The 1958 Geneva Convention on the High Seas and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea share the same definition of piracy, and, under that definition, piracy consists of any of several acts, including any illegal act of violence or detention, or any act of depredation, committed for private ends by the crew or the passengers of a private ship and directed against another ship, aircraft, persons, or property onboard another ship on the high seas; or against a ship, persons or property in a place outside the jurisdiction of any state. Additionally, according to both conventions, all states have the duty to cooperate to the fullest extent possible in the repression of piracy on the high seas or in any other place outside the jurisdiction of any state. Furthermore, both conventions authorize states to seize pirate ships or a ship under the control of pirates and arrest the persons and seize the property onboard, on the high seas or in any other place outside the jurisdiction of any state. In addition, a single piratical attack often affects the interests of numerous countries, including the flag state of the vessel, various states of nationality of the seafarers taken hostage, regional coastal states, owner states, and cargo owner, transshipment, and destination states. Somali pirates attack and harass vessels transiting the Indian Ocean and in the Gulf of Aden, a natural chokepoint that provides access to the Red Sea and the Suez Canal and through which over 33,000 ships transit each year. Pirates operate from land-based enclaves along the 1,880-mile coastline of Somalia, which is roughly equivalent to the distance from Portland, Maine, to Miami, Florida. Figure 1 illustrates the vast area in which incidents of piracy are occurring, 1,000 nautical miles from Somalia's coast. Figure 1 also shows the location of the Internationally Recommended Transit Corridor in the Gulf of Aden, where coalition forces have established naval patrols to help ensure safe passage for transiting vessels. To conduct their attacks, Somali pirates generally use small skiffs, carrying between four and eight persons armed with AK-47 rifles or similar light arms and, at times, with rocket-propelled grenades. Once they target a vessel, pirates typically coordinate a simultaneous two- or three-pronged attack from multiple directions. Depending on the characteristics and acquiescence of the victim vessel, pirates can board and commandeer a vessel in less than 20 minutes. Pirate vessels usually are equipped with grappling hooks, ladders, and other equipment to assist the boarding of a larger craft. Pirate vessels vary in sea-worthiness and speed with some able to travel at speeds between 25 and 30 knots and operate in high sea conditions, while others have more restricted capabilities. According to the Office of Naval Intelligence, Somali pirates do not typically target specific vessels for any reason other than how easily the vessel can be boarded. Pirates patrol an area and wait for a target of opportunity. Vessels that travel through the high-risk area at a speed of less than 15 knots and have access points close to the waterline are at higher risk of being boarded and hijacked. According to a June 2010 self-protection guide published by maritime industry organizations, there have been no reports of pirates boarding ships proceeding at speeds over 18 knots. Figure 2 shows U.S. authorities boarding a suspected pirate skiff. Unlike pirates in other parts of the world, Somali pirates kidnap hostages for ransom and, up to this point, have not tended to harm captives, steal cargo, or reuse pirated ships for purposes other than temporarily as mother ships. Mother ships are typically larger fishing vessels often acquired or commandeered by acts of piracy that pirates use to store fuel and supplies, and tow skiffs, which allow them to operate and launch attacks further off shore. This “hostage-for-ransom” business model is possible in part because the pirates have bases on land in ungoverned Somalia where they can bring seized vessels, cargoes, and crews and have access to food, water, weapons, ammunition, and other resources during ransom negotiations. In an ungoverned state with widespread poverty, the potential for high profits with low costs and relatively little risk of consequences has ensured that Somali pirate groups do not lack for recruits and support. Moreover, some U.S. and international officials suspect that Somali businessmen and international support networks may provide financing, supplies, and intelligence to pirate organizations in exchange for shares of ransom payments. In addition to posing a threat to the lives and welfare of seafarers, piracy imposes a number of economic costs on shippers and on governments. Costs to shippers include ransom payments, damage to ships and cargoes, delays in delivering cargoes, increased maritime insurance rates, rerouting vessels, and hardening merchant ships against attack. According to officials at the Departments of State and Defense, governments incur costs by conducting naval patrols, as well as the costs of transporting, prosecuting, and incarcerating suspected and convicted pirates. The United States’ National Strategy for Maritime Security, issued in 2005, declares that the United