Concerns about the threats posed by nuclear smuggling initially focused on nuclear materials originating from the former Soviet Union. As a result, the first major initiatives to address these threats concentrated on deploying radiation detection equipment at borders in countries of the former Soviet Union and in Central and Eastern Europe. In the United States, the U.S. Customs Service began providing its inspectors with portable radiation detection devices in 1998. After September 11, 2001, the agency expanded its efforts to include the deployment of radiation portal monitors (RPM)—large-scale radiation detectors that can be used to screen vehicles and cargo. The U.S. Customs Service was transferred to DHS in fiscal year 2003, and the border inspection functions of the U.S. Customs Service, including radiation detection, became the responsibility of CBP. Accordingly, deploying radiation detection equipment at the U.S. border is part of DHS’s strategy for addressing the threat of nuclear and radiological terrorism. In April 2005, the President issued a directive establishing DNDO within DHS and giving DNDO responsibility, among other things, to enhance and coordinate federal, state, and local efforts to detect nuclear and radiological materials. From 1995 through 2013, CBP invested over $2.5 billion to acquire, deploy, and maintain radiation detection equipment; provide training; and conduct both overt and covert tests of this equipment to assess the equipment’s effectiveness. OFTD’s budget for covert operations was $1 million for fiscal years 2009 through 2013 to test CBP capabilities in several areas, including radiation and nuclear detection. A terrorist’s use of either an improvised nuclear device (IND) or a radiological dispersal device (RDD)—could have devastating consequences, including not only loss of life but also enormous psychological and economic impacts. An IND is a crude nuclear bomb made with highly enriched uranium or plutonium, generally referred to as special nuclear materials (SNM). It would create an explosion producing extreme heat, powerful shockwaves, and intense radiation that would be immediately lethal to individuals within miles of the explosion, as well as An RDD—frequently radioactive fallout over thousands of square miles.referred to as a dirty bomb—would disperse radioactive materials into the environment through a conventional explosive or through other means. Depending on the type of RDD, the area contaminated could be as small as part of a building or a city block or as large as several square miles. Hundreds of individuals might be killed or injured from the RDD explosion or face the risk of later developing cancer because of exposure to radiation and radioactive contamination. Federal agencies that have a role in combating nuclear smuggling are responsible for implementing their own programs per the GNDA. The GNDA is composed of programs run by U.S. agencies including CBP, the Federal Bureau of Investigation, and the Department of Energy as well as partnerships with local, state, tribal, and territorial governments; the private sector; and international partners. The programs are designed to encounter, detect, characterize, and report on radiological and nuclear material that is out of regulatory control. DNDO serves as the primary entity in the United States to develop GNDA-related programs and initiatives, and improve radiological and nuclear detection capabilities. In addition, DNDO coordinates the GNDA’s efforts with other federal agencies, and assists DHS agencies with both implementing the domestic portion of the GNDA and also acquiring radiation detection equipment. CBP’s OFO is responsible for implementing scanning procedures to detect smuggling of nuclear and radiological materials at 328 ports of entry composed of airports, seaports, and designated land ports of entry throughout the United States plus selected locations overseas. CBP’s USBP is responsible for implementing screening procedures at 35 permanent checkpoints generally located between 25 and 100 miles from the border. Figure 1 displays the locations of air, land, and sea ports of entry and permanent checkpoints across the nation.specific information about each location.) Move mouse over state names to see the breakdown of ports of entry. For a noninteractive version, see app. I. N.Dak. Minn. Vt. S.Dak. Wis. N.H. N.Y. Mass. Wyo. Mich. R.I. Nebr. Pa. Conn. N.J. Ill. Ind. Colo. W.Va. Del. Md. Kans. Mo. Va. D.C. Ky. N.C. Tenn. Okla. N.Mex. Ark. S.C. Miss. Ala. Ga. La. Tex. Fla. OFTD is responsible for conducting covert operations at U.S. ports of entry and checkpoints to test the capabilities for detecting and interdicting nuclear and radiological materials smuggled into the United States, as well as testing capabilities in foreign locations. In selecting sites for covert operations, OFTD considers a universe of 655 sites. These sites include the 477 facilities at the 328 ports of entry, 35 permanent checkpoints, as well as 143 sites consisting of domestic user fee airports and express consignment carrier facility airports as well as preclearance locations and Container Security Initiative (CSI) ports in foreign locations. The technology, policies, and procedures to detect and interdict nuclear and radiological material smuggled across the border differ across ports of entry and checkpoints, but consist of four similar functions: (1) the ability to detect radiation, (2) the ability to locate the radiation source, (3) the ability to identify the radiation source, and (4) the ability to contact Laboratories and Scientific Services (LSS) and transmit data as needed when additional adjudication is required.vehicles or containers entering the United States must pass through RPMs that can detect the presence of neutron-and gamma-emitting radioactive material. As we have previously reported, different radioactive materials emit varying types of radiation, and although sources of neutron radiation are less common than gamma radiation, neutron radiation is emitted from some materials that are used to make nuclear weapons. Thus, RPMs and other tools that can detect neutron radiation are At land and sea ports of entry, particularly important for national security purposes, including securing our borders. RPMs detect the presence of radioactive material, which can include plutonium, kitty litter, or granite. If an RPM detects the presence of radioactive material in a scanned container or vehicle, the responding CBP officer is to utilize a device called a radiation isotope identification device (RIID) to identify the radiation source. For some sources, such as industrial radioactive sources, CBP officers must contact the CBP LSS staff to verify the type of source material in question and, if necessary, verify the Nuclear Regulatory Commission licensee and shipper information through the National Law Enforcement Communications Center. CBP officials reported that CBP officers and USBP agents in checkpoint and air ports of entry locations generally rely on devices called personal radiation detectors (PRD) to protect the health and safety of agency personnel. These devices detect elevated levels of radiation. Aside from relying on different equipment to detect radiological materials, CBP officers at air ports of entry and USBP agents at checkpoints follow procedures outlined in CBP’s Radiation Detection Standard Operating In keeping Procedures Directive, used at sea and land ports of entry.with these procedures, if a PRD alerts a CBP officer or USBP agent to the presence of radiation, the officer or agent uses RIID technology to identify the radioactive material. See figures 2, 3, and 4 for photographs of RPM, RIID, and PRD technology. CBP uses covert operations to test and evaluate whether the systems in place are working as designed to detect and interdict nuclear and radiological smuggling. These operations include an assessment of whether the equipment and technology are working according to specification, the policies and procedures for radiation handling and inspection are adequate to cover various smuggling scenarios, and the extent to which CBP personnel comply with established policies and procedures to detect and interdict nuclear and radiological material smuggled across the border. According to CBP documents, results of covert operations can identify the need for changes in how technology is used to detect nuclear and radiological material, agency policies or procedures, or personnel training to ensure that interdiction programs are working most effectively. Steps used in conducting a covert operation are discussed in appendix II. OFTD limits covert operations to the ports of entry and checkpoints where equipment and personnel are permanently placed. According to OFTD officials, CBP does not conduct covert operations outside of the system’s current capabilities, or to test the system’s known vulnerabilities. For example, CBP does not conduct covert operations beyond the technical capabilities and specifications of the RPMs, RIIDs, and PRDs. CBP conducts such tests of equipment capabilities using overt operations. OFTD conducted 144 covert operations at air, land, and sea ports of entry, checkpoints, and other sites to assess capabilities to detect and interdict nuclear and radiological material smuggled across the border between fiscal years 2006 and 2013, as shown in table 1.OFTD’s covert operations were conducted using radiological materials; however, OFTD officials said they conducted one or two tests using special nuclear material surrogates—radiation test sources with characteristics similar to those of SNM—each year. CBP has not conducted a risk assessment that could inform the decision- making process for prioritizing the materials, locations, and technologies to be tested through covert operations. DHS policy requires that components with limited resources make risk-informed decisions. However, OFTD’s covert operations may not sufficiently account for using nuclear materials that pose the highest risk to the country, testing capabilities in higher-risk border locations, or testing in locations that use key GNDA detection technologies. Specifically: The extent to which OFTD’s covert operations use varying source materials is limited. Our review found that OFTD may not give sufficient priority to testing detection capabilities for the most dangerous materials.