Deconstructing Functions on Quadratic Surfaces into Multipoles
Gabriel Katz
August 4, 2021
Abstract
Any homogeneous polynomial P (x, y, z) of degree d, being restricted to a unit sphere S2,
admits essentially a unique representation of the form λ +
Lkj ], where Lkj ’s are
linear forms in x, y and z and λ is a real number. The coefficients of these linear forms, viewed
as 3D vectors, are called multipole vectors of P . In this paper we consider similar multipole
representations of polynomial and analytic functions on other quadratic surfaces Q(x, y, z) = c,
real and complex. Over the complex numbers, the above representation is not unique, although
the ambiguity is essentially finite. We investigate the combinatorics that depicts this ambiguity.
We link these results with some classical theorems of harmonic analysis, theorems that describe
decompositions of functions into sums of spherical harmonics. We extend these classical theo-
rems (which rely on our understanding of the Laplace operator ∆S2) to more general differential
operators ∆Q that are constructed with the help of the quadratic form Q(x, y, z). Then we in-
troduce modular spaces of multipoles. We study their intricate geometry and topology using
methods of algebraic geometry and singularity theory. The multipole spaces are ramified over
vector or projective spaces, and the compliments to the ramification sets give rise to a rich
family of K(π, 1)-spaces, where π runs over a variety of modified braid groups.
1 Introduction
This paper aims to generalize and extend some results in [KW] and [W] about deconstruction of
cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) into multipole vectors and explain these results
to a mathematically inclined audience. Our exposition, to a degree, is self-sufficient. It resembles
in spirit to the paper of V. Arnold [A] which contains a nice treatment of similar structures (in a
setting that is a special case of ours).
In [S], [S1] Sylvester discovered the following basic fact1:
Theorem 1 Every real homogeneous polynomial P of degree d in x, y, and z may be written as
P (x, y, z) = (a1x+ b1y + c1z)(a2x+ b2y + c2z) ... (adx+ bdy + cdz) +
+ (x2 + y2 + z2) ·R(x, y, z), (1)
1rediscovered in [WK] by the authors
http://arxiv.org/abs/0704.1174v1
where the remainder term R is a homogeneous polynomial of degree d − 2. The decomposition is
unique up to reordering and rescaling of the linear factors in the product; in other words, R(x, y, z)
is unique.
For harmonic homogeneous polynomials P , a somewhat similar representation (see formula (7))
was discovered by James Clerk Maxwell in his 1873 Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism [M].
Its relation to algebraic geometry in general, and to the Sylvester theorem, in particular, is well-
explained by Courant and Hilbert in [CH] VII, Sec. 5.
Sylvester’s Theorem 1—an application of Bézout’s theorem—has a pleasing corollary:
Theorem 2 [KW ] When restricted to a unit sphere S2, every real polynomial P in x, y, and z of
degree d can be written in the form
P (x, y, z) = λ+ (a11x+ b11y + c11z) + (a21x+ b21y + c21z)(a22x+ b22y + c22z) + . . .
. . . + (ad1x+ bd1y + cd1z)(ad2x+ bd2y + cd2z) . . . (addx+ bddy + cddz), (2)
where λ and the ajk, bjk, cjk are real numbers. The decomposition is unique up to reordering and
rescaling of the linear factors in each of the products.
We denote by ∆ the Laplace operator on the euclidean 3-space and by ∆S2 the Laplace operator
on the unit sphere. An eigenfunction of ∆S2 which has an eigenvalue −d(d + 1) is called the d-th
spherical harmonic. In fact, such an eigenfunction is a restriction to S2 of a homogeneous harmonic
polynomial in x, y, and z of degree d. It is well-known that spherical harmonics form a basis in
the space L2(S
2) of L2-integrable functions on a unit sphere (see [CH]). As a result, an infinite
decomposition is available for any function f ∈ L2(S
2) (cf. [L], formula (26)).
Theorem 3 Any real function f ∈ L2(S
2) has a representation in the form
f(x, y, z) =
(akjx+ bkjy + ckjz)
where the series converges in the L2-norm, and the mutually orthogonal polynomials in the figure
brackets are among the d-th spherical harmonics. This representation is unique, up to reordering
and rescaling of the linear factors in each of the products.
In the space of real continuous functions f on S2 there is a dense (in the sup-norm) and O(3)-
invariant subset F(S2) comprised of functions that admit a representation in the form of a series
(adjx+ bdjy + cdjz)
that converges uniformly on the sphere. Each function from F(S2) admits a canonical extension
into the interior of the unit ball D3 where it produces a real analytic function.
Theorem 3, claiming a form of stability of decomposition (2) under the polynomial approximations,
is a useful tool for analyzing patterns in the spherical sky [W].
At the first glance, the sphere seems to occupy a special place in these results. However, what
is really important, is the quadratic nature of the surface. This paper is concerned with similar
decompositions of functions on other quadratic affine surfaces, real and complex. For instance, it
is natural to wonder whether one can deconstruct in a similar fashion polynomial or real analytic
functions on a hyperboloid. The answer is affirmative, but the uniqueness of the representation is
lost.
Evidently, polynomial deconstructions of type (2) can be described by listing the 3-vectors
(ajk, bjk, cjk), where 1 ≤ j ≤ d and 1 ≤ k ≤ j. Following Maxwell, we call them multipole
vectors. There is a sizable ambiguity in choosing the multipole vectors that represent a given
polynomial function. Factoring out this ambiguity produces an object that we call a multipole
or, more specifically, a d-pole. A major advantage of representing functions P (x, y, z) in terms of
multipole vectors is the naturality with which the multipoles behave under linear transformations,
in particular, under rotations.
The focal point of this paper is to describe rich algebro-geometrical structures and topology of
modular spaces of d-poles M(d) and its “semi-compactification” M(d) (see formulas-definitions
(10), (11) and (13)). In the process, we bring under the same roof a variety of mathematical
techniques and constructions that belong to the fields of algebraic geometry, singularity theory,
algebraic topology, harmonic analysis, and the polynomial approximation theory. None of our
techniques is very advanced, but their natural appearance within the context of studying quadratic
surfaces is pleasing and somewhat surprising...
The reader can follow two distinct treads in the core of the paper. The first tread winds through the
results that require methods of algebraic geometry. These results are uniquely three-dimensional,
that is, applicable only to quadratic surfaces. The second tread unifies results that are linear in
nature and are based on the classical theory of harmonic analysis on quadratic surfaces. These
results are valid for quadratic hypersurfaces in any dimension.
Now, let us describe informally the main results of the paper and its structure.
In the second section, we investigate a variety of special representations of complex polynomial
functions on complex quadratic surfaces Sλ := {Q(x, y, z) = λ}, where Q is a given non-degenerated
quadratic form and λ is a complex number. This section, the longest, contains all the core ideas and
constructions of the paper. The main results of Section 2 are contained in Theorems 6, 7, 10, and
12. Theorem 7 describes the d-pole space M(d) as a principle C∗-bundle over the d-th symmetric
power Symd(CP 2) of the complex projective space CP 2. Reconstructing a homogeneous polynomial
function P on the cone S0 := {Q(x, y, z) = 0} from the appropriate multipole defines a regular map
ΦQ from the modular space M(d) to the vector space V
Q (d) — the d-graded portion of the regular
ring C[x, y, z]/〈Q〉 of S0. Remarkably, this map is a surjection onto V
Q (d)
◦ := V ⊥Q (d) \ {0} with a
generic fiber of cardinality (2d−1)!! := 1·3·5·. . . ·(2d−1). In other words, for a generic homogeneous
polynomial P of degree d, there are (2d− 1)!! Sylvester-type representations P = Q ·R+
j=1 Lj
with distinct R’s (here Lj is a linear form in x, y, and z). According to Theorem 7, ΦQ is ramified
over a subvariety D(ΦQ) ⊂ V
Q (d) of codimension one. Points of D(ΦQ) represent polynomials P
whose zero sets contain lines in S0 of multiplicity at least two. The complement V
Q (d)
◦ \ D(ΦQ)
is a K(π, 1)-space, where π is an extension of the modified braid group B
2d in 2d strings by the
infinite cyclic group Z. The map ΦQ is C
∗-equivariant, which leads to a regular surjection ΨQ from
M(d)/C∗ = Symd(CP 2) onto the projective space V ⊥Q (d)
◦/C∗ ≈ CP 2d. Theorem 6, similar to
Theorem 7, describes the ramified geometry of ΨQ. The ramification set D(ΨQ) is a discriminant
subvariety of CP 2d and its complement, again, is a K(π, 1)-space, where π is the braid group in 2d
strings in a spherical shell. Thus, Theorems 6 and 7 describe the possibility and the ambiguities
of multipole representations for homogeneous polynomial functions on the cone S0. We notice (see
Corrolary 8) that the topology of the map ΦQ puts some breaks on the multipole representations
of multidimensional families of functions on S0.
Theorem 11 helps us to move from the multipole representations of homogeneous polynomials on
the cone S0 towards the multipole representations of general polynomial functions on any affine
quadratic surface Sλ: here one needs a sequence of d multipoles to capture a given function of
degree d.
Next, we describe the restriction of the map ΦQ to the modular space of multipoles that are confined
to a given plane in C3 (see formula (27)). In fact, being restricted to the space of coplannar
multipoles, ΦQ becomes a 1-to-1 map. This observation helps us to employ the quadratic form Q
for constructing interesting examples of ramified maps of degree 2d from the space CP d to itself.
Let us glance at these maps. The equation Q(x, y, z) = 0 defines an irreducible quadratic curve
Q in the projective space CP 2∗ with projective coordinates [x : y : z]. Pick a point p ∈ CP
∗ \ Q.
Then any q ∈ Q determines a line in CP 2∗ passing through p and q, and any effective divisor D
of degree d on Q gives rise to a collection of lines through p and D, taken with the appropriate
multiplicitiies. Such a collection can be regarded as an effective divisor of degree d on the dual space
CP 1 ⊂ CP 2. The embedding CP 1 ⊂ CP 2 corresponds to the pencil of lines through p. In other
words, the choice of p and Q produces a regular map ΓQ : Sym
d(Q) → Symd(CP 1). As abstract
varieties, Q and CP 1 are isomorphic. Hence, each quadratic form Q generates a regular map ΓQ
from CP d ≈ Symd(CP 1) onto itself with a generic fiber of cardinality 2d. Theorem 10 describes and
Figure 3 depicts a rather intricate geometry of the map ΓQ. This map is ramified over the variety
D(ΓQ) — the union of the classical discriminat variety Dd ⊂ CP
d with two hyperplanes that are
tangent to it (they depend on Q). The complement CP d \ D(ΓQ) is, again, a K(π, 1)-space with
π being the braid group in d strings in a cylindrical shell. This completes our algebro-geometric
treatment of the modular spaces of complex multipoles.
Classical harmonic analysis on spheres provides an alternative approach to function deconstructions
on quadratic surfaces (see formulas (6) and (8)). We observe that these deconstructions, based on
spherical harmonics, behave in a natural way under complex linear change of coordinates that
preserve a given nondegenerated quadratic form Q(~v) = 〈~vB,~v〉. Such a change calls for replacing
the Laplace operator ∆ with a second order differential operator ∆Q = [~∂]B
−1[~∂]T , where ~∂ :=
(∂x, ∂y , ∂z). Under this transformation, the homogeneous polynomial solutions of the equation
∆Q(P ) = 0 take the role of spherical harmonics. In particular, homogeneous polynomial solutions
of the wave equation (∂2x+∂
z )P (x, y, z) = 0 replace the spherical harmonics on the hyperboloid
x2 + y2 − z2 = 1. Along these lines, our Theorem 12 is a straightforward reformulation of well-
known results of classical harmonic analysis. One can view the generalized Maxwell Formula (37)
as a bridge between methods of harmonic analysis (the second tread) and methods of algebraic
geometry (the first tread).
The third section deals with decompositions of real polynomial functions on real quadratic surfaces.
In a sense, Section 3 is a “Z2-equivariant modification” of Section 2, where the cyclic group of
order two acts on functions and surfaces by complex conjugation. Theorem 17 is the real version
of Theorem 12 from Section 2. Theorem 14 is the real analog of theorem 7, and Theorem 13 of
Theorem 11. As a byproduct of our analysis of modular spaces MR(d) of real multipoles, we prove
that the manifolds Symd(RP 2) and RP 2d are diffeomorphic (see [A], Theorem 2, and our Corollary
In the fourth section, we discuss a spectacular failure of the multipole representations for affine
surfaces of degrees greater than two. Lemma 9 explains the nature of this failure: the set of
completely factorable polynomials on non-quadratic affine surfaces is a subvariety in the space of
all polynomial functions; in other words, for a form Q of degree at least three, a generic element of
the ring C[x, y, z]/〈Q〉 is irreducible.
The fifth section deals with infinite decompositions of functions on quadratic surfaces, both real
and complex. The main issue is whether our multipole representations converge appropriately.
Theorems 19 and 21 capture the main results of this section. Theorem 22 is a real analog of
Theorem 21 and a generalization of Theorem 3 from the Introduction.
Now a few words about the motivation for this paper that lies outside mathematics. Cosmologists
who study the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR) routinely decompose it into a
sum of spherical harmonics. This decomposition helps to analyze the correlations between the
magnitude and geometry of various harmonics. There is a hope that the lower harmonics can
capture some global properties of the Universe. The ultimate goal of these investigations is to
understand the geometry and topology of the visible universe and the physics of the Big Bang.
The data obtained byWilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) reveal puzzling correlations
between the low d-portion of the harmonic decomposition of the CMBR [B], [CHS], [TOH], [EHGL].
In the case of quadrupole-octopole (d = 2 and 3) alignment, simulations based on our fast algorithm
(which employes Theorem 2) show the alignment to be unusual at the 98.7 percent level (see [KW],
[W]). No explanation is yet known for these strange results.
2 Multipoles and polynomials on complex quadratic surfaces
We denote by C[x, y, z] the ring of complex polynomials in the variables x, y, and z. Let Q(x, y, z)
be an irreducible quadratic form over the complex numbers C. From a strictly algebraic perspective,
one can interpret this section as describing the ways in which the quotient ring C[x, y, z]/〈Q − λ〉,
λ ∈ C, fails to be a Unique Factorization Domain. However, the flavor of our approach to this
problem is more geometrical and combinatorial.
The reader will be well-adviced to ignore for a while the asterisks in our notations: they are there
to distinguish between vector spaces and their duals. Let S = {Q(x, y, z) = 1} be a complex
algebraic surface in C3∗. At the same time, {Q(x, y, z) = 0} gives rise to a complex projective curve
Q ⊂ CP 2∗ , where CP
∗ stands for the projectivization of the 3-space with coordinates x, y, and z.
As in Theorem 2, we aim to decompose any polynomial P (x, y, z) restricted to S as an “economic”
sum of products of homogeneous linear polynomials.
First, consider the case of an homogeneous P and the corresponding complex projective quadratic
curve P in CP 2∗ it generates. Denote by Z(P,Q) the intersection P ∩ Q. We assume that P and
Q do not share a common component, so that Z(P,Q) is a finite set. When Z(P,Q) is a complete
intersection, it consists of exactly 2d points, where d = deg(P ).
Definition 1 Let Q(x, y, z) be an homogeneous irreducible quadratic polynomial, and P (x, y, z) an
homogeneous polynomial of degree d. Assume that Z(P,Q) is a complete intersection. A parcelling
of the set Z(P,Q) is comprized of a number of subsets {Zν ⊂ Z(P,Q)}ν so that:
• Z(P,Q) =
• Zν ∩ Zν′ = ∅, provided ν 6= ν
• the cardinality of each subset Zν is equal to 2.
When Q is irreducible and P is not divisible by Q, the intersection set Z(P,Q) is equipped with a
function µ which assigns to each point p ∈ Z(P,Q) its multiplicity µ(p).
We denote by Z+ the set of non-negative integers and by N the set of positive integers.
Definition 2 Let Z be a finite set equipped with a multiplicity function µ : Z → N whose l1-norm
‖µ‖1 is 2d. A generalized parcelling of (Z, µ) is a collection of functions µν : Z → {0, 1, 2}, such
ν µν = µ
• ‖µν‖1 = 2
Of course, each parcelling of Z(P,Q) is also a generalized parcelling, where the roles of the functions
µν are played by the characteristic functions of the parcels Zν .
In the case of Q = x2 + y2 + z2, the following lemma is due to Sylvester [S], [S1].
Lemma 1 Let Q(x, y, z) be an irreducible homogeneous quadratic polynomial and let P (x, y, z) be
a homogeneous polynomial of degree d which is not divisible by Q. Consider a generalized parcelling
ν µν of the multiplicity function µ : Z(P,Q) → N.
Then the homogeneous polynomial P (x, y, z) admits a representation of the form
Q(x, y, z) · R(x, y, z) +
Lν(x, y, z), (5)
where Lν denotes a linear homogeneous polynomial that vanishes at each point p ∈ Z(P,Q) ⊂ Q
with the multiplicity µν(p).
Proof There exist a linear polynomial Lν and a corresponding line Lν ⊂ CP
∗ such that the
multiplicity of Lν ∩ Q at each point p ∈ Z(P,Lν) equals µν(p). When µν(p) = 2, the line must
be tangent to Q at p. When the support of µν—the parcel Zν ⊂ Z(P,Q))—is comprised of two
points, the line Lν is chosen to contain Zν .
Let us compare the restrictions of P and
ν Lν to the curve Q. Both polynomials are of the same
degree d. Moreover, the curve L := {
ν Lν = 0} intersects with Q at the points of Z(P,Q), where
it realizes the multiplicities prescribed by the function µ. It follows that the restrictions of P and
ν Lν to Q are proportional, that is, for an appropriate choice of scalar λ, P |Q = λ ·
ν Lν |Q. Just
take λ = P (q)/
ν Lν(q) where q ∈ Q \ Z(P,Q). With this choice, the curves {P − λ
ν Lν = 0}
and Q intersect so that the total multiplicity of the intersection is at least 2d+ 1. By the Bézout
theorem, this is possible only when Z(P − λ
ν Lν) ⊃ Q. Employing the irreducibility of Q, we
get that P − λ ·
ν Lν must be divisible by Q. This completes the proof. �
Corollary 4 Any effective divisor D on the complex quadratic surface S = {Q(x, y, z) = 0} that
is the zero set of a homogeneous polynomial P (x, y, z) can be represented as a sum of lines Dν. �
In general, the representation (5) of P depends on a generalized parcelling, and thus, is not unique.
We denote by V (d) the complex vector space of homogeneous polynomials in x, y, and z of degree
d. Its dimension is (d2 + 3d + 2)/2. Consider a vector subspace VQ(d) ⊂ V (d) comprised of
polynomials divisible by Q. There is a canonical imbedding βQ : V (d − 2) → V (d) whose image
is VQ(d). It is produced by multiplying polynomials of degree d − 2 by Q. Thus, any space V (d)
is equipped with a natural filtration FQ(d) = {VQk(d)}k by subspaces of polynomials divisible by
various powers {Qk} of Q. We equip each V (d) with an Hermitian inner product. For various d’s,
we insist that these inner products are synchronized by the requirement: all the imbeddings βQ
must be isometries. Denote by V ⊥Q (d) the subspace of V (d) orthogonal to VQ(d). It can be identified
with the quotient space V (d)/VQ(d)—the d-graded part of the algebra of regular functions on the
complex cone {Q(x, y, z) = 0}. The dimension of V ⊥Q (d) is equal to (2d+ 1).
For a real form Q, similar spaces based on real homogeneous polynomials of a degree d make sense.
We denote them V (d;R), VQ(d;R), and V
Q (d;R).
When Q = x2 + y2 + z2, there is a classical interpretation for the quotient V (d;R)/VQ(d;R). It
can be identified with the set of harmonic homogeneous polynomials of degree d (cf. [CH] and
[M]). In other words, the kernel Har(d;R) of the Laplace operator ∆ : V (d;R) → V (d − 2;R) is
complementary to VQ(d;R) in V (d;R). This leads to a decomposition similar to the one in (5) (cf.
[Sh, Theorem 22.2], [L], and [W]) :
V (d;R) ≈ Har(d;R)⊕ VQ(d;R) (6)
The direct summands in (6) are orthogonal with respect to the inner product in V (d;R) defined
by the formula 〈f, g〉 =
f · g dm. The measure dm on the sphere S2 is the standard one.
Moreover, according to Maxwell, any polynomial P ∈ Har(d;R) admits a beautiful representation
of the form
P (x, y, z) = r2d+1 · ∇
, (7)
where r = (x2 + y2 + z2)1/2, {vj ∈ R
3} are some vectors,2 and ∇
stands for the directional
derivative operator.
Physics behind Maxwell’s representation is quite transparent: 1/r is a potential of a single electrical
charge, ∇
(1/r) is a potential of a “virtual” (that is, very small) dipole formed by two opposite
charges, ∇
(1/r) is a potential of a “virtual” quadropole—a close pair of v1-oriented dipoles
merging along the direction of v2—, ∇v3∇v2∇v1(1/r) is a potential of a “virtual” octopole, and so
on...
Note that, the Laplace operator ∆ = ∂2x + ∂
y + ∂
z can act on complex polynomials in complex
variables x, y, and z as well. Both over real and complex numbers, its kernel is described by the
same system of linear equations with real coefficients imposed on the coefficients of polynomials
of a given degree. Therefore, if ∆(P ) = 0 for some complex polynomial P , then ∆(PR) = 0 and
∆(P I) = 0. Here PR is defined by the formula
α,β,γ Re(aα,β,γ)x
αyβzγ and P I by the formula
α,β,γ Im(aα,β,γ)x
αyβzγ , where P =
α,β,γ aα,β,γ x
αyβzγ .
For any invertible complex (3×3)-matrix A = (ajk), consider a symmetric matrix B = (bjk) = A·A
and the corresponding quadratic form Q(v) = 〈vB, v〉, where v = (x, y, z), 〈∼,∼〉 stands for the
inner product xx′ + yy′ + zz′ in C3, and the upper script T denotes the matrix transposition.
Employing Q, we can form a second order differential operator ∆Q =
1≤i,j≤3 b
jk∂j∂k acting on
holomorphic functions f in the complex variables {x1 = x, x2 = y, x3 = z}. Here {b
ij} denote
elements of the inverse matrix B−1. Formally, ∆Q = [~∂] · B
−1 · [~∂]T where [~∂] := (∂1, ∂2, ∂3) :=
(∂x, ∂y , ∂z).
Given a non-degenerated quadratic form Q, there is a change of complex coordinates (x′, y′, z′) =
(x, y, z) ·A that reduces it to the canonical form Q′ = x′2+ y′2+ z′2. Consider the complex Laplace
operator ∆′ = ∂2x′ +∂
y′ +∂
z′ in the new coordinates (x
′, y′, z′). Then, for any holomorphic function
f(x′, y′, z′), we have
[∆′f ]((x, y, z) ·A) = ∆Q[f((x, y, z) ·A)].
Thus, there is a 1-to-1 correspondence between harmonic homogeneous polynomials f(x′, y′, z′) of
degree d and degree d homogeneous polynomial solutions g(x, y, z) of the equation
∆Q(g(x, y, z)) = 0.
Let us examine the intersection Ker(∆′) ∩ VQ′(d). For any homogeneous polynomial T of degree
d− 2, we get ∆′(Q′ ·T ) = Q′ ·∆′(T )+∆′(Q′) ·T +2〈∇T,∇Q′〉 = Q′ ·∆′(T )+ (4d− 6)T . Therefore,
if Q′ · T ∈ Ker(∆′), then T must be divisible by Q′ (note that ∆′(T ) = 0 implies T = 0). Put
T = Q′ · T1 and κ(d) = 4d+ 2. The equation 0 = ∆
′(Q′ · T ) = Q′ ·∆′(Q′ · T1) + κ(d− 2) ·Q
′ · T1 is
equivalent to the equation 0 = ∆′(Q′ ·T1)+κ(d−2)·T1 = Q
′ ·∆′(T1)+[κ(d−2)+κ(d−4)]·T1 . Again,
it follows that T1 must be divisible by Q
′. Continuing inductively this kind of reasoning, we see that
Ker(∆′) ∩ VQ′(d) = {0}. On the other hand, one can verify that dim[Ker(∆
′)] + dim[VQ′(d)] =
dim[V (d)]. Thus, V (d) = Ker(∆′)⊕ VQ′(d).
2Later, we call them ”the leading multipole vectors” of P .
A polynomial P (x′, y′, z′) is divisible by x′2 + y′2 + z′2, if and only if, P ((x, y, z) ·A) is divisible by
Q(x, y, z). Therefore, V (d) = Ker(∆Q)⊕ VQ(d) as well.
Let OQ(3;C) denote a subgroup of the general linear group GL(3;C) that preserves the quadratic
form Q. A matrix U ∈ OQ(3;C) if and only if UBU
T = B. The natural OQ(3;C)-action on the
space of x, y, and z-variables induces an action on the polynomial space V (d). Evidently, VQ(d) is
invariant under this action. On the other hand, for any polynomial P (x, y, z),
∆Q[P ((x, y, z) · U)] = [∆Q̃P ]((x, y, z) · U)),
where the operator ∆
:= [~∂] · UTB−1U · [~∂]T . Since UBUT = B, we get (U−1)TB−1U−1 = B−1.
By a simple algebraic trick, it follows that UTB−1U = B−1. As a result, both the quadratic form
Q and the kernel Ker(∆Q) are invariant under the OQ(3;C)-action.
Consider Maxwell’s representation (7) of a real homogeneous harmonic polynomial P (x′, y′, z′) of
degree d. It gives rise to a map Ξ that takes the sets of real vectors v1,v2, . . . ,vd to elements
of Har(d,R). The map Ξ is evidently linear in each of the vj ’s, and thus it is a real polynomial
map with a vector space of real dimension 2d + 1 for its target. By [CH], [L] and [W], Ξ is
onto the vector space Har(d,R). Therefore, the complexification ΞC of Ξ must be also onto the
vector space Har(d,C) ⊃ Har(d,R). Indeed, the image of ΞC in Har(d,C) is a complex algebraic
set containing a totally real vector subspace Har(d,R) of dimension dimC(Har(d,C)). In other
words, formula (7) must be valid for any complex homogeneous harmonic polynomial P (x′, y′, z′)
of degree d and appropriate complex vectors u1,u2, . . . ,ud ∈ C
3. In fact, each vector uj = vj ·A
Formula (7) describes any homogeneous complex polynomial solution of the equation ∆Q(f) = 0 in
the (x′, y′, z′) coordinates. Translating them back to the (x, y, z)-coordinates with the help of the
identity [∇
′f ′](x ·A) = ∇
′·A−1 [f
′(x ·A)] leads to a formula (9) below. Thus, we have established
the following proposition:
Lemma 2 The decomposition
V (d) = Ker(∆Q)⊕ VQ(d) (8)
holds for any non-degenerated complex quadratic form Q. It is invariant under the natural OQ(3;C)-
action on V (d). Moreover, for any P ∈ Ker(∆Q) of degree d, there exist vectors {uk ∈ C
3}1≤k≤d
so that the generalized Maxwell formula
P (x, y, z) = Q(x, y, z)d+
2 · ∇
. . .∇
Q(x, y, z)−
is valid.
In particular, with Q = x2 + y2 − z2, any degree d homogeneous complex polynomial solution P of
the wave equation (∂2x + ∂
y)P = ∂
zP is given by the formula (9). �
Formula (9) might pose a slight challenge: after all, square roots are multivalued analytic functions.
However, the ±-ambiguities in picking a single-valued branch cancel each other. We shall see
that, even up to reordering and rescaling of the multipole vectors {uk}, the complex Maxwell
representation (9) of a given “Q-harmonic” P is not unique.
Remark. In fact, by a similar argument, the decomposition (8) is available for homogeneous
polynomials in any number of variables and for any non-degenerated quadratic form Q (see [Sh],
Theorem 22.2, for the proof). At the same time, the representation (9) seems to be a 3-dimensional
phenomenon. It looks like that not any Q-harmonic polynomial in n > 3 variables can be expressed
in terms of d directional derivatives sequentially applied to the Q-harmonic potential Q1−n/2. This
seems to be related to the failure of the Sylvester-type formula (5) for n > 3. When I raised this
issue with Michael Shubin, he proposed a nice conjecture in the flavor of Maxwell’s representation
(although, not a direct generalization of it). In the Maxwell representation, one employs a differ-
ential operator which is a monomial in d directional derivatives, while in the conjecture below one
invokes a differential operator which is a polynomial in d directional derivatives.
Shubin’s Conjecture (An n-dimensional variation on the theme of Maxwell’s representation).
Let n > 2. For any real homogeneous and harmonic polynomial P of degree d in n variables {xj},
there exists a unique real homogeneous and harmonic polynomial P♣ also in n variables such that
P (x1, . . . , xn) = r
2d+n−2
P♣(∂x1 , . . . , ∂xn) r
where r = (
j=1 x
1/2, and the differential operator P♣(∂x1 , . . . , ∂xn) being applied to the poten-
tial function r2−n. Moreover, the polynomials P and P♣ are proportional with the coefficient of
proportionality depending only on d and n. �
Given a vector space V , we denote by V ◦ the space V \ {0}. We consider the 3-space V (1) ≈ C3
of linear forms L = ax+ by + cz (which we identify with the space of their coefficients {(a, b, c)})
and the 3-space V∗(1) ≈ C
∗ with the coordinates x, y, z. This calls for a distinction in notations
for their projectivizations: CP 2 and CP 2∗ . Hence, each point (a, b, c) ∈ V (1)
◦ determines a point
l = [a : b : c] in CP 2 and a complex line L in CP 2∗— the zero set of the form L.
