Design standards, building codes, and voluntary certifications provide guidelines for the construction of infrastructure. Standards-developing organizations are the primary source of the standards, codes, and certifications that federal, state, local, and private-sector infrastructure planners follow. Standards-developing organizations typically develop standards, codes, and certifications through a formal, consensus-based process, and federal law and policies govern the participation of agency officials in their development. Design standards, building codes, and voluntary certifications play a role in the federal fiscal exposure to the effects of climate change. Design standards, building codes, and voluntary certifications provide guidelines for the construction of infrastructure, specifically: Design Standards. OMB Circular A-119—which establishes policies on the federal government’s role in development and use of standards—defines “standards” to include the common and repeated use of rules, conditions, guidelines, or characteristics for products or related processes and production methods. For example, the American Society of Civil Engineers issued a design standard that specifies minimum structural load requirements under various types of conditions, taking into accounts factors such as soil type and potential for floods, snow, rain, ice, and wind. Building Codes. Building codes are minimum safeguards to ensure the public health, safety, and general welfare of the occupants of new and existing buildings and structures, according to the International Code Council, a standards-developing organization. For example, building codes may ensure that exterior walls and roofs are resistant to the weather, such as by including flashing and drainage. Building codes may reference one or more design standards. Voluntary Certifications. Voluntary certifications assess infrastructure across a spectrum of key criteria, including environmental performance, and recognize those that go beyond minimum code compliance. For example, the U.S. Green Building Council developed the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification, which offers four ratings levels—certified, silver, gold, and platinum—depending on how many points a project earns in various categories. In addition to design standards, building codes, and voluntary certifications, broader considerations, such as planning ordinances and asset management, may govern the construction of infrastructure. For example, planning ordinances may specify where to site new residential or commercial buildings and place conditions on their design, such as building height. Further, asset management—a decision-making approach for providing the best level of service to customers at the lowest appropriate cost—can guide what to build. For example, builders and owners may use an asset management framework to decide whether to repair or replace a building or another physical asset. In this report, we focus on the use of climate information in standards, model codes, and certifications, although climate information may also be relevant to broader planning processes and asset management decisions. In the United States, standards-developing organizations are the primary source of design standards, building codes, and voluntary certifications that federal, state, local, and private-sector infrastructure planners follow. For example, a 2015 report by the National Institute of Building Sciences’ Consultative Council on the priorities of the building industry stated that standards-developing organizations develop and maintain standards and codes, while state and local governments adapt, adopt, and enforce them. In April 2013, we found that federal agencies rely on professional associations in adopting design standards. In 2015, we found that federal agencies and the private sector use voluntary certifications that third-party organizations—such as standards-developing organizations— develop. A variety of organizations, including professional societies and trade associations such as the American Society of Civil Engineers and the International Association of Plumbing & Mechanical Officials, develop design standards, building codes, and voluntary certifications. Members of these organizations can include academics; professionals, such as architects, engineers, and planners; and federal, state, and local government officials. Various federal laws and regulations govern the use of design standards, building codes, and voluntary certifications that standards-developing organizations issue, including the following: The National Technology Transfer and Advancement Act of 1995, as amended (NTTAA), codified the OMB Circular A-119 directive for federal agencies to use voluntary consensus standards in lieu of government-unique standards except where inconsistent with law or otherwise impractical. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) regulations incorporate, by reference, certain design standards that the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials develops, thereby requiring their use for projects in the National Highway System. The Public Buildings Amendments of 1988 requires that each building constructed or altered by GSA or any other federal agency, to the maximum extent feasible, comply with one of the nationally recognized model building and other applicable codes. The Cranston-Gonzalez National Affordable Housing Act, as amended, requires the Secretaries of Agriculture and HUD to establish by regulation energy efficiency standards for certain housing (i.e., public housing and homes whose mortgages are insured by HUD’s Federal Housing Administration) that meet or exceed the requirements of specified design standards and building codes and, in certain circumstances, to