land surveying for disposal and set up a system for developing territorial governments leading to statehood. During operation of the Articles of Confederation, the states that then owned the western lands were reluctant to cede them to the developing new government, but eventually acquiesced. This, together with granting constitutional powers to the new federal government, including the authority to regulate federal property and to create new states, played a crucial role in transforming the weak central government under the Articles of Confederation into a stronger, centralized federal government under the U.S. Constitution. The new Congress, which first met in 1789, enacted land statutes similar to those enacted by the Continental Congress. Subsequent federal land laws reflected two visions: reserving some federal lands (such as for national forests and national parks) and selling or otherwise disposing of other lands to raise money or to encourage transportation, development, and settlement. From the earliest days, these policy clashes took on East/West overtones, with easterners more likely to view the lands as national public property, and westerners more likely to view the lands as necessary for local use and development. Most agreed, however, on measures that promoted settlement of the lands to pay soldiers, to reduce the national debt, and to strengthen the nation. This settlement trend accelerated with federal acquisition of additional territory through the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, the Oregon Compromise with England in 1846, and cession of lands by treaty after the Mexican war in 1848. During the mid- to late 1800s, Congress enacted numerous laws to encourage and accelerate the settlement of the West by disposing of federal lands. Examples include the Homestead Act of 1862 and the Desert Lands Entry Act of 1877. Approximately 816 million acres of the public domain lands were transferred to private ownership between 1781 and 2007. Another 328 million acres were granted to the states generally, and an additional 134 million were granted in Alaska under state and native selection laws. Most transfers to private ownership (97%) occurred before 1940; homestead entries, for example, peaked in 1910 at 18.3 million acres but dropped below 200,000 acres annually after 1935, until being totally eliminated in 1986. Certain other federal laws were "catch up" laws designed to legitimize certain uses that already were occurring on the federal lands. These laws typically acknowledged local variations and customs. For example, the General Mining Law of 1872 recognized mineral claims on the public domain lands in accordance with local laws and customs, and provided for the conveyance of title to such lands. In addition, early land disposal laws allowed states to determine the rights of settlers to use and control water. The courts later determined, however, that the federal government could also reserve or create federal water rights for its own properties and purposes. Although some earlier laws had protected some lands and resources, such as salt deposits and certain timber for military use, other laws in the late 1800s reflected the growing concern that rapid development threatened some of the scenic treasures of the nation, as well as resources that would be needed for future use. A preservation and conservation movement evolved to ensure that certain lands and resources were left untouched or reserved for future use. For example, Yellowstone National Park was established in 1872 to preserve its resources in a natural condition, and to dedicate recreation opportunities for the public. It was the world's first national park, and like the other early parks, Yellowstone was protected by the U.S. Army—primarily from poachers of wildlife or timber. In 1891, concern over the effects of timber harvests on water supplies and downstream flooding led to the creation of forest reserves (renamed national forests in 1907). The creation of national parks and forest reserves laid the foundation for the current development of federal agencies with primary purposes of managing natural resources on federal lands. For example, in 1905, responsibility for management of the forest reserves was joined with forestry research and assistance in a new Forest Service within the Department of Agriculture. The National Park Service was created in 1916 to manage the growing number of parks established by Congress and monuments proclaimed by the President. The first national wildlife refuge was proclaimed in 1903, although it was not until 1966 that the refuges coalesced into the National Wildlife Refuge System. The Grazing Service (Department of the Interior, first known as the Grazing Division) was established in 1934 to administer grazing on public rangelands. It was combined with the General Land Office in 1946 to form the Bureau of Land Management (BLM). In addition to the conservation laws and activities noted above, emphasis shifted during the 20 th century from the disposal and conveyance of title to private citizens to the retention and management of the remaining federal lands. During debates on the Taylor Grazing Act, some western Members of Congress acknowledged the poor prospects for relinquishing federal lands to the states, but language included in the act left disposal as a possibility. It was not until the enactment of the Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976 (FLPMA) that Congress expressly declared that the remaining public domain lands generally would remain in federal ownership. This declaration of policy was a significant factor in what became known as the Sagebrush Rebellion, an effort that started in the late 1970s to provide state or local control over federal land and management decisions. To date, judicial challenges and legislative and executive attempts to make significant changes to federal ownership have proven unsuccessful. Current authorities for acquiring and disposing of federal lands are unique to each agency, and are described in subsequent chapters of this report. Since the cession to the federal government of the western lands of several of the original 13 colonies, many issues and conflicts have recurred.