Now, let us return to the decomposition (5). Each polynomial Lν from (5) can be viewed as a
vector in V (1) = V ⊥Q (1). Therefore, a given homogeneous polynomial P of degree d which is not
divisible by Q, together with the appropriate generalized parcelling, produces a collection of non-
zero vectors {wν ∈ V (1)}ν
3. We shall call this unordered set of vectors {wν} the leading multipole
vectors of P with respect to the corresponding generalized parcelling of µ : Z(P,Q) → Z+.
Lemma 3 For a given generalized parcelling µ =
ν µν of µ : Z(P,Q) → Z+, the subordinate
leading multipole vectors {wν ∈ V (1)}ν are unique up to reordering and rescaling of the Lν’s
(equivalently, the polynomial R in (5) is unique).
Proof We use the same notations as in the proof of Lemma 1. By an argument as in that proof,
any linear polynomial L′ν which defines a line L
ν with the property L
ν ∩ Q = Lν ∩ Q (the points
of intersection have multiplicities prescribed by µν) is of the form λLν . Here λ ∈ C
∗ and Lν is a
preferred polynomial corresponding to a vector wν ∈ V (1). Indeed, as in the proof of Lemma 1,
for an appropriate λ, by the Bézout Theorem, λLν − L
ν must be divisible by Q. �
As a result, the multipole is well defined by the parcelling of µ modulo some rescaling. Clearly,
one can always replace each Lν in (5) with λνLν as long as
ν λν = 1. Next, we analyze the exact
meaning of the “reordering and rescaling” ambiguity.
3These vectors are not necasarilly distinct.
Let Hq be an abelian subgroup of (C
∗)q formed by vectors {λν}1≤ν≤q subject to the restriction
ν λν = 1. Its rank is q − 1. Let Sq stand for the symmetric group in q symbols {1, 2, . . . , q}. We
denote by Σq an extension 1 → Hq → Σq → Sq → 1 of Sq by Hq. This group is generated by the
obvious actions of Sq and Hq on (C)
We introduce an orbit-space
M(k) := [(V (1)◦]k/Σk (10)
whose points encode the products of linear forms as in the decomposition (5). Here the group Σk
acts on the products of spaces by permuting them and by rescaling their vectors. Its subgroup Hk
acts freely.
Because of the uniqueness of the prime factorization in the polynomial ring C[x, y, z], the space
M(k) provides us with a 1-to-1 parametrization of the space of homogeneous degree k polynomials
that are products of linear forms. As an abstract space, (10) can be expressed as
M(k) =
[C3 ◦]k
Σk (11)
Definition 3 The elements of orbit-space M(k) will be called k-poles, or simply, multipoles.
We introduce groups Γk in a manner similar to the introduction of the groups Σk. The group Γk
is an extension of the permutation group Sk by the group (C
∗)k ⊃ Hk. Thus, Γk/Σk ≈ C
Therefore, the space M(k) in (10), (11) fibers over the projective variety
B(k) :=
ν=1 V (1)
= SymkCP [V (1)] ≈ Symk(CP 2) (12)
with the fiber C∗. Here Symt(X) := Xt/Sn denotes the t-th symmetric power of a space X. The
natural map M(k) → B(k) is a principle C∗-fibration which gives rise to a line bundle η(k) :=
{M(k) ×C∗ C → B(k)}. By shrinking its zero section to a point, we form a quotient space
M(k) := [M(k)×C∗ C] /B(k). (13)
It differs from M(k) by a single new point 0—a point which will represent the zero multipole.
Evidently, M(k) is a contractible space.
Given a collection of vector spaces {Vα}, their wedge product ∧αVα (not to be mixed with the
exterior product!) is the quotient of the Cartesian product ×αVα by the subspace comprised of
sequences {vα ∈ Vα} such that at least one vector from the sequence is zero. Thus, topologically,
M(k) := [∧k(V (1)]/Σk. (14)
Lemma 3 leads to the following proposition.
Corollary 5 Consider an homogeneous polynomial P (x, y, z) of degree d which is not divisible
by an irreducible homogeneous quadratic polynomial Q(x, y, z). Then any generalized parcelling
ν µν of the multiplicity function µ : Z(P,Q) → Z+ uniquely determines a multipole in the
space M(d) introduced in (10) or (11). �
The space of multipoles has singularities. Its singular set sing(M(k)) arises from the sets points
in [C3◦]k fixed by various non-trivial subgroups of Σk. These subgroups all are the conjugates (in
Σk) of certain non-trivial subgroups of Sk (recall that Hk ⊂ Σk acts freely). The partially ordered
set of the orbit-types give rise to a natural stratification of the multipole space M(k). The space
sing(M(k)) is of complex codimension two in M(k). Its top strata corresponds to transpositions
from Sk. Thus, a generic point from sing(M(k)) has a normal slice in M(k) which is diffeomorphic
to a cone over the real projective space S3/Z2 = RP
3. The larger stabilizers of vectors from the
space Ck of the obvious Sk-representation correspond to smaller strata of more complex geometry.
Evidently, sing(M(k)) is invariant under the diagonal action of C∗ ≈ Γk/Σk. These observations
are summarized in the lemma below.
Lemma 4 The singular set sing(M(k)) ⊂ M(k) is of codimension two. It is invariant under
the C∗-action. Therefore, it is a principle C∗-fibration over the singular set sing(Symk(CP 2)) ⊂
Symk(CP 2). A generic point of sing(M(k)) has RP 3 for its normal link. Points of sing(M(k))
correspond to completely factorable polynomials L =
ν Lν with at least two proportional linear
factors (in other words, to weighted collections of lines in CP 2∗ that contain at least one line of
multiplicity greater than one). �
Let Fact(d) ⊂ V (d) denote the variety of homogeneous polynomials of degree d in x, y, and z that
are products of linear forms.
Given a multipole w ∈ M(d) one can construct the corresponding completely factorable polyno-
mial L(w) =
ν Lν ∈ V (d). Note that, due to the uniqueness of the prime factorization in the
polynomial ring and in view of our definition of multipoles, the correspondence w ⇒ L(w) gives
rise to a 1-to-1 map Θ : M(d)
→ Fact(d). Consider a “Viète-type” algebraic map
ΦQ : M(d)
→ Fact(d)
→ FactQ(d), (15)
where ΠQ is induced by restricting polynomials in x, y, and z to the surface {Q(x, y, z) = 0}.
The symbol FactQ(d) ⊂ V (d)/VQ(d) ≈ V
Q (d) denotes the variety of homogeneous polynomial
functions on the surface {Q = 0} that also decompose into products of linear forms. Due to formula
(5) in Lemma 1, any non-zero homogeneous polynomial on the surface {Q = 0} admits a linear
factorization. Hence, ΦQ is onto and FactQ(d) can be identified with the space [V (d)/VQ(d)]
V ⊥Q (d)
The map ΦQ, extends to an algebraic map
Φ̃Q : Eη(d) −→ V
Q (d) (16)
defined on the space Eη(d) of the line bundle η(d). It sends the zero section B(d) of η(d) to the
zero vector 0 ∈ V ⊥Q (d) and each fiber of η(d) isomorphically to a line in V
Q (d) passing through the
origin. In fact, Φ̂Q|Eη(d)\B(d) = ΦQ. Evidently, Φ̂Q gives rise to a continuous map
ΦQ : M(d) −→ V
Q (d) (17)
It turns out that ΦQ has finite fibers. We need some combinatorial constructions which will help
us to prove this claim and to describe the cardinality of the ΦQ-fibers.
With every natural d we associate an integer κ(d) that counts the number of distinct parcellings
in a finite set of cardinality 2d. Any parcelling is obtained by breaking a set Z of cardinality 2d
into disjoint subsets of cardinality 2. Thus, κ(d) = (2d− 1)!! := (2d− 1)(2d− 3)(2d− 5) ... 3 · 1
is the number of possible handshakes among a company of 2d friends. There is an alternative way
to compute this number: consider the standard action of the permutation group S2d on the set of
2d elements. The action induces a transitive action on the set of all parcellings. Under this action,
the subgroup S
2d that preserves the parcelling {{1, 2}, {3, 4}, ... , {2d − 1, 2d}} is an extension
1 → (S2)
d → S
2d → Sd → 1 (18)
of the permutation group Sd that acts naturally on the pairs by the group (S2)
d ≈ (Z2)
d that
exchanges the elements in each pair. As a result, we get an identity
κ(d) = (2d − 1)!! = (2d)!/(2d · d!)
As we deform a polynomial P into a polynomial P1, two or more points in Z(P,Q) can merge
into a single point of Z(P1, Q). Its multiplicity is equal to the sum of multiplicities of the points
forming the merging group. Through this process, any generalized parcelling p of the original
µ : Z(P,Q) → N gives rise to a new and unique generalized parcelling p1 of µ1 : Z(P1, Q) → N.
Thus, we can define a partial order in the set of all generalized parcellings of effective divisors on
Q of degree 2d by setting µ ≻ µ1 and p ≻ p1 (see Figures 1 and 3).
In the same spirit, let κ(µ) stand for the number of distinct generalized parcellings of a function
µ : Z → N (recall that ‖µ‖1 = 2d) on a finite set Z. Unless µ is identically 1 and |Z| = 2d, κ(µ) <
κ(d). When two intersection points merge, the number of generalized parcellings drops: there are
distinct original parcellings that become indistinguishable after the merge (see the left diagram in
Figure 1). For example, when two simple points in a complete intersection merge, the number of
generalized parcellings changes from κ(d) to κ(d − 2) + [κ(d) − κ(d − 2)]/2 = [κ(d) + κ(d − 2)]/2,
that is, it drops by [κ(d) − κ(d− 2)]/2. In general, µ ≻ µ1 implies κ(µ) > κ(µ1).
For a generic L ∈ Fact(d) the set Z(L,Q), as well as all the parcels {Zν} defined by the linear
factors Lν , are complete intersections. For such an L, the number of multipoles in Φ
Q (ΠQ(L)) is
the number κ(d) of distinct parcellings in the set Z(L,Q). For any L ∈ Fact(d), the cardinality
of Φ−1Q (ΠQ(L)) (equivalently, of Π
Q (ΠQ(L))) equals to the the number of generalized parcellings
of the multiplicity function µ : Z(L,Q) → N. Indeed, assume that two completely factorable
polynomials L,L′ coincide when restricted to the surface {Q = 0}. Then L−L′ must be divisible by
Q. Therefore, Z(L,Q) = Z(L′, Q), moreover, the two multiplicities of each point in the intersection
(defined by the curves L and L′) must be equal as well. Hence, L and L′ define two parcellings of
the same multiplicity function µ on the intersection set.
Let X,Y be topological spaces and f : X → Y a continuous map with finite fibers. For a while, the
ramification set D(f) of f is understood as the set {y0 ∈ Y } such that, for any open neighborhood
U of y0, the cardinality of the fibers {f
−1(y)}y∈U is not constant.
Figure 1: Two distinct ways in which parcellings degenerate.
Each time L ∈ Fact(d) produces in CP 2∗ a union of lines with at least one pair of lines sharing its
intersection point with the curve Q, the point Π(L) ∈ D(ΠQ) = D(ΦQ). Moreover, as Figure 1
demonstrates, this change in cardinality of fibers occurs due to their bifurcations in the vicinity of
L. As a result, points in D(ΦQ) give rise to effective divisors of degree 2d on the curve Q with at
least one point in their support being of multiplicity greater than one. On the other hand, any such
divisor can be generated by intersecting a weighted set of lines with Q (just use any generalized
parcelling). Note that any line tangent to Q also contributes a point of multiplicity two. However,
the lines tangent to Q are not contributing to the bifurcation of the ΠQ-fibers (see the right diagram
in Figure 1). Therefore, in order to conclude that any divisor on Q with multiple points corresponds
to a point of D(ΦQ), we need to use generalized parcellings which favor pairs of lines that share
their intersection with Q to a single tangent line (both patterns produce an intersection point of
multiplicity two as shown in Figure 1). Evidently, this can be done, provided d > 1.
The requirement that L ∈ Fact(d) has a pair of linear forms vanishing at a point of {Q = 0}, locally,
is a single algebraic condition imposed on the coefficients of of the two forms. Therefore, taking
closures, it picks a codimension one subvariety Π−1Q (D(ΠQ)) ⊂ Fact(d). Thus, D(ΠQ) ⊂ V
Q (d)
a subvariety of codimension one as well. Fortunately, since Q admits a rational parameterization
by a map α : CP 1 → Q, the set Π−1Q (D(ΠQ)) can be described in terms of solvability of a system
of two rather simple equations. In homogeneous coordinates [u0 : u1], such a parameterization α
can be given by the formula
α([u0 : u1]) = [α0([u0 : u1]) : α1([u0 : u1]) : α2([u0 : u1])],
where α0, α1, α2 are some quadratic forms. For example, for Q = x
2 + y2 + z2,
α0 = i(u
0 − u
1), α1 = 2iu0u1, α2 = u
0 + u
The inverse of α is produced by the central projection of Q onto a line in CP 2∗ from a center located
at Q. Therefore, as abstract algebraic curves, Q and CP 1 are isomorphic.
In fact, L(x, y, z) ∈ Fact(d) belongs to Π−1Q (D(ΠQ)), if and only if, the system
L(α0, α1, α2)
(u0, u1) = 0
∂xL(α0, α1, α2)∂u0α0 + ∂yL(α0, α1, α2)∂u0α1 + ∂zL(α0, α1, α2)∂u0α2
(u0, u1) = 0, (19)
that guarantees an existence of a multiple zero for the polynomial L(α(u0, u1)) in CP
1, has a non-
trivial solution (u0, u1). Writing down explicitly the resultant of the two polynomials in the LHS of
(19), and thus the equation of Π−1Q (D(ΠQ)), seems to be cumbersome. Note that the Euler identity
2d · L = (u0∂u0α0 + u1∂u1α0)∂xL+ (u0∂u0α1 + u1∂u1α1)∂yL+ (u0∂u0α2 + u1∂u1α2)∂zL
explains the asymmetry of (19) with respect to the variable u0: exchanging the roles of u0 and u1
leads to an equivalent system of equations.
Recall that for a projective variety X, the set of zero-dimensional, degree d effective divisors is the
projective variety Symd(X) (see [Ch]). The map ΦQ in formula (15) induces a well-defined regular
map of the varieties:
ΨQ : Sym
d(CP 2) → Sym2d(Q). (20)
This map is produced by realizing a given multipole w, or rather its C∗-orbit w̃, by a completely
factorable polynomial L(w) and then forming the intersection set Z(L(w), Q) equipped with the
appropriate multiplicities—the divisor ΨQ(w̃). The map ΨQ is onto: any effective divisor of degree
2d on Q admits a generalized parcelling, and thus is generated by intersecting Q with a weighted
collection of lines. Since the number of generalized parcellings of Z(L(w), Q) is finite, the map ΨQ
has finite fibers. All this can be seen from a different angle. The divisor ΨQ(w̃) uniquely determines
the proportionality class of the function L(w)|{Q=0}—a point in CP (V
Q ). We have seen that the
∗-equivariant map ΦQ in (15) is onto. Thus, ΦQ/C
∗ : Symd(CP 2) → CP (V ⊥Q ) is onto as well.
Since Q is a rational curve (topologically, a 2-sphere), there is a 1-to-1 correspondence between
points of CP (V ⊥Q ) ≈ Sym
2d(CP 1∗ ) and of Sym
2d(Q). Moreover, as abstract varieties, CP (V ⊥Q ) and
of Sym2d(Q) are isomorphic. This isomorphism can be used to identify the maps ΨQ and ΦQ/C
To simplify our notations, we will use the same symbol ΨQ for both maps; when there is a need to
distinguish them, we will just indicate the relevant target space.
Our combinatorial considerations imply that the locus D(ΨQ) consists of the effective divisors of
degree 2d onQ with at least one point in their support being of multiplicity ≥ 2. While Ψ−1Q (D(ΨQ))
is also described by (19), the locus sing(Fact(d)) is the preimage of effective divisors of degree 2d
on Q with at least one pair of points in their support being of multiplicity ≥ 2 (they can generate a
double line), or at least one point being of multiplicity ≥ 4 (it corresponds to a double line tangent
to Q).
Employing Lemma 4, we have established
Lemma 5 The ramification set D(ΦQ) for the map ΦQ : M(d) → V
Q (d) is the set {ΠQ(L)} of
complex codimension one, where L ∈ Fact(d) defines on Q an effective divisor with at least one
point in its support being of multiplicity two at least. In other words, Π−1Q (D(ΦQ)) is defined by
the resultant of the two polynomials in the LHS of (19). The ramification set D(ΦQ) contains the
ΦQ-image of the singular set sing(M(d)). This image is of codimension two in V
Q (d). It can
be identified with completely factorable homogeneous polynomials of degree d on the the surface
{Q = 0} that have at least one pair of proportional linear factors. �
Note that the space Z of simple effective degree k divisors on the curve Q is homeomorphic to the
space of simple effective degree k divisors on the sphere S2 = CP 1∗ . Therefore, π1(Z) ≈ Bk, where
Bk stands for the braid group in k strings residing in the spherical shell S
2 × [0, 1]. In particular,
Sym2d(Q) \ D(ΨQ) is a K(B2d, 1)-space.
Let B
be the preimage of the subgroup S
⊂ S2d in (18) (of order 2
d · d!) under the canonical
epimorphism B2d → S2d. We call it the braid group in 2d strings with coupling
4. It is a subgroup
of index (2d − 1)!! in the braid group B2d.
Recall that a covering of a K(π, 1)-space is again a K(π′, 1)-space, where π′ is an appropriate
subgroup of π. Since all our constructions are C∗-equivariant, Lemmas 4 and 5 together with the
arguments above lead to
Theorem 6 • The map ΨQ : Sym
d(CP 2) → CP 2d ≈ V ⊥Q (d)
◦/C∗ is a finite ramified covering
with a generic fiber of cardinality (2d − 1)!!. It is ramified over the subvariety D(ΨQ) whose
points are the proportionality classes of homogeneous polynomials of degree d on the quadratic
surface {Q(x, y, z) = 0} that define there effective divisors of degree d with at least one multiple
line5.
• The space CP 2d \ D(ΨQ) is a K(π, 1)-space with the group π being isomorphic to the braid
group B2d in 2d strings in the spherical shell S
2 × [0, 1].
• As a result, Symd(CP 2) \Ψ−1Q (D(ΨQ)) is a K(B
2d, 1)-space, where B
2d is the braid group in
2d strings with coupling.
• The space M(d) \Φ−1Q (D(ΦQ)) also is K(π, 1)-space with the group π being isomorphic to an
extension of the group B
by the infinite cyclic group Z. �
Now, we will investigate the ramification locus of ΦQ from a more refined point of view characteristic
to the singularity theory. First, we would like to understand when a non-zero vector w from the
tangent cone TL of Fact(d) at a point L =
j=1 Lj is parallel to the subspace VQ(d), in other words,
when TL contains a vector w that is mapped to zero under the projection π : V (d) → V (d)/VQ(d) ≈
V ⊥Q (d). Away from the singularity set sing(Fact(d)) ⊂ Fact(d), the ΠQ-image of such an L belongs
to a locus E ⊂ V ⊥Q (d) over which rank(dπ|Fact(d)) < dim(V
Q (d)) at some point in Π
Q (E). By
the implicit function theorem, the ramification locus D(ΠQ) ⊂ V
Q (d) for the map ΠQ : Fact(d) →
V ⊥Q (d) (equivalently, for the map ΦQ) is contained in the union E ∪ ΠQ(sing(Fact(d))). It can
happen that at a singularity L ∈ sing(Fact(d)) the tangent cone does not have vectors w 6= 0 with
the property π(w) = 0, and still π is ramified in the vicinity of π(L). For instance, consider the
obvious projection π of the real cone x2+ y2− z2 = 0 onto the xy-plane: π is ramified at the origin
(0, 0), but for any w 6= 0 from the tangent cone at (0, 0, 0), π(w) 6= 0.
Any w ∈ TL is of the form limt→0
j=1(Lj+tMj)−
j=1 Lj
, where each Mj is an appropriate linear form
in xj, yj , and zj or Mj = 0 identically. This limit is equal to the polynomial P =
i 6=j Li)Mj .
The vector P at L is parallel to the subspace VQ if and only if the polynomial P is divisible by Q.
In other words, the vector P at L is parallel to VQ if and only if the polynomial P , being restricted
to the curve Q, is identically zero. Thus, we are looking for the Mj ’s subject to the constraint:
the polynomial
i 6=j Li)Mj = (
i Li)(
), being restricted to Q, is identically zero. For
4Note that B
2d is not the braid group in 2d strings colored with d colors, each color marking a pair of strings!
5equivalently, that define on the curve Q ⊂ CP 2∗ effective divisors with a point of multiplicity at least two.
L 6= 0, this is equivalent to the constraint (21) imposed on the rational functions {Mj/Lj}:
= 0. (21)
Equation (21) always have obvious solutions: {Mj = αjLj}, where {αj ∈ C} and
j αj = 0. These
are exactly solutions that represent the zero tangent vector (the tip L of the tangent cone). Indeed,
j=1(Lj + tMj) =
j=1(Lj + tαjLj) to conclude that w = 0 if and only if
j αj = 0.
So, the proper question is how to describe all the L ∈ Fact(d) for which (21) has a solution distinct
from the set of obvious solutions {Mj = αjLj} with
j αj = 0. The images of such L’s under
the projection π : V (d) → V ⊥Q (d) will generate the locus E ⊂ V
Q (d) over which the differential
dπ|Fact(d) is not of the maximal rank dim(V
Q (d)) = 2d + 1. Evaluating the LHS of equation (21)
at 2d+1 generic points residing in Q imposes linear constraints on 3d variables—the coefficients of
the Mj ’s. If these constraints are independent, the solution space of the linear system must be of
dimension 3d− (2d+1) = d− 1, which is exactly the dimension of the space formed by the obvious
solutions. This indicates that, for a generic L, we should not expect any non-obvious solutions.
Lemma 6 below validates this guess.
Let us denote by ML the quotient of the vector space of all solutions {Mj} of (21) by the subspace
of obvious solutions, as defined above. The correspondence L ⇒ dim(ML) gives rise to a new
natural stratification of the space Fact(d), and thus, of the space MQ(d). In the new notations,
π(L) ∈ E if and only if ML 6= 0. We suspect that this stratification is consistent with, but cruder
than the stratification induced by the orbit-types of the Σd-action.
Lemma 6 The loci E and D(ΠQ) coincide. As a result, the existence of a non-trivial solution for
the system (19) is equivalent to the existence of a non-obvious solution for the equation (21). Also,
the locus E ⊃ ΦQ(sing(M(d))).
Proof. We notice that if two distinct lines, say L1 and L2, share a point p ∈ Q, then (21)
has a non-obvious solution (M1,M2, 0, ... , 0). Indeed, inscribe in the quadratic curve Q any
”quadrilateral” formed by the pair of lines L1,L2 together with a new pair of lines M1,M2. The
lines L1, M1 share a point q ∈ Q, the lines L2, M2 share a point r ∈ Q, and the lines M1,
M2 share a point s ∈ Q, all four points p, q, r, s being distinct. Next, pick some linear forms M1
and M2 representing M1 and M2. Then one can find constants λ1, λ2 so that the polynomial
Q = λ1M1L2 + λ2M2L1. The argument is very similar to the one used in the proof of Lemma 1.
Thus, λ1M1L2 + λ2M2L1|Q = 0, which can be written in the form λ1M1/L1 + λ2M2/L2|Q = 0
required by (21). Here, evidently, M1 is not proportional to L1 and M2 is not proportional to
L2. Therefore, for any L ∈ Fact(d) that defines on Q an effective divisor containing a point of
multiplicity two, ΠQ(L) must belong to the locus E . It follows ”by continuity” that all the L’s that
produce multiplicity functions µ : Z(L,Q) → N, distinct from the identity function 1, project to
E via Π. According to Lemma 5, these are exactly the factorable polynomials that project to the
”combinatorial’” ramification locus D. �
It follows from Lemma 6 that, for a generic P ∈ V (d), the affine subspace P +VQ(d) hits transver-
sally the subvariety Fact(d) at a finite set of points whose cardinality is exactly κ(d). Therefore,
κ(d) must be the degree of that variety.
Let X,Y be quasi-affine varieties and let F : X → Y be a proper regular map. In Theorem 7
below, the ramification set D(F ) of a mapping F : X → Y with finite fibers is understood to be
the closure of a set D◦(F ). By definition, y ∈ D◦(F ) when F−1(y) contains a point x such that
there is a non-zero vector v ∈ TxX that is mapped to zero in TyY by the differential DF .
The arguments above lead to our main result:
Theorem 7 • The map ΦQ : M(d) → FactQ(d) = V
Q (d)
◦ is onto, and its generic fiber is a
finite set of cardinality (2d−1)!!. This map takes the multipole space M(d)—the space of a C∗-
bundle η(k) over the variety Symd(CP 2)—onto the complex vector space V ⊥Q (d) of dimension
2d + 1 with its origin being deleted. The map ΦQ extends to a map ΦQ : M(d) −→ V
Q (d)
with finite fibers.
• ΦQ is ramified over the discriminant variety D(ΦQ)—the set of polynomials P ∈ FactQ(d)
whose zero sets are effective divisors on the surface {Q(x, y, z) = 0} with at least one of their
line components being of multiplicity at least two.6 The subvariety D(ΦQ) ⊂ V
Q (d)
◦ is of
complex codimension one, and is described in terms of solvability of (19) or (21). It contains
the ΦQ-image of the singular set sing(M(d)) as a codimension one subvariety.
• In fact, ΦQ, ΦQ are C
∗-equivariant maps. Therefore, ΦQ gives rise to a surjective map
ΨQ : Sym
d(CP 2) → CP 2d = CP (V ⊥Q (d)
of degree (2d − 1)!! which is also ramified over a subvariety D(ΨQ) ⊂ CP
2d of codimension
one. The compliment CP 2d \ D(ΨQ) is a K(B2d, 1)-space, Sym
d(CP 2) \ Ψ−1Q (D(ΨQ)) is a
2d, 1)-space, where B
2d is the braid group with coupling, while M(d) \ Φ
Q (D(ΦQ)) is a
K(π, 1)-space, where π an extension of B
by Z.
• The degree of the variety of completely factorizable homogeneous polynomials Fact(d) ⊂ V (d)
is also (2d− 1)!!. This variety is invariant under the obvious C∗-action on V (d). �
Theorem 7 has a number of topological implications, some of them dealing with interesting rami-
fications over complex projective spaces. Our next goal is to describe these implications.
Let the space X be of a homotopy type of a connected, finite-dimensional CW-complex. Recall
that the Dold-Thom Theorem [DT] links the homotopy groups of Symd(X), d being large, with
the integral homology of a space X. By picking a base point a in X, one gets a stabilization map
Symd(X) → Symd+1(X), well-defined by the formula (x1, x2, ..., xd) → (a, x1, x2, ..., xd). Here
{xi ∈ X}. This provides us with canonical homomorphisms πk(Sym
d(X)) → πk(Sym
d+1(X)) of
the k-th homotopy groups.
In our case, the Dold-Thom Theorem claims that limd→∞ πk(Sym
d(CP 2)) = Hk(CP
2;Z). In par-
ticular, limd→∞ π2(Sym
d(CP 2)) = Z = limd→∞ π4(Sym
d(CP 2)). Also, limd→∞πk(Sym
d(CP 2)) =
0, provided k = 1, 3 or k > 4. On the other hand, π2(CP
2d) = Z, but π4(CP
2d) = 0. Therefore, at
least for large d’s, there is an infinite order element α ∈ π4(Sym
d(CP 2)) that is mapped by (ΨQ)∗
6Equivalently, the set of polynomials P for which P ∩Q has a point of multiplicity at least two.
to zero and an element β ∈ π2(Sym
d(CP 2)), so that (ΨQ)∗(β) ∈ π2(CP
2d) is a generator. It is pos-
sible to realize α and β geometrically. What is clear ratherway, that the spheroids α and β can not
be pushed into the aspherical portion Symd(CP 2)\Ψ−1Q (D(ΨQ)) of Sym
d(CP 2). The realization of
α is based on an interesting fact that I originally learned from Blaine Lawson: the quotient of CP 2
by the complex conjugation τ : [x : y : z] → [x̄ : ȳ : z̄] is homeomorphic to the sphere S4. Later on,
I have found its nice generalization in [A], Theorem 8. Therefore, the map φ : CP 2 → CP 2 ×CP 2
given by the formula φ(p) = (p, τ(p)), where p ∈ CP 2, is evidently Z2-equivariant with respect to
the τ -action in the domain and the symmetrizing action in the range. This gives rise to the desired
quotient map α : S4 ≈ CP 2/{τ} → Sym2(CP 2) that survives into the higher symmetric powers of
CP 2. Constructing class β is straightforward: it is given by the obvious inclusion S2 ≈ CP 1 ⊂ CP 2
followed by the diagonal embedding ∆ : CP 2 → Symd(CP 2).
The existence of a non-trivial α : S4 → Symd(CP 2) whose ΨQ-image is null-homotopic in CP
has a curious implication:
Corollary 8 For any d ≥ 2, there is a family of polynomial functions of degree d on the quadratic
surface {Q = 0} which is parameterized by a 5-dimensional disk and which does not admit a
continuous lifting to the multipole space M(d). At the same time, the functions parameterized by
the 4-sphere forming the boundary of the disk can be continuously represented by multipoles. �
Any map f : X → Y induces a natural map fk∗ : Sym
k(X) → Symk(Y ) that is defined by the
formula (fk∗ )[
ν µνxν ] =
ν µνf(xν), where {xν ∈ X} and {µν ∈ N}. When f is 1-to-1 or onto,
so is fk∗ .