States has a vital national interest in maritime security. The strategy recognizes that nations have a common interest in facilitating the vibrant maritime commerce that underpins economic security, and in protecting against ocean-related terrorist, hostile, criminal, and dangerous acts, including piracy. The National Strategy for Maritime Security also requires full and complete national and international coordination, cooperation, and intelligence and information sharing among public and private entities to protect and secure the maritime domain. The 2007 Policy for the Repression of Piracy and other Criminal Acts of Violence at Sea states that it is the policy of the United States to “continue to lead and support international efforts to repress piracy and urge other states to take decisive action both individually and through international efforts.” In December 2008, the NSC developed the Countering Piracy off the Horn of Africa: Partnership and Action Plan (Action Plan) to implement the 2005 strategy and the 2007 policy as applied to piracy off the Horn of Africa. The Action Plan establishes three main lines of action for interagency stakeholders to take to repress piracy in collaboration with industry and international partners: (1) prevent pirate attacks by reducing the vulnerability of the maritime domain to piracy; (2) disrupt acts of piracy consistent with international law and the rights and responsibilities of coastal and flag states; and (3) ensure that those who commit acts of piracy are held accountable for their actions by facilitating the prosecution of suspected pirates by flag, victim, and coastal states, and, in appropriate cases, the United States. The NSC—including the Maritime Security Interagency Policy Committee—develops policy for the U.S. response to piracy off the Horn of Africa. The Action Plan directed the Secretary of State and Secretary of Defense to establish a high-level interagency, operational task force—the Counter-Piracy Steering Group—to coordinate, implement, and monitor the actions centered in the Action Plan. In addition, the NSC directed that the Departments of Defense, Homeland Security, Justice, State, Transportation, and the Treasury and the Office of the Director of National Intelligence contribute to, coordinate, and undertake initiatives in accordance with the Action Plan, subject to available resources. Figure 3 shows the U.S. departments and agencies involved in implementing the three lines of action contained in the Action Plan. The Department of State (State) is involved in efforts to prevent acts of piracy and hold pirates accountable, primarily by leading U.S. interaction with international partners working through the Contact Group, building regional judicial capacity to prosecute suspected pirates, and encouraging states to prosecute when their interests are involved. Additionally, State is involved in efforts to disrupt acts of piracy by tracking ransom payments and following financing issues related to piracy. Within Defense, U.S. Naval Forces Central Command is involved in prevention, interdiction, and prosecution efforts by contributing forces to the Combined Maritime Forces, an international maritime coalition. Within the Combined Maritime Forces, Combined Task Force 151 conducts counterpiracy operations in international waters, including the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, the Gulf of Oman, the Arabian Gulf and the waters off the Somali coast in the Indian Ocean. The Naval Criminal Investigative Service supports and assists interdiction and prosecution efforts by conducting incident investigations, supervising detention of suspected pirates, assisting U.S. and international prosecutions, debriefing released crews, and providing criminal intelligence information. U.S. Africa Command assists in preventing piracy through strategic communication efforts and building partner capacity in regional states and would plan and, if authorized, conduct any land-based military activities in Somalia to interrupt pirate operations. U.S. Africa Command also conducts counterpiracy naval patrols and interdiction efforts in its area of responsibility. Treasury is involved in disrupting pirates’ revenue sources by examining pirate financial activity and implementing an executive order to block the assets of certain persons. Justice is involved in holding pirates accountable through prosecution as well as judicial capacity-building in African states. The Coast Guard, under Homeland Security, helps prevent piracy through its work with and regulation of the U.S. shipping industry and assists in interrupting piracy by providing law enforcement units and boarding teams on Navy vessels. Transportation’s Maritime Administration assists with preventing piracy by working with the shipping industry to develop best practices for the industry to protect itself from piracy. In addition, within the intelligence community, the Office of Naval Intelligence–as part of the National Maritime Intelligence Center—provides maritime intelligence assistance. The international community, shipping industry, and international military forces also have been involved in taking steps to prevent and disrupt acts of piracy off the Horn of Africa, and facilitate prosecutions of suspected pirates.