Since the 1960s, the United States has used satellites to observe the earth and its land, oceans, atmosphere, and space environments. Satellites provide a global perspective of the environment and allow observations in areas that may be otherwise unreachable or unsuitable for measurements. Used in combination with ground, sea, and airborne observing systems, satellites have become an indispensable part of measuring and forecasting weather and climate. For example, satellites provide the graphical images used to identify current weather patterns, as well as the data that go into numerical weather prediction models. These models are used to forecast weather 1 to 2 weeks in advance and to issue warnings about severe weather, including the path and intensity of hurricanes. Satellite data are also used to warn infrastructure owners when increased solar activity is expected to affect key assets, including communication satellites or the electric power grid. When collected over time, satellite data can also be used to observe climate change—the trends and changes in the earth’s climate. For example, these data are used to monitor and project seasonal, annual, and decadal changes in the earth’s temperature, vegetation coverage, and ozone coverage. One key subset of satellite-provided data is climate data. These data are used in combination with ground and ocean observing systems to understand seasonal, annual, and decadal variations in the climate. Satellites provide land observations such as measurements of soil moisture, changes in how land is used, and vegetation growth; ocean observations such as sea levels, sea surface temperature, and ocean color; and atmospheric observations such as greenhouse gas levels (e.g., carbon dioxide), aerosol and dust particles, and moisture concentration. When these data are obtained over long periods of time, scientists are able to use them to determine short- and long-term trends in how the earth’s systems work and how they work together. For example, climate measurements have allowed scientists to better understand the effect of deforestation on how the earth absorbs heat, retains rainwater, and absorbs greenhouse gases. Scientists also use climate data to help predict climate cycles that affect the weather, such as El Niño, and to develop global estimates of food crop production for a particular year or season. Another subset of satellite-provided environmental information is space weather data. Satellite-provided observations of space weather generally describe changes in solar activity in the space environment. Just as scientists use observations of weather that occurs on the earth’s surface and in its atmosphere to develop forecasts, scientists and researchers use space weather observations to detect and forecast solar storms that may be potentially harmful to society. NASA, NOAA, and DOD all have responsibilities for acquiring, processing, and disseminating environmental data and information from research or operational satellites. In addition to these agencies, there are two interagency organizations—the U.S. Group on Earth Observations (USGEO) and the U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP)—that are primarily responsible for coordinating federal efforts with respect to observations of the earth’s environment. The National Space Weather Program serves as the coordinating body for space weather. USGEO and USGCRP report to the Executive Office of the President through the National Science and Technology Council’s Committee on Environment and Natural Resources, while the National Space Weather Program coordinates its activities through NOAA’s Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology. The Executive Office of the President provides oversight for federal space- based environmental observation. Within the Executive Office of the President, the Office of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP), the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), and the Council on Environmental Quality carry out these governance responsibilities. In addition, the National Science and Technology Council and its Committee on Environment and Natural Resources provide the Executive Office of the President with executive-level coordination and advice. Since the 1960s, the United States has operated two separate operational polar-orbiting meteorological satellite systems: the Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite (POES) series, which is managed by NOAA, and the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP), which is managed by the Air Force. Currently, there is one operational POES satellite and two operational DMSP satellites that are positioned so that they cross the equator in the early morning, midmorning, and early afternoon. In addition, the government is also relying on a European satellite, called the Meteorological Operational (MetOp) satellite. Together, they ensure that, for any region of the earth, the data provided to users are generally no more than 6 hours old. With the expectation that combining the POES and DMSP programs would reduce duplication and result in sizable cost savings, a May 1994 Presidential Decision Directive required NOAA and DOD to converge the two satellite programs into a single satellite program—NPOESS—capable of satisfying both civilian and military requirements. To manage this program, DOD, NOAA, and NASA formed a tri-agency Integrated Program Office, with NOAA responsible for overall program management for the converged system and for satellite operations; the Air Force responsible for acquisition; and NASA responsible for facilitating the development and incorporation of new technologies into the converged system. Since the program’s inception, NPOESS costs have grown by over $8 billion, and launch schedules have been delayed by over 5 years. In addition, as a result of a 2006 restructuring of the program, the agencies reduced the program’s functionality by decreasing the number of originally planned satellites, orbits, and instruments. The restructuring also led agency executives to mitigate potential data gaps by deciding to use a planned demonstration satellite, called the NPOESS Preparatory Project (NPP) satellite, as an operational satellite providing climate and weather data. Even after this restructuring, however, the program continued to encounter technical issues, management challenges, schedule delays, and further cost increases. To address these issues, in recent years we have made a series of recommendations to, among other things, improve executive-level oversight and develop realistic time frames for revising cost and schedule baselines. In August 2009, the Executive Office of the President formed a task force, led by OSTP, to investigate the management and acquisition options that would improve the NPOESS program. As a result of this review, the Director of OSTP announced in February 2010 that NOAA and DOD will no longer jointly procure the NPOESS satellite system; instead, each agency would plan and acquire its own satellite system. Specifically, NOAA is to be responsible for the afternoon orbit and the observations planned for the first and third NPOESS satellites. DOD is to be responsible for the early-morning orbit and the observations planned for the second and fourth NPOESS satellites. The partnership with the European satellite agencies for the midmorning orbit is to continue as planned. NOAA has developed preliminary plans for its new satellite acquisition program—called the Joint Polar Satellite System (JPSS)—to meet the requirements of the afternoon NPOESS orbit. Specifically, NOAA plans to acquire two satellites; the plans call for the first JPSS satellite to be available for launch in 2014, and the second JPSS satellite to be available for launch in 2018. NOAA will also provide the ground systems for both the JPSS and DOD programs. NOAA is also planning technical changes to the satellites, including using a smaller spacecraft than the one planned for NPOESS and removing sensors that were planned for the NPOESS satellites in the afternoon orbit. In addition, NOAA plans to transfer the management of acquisition from the NPOESS program office to NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, so that it can be co-located at a space system acquisition center as advocated by an independent review team. NOAA has developed a team to lead the transition from NPOESS to JPSS, and plans to begin transitioning in July and complete the transition plan— including cost and schedule estimates—by the end of September. DOD is at an earlier stage in its planning process, in part because it has more time before the first satellite in the morning orbit is needed. DOD officials are currently developing plans—including costs, schedules, and risks—for their new program, called the Defense Weather Satellite System. DOD expects to make final decisions on the spacecraft, sensors, procurement strategy, and staffing in August 2010, and begin the program immediately. Because neither agency has finalized plans for its acquisition, the full impact of OSTP’s decision on the expected cost, schedule, and capabilities is unknown. Cost: NOAA anticipates that the JPSS program will cost approximately $11.9 billion to complete through 2024. Although this estimated cost is less than the current baseline and recent estimates for the NPOESS program, DOD will still need to fund and develop satellites to meet the requirements for the early morning orbit. DOD’s initial estimates are for its new program to cost almost $5 billion through fiscal year 2015. Thus, the cost of the two acquisitions will likely exceed the baselined life-cycle cost of the NPOESS program. Schedule: Neither NOAA nor DOD has finalized plans that show the full impact of the restructuring on the schedule for satellite development. We have previously reported that restructuring a program like NPOESS could take significant time to accomplish, due in part to the time taken revising, renegotiating, or developing important acquisition documents, including contracts and interagency agreements. With important decisions and negotiations still pending, it is likely that the expected launch date of the first JPSS satellite will be delayed. Capabilities: Neither agency has made final decisions on the full set of sensors—or which satellites will accommodate them—for their respective satellite programs. Until those decisions are made, it will not be possible to determine the capabilities that these satellites will provide and their associated costs.