The construction of fk∗ provides us with a rich source of interesting ramified coverings. Consider for
example, a semi-free cyclic action on a sphere S2 ⊂ R3. The group Zl acts on S
2 by rotations around
a fixed axis on the angles that are multiples of 2π/l. Topologically, the orbit-space S̃2 := S2/Zl
is again a 2-sphere. Let f : S2 → S̃2 be the orbit-map. Then fk∗ : Sym
k(S2) → Symk(S̃2) gives
an example of a ramified degree lk covering map of CP k over itself! For l = 2, we shall see later
how this degree 2k ramification fk∗ : CP
k → CP k is linked to the multipole spaces on quadratic
surfaces. On the other hand, by a simple cohomological argument, any map F : CP k → CP k has
a degree that is the k-th power of a non-negative integer l. For instance, there is no ramified map
from CP 2 to itself of degrees that are not of the form l2.
Question Given a closed oriented manifold M , what are possible degrees of maps from M to
itself? Evidently, the answer depends on the homotopy type of M .
When Z2 acts freely on S
2 by the central symmetry, the orbit-map f : S2 → RP 2 gives rise to
another interesting ramified map fk∗ : CP
k → RP 2k of degree 2k (its existence follows from our
results in Section 3 dealing with real multipole spaces). In different terms, the map fk∗ has been
described in [A].
In order to derive next few corollaries of Theorem 7, we need to take a detour aimed at constructing
(with the help of f) transfer maps that take effective 0-divisors on Y to effective 0-divisors on X.
These constructions are variations on the theme of the classical Hurwitz’ Theorem (see [H], pp.
299-304). Our next goal is to present constructions and arguments that lead to Theorem 10.
Let X and Y be smooth complex projective varieties and f : X → Y a regular surjective map
with finite fibers. With any x ∈ X we associate a multiplicity number µf (x). It is the multiplicity
attached to the intersection of the f -graph Γf with the subspace X × f(x) ⊂ X × Y at the point
(x, f(x)). Since all the f -fibers are finite, the intersection Γf ∩ (X × f(x)) is finite as well.
Next, with any y ∈ Y we associate an effective 0-divisor Df−1(y) :=
x∈f−1(y) µf (x)x whose degree
is y-independent and coincides with the degree df of the map f . The correspondence y ⇒ Df−1(y)
produces a regular embedding
f# : Y → Symdf (X) (22)
For any k, the map f# gives rise to an embedding
k : Sym
k(Y ) → Symk·df (X) (23)
defined by the formula f
ν µ(yν)y) =
ν µ(yν)Df−1(y).
Therefore, applying this construction to the setting of Theorem 7 withX = Symd(CP 2), Y = CP 2d,
and f = ΨQ, we get the following proposition:
Corollary 9 Any irreducible quadratic form Q(x, y, z) determines canonical embeddings
: Symk(CP 2d) → Symk·(2d−1)!!(Symd(CP 2)),
where d and k are arbitrary whole numbers. In particular, Ψ
Q := Ψ
Q,1 embeds CP
2d into
Sym(2d−1)!!(Symd(CP 2)). �
For a map f : X → Y as above, one can define a map f# that takes effective 0-divisors on X into
effective 0-divisors on X. By definition, each point x ∈ X is mapped to the divisor Df−1(f(x)). By
linearity, we have
µ(xν)xν
µ(xν)Df−1(f(xν)). (24)
This map transforms 0-divisors of degree k into 0-divisors of degree k · df :
fk# : Sym
k(X) → Symk·df (X) (25)
Both maps, fk# from (25) and f
k from (23), have the same targets. Moreover, their images coincide.
Indeed, for each point y ∈ Y , pick any point x ∈ f−1(y). Then, f#(y) = Df−1(y) = f#(x). Recall,
that f
k is a 1-to-1 map and thus is invertible over its image. Therefore, the map
−1 ◦ fk# : Sym
k(X) → Symk(Y ) (26)
is well-defined.
Lemma 7 Let X and Y be smooth complex projective varieties and f : X → Y be a regular onto
map with finite fibers. The map (f
−1◦fk# in (26) coincides with the natural map f
∗ : Sym
k(X) →
Symk(Y ). It defines a ramified covering with a generic fiber of cardinality (df )
Proof The map f# takes each point x ∈ X to the divisor Df−1(f(x)).
7. At the same time, the
transfer f# takes f(x) to the same divisor Df−1(f(x)). Thus, (f
#)−1◦f# maps x to f(x). Extending
this argument by linearity proves the claim. �
Now we examine how these constructions apply to projective curves in CP 2∗ and eventually to the
multipole spaces. The role of X will be played by a curve C ⊂ CP 2∗ (most importantly, by Q), the
role of Y by a pencil of lines in CP 2∗ through a point p. The map f takes any point q ∈ C to a line
L passing through q and p.
Any linear embedding ρ : CP 1 ⊂ CP 2 induces an embedding ρd : Symd(CP 1) → Symd(CP 2). The
geometry of ρd is tricky. Since the quotient space CP 2/CP 1 is homeomorphic to a 4-sphere S4, we
get a surjection
Symd(CP 2)/Symd(CP 1) → Symd(S4),
but even the spaces {Symd(S4)} have subtle topology. For example, Sym2(S4) is homeomorphic
to a mapping cylinder of a map Σ4(RP 3) → S4, where Σ4(∼) denotes the fourth suspension (see
[Ha], Example 4K.5).
The regular map
Ψ̂Q : Sym
d(CP 1)
→ Symd(CP 2)
→ Sym2d(Q) ≈ CP 2d (27)
describes the role and place of C-planar multipoles (they are linked to the planarity of the quadra-
poles and octapoles in the deconstruction of CMBR that was briefly mentioned in the introduction).
In contrast with ΨQ, we will see that the map Ψ̂Q is 1-to-1. Since Sym
d(CP 1) is homeomorphic to
CP d, its image in Sym2d(Q) is homeomorphic to CP d as well (compare this with (21)). Moreover,
we claim that the ΨQ-image of Sym
d(CP 1) in CP (VQ(d)) is a d-dimensional projective subspace. It
is sufficient to examine the case of ρ whose image is given by the equation z = 0 in the homogeneous
coordinates [x : y : z]. In such a case, the ΨQ-image if formed by the proportionality classes of
homogeneous polynomials that are products of d linear forms in x and y alone, the products being
restricted to the cone {Q = 0}. However, any homogeneous polynomial in two variables factors
over C into a product of linear forms. Therefore, the ΨQ-image of Sym
d(CP 1) in CP (VQ(d)) is
generated by all homogeneous polynomials in x and y, which clearly form a vector space.
Alternatively, Ψ̂Q-image of Sym
d(CP 1) in Sym2d(Q) could be described in terms of effective divisors
on Q as follows. As a byproduct of this description, we will construct interesting examples of
ramified regular maps from CP d to itself.
Recall that points L ∈ CP 1 ⊂ CP 2 correspond to a pencil of lines L ⊂ CP 2∗ that pass through a
particular point p ∈ CP 2∗ . That p determines the embedding ρ. Each point q ∈ Q determines a
unique line Lq that passes through q and p, and therefore, a unique point Lq in the dual subspace
CP 1 ⊂ CP 2. Let f : Q → CP 1 be a 2-to-1 ramified map defined by the correspondence q ⇒ Lq.
As described in (24) and (26), f gives rise to maps f
d : Sym
d(CP 1) → Sym2d(Q) and fd# :
Symd(Q) → Sym2d(Q) with f
d being a 1-to-1 map. In fact, examining the construction of ΨQ,
we see that Ψ̂Q = f
d . Moreover, using Lemma 7, the map f
∗ : Sym
d(Q) → Symd(CP 1) factors
as (f
−1 ◦ fd#. Therefore, the ramification locus D(f
∗ ) ⊂ Sym
d(CP 1) for fd∗ is the Ψ̂
Q -image of
the ramification locus D(fd#) ⊂ f
#(Sym
d(Q)) ⊂ Sym2d(Q) for fd#.
7Recall that the multiplicity of x in Df−1(f(x)) is µf (x).
Figure 2 illustrates the case d = 3. Passing from the first to the second column depicts the map
f3# : Sym
3(Q) → Sym6(Q) generated by the linear projection from a center p located at infinity.
Passing from the first to the third column depicts the map f3∗ : Sym
3(Q) → Sym3(CP 1) ≈ CP 3.
Here CP 1 is viewed as the pencil of lines in CP 2∗ through p. Topologically, the map f
∗ is a 8-to-1
ramification of CP 3 over itself. It is described in some detail in Example 1 and is depicted in Figure
3. The passage from the second to the third column is a 1-to-1 correspondence.
Figure 2:
When Lq is not tangent to Q at q, then let q
⋆ 6= q be ”the other point” in Q that belongs to the line
Lq. When Lq is tangent to Q at q, then by definition, put q
⋆ = q. The correspondence τp : q ⇒ q
is an involution on Q with two fixed points a and b. Its orbit-space Q/{τp} topologically is a 2-
sphere. The involution τp induces an involution τ
p that acts on the space Sym
k(Q). By definition,
any effective divisor
ν µ(qν)qν ∈ Sym
k(Q) is transformed by τkp into the divisor
ν µ(qν)q
Evidently, the image of fd# : Sym
d(Q) → Sym2d(Q) is contained in the τ2dp -invariant part of the
space Sym2d(Q); however, not any invariant divisor belongs to that image. Each divisor from
Im(fd#) not only must be τ
p -invariant, but in addition, its multiplicity at the fixed points a and b
must be even. In other words, such a divisor D# must be of the form
2µaa+ 2µbb+
µ(qν)[qν + q
where qν 6= a, b and µa, µb ∈ Z+. The cardinality of the f
#-fiber over D
# is given by the formula
|(fd#)
−1(D#)| =
[µ(qν) + 1]. (28)
Indeed, for any q ∈ Q\{a, b} there are µ(qν)+ 1 effective divisors of degree µ(qν) with the support
in qν
q⋆ν and whose f
µ(qν)
# -image is µ(qν)[qν + q
ν ]; at the same time, there is a unique divisor
µaa whose f
µ(µa)
-image is 2µaa. When all µν = 1 and µa = 0 = µb, the fiber (f
−1(D#) is of
cardinality 2d.
Examining (28), we see that the ramification setD(fd#) for f
# : Sym
d(Q) → Sym2d(Q) is comprised
of divisors of two kinds: 1) the ones that contain at least one summand of the form 2(q+q⋆), where
q 6= a, b, and 2) the ones that contain 2a or 2b as a summand. For example, if D ∈ Symd(Q)
contains a pair of distinct points q1, q2 = q
1 and the rest of points in the support of D are generic
(i.e., for i, j > 2, qi 6= q
j ), then (f
−1(fd#(D)) consists of 2
d − 2d−2 = 3 · 2d−2 elements. At the
same time, as we perturb D in order to avoid the coincidence q2 = q
1, (f
−1(fd#(D)) consists of
2d elements.
Therefore, in view of Lemma 7, the ramification set D(fd∗ ) for f
∗ : Sym
d(Q) → Symd(CP 1) is
comprised of divisors of two kinds: 1) the ones that contain at least one summand of multiplicity
≥ 2, and 2) the ones that contain points La or Lb giving rise to lines La and Lb passing through
the point p and tangent to the curve Q.
Given a space X, let us denote by ∆d(X) ⊂ Sym
d(X) the discriminat set formed by the divisors
containing points of multiplicity at least two. Also, for any point a ∈ X, we denote by Symd−k
the subset of Symd(X) formed by the divisors containing the summand k · a. Thus,
D(fd∗ ) = ∆d(CP
1) ∪ Symd−1a (CP
1) ∪ Symd−1
(CP 1) (29)
D(fd#) =
∆2d(Q) ∪ Sym
2a (Q) ∪ Sym
2b (Q)
. (30)
Employing the Viéte Map V : Symd(CP 1) → CP d, we transplant the algebraic set D(fd∗ ) into the
space CP d. The image of ∆d(CP
1) under the Viéte Map is the classical discriminant variety in
Dd ⊂ CP
d, while the images of Symd−1a (CP
1) and of Symd−1
(CP 1) form linear subspaces CP d−1a
and CP d−1
in CP d. Thus, V (D(fd∗ )) = Dd ∪ CP
a ∪ CP
. It follows from [K], Theorem 6.1,
that each of the two spaces CP d−1a and CP
is tangent to the discriminant variety Dd along,
respectively, the linear subspaces CP d−2a and CP
Note that the complement Symd(CP 1) \ D(fd∗ ) is the configuration space of d-tuples of distinct
points in the domain CP 1 \ (a∗ ∪ b∗). Here a∗, b∗ stand for the two points in CP 1 that are dual
to the lines passing through p and tangent to the curve Q. Therefore, it is a K(Bannd , 1)-space,
where Bannd stands for the braid group in d strings residing in a cylinder with an annulus base
[S2 \ (a∗ ∪ b∗)]× [0, 1].
Using the birational identifications Symd(Q) ≈ CP d ≈ Symd(CP 1), we have constructed a ramified
covering ΓQ : CP
d ≈ Symd(Q)
→ Symd(CP 1) ≈ CP d. The following proposition summarizes the
conclusions of our arguments above (centered on (27) and (29), (30)). It describes an intricate
stratified geometry of this ramified covering, a geometry that is “reductive” in its nature with
respect to the shift d ⇒ d− 1.
Theorem 10 • Any irreducible quadratic form Q gives rise to a ramified covering
ΓQ : CP
d → CP d of degree 2d. The map ΓQ is ramified over the algebraic set
D(ΓQ) := Dd ∪ CP
a ∪ CP
— the Viéte image of the set ∆d(CP
1) ∪ Symd−1a (CP
1) ∪ Symd−1b (CP
• The discriminant variety Dd ⊂ CP
d is Q-independent. The two linear subspaces CP d−1a and
CP d−1
are tangent to the variety Dd along, respectively, subspaces CP
a and CP
generic point of Dd has a ΓQ-fiber of cardinality 3 · 2
d−2,8 while a generic point of CP d−1a ∪
CP d−1
has a fiber of cardinality 2d−1.
• The complement CP d\D(ΓQ) to the ramification set is a K(B
d , 1)-space, where B
d denotes
the annulus braid group in d strings.
• Moreover, over to each of the two subspaces CP d−1a and CP
, the map ΓQ inherits a similar
stratified structure with respect to the dimensional shift d ⇒ d− 1. �
Example 1. Let d = 2. Then ΓQ : CP
2 → CP 2 is of degree 4. The discriminat parabola
D2 is given by {x
2 − 4yz = 0}. The ramification locus D(ΓQ) consists of that parabola together
with two tangent lines CP 1a = {Ax+ y +A
2z = 0} and CP 1b = {Bx+ y +B
2z = 0} which share a
point E = [−(A+B) : AB : 1]. They are tangent to the parabola at the points F = [−2A : A2 : 1]
and G = [−2B : B2 : 1]. Here the parameters A and B depend on the quadratic form Q(x, y, z).
The ΓQ-fibers over E,F,G are singletons; the cardinality of the fiber over D2 \ (F ∪ G) is 3; the
cardinality of the fiber over CP 1a \(F ∪E) and over CP
b \(G∪E) is 2. It is still a bit mysterious how
all this data manage to produce CP 2 as a covering space! Anyway, the compliment CP 2 \ D(ΓQ)
is a K(Bann2 , 1)-space, where B
2 is the braid group with two strings in a ”fat” annulus.
Now consider the case d = 3 depicted in Figure 3. That figure exhibits a two-fold symmetry that
exchanges points a and b where the pencil of parallel lines is tangent to the curve Q. Pattern 1 in
Figure 3 corresponds to the generic stratum CP 3, while pattern 2 defines the discriminant surface
D3 ⊂ CP
3 of degree 4. It is homeomorphic to CP 1×CP 1. Patterns 3a and 3b each corresponds to
two planes CP 2a and CP
b . Each of the two planes is tangent to the discriminant surface D3 along
lines la and lb labeled by patterns 6a and 6b, respectively. These planes intersect along another line
l labeled by pattern 5. Pattern 4 encodes the singular locus C of the discriminant surface D3. It is
a rational curve of degree 3 that is homeomorphic to S2. In fact, D3 is the ruled surface spanned
8that is, 2d−2 less than a generic ΓQ-fiber.
9a 9b
Figure 3: Patterns labeling the stratification of the map ΓQ : CP
3 → CP 3 and the geometry of its
ramification locus.
by lines tangent to C ([K]). The surface D3 intersects with the plane CP
a along the union of the
line la with a quadratic curve D2,a labeled by pattern 7a. The lines la and l are both tangent to
the parabola D2,a. This configuration is already familiar from our description of the case d = 2.
Similarly, pattern 7b labels parabola D2,b. Curves C, D2,a, and la are all tangent at a point Aa
labeled by pattern 8a. Curves l and D2,a are tangent at a point Ba labeled by pattern 9b. That
point also lies on the line lb. The labeling of points Ab and Ba is done by patterns 8b and 9a,
respectively.
In accordance with Theorem 10, the ramification locus D(ΓQ) for the 8-to-1 map ΓQ coinsides with
D3 ∪ CP
a ∪ CP
b and its complement is a K(B
3 , 1)-space. �
Now, we turn to deconstructions of both homogeneous non-homogeneous polynomials on complex
quadratic surfaces {Q(x, y, z) = const}. First, consider a general homogeneous polynomial P of
degree d. We can apply decomposition (5) to the homogeneous term R of degree d− 2 in (5). This
will produce a new collection of vectors—a new multipole—{w1,ν} associated with an appropriate
generalized parcelling of µ : Z(R,Q) → Z+. This process of producing lower order multipoles
{ws,ν ∈ V (1)}s,ν , where 0 ≤ s ≤ ⌈d/2⌉ and 0 < ν ≤ d − 2s, can be repeated again and again
until all the degrees are “used up”. We notice that the leading multipole (of highest degree) is
determined by this algorithm in a more “direct way” than the lower degree multipoles. Also note
that the choice of a generalized parcelling τ for µ : Z(P,Q) → Z+ affects the choice of a generalized
parcelling for µ : Z(R,Q) → Z+, where the polynomial R = (P −
ν Lν)/Q
s. Here the product
ν Lν is determined by the τ , and s is the maximal power of Q for which the division in the ring
of polynomials is possible.
Example 2. Let d = 5. Then any homogeneous polynomial P of degree 5 has a representation
of the form
P = L01L02L03L04L05 +Q · L11L12L13 +Q
2 · L21 (31)
where all the Lij’s are linear forms (some of which might be zeros). The number of such represen-
tations does not exceed (9!!)× (5!!). �
Any non-homogeneous polynomial P (x, y, z) of degree d can be written in the form P (0) + P (1)
where the degrees of monomials comprising P (n) are congruent to n modulo 2. Note that the
decomposition P = P (0) + P (1) intrinsically makes sense on every quadratic surface Q(x, y, z) =
λ, (λ ∈ C): if P belongs to the principle ideal 〈Q − λ〉, so does each term P (n), n = 0, 1. Thus, if
P ≡ P̃ mod〈Q− λ〉, then we have P (n) ≡ P̃ (n) mod〈Q− λ〉.
On the surface {Q(x, y, z) = 1}, any component P (n) of the polynomial P (0) +P (1) can be homog-
enized by multiplying its terms of the same degree by an appropriate power of Q. We denote by
Q the appropriate homogeneous polynomial. Generically, deg(P
Q ) = d− n.
Example 3. Let d = 5. Any polynomial P of degree 5 has a representation of the form
P = L01L02L03L04L05 +Q · L11L12L13 +Q
2 · L21
+ M01L02M03M04 +Q ·M11M12 +Q
2 · λ (32)
where all the Lij ’s and Mij ’s are linear forms (some of which might be zeros), and λ is a number.
The number of such representations does not exceed (9!!)× (5!!)× (7!!)× (3!!) = 9× 72× 53× 34. �
Now one can apply recursively Lemmas 1, 3 and Corollary 5 to each homogeneous polynomial P
n = 0, 1. Letting Q = 1 proves formula (2) from Theorem 2. Let us restate and generalize this
theorem in terms of the multipoles:
Theorem 11 • Let Q(x, y, z) be an irreducible quadratic form and let P (x, y, z) be any complex
polynomial of degree d. Its restriction P |S to the complex surface S = {Q(x, y, z) = 1} admits
a representation of the form
P (x, y, z) = λ+
Lk,l(x, y, z), (33)
where the linear forms {Lk,l} are chosen so that each non-zero product
l=1 Lk,l(x, y, z) is
determined, via the map ΦQ (see (15)), by an appropriate multipole wk from the variety M(k).
• The representation (33) is unique, up to a finite ambiguity and up to reordering and rescaling
of multipliers in each product
l=1 Lk,l(x, y, z). In other words, the set of P -representing
multipoles {wk ∈ M(k)}1≤k≤d is finite. Its cardinality does not exceed
k=1[(2k − 1)!!].
We would like to end this section by establishing a few facts about alternative decompositions of
polynomials that are based on formula (9). In achieving this goal we are guided by Theorem 22.2
from [Sh].
We claimed that the direct sum in (6) is orthogonal with respect to the inner product 〈f, g〉 =
f · g dm, where dm is the standard rotationally symmetric measure on the unit sphere S2. Let
us clarify this claim. Applying (6) recursively, we get that for any real homogeneous polynomial P of
degree d can be written as
d−2k≥0 Q
k ·PHk , where P
k is a real homogeneous harmonic polynomial
of degree d−2k. Letting Q = 1, we see that for any homogeneous P , there is a harmonic polynomial
d−2k≥0 P
k such that P |S2 = P
H |S2 . Now, any two harmonic homogeneous polynomials
PHk and P
l of different degrees are eigenfunctions with different eigenvalues −(d− 2k)(d− 2k+1)
and −(d−2l)(d−2l+1) for the Laplace operator ∆S2 on the sphere. Therefore, they are orthogonal,
PHk · P
l dm = 0. Since any homogeneous polynomial R of degree d− 2 can be represented
d−2k≥0; k>0 Q
k · PHk , we get the claimed orthogonality
(PH0 )(Q · R) dm = 0 of the direct
sum in (6).
This argument extends to complex harmonic polynomials as follows. If a polynomial P is homo-
geneous, so are the polynomials PR and PI (introduced shortly after formula (7)). Also, if P is
harmonic, so are the polynomials PR and PI. Note that P (x, y, z)|S2 = [PR(x, y, z)− iPI(x, y, z)]|S2 .
Therefore, with Q = x2 + y2 + z2, for any complex harmonic and homogeneous polynomial P of
degree d and any homogeneous polynomial T of degree d− 2, we get
P · [Q · T ] dm =
(PR + i PI)(TR − i TI) dm
(PR · TR) dm+
(PI · TI) dm− i
(PR · TI) dm+ i
(PI · TR) dm.
Each of the four integrals must vanish because each integrant, being restricted to S2, is a product
of a real homogeneous and harmonic polynomial of degree d by a real polynomial of a lower degree.
In the spherical coordinates θ, φ, the inner product is given by an integral
f · ḡ dm =
0≤φ≤π; 0≤θ≤2π
f(Λ(θ, φ)) · ḡ(Λ(θ, φ)) | sin φ| dθ dφ
where Λ(θ, φ) = (cos θ sinφ, sin θ sinφ, cosφ).
Now we are going to transfer this hermitian inner product from the sphere to its image ΥQ in a given
complex quadratic surface SQ := {Q(x, y, z) = 1}. As before, let A be a complex invertible matrix
that reduces Q to the sum of squares: x′2+y′2+z′2 = Q((x, y, z) ·A), where (x′, y′, z′) = (x, y, z) ·A.
Let ΥQ = {Q((x, y, z) ·A) = 1}, with (x, y, z) ·A being a real vector. The ellipsoid ΥQ is the image
of the unit sphere under the complex linear transformation A−1. It is a totally real 2-dimensional
algebraic surface in the complex surface SQ.
The real-valued measure dmQ on ΥQ is the pull-back under the map A of the standard measure on
the unit sphere. It is invariant under the action of the compact subgroupA·O(3;R)·A−1 ⊂ GL(3;C),
where O(3;R) denotes the orthogonal group.
For any pair of (homogeneous) complex functions f, g on C3, we get a dot product
f((x, y, z)A) · ḡ((x, y, z)A) dmQ =
f(x′, y′, z′) · ḡ(x′, y′, z′) dm
0≤φ≤π; 0≤θ≤2π
f(Λ(θ, φ)) · ḡ(Λ(θ, φ)) | sin φ| dθ dφ (34)
Applying (9) recursively, gives the following proposition:
Theorem 12 • The space of complex homogeneous polynomials admits an OQ(3;C)-invariant
decomposition
V (d) = ⊕d−2k≥ 0 Q
k ·HarQ(d− 2k) (35)
The summands in (35) are orthogonal with respect to the hermitian inner product defined by
the formula (34). In particular, the homogeneous polynomials P ∈ HarQ(d)—the solutions
of the equation ∆Q(P ) = 0—are characterized by the property: for each T ∈ VQ(d),
P · T̄ dmQ = 0.
• Any polynomial function F on the surface S = {Q(x, y, z) = const} can be obtained by
restricting to S a polynomial P ∈ Ker(∆Q).
• For any two polynomials M and N , “the complex Dirichlet problem”
{∆Q(P ) = M, P |S = N |S} (36)
has a unique polynomial solution P .
• Any polynomial solution P of the equation ∆Q(P ) = 0, deg(P ) ≤ d, (equivalently, any
polynomial P of degree d at most, being restricted to the surface S) admits a Maxwell-type
representation
P (x, y, z) =
d−2k≥ 0
Q(x, y, z)d−k+
2 · ∇
. . .∇
ud−2k,k
Q(x, y, z)−
, (37)
where uj,k are appropriate vectors in C
Remark. All the statements of Theorem 12, but the last one (dealing with the generalized Maxwell
representation (37)), can be easily generalized for polynomials in any number of variables.
Proof. Decomposition (35) follows from (8), and (37) from (35) together with (9). The second
bullet is obviously implied by (33) and the linearity of ∆Q. In order to prove the third bullet,
note that (8) implies that ∆Q : V (k) → V (k − 2) is onto. Therefore, for any M , there exists a
polynomial T , so that ∆Q(T ) = M . On the other hand by bullet two, there exists a harmonic
polynomial R ∈ Ker(∆Q) such that R|S = (N − T )|S . As a result, P = T +R solves the Dirichlet
problem. In order to show that P is unique, it is sufficient to prove that no polynomial of the
form (Q− 1)S belongs to Ker(∆Q). Since ∆Q is homogeneous of degree −2, ∆Q(Q · S) 6= ∆Q(S),
unless S = 0. Indeed, let F be the leading homogeneous portion of S of the degree deg(S). Then
∆Q(Q · S) = ∆Q(S) implies ∆Q(Q · F ) = 0 which is, as we have shown before, impossible, unless
F = 0. �
9not necessarily homogeneous, even when P is homogeneous
3 Deconstructing reality
We have seen that different parcellings of the intersection Z(P,Q) led to different deconstructions
of polynomial functions on a quadratic surface {Q = 1}. The next idea is to invoke symmetry
in order to get a unique equivariant parcelling and thus, a unique deconstruction of symmetric
functions on a quadratic surface supporting an appropriate group action.
We deal with a special, but important case of Z2-action. The model example is provided by the
complex conjugation τ : (x, y, z) → (x, y, z)10. If Q(x, y, z) has real coefficients, both the curve
Q ⊂ CP 2∗ and the surface S = {Q = 1} ⊂ C
∗ are invariant under the τ . When Q is a definite
real form, the Z2-action by conjugation on Q is free since the fixed point set Q
Z2 = Q∩ RP 2∗ = ∅.
For a homogeneous polynomial P with real coefficients the intersection Z(P,Q) ⊂ CP 2∗ and the
multiplicity function µ : Z(P,Q) → Z+ are τ -invariant as well. We notice that a τ -invariant
generalized parcelling of such a µ will produce a set of τ -invariant lines Lν . Thus, we can assume
that all the linear forms Lν in (6) are with real coefficients. Indeed, given a representation P =
ν Lν +Q · R, where P,Q and Lν ’s are real and λ ∈ C, we get P = λ ·
ν Lν +Q · R. Hence,
2P = (λ+ λ) ·
ν Lν +Q · (R+R) which implies the validity of (6) over the reals.
With this observation in mind, we introduce real versions of the multipole spaces (10), (11). Let
MR(k) = {[R3 ◦]k/ΣRk (38)
where the group ΣRk is defined similar to its complex version. The only difference lies in the
definition of HRk : it is now a subgroup of (R
∗)k, not of (C∗)k. The space of real multipoles MR(k)
is a space of a principle R∗-fibration over the real variety BR(k) := Symk(RP 2). According to [A],
Theorem 2, it is diffeomorphic to RP 2k (cf. Corollary 15). We can form an associated line bundle
ηR(k) = {MR(k)×R∗ R → B
R(k)}. As in the complex case, put EηR(k) = MR(k)×R∗ R and form
the quotient space
(k) = EηR(k)/BR(k) (39)
by collapsing the zero section to a point 0. As before, M
(k) is a contractible space.
Real homogeneous polynomials of degree d form a totally real subspace V (d; R) in the complex
space V (d). The hermitian metric on V (d) defined by (34) generates an eucledian metric on V (d; R)
induced by the inner product
〈f, g〉R := Re
f(x, y, z) · ḡ(x, y, z) dmQ
f((x, y, z)A−1) · ḡ((x, y, z)A−1) dm
Moreover, as in the complex case, the imbedding βQ : V (d− 2; R) → V (d; R) is an isometry (recall
that Q is real).
