The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is an international agreement among national governments. It aims to ensure that the international trade in plants and animals does not threaten their survival. The United States, a signatory to CITES, is the largest importer and exporter of wildlife products in the estimated $300 billion global wildlife trade. CITES also provides a framework for addressing the illegal trade in wildlife. According to U.S. government estimates, illegal trade in endangered wildlife products, including elephant ivory, rhino horns, and turtle shells, is worth at least an estimated $7 billion-$10 billion annually. This figure does not include illegal logging and illegal fishing, which can account, respectively, for roughly an additional $30 billion-$100 billion annually and $10 billion-$23 billion annually. Such figures may place illegal wildlife trafficking among the top 10 most lucrative criminal activities worldwide, behind only narcotics, counterfeiting, and human trafficking. The implementation and enforcement of CITES is of interest to Congress because of the prominence of the United States in the international wildlife trade. Congress provides oversight on U.S. activities related to CITES by holding hearings on U.S. recommendations for CITES, as well as by providing appropriations for conservation programs that aim to improve the populations and habitats of some species listed on CITES. The most recent Conference of the Parties (COP) for CITES was held March 2013. Several decisions regarding the listing of species were discussed, including the adoption of 55 new listing proposals on sharks, manta rays, turtles, and timber, among other species. The next COP will be held in South Africa starting on September 24, 2016. This report provides background information on the structure of CITES, the enforcement of CITES in the United States, and implementing issues related to CITES. The origins of CITES can be traced to the 1960s, during international discussions about the world trade of wildlife and wildlife products and its effect on wildlife populations. In 1963, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) called for an international convention on the trade in animal species and their products. A first draft of the Convention was produced in 1964, and in 1973, CITES was signed by 21 nations in Washington, DC. CITES entered into force in 1975 after 10 countries ratified the agreement. As of 2016, there are 183 signatories to CITES. CITES is applied to species whose populations may be significantly harmed by international trade. Species are first identified as needing protection and then assessed for the risk trade poses for the species survival. CITES regulates trade through a series of import and export permits corresponding to the degree of protection. There are approximately 5,600 species of animals and approximately 30,000 species of plants listed under CITES. The administrative bodies of CITES are the Secretariat, the Conference of the Parties (COP), and the Management and Scientific Authorities of each country. The parties (i.e., signatory countries) meet generally every two years at a COP to evaluate the implementation of the treaty and consider efforts which would improve CITES's success. In the United States, the implementing legislation for CITES is the Endangered Species Act (ESA; 16 U.S.C. 1531ff). The Office of Management Authority (OMA) and the Office of Scientific Authority (OSA) of the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) in the Department of the Interior (DOI) exercise the responsibilities of the Management and Scientific Authorities. Enforcement responsibilities for CITES are shared in varying levels by the FWS (Division of Law Enforcement), and the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) and the Customs Service in the Department of Homeland Security. The NOAA Fisheries in the Department of Commerce also has a small role in CITES's enforcement. Under CITES, species that are thought to be in need of protection are identified by the parties, and then their trade is regulated through export and import permits. Among the criteria used to consider a species for listing under CITES are (1) trade in the species; (2) population size of the species; (3) quality of habitat used by the species; (4) extent of the area where the species is distributed; (5) number of subpopulations and their size; and (6) reproductive potential. When a party is interested in including, deleting, or changing the appendix of a species under CITES, the party must submit a proposal to propose a new listing or amend the existing listing based on a set of criteria. The information used in the proposal is based on the "best information available." To adopt an amendment based on a proposal, two-thirds of the parties voting must vote in favor. The set of criteria used to justify changes in the listings has evolved over the years. When CITES took effect in 1975, several species had already been identified for inclusion in the appendixes. At the first COP, criteria for including a species under CITES were promulgated and included the submission of data on population size and range of the species. In 1994, new criteria for listing a species under CITES were adopted. These criteria include parameters based on the level of international trade of the species, distribution and population size of the species, nature and intensity of threats facing the species (e.g., habitat loss, disease, and pollution), management of the species, conservation of the species in its range country, and consultations with other countries where the species are found. Three appendixes in CITES correspond to different levels of protection from international trade. Under CITES, any species, subspecies, or geographically separate population of a species can be listed. Once listed under CITES, species can be traded between countries only with the proper permits. Permits are given if trade is not expected to be detrimental to the survival of the species. Certificates of Exemption are granted when trade in a species meets a specified set of criteria for exemption. (See " Exemptions ," below, for further discussion.) Article II of the treaty provides conditions under which species are to be included in each Appendix. The most stringent restrictions on trade are for species listed in Appendix I. For Appendix I, Article II states: Appendix I shall include all species threatened with extinction which are or may be affected by trade. Trade in specimens of these species must be subject to particularly strict regulation in order not to endanger further their survival and must only be authorized in exceptional circumstances. CITES generally prohibits commercial international trade in specimens of these species. Circumstances under which these species can be traded include scientific exchange, breeding, or educational programs. Both an import and an export permit (or reexport certificate) are required for the limited trade allowed for species in Appendix I. For example, in the past, countries agreed to allow Namibia and South Africa to kill and export five black rhinoceroses a year, with proceeds of the sale and hunt to be provided for black rhinoceros conservation programs. The black rhinoceros is an Appendix I species. According to Article II, Appendix II species are: (a) all species which although not necessarily now threatened with extinction may become so unless trade in specimens of such species is subject to strict regulation in order to avoid utilization incompatible with their survival; and (b) other species which must be subject to regulation in order that trade in specimens of certain species referred to in sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph may be brought under effective control. Trade in Appendix II species is less restrictive than trade in Appendix I species, and exchange is permitted for commercial purposes if trade will not be detrimental to the species in the wild. For example, trade of Appendix II species requires only an export permit from the country of origin, unless the importing country has imposed additional requirements, which is allowed under CITES. In certain cases, CITES treats individuals or parts of Appendix I species as Appendix II species if they have been bred in captivity or artificially propagated. In addition, an introduction from-the-sea certificate is required for the import of Appendix I or II specimens taken from the high seas outside of any country's jurisdiction. Appendix III species classified under CITES include: all species which any Party identifies as being subject to regulation within its jurisdiction for the purpose of preventing or restricting exploitation, and as needing the cooperation of other parties in the control of trade. International trade of Appendix III species may require one of the following three documents: (1) export permit, granted for species coming from the country that listed it; (2) reexport permit, granted for Appendix III species being exported from a country that previously imported it; or (3) certificate of origin, for Appendix III specimens that are being exported from a country other than the listing country. For example, if the United States sought to allow the export of a turtle dove hatched in the United States, a certificate of origin would need to be issued because the species was originally listed by Ghana. A certificate of origin requires that the specimens were legally obtained from within the exporting country. There is no requirement to show that the trade in the specimen would not be detrimental to the species' survival since it was not from the listed population. Appendix I specimens require both an import and export permit for trade between party nations. If a non-party nation is involved, the party nation must provide the appropriate import or export permit depending on the trade of the species. Appendix I specimens acquired abroad by individuals outside their country of usual residence may not be imported into the United States without CITES permits. A permit under CITES is not required for domestic trade within a party nation. Importing or exporting hunted animal trophies are the dominant use of wildlife according to permit applications. (See Figure 1 .) The United States is the largest importer of animal trophies in the world (see Figure 2 ).