The U.N. Security Council authorizes all peacekeeping operations as a means to further international peace and security. The U.N. Department of Peacekeeping Operations (DPKO) is responsible for the planning, management, and logistical support of U.N. peacekeeping operations worldwide. From 1948 through August 2003, the Security Council authorized 56 peacekeeping operations. Fourteen of these operations were ongoing as of August 2003. Most current U.N. peacekeeping operations have relatively narrow mandates that authorize peacekeepers to monitor or supervise cease-fires and peace agreements between formerly warring parties. Three ongoing operations—those in East Timor, Sierra Leone, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo—have broader, multidimensional mandates that address complex emergencies. Earlier multidimensional peacekeeping operations in Somalia, Cambodia, and Bosnia tried to address governance, human rights, and humanitarian affairs, but they initially lacked long-term transition strategies. For example, the peace operation in Somalia did not clearly link security with efforts to rebuild the country. In Bosnia, a coalition of nations led by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization formed an international force to provide security, which was initially planned to last 1 year. But 2 years later, troop withdrawal was linked to the achievement of broad objectives for the overall peace operation. In Cambodia, there was no clear plan for effectively developing the rule of law after the peacekeeping operation left. The Security Council recognized the shortcomings in these operations and began to consider better strategies to plan and manage operations for sustainable peace. In 1999, the need to address such shortcomings gained greater urgency as the Security Council mandated new U.N. operations to address complex emergencies in Sierra Leone, East Timor, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. (App. III describes in more detail the crisis each of these countries faced and the United Nations’ response.) The council debated the need for a new approach to planning, conducting, and concluding multidimensional peacekeeping operations in countries with complex emergencies. The council examined the lessons learned from these past failures and the process for closing a peacekeeping operation. In 2000, the council requested that the Secretary General make recommendations about how to effectively launch, close, or significantly alter a U.N. peacekeeping operation. Figure 1 provides more information on each country and the U.N. operation there. Since the late 1990s, the United Nations has developed a general strategy for peacekeeping transitions in complex emergency countries. The U.N. strategy consists of three elements: establishing the conditions for sustainable peace, including security, rule of law, and economic and social reform; coordinating and sustaining the efforts of international organizations and developing objectives and results-oriented measures of progress to manage the peace operation and make troop withdrawal decisions. The Security Council has stated that it is supportive of this strategy but also notes that it decides whether to authorize the troops and resources needed to carry it out on a case-by-case basis. The U.N. Secretariat, particularly DPKO, has strengthened its planning and management to help implement this strategy. In 2001, the U.N. Secretary General stated that the ultimate purpose of peacekeeping is to help countries achieve sustainable peace. To do this, the U.N. transition strategy for complex emergency countries guides the United Nations, other international organizations, and donor countries to (1) establish and maintain security, (2) develop institutions that provide rule of law and participatory governance, and (3) create conditions for economic and social recovery and reform. Establishing and maintaining security are priorities for U.N. peacekeeping operations. However, when armed interventions have been necessary, the United Nations generally has authorized alliances—such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization—or coalitions of nations to undertake military operations to restore security. U.N. peacekeepers then have responsibility for maintaining secure conditions so that other aspects of the peace operation, including humanitarian efforts, can move forward. In the longer term, maintaining security may include demobilizing and reintegrating ex-combatants into society, training a fair and impartial police force, and building a professional army that is accountable to the national government. The transition strategy emphasizes that sustainable peace is most likely if the country establishes rule of law and participatory governance. To support this, the peacekeeping operation and many other partners undertake programs to reform a country’s justice system so that it is fair, transparent, and equitable. Other activities include strengthening or building government institutions to ensure transparency, equal access, and accountability to all citizens. Other efforts, when authorized by the Security Council, may include supporting broad-based political parties, overseeing or administering free and fair elections, and supporting efforts to combat corruption. Creating the conditions for economic and social recovery and reform is also important in the transition strategy. Efforts to create these conditions include reconstruction of infrastructure and utilities and activities to promote national reconciliation and human rights, such as supporting war crimes tribunals or truth and reconciliation panels. Other efforts in this area include support for resettlement of refugees and displaced persons. Several studies have similarly found that the earlier operations did not focus on obtaining comprehensive results needed for sustainable peace. For example, a Department of Defense-sponsored study determined that past failures in restoring peace were highly correlated with the failure to restore public security, political rights, and honest government and with the facilitation of economic reconstruction. A 2002 guide developed as a tool for U.S. policy makers reached similar conclusions. The guide noted that a peacekeeping operation must undertake a range of military and political tasks to achieve a sustainable outcome in a complex emergency situation. These tasks include demobilizing armed groups, reforming the police, establishing rule of law, and rehabilitating the economy. The guide concludes that assessment of progress toward restoring stability in the country should identify measures to be relied upon (such as disarming ex- combatants or holding elections) and/or transforming conditions on the ground (such as reducing the level of violence in the country and increasing confidence in elected officials). Our observations on lessons learned from our survey of 32 previous reports on peacekeeping operations in 16 countries came to similar conclusions about the need for comprehensive transition planning in complex emergency situations. The Security Council recognized the shortcomings in the earlier missions and began to consider better strategies to plan and manage operations for sustainable peace. In February 2001, the Security Council endorsed this broad approach for effective transitions. The council stated that achieving a sustainable peace requires a comprehensive approach that includes political, humanitarian, and human rights programs to foster sustainable development, eradication of poverty, and transparent and accountable government and rule of law. However, the council qualified this endorsement by noting that it decides on a case-by-case basis the extent to which to authorize the troops, funding, and other resources needed to carry out these activities. The transition strategy recognizes that U.N. peacekeeping operations cannot undertake all transition activities. Thus, transition efforts must be closely coordinated among U.N. peacekeeping offices; U.N. development, humanitarian, and human rights agencies; international financial institutions; bilateral agencies; host nation governments; and nongovernmental organizations. The Secretary General has observed that peacekeepers should establish close working relationships with these other stakeholders and begin transition planning during the operation’s earliest stages. The Security Council has also strongly encouraged cooperation among all stakeholders to monitor and develop an integrated response to the specific conditions in each country. As part of the transition strategy, other international organizations and individual donor countries are expected to lead some efforts. For example, the host government; international financial institutions, such as the World Bank; and bilateral development agencies have responsibility for economic recovery. These stakeholders continue efforts after the peace operation ends. The U.N. transition strategy also calls for developing objectives, linked to the country conditions sought, and measures of progress toward achieving those conditions. The objectives and results-oriented measures are intended to help manage the peace operation and help make decisions about drawing down the numbers of peacekeepers based on objective data. The emphasis on using objectives and results-oriented measures is part of the U.N. decision to implement results-based budgeting. Approved by the General Assembly in 2000, results-based budgeting links program objectives, outputs (the final product or service delivered to the client or users), outcomes (the results of a program compared with its intended purpose), and measures of impact (the result from achieving the program’s objectives). According to the Secretary General, this approach is intended to ensure that U.N. programs are designed to achieve results and to ensure that the United Nations can measure performance. The U.N. Secretariat has begun to reform its planning and management capabilities to more effectively carry out peacekeeping operations and transitions. These initiatives were adopted based on recommendations made by the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations, a group of experts convened by the Secretary General in 2000 to assess the shortcomings of the existing system for managing peace operations. Some key initiatives included the following: In 2002, the United Nations consolidated all peacekeeping responsibilities into DPKO. Previously, the Department of Political Affairs was responsible for developing and proposing the mandates of potential peace operations, and DPKO was responsible for planning and logistical support. In 2001, the U.N. General Assembly approved a 50 percent increase in staff for DPKO, allowing it to better plan and manage operations. By January 2003, DPKO had largely met its recruiting goals in key areas. For example, it had increased the military planning group from 7 to 18 and increased the civilian police division from 2 to 9 staff, which enabled it to provide useful input in planning individual operations. DPKO revised its overall process and guidance for planning peace operations. This revised guidance requires planners to clarify long-term aims in the country and develop plans that identify objectives, tasks to be undertaken, resources required, expected timetables, and criteria for measuring success. As recommended by the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations, DPKO has begun using integrated mission task teams to plan operations.