10Another interesting involution to consider is η : (x, y, z) → (y,−x, z). It acts freely on any curve Q, where
Q = x2 + y2 + qz2, and q 6= 0 is a real number. Many results of this section have analogues for the polynomials P ,
such that P (η(x, y, z)) = P (x, y, z), and their multipole spaces based on pairs of vectors ((a, b, c), (−b̄, ā, c̄)).
Similarly to the complex case, we introduce a variety Fact(d; R) ⊂ V (d; R) of completely factorable
real polynomials. The orthogonal projection V (d; R) → V ⊥Q (d; R) maps Fact(d; R) into the vector
space V ⊥Q (d; R). Due to Theorem 12, V
Q (d; R) can be identified with Ker(∆
Q). When the
quadratic form Q is not definite, we can also identify the space V ⊥Q (d; R) with the d-graded portion
of the polynomial function ring on the real cone {Q = 0}. In any case, we get an algebraic map
ΦRQ : M
R(d) → Fact(d; R) → V ⊥Q (d; R)
◦ (41)
which, by Lemma 1 and the argument above, is onto. This map extends to a map
Φ̃RQ : Eη
R(d) −→ V ⊥Q (d; R) (42)
that takes the zero section BR(d) ≈ RP 2k of the line bundle ηR(d) to the origin in V ⊥Q (d; R), and
each fiber of ηR(d) isomorphically to a line through the origin. We get an R∗-equivariant surjection
Q : M
(d) −→ V ⊥Q (d; R) (43)
with finite fibers, where M
(d) := EηR(d)/BR(d).
The number of τ -equivariant parcellings of Z(P,Q) is harder to determine. It depends only on the
restriction of the multiplicity function µ to the subset Z(P,Q;R) := Z(P,Q)∩RP 2∗ and is equal to
the number of generalized parcellings subordinate to such a restriction. However, if Z(P,Q;R) = ∅,
the conjugation acts freely on Q ⊂ CP 2∗ and the τ -equivariant parcelling is unique. In such a case,
we are getting a more satisfying result:
Theorem 13 Let Q(x, y, z) be an irreducible quadratic form with real coefficients and the signature
distinct from −3. Then any real polynomial P (x, y, z) of degree d, being restricted to the real conic
SR = {Q(x, y, z) = 1} in R3∗, has a representation
P (x, y, z) = λ+
(ak,jx+ bk,jy + ck,jz)
When the surface SR is an ellipsoid, the represention (44) is unique, up to reordering and rescaling
of the multiplyers in the products. In such a case, P gives rise to a unique sequence of multiploles
{wk ∈ M
(k)}k.
We observe thatMR(k) happens to be a nonsingular space: locally RP 2 and CP 1 are diffeomorphic,
and Symk(CP 1) ≈ CP k is non-singular. An R-version of the argument that follows Theorem 6 and
is centered on formula (21) is valid. Therefore, an R-version of Lemma 6 holds: the “combinatorial”
and the “smooth” ramification loci coincide.
Note that one always can find a real homogeneous polynomial P of degree k for which the curves
P,Q ⊂ RP 2∗ have an empty intersection: just take a linear form L such that the line L := {L = 0}
misses the real quadratic curve Q; then consider any polynomial P sufficiently close to (L)k. For
such a P , the Z2-equivariant parcelling is unique and, thus, (Φ
−1(P |Q=0) is a singleton. Evidently,
such polynomials P form an open set. Therefore, ΨRQ : Sym
k(RP 2) → RP (V ⊥Q (k; R)) is a map of
degree one. These remarks lead to
Theorem 14 The multipole space MR(k), which parametrizes completely factorable real homoge-
neous polynomials of degree k, is a space of an R∗-bundle over the real variety Symk(RP 2). The
∗-equivariant map ΦRQ induces a surjective mapping Ψ
Q : Sym
k(RP 2) → RP 2k = RP (V ⊥Q (k; R))
of degree one. Unless Q is a definite form, the map ΦRQ is ramified over the discriminant variety
D(ΦRQ) of codimension one. Here D(Φ
Q) is comprised of homogeneous polynomials P of degree k
on the real cone {Q = 0} for which the surfaces {P = 0} and {Q = 0} share a line of multiplicity
at least two.11
Corollary 15 • the multipole space MR(d) =
[R3 ◦]d
ΣRd is diffeomorphic to the space
(R2d+1)◦ ≈ S2d × R.
• the multipole space M
(d) in (39) is homeomorphic to the space R2d+1.
• the real varieties Symd(RP 2) and RP 2d are diffeomorphic12.
Proof. Let Q be a positive definite form. Then, the ramification locus D(ΦRQ) = ∅. Since under
the corollay’s hypotheses the τ -equivariant parcelling is unique, every real homogeneous P , not
divisible by Q, gives rise to a unique leading multipole w(P ) ∈ MRQ(d)—the map Φ
Q is 1-to-1.
Recalling that Φ
Q is onto a vector space of dimension 2d + 1 and that the smooth ramification
locus E = D(Φ
Q) = ∅, completes the proof. �
The diffeomorphism Symd(RP 2) → RP 2d serves as yet another transparent illustration to the
Dold-Thom theorem: not only it reveals Sym∞(RP 2) as a K(Z2, 1) space, but we actually know
how this stabilization of the homotopy groups occurs. In fact, π1(Sym
d(RP 2)) = Z2, and for k > 1,
πk(Sym
d(RP 2)) = πk(S
2d). In particular, {πk(Sym
d(RP 2))} vanish for 1 < k < 2d.
We have seen already the main advantages of the multipole representations for the polynomials on
quadratic surfaces: such representations are independent on the choice of coordinates in C3∗ or R
This is in the sharp contrast with the classical decompositions in terms of the spherical harmonics.
In the case of Q = x2 + y2 + z2 and over the reals, the independence of the multipoles under the
rotations was observed by many. When Q is not positive-definite, similar observations hold.
For a non-degenerated quadratic form Q with real coefficients, let OQ(3,R) denote the group of
linear transformations from GL(3;R) that preserve the form. When the signature sign(Q) = 2,
then OQ(3,R) contains the Lorenz transformation group (equivalently, the isometry group of a
hyperbolic plane) as a subgroup of index two.
The next proposition should be compared with Lemma 2 and Theorem 12. We noticed already that,
for a real quadratic form Q, the decomposition (8) is a complexification of a similar decomposition
V (d;R) = HarQ(d;R)⊕ VQ(d;R) (45)
over the reals. Here HarQ(d;R) := Ker(∆Q;R) ∩ V (d;R). Therefore, (45) is OQ(3,R)-equivariant
with respect to the natural action on the space V (d;R) and orthogonal with respect to the inner
11equivalently, the curves P and Q in RP 2∗ share a point of multiplicity at least two.
12cf. [A], Theorem 2.
product (40). At the same time, the multipole space MR(d) is also equipped with the OQ(3,R)-
action induced by the obvious diagonal action on [V (3;R)]d. Furthermore, the map Fact(d,R) →
HarQ(d;R) induced by the projection V (d;R) → HarQ(d;R) (defined by (45)) is equivariant.
Corollary 16 Given a real polynomial P on SR together with its representation (45) and a transfor-
mation U ∈ OQ(3,R), the transformed polynomial U
∗(P )(x, y, z) := P ((x, y, z) · U) on SR acquires
a representation in the form
U∗(P )(x, y, z) = λ+
(a′k,jx+ b
k,jy + c
k,jz)
, (46)
where each new multipole vector (a′k,j, b
k,j, c
k,j) = (ak,j, bk,j, ck,j) · U
T . In other words, the onto
ΦRQ :
MR(k) →
[V (k,R)/VQ(k,R)] ≈ ⊕
k=0 HarQ(d;R)
is OQ(3,R)-equivariant.
Combining decomposition (45) with Theorem 12 we get its real analog:
Theorem 17 Let Q be a real non-degenerated quadratic form.
• The space of real homogeneous polynomials admits an OQ(3;R)-invariant decomposition
V (d;R) = ⊕d−2k≥ 0 Q
k ·HarQ(d− 2k;R) (47)
The summands in (47) are orthogonal with respect to the inner product defined by the formula
(40).
• Any polynomial function F on the surface SR = {Q(x, y, z) = const} can be obtained by
restricting to SR a polynomial P ∈ HarQ(R).
• For any two polynomials M and N , the Dirichlet problem
{∆Q(P ) = M, P |SR = N |SR} (48)
has a unique real polynomial solution P .
• Any real polynomial P of degree at most d, being restricted to the surface SR, admits a
Maxwell-type representation
P (x, y, z) =
d−2k≥ 0
Q(x, y, z)d−k+
2 · ∇
. . .∇
ud−2k,k
Q(x, y, z)−
where {uj,k} are complex 3-vectors. These vectors are real and representation (49) is unique,
provided that Q is positive-definite.
4 Why one does rarely see multipoles in non-quadratic skies?
Let Q(x, y, z) be an irreducible form of degree l over C. Then S := {Q(x, y, z) = 1} is the surface
in C3∗ and Q := {Q(x, y, z) = 0} is an irreducible curve in CP
∗ of degree l.
As before, we denote by VQ(d) the set of homogeneous degree d complex polynomials that are
divisible by Q. Let V ⊥Q (d) ≈ V (d)/VQ(d) be an orthogonal complement to VQ(d) in V (d).
For any sequence of non-negative integers {di} so that
1≤i≤s di = d, consider a map
V ⊥Q (di) → V
Q (d) (50)
which is defined by taking the product of homogeneous polynomials Pi ∈ V
Q (di) restricted to the
surface {Q(x, y, z) = 0}.
As before, the subgroup Hs ⊂ (C
∗)s of rank s− 1 acts freely on
i=1[V
Q (di)
◦] by scalar multipli-
cation. By the definition of Hs, the map η is constant on the orbits of this action. We view the
partition {d =
1≤i≤s di} as a non-increasing function ω : i → di on the index set {1, 2, . . . , s}.
Denote by Sω the subgroup of the permutation group Ss that preserves ω. Let Σω be an extension
of Sω by Hs that is generated by the obvious actions of Sω and Hs on (C
∗)s ≈
i=1 C
Evidently, η is an Σω-equivariant map. Thus, it gives rise to a well-defined map
V ⊥Q (di)
Σω → V
Q (d)
◦ (51)
Because Q is irreducible, the map Φω has V
Q (d)
◦, and not just V ⊥Q (d), as its target.
As before, we introduce the mulipole space
MQ(ω) :=
V ⊥Q (di)
Σω (52)
which is a space of a principle C∗-fibration over the orbifold
BQ(ω) :=
CP (V ⊥Q (di))
Sω (53)
As in the case of quadratic forms Q, one has a map Θ : MQ(ω) → Fact(ω), where Fact(ω) ⊂ V (d)
is the variety of homogeneous degree d polynomials in x, y, and z that admit a factorization as a
product of polynomials of the degrees {di}1≤i≤s that are prescribed by the partition ω. The
map Θ takes each multipole to the product of the corresponding polynomial factors. Unlike the
case of a quadratic Q, Θ may not be a 1-to-1 map, although, its generic fiber is a singleton.
13To simplify our notations, we do not indicate (as before) the dependency of the map on Q.
This conclusion follows from the unique factorization property for the ring C[x, y, z]: just consider
elements of Fact(ω) that are products of irreducible factors of the degrees prescribed by ω. The
same uniqueness of factorization implies that each fiber of Θ is finite: there are only finitely many
ways of organizing irreducible factors, in which a polynomial P ∈ Fact(ω) decomposes, into blocks
of degrees {di}.
The map Θ is not surjective either. However, Φω takes the multipole space onto the space FactQ(ω)
of degree d homogeneous polynomials on the surface {Q = 0} that admit factorizations subordinate
to ω:
Φω : MQ(ω)
→ Fact(ω)
→ FactQ(ω) ⊂ V
Q (d)
◦ (54)
Definition 4 Let d be a natural number and ω = {d =
i=1 di} its partition. Let Z be a finite
set equipped with a multiplicity function µ : Z → N whose l1-norm ‖µ‖1 is ld. A generalized
ω-parcelling of (Z, µ) is a collection of functions µi : Z → N, such that
i µi = µ
• ‖µi‖1 = ldi
When Z is comprised of ld points and each µi takes only two values 0, 1, the generalized parcelling
is called just an ω-parcelling.
Any polynomial P (x, y, z) of degree d that is not divisible by Q determines a multiplicity function
µ : Z(P,Q) → N whose l1-norm is ld. Here Z(P,Q) := P ∩ Q ⊂ CP
∗ is a finite set. If such a
polynomial P is a product
i Li, where deg(Li) = di, then the Li’s give rise to a unique generalized
ω-parcelling
i µi.
Lemma 8 Any generalized ω-parceling
i µi of a given multiplicity function µ on a finite set
Z ⊂ Q corresponds to at most one multipole in the space MQ(ω).
Proof. Assume that, for each index i, there exist a polynomial Li that realizes µi on the finite
intersection set Z ⊂ Q. Such polynomial is not divisible by Q. Put Zi = Z(Li, Q) := Li∩Q. Then,
employing the Bezout Theorem, any other polynomial Mi that realizes the same multiplicity on
the same intersection set Zi must be of the form Mi = λiLi+Q ·Ri. We notice that if Li ∈ V
Q (di),
then Mi /∈ V
Q (di), provided Ri 6= 0. �
Corollary 18 The map Φω has finite fibers over FactQ(ω).
Proof. An element of P ∈ V ⊥Q (d)
◦ is determined, up to proportionality, by its multiplicity function
µ : Z(P,Q) → N. Now the claim of the corollary follows from Lemma 8 and the observation that
a given multiplicity function admits only finitely many generalized ω-parcellings. �
Of course, not any generalized ω-parceling on a given pair (Z ⊂ Q, µ) is realizable by a product
i Li with the properties as above. Crudly, this happens because not any ldi points on Q can be
placed on a curve Ci of degree di that does not contain Q as its component. A curve of degree di
can always accommodate (d2i + 3di)/2 points in CP
∗ . Thus, if an inequality (d
i + 3di)/2 ≥ dil is
valid, that is, if di ≥ 2l− 3, the right curve might be found; but it is still unclear how to avoid the
very real possibility that Ci ⊃ Q when di ≥ l. In fact, such a possibility is a reality!
Unfortunately, unless l = deg(Q) = 2 or s = 1, the image of Φω is of a smaller dimension than
the one of the target space V ⊥Q (d)
◦. As a result, there is no analog of the Sylvester Theorem on
non-quadratic surfaces; when deg(Q) > 2, a generic element of V ⊥Q (d)
◦ is irreducible. Let us explain
these claims.
Recall that for any d ≥ l, dim(V ⊥Q (d)) =
{(d2 + 3d)− [(d− l)2 + 3(d− l)]} = l
(2d− l+ 3). Since
the dimension of the group Hs is s− 1, we get
dim(V ⊥Q (d))− dim(MQ(ω)) =
(2d − l + 3)−
(2di − l + 3) + (s− 1) =
[l2 − 3l + 2],
provided all di ≥ l. Under these hypotheses, the difference of the two dimensions vanishes only
when l = 1, 2 or s = 1. Hence,
Lemma 9 For l = deg(Q) > 2 and {di ≥ l}1≤i≤s, the map Φω is not onto, i.e. a generic polynomial
from V ⊥Q (d)
◦ is not a product of polynomials of degrees ≥ l. The codimension of Φω(MQ(ω)) in
V ⊥Q (d) is
[l2 − 3l + 2].
For example, on a cubic surface , dim(V ⊥Q (d))− dim(MQ(ω)) = (s− 1), provided {di ≥ 3}1≤i≤s.
If we drop the hypotheses {di ≥ l}, the computation is a bit more involved:
dim(V ⊥Q (d)) − dim(MQ(ω)) =
(2d− l + 3)−
i: di≥l
(2di − l + 3)−
j: dj<l
(dj + 3) + (s− 1)
We conjecture that the RHS of the formula above is always positive, unless l = 1, 2 or s = 1.
5 Multipoles and function approximations on quadratic surfaces
In this section we will be concerned with polynomial approximations of holomorphic functions
f : S → C on an irreducible complex quadratic surface SQ = {Q(x, y, z) = 1}, as well as with
polynomial approximations of continuous functions f : SRQ → R on its real version. As before,
we would like to represent the approximating polynomials in terms of their multipoles. As we use
polynomials of higher and higher degrees to improve the approximations, the issue is stability of the
multipole representations. In general, such stability is absent for several reasons: 1) the intrinsic
ambiguities of the multipole representations for complex plynomials; 2) the difficulty of converting
an analytic function on a surface into a “homogeneous” analytic function in the ambient space
(homogenizing polynomials worked well). Even abandoning multipole representations in favor of
linear methods of harmonic analysis, does not eliminate the stability issue instantly: in general, the
coefficients of approximating polynomials fail to stabilize. However, if the approximating polyno-
mials are linear combinations of mutually orthogonal and normalized polynomials (analogous to the
Legendre polynomials), the coefficients of the combinations will stabilize. By introducing appro-
priate notions of orthogonality for polynomials on a quadratic surface, we aim to establish similar
facts for polynomial approximations there14. Then we combine harmonic analysis with non-linear
methods of multipole representation for polynomials (as it is done in formula (3) in Theorem 3).
Let C(K) denote the algebra of all continuous C-functions on a Hausdorff compact space K. Recall
that a uniform algebra is a closed (in the sup-norm) subalgebra A ⊂ C(K) that separates points
of K. Such an algebra is called antisymmetric, if any real-valued function from A is constant. A
subset Y ⊂ K is called an antisymmetry set for A if any function from A, which is real-valued on
Y , is a constant. The Bishop Theorem about antisymmetric subdivisions (cf. [G], Theorem 13.1)
claims that the maximal sets of antisymmetry {Eα} are closed and disjoint, and their union is K.
Moreover, if f ∈ C(K) and, for each α, f |Eα ∈ A|Eα , then f ∈ A. In particular, if each Eα is a
singleton, then A = C(X).
For a space X ⊂ Cn, let us denote by P̄(X) the closure in the sup-norm on compacts in X of the
algebra P(X) generated by all complex polynomial functions. Note that if any two points in X
can be separated by a real-valued polynomial, then Bishop’s Theorem implies that P̄(X) = C(X).
For instance, consider a section H of the complex surface SQ by a totally real subspace V
3 ⊂ C3 —
an image of R3 ⊂ C3 under a complex transformation A ∈ GL(3;C). Since any two points in R3,
can be separated by a real-valued polynomial, the same property holds for any two points in V 3,
and thus, in H. By the Bishop Theorem, any continuous function f on H admits an approximation
in the sup-norm on compacts by complex polynomials. In particular, this conclusion is valid when
H is one of the real surfaces ΥQ ⊂ (R
3)A−1 or SRQ ⊂ R
3 which have been employed on many
occasions.
For a compact set K ⊂ SQ, denote by K̂ the polynomial hull (closure) of K. It consists of all
points v in C3 with the property: |P (v)| ≤ supw∈K|P (w)| for any complex polynomial P . Because
for any point v /∈ S and w ∈ S, we have |(Q − 1)(v)| > |(Q − 1)(w)| = 0, the polynomial closure
K̂ must be contained in S. In fact, the polynomial closure K̂ of a compact K ⊂ C3 must be
a polynomially convex compact set. A theorem by Oka and Weyl (cf. [G], Theorem 5.1) claims
that any complex analytic function, defined in a neighborhood of a compact polynomialy convex
set, admits an approximation in the sup-norm on K by complex polynomials. Thus, any analytic
function f(x, y, z) defined in a neighborhood of K̂ ⊂ SQ, K being a compact in SQ, can be uniformly
approximated on K̂ by complex polynomials.
When dealing with families of functions on non-compact sets, we pick the uniform convergency
on compact subsets as a default topology. In this topology, the subalgebra O(SQ) of holomorphic
functions is closed in the algebra of all continuous functions C(SQ) (cf. [GuR], Lemma 11). In
particular, if a sequence of polynomials (in x, y, and z) is converging in the sup-norm on every
compact in SQ, then its limit is a holomorphic function on SQ. One can employ any expanding
14The spherical harmonics reflect a particular case of such orthogonality.
family {Kr}1≤r≤∞ (i.e., Kr ⊂ Kr+1 and ∪r Kr = SQ) of polynomially convex compacts Kr ⊂ SQ to
build a sequence {Pr} of polynomials that approximate a given holomorphic function f ∈ O(SQ).
Let F(SQ) ⊂ O(SQ) be a subset formed by the functions that admit a representation as a series
, (55)
where each Lkj is a linear form in x, y, and z. The series is required to converge uniformly on
each compact K ⊂ SQ (as we remarked before, any such uniformly converging series produces a
holomorphic function on SQ).
In fact, one can define a similar set F(K) ⊂ C(K) for any closed K ⊂ C3. Due to Theorem
11, any polynomial on SQ is of the form (33) (which is a special case of (55)). Therefore, when
P(K) = C(K) for a compact K ⊂ SQ, then F(K) is dense in C(K) as well.
Examining (55), we observe that if this series converges at a point v = (x, y, z) it must converge
absolutely at any other point λ · v, were the complex number λ has modulus less than 1. For any
set Y ⊂ C3, we denote by Y • the set {λv| v ∈ Y, λ ∈ C, |λ| < 1} and call it the round hull of Y .
Consider the set S•Q. Because any complex line through the origin that does not belong to the
complex cone {Q = 0} hits SQ at a pair of antipodal points, S
Q is an open domain in C
3, com-
plementary to the cone whose boundary contains SQ (the origin belongs to S
Q). Therefore, any
function f ∈ F(SQ) must be a restriction of a function which is analytic in S
Q and continuous in
S•Q ∪ SQ. I doubt that the converse statement is true. Note that a given function f on SQ may
have many analytic extensions in S•Q: for example, 1 extends to 1 and to 1/Q (the latter has poles
along the complex cone).
If a section H of SQ by a totally real subspace V
3 ⊂ C3 is an ellipsoid, then its interior in V 3
coincides with S•Q ∩ V
3. Thus, any real function f on H that admits a representation as in (55)
must be real analytic in the interior of the ellipsoid. So, it is represented by its Taylor series at
the origin; on the other hand, series (55), uniformly converging in the vicinity of the origin, gives
rise to a very specialized Taylor series (just count the dimensions of the coefficient spaces of each
degree to see how special it is).
Since any function from O(SQ) admits a polynomial approximation on compacts, the subset F(SQ)
is dense in in the space of all holomorphic functions. So, F(SQ) is squeezed between the vector
space O(SQ) and its dense subspace P(SQ). It is not even clear whether F(SQ) is a vector space.
To understand the structure of the set F(SQ) is a challenge; unfortunately, our progress towards
this goal is minimal.
Note that, if a holomorphic function vanishes on a totally real analytic surface H ⊂ SQ, it must
vanish in a neighborhood of H in SQ.
We summarize the observations above in
Theorem 19 Any holomorphic function f on complex surface SQ is a limit in the topology of
uniform convergence on compacts of polynomial functions in C3. The approximating polynomials
each admit a representation as in (33). As a result, such an f can be described by a double-indexed
set of multipoles {wjk ∈ M(k)}0≤j≤k<∞.
A subset F(SQ) of functions that admit a representation as in (55) is dense in the space of all holo-
morphic functions O(SQ) and invariant under multiplications by scalars and the natural OQ(3;C)-
action15. Each function f ∈ F(SQ) admits a canonic holomorphic extension
f(λx, λy, λz) =
Lkj(x, y, z)
into the round hull S•Q. Here (x, y, z) ∈ SQ and |λ| < 1.
Any continuous function f : H → C on the totally real quadratic surfaces H = ΥQ or H = S
a limit in the topology of uniform convergence on compacts in H of polynomial functions in C3.
As a result, the set F(H) is dense in C(H). Each function from F(H) admits a canonic analytic
extension into the open portion of real cone over H, a portion that is bounded by H and contains
the origin. Again, f can be described by a double-indexed set of multipoles {wjk ∈ M(k)}0≤j≤k<∞.
Under the hypotheses of Theorem 19, unless a given function is in the sets F(SQ) or F(H), the set
of multipoles that represent it is far from being unique. In order to achieve some kind of uniqueness,
we need to consider multipole representations for the L2-integrable functions and to employ the
orthogonality. Hence, consider the vector space P(SQ) of all polynomial functions restricted to
SQ and equipped with the inner product 〈f, g〉 defined by (34). If P is a homogeneous nonzero
polynomial, then 〈P,P 〉 > 0. An homogeneous polynomial is determined by its restriction to SQ.
Evidently, 〈P,P 〉 = 0 implies that the restriction of P to ΥQ is zero. Since ΥQ ⊂ SQ is a totally real
analytic submanifold, P |ΥQ = 0 implies that P vanishes in the vicinity of ΥQ in SQ. By analyticity,
P must vanish everywhere in SQ, and hence, P is a zero polynomial. As a result, 〈P,P 〉 gives rise
to a norm on the space of homogeneous polynomials V (d). Because any function from P(SQ) is a
restriction of an homogeneous polynomial, we get a non-degenerated Hermitian inner product on
the vector space P(SQ). In view of Theorem 12 and by a similar line of arguments, 〈P,P 〉 = 0
implies that P = 0 for any complex polynomial P ∈ Ker(∆Q). Therefore, being restricted to
a space of Q-harmonic polynomials, the inner product 〈f, g〉 in (34) gives rise to an Hermitian
structure and an L2-norm ‖P‖ΥQ . In particular, each space HarQ(k) ≈ V
Q (k) inherits this norm,
and HarQ(k) is orthogonal to HarQ(l), provided l 6= k.
Now, consider the vector space
k=0 HarQ(k) formed by sequences of vector-polynomials {Pk ∈
HarQ(k)} and the subspace L
2 := ⊕
k=0 HarQ(k) formed by infinite sequences {Pk ∈ HarQ(k)}
subject to the condition
k=0 ‖Pk‖
< ∞. Let L2(ΥQ) denote the complex Hilbert space of
L2-integrable functions on the ellipsoid ΥQ. Every function f ∈ L2(ΥQ) defines a unique system of
its “Fourier components” {fk ∈ HarQ(k)}. Each fk is the unique polynomial from HarQ(k) that
delivers the minimum minP∈HarQ(k) ‖f − P‖ΥQ . By Theorem 19, any f ∈ C(ΥQ) is a limit in the
sup-norm on ΥQ of harmonic polynomials, it must be also the limit in L2(ΥQ) of the same sequence
of polynomials. Therefore, if f ∈ C(ΥQ) is orthogonal to all the subspaces HarQ(k), it must be
the zero function. Hence, as an element of L2(ΥQ), f =
k=0 fk, and ‖f‖
k=0 ‖fk‖
15By its definition, every function from F(SQ) can be described by a sequence of multipoles {wk ∈ M(k)}0≤k<∞.
particular, any f ∈ O(SQ) determines a unique system of its harmonics {fk ∈ HarQ(k)}. Moreover,
it is determined by f |ΥQ , and thus, by its harmonics {fk}.
Evidently, the sequence of partial sums {f[d] :=
k=0 fk ∈ Ker(∆Q)}d converges in L2(ΥQ) to f .
In terms of homogeneous polynomials, we get an analogous sequence {f{d} :=
⌈(d−k)/2⌉fk}d
converging in L2(ΥQ) to f .
Similar arguments can be applied, instead of the ellipsoid ΥQ, to any surface H ⊂ SQ that is a
section of SQ by a totally real subspace V
3 ⊂ C3. In particular, they are valid for SRQ. First, we
pick a measure dm on H such that any polynomial P |H ∈ L2(H) (when H is compact, one can
choose any measure of finite volume). For example, consider the area 2-form ω on H induced by the
imbeddingH ⊂ C3 and multiply it by the factor exp[−(xx̄+yȳ+zz̄)] to get the “right measure” dm.
Then we define a new inner product by 〈f, g〉H =
f · ḡ dm. Since H is totally real, this will give
rise to an Hermitian structure in each space V (k). Notice that the multiplication-by-Q imbedding
V (k) → VQ(k+2) ⊂ V (k+2) is an isometry. As before, we form the orthogonal compliments V
Q (k)
to the subspaces VQ(k) (the only difference is that now the space V
Q (d) could be different from
the space HarQ(d) of Q-harmonic polynomials). Then we argue that the Hilbert space L2(H, dm)
is a closure of ⊕∞k=0 V
Q (k) in the L2-norm. As before, any continuous function f on H acquires a
unique representation f =
k=0 fk, where {fk ∈ V
Q (k)}, and ‖f‖
k=0 ‖fk‖
Thanks to Theorems 7 and 11, each complex homogeneous polynomial fk ∈ V
Q (k) can be repre-
sented by some multipole w
k ∈ M(k). Similarly, any real homogeneous polynomial fk ∈ V
Q (k;R)
can be represented by some multipole w
k ∈ M
(k). When Q is positive definite, these real multi-
poles are unique. However, in general, the ambiguity of the multipole representation could cause
trouble. So, we need to choose the representing multipoles with some care.
Due to the embedding Θ : M(k) → V (k) (see (15)) with the image Fact(k), the multipole space
M(k) acquires a metric ρ induced by the LH2 -norm ‖P‖H in V (k).
The lemma below helps to estimate the size of the fiber Φ
Q (u) over u ∈ V
Q (k) in terms of an
universal angle θk = θ(k,H, dm) and the L
2 -norm of u:
Lemma 10 Consider the distance function ρ on M(k) that is induced by the LH2 -norm ‖ ∼ ‖H in
V (k) via the embedding Θ : M(k) → Fact(k) ⊂ V (k). Then there exist an angle 0 < θk ≤ π/2
so that, for each u ∈ V ⊥Q (k) ⊂ V (k), the distance from any w ∈ Φ
Q (u) to the zero multipole is at
most ‖u‖/sin(θk), and thus the diameter of the fiber Φ
Q (u) is at most 2‖u‖/sin(θk).
