Civil aviation in the United States can be generally divided into two broad categories—general aviation and commercial aviation. General aviation comprises all aviation activities other than military and commercial airlines. All civilian students are trained in the general aviation sector until they are hired as airline pilots. Commercial aviation generally refers to businesses that carry passengers or cargo for hire or compensation. To operate as a commercial airline, a business must have an airline operating certificate issued by FAA, based on federal aviation regulations, which is determined by the type of commercial service being provided. Airlines that provide scheduled commercial service are often grouped into two categories. Mainline airlines are the traditional large airlines that provide domestic and international passenger service on larger aircraft such as American Airlines or Delta Airlines. Regional airlines, such as Mesa and Piedmont Airlines, also provide domestic and international passenger service, generally using aircraft with fewer than 90 seats and serving smaller airports. The international service that regional airlines provide is confined to border markets in Canada, Mexico, and the Caribbean. More than 13,000 regional airline flights operate daily, which represents more than half of the number of U.S. domestic flights. As the federal agency responsible for regulating the safety of civil aviation in the United States, FAA is responsible for the administration of pilot certification (licensing) and conducting safety oversight of pilot training. Regulations for pilot certification and training are found in three different parts of the Federal Aviation Regulations—Parts 61, 141, and 142. All pilots are subject to a series of certification requirements established by FAA, but the requirements vary depending on the type of training environment. Part 61 recognizes six basic types of pilot certification: student, sport, recreational, private, commercial, and airline transport. Part 61 also establishes the core training requirements for each pilot certification, which describes the eligibility requirements, aeronautical knowledge and flight proficiency standards, and the required flight hours (see table 1). Pilot training can be provided to students by flight instructors under Part 61. Part 141 outlines the specified personnel, aircraft, facilities, curriculum, and other operating requirements that approved pilot training organizations (schools) must meet in order to hold an operating certificate from FAA. Part 142 outlines specific requirements for training centers that primarily relate to the advanced training provided to pilots by employers, such as airlines. Our report focuses on the initial pilot training that students are provided until they are hired as airline pilots; thus, advanced training for pilots is not within the scope of our study. To obtain a private, commercial, or airline transport pilot certificate from FAA to perform various aviation activities, individuals typically have to successfully complete pilot training and pass the following two FAA tests for each pilot certificate and rating obtained:  A knowledge test assesses applicants’ understanding of the aeronautical knowledge areas required for a specific certificate or rating and can be administered in written form or by a computer.  A practical test consists of a flight test and an oral examination. The flight test assesses applicants’ knowledge of the areas of operations of an aircraft and the ability to demonstrate the maneuvers in an aircraft while in flight. The oral examination is conducted by having an applicant respond to random questions related to aviation knowledge and aircraft operations before, during, and after the flight test, and typically lasts between 1 and 2 hours. To become a certified commercial pilot, which is currently the minimum requirement for being hired by an airline as a first officer, individuals also must undergo several steps of pilot training and certification in accordance with FAA regulations. Once cleared by the medical examination, students obtain a medical certificate and a student pilot certificate from FAA. Figure 1 shows the typical progression of training and certifications required to become an airline pilot. Figure 2 shows examples of the progression from single-engine trainer, to multi-engine (i.e., jet) trainer—used by some pilot schools to provide students with the multi-engine rating—to the much larger, faster jet used by regional airlines. Once commercial pilots complete the process of initial training, they are qualified to apply for a first officer pilot position at an airline. Entry-level positions are typically at regional, and not mainline, airlines; mainline airlines typically draw from regional airlines for their pilots. If hired, pilots must complete the airline’s new hire training, which consists of indoctrination, ground and aircraft systems, simulator training, and the initial operating experience, wherein the pilot applies what they learn in the previous training phases. The airline submits these training programs for approval by the FAA to ensure they meet Part 121 requirements. As part of its oversight responsibility, FAA has safeguards in place to ensure that pilot applicants are provided the necessary training and undergo complete and thorough pilot certification examinations. The National Program Guidelines (NPG), initiated in 1985, are oversight policy guidelines developed annually by FAA for its eight regional offices and their associated local district offices for oversight of pilot schools, pilot examiners, and flight instructors. The NPG identifies required inspections and optional