amend the regulation when the standards or codes are revised. The Energy Conservation and Production Act, as amended, requires the Secretary of Energy to determine whether each revision of certain model energy codes for residential and commercial buildings would improve energy efficiency. If the Secretary makes an affirmative determination, states have 2 years to certify that they have determined whether it was appropriate to revise their residential building energy code to meet or exceed the revised model code and updated their commercial building energy code to meet or exceed the revised model codes. If a federal agency chooses to use a green building voluntary certification for a covered new building or major renovation, it must meet the certification standards in DOE’s regulations. The regulations require that the system used to certify the building be developed by an organization that provides an opportunity for developing the system through a consensus-based process and subject to periodic evaluation and assessment of the environmental and energy benefits that result, among other things. Standards-developing organizations follow similar, formal, consensus- based processes in the development of American National Standards— which include design standards, building codes, and voluntary certifications. The American National Standards Institute, an organization that accredits standards-developing organizations, established requirements for due process that standards-developing organizations must follow when developing American National Standards. In 2000, NIST and the American National Standards Institute signed a memorandum of understanding to, among other things, improve communication and coordination among the private and public sector on voluntary standards issues. This memorandum recognizes NIST’s responsibility to coordinate standards activities with responsible federal agencies to use voluntary consensus standards to the extent practicable, participate appropriately in their development, and ensure that they meet federal agency needs. It recognizes the American National Standards Institute’s role of accrediting standards developers and approving proposed standards as American National Standards. Standards- developing organizations that plan to develop an American National Standard use a process that may differ in some of the details, such as how to determine consensus, but must follow the principles of due process, including openness; balance of interests; and consensus and the same basic steps, as seen in figure 1. 1. Initiate standards-developing activity. Members of standards- developing organizations and, in some cases, members of the public may propose to initiate standards activity. Proposals may include information about the need for and anticipated benefits to the public of the new or revised standard, as well as potential costs. The standards-developing organization determines whether to draft a new standard or revise an existing standard. If the standards-developing organization agrees to draft a new standard or revise the existing one, it directs a committee to undertake the activity. The committee may include members of the organization as well as nonmembers—i.e., representatives of companies and nonprofit organizations and government officials with subject-matter expertise who serve on a voluntary basis. 2. Draft new or revised standard. The committee drafts the new or revised standard and seeks public input by notifying members of the standards-developing organization, the American National Standards Institute, and other interested parties. 3. Review draft standard. The committee considers public comments and the views of all interested parties and revises the draft standard. 4. Finalize draft standard. The committee uses a consensus-based process to vote on whether to approve the draft standard. For example, to approve a draft standard, some standards-developing organizations require a supermajority—at least two-thirds—of the members who cast ballots as well as resolution of any negative comments. The standards-developing organization must provide an appeals process for procedural decisions, including whether a technical issue was afforded due process. 5. Issue new or revised standard. If the draft standard is approved, the standards-developing organization issues the new or revised standard and notifies the American National Standards Institute. The committee establishes a schedule for review, generally at least every 5 years. At that time, the standards-developing organization may reaffirm, revise, or withdraw the standard. Federal law requires agencies to participate in the development of standards when it is in the public interest and is compatible with agency mission, authority, priorities, and budget resources. In addition, NIST is authorized to cooperate with other departments and agencies of the federal government, state and local governments, and private organizations, among other entities, in establishing voluntary consensus standards and codes. The Energy Policy Act of 1992 requires DOE to support the upgrading of model building energy codes for new buildings and periodically review their technical and economic basis. OMB Circular A-119 encourages federal representatives to participate actively and on an equal basis with other members, consistent with the procedures of the standards bodies, in the standards organization, including in developing and adopting new standards by being fully involved in discussions and technical debates, registering opinions, and serving in leadership positions if selected. OMB Circular A-119 notes that agency representatives should avoid the practice or the appearance of undue influence relating to their participation in standards bodies and activities.