Proof. Let S(k) denote a unit sphere (with respect to the ‖ ∼ ‖H -norm) in V (k) and centered at
the origin. Because Q is irreducible, Fact(k) ∩ VQ(k) = ∅. Thus, the compact sets S(k) ∩ Fact(k)
and SQ(k) = S(k)∩VQ(k) are disjoint. Therefore, there is a number 0 < θ ≤ π/2 so that the angle
between any two vectors u ∈ S(k)∩Fact(k) and v ∈ SQ(k) is greater than or equal to θ. Note that
S(k) ∩ Fact(k) and SQ(k) are invariant under the circle action S
1 ⊂ C∗. So, Fact(k) and VQ(k)
also are real cones with their tips at the origin and bases S(k) ∩ Fact(k) and SQ(k). We conclude
that the angle between any two vectors u ∈ Fact(k) and v ∈ VQ(k) has the same lower bound
θ > 0. Now consider an open real cone CQ(k) ⊂ V (d) comprised of vectors that form an angle
φ < θ with the subspace VQ(k) and a complementary cone C
Q(k) := V (d) \ CQ(k) ⊃ V
Q (k). The
argument above shows that Fact(k) ⊂ C⊥Q(k). Hence, the distance from any w ∈ Φ
Q (u) to the
zero multipole is at most ‖u‖/sin(θk), and the diameter of the fiber Φ
Q (u) is at most 2‖u‖/sin(θk).
Corollary 20 Consider a continuous function f ∈ L2(H) and its orthogonal decomposition
k=0 fk, where fk ∈ V
Q (k). Then, for any choice of the multipoles wk ∈ Φ
Q (fk),
sin2(θk) · ρ(wk,0)
2 < ∞, (56)
where ρ(wk,0) = ‖Θ(wk)‖H . �
It seems to be far from trivial to understand the asymptotic behavior of {sin(θk)} as k → ∞.
Perhaps, the lack of understanding of this asymptotics it is the most significant gap in our analysis.
To state the last claim in the next theorem, we need one technical definition that likely has very
little to do with the essence of the statement. The set D(ΦQ) ⊂ V
Q (k) is a complex algebraic
variety. Itis stratified by algebraic sets {Dk,π} which are labeled by various partitions π of 2k. This
labeling is done by attaching the divisor P ∩Q ∈ Sym2k(Q), or rather the partition π of 2k defined
by the multiplicity function of P ∩Q, to each homogeneous polynomial P (x, y, z) restricted to the
cone {Q = 0} and viewed as an element of V ⊥Q (k). In particular, when π = {2d = 1+1+1+ . . .+1}
or {2d = 2 + 1 + 1 + . . . + 1}, then Dk,π = V
Q (k) or Dk,π = D(ΦQ), respectively. The natural
partial order among partitions reflects the inclusions of the corresponding strata. If we delete all
the substrata from a given stratum Dk,π, we get a “pure” stratum that we denote D
k,π. The variety
D(ΦQ) is a Whitney stratified space; as a result, the vicinity of every stratum D
k,π has a structure
of a bundle whose fiber is a real cone over another stratified space Lkk,π —the link of D
k,π. We will
make use of this fact together with another important feature of the stratification Dk,π: namely,
all the strata of Lkk,π have even real codimensions.
We say that a parametric curve γ : [0, 1] → V ⊥Q (k) ≈ HarQ(k) is tame if it consists of a finite
number of arcs, each of which has the following property: the interior of each arc is contained in
some stratum D◦k,π. We say that a continuous function family {ft ∈ L2(ΥQ)}0≤t≤1 is tame, if for
each k, the path {(ft)k ∈ HarQ(k)}0≤t≤1 is tame.
First, consider the functions f ∈ O(SQ) such that, for each k, the polynomial fk ∈ HarQ(k) ≈
V ⊥Q (k) does not belong to the ramification locus D(ΦQ) ⊂ V
Q (k) of the map ΦQ (the rest of the
functions form a complex codimension one subset D ⊂ O(SQ)). Over the compliment to the variety
D(ΦQ), the map ΦQ is a covering map. Thus, for each initial lifting, the deformation (ft)k admits
a unique lifting to the multipole space, as long as (ft)k ∈ V
Q (k) \ D(ΦQ).
Next, for any tame t-family {ft ∈ O(SQ)}0≤t≤1, consider the tame curve {(ft)k ∈ V
Q (k)}0≤t≤1 and
the first arc γ in a finite sequence of arcs that form this curve. There are two possibilities: 1) the
arc starts at a stratum D◦k,π and is confined to it for a while, 2) the arc starts at a stratum D
but moves instantly into an ambient stratum D◦k,π′ . In the first case, over D
k,π, ΦQ is a covering
map and there is a unique lifting of γ extending each lifting γ̃(0) of γ(0). In the second case, we
claim that, for any lifting γ̃(0) of γ(0), in the vicinity of γ̃(0), the map ΦQ is onto. Indeed, it is a
proper holomorphic map, and thus, its image must be an analytic space (see [N], Theorem 2, page
129). Because ΦQ is finite, the image of a neighborhood of γ̃(0) under ΦQ must be of the maximal
dimension, and hence, must contain a neighborhood of γ(0). As a result, the set Φ−1Q (γ) (it is a
finite graph) must be present in any neighborhood of γ̃(0); so, we can lift γ to an arc γ̃ that starts
at γ̃(0). An induction by the number of arcs in the curve (ft)k proves the existence of its lifting to
the multipole space. Note that an analogous argument fails for ΦRQ: a finite image of a real analytic
set is a real semi-analytic set that can miss the arc γ. Therefore, in Theorem 22 the lifting property
for tame deformations is absent.
The arguments above prove the following theorem:
Theorem 21 Let Q(x, y, z) be an irreducible complex quadratic form, and let SQ be a complex
quadratic surface defined by the equation {Q = 1}. Denote by A a complex change of coordinates
that reduces the form Q to the sum of squares. Let ΥQ ⊂ SQ be a totally real ellipsoid defined by the
equations {Q((x, y, z)A) = 1, Im((x, y, z)A) = 0} and equipped with the measure defined by (34).
Let f be an analytic function on SQ. Then there exists sequence of multipoles {w
k ∈ M(k)}0≤k<+∞
such that:
• the sequence gives rise, via the maps {ΦQ}, to complex Q-harmonic polynomials P
d (x, y, z) =
k=0ΦQ(w
k ), where the mutually orthogonal polynomials {ΦQ(w
k ) ∈ HarQ(k)} are uniquely
determined by f .
• as d → ∞, the polynomials {P
} converge in the space L2(ΥQ) to the function f |ΥQ , and
therefore, uniquely determine f ∈ O(SQ).
• for a given f , there are at most (2k − 1)!! choices for each multipole w
• the multipoles {w
} satisfy property (56) from Corollary 20.
• for any tame deformation {ft ∈ O(SQ)}0≤t≤1 of the function f = f0, there exists a continuous
deformation {w
k ∈ M(k)} of the ft-representing multipoles, such that {w
k = w
k}. For
functions f and their continuous deformations ft outside a subspace D ⊂ O(SQ) of complex
codimension one and for each choice of the appropriate multipoles {w
}, the lifting of the
deformation ft to the multipole spaces is unique. �
Similarly, we get
Theorem 22 Let Q(x, y, z) be an irreducible real quadratic form. Let SRQ := {Q = 1} be a real
quadratic surface, equipped a measure dm for which any polynomial in x, y, and z is an L2-integrable
function on the surface. Let f be an L2-integrable continuous function on S
Q. Then there exists
sequence of multipoles {w
k ∈ M(k)}0≤k<+∞ such that:
• the sequence gives rise, via the maps {Φ
Q}, to real polynomials P
d (x, y, z) =
where the mutually orthogonal polynomials {Φ
)} are uniquely determined by f ;
• As d → ∞, the polynomials {P
d } converge to f in the space L2(S
• The multipoles {w
} satisfy property (56) from Corollary 20.
When Q is positive-definite,
• the mutually orthogonal polynomials {Φ
) ∈ HarQ(k;R)};
• each multipole w
k is uniquely determined by f ;
• for any continuous deformation {ft ∈ C(S
Q)}0≤t≤1, of the function f = f0, there exists a
unique continuous deformation {w
∈ M(k)} of the ft-representing multipoles, such that
Acknowledgments. I am grateful to Jeff Weeks for introducing me to the subject. My conversations
with Michael Shubin about the aspects of this investigation, motivated by harmonic analysis, were
equally enlightening. I also would like to thank Blaine Lawson for explaining to me a few facts and
constructions that turned out to be very helpful.
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William Paterson University,
Wayne, NJ 07470-2103, U.S.A.
e-mail: katzg@wpunj.edu & ygkatz@yahoo.com
http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0307507
http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0405631
http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0409081
http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0302496
http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0412231
	Introduction
	Multipoles and polynomials on complex quadratic surfaces
	Deconstructing reality
	Why one does rarely see multipoles in non-quadratic skies?
	Multipoles and function approximations on quadratic surfaces
	References

  Any homogeneous polynomial $P(x, y, z)$ of degree $d$, being restricted to a
unit sphere $S^2$, admits essentially a unique representation of the form
$\lambda + \sum_{k = 1}^d [\prod_{j = 1}^k L_{kj}]$, where $L_{kj}$'s are
linear forms in $x, y$ and $z$ and $\lambda$ is a real number. The coefficients
of these linear forms, viewed as 3D vectors, are called \emph{multipole}
vectors of $P$. In this paper we consider similar multipole representations of
polynomial and analytic functions on other quadratic surfaces $Q(x, y, z) = c$,
real and complex. Over the complex numbers, the above representation is not
unique, although the ambiguity is essentially finite. We investigate the
combinatorics that depicts this ambiguity. We link these results with some
classical theorems of harmonic analysis, theorems that describe decompositions
of functions into sums of spherical harmonics. We extend these classical
theorems (which rely on our understanding of the Laplace operator
$\Delta_{S^2}$) to more general differential operators $\Delta_Q$ that are
constructed with the help of the quadratic form $Q(x, y, z)$. Then we introduce
modular spaces of multipoles. We study their intricate geometry and topology
using methods of algebraic geometry and singularity theory. The multipole
spaces are ramified over vector or projective spaces, and the compliments to
the ramification sets give rise to a rich family of $K(\pi, 1)$-spaces, where
$\pi$ runs over a variety of modified braid groups.

Introduction
This paper aims to generalize and extend some results in [KW] and [W] about deconstruction of
cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) into multipole vectors and explain these results
to a mathematically inclined audience. Our exposition, to a degree, is self-sufficient. It resembles
in spirit to the paper of V. Arnold [A] which contains a nice treatment of similar structures (in a
setting that is a special case of ours).
In [S], [S1] Sylvester discovered the following basic fact1:
Theorem 1 Every real homogeneous polynomial P of degree d in x, y, and z may be written as
P (x, y, z) = (a1x+ b1y + c1z)(a2x+ b2y + c2z) ... (adx+ bdy + cdz) +
+ (x2 + y2 + z2) ·R(x, y, z), (1)
1rediscovered in [WK] by the authors
http://arxiv.org/abs/0704.1174v1
where the remainder term R is a homogeneous polynomial of degree d − 2. The decomposition is
unique up to reordering and rescaling of the linear factors in the product; in other words, R(x, y, z)
is unique.
For harmonic homogeneous polynomials P , a somewhat similar representation (see formula (7))
was discovered by James Clerk Maxwell in his 1873 Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism [M].
Its relation to algebraic geometry in general, and to the Sylvester theorem, in particular, is well-
explained by Courant and Hilbert in [CH] VII, Sec. 5.
Sylvester’s Theorem 1—an application of Bézout’s theorem—has a pleasing corollary:
Theorem 2 [KW ] When restricted to a unit sphere S2, every real polynomial P in x, y, and z of
degree d can be written in the form
P (x, y, z) = λ+ (a11x+ b11y + c11z) + (a21x+ b21y + c21z)(a22x+ b22y + c22z) + . . .
. . . + (ad1x+ bd1y + cd1z)(ad2x+ bd2y + cd2z) . . . (addx+ bddy + cddz), (2)
where λ and the ajk, bjk, cjk are real numbers. The decomposition is unique up to reordering and
rescaling of the linear factors in each of the products.
We denote by ∆ the Laplace operator on the euclidean 3-space and by ∆S2 the Laplace operator
on the unit sphere. An eigenfunction of ∆S2 which has an eigenvalue −d(d + 1) is called the d-th
spherical harmonic. In fact, such an eigenfunction is a restriction to S2 of a homogeneous harmonic
polynomial in x, y, and z of degree d. It is well-known that spherical harmonics form a basis in
the space L2(S
2) of L2-integrable functions on a unit sphere (see [CH]). As a result, an infinite
decomposition is available for any function f ∈ L2(S
2) (cf. [L], formula (26)).
Theorem 3 Any real function f ∈ L2(S
2) has a representation in the form
f(x, y, z) =
(akjx+ bkjy + ckjz)
where the series converges in the L2-norm, and the mutually orthogonal polynomials in the figure
brackets are among the d-th spherical harmonics. This representation is unique, up to reordering
and rescaling of the linear factors in each of the products.
In the space of real continuous functions f on S2 there is a dense (in the sup-norm) and O(3)-
invariant subset F(S2) comprised of functions that admit a representation in the form of a series
(adjx+ bdjy + cdjz)
that converges uniformly on the sphere. Each function from F(S2) admits a canonical extension
into the interior of the unit ball D3 where it produces a real analytic function.
Theorem 3, claiming a form of stability of decomposition (2) under the polynomial approximations,
is a useful tool for analyzing patterns in the spherical sky [W].
At the first glance, the sphere seems to occupy a special place in these results. However, what
is really important, is the quadratic nature of the surface. This paper is concerned with similar
decompositions of functions on other quadratic affine surfaces, real and complex. For instance, it
is natural to wonder whether one can deconstruct in a similar fashion polynomial or real analytic
functions on a hyperboloid. The answer is affirmative, but the uniqueness of the representation is
lost.
Evidently, polynomial deconstructions of type (2) can be described by listing the 3-vectors
(ajk, bjk, cjk), where 1 ≤ j ≤ d and 1 ≤ k ≤ j. Following Maxwell, we call them multipole
vectors. There is a sizable ambiguity in choosing the multipole vectors that represent a given
polynomial function. Factoring out this ambiguity produces an object that we call a multipole
or, more specifically, a d-pole. A major advantage of representing functions P (x, y, z) in terms of
multipole vectors is the naturality with which the multipoles behave under linear transformations,
in particular, under rotations.
The focal point of this paper is to describe rich algebro-geometrical structures and topology of
modular spaces of d-poles M(d) and its “semi-compactification” M(d) (see formulas-definitions
(10), (11) and (13)). In the process, we bring under the same roof a variety of mathematical
techniques and constructions that belong to the fields of algebraic geometry, singularity theory,
algebraic topology, harmonic analysis, and the polynomial approximation theory. None of our
techniques is very advanced, but their natural appearance within the context of studying quadratic
surfaces is pleasing and somewhat surprising...
The reader can follow two distinct treads in the core of the paper. The first tread winds through the
results that require methods of algebraic geometry. These results are uniquely three-dimensional,
that is, applicable only to quadratic surfaces. The second tread unifies results that are linear in
nature and are based on the classical theory of harmonic analysis on quadratic surfaces. These
results are valid for quadratic hypersurfaces in any dimension.
Now, let us describe informally the main results of the paper and its structure.
In the second section, we investigate a variety of special representations of complex polynomial
functions on complex quadratic surfaces Sλ := {Q(x, y, z) = λ}, where Q is a given non-degenerated
quadratic form and λ is a complex number. This section, the longest, contains all the core ideas and
constructions of the paper. The main results of Section 2 are contained in Theorems 6, 7, 10, and
12. Theorem 7 describes the d-pole space M(d) as a principle C∗-bundle over the d-th symmetric
power Symd(CP 2) of the complex projective space CP 2. Reconstructing a homogeneous polynomial
function P on the cone S0 := {Q(x, y, z) = 0} from the appropriate multipole defines a regular map
ΦQ from the modular space M(d) to the vector space V
Q (d) — the d-graded portion of the regular
ring C[x, y, z]/〈Q〉 of S0. Remarkably, this map is a surjection onto V
Q (d)
◦ := V ⊥Q (d) \ {0} with a
generic fiber of cardinality (2d−1)!! := 1·3·5·. . . ·(2d−1). In other words, for a generic homogeneous
polynomial P of degree d, there are (2d− 1)!! Sylvester-type representations P = Q ·R+
j=1 Lj
with distinct R’s (here Lj is a linear form in x, y, and z). According to Theorem 7, ΦQ is ramified
over a subvariety D(ΦQ) ⊂ V
Q (d) of codimension one. Points of D(ΦQ) represent polynomials P
whose zero sets contain lines in S0 of multiplicity at least two. The complement V
Q (d)
◦ \ D(ΦQ)
is a K(π, 1)-space, where π is an extension of the modified braid group B
2d in 2d strings by the
infinite cyclic group Z. The map ΦQ is C
∗-equivariant, which leads to a regular surjection ΨQ from
M(d)/C∗ = Symd(CP 2) onto the projective space V ⊥Q (d)
◦/C∗ ≈ CP 2d. Theorem 6, similar to
Theorem 7, describes the ramified geometry of ΨQ. The ramification set D(ΨQ) is a discriminant
subvariety of CP 2d and its complement, again, is a K(π, 1)-space, where π is the braid group in 2d
strings in a spherical shell. Thus, Theorems 6 and 7 describe the possibility and the ambiguities
of multipole representations for homogeneous polynomial functions on the cone S0. We notice (see
Corrolary 8) that the topology of the map ΦQ puts some breaks on the multipole representations
of multidimensional families of functions on S0.
Theorem 11 helps us to move from the multipole representations of homogeneous polynomials on
the cone S0 towards the multipole representations of general polynomial functions on any affine
quadratic surface Sλ: here one needs a sequence of d multipoles to capture a given function of
degree d.
Next, we describe the restriction of the map ΦQ to the modular space of multipoles that are confined
to a given plane in C3 (see formula (27)). In fact, being restricted to the space of coplannar
multipoles, ΦQ becomes a 1-to-1 map. This observation helps us to employ the quadratic form Q
for constructing interesting examples of ramified maps of degree 2d from the space CP d to itself.
Let us glance at these maps. The equation Q(x, y, z) = 0 defines an irreducible quadratic curve
Q in the projective space CP 2∗ with projective coordinates [x : y : z]. Pick a point p ∈ CP
∗ \ Q.
Then any q ∈ Q determines a line in CP 2∗ passing through p and q, and any effective divisor D
of degree d on Q gives rise to a collection of lines through p and D, taken with the appropriate
multiplicitiies. Such a collection can be regarded as an effective divisor of degree d on the dual space
CP 1 ⊂ CP 2. The embedding CP 1 ⊂ CP 2 corresponds to the pencil of lines through p. In other
words, the choice of p and Q produces a regular map ΓQ : Sym
d(Q) → Symd(CP 1). As abstract
varieties, Q and CP 1 are isomorphic. Hence, each quadratic form Q generates a regular map ΓQ
from CP d ≈ Symd(CP 1) onto itself with a generic fiber of cardinality 2d. Theorem 10 describes and
Figure 3 depicts a rather intricate geometry of the map ΓQ. This map is ramified over the variety
D(ΓQ) — the union of the classical discriminat variety Dd ⊂ CP
d with two hyperplanes that are
tangent to it (they depend on Q). The complement CP d \ D(ΓQ) is, again, a K(π, 1)-space with
π being the braid group in d strings in a cylindrical shell. This completes our algebro-geometric
treatment of the modular spaces of complex multipoles.
Classical harmonic analysis on spheres provides an alternative approach to function deconstructions
on quadratic surfaces (see formulas (6) and (8)). We observe that these deconstructions, based on
spherical harmonics, behave in a natural way under complex linear change of coordinates that
preserve a given nondegenerated quadratic form Q(~v) = 〈~vB,~v〉. Such a change calls for replacing
the Laplace operator ∆ with a second order differential operator ∆Q = [~∂]B
−1[~∂]T , where ~∂ :=
(∂x, ∂y , ∂z). Under this transformation, the homogeneous polynomial solutions of the equation
∆Q(P ) = 0 take the role of spherical harmonics. In particular, homogeneous polynomial solutions
of the wave equation (∂2x+∂
z )P (x, y, z) = 0 replace the spherical harmonics on the hyperboloid
x2 + y2 − z2 = 1. Along these lines, our Theorem 12 is a straightforward reformulation of well-
known results of classical harmonic analysis. One can view the generalized Maxwell Formula (37)
as a bridge between methods of harmonic analysis (the second tread) and methods of algebraic
geometry (the first tread).
The third section deals with decompositions of real polynomial functions on real quadratic surfaces.
In a sense, Section 3 is a “Z2-equivariant modification” of Section 2, where the cyclic group of
order two acts on functions and surfaces by complex conjugation. Theorem 17 is the real version
of Theorem 12 from Section 2. Theorem 14 is the real analog of theorem 7, and Theorem 13 of
Theorem 11. As a byproduct of our analysis of modular spaces MR(d) of real multipoles, we prove
that the manifolds Symd(RP 2) and RP 2d are diffeomorphic (see [A], Theorem 2, and our Corollary
In the fourth section, we discuss a spectacular failure of the multipole representations for affine
surfaces of degrees greater than two. Lemma 9 explains the nature of this failure: the set of
completely factorable polynomials on non-quadratic affine surfaces is a subvariety in the space of
all polynomial functions; in other words, for a form Q of degree at least three, a generic element of
the ring C[x, y, z]/〈Q〉 is irreducible.
The fifth section deals with infinite decompositions of functions on quadratic surfaces, both real
and complex. The main issue is whether our multipole representations converge appropriately.
Theorems 19 and 21 capture the main results of this section. Theorem 22 is a real analog of
Theorem 21 and a generalization of Theorem 3 from the Introduction.
Now a few words about the motivation for this paper that lies outside mathematics. Cosmologists
who study the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR) routinely decompose it into a
sum of spherical harmonics. This decomposition helps to analyze the correlations between the
magnitude and geometry of various harmonics. There is a hope that the lower harmonics can
capture some global properties of the Universe. The ultimate goal of these investigations is to
understand the geometry and topology of the visible universe and the physics of the Big Bang.
The data obtained byWilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) reveal puzzling correlations
between the low d-portion of the harmonic decomposition of the CMBR [B], [CHS], [TOH], [EHGL].
In the case of quadrupole-octopole (d = 2 and 3) alignment, simulations based on our fast algorithm
(which employes Theorem 2) show the alignment to be unusual at the 98.7 percent level (see [KW],
[W]). No explanation is yet known for these strange results.
2 Multipoles and polynomials on complex quadratic surfaces
We denote by C[x, y, z] the ring of complex polynomials in the variables x, y, and z. Let Q(x, y, z)
be an irreducible quadratic form over the complex numbers C. From a strictly algebraic perspective,
one can interpret this section as describing the ways in which the quotient ring C[x, y, z]/〈Q − λ〉,
λ ∈ C, fails to be a Unique Factorization Domain. However, the flavor of our approach to this
problem is more geometrical and combinatorial.
The reader will be well-adviced to ignore for a while the asterisks in our notations: they are there
to distinguish between vector spaces and their duals. Let S = {Q(x, y, z) = 1} be a complex
algebraic surface in C3∗. At the same time, {Q(x, y, z) = 0} gives rise to a complex projective curve
Q ⊂ CP 2∗ , where CP
∗ stands for the projectivization of the 3-space with coordinates x, y, and z.
As in Theorem 2, we aim to decompose any polynomial P (x, y, z) restricted to S as an “economic”
sum of products of homogeneous linear polynomials.
First, consider the case of an homogeneous P and the corresponding complex projective quadratic
curve P in CP 2∗ it generates. Denote by Z(P,Q) the intersection P ∩ Q. We assume that P and
Q do not share a common component, so that Z(P,Q) is a finite set. When Z(P,Q) is a complete
intersection, it consists of exactly 2d points, where d = deg(P ).
Definition 1 Let Q(x, y, z) be an homogeneous irreducible quadratic polynomial, and P (x, y, z) an
homogeneous polynomial of degree d. Assume that Z(P,Q) is a complete intersection. A parcelling
of the set Z(P,Q) is comprized of a number of subsets {Zν ⊂ Z(P,Q)}ν so that:
• Z(P,Q) =
• Zν ∩ Zν′ = ∅, provided ν 6= ν
• the cardinality of each subset Zν is equal to 2.
When Q is irreducible and P is not divisible by Q, the intersection set Z(P,Q) is equipped with a
function µ which assigns to each point p ∈ Z(P,Q) its multiplicity µ(p).
We denote by Z+ the set of non-negative integers and by N the set of positive integers.
Definition 2 Let Z be a finite set equipped with a multiplicity function µ : Z → N whose l1-norm
‖µ‖1 is 2d. A generalized parcelling of (Z, µ) is a collection of functions µν : Z → {0, 1, 2}, such
ν µν = µ
• ‖µν‖1 = 2
Of course, each parcelling of Z(P,Q) is also a generalized parcelling, where the roles of the functions
µν are played by the characteristic functions of the parcels Zν .
In the case of Q = x2 + y2 + z2, the following lemma is due to Sylvester [S], [S1].
Lemma 1 Let Q(x, y, z) be an irreducible homogeneous quadratic polynomial and let P (x, y, z) be
a homogeneous polynomial of degree d which is not divisible by Q. Consider a generalized parcelling
ν µν of the multiplicity function µ : Z(P,Q) → N.
Then the homogeneous polynomial P (x, y, z) admits a representation of the form
Q(x, y, z) · R(x, y, z) +
Lν(x, y, z), (5)
where Lν denotes a linear homogeneous polynomial that vanishes at each point p ∈ Z(P,Q) ⊂ Q
with the multiplicity µν(p).
Proof There exist a linear polynomial Lν and a corresponding line Lν ⊂ CP
∗ such that the
multiplicity of Lν ∩ Q at each point p ∈ Z(P,Lν) equals µν(p). When µν(p) = 2, the line must
be tangent to Q at p. When the support of µν—the parcel Zν ⊂ Z(P,Q))—is comprised of two
points, the line Lν is chosen to contain Zν .
Let us compare the restrictions of P and
ν Lν to the curve Q. Both polynomials are of the same
degree d. Moreover, the curve L := {
ν Lν = 0} intersects with Q at the points of Z(P,Q), where
it realizes the multiplicities prescribed by the function µ. It follows that the restrictions of P and
ν Lν to Q are proportional, that is, for an appropriate choice of scalar λ, P |Q = λ ·
ν Lν |Q. Just
take λ = P (q)/
ν Lν(q) where q ∈ Q \ Z(P,Q). With this choice, the curves {P − λ
ν Lν = 0}
and Q intersect so that the total multiplicity of the intersection is at least 2d+ 1. By the Bézout
theorem, this is possible only when Z(P − λ
ν Lν) ⊃ Q. Employing the irreducibility of Q, we
get that P − λ ·
ν Lν must be divisible by Q. This completes the proof. �
Corollary 4 Any effective divisor D on the complex quadratic surface S = {Q(x, y, z) = 0} that
is the zero set of a homogeneous polynomial P (x, y, z) can be represented as a sum of lines Dν. �
In general, the representation (5) of P depends on a generalized parcelling, and thus, is not unique.
We denote by V (d) the complex vector space of homogeneous polynomials in x, y, and z of degree
d. Its dimension is (d2 + 3d + 2)/2. Consider a vector subspace VQ(d) ⊂ V (d) comprised of
polynomials divisible by Q. There is a canonical imbedding βQ : V (d − 2) → V (d) whose image
is VQ(d). It is produced by multiplying polynomials of degree d − 2 by Q. Thus, any space V (d)
is equipped with a natural filtration FQ(d) = {VQk(d)}k by subspaces of polynomials divisible by
various powers {Qk} of Q. We equip each V (d) with an Hermitian inner product. For various d’s,
we insist that these inner products are synchronized by the requirement: all the imbeddings βQ
must be isometries. Denote by V ⊥Q (d) the subspace of V (d) orthogonal to VQ(d). It can be identified
with the quotient space V (d)/VQ(d)—the d-graded part of the algebra of regular functions on the
complex cone {Q(x, y, z) = 0}. The dimension of V ⊥Q (d) is equal to (2d+ 1).
For a real form Q, similar spaces based on real homogeneous polynomials of a degree d make sense.
We denote them V (d;R), VQ(d;R), and V
Q (d;R).
When Q = x2 + y2 + z2, there is a classical interpretation for the quotient V (d;R)/VQ(d;R). It
can be identified with the set of harmonic homogeneous polynomials of degree d (cf. [CH] and
[M]). In other words, the kernel Har(d;R) of the Laplace operator ∆ : V (d;R) → V (d − 2;R) is
complementary to VQ(d;R) in V (d;R). This leads to a decomposition similar to the one in (5) (cf.
[Sh, Theorem 22.2], [L], and [W]) :
V (d;R) ≈ Har(d;R)⊕ VQ(d;R) (6)
The direct summands in (6) are orthogonal with respect to the inner product in V (d;R) defined
by the formula 〈f, g〉 =
f · g dm. The measure dm on the sphere S2 is the standard one.
Moreover, according to Maxwell, any polynomial P ∈ Har(d;R) admits a beautiful representation
of the form
P (x, y, z) = r2d+1 · ∇
, (7)
where r = (x2 + y2 + z2)1/2, {vj ∈ R
3} are some vectors,2 and ∇
stands for the directional
derivative operator.
Physics behind Maxwell’s representation is quite transparent: 1/r is a potential of a single electrical
charge, ∇
(1/r) is a potential of a “virtual” (that is, very small) dipole formed by two opposite
charges, ∇
(1/r) is a potential of a “virtual” quadropole—a close pair of v1-oriented dipoles
merging along the direction of v2—, ∇v3∇v2∇v1(1/r) is a potential of a “virtual” octopole, and so
on...
Note that, the Laplace operator ∆ = ∂2x + ∂
y + ∂
z can act on complex polynomials in complex
variables x, y, and z as well. Both over real and complex numbers, its kernel is described by the
same system of linear equations with real coefficients imposed on the coefficients of polynomials
of a given degree. Therefore, if ∆(P ) = 0 for some complex polynomial P , then ∆(PR) = 0 and
∆(P I) = 0. Here PR is defined by the formula
α,β,γ Re(aα,β,γ)x
αyβzγ and P I by the formula
α,β,γ Im(aα,β,γ)x
αyβzγ , where P =
α,β,γ aα,β,γ x
αyβzγ .
For any invertible complex (3×3)-matrix A = (ajk), consider a symmetric matrix B = (bjk) = A·A
and the corresponding quadratic form Q(v) = 〈vB, v〉, where v = (x, y, z), 〈∼,∼〉 stands for the
inner product xx′ + yy′ + zz′ in C3, and the upper script T denotes the matrix transposition.
Employing Q, we can form a second order differential operator ∆Q =
1≤i,j≤3 b
jk∂j∂k acting on
holomorphic functions f in the complex variables {x1 = x, x2 = y, x3 = z}. Here {b
ij} denote
elements of the inverse matrix B−1. Formally, ∆Q = [~∂] · B
−1 · [~∂]T where [~∂] := (∂1, ∂2, ∂3) :=
(∂x, ∂y , ∂z).
Given a non-degenerated quadratic form Q, there is a change of complex coordinates (x′, y′, z′) =
(x, y, z) ·A that reduces it to the canonical form Q′ = x′2+ y′2+ z′2. Consider the complex Laplace
operator ∆′ = ∂2x′ +∂
y′ +∂
z′ in the new coordinates (x
′, y′, z′). Then, for any holomorphic function
f(x′, y′, z′), we have
[∆′f ]((x, y, z) ·A) = ∆Q[f((x, y, z) ·A)].
Thus, there is a 1-to-1 correspondence between harmonic homogeneous polynomials f(x′, y′, z′) of
degree d and degree d homogeneous polynomial solutions g(x, y, z) of the equation
∆Q(g(x, y, z)) = 0.
Let us examine the intersection Ker(∆′) ∩ VQ′(d). For any homogeneous polynomial T of degree
d− 2, we get ∆′(Q′ ·T ) = Q′ ·∆′(T )+∆′(Q′) ·T +2〈∇T,∇Q′〉 = Q′ ·∆′(T )+ (4d− 6)T . Therefore,
if Q′ · T ∈ Ker(∆′), then T must be divisible by Q′ (note that ∆′(T ) = 0 implies T = 0). Put
T = Q′ · T1 and κ(d) = 4d+ 2. The equation 0 = ∆
′(Q′ · T ) = Q′ ·∆′(Q′ · T1) + κ(d− 2) ·Q
′ · T1 is
equivalent to the equation 0 = ∆′(Q′ ·T1)+κ(d−2)·T1 = Q
′ ·∆′(T1)+[κ(d−2)+κ(d−4)]·T1 . Again,
it follows that T1 must be divisible by Q
′. Continuing inductively this kind of reasoning, we see that
Ker(∆′) ∩ VQ′(d) = {0}. On the other hand, one can verify that dim[Ker(∆
′)] + dim[VQ′(d)] =
dim[V (d)]. Thus, V (d) = Ker(∆′)⊕ VQ′(d).
2Later, we call them ”the leading multipole vectors” of P .
A polynomial P (x′, y′, z′) is divisible by x′2 + y′2 + z′2, if and only if, P ((x, y, z) ·A) is divisible by
Q(x, y, z). Therefore, V (d) = Ker(∆Q)⊕ VQ(d) as well.
Let OQ(3;C) denote a subgroup of the general linear group GL(3;C) that preserves the quadratic
form Q. A matrix U ∈ OQ(3;C) if and only if UBU
T = B. The natural OQ(3;C)-action on the
space of x, y, and z-variables induces an action on the polynomial space V (d). Evidently, VQ(d) is
invariant under this action. On the other hand, for any polynomial P (x, y, z),
∆Q[P ((x, y, z) · U)] = [∆Q̃P ]((x, y, z) · U)),
where the operator ∆
:= [~∂] · UTB−1U · [~∂]T . Since UBUT = B, we get (U−1)TB−1U−1 = B−1.
By a simple algebraic trick, it follows that UTB−1U = B−1. As a result, both the quadratic form
Q and the kernel Ker(∆Q) are invariant under the OQ(3;C)-action.
Consider Maxwell’s representation (7) of a real homogeneous harmonic polynomial P (x′, y′, z′) of
degree d. It gives rise to a map Ξ that takes the sets of real vectors v1,v2, . . . ,vd to elements
of Har(d,R). The map Ξ is evidently linear in each of the vj ’s, and thus it is a real polynomial
map with a vector space of real dimension 2d + 1 for its target. By [CH], [L] and [W], Ξ is
onto the vector space Har(d,R). Therefore, the complexification ΞC of Ξ must be also onto the
vector space Har(d,C) ⊃ Har(d,R). Indeed, the image of ΞC in Har(d,C) is a complex algebraic
set containing a totally real vector subspace Har(d,R) of dimension dimC(Har(d,C)). In other
words, formula (7) must be valid for any complex homogeneous harmonic polynomial P (x′, y′, z′)
of degree d and appropriate complex vectors u1,u2, . . . ,ud ∈ C
3. In fact, each vector uj = vj ·A
Formula (7) describes any homogeneous complex polynomial solution of the equation ∆Q(f) = 0 in
the (x′, y′, z′) coordinates. Translating them back to the (x, y, z)-coordinates with the help of the
identity [∇
′f ′](x ·A) = ∇
′·A−1 [f
′(x ·A)] leads to a formula (9) below. Thus, we have established
the following proposition:
Lemma 2 The decomposition
V (d) = Ker(∆Q)⊕ VQ(d) (8)
holds for any non-degenerated complex quadratic form Q. It is invariant under the natural OQ(3;C)-
action on V (d). Moreover, for any P ∈ Ker(∆Q) of degree d, there exist vectors {uk ∈ C
3}1≤k≤d
so that the generalized Maxwell formula
P (x, y, z) = Q(x, y, z)d+
2 · ∇
. . .∇
Q(x, y, z)−
is valid.
In particular, with Q = x2 + y2 − z2, any degree d homogeneous complex polynomial solution P of
the wave equation (∂2x + ∂
y)P = ∂
zP is given by the formula (9). �
Formula (9) might pose a slight challenge: after all, square roots are multivalued analytic functions.
However, the ±-ambiguities in picking a single-valued branch cancel each other. We shall see
that, even up to reordering and rescaling of the multipole vectors {uk}, the complex Maxwell
representation (9) of a given “Q-harmonic” P is not unique.
Remark. In fact, by a similar argument, the decomposition (8) is available for homogeneous
polynomials in any number of variables and for any non-degenerated quadratic form Q (see [Sh],
Theorem 22.2, for the proof). At the same time, the representation (9) seems to be a 3-dimensional
phenomenon. It looks like that not any Q-harmonic polynomial in n > 3 variables can be expressed
in terms of d directional derivatives sequentially applied to the Q-harmonic potential Q1−n/2. This
seems to be related to the failure of the Sylvester-type formula (5) for n > 3. When I raised this
issue with Michael Shubin, he proposed a nice conjecture in the flavor of Maxwell’s representation
(although, not a direct generalization of it). In the Maxwell representation, one employs a differ-
ential operator which is a monomial in d directional derivatives, while in the conjecture below one
invokes a differential operator which is a polynomial in d directional derivatives.
Shubin’s Conjecture (An n-dimensional variation on the theme of Maxwell’s representation).
Let n > 2. For any real homogeneous and harmonic polynomial P of degree d in n variables {xj},
there exists a unique real homogeneous and harmonic polynomial P♣ also in n variables such that
P (x1, . . . , xn) = r
2d+n−2
P♣(∂x1 , . . . , ∂xn) r
where r = (
j=1 x
1/2, and the differential operator P♣(∂x1 , . . . , ∂xn) being applied to the poten-
tial function r2−n. Moreover, the polynomials P and P♣ are proportional with the coefficient of
proportionality depending only on d and n. �
Given a vector space V , we denote by V ◦ the space V \ {0}. We consider the 3-space V (1) ≈ C3
of linear forms L = ax+ by + cz (which we identify with the space of their coefficients {(a, b, c)})
and the 3-space V∗(1) ≈ C
∗ with the coordinates x, y, z. This calls for a distinction in notations
for their projectivizations: CP 2 and CP 2∗ . Hence, each point (a, b, c) ∈ V (1)
◦ determines a point
l = [a : b : c] in CP 2 and a complex line L in CP 2∗— the zero set of the form L.
Now, let us return to the decomposition (5). Each polynomial Lν from (5) can be viewed as a
vector in V (1) = V ⊥Q (1). Therefore, a given homogeneous polynomial P of degree d which is not
divisible by Q, together with the appropriate generalized parcelling, produces a collection of non-
zero vectors {wν ∈ V (1)}ν
3. We shall call this unordered set of vectors {wν} the leading multipole
vectors of P with respect to the corresponding generalized parcelling of µ : Z(P,Q) → Z+.
Lemma 3 For a given generalized parcelling µ =
ν µν of µ : Z(P,Q) → Z+, the subordinate
leading multipole vectors {wν ∈ V (1)}ν are unique up to reordering and rescaling of the Lν’s
(equivalently, the polynomial R in (5) is unique).
Proof We use the same notations as in the proof of Lemma 1. By an argument as in that proof,
any linear polynomial L′ν which defines a line L
ν with the property L
ν ∩ Q = Lν ∩ Q (the points
of intersection have multiplicities prescribed by µν) is of the form λLν . Here λ ∈ C
∗ and Lν is a
preferred polynomial corresponding to a vector wν ∈ V (1). Indeed, as in the proof of Lemma 1,
for an appropriate λ, by the Bézout Theorem, λLν − L
ν must be divisible by Q. �
As a result, the multipole is well defined by the parcelling of µ modulo some rescaling. Clearly,
one can always replace each Lν in (5) with λνLν as long as
ν λν = 1. Next, we analyze the exact
meaning of the “reordering and rescaling” ambiguity.
3These vectors are not necasarilly distinct.
Let Hq be an abelian subgroup of (C
∗)q formed by vectors {λν}1≤ν≤q subject to the restriction
ν λν = 1. Its rank is q − 1. Let Sq stand for the symmetric group in q symbols {1, 2, . . . , q}. We
denote by Σq an extension 1 → Hq → Σq → Sq → 1 of Sq by Hq. This group is generated by the
obvious actions of Sq and Hq on (C)
We introduce an orbit-space
M(k) := [(V (1)◦]k/Σk (10)
whose points encode the products of linear forms as in the decomposition (5). Here the group Σk
acts on the products of spaces by permuting them and by rescaling their vectors. Its subgroup Hk
acts freely.
Because of the uniqueness of the prime factorization in the polynomial ring C[x, y, z], the space
M(k) provides us with a 1-to-1 parametrization of the space of homogeneous degree k polynomials
that are products of linear forms. As an abstract space, (10) can be expressed as
M(k) =
[C3 ◦]k
Σk (11)
Definition 3 The elements of orbit-space M(k) will be called k-poles, or simply, multipoles.
We introduce groups Γk in a manner similar to the introduction of the groups Σk. The group Γk
is an extension of the permutation group Sk by the group (C
∗)k ⊃ Hk. Thus, Γk/Σk ≈ C
Therefore, the space M(k) in (10), (11) fibers over the projective variety
B(k) :=
ν=1 V (1)
= SymkCP [V (1)] ≈ Symk(CP 2) (12)
with the fiber C∗. Here Symt(X) := Xt/Sn denotes the t-th symmetric power of a space X. The
natural map M(k) → B(k) is a principle C∗-fibration which gives rise to a line bundle η(k) :=
{M(k) ×C∗ C → B(k)}. By shrinking its zero section to a point, we form a quotient space
M(k) := [M(k)×C∗ C] /B(k). (13)
It differs from M(k) by a single new point 0—a point which will represent the zero multipole.
Evidently, M(k) is a contractible space.
Given a collection of vector spaces {Vα}, their wedge product ∧αVα (not to be mixed with the
exterior product!) is the quotient of the Cartesian product ×αVα by the subspace comprised of
sequences {vα ∈ Vα} such that at least one vector from the sequence is zero. Thus, topologically,
M(k) := [∧k(V (1)]/Σk. (14)
Lemma 3 leads to the following proposition.
Corollary 5 Consider an homogeneous polynomial P (x, y, z) of degree d which is not divisible
by an irreducible homogeneous quadratic polynomial Q(x, y, z). Then any generalized parcelling
ν µν of the multiplicity function µ : Z(P,Q) → Z+ uniquely determines a multipole in the
space M(d) introduced in (10) or (11). �
The space of multipoles has singularities. Its singular set sing(M(k)) arises from the sets points
in [C3◦]k fixed by various non-trivial subgroups of Σk. These subgroups all are the conjugates (in
Σk) of certain non-trivial subgroups of Sk (recall that Hk ⊂ Σk acts freely). The partially ordered
set of the orbit-types give rise to a natural stratification of the multipole space M(k). The space
sing(M(k)) is of complex codimension two in M(k). Its top strata corresponds to transpositions
from Sk. Thus, a generic point from sing(M(k)) has a normal slice in M(k) which is diffeomorphic
to a cone over the real projective space S3/Z2 = RP
3. The larger stabilizers of vectors from the
space Ck of the obvious Sk-representation correspond to smaller strata of more complex geometry.
Evidently, sing(M(k)) is invariant under the diagonal action of C∗ ≈ Γk/Σk. These observations
are summarized in the lemma below.
Lemma 4 The singular set sing(M(k)) ⊂ M(k) is of codimension two. It is invariant under
the C∗-action. Therefore, it is a principle C∗-fibration over the singular set sing(Symk(CP 2)) ⊂
Symk(CP 2). A generic point of sing(M(k)) has RP 3 for its normal link. Points of sing(M(k))
correspond to completely factorable polynomials L =
ν Lν with at least two proportional linear
factors (in other words, to weighted collections of lines in CP 2∗ that contain at least one line of
multiplicity greater than one). �
Let Fact(d) ⊂ V (d) denote the variety of homogeneous polynomials of degree d in x, y, and z that
are products of linear forms.
Given a multipole w ∈ M(d) one can construct the corresponding completely factorable polyno-
mial L(w) =
ν Lν ∈ V (d). Note that, due to the uniqueness of the prime factorization in the
polynomial ring and in view of our definition of multipoles, the correspondence w ⇒ L(w) gives
rise to a 1-to-1 map Θ : M(d)
→ Fact(d). Consider a “Viète-type” algebraic map
ΦQ : M(d)
→ Fact(d)
→ FactQ(d), (15)
where ΠQ is induced by restricting polynomials in x, y, and z to the surface {Q(x, y, z) = 0}.
The symbol FactQ(d) ⊂ V (d)/VQ(d) ≈ V
Q (d) denotes the variety of homogeneous polynomial
functions on the surface {Q = 0} that also decompose into products of linear forms. Due to formula
(5) in Lemma 1, any non-zero homogeneous polynomial on the surface {Q = 0} admits a linear
factorization. Hence, ΦQ is onto and FactQ(d) can be identified with the space [V (d)/VQ(d)]
V ⊥Q (d)
The map ΦQ, extends to an algebraic map
Φ̃Q : Eη(d) −→ V
Q (d) (16)
defined on the space Eη(d) of the line bundle η(d). It sends the zero section B(d) of η(d) to the
zero vector 0 ∈ V ⊥Q (d) and each fiber of η(d) isomorphically to a line in V
Q (d) passing through the
origin. In fact, Φ̂Q|Eη(d)\B(d) = ΦQ. Evidently, Φ̂Q gives rise to a continuous map
ΦQ : M(d) −→ V
Q (d) (17)
It turns out that ΦQ has finite fibers. We need some combinatorial constructions which will help
us to prove this claim and to describe the cardinality of the ΦQ-fibers.
With every natural d we associate an integer κ(d) that counts the number of distinct parcellings
in a finite set of cardinality 2d. Any parcelling is obtained by breaking a set Z of cardinality 2d
into disjoint subsets of cardinality 2. Thus, κ(d) = (2d− 1)!! := (2d− 1)(2d− 3)(2d− 5) ... 3 · 1
is the number of possible handshakes among a company of 2d friends. There is an alternative way
to compute this number: consider the standard action of the permutation group S2d on the set of
2d elements. The action induces a transitive action on the set of all parcellings. Under this action,
the subgroup S
2d that preserves the parcelling {{1, 2}, {3, 4}, ... , {2d − 1, 2d}} is an extension
1 → (S2)
d → S
2d → Sd → 1 (18)
of the permutation group Sd that acts naturally on the pairs by the group (S2)
d ≈ (Z2)
d that
exchanges the elements in each pair. As a result, we get an identity
κ(d) = (2d − 1)!! = (2d)!/(2d · d!)
As we deform a polynomial P into a polynomial P1, two or more points in Z(P,Q) can merge
into a single point of Z(P1, Q). Its multiplicity is equal to the sum of multiplicities of the points
forming the merging group. Through this process, any generalized parcelling p of the original
µ : Z(P,Q) → N gives rise to a new and unique generalized parcelling p1 of µ1 : Z(P1, Q) → N.
Thus, we can define a partial order in the set of all generalized parcellings of effective divisors on
Q of degree 2d by setting µ ≻ µ1 and p ≻ p1 (see Figures 1 and 3).
In the same spirit, let κ(µ) stand for the number of distinct generalized parcellings of a function
µ : Z → N (recall that ‖µ‖1 = 2d) on a finite set Z. Unless µ is identically 1 and |Z| = 2d, κ(µ) <
κ(d). When two intersection points merge, the number of generalized parcellings drops: there are
distinct original parcellings that become indistinguishable after the merge (see the left diagram in
Figure 1). For example, when two simple points in a complete intersection merge, the number of
generalized parcellings changes from κ(d) to κ(d − 2) + [κ(d) − κ(d − 2)]/2 = [κ(d) + κ(d − 2)]/2,
that is, it drops by [κ(d) − κ(d− 2)]/2. In general, µ ≻ µ1 implies κ(µ) > κ(µ1).
For a generic L ∈ Fact(d) the set Z(L,Q), as well as all the parcels {Zν} defined by the linear
factors Lν , are complete intersections. For such an L, the number of multipoles in Φ
Q (ΠQ(L)) is
the number κ(d) of distinct parcellings in the set Z(L,Q). For any L ∈ Fact(d), the cardinality
of Φ−1Q (ΠQ(L)) (equivalently, of Π
Q (ΠQ(L))) equals to the the number of generalized parcellings
of the multiplicity function µ : Z(L,Q) → N. Indeed, assume that two completely factorable
polynomials L,L′ coincide when restricted to the surface {Q = 0}. Then L−L′ must be divisible by
Q. Therefore, Z(L,Q) = Z(L′, Q), moreover, the two multiplicities of each point in the intersection
(defined by the curves L and L′) must be equal as well. Hence, L and L′ define two parcellings of
the same multiplicity function µ on the intersection set.
Let X,Y be topological spaces and f : X → Y a continuous map with finite fibers. For a while, the
ramification set D(f) of f is understood as the set {y0 ∈ Y } such that, for any open neighborhood
U of y0, the cardinality of the fibers {f
−1(y)}y∈U is not constant.
Figure 1: Two distinct ways in which parcellings degenerate.
Each time L ∈ Fact(d) produces in CP 2∗ a union of lines with at least one pair of lines sharing its
intersection point with the curve Q, the point Π(L) ∈ D(ΠQ) = D(ΦQ). Moreover, as Figure 1
demonstrates, this change in cardinality of fibers occurs due to their bifurcations in the vicinity of
L. As a result, points in D(ΦQ) give rise to effective divisors of degree 2d on the curve Q with at
least one point in their support being of multiplicity greater than one. On the other hand, any such
divisor can be generated by intersecting a weighted set of lines with Q (just use any generalized
parcelling). Note that any line tangent to Q also contributes a point of multiplicity two. However,
the lines tangent to Q are not contributing to the bifurcation of the ΠQ-fibers (see the right diagram
in Figure 1). Therefore, in order to conclude that any divisor on Q with multiple points corresponds
to a point of D(ΦQ), we need to use generalized parcellings which favor pairs of lines that share
their intersection with Q to a single tangent line (both patterns produce an intersection point of
multiplicity two as shown in Figure 1). Evidently, this can be done, provided d > 1.
The requirement that L ∈ Fact(d) has a pair of linear forms vanishing at a point of {Q = 0}, locally,
is a single algebraic condition imposed on the coefficients of of the two forms. Therefore, taking
closures, it picks a codimension one subvariety Π−1Q (D(ΠQ)) ⊂ Fact(d). Thus, D(ΠQ) ⊂ V
Q (d)
a subvariety of codimension one as well. Fortunately, since Q admits a rational parameterization
by a map α : CP 1 → Q, the set Π−1Q (D(ΠQ)) can be described in terms of solvability of a system
of two rather simple equations. In homogeneous coordinates [u0 : u1], such a parameterization α
can be given by the formula
α([u0 : u1]) = [α0([u0 : u1]) : α1([u0 : u1]) : α2([u0 : u1])],
where α0, α1, α2 are some quadratic forms. For example, for Q = x
2 + y2 + z2,
α0 = i(u
0 − u
1), α1 = 2iu0u1, α2 = u
0 + u
The inverse of α is produced by the central projection of Q onto a line in CP 2∗ from a center located
at Q. Therefore, as abstract algebraic curves, Q and CP 1 are isomorphic.
In fact, L(x, y, z) ∈ Fact(d) belongs to Π−1Q (D(ΠQ)), if and only if, the system
L(α0, α1, α2)
(u0, u1) = 0
∂xL(α0, α1, α2)∂u0α0 + ∂yL(α0, α1, α2)∂u0α1 + ∂zL(α0, α1, α2)∂u0α2
(u0, u1) = 0, (19)
that guarantees an existence of a multiple zero for the polynomial L(α(u0, u1)) in CP
1, has a non-
trivial solution (u0, u1). Writing down explicitly the resultant of the two polynomials in the LHS of
(19), and thus the equation of Π−1Q (D(ΠQ)), seems to be cumbersome. Note that the Euler identity
2d · L = (u0∂u0α0 + u1∂u1α0)∂xL+ (u0∂u0α1 + u1∂u1α1)∂yL+ (u0∂u0α2 + u1∂u1α2)∂zL
explains the asymmetry of (19) with respect to the variable u0: exchanging the roles of u0 and u1
leads to an equivalent system of equations.
Recall that for a projective variety X, the set of zero-dimensional, degree d effective divisors is the
projective variety Symd(X) (see [Ch]). The map ΦQ in formula (15) induces a well-defined regular
map of the varieties:
ΨQ : Sym
d(CP 2) → Sym2d(Q). (20)
This map is produced by realizing a given multipole w, or rather its C∗-orbit w̃, by a completely
factorable polynomial L(w) and then forming the intersection set Z(L(w), Q) equipped with the
appropriate multiplicities—the divisor ΨQ(w̃). The map ΨQ is onto: any effective divisor of degree
2d on Q admits a generalized parcelling, and thus is generated by intersecting Q with a weighted
collection of lines. Since the number of generalized parcellings of Z(L(w), Q) is finite, the map ΨQ
has finite fibers. All this can be seen from a different angle. The divisor ΨQ(w̃) uniquely determines
the proportionality class of the function L(w)|{Q=0}—a point in CP (V
Q ). We have seen that the
∗-equivariant map ΦQ in (15) is onto. Thus, ΦQ/C
∗ : Symd(CP 2) → CP (V ⊥Q ) is onto as well.
Since Q is a rational curve (topologically, a 2-sphere), there is a 1-to-1 correspondence between
points of CP (V ⊥Q ) ≈ Sym
2d(CP 1∗ ) and of Sym
2d(Q). Moreover, as abstract varieties, CP (V ⊥Q ) and
of Sym2d(Q) are isomorphic. This isomorphism can be used to identify the maps ΨQ and ΦQ/C
To simplify our notations, we will use the same symbol ΨQ for both maps; when there is a need to
distinguish them, we will just indicate the relevant target space.
Our combinatorial considerations imply that the locus D(ΨQ) consists of the effective divisors of
degree 2d onQ with at least one point in their support being of multiplicity ≥ 2. While Ψ−1Q (D(ΨQ))
is also described by (19), the locus sing(Fact(d)) is the preimage of effective divisors of degree 2d
on Q with at least one pair of points in their support being of multiplicity ≥ 2 (they can generate a
double line), or at least one point being of multiplicity ≥ 4 (it corresponds to a double line tangent
to Q).
Employing Lemma 4, we have established
Lemma 5 The ramification set D(ΦQ) for the map ΦQ : M(d) → V
Q (d) is the set {ΠQ(L)} of
complex codimension one, where L ∈ Fact(d) defines on Q an effective divisor with at least one
point in its support being of multiplicity two at least. In other words, Π−1Q (D(ΦQ)) is defined by
the resultant of the two polynomials in the LHS of (19). The ramification set D(ΦQ) contains the
ΦQ-image of the singular set sing(M(d)). This image is of codimension two in V
Q (d). It can
be identified with completely factorable homogeneous polynomials of degree d on the the surface
{Q = 0} that have at least one pair of proportional linear factors. �
Note that the space Z of simple effective degree k divisors on the curve Q is homeomorphic to the
space of simple effective degree k divisors on the sphere S2 = CP 1∗ . Therefore, π1(Z) ≈ Bk, where
Bk stands for the braid group in k strings residing in the spherical shell S
2 × [0, 1]. In particular,
Sym2d(Q) \ D(ΨQ) is a K(B2d, 1)-space.
Let B
be the preimage of the subgroup S
⊂ S2d in (18) (of order 2
d · d!) under the canonical
epimorphism B2d → S2d. We call it the braid group in 2d strings with coupling
4. It is a subgroup
of index (2d − 1)!! in the braid group B2d.
Recall that a covering of a K(π, 1)-space is again a K(π′, 1)-space, where π′ is an appropriate
subgroup of π. Since all our constructions are C∗-equivariant, Lemmas 4 and 5 together with the
arguments above lead to
Theorem 6 • The map ΨQ : Sym
d(CP 2) → CP 2d ≈ V ⊥Q (d)
◦/C∗ is a finite ramified covering
with a generic fiber of cardinality (2d − 1)!!. It is ramified over the subvariety D(ΨQ) whose
points are the proportionality classes of homogeneous polynomials of degree d on the quadratic
surface {Q(x, y, z) = 0} that define there effective divisors of degree d with at least one multiple
line5.
• The space CP 2d \ D(ΨQ) is a K(π, 1)-space with the group π being isomorphic to the braid
group B2d in 2d strings in the spherical shell S
2 × [0, 1].
• As a result, Symd(CP 2) \Ψ−1Q (D(ΨQ)) is a K(B
2d, 1)-space, where B
2d is the braid group in
2d strings with coupling.
• The space M(d) \Φ−1Q (D(ΦQ)) also is K(π, 1)-space with the group π being isomorphic to an
extension of the group B
by the infinite cyclic group Z. �
Now, we will investigate the ramification locus of ΦQ from a more refined point of view characteristic
to the singularity theory. First, we would like to understand when a non-zero vector w from the
tangent cone TL of Fact(d) at a point L =
j=1 Lj is parallel to the subspace VQ(d), in other words,
when TL contains a vector w that is mapped to zero under the projection π : V (d) → V (d)/VQ(d) ≈
V ⊥Q (d). Away from the singularity set sing(Fact(d)) ⊂ Fact(d), the ΠQ-image of such an L belongs
to a locus E ⊂ V ⊥Q (d) over which rank(dπ|Fact(d)) < dim(V
Q (d)) at some point in Π
Q (E). By
the implicit function theorem, the ramification locus D(ΠQ) ⊂ V
Q (d) for the map ΠQ : Fact(d) →
V ⊥Q (d) (equivalently, for the map ΦQ) is contained in the union E ∪ ΠQ(sing(Fact(d))). It can
happen that at a singularity L ∈ sing(Fact(d)) the tangent cone does not have vectors w 6= 0 with
the property π(w) = 0, and still π is ramified in the vicinity of π(L). For instance, consider the
obvious projection π of the real cone x2+ y2− z2 = 0 onto the xy-plane: π is ramified at the origin
(0, 0), but for any w 6= 0 from the tangent cone at (0, 0, 0), π(w) 6= 0.
Any w ∈ TL is of the form limt→0
j=1(Lj+tMj)−
j=1 Lj
, where each Mj is an appropriate linear form
in xj, yj , and zj or Mj = 0 identically. This limit is equal to the polynomial P =
i 6=j Li)Mj .
The vector P at L is parallel to the subspace VQ if and only if the polynomial P is divisible by Q.
In other words, the vector P at L is parallel to VQ if and only if the polynomial P , being restricted
to the curve Q, is identically zero. Thus, we are looking for the Mj ’s subject to the constraint:
the polynomial
i 6=j Li)Mj = (
i Li)(
), being restricted to Q, is identically zero. For
4Note that B
2d is not the braid group in 2d strings colored with d colors, each color marking a pair of strings!