inspections. As part of this oversight process, FAA uses the Program Tracking and Reporting Subsystem (PTRS) for scheduling and recording inspection records and findings for NPG inspections of pilot schools, flight instructors, and pilot examiners. Additionally, FAA uses the Enforcement Information System (EIS) for tracking and reporting information about any enforcement actions the agency takes for statutory or regulatory violations. As a member of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), the United States conforms to international standards and recommended practices for pilot training and certification. ICAO is the international body that, among other things, promulgates international standards and recommended practices in an effort to harmonize global aviation standards. These standards and recommended practices are developed to ensure that civil aviation throughout the world is safe and secure. ICAO has no enforcement powers and only establishes recommended standards and guidelines, e.g., licensing requirements for flight crew personnel, including pilots. Therefore, ICAO members (known as contracting states) decide whether to incorporate the standards and recommended practices into national laws or aviation regulations. The roughly 3,400 U.S. pilot schools can be divided into three categories: (1) non-collegiate flight instructor-based schools, (2) non-collegiate vocational pilot schools, and (3) collegiate aviation schools. The training provided by the school varies in the minimum requirements for the flight and ground school hours required for each certification level, level of oversight provided by FAA, and level of educational instruction being provided by type of school. However, all student pilots have to successfully complete ground and flight training and pass the same knowledge and practical tests prior to receiving a pilot certificate from FAA. Nevertheless, there is no consensus and little empirical evidence on how the different pilot training schools compare in preparing professional pilots for the commercial airline industry. In addition, modern aircraft used by regional airlines have evolved and the operational demands have increased on pilots in high-altitude and complex airline operations; yet, U.S. pilot training requirements for certification of commercial pilots were last revised in 1997. For example, it is possible for an individual to obtain all levels of pilot certifications (i.e., private, commercial, and airline transport) in a general aviation flying environment in a single-engine aircraft. However, in order to qualify to be hired by an airline, a commercial pilot would also need to obtain instrument and multi-engine ratings. Some stakeholders, including representatives of regional airlines, we interviewed said the current training regulations for commercial pilots should be revised to incorporate additional training that would improve the competency of entry-level first officer applicants. FAA has initiated several efforts to address issues related to pilot training and certification testing. Recent legislation requires that FAA develop regulations increasing pilot certification requirements for all airline pilots. Approximately 3,400 pilot schools exist in the United States and the most basic difference among the types of schools is the training environment provided to the students. For the reporting purposes of our study, we divided them into three categories: (1) non-collegiate flight instructor- based schools, (2) non-collegiate vocational pilot schools, and (3) collegiate aviation schools.  Non-collegiate flight instructor-based schools (Part 61). Pilot training conducted under Part 61 regulations is often provided by an individual, for-hire flight instructor who can operate independently as a single-instructor school at a local airport with a single aircraft on which to train students. Other flight instructor-based schools operate as a more traditional training school with a small, physical facility located at a particular airport. These schools are the most common type (see fig. 3). The majority of students that complete training in non-collegiate, flight instructor-based schools are generally interested in recreational flying, although most commercial pilots in the United States also undertake this type of training as the initial path toward becoming an airline pilot. Flight instructor-based schools offer flexible training environments to meet specific students’ needs as long as they pass the final tests. These schools are not subject to direct FAA oversight beyond the initial certification and subsequent renewal of the flight instructor’s certificate. However, flight instructors may be inspected by FAA when a triggering event occurs regarding the training being provided, such as being involved in an aircraft accident.  Non-collegiate vocational pilot schools (Part 141). Vocational schools elect to apply for an operating certificate from FAA to provide pilot training under Part 141 regulations. Part 141 regulations require these schools to meet prescribed standards with respect to training equipment, facilities, student records, personnel, and curriculums. Vocational schools must have structured and formalized programs and have their detailed training course outlines or curriculums approved by FAA. Curriculums can vary in content, but FAA provides fundamental core training guidelines that must be followed within the curriculum for the school to receive a certificate. These schools do not allow the flexibility of flight instructor-based schools as the training sequence outlined in the curriculum cannot be altered. FAA requires annual inspections of these schools, unlike flight instructor-based schools.