The TacSat experiments and efforts to develop small, low-cost launch vehicles are part of a larger DOD initiative: Operationally Responsive Space (ORS). In general, ORS was created by DOD’s Office of Force Transformation (OFT) in response to the Secretary of Defense’s instruction to create a new business model for developing and employing space systems. Under ORS, DOD aims to rapidly deliver to the warfighter low-cost, short-term joint tactical capabilities defined by field commanders—capabilities that would complement and augment national space capabilities, not replace them. ORS would also serve as a test bed for the larger space program by providing a clear path for science and technology investments, enhancing institutional and individual knowledge, and providing increased access to space for testing critical research and development payloads. ORS is a considerable departure from the approach DOD has used over the past two decades to acquire the larger space systems that currently dominate its space portfolio. These global multipurpose systems, which have been designed for longer life and increased reliability, require years to develop and a significant investment of resources. The slow generational turnover—currently 15 to 25 years— does not allow for a planned rate of replacement for information technology hardware and software. In addition, the data captured through DOD’s larger space systems generally go through many levels of analysis before being relayed to the warfighter in theater. The TacSat experiments aim to quickly provide the warfighter with a capability that meets an identified need within available resources—time, funding, and technology. Limiting the TacSats’ scope allows DOD to trade off reliability and performance for speed, responsiveness, convenience, and customization. Once each TacSat satellite is launched, DOD plans to test its level of utility to the warfighter in theater. If military utility is established, according to a DOD official, DOD will assess the acquisition plan required to procure and launch numerous TacSats—forming constellations—to provide wider coverage over a specific theater. As a result, each satellite’s capability does not need to be as complex as that of DOD’s larger satellites and does not carry with it the heightened consequence of failure as if each satellite alone were providing total coverage. DOD currently has four TacSat experiments in different stages of development (see figure 1). According to Naval Research Laboratory officials, TacSat 2’s delay is primarily the result of overestimating the maturity of its main payload—an off-the-shelf imager that was being refurbished for space use. Officials also noted that the contracting process, which took longer than expected, used multiple and varied contracts awarded under standard federal and defense acquisition regulations. DOD is also using the TacSat experiments as a means for developing “bus” standards—the platform that provides power, attitude, temperature control, and other support to the satellite in space. Currently, DOD’s satellite buses are custom-made for each space system. According to DOD officials, establishing bus standards with modular or common components would facilitate building satellites—both small and large—more quickly and at a lower cost. To achieve one of the TacSat experiments’ goals—getting new capabilities to the warfighter sooner—DOD must secure a small, low-cost launch vehicle that is available on demand. Instead of waiting months or years to carry out a launch, DOD is looking to small launch vehicles that could be launched in days, if not hours, and whose cost would better match the small budgets of experiments. A 2003 Air Force study determined that DOD’s current class of launchers—the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle—would not be able to satisfy these requirements. DOD delivered the TacSat 1 satellite within cost and schedule targets. To develop the first TacSat, DOD effectively managed requirements, employed mature technologies, and built the satellite in the science and technology environment, all under the guidance of a leader who provided a clear vision and prompt funding for the project. DOD is also moving forward with developing additional TacSats; bus standards; and a small, low-cost launch vehicle available on demand. In May 2004, 12 months after TacSat 1 development began, the Naval Research Laboratory delivered the satellite to OFT at a cost of about $9.3 million, thereby meeting its targets to develop the satellite within 1 year and an estimated budget of $8.5 million to $10 million. Once TacSat 1 is placed into orbit, it is expected to provide capabilities that will allow a tactical commander to directly task the satellite and receive data over DOD’s Secure Internet Protocol Router—a need identified by the warfighter. Before TacSat 1’s development began, OFT and the Naval Research Laboratory worked together to reach consensus on known warfighter requirements that would match the cost, schedule, and performance objectives for the satellite. Our past work has found that when requirements are matched with resources, goals can be met within estimated schedule and budget. To inform