5equivalently, that define on the curve Q ⊂ CP 2∗ effective divisors with a point of multiplicity at least two.
L 6= 0, this is equivalent to the constraint (21) imposed on the rational functions {Mj/Lj}:
= 0. (21)
Equation (21) always have obvious solutions: {Mj = αjLj}, where {αj ∈ C} and
j αj = 0. These
are exactly solutions that represent the zero tangent vector (the tip L of the tangent cone). Indeed,
j=1(Lj + tMj) =
j=1(Lj + tαjLj) to conclude that w = 0 if and only if
j αj = 0.
So, the proper question is how to describe all the L ∈ Fact(d) for which (21) has a solution distinct
from the set of obvious solutions {Mj = αjLj} with
j αj = 0. The images of such L’s under
the projection π : V (d) → V ⊥Q (d) will generate the locus E ⊂ V
Q (d) over which the differential
dπ|Fact(d) is not of the maximal rank dim(V
Q (d)) = 2d + 1. Evaluating the LHS of equation (21)
at 2d+1 generic points residing in Q imposes linear constraints on 3d variables—the coefficients of
the Mj ’s. If these constraints are independent, the solution space of the linear system must be of
dimension 3d− (2d+1) = d− 1, which is exactly the dimension of the space formed by the obvious
solutions. This indicates that, for a generic L, we should not expect any non-obvious solutions.
Lemma 6 below validates this guess.
Let us denote by ML the quotient of the vector space of all solutions {Mj} of (21) by the subspace
of obvious solutions, as defined above. The correspondence L ⇒ dim(ML) gives rise to a new
natural stratification of the space Fact(d), and thus, of the space MQ(d). In the new notations,
π(L) ∈ E if and only if ML 6= 0. We suspect that this stratification is consistent with, but cruder
than the stratification induced by the orbit-types of the Σd-action.
Lemma 6 The loci E and D(ΠQ) coincide. As a result, the existence of a non-trivial solution for
the system (19) is equivalent to the existence of a non-obvious solution for the equation (21). Also,
the locus E ⊃ ΦQ(sing(M(d))).
Proof. We notice that if two distinct lines, say L1 and L2, share a point p ∈ Q, then (21)
has a non-obvious solution (M1,M2, 0, ... , 0). Indeed, inscribe in the quadratic curve Q any
”quadrilateral” formed by the pair of lines L1,L2 together with a new pair of lines M1,M2. The
lines L1, M1 share a point q ∈ Q, the lines L2, M2 share a point r ∈ Q, and the lines M1,
M2 share a point s ∈ Q, all four points p, q, r, s being distinct. Next, pick some linear forms M1
and M2 representing M1 and M2. Then one can find constants λ1, λ2 so that the polynomial
Q = λ1M1L2 + λ2M2L1. The argument is very similar to the one used in the proof of Lemma 1.
Thus, λ1M1L2 + λ2M2L1|Q = 0, which can be written in the form λ1M1/L1 + λ2M2/L2|Q = 0
required by (21). Here, evidently, M1 is not proportional to L1 and M2 is not proportional to
L2. Therefore, for any L ∈ Fact(d) that defines on Q an effective divisor containing a point of
multiplicity two, ΠQ(L) must belong to the locus E . It follows ”by continuity” that all the L’s that
produce multiplicity functions µ : Z(L,Q) → N, distinct from the identity function 1, project to
E via Π. According to Lemma 5, these are exactly the factorable polynomials that project to the
”combinatorial’” ramification locus D. �
It follows from Lemma 6 that, for a generic P ∈ V (d), the affine subspace P +VQ(d) hits transver-
sally the subvariety Fact(d) at a finite set of points whose cardinality is exactly κ(d). Therefore,
κ(d) must be the degree of that variety.
Let X,Y be quasi-affine varieties and let F : X → Y be a proper regular map. In Theorem 7
below, the ramification set D(F ) of a mapping F : X → Y with finite fibers is understood to be
the closure of a set D◦(F ). By definition, y ∈ D◦(F ) when F−1(y) contains a point x such that
there is a non-zero vector v ∈ TxX that is mapped to zero in TyY by the differential DF .
The arguments above lead to our main result:
Theorem 7 • The map ΦQ : M(d) → FactQ(d) = V
Q (d)
◦ is onto, and its generic fiber is a
finite set of cardinality (2d−1)!!. This map takes the multipole space M(d)—the space of a C∗-
bundle η(k) over the variety Symd(CP 2)—onto the complex vector space V ⊥Q (d) of dimension
2d + 1 with its origin being deleted. The map ΦQ extends to a map ΦQ : M(d) −→ V
Q (d)
with finite fibers.
• ΦQ is ramified over the discriminant variety D(ΦQ)—the set of polynomials P ∈ FactQ(d)
whose zero sets are effective divisors on the surface {Q(x, y, z) = 0} with at least one of their
line components being of multiplicity at least two.6 The subvariety D(ΦQ) ⊂ V
Q (d)
◦ is of
complex codimension one, and is described in terms of solvability of (19) or (21). It contains
the ΦQ-image of the singular set sing(M(d)) as a codimension one subvariety.
• In fact, ΦQ, ΦQ are C
∗-equivariant maps. Therefore, ΦQ gives rise to a surjective map
ΨQ : Sym
d(CP 2) → CP 2d = CP (V ⊥Q (d)
of degree (2d − 1)!! which is also ramified over a subvariety D(ΨQ) ⊂ CP
2d of codimension
one. The compliment CP 2d \ D(ΨQ) is a K(B2d, 1)-space, Sym
d(CP 2) \ Ψ−1Q (D(ΨQ)) is a
2d, 1)-space, where B
2d is the braid group with coupling, while M(d) \ Φ
Q (D(ΦQ)) is a
K(π, 1)-space, where π an extension of B
by Z.
• The degree of the variety of completely factorizable homogeneous polynomials Fact(d) ⊂ V (d)
is also (2d− 1)!!. This variety is invariant under the obvious C∗-action on V (d). �
Theorem 7 has a number of topological implications, some of them dealing with interesting rami-
fications over complex projective spaces. Our next goal is to describe these implications.
Let the space X be of a homotopy type of a connected, finite-dimensional CW-complex. Recall
that the Dold-Thom Theorem [DT] links the homotopy groups of Symd(X), d being large, with
the integral homology of a space X. By picking a base point a in X, one gets a stabilization map
Symd(X) → Symd+1(X), well-defined by the formula (x1, x2, ..., xd) → (a, x1, x2, ..., xd). Here
{xi ∈ X}. This provides us with canonical homomorphisms πk(Sym
d(X)) → πk(Sym
d+1(X)) of
the k-th homotopy groups.
In our case, the Dold-Thom Theorem claims that limd→∞ πk(Sym
d(CP 2)) = Hk(CP
2;Z). In par-
ticular, limd→∞ π2(Sym
d(CP 2)) = Z = limd→∞ π4(Sym
d(CP 2)). Also, limd→∞πk(Sym
d(CP 2)) =
0, provided k = 1, 3 or k > 4. On the other hand, π2(CP
2d) = Z, but π4(CP
2d) = 0. Therefore, at
least for large d’s, there is an infinite order element α ∈ π4(Sym
d(CP 2)) that is mapped by (ΨQ)∗
6Equivalently, the set of polynomials P for which P ∩Q has a point of multiplicity at least two.
to zero and an element β ∈ π2(Sym
d(CP 2)), so that (ΨQ)∗(β) ∈ π2(CP
2d) is a generator. It is pos-
sible to realize α and β geometrically. What is clear ratherway, that the spheroids α and β can not
be pushed into the aspherical portion Symd(CP 2)\Ψ−1Q (D(ΨQ)) of Sym
d(CP 2). The realization of
α is based on an interesting fact that I originally learned from Blaine Lawson: the quotient of CP 2
by the complex conjugation τ : [x : y : z] → [x̄ : ȳ : z̄] is homeomorphic to the sphere S4. Later on,
I have found its nice generalization in [A], Theorem 8. Therefore, the map φ : CP 2 → CP 2 ×CP 2
given by the formula φ(p) = (p, τ(p)), where p ∈ CP 2, is evidently Z2-equivariant with respect to
the τ -action in the domain and the symmetrizing action in the range. This gives rise to the desired
quotient map α : S4 ≈ CP 2/{τ} → Sym2(CP 2) that survives into the higher symmetric powers of
CP 2. Constructing class β is straightforward: it is given by the obvious inclusion S2 ≈ CP 1 ⊂ CP 2
followed by the diagonal embedding ∆ : CP 2 → Symd(CP 2).
The existence of a non-trivial α : S4 → Symd(CP 2) whose ΨQ-image is null-homotopic in CP
has a curious implication:
Corollary 8 For any d ≥ 2, there is a family of polynomial functions of degree d on the quadratic
surface {Q = 0} which is parameterized by a 5-dimensional disk and which does not admit a
continuous lifting to the multipole space M(d). At the same time, the functions parameterized by
the 4-sphere forming the boundary of the disk can be continuously represented by multipoles. �
Any map f : X → Y induces a natural map fk∗ : Sym
k(X) → Symk(Y ) that is defined by the
formula (fk∗ )[
ν µνxν ] =
ν µνf(xν), where {xν ∈ X} and {µν ∈ N}. When f is 1-to-1 or onto,
so is fk∗ .
The construction of fk∗ provides us with a rich source of interesting ramified coverings. Consider for
example, a semi-free cyclic action on a sphere S2 ⊂ R3. The group Zl acts on S
2 by rotations around
a fixed axis on the angles that are multiples of 2π/l. Topologically, the orbit-space S̃2 := S2/Zl
is again a 2-sphere. Let f : S2 → S̃2 be the orbit-map. Then fk∗ : Sym
k(S2) → Symk(S̃2) gives
an example of a ramified degree lk covering map of CP k over itself! For l = 2, we shall see later
how this degree 2k ramification fk∗ : CP
k → CP k is linked to the multipole spaces on quadratic
surfaces. On the other hand, by a simple cohomological argument, any map F : CP k → CP k has
a degree that is the k-th power of a non-negative integer l. For instance, there is no ramified map
from CP 2 to itself of degrees that are not of the form l2.
Question Given a closed oriented manifold M , what are possible degrees of maps from M to
itself? Evidently, the answer depends on the homotopy type of M .
When Z2 acts freely on S
2 by the central symmetry, the orbit-map f : S2 → RP 2 gives rise to
another interesting ramified map fk∗ : CP
k → RP 2k of degree 2k (its existence follows from our
results in Section 3 dealing with real multipole spaces). In different terms, the map fk∗ has been
described in [A].
In order to derive next few corollaries of Theorem 7, we need to take a detour aimed at constructing
(with the help of f) transfer maps that take effective 0-divisors on Y to effective 0-divisors on X.
These constructions are variations on the theme of the classical Hurwitz’ Theorem (see [H], pp.
299-304). Our next goal is to present constructions and arguments that lead to Theorem 10.
Let X and Y be smooth complex projective varieties and f : X → Y a regular surjective map
with finite fibers. With any x ∈ X we associate a multiplicity number µf (x). It is the multiplicity
attached to the intersection of the f -graph Γf with the subspace X × f(x) ⊂ X × Y at the point
(x, f(x)). Since all the f -fibers are finite, the intersection Γf ∩ (X × f(x)) is finite as well.
Next, with any y ∈ Y we associate an effective 0-divisor Df−1(y) :=
x∈f−1(y) µf (x)x whose degree
is y-independent and coincides with the degree df of the map f . The correspondence y ⇒ Df−1(y)
produces a regular embedding
f# : Y → Symdf (X) (22)
For any k, the map f# gives rise to an embedding
k : Sym
k(Y ) → Symk·df (X) (23)
defined by the formula f
ν µ(yν)y) =
ν µ(yν)Df−1(y).
Therefore, applying this construction to the setting of Theorem 7 withX = Symd(CP 2), Y = CP 2d,
and f = ΨQ, we get the following proposition:
Corollary 9 Any irreducible quadratic form Q(x, y, z) determines canonical embeddings
: Symk(CP 2d) → Symk·(2d−1)!!(Symd(CP 2)),
where d and k are arbitrary whole numbers. In particular, Ψ
Q := Ψ
Q,1 embeds CP
2d into
Sym(2d−1)!!(Symd(CP 2)). �
For a map f : X → Y as above, one can define a map f# that takes effective 0-divisors on X into
effective 0-divisors on X. By definition, each point x ∈ X is mapped to the divisor Df−1(f(x)). By
linearity, we have
µ(xν)xν
µ(xν)Df−1(f(xν)). (24)
This map transforms 0-divisors of degree k into 0-divisors of degree k · df :
fk# : Sym
k(X) → Symk·df (X) (25)
Both maps, fk# from (25) and f
k from (23), have the same targets. Moreover, their images coincide.
Indeed, for each point y ∈ Y , pick any point x ∈ f−1(y). Then, f#(y) = Df−1(y) = f#(x). Recall,
that f
k is a 1-to-1 map and thus is invertible over its image. Therefore, the map
−1 ◦ fk# : Sym
k(X) → Symk(Y ) (26)
is well-defined.
Lemma 7 Let X and Y be smooth complex projective varieties and f : X → Y be a regular onto
map with finite fibers. The map (f
−1◦fk# in (26) coincides with the natural map f
∗ : Sym
k(X) →
Symk(Y ). It defines a ramified covering with a generic fiber of cardinality (df )
Proof The map f# takes each point x ∈ X to the divisor Df−1(f(x)).
7. At the same time, the
transfer f# takes f(x) to the same divisor Df−1(f(x)). Thus, (f
#)−1◦f# maps x to f(x). Extending
this argument by linearity proves the claim. �
Now we examine how these constructions apply to projective curves in CP 2∗ and eventually to the
multipole spaces. The role of X will be played by a curve C ⊂ CP 2∗ (most importantly, by Q), the
role of Y by a pencil of lines in CP 2∗ through a point p. The map f takes any point q ∈ C to a line
L passing through q and p.
Any linear embedding ρ : CP 1 ⊂ CP 2 induces an embedding ρd : Symd(CP 1) → Symd(CP 2). The
geometry of ρd is tricky. Since the quotient space CP 2/CP 1 is homeomorphic to a 4-sphere S4, we
get a surjection
Symd(CP 2)/Symd(CP 1) → Symd(S4),
but even the spaces {Symd(S4)} have subtle topology. For example, Sym2(S4) is homeomorphic
to a mapping cylinder of a map Σ4(RP 3) → S4, where Σ4(∼) denotes the fourth suspension (see
[Ha], Example 4K.5).
The regular map
Ψ̂Q : Sym
d(CP 1)
→ Symd(CP 2)
→ Sym2d(Q) ≈ CP 2d (27)
describes the role and place of C-planar multipoles (they are linked to the planarity of the quadra-
poles and octapoles in the deconstruction of CMBR that was briefly mentioned in the introduction).
In contrast with ΨQ, we will see that the map Ψ̂Q is 1-to-1. Since Sym
d(CP 1) is homeomorphic to
CP d, its image in Sym2d(Q) is homeomorphic to CP d as well (compare this with (21)). Moreover,
we claim that the ΨQ-image of Sym
d(CP 1) in CP (VQ(d)) is a d-dimensional projective subspace. It
is sufficient to examine the case of ρ whose image is given by the equation z = 0 in the homogeneous
coordinates [x : y : z]. In such a case, the ΨQ-image if formed by the proportionality classes of
homogeneous polynomials that are products of d linear forms in x and y alone, the products being
restricted to the cone {Q = 0}. However, any homogeneous polynomial in two variables factors
over C into a product of linear forms. Therefore, the ΨQ-image of Sym
d(CP 1) in CP (VQ(d)) is
generated by all homogeneous polynomials in x and y, which clearly form a vector space.
Alternatively, Ψ̂Q-image of Sym
d(CP 1) in Sym2d(Q) could be described in terms of effective divisors
on Q as follows. As a byproduct of this description, we will construct interesting examples of
ramified regular maps from CP d to itself.
Recall that points L ∈ CP 1 ⊂ CP 2 correspond to a pencil of lines L ⊂ CP 2∗ that pass through a
particular point p ∈ CP 2∗ . That p determines the embedding ρ. Each point q ∈ Q determines a
unique line Lq that passes through q and p, and therefore, a unique point Lq in the dual subspace
CP 1 ⊂ CP 2. Let f : Q → CP 1 be a 2-to-1 ramified map defined by the correspondence q ⇒ Lq.
As described in (24) and (26), f gives rise to maps f
d : Sym
d(CP 1) → Sym2d(Q) and fd# :
Symd(Q) → Sym2d(Q) with f
d being a 1-to-1 map. In fact, examining the construction of ΨQ,
we see that Ψ̂Q = f
d . Moreover, using Lemma 7, the map f
∗ : Sym
d(Q) → Symd(CP 1) factors
as (f
−1 ◦ fd#. Therefore, the ramification locus D(f
∗ ) ⊂ Sym
d(CP 1) for fd∗ is the Ψ̂
Q -image of
the ramification locus D(fd#) ⊂ f
#(Sym
d(Q)) ⊂ Sym2d(Q) for fd#.
7Recall that the multiplicity of x in Df−1(f(x)) is µf (x).
Figure 2 illustrates the case d = 3. Passing from the first to the second column depicts the map
f3# : Sym
3(Q) → Sym6(Q) generated by the linear projection from a center p located at infinity.
Passing from the first to the third column depicts the map f3∗ : Sym
3(Q) → Sym3(CP 1) ≈ CP 3.
Here CP 1 is viewed as the pencil of lines in CP 2∗ through p. Topologically, the map f
∗ is a 8-to-1
ramification of CP 3 over itself. It is described in some detail in Example 1 and is depicted in Figure
3. The passage from the second to the third column is a 1-to-1 correspondence.
Figure 2:
When Lq is not tangent to Q at q, then let q
⋆ 6= q be ”the other point” in Q that belongs to the line
Lq. When Lq is tangent to Q at q, then by definition, put q
⋆ = q. The correspondence τp : q ⇒ q
is an involution on Q with two fixed points a and b. Its orbit-space Q/{τp} topologically is a 2-
sphere. The involution τp induces an involution τ
p that acts on the space Sym
k(Q). By definition,
any effective divisor
ν µ(qν)qν ∈ Sym
k(Q) is transformed by τkp into the divisor
ν µ(qν)q
Evidently, the image of fd# : Sym
d(Q) → Sym2d(Q) is contained in the τ2dp -invariant part of the
space Sym2d(Q); however, not any invariant divisor belongs to that image. Each divisor from
Im(fd#) not only must be τ
p -invariant, but in addition, its multiplicity at the fixed points a and b
must be even. In other words, such a divisor D# must be of the form
2µaa+ 2µbb+
µ(qν)[qν + q
where qν 6= a, b and µa, µb ∈ Z+. The cardinality of the f
#-fiber over D
# is given by the formula
|(fd#)
−1(D#)| =
[µ(qν) + 1]. (28)
Indeed, for any q ∈ Q\{a, b} there are µ(qν)+ 1 effective divisors of degree µ(qν) with the support
in qν
q⋆ν and whose f
µ(qν)
# -image is µ(qν)[qν + q
ν ]; at the same time, there is a unique divisor
µaa whose f
µ(µa)
-image is 2µaa. When all µν = 1 and µa = 0 = µb, the fiber (f
−1(D#) is of
cardinality 2d.
Examining (28), we see that the ramification setD(fd#) for f
# : Sym
d(Q) → Sym2d(Q) is comprised
of divisors of two kinds: 1) the ones that contain at least one summand of the form 2(q+q⋆), where
q 6= a, b, and 2) the ones that contain 2a or 2b as a summand. For example, if D ∈ Symd(Q)
contains a pair of distinct points q1, q2 = q
1 and the rest of points in the support of D are generic
(i.e., for i, j > 2, qi 6= q
j ), then (f
−1(fd#(D)) consists of 2
d − 2d−2 = 3 · 2d−2 elements. At the
same time, as we perturb D in order to avoid the coincidence q2 = q
1, (f
−1(fd#(D)) consists of
2d elements.
Therefore, in view of Lemma 7, the ramification set D(fd∗ ) for f
∗ : Sym
d(Q) → Symd(CP 1) is
comprised of divisors of two kinds: 1) the ones that contain at least one summand of multiplicity
≥ 2, and 2) the ones that contain points La or Lb giving rise to lines La and Lb passing through
the point p and tangent to the curve Q.
Given a space X, let us denote by ∆d(X) ⊂ Sym
d(X) the discriminat set formed by the divisors
containing points of multiplicity at least two. Also, for any point a ∈ X, we denote by Symd−k
the subset of Symd(X) formed by the divisors containing the summand k · a. Thus,
D(fd∗ ) = ∆d(CP
1) ∪ Symd−1a (CP
1) ∪ Symd−1
(CP 1) (29)
D(fd#) =
∆2d(Q) ∪ Sym
2a (Q) ∪ Sym
2b (Q)
. (30)
Employing the Viéte Map V : Symd(CP 1) → CP d, we transplant the algebraic set D(fd∗ ) into the
space CP d. The image of ∆d(CP
1) under the Viéte Map is the classical discriminant variety in
Dd ⊂ CP
d, while the images of Symd−1a (CP
1) and of Symd−1
(CP 1) form linear subspaces CP d−1a
and CP d−1
in CP d. Thus, V (D(fd∗ )) = Dd ∪ CP
a ∪ CP
. It follows from [K], Theorem 6.1,
that each of the two spaces CP d−1a and CP
is tangent to the discriminant variety Dd along,
respectively, the linear subspaces CP d−2a and CP
Note that the complement Symd(CP 1) \ D(fd∗ ) is the configuration space of d-tuples of distinct
points in the domain CP 1 \ (a∗ ∪ b∗). Here a∗, b∗ stand for the two points in CP 1 that are dual
to the lines passing through p and tangent to the curve Q. Therefore, it is a K(Bannd , 1)-space,
where Bannd stands for the braid group in d strings residing in a cylinder with an annulus base
[S2 \ (a∗ ∪ b∗)]× [0, 1].
Using the birational identifications Symd(Q) ≈ CP d ≈ Symd(CP 1), we have constructed a ramified
covering ΓQ : CP
d ≈ Symd(Q)
→ Symd(CP 1) ≈ CP d. The following proposition summarizes the
conclusions of our arguments above (centered on (27) and (29), (30)). It describes an intricate
stratified geometry of this ramified covering, a geometry that is “reductive” in its nature with
respect to the shift d ⇒ d− 1.
Theorem 10 • Any irreducible quadratic form Q gives rise to a ramified covering
ΓQ : CP
d → CP d of degree 2d. The map ΓQ is ramified over the algebraic set
D(ΓQ) := Dd ∪ CP
a ∪ CP
— the Viéte image of the set ∆d(CP
1) ∪ Symd−1a (CP
1) ∪ Symd−1b (CP
• The discriminant variety Dd ⊂ CP
d is Q-independent. The two linear subspaces CP d−1a and
CP d−1
are tangent to the variety Dd along, respectively, subspaces CP
a and CP
generic point of Dd has a ΓQ-fiber of cardinality 3 · 2
d−2,8 while a generic point of CP d−1a ∪
CP d−1
has a fiber of cardinality 2d−1.
• The complement CP d\D(ΓQ) to the ramification set is a K(B
d , 1)-space, where B
d denotes
the annulus braid group in d strings.
• Moreover, over to each of the two subspaces CP d−1a and CP
, the map ΓQ inherits a similar
stratified structure with respect to the dimensional shift d ⇒ d− 1. �
Example 1. Let d = 2. Then ΓQ : CP
2 → CP 2 is of degree 4. The discriminat parabola
D2 is given by {x
2 − 4yz = 0}. The ramification locus D(ΓQ) consists of that parabola together
with two tangent lines CP 1a = {Ax+ y +A
2z = 0} and CP 1b = {Bx+ y +B
2z = 0} which share a
point E = [−(A+B) : AB : 1]. They are tangent to the parabola at the points F = [−2A : A2 : 1]
and G = [−2B : B2 : 1]. Here the parameters A and B depend on the quadratic form Q(x, y, z).
The ΓQ-fibers over E,F,G are singletons; the cardinality of the fiber over D2 \ (F ∪ G) is 3; the
cardinality of the fiber over CP 1a \(F ∪E) and over CP
b \(G∪E) is 2. It is still a bit mysterious how
all this data manage to produce CP 2 as a covering space! Anyway, the compliment CP 2 \ D(ΓQ)
is a K(Bann2 , 1)-space, where B
2 is the braid group with two strings in a ”fat” annulus.
Now consider the case d = 3 depicted in Figure 3. That figure exhibits a two-fold symmetry that
exchanges points a and b where the pencil of parallel lines is tangent to the curve Q. Pattern 1 in
Figure 3 corresponds to the generic stratum CP 3, while pattern 2 defines the discriminant surface
D3 ⊂ CP
3 of degree 4. It is homeomorphic to CP 1×CP 1. Patterns 3a and 3b each corresponds to
two planes CP 2a and CP
b . Each of the two planes is tangent to the discriminant surface D3 along
lines la and lb labeled by patterns 6a and 6b, respectively. These planes intersect along another line
l labeled by pattern 5. Pattern 4 encodes the singular locus C of the discriminant surface D3. It is
a rational curve of degree 3 that is homeomorphic to S2. In fact, D3 is the ruled surface spanned
8that is, 2d−2 less than a generic ΓQ-fiber.
9a 9b
Figure 3: Patterns labeling the stratification of the map ΓQ : CP
3 → CP 3 and the geometry of its
ramification locus.
by lines tangent to C ([K]). The surface D3 intersects with the plane CP
a along the union of the
line la with a quadratic curve D2,a labeled by pattern 7a. The lines la and l are both tangent to
the parabola D2,a. This configuration is already familiar from our description of the case d = 2.
Similarly, pattern 7b labels parabola D2,b. Curves C, D2,a, and la are all tangent at a point Aa
labeled by pattern 8a. Curves l and D2,a are tangent at a point Ba labeled by pattern 9b. That
point also lies on the line lb. The labeling of points Ab and Ba is done by patterns 8b and 9a,
respectively.
In accordance with Theorem 10, the ramification locus D(ΓQ) for the 8-to-1 map ΓQ coinsides with
D3 ∪ CP
a ∪ CP
b and its complement is a K(B
3 , 1)-space. �
Now, we turn to deconstructions of both homogeneous non-homogeneous polynomials on complex
quadratic surfaces {Q(x, y, z) = const}. First, consider a general homogeneous polynomial P of
degree d. We can apply decomposition (5) to the homogeneous term R of degree d− 2 in (5). This
will produce a new collection of vectors—a new multipole—{w1,ν} associated with an appropriate
generalized parcelling of µ : Z(R,Q) → Z+. This process of producing lower order multipoles
{ws,ν ∈ V (1)}s,ν , where 0 ≤ s ≤ ⌈d/2⌉ and 0 < ν ≤ d − 2s, can be repeated again and again
until all the degrees are “used up”. We notice that the leading multipole (of highest degree) is
determined by this algorithm in a more “direct way” than the lower degree multipoles. Also note
that the choice of a generalized parcelling τ for µ : Z(P,Q) → Z+ affects the choice of a generalized
parcelling for µ : Z(R,Q) → Z+, where the polynomial R = (P −
ν Lν)/Q
s. Here the product
ν Lν is determined by the τ , and s is the maximal power of Q for which the division in the ring
of polynomials is possible.
Example 2. Let d = 5. Then any homogeneous polynomial P of degree 5 has a representation
of the form
P = L01L02L03L04L05 +Q · L11L12L13 +Q
2 · L21 (31)
where all the Lij’s are linear forms (some of which might be zeros). The number of such represen-
tations does not exceed (9!!)× (5!!). �
Any non-homogeneous polynomial P (x, y, z) of degree d can be written in the form P (0) + P (1)
where the degrees of monomials comprising P (n) are congruent to n modulo 2. Note that the
decomposition P = P (0) + P (1) intrinsically makes sense on every quadratic surface Q(x, y, z) =
λ, (λ ∈ C): if P belongs to the principle ideal 〈Q − λ〉, so does each term P (n), n = 0, 1. Thus, if
P ≡ P̃ mod〈Q− λ〉, then we have P (n) ≡ P̃ (n) mod〈Q− λ〉.
On the surface {Q(x, y, z) = 1}, any component P (n) of the polynomial P (0) +P (1) can be homog-
enized by multiplying its terms of the same degree by an appropriate power of Q. We denote by
Q the appropriate homogeneous polynomial. Generically, deg(P
Q ) = d− n.
Example 3. Let d = 5. Any polynomial P of degree 5 has a representation of the form
P = L01L02L03L04L05 +Q · L11L12L13 +Q
2 · L21
+ M01L02M03M04 +Q ·M11M12 +Q
2 · λ (32)
where all the Lij ’s and Mij ’s are linear forms (some of which might be zeros), and λ is a number.
The number of such representations does not exceed (9!!)× (5!!)× (7!!)× (3!!) = 9× 72× 53× 34. �
Now one can apply recursively Lemmas 1, 3 and Corollary 5 to each homogeneous polynomial P
n = 0, 1. Letting Q = 1 proves formula (2) from Theorem 2. Let us restate and generalize this
theorem in terms of the multipoles:
Theorem 11 • Let Q(x, y, z) be an irreducible quadratic form and let P (x, y, z) be any complex
polynomial of degree d. Its restriction P |S to the complex surface S = {Q(x, y, z) = 1} admits
a representation of the form
P (x, y, z) = λ+
Lk,l(x, y, z), (33)
where the linear forms {Lk,l} are chosen so that each non-zero product
l=1 Lk,l(x, y, z) is
determined, via the map ΦQ (see (15)), by an appropriate multipole wk from the variety M(k).
