Scientific and technical knowledge and guidance influences many of today's public policies. The following definition is used by some science and technology policy analysts as a cornerstone of thinking about science and technology (S&T) policy decisionmaking: [Science and technology policy] is concerned with the allocation of resources for scientific research and technical development. It includes government encouragement of science and technology as the roots of strategy for industrial development and in economic growth; but it also includes the use of science in connection with problems of the public sector. Because of the close association of basic research with higher education, this aspect of science [and technology] policy is difficult to separate from overall educational policy and from [scientific and] technical [workforce] policy. Because science and technical knowledge and guidance influences public policy decisionmaking on many other issues, some think that science and technology policy does not need to be a separate field of inquiry. Others, however, view S&T policy as different from other public policy issue areas. These differences include the rapidity of change in science and technology; novelty of many issues in science and technology; scale, complexity, and interdependence among technologies; irreversibility of many scientific and technological effects; public worries about real or imagined threats to human health and safety; and the challenges to deeply held social values. This report will provide a basic understanding of science and technology policy including the nature of S&T policy, how scientific and technical knowledge is useful for public policy decisionmaking, and an overview of the key stakeholders in science and technology policy. Note that the report places a greater emphasis on the executive branch science and technology policymaking as the federal government supports public policy decisionmaking as well as performing and funding research and development. The nation's first formal science and technology policy decision may well have been in the U.S. Constitution itself in 1787, when the Congress was given power To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries. At the request of President Washington, Congress passed its first science and technology policy-related act, regarding patents, in 1790. These actions led to today's Patent and Trademark Office (PTO). The Constitution also identified the utility of scientific and technical policy guidance in the sense of congressional power "To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures." This is the origin of today's National Institutes of Standards and Technology (NIST). In addition, the Constitution stated that "No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in the Proportion to the Census of Enumeration herein before directed to be taken." This is the origin of today's U.S. Census Bureau. Other constitutional propositions, not enacted, included the power of Congress to establish a university and seminaries for the promotion of the sciences, and encourage "by premiums & provisions, the advancement of useful knowledge and discoveries." Advancement of science was also used as part of the justification for freedom of speech. Prior to the Constitution, Congress requested a geological survey in the Land Ordinance of 1785 to classify lands west of the Allegheny mountains that had become a source of contention in writing the Articles of Confederation—the precursor of today's U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). As illustrated in Table 1 , science and technology policy has four facets: science for policy, technology for policy, policy for science , and policy for technolog y. These facets cannot be easily separated, but can help provide a framework to better understand the policy decisions that policymakers are addressing in a given situation. This, in turn, can reflect how policymakers consider the policy advice they are given by the scientific and technical community. Science for policy and technology for policy are when scientists, engineers, and health professionals (see Box 1 ) provide analysis, knowledge, and data to inform policymakers with the goal of enhancing their ability to make wise decisions. This scientific and technical guidance is available for almost any public policy arena. A classic example is global climate change. Policymakers debate questions such as at what point actions, if any, should be taken to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. If no action is taken, what are the possible impacts of global climate change on the United States and other countries? If policymakers decide to take action, what policy steps could the United States take to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions or to adapt to global climate change? Policymakers are the ones who decide what steps should be taken to manage these risks. They can base their decisions on the guidance provided to them by the science, engineering, and health communities. In contrast, policy for science and policy for technology are when policymakers take actions that influence the S&T community or the actions in which they engage such as research or S&T-business related activities (e.g., patent law). In the case of climate change, for example, these same policymakers make decisions such as the degree to which the federal government should invest in climate change related research, whether or not to establish programs and organizations that set priorities for this research, and what technologies federal agencies should investigate further as possible mechanisms to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. In the early days of the United States, the focus of science and technology policy was on science for policy and technology for policy . Of particular importance was scientific and technical advice related to public health, agriculture, and geography. President Jefferson, for example, commissioned the Lewis and Clark expedition to explore the Western United States that opened trade in the far Northwest and made significant scientific findings in the life sciences. As the nation grew, scientific and technical knowledge became important for issues related to the military and issues related to the welfare state such as care for the needy and universal education and literacy. In general, research was supported primarily through the philanthropy of wealthy individuals. During the Civil War, however, research became part of the military's mission, and the federal government more actively engaged in policy for science , establishing the land-grant college system focusing on agricultural research (1862) and the Weather Bureau (1870), providing a telescope for the Naval Observatory, and supporting polar explorations and surveys of the Western United States. Issues began to arise regarding how science should fit into the federal government's structure. As a result, in 1884, Congress set up a Joint Commission made up of three members each from the House and the Senate, chaired by Senator W. B. Allison. The Allison Commission discussed proposals for a Department of Science and a national university, as well as the need for the government to cooperate, not compete, with universities and concerns about duplication. In the end, the Allison Commission affirmed the utility of federal funding of science, but did not recommend a separate department or any other actions. At the beginning of the 20 th century, prior to World War I, additional issues became the focus of the nation's science and technology policy including conservation, medicine, and public health; and a number of additional science organizations were established in the federal government (e.g., Food and Drug Administration). In addition, the first industrial research laboratories and large-scale mechanized industry were started. World War I brought about additional application of science and technology to weapon development. During the period between World War I the end of World War II, the role of the application of research to provide technology for both military and economic purposes became evident. No longer were philanthropists the primary sources of funding for research and development (R&D); instead it was the federal government. This lead to a fundamental change in the relation between the federal government and the S&T community. This policy for technology focused on areas such as weaponry, communications, and medical needs such as surgical innovations. During this period, the capabilities of science and technology were widely recognized due to the use of chemicals, aircraft, mechanized weapons, radar, and other technological applications in World War II. As a result, President Franklin D. Roosevelt established the Office of Scientific Research and Development (1941). The Manhattan project also began its work at this time, managed by the Manhattan Engineer District of the Army Corps of Engineers, and tasked with the goal of building an atomic bomb prior to the Japanese or Germans. Following World War II, the utility of science and technology to society as exhibited during the War was crystallized in Science, the Endless Frontier , a 1945 report by Vannevar Bush, director of the White House Office of Scientific Research and Development, to President Franklin Roosevelt. This report, which proposed a "program for postwar scientific research," set the stage for today's view of the relationship between the federal government and the S&T community regarding policy for science . In his report, Bush indicated that scientific progress was essential for the war against disease, for national security, and for the public welfare. The report also recommended that the federal government should undertake responsibility for renewing the nation's scientific talent. To respond to these needs, Bush proposed a new federal agency that would "accept new responsibilities for promoting the flow of new scientific knowledge and the development of scientific talent of our youth." This recommendation eventually led to the establishment of the National Science Foundation (NSF). Today, science and engineering research and innovations are intricately linked to societal needs and the nation's economy in areas such as energy, transportation, communication, agriculture, education, environment, health, defense, and jobs. As a result, policymakers are interested in almost every aspect of science and technology policy. The following definition of R&D, determined by international intergovernmental guidelines developed through the Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), is used by the National Science Board (NSB): Research and Development (R&D): Creative work undertaken on a systematic basis to increase the stock of knowledge—including knowledge of man, culture and society—and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications.