The U.S.–Japan alliance dates back to the U.S. occupation of Japan after its defeat in World War II. The alliance is supported by the 1960 Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security and a related Status of Forces Agreement. As a result of the treaty, the Status of Forces Agreement, and related agreements, U.S. forces are able to use nearly 90 installations throughout mainland Japan and Okinawa for the purpose of contributing to the security of Japan and the maintenance of international peace and security in the region. One issue that remains at the forefront of the alliance is the realignment of U.S. forces in Japan. Efforts to realign U.S. forces in Japan date back to 1995. We have previously reported that discontent among the people of Okinawa regarding the U.S. military presence led to efforts in the 1990s to consolidate, realign, and reduce U.S. facilities and areas and adjust the operational procedures of U.S. forces in Okinawa to reduce the impact on local communities. However, as we had reported, realignment efforts did not make much progress until the end of 2002, when the United States and Japan launched a series of realignment initiatives called the Defense Policy Review Initiative (DPRI). Under DPRI, both countries were seeking to reduce the U.S. footprint in Okinawa, enhance interoperability and communication, and better position U.S. forces to respond to a changing security environment. The major realignment initiatives under DPRI were outlined in the U.S.–Japan Roadmap for Realignment Implementation (2006 Roadmap) and subsequently adjusted, most recently through a joint statement issued in April 2012. There are four initiatives under DPRI that are specific to the realignment of Marine Corps forces in the Pacific: 1. Constructing and moving forces to the Futenma Replacement Facility, 2. Relocating Marine Corps units from Okinawa to Guam, Hawaii, the continental United States, and Australia, 3. Consolidating installations on Okinawa, and 4. Moving Marines to Iwakuni. As envisioned by the 2006 Roadmap, the U.S. government would return to Japan the Marine Corps Air Station Futenma in Okinawa once the government of Japan constructed a fully operational replacement facility (Futenma Replacement Facility), including a runway, in a northern, less- populated area of the island. This facility was originally projected to be completed by 2014, but delays have slowed its progress. According to the officials, as of June 2016, 9 of 184 projects have been constructed at the planned site of the realignment—Camp Schwab. Figure 1 shows the planned location of the runway at Camp Schwab and how high landfill material must rise to build the runway. After several years of planning to move approximately 8,000 Marines from Okinawa to Guam, DOD revised its plan in April 2012 to, among other things, relocate 4,100 Marines to Guam, 2,700 to Hawaii, and 800 to the continental United States, as shown below in figure 2. Additionally, the plan includes establishing up to a 2,500-person rotational Marine Corps presence in Australia, 1,300 of whom would come from Okinawa— a move that, according to DOD officials, stems from a November 2011 announcement between the United States and Australia. DOD expects relocation to Guam to occur between fiscal years 2022 and 2026. To provide additional training opportunities for Pacific Command’s service components, DOD is planning to construct training ranges on the nearby Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI), specifically the islands of Tinian and Pagan. However, no forces are expected to relocate to CNMI. DOD estimates that the total cost to relocate Marines to Guam and training on CNMI will be $8.7 billion in fiscal year 2012 dollars, with approximately $3.1 billion being provided by Japan. DOD expects relocation to Hawaii to occur between 2027 and 2031. According to DOD documentation, its baseline rough order-of-magnitude cost estimates for development on Hawaii range from approximately $1.3 billion to $2.5 billion in fiscal year 2012 dollars, although actual costs will vary depending upon the mix of units and the facilities needed. For the relocation to the continental United States, the Marine Corps currently has no plans, time frames, or cost estimates. According to Marine Corps officials, the decision to relocate 800 Marines to the continental United States was made because there was a need to further reduce the Marine Corps presence on Okinawa. Additionally, senior officials at Marine Corps Headquarters and Marine Corps Pacific Command stated there was no strategic need to move the Marines to the continental United States, and they assume that this move may never happen—for example, they said that if the global Marine Corps presence continues to downsize, then perhaps the positions for the 800 Marines slated to move to the continental United States may be eliminated from the global Marine Corps presence. Additionally, in November 2011, the U.S. and Australian governments announced the intent to establish a rotational presence of up to a 2,500 person Marine Air-Ground Task Force in Darwin, Australia—1,300 of which would come from Okinawa, according to DOD. Rotations would occur from approximately April through September or October, during Australia’s dry season. To date the Marine Corps has held five 6-month rotations, ranging from a 200 Marine infantry company rotation in 2012 to a 1,250 Marine infantry battalion rotation in 2016. The April 2012 statement noted that the United States is committed to returning lands on Okinawa to Japan as designated Marine Corps forces are relocated and as facilities become available for units and other tenant activities relocating to other locations on Okinawa. Figure 3 depicts U.S. installations on Okinawa and identifies which installations have been designated to be partially or fully returned to Japan or are staying as part of the U.S. presence, according to the April 2012 statement. On the basis of the 2006 Roadmap, the Marine Corps would relocate its tanker aircraft and facilities from Marine Corps Air Station Futenma to Marine Corps Air Station Iwakuni, as well as develop a training capability at Kanoya Air Base. Additionally, a Navy carrier wing currently located at Naval Air Station Atsugi (about 35 miles southwest of Tokyo, Japan) would relocate to Marine Corps Air Station Iwakuni. The relocation to Iwakuni is expected to be completed in 2019, with the Marine Corps tanker aircraft unit having already relocated in 2014. Within DOD, several offices have roles in the relocation of Marines from Okinawa to Guam and Hawaii, the establishment of a rotational Marine presence in Australia, and the realignment of Marines within Okinawa and Iwakuni. These offices are located throughout the United States and Pacific Command’s area of responsibility. Figure 4 identifies DOD offices with roles and responsibilities related to the Asia-Pacific relocation, along with their locations. DOD has coordinated its efforts to relocate Marines from Okinawa by developing a high-level synchronization plan that combines the various programs related to relocating Marines from Okinawa and organizing various working groups to increase coordination among stakeholders. However, DOD officials have not fully resolved selected identified capability deficiencies associated with the planned relocation to Guam and Hawaii and establishment of a rotational presence in Australia. The Marine Corps has coordinated its efforts to relocate Marines from Okinawa by developing a high-level synchronization plan that combines the programs related to relocating Marines in one document. Headquarters Marine Corps officials described the synchronization plan as an overarching tool for simultaneously scheduling the various relocation initiatives and graphically depicting how these relocations are interconnected and affected by both unit movements and facilities construction. In June 2013, we reported that this synchronization plan was in development, with the goal of establishing the appropriate sequencing of events needed to complete all relocation initiatives. In January 2015, the Marine Corps completed the synchronization plan, which contains information pertaining to the Futenma Replacement Facility, Guam, the Joint Training Range Complex in CNMI, Hawaii, Australia, Okinawa consolidation, and Iwakuni. Subsequently, in June 2016 the Marine Corps updated the synchronization plan to incorporate its latest time frames. Figure 5 shows how major milestones and actions may interface with each other, up to 2030. In addition, DOD has coordinated relocation initiatives through organizing various working groups that bring together representatives from the respective stakeholders involved in the relocation efforts. For example, U.S. Forces–Japan participates in several working groups called Alliance Transformation Ad-Hoc Working Groups and subcommittees that address DPRI. One group works on Okinawa initiatives, which includes all topics related to Okinawa Consolidation and the Futenma Replacement Facility. Another group addresses progress in mainland Japan with Marine Corps Air Station Iwakuni and Kanoya Air Base. Pacific Command officials said they also participate in several working groups such as the Joint Facilities Working Group and the DPRI Planning Group. The officials stated that the Joint Facilities Working Group is led by Pacific Command and consists of the Office of the Secretary of Defense and representatives from each of the services, including Naval Facilities Engineering Command, and their Australian counterparts. They added that this group plans facilities and is working on resolving cost estimate differences for Australia. The DPRI Planning Group includes participants from Marine Corps offices including Marine Corps Plans, Policies and Operations; Marine Corps Installations Command; Marine Corps Forces Pacific; Marine Corps Activity Guam; and III Marine Expeditionary Force. The group is responsible for developing and submitting all requirements for the future Marine Corps Base Guam.