the requirements selection process, the Naval Research Laboratory used an informal systems engineering approach to assess relevant technologies and determine which could meet TacSat 1 mission objectives within budget and schedule. Once TacSat 1’s requirements were set, OFT did not change them. To meet its mission objectives, OFT sought a capability that would be “good enough” for the warfighter, given available resources—rather than attempting to provide a significant leap in capability. OFT and the Naval Research Laboratory agreed to limit TacSat 1’s operational life span to 1 year, which allowed the laboratory to build the satellite with lower radiation protection levels, less fuel capacity, and fewer backups than would have been necessary for a satellite designed to last 6 years or longer. The use of existing technologies for the satellite and the bus also helped to keep TacSat 1 on schedule and within cost. For example, hardware from unmanned aerial vehicles and other aircraft were modified for space flight to protect them in the space environment, and bus components were purchased from a satellite communications company. Using items on hand at the Naval Research Laboratory—such as the space ground link system transponder and select bus electronics—resulted in a savings of about $5 million. Using and modifying existing technologies provided the laboratory better knowledge about the systems than if it had tried to develop the technologies from scratch. According to a laboratory official, the TacSat 1 experiment also achieved efficiencies by using the same software to test the satellite in the laboratory and fly the satellite. Developing the TacSat within the science and technology environment also helped the experiment meet its goals. As we have stressed in our reports on systems development, the science and technology environment is more forgiving and less costly than the acquisition environment. For example, when engineers encountered a blown electronics part during TacSat 1’s full system testing, they were able to dismantle the satellite, identify the source of the problem, replace the damaged part, and rebuild the satellite—all within 2 weeks of the initial failure. According to the laboratory official, this problem would have taken months to repair in a major space acquisition program simply because there would have been stricter quality control measures, more people involved, and thus more sign-offs required at each step. Moreover, the contracting mechanism in place at the Naval Research Laboratory allows the laboratory to respond quickly to DOD requests. Specifically, the center used several existing engineering and technical support contracts that are competed, generally, at 5-year intervals, rather than competing a specific contract for TacSat 1. According to a number of DOD officials, the ultimate success of the TacSat 1 procurement was largely the result of the former OFT director, who provided the original impetus and obtained support for the experiment from high levels within DOD and the Congress; negotiated a customized mission assurance agreement with Air Force leaders to launch TacSat 1 from Vandenberg Air Force Base at a cost that was affordable given the experiment’s budget; empowered TacSat 1’s project manager at the Naval Research Laboratory to make appropriate trade-off decisions to deliver the satellite on time and within cost; and helped OFT staff develop an efficient work relationship with the Naval Research Laboratory team and provided the laboratory with prompt decisions. DOD is currently working on developing three additional TacSat experiments—along with bus standards—and a low-cost, on-demand launch vehicle. These efforts are generally in the early stages. DOD expects to launch TacSat 2—which began as an Air Force science and technology experiment and was altered to improve upon TacSat 1’s capability—in May 2007. TacSat 3, which will experiment with imaging sensors, is in the development phase. TacSat 4, which will experiment with friendly forces tracking and data communication services, is in the design phase. Table 1 shows the development cost and schedule estimates and the target launch date for each satellite. With TacSat 3, the Air Force began to formalize the process for evaluating and selecting potential capabilities for the TacSats, leveraging the experiences from the first two TacSats. The selection process, which currently takes 3 to 4 months, includes a presentation of capability gaps and shortfalls from the combatant commands and each branch of the military, and analyses of the suitability, feasibility, and transferability of the capabilities deemed the highest priority. According to DOD officials, this process allows the science and technology community to obtain early buy-in from the warfighter, thereby increasing the likelihood that requirements will remain stable and the satellite will have military utility. Obtaining warfighter involvement in this way represents a new approach for the TacSat series. See figure 3 for a more complete description of this evolving process. The Air Force has also begun to create plans for procuring TacSats for the warfighter should they prove to have military utility.