• The representation (33) is unique, up to a finite ambiguity and up to reordering and rescaling
of multipliers in each product
l=1 Lk,l(x, y, z). In other words, the set of P -representing
multipoles {wk ∈ M(k)}1≤k≤d is finite. Its cardinality does not exceed
k=1[(2k − 1)!!].
We would like to end this section by establishing a few facts about alternative decompositions of
polynomials that are based on formula (9). In achieving this goal we are guided by Theorem 22.2
from [Sh].
We claimed that the direct sum in (6) is orthogonal with respect to the inner product 〈f, g〉 =
f · g dm, where dm is the standard rotationally symmetric measure on the unit sphere S2. Let
us clarify this claim. Applying (6) recursively, we get that for any real homogeneous polynomial P of
degree d can be written as
d−2k≥0 Q
k ·PHk , where P
k is a real homogeneous harmonic polynomial
of degree d−2k. Letting Q = 1, we see that for any homogeneous P , there is a harmonic polynomial
d−2k≥0 P
k such that P |S2 = P
H |S2 . Now, any two harmonic homogeneous polynomials
PHk and P
l of different degrees are eigenfunctions with different eigenvalues −(d− 2k)(d− 2k+1)
and −(d−2l)(d−2l+1) for the Laplace operator ∆S2 on the sphere. Therefore, they are orthogonal,
PHk · P
l dm = 0. Since any homogeneous polynomial R of degree d− 2 can be represented
d−2k≥0; k>0 Q
k · PHk , we get the claimed orthogonality
(PH0 )(Q · R) dm = 0 of the direct
sum in (6).
This argument extends to complex harmonic polynomials as follows. If a polynomial P is homo-
geneous, so are the polynomials PR and PI (introduced shortly after formula (7)). Also, if P is
harmonic, so are the polynomials PR and PI. Note that P (x, y, z)|S2 = [PR(x, y, z)− iPI(x, y, z)]|S2 .
Therefore, with Q = x2 + y2 + z2, for any complex harmonic and homogeneous polynomial P of
degree d and any homogeneous polynomial T of degree d− 2, we get
P · [Q · T ] dm =
(PR + i PI)(TR − i TI) dm
(PR · TR) dm+
(PI · TI) dm− i
(PR · TI) dm+ i
(PI · TR) dm.
Each of the four integrals must vanish because each integrant, being restricted to S2, is a product
of a real homogeneous and harmonic polynomial of degree d by a real polynomial of a lower degree.
In the spherical coordinates θ, φ, the inner product is given by an integral
f · ḡ dm =
0≤φ≤π; 0≤θ≤2π
f(Λ(θ, φ)) · ḡ(Λ(θ, φ)) | sin φ| dθ dφ
where Λ(θ, φ) = (cos θ sinφ, sin θ sinφ, cosφ).
Now we are going to transfer this hermitian inner product from the sphere to its image ΥQ in a given
complex quadratic surface SQ := {Q(x, y, z) = 1}. As before, let A be a complex invertible matrix
that reduces Q to the sum of squares: x′2+y′2+z′2 = Q((x, y, z) ·A), where (x′, y′, z′) = (x, y, z) ·A.
Let ΥQ = {Q((x, y, z) ·A) = 1}, with (x, y, z) ·A being a real vector. The ellipsoid ΥQ is the image
of the unit sphere under the complex linear transformation A−1. It is a totally real 2-dimensional
algebraic surface in the complex surface SQ.
The real-valued measure dmQ on ΥQ is the pull-back under the map A of the standard measure on
the unit sphere. It is invariant under the action of the compact subgroupA·O(3;R)·A−1 ⊂ GL(3;C),
where O(3;R) denotes the orthogonal group.
For any pair of (homogeneous) complex functions f, g on C3, we get a dot product
f((x, y, z)A) · ḡ((x, y, z)A) dmQ =
f(x′, y′, z′) · ḡ(x′, y′, z′) dm
0≤φ≤π; 0≤θ≤2π
f(Λ(θ, φ)) · ḡ(Λ(θ, φ)) | sin φ| dθ dφ (34)
Applying (9) recursively, gives the following proposition:
Theorem 12 • The space of complex homogeneous polynomials admits an OQ(3;C)-invariant
decomposition
V (d) = ⊕d−2k≥ 0 Q
k ·HarQ(d− 2k) (35)
The summands in (35) are orthogonal with respect to the hermitian inner product defined by
the formula (34). In particular, the homogeneous polynomials P ∈ HarQ(d)—the solutions
of the equation ∆Q(P ) = 0—are characterized by the property: for each T ∈ VQ(d),
P · T̄ dmQ = 0.
• Any polynomial function F on the surface S = {Q(x, y, z) = const} can be obtained by
restricting to S a polynomial P ∈ Ker(∆Q).
• For any two polynomials M and N , “the complex Dirichlet problem”
{∆Q(P ) = M, P |S = N |S} (36)
has a unique polynomial solution P .
• Any polynomial solution P of the equation ∆Q(P ) = 0, deg(P ) ≤ d, (equivalently, any
polynomial P of degree d at most, being restricted to the surface S) admits a Maxwell-type
representation
P (x, y, z) =
d−2k≥ 0
Q(x, y, z)d−k+
2 · ∇
. . .∇
ud−2k,k
Q(x, y, z)−
, (37)
where uj,k are appropriate vectors in C
Remark. All the statements of Theorem 12, but the last one (dealing with the generalized Maxwell
representation (37)), can be easily generalized for polynomials in any number of variables.
Proof. Decomposition (35) follows from (8), and (37) from (35) together with (9). The second
bullet is obviously implied by (33) and the linearity of ∆Q. In order to prove the third bullet,
note that (8) implies that ∆Q : V (k) → V (k − 2) is onto. Therefore, for any M , there exists a
polynomial T , so that ∆Q(T ) = M . On the other hand by bullet two, there exists a harmonic
polynomial R ∈ Ker(∆Q) such that R|S = (N − T )|S . As a result, P = T +R solves the Dirichlet
problem. In order to show that P is unique, it is sufficient to prove that no polynomial of the
form (Q− 1)S belongs to Ker(∆Q). Since ∆Q is homogeneous of degree −2, ∆Q(Q · S) 6= ∆Q(S),
unless S = 0. Indeed, let F be the leading homogeneous portion of S of the degree deg(S). Then
∆Q(Q · S) = ∆Q(S) implies ∆Q(Q · F ) = 0 which is, as we have shown before, impossible, unless
F = 0. �
9not necessarily homogeneous, even when P is homogeneous
3 Deconstructing reality
We have seen that different parcellings of the intersection Z(P,Q) led to different deconstructions
of polynomial functions on a quadratic surface {Q = 1}. The next idea is to invoke symmetry
in order to get a unique equivariant parcelling and thus, a unique deconstruction of symmetric
functions on a quadratic surface supporting an appropriate group action.
We deal with a special, but important case of Z2-action. The model example is provided by the
complex conjugation τ : (x, y, z) → (x, y, z)10. If Q(x, y, z) has real coefficients, both the curve
Q ⊂ CP 2∗ and the surface S = {Q = 1} ⊂ C
∗ are invariant under the τ . When Q is a definite
real form, the Z2-action by conjugation on Q is free since the fixed point set Q
Z2 = Q∩ RP 2∗ = ∅.
For a homogeneous polynomial P with real coefficients the intersection Z(P,Q) ⊂ CP 2∗ and the
multiplicity function µ : Z(P,Q) → Z+ are τ -invariant as well. We notice that a τ -invariant
generalized parcelling of such a µ will produce a set of τ -invariant lines Lν . Thus, we can assume
that all the linear forms Lν in (6) are with real coefficients. Indeed, given a representation P =
ν Lν +Q · R, where P,Q and Lν ’s are real and λ ∈ C, we get P = λ ·
ν Lν +Q · R. Hence,
2P = (λ+ λ) ·
ν Lν +Q · (R+R) which implies the validity of (6) over the reals.
With this observation in mind, we introduce real versions of the multipole spaces (10), (11). Let
MR(k) = {[R3 ◦]k/ΣRk (38)
where the group ΣRk is defined similar to its complex version. The only difference lies in the
definition of HRk : it is now a subgroup of (R
∗)k, not of (C∗)k. The space of real multipoles MR(k)
is a space of a principle R∗-fibration over the real variety BR(k) := Symk(RP 2). According to [A],
Theorem 2, it is diffeomorphic to RP 2k (cf. Corollary 15). We can form an associated line bundle
ηR(k) = {MR(k)×R∗ R → B
R(k)}. As in the complex case, put EηR(k) = MR(k)×R∗ R and form
the quotient space
(k) = EηR(k)/BR(k) (39)
by collapsing the zero section to a point 0. As before, M
(k) is a contractible space.
Real homogeneous polynomials of degree d form a totally real subspace V (d; R) in the complex
space V (d). The hermitian metric on V (d) defined by (34) generates an eucledian metric on V (d; R)
induced by the inner product
〈f, g〉R := Re
f(x, y, z) · ḡ(x, y, z) dmQ
f((x, y, z)A−1) · ḡ((x, y, z)A−1) dm
Moreover, as in the complex case, the imbedding βQ : V (d− 2; R) → V (d; R) is an isometry (recall
that Q is real).
10Another interesting involution to consider is η : (x, y, z) → (y,−x, z). It acts freely on any curve Q, where
Q = x2 + y2 + qz2, and q 6= 0 is a real number. Many results of this section have analogues for the polynomials P ,
such that P (η(x, y, z)) = P (x, y, z), and their multipole spaces based on pairs of vectors ((a, b, c), (−b̄, ā, c̄)).
Similarly to the complex case, we introduce a variety Fact(d; R) ⊂ V (d; R) of completely factorable
real polynomials. The orthogonal projection V (d; R) → V ⊥Q (d; R) maps Fact(d; R) into the vector
space V ⊥Q (d; R). Due to Theorem 12, V
Q (d; R) can be identified with Ker(∆
Q). When the
quadratic form Q is not definite, we can also identify the space V ⊥Q (d; R) with the d-graded portion
of the polynomial function ring on the real cone {Q = 0}. In any case, we get an algebraic map
ΦRQ : M
R(d) → Fact(d; R) → V ⊥Q (d; R)
◦ (41)
which, by Lemma 1 and the argument above, is onto. This map extends to a map
Φ̃RQ : Eη
R(d) −→ V ⊥Q (d; R) (42)
that takes the zero section BR(d) ≈ RP 2k of the line bundle ηR(d) to the origin in V ⊥Q (d; R), and
each fiber of ηR(d) isomorphically to a line through the origin. We get an R∗-equivariant surjection
Q : M
(d) −→ V ⊥Q (d; R) (43)
with finite fibers, where M
(d) := EηR(d)/BR(d).
The number of τ -equivariant parcellings of Z(P,Q) is harder to determine. It depends only on the
restriction of the multiplicity function µ to the subset Z(P,Q;R) := Z(P,Q)∩RP 2∗ and is equal to
the number of generalized parcellings subordinate to such a restriction. However, if Z(P,Q;R) = ∅,
the conjugation acts freely on Q ⊂ CP 2∗ and the τ -equivariant parcelling is unique. In such a case,
we are getting a more satisfying result:
Theorem 13 Let Q(x, y, z) be an irreducible quadratic form with real coefficients and the signature
distinct from −3. Then any real polynomial P (x, y, z) of degree d, being restricted to the real conic
SR = {Q(x, y, z) = 1} in R3∗, has a representation
P (x, y, z) = λ+
(ak,jx+ bk,jy + ck,jz)
When the surface SR is an ellipsoid, the represention (44) is unique, up to reordering and rescaling
of the multiplyers in the products. In such a case, P gives rise to a unique sequence of multiploles
{wk ∈ M
(k)}k.
We observe thatMR(k) happens to be a nonsingular space: locally RP 2 and CP 1 are diffeomorphic,
and Symk(CP 1) ≈ CP k is non-singular. An R-version of the argument that follows Theorem 6 and
is centered on formula (21) is valid. Therefore, an R-version of Lemma 6 holds: the “combinatorial”
and the “smooth” ramification loci coincide.
Note that one always can find a real homogeneous polynomial P of degree k for which the curves
P,Q ⊂ RP 2∗ have an empty intersection: just take a linear form L such that the line L := {L = 0}
misses the real quadratic curve Q; then consider any polynomial P sufficiently close to (L)k. For
such a P , the Z2-equivariant parcelling is unique and, thus, (Φ
−1(P |Q=0) is a singleton. Evidently,
such polynomials P form an open set. Therefore, ΨRQ : Sym
k(RP 2) → RP (V ⊥Q (k; R)) is a map of
degree one. These remarks lead to
Theorem 14 The multipole space MR(k), which parametrizes completely factorable real homoge-
neous polynomials of degree k, is a space of an R∗-bundle over the real variety Symk(RP 2). The
∗-equivariant map ΦRQ induces a surjective mapping Ψ
Q : Sym
k(RP 2) → RP 2k = RP (V ⊥Q (k; R))
of degree one. Unless Q is a definite form, the map ΦRQ is ramified over the discriminant variety
D(ΦRQ) of codimension one. Here D(Φ
Q) is comprised of homogeneous polynomials P of degree k
on the real cone {Q = 0} for which the surfaces {P = 0} and {Q = 0} share a line of multiplicity
at least two.11
Corollary 15 • the multipole space MR(d) =
[R3 ◦]d
ΣRd is diffeomorphic to the space
(R2d+1)◦ ≈ S2d × R.
• the multipole space M
(d) in (39) is homeomorphic to the space R2d+1.
• the real varieties Symd(RP 2) and RP 2d are diffeomorphic12.
Proof. Let Q be a positive definite form. Then, the ramification locus D(ΦRQ) = ∅. Since under
the corollay’s hypotheses the τ -equivariant parcelling is unique, every real homogeneous P , not
divisible by Q, gives rise to a unique leading multipole w(P ) ∈ MRQ(d)—the map Φ
Q is 1-to-1.
Recalling that Φ
Q is onto a vector space of dimension 2d + 1 and that the smooth ramification
locus E = D(Φ
Q) = ∅, completes the proof. �
The diffeomorphism Symd(RP 2) → RP 2d serves as yet another transparent illustration to the
Dold-Thom theorem: not only it reveals Sym∞(RP 2) as a K(Z2, 1) space, but we actually know
how this stabilization of the homotopy groups occurs. In fact, π1(Sym
d(RP 2)) = Z2, and for k > 1,
πk(Sym
d(RP 2)) = πk(S
2d). In particular, {πk(Sym
d(RP 2))} vanish for 1 < k < 2d.
We have seen already the main advantages of the multipole representations for the polynomials on
quadratic surfaces: such representations are independent on the choice of coordinates in C3∗ or R
This is in the sharp contrast with the classical decompositions in terms of the spherical harmonics.
In the case of Q = x2 + y2 + z2 and over the reals, the independence of the multipoles under the
rotations was observed by many. When Q is not positive-definite, similar observations hold.
For a non-degenerated quadratic form Q with real coefficients, let OQ(3,R) denote the group of
linear transformations from GL(3;R) that preserve the form. When the signature sign(Q) = 2,
then OQ(3,R) contains the Lorenz transformation group (equivalently, the isometry group of a
hyperbolic plane) as a subgroup of index two.
The next proposition should be compared with Lemma 2 and Theorem 12. We noticed already that,
for a real quadratic form Q, the decomposition (8) is a complexification of a similar decomposition
V (d;R) = HarQ(d;R)⊕ VQ(d;R) (45)
over the reals. Here HarQ(d;R) := Ker(∆Q;R) ∩ V (d;R). Therefore, (45) is OQ(3,R)-equivariant
with respect to the natural action on the space V (d;R) and orthogonal with respect to the inner
11equivalently, the curves P and Q in RP 2∗ share a point of multiplicity at least two.
12cf. [A], Theorem 2.
product (40). At the same time, the multipole space MR(d) is also equipped with the OQ(3,R)-
action induced by the obvious diagonal action on [V (3;R)]d. Furthermore, the map Fact(d,R) →
HarQ(d;R) induced by the projection V (d;R) → HarQ(d;R) (defined by (45)) is equivariant.
Corollary 16 Given a real polynomial P on SR together with its representation (45) and a transfor-
mation U ∈ OQ(3,R), the transformed polynomial U
∗(P )(x, y, z) := P ((x, y, z) · U) on SR acquires
a representation in the form
U∗(P )(x, y, z) = λ+
(a′k,jx+ b
k,jy + c
k,jz)
, (46)
where each new multipole vector (a′k,j, b
k,j, c
k,j) = (ak,j, bk,j, ck,j) · U
T . In other words, the onto
ΦRQ :
MR(k) →
[V (k,R)/VQ(k,R)] ≈ ⊕
k=0 HarQ(d;R)
is OQ(3,R)-equivariant.
Combining decomposition (45) with Theorem 12 we get its real analog:
Theorem 17 Let Q be a real non-degenerated quadratic form.
• The space of real homogeneous polynomials admits an OQ(3;R)-invariant decomposition
V (d;R) = ⊕d−2k≥ 0 Q
k ·HarQ(d− 2k;R) (47)
The summands in (47) are orthogonal with respect to the inner product defined by the formula
(40).
• Any polynomial function F on the surface SR = {Q(x, y, z) = const} can be obtained by
restricting to SR a polynomial P ∈ HarQ(R).
• For any two polynomials M and N , the Dirichlet problem
{∆Q(P ) = M, P |SR = N |SR} (48)
has a unique real polynomial solution P .
• Any real polynomial P of degree at most d, being restricted to the surface SR, admits a
Maxwell-type representation
P (x, y, z) =
d−2k≥ 0
Q(x, y, z)d−k+
2 · ∇
. . .∇
ud−2k,k
Q(x, y, z)−
where {uj,k} are complex 3-vectors. These vectors are real and representation (49) is unique,
provided that Q is positive-definite.
4 Why one does rarely see multipoles in non-quadratic skies?
Let Q(x, y, z) be an irreducible form of degree l over C. Then S := {Q(x, y, z) = 1} is the surface
in C3∗ and Q := {Q(x, y, z) = 0} is an irreducible curve in CP
∗ of degree l.
As before, we denote by VQ(d) the set of homogeneous degree d complex polynomials that are
divisible by Q. Let V ⊥Q (d) ≈ V (d)/VQ(d) be an orthogonal complement to VQ(d) in V (d).
For any sequence of non-negative integers {di} so that
1≤i≤s di = d, consider a map
V ⊥Q (di) → V
Q (d) (50)
which is defined by taking the product of homogeneous polynomials Pi ∈ V
Q (di) restricted to the
surface {Q(x, y, z) = 0}.
As before, the subgroup Hs ⊂ (C
∗)s of rank s− 1 acts freely on
i=1[V
Q (di)
◦] by scalar multipli-
cation. By the definition of Hs, the map η is constant on the orbits of this action. We view the
partition {d =
1≤i≤s di} as a non-increasing function ω : i → di on the index set {1, 2, . . . , s}.
Denote by Sω the subgroup of the permutation group Ss that preserves ω. Let Σω be an extension
of Sω by Hs that is generated by the obvious actions of Sω and Hs on (C
∗)s ≈
i=1 C
Evidently, η is an Σω-equivariant map. Thus, it gives rise to a well-defined map
V ⊥Q (di)
Σω → V
Q (d)
◦ (51)
Because Q is irreducible, the map Φω has V
Q (d)
◦, and not just V ⊥Q (d), as its target.
As before, we introduce the mulipole space
MQ(ω) :=
V ⊥Q (di)
Σω (52)
which is a space of a principle C∗-fibration over the orbifold
BQ(ω) :=
CP (V ⊥Q (di))
Sω (53)
As in the case of quadratic forms Q, one has a map Θ : MQ(ω) → Fact(ω), where Fact(ω) ⊂ V (d)
is the variety of homogeneous degree d polynomials in x, y, and z that admit a factorization as a
product of polynomials of the degrees {di}1≤i≤s that are prescribed by the partition ω. The
map Θ takes each multipole to the product of the corresponding polynomial factors. Unlike the
case of a quadratic Q, Θ may not be a 1-to-1 map, although, its generic fiber is a singleton.
13To simplify our notations, we do not indicate (as before) the dependency of the map on Q.
This conclusion follows from the unique factorization property for the ring C[x, y, z]: just consider
elements of Fact(ω) that are products of irreducible factors of the degrees prescribed by ω. The
same uniqueness of factorization implies that each fiber of Θ is finite: there are only finitely many
ways of organizing irreducible factors, in which a polynomial P ∈ Fact(ω) decomposes, into blocks
of degrees {di}.
The map Θ is not surjective either. However, Φω takes the multipole space onto the space FactQ(ω)
of degree d homogeneous polynomials on the surface {Q = 0} that admit factorizations subordinate
to ω:
Φω : MQ(ω)
→ Fact(ω)
→ FactQ(ω) ⊂ V
Q (d)
◦ (54)
Definition 4 Let d be a natural number and ω = {d =
i=1 di} its partition. Let Z be a finite
set equipped with a multiplicity function µ : Z → N whose l1-norm ‖µ‖1 is ld. A generalized
ω-parcelling of (Z, µ) is a collection of functions µi : Z → N, such that
i µi = µ
• ‖µi‖1 = ldi
When Z is comprised of ld points and each µi takes only two values 0, 1, the generalized parcelling
is called just an ω-parcelling.
Any polynomial P (x, y, z) of degree d that is not divisible by Q determines a multiplicity function
µ : Z(P,Q) → N whose l1-norm is ld. Here Z(P,Q) := P ∩ Q ⊂ CP
∗ is a finite set. If such a
polynomial P is a product
i Li, where deg(Li) = di, then the Li’s give rise to a unique generalized
ω-parcelling
i µi.
Lemma 8 Any generalized ω-parceling
i µi of a given multiplicity function µ on a finite set
Z ⊂ Q corresponds to at most one multipole in the space MQ(ω).
Proof. Assume that, for each index i, there exist a polynomial Li that realizes µi on the finite
intersection set Z ⊂ Q. Such polynomial is not divisible by Q. Put Zi = Z(Li, Q) := Li∩Q. Then,
employing the Bezout Theorem, any other polynomial Mi that realizes the same multiplicity on
the same intersection set Zi must be of the form Mi = λiLi+Q ·Ri. We notice that if Li ∈ V
Q (di),
then Mi /∈ V
Q (di), provided Ri 6= 0. �
Corollary 18 The map Φω has finite fibers over FactQ(ω).
Proof. An element of P ∈ V ⊥Q (d)
◦ is determined, up to proportionality, by its multiplicity function
µ : Z(P,Q) → N. Now the claim of the corollary follows from Lemma 8 and the observation that
a given multiplicity function admits only finitely many generalized ω-parcellings. �
Of course, not any generalized ω-parceling on a given pair (Z ⊂ Q, µ) is realizable by a product
i Li with the properties as above. Crudly, this happens because not any ldi points on Q can be
placed on a curve Ci of degree di that does not contain Q as its component. A curve of degree di
can always accommodate (d2i + 3di)/2 points in CP
∗ . Thus, if an inequality (d
i + 3di)/2 ≥ dil is
valid, that is, if di ≥ 2l− 3, the right curve might be found; but it is still unclear how to avoid the
very real possibility that Ci ⊃ Q when di ≥ l. In fact, such a possibility is a reality!
Unfortunately, unless l = deg(Q) = 2 or s = 1, the image of Φω is of a smaller dimension than
the one of the target space V ⊥Q (d)
◦. As a result, there is no analog of the Sylvester Theorem on
non-quadratic surfaces; when deg(Q) > 2, a generic element of V ⊥Q (d)
◦ is irreducible. Let us explain
these claims.
Recall that for any d ≥ l, dim(V ⊥Q (d)) =
{(d2 + 3d)− [(d− l)2 + 3(d− l)]} = l
(2d− l+ 3). Since
the dimension of the group Hs is s− 1, we get
dim(V ⊥Q (d))− dim(MQ(ω)) =
(2d − l + 3)−
(2di − l + 3) + (s− 1) =
[l2 − 3l + 2],
provided all di ≥ l. Under these hypotheses, the difference of the two dimensions vanishes only
when l = 1, 2 or s = 1. Hence,
Lemma 9 For l = deg(Q) > 2 and {di ≥ l}1≤i≤s, the map Φω is not onto, i.e. a generic polynomial
from V ⊥Q (d)
◦ is not a product of polynomials of degrees ≥ l. The codimension of Φω(MQ(ω)) in
V ⊥Q (d) is
[l2 − 3l + 2].
For example, on a cubic surface , dim(V ⊥Q (d))− dim(MQ(ω)) = (s− 1), provided {di ≥ 3}1≤i≤s.
If we drop the hypotheses {di ≥ l}, the computation is a bit more involved:
dim(V ⊥Q (d)) − dim(MQ(ω)) =
(2d− l + 3)−
i: di≥l
(2di − l + 3)−
j: dj<l
(dj + 3) + (s− 1)
We conjecture that the RHS of the formula above is always positive, unless l = 1, 2 or s = 1.
5 Multipoles and function approximations on quadratic surfaces
In this section we will be concerned with polynomial approximations of holomorphic functions
f : S → C on an irreducible complex quadratic surface SQ = {Q(x, y, z) = 1}, as well as with
polynomial approximations of continuous functions f : SRQ → R on its real version. As before,
we would like to represent the approximating polynomials in terms of their multipoles. As we use
polynomials of higher and higher degrees to improve the approximations, the issue is stability of the
multipole representations. In general, such stability is absent for several reasons: 1) the intrinsic
ambiguities of the multipole representations for complex plynomials; 2) the difficulty of converting
an analytic function on a surface into a “homogeneous” analytic function in the ambient space
(homogenizing polynomials worked well). Even abandoning multipole representations in favor of
linear methods of harmonic analysis, does not eliminate the stability issue instantly: in general, the
coefficients of approximating polynomials fail to stabilize. However, if the approximating polyno-
mials are linear combinations of mutually orthogonal and normalized polynomials (analogous to the
Legendre polynomials), the coefficients of the combinations will stabilize. By introducing appro-
priate notions of orthogonality for polynomials on a quadratic surface, we aim to establish similar
facts for polynomial approximations there14. Then we combine harmonic analysis with non-linear
methods of multipole representation for polynomials (as it is done in formula (3) in Theorem 3).
Let C(K) denote the algebra of all continuous C-functions on a Hausdorff compact space K. Recall
that a uniform algebra is a closed (in the sup-norm) subalgebra A ⊂ C(K) that separates points
of K. Such an algebra is called antisymmetric, if any real-valued function from A is constant. A
subset Y ⊂ K is called an antisymmetry set for A if any function from A, which is real-valued on
Y , is a constant. The Bishop Theorem about antisymmetric subdivisions (cf. [G], Theorem 13.1)
claims that the maximal sets of antisymmetry {Eα} are closed and disjoint, and their union is K.
Moreover, if f ∈ C(K) and, for each α, f |Eα ∈ A|Eα , then f ∈ A. In particular, if each Eα is a
singleton, then A = C(X).
For a space X ⊂ Cn, let us denote by P̄(X) the closure in the sup-norm on compacts in X of the
algebra P(X) generated by all complex polynomial functions. Note that if any two points in X
can be separated by a real-valued polynomial, then Bishop’s Theorem implies that P̄(X) = C(X).
For instance, consider a section H of the complex surface SQ by a totally real subspace V
3 ⊂ C3 —
an image of R3 ⊂ C3 under a complex transformation A ∈ GL(3;C). Since any two points in R3,
can be separated by a real-valued polynomial, the same property holds for any two points in V 3,
and thus, in H. By the Bishop Theorem, any continuous function f on H admits an approximation
in the sup-norm on compacts by complex polynomials. In particular, this conclusion is valid when
H is one of the real surfaces ΥQ ⊂ (R
3)A−1 or SRQ ⊂ R
3 which have been employed on many
occasions.
For a compact set K ⊂ SQ, denote by K̂ the polynomial hull (closure) of K. It consists of all
points v in C3 with the property: |P (v)| ≤ supw∈K|P (w)| for any complex polynomial P . Because
for any point v /∈ S and w ∈ S, we have |(Q − 1)(v)| > |(Q − 1)(w)| = 0, the polynomial closure
K̂ must be contained in S. In fact, the polynomial closure K̂ of a compact K ⊂ C3 must be
a polynomially convex compact set. A theorem by Oka and Weyl (cf. [G], Theorem 5.1) claims
that any complex analytic function, defined in a neighborhood of a compact polynomialy convex
set, admits an approximation in the sup-norm on K by complex polynomials. Thus, any analytic
function f(x, y, z) defined in a neighborhood of K̂ ⊂ SQ, K being a compact in SQ, can be uniformly
approximated on K̂ by complex polynomials.
When dealing with families of functions on non-compact sets, we pick the uniform convergency
on compact subsets as a default topology. In this topology, the subalgebra O(SQ) of holomorphic
functions is closed in the algebra of all continuous functions C(SQ) (cf. [GuR], Lemma 11). In
particular, if a sequence of polynomials (in x, y, and z) is converging in the sup-norm on every
compact in SQ, then its limit is a holomorphic function on SQ. One can employ any expanding
14The spherical harmonics reflect a particular case of such orthogonality.
family {Kr}1≤r≤∞ (i.e., Kr ⊂ Kr+1 and ∪r Kr = SQ) of polynomially convex compacts Kr ⊂ SQ to
build a sequence {Pr} of polynomials that approximate a given holomorphic function f ∈ O(SQ).
Let F(SQ) ⊂ O(SQ) be a subset formed by the functions that admit a representation as a series
, (55)
where each Lkj is a linear form in x, y, and z. The series is required to converge uniformly on
each compact K ⊂ SQ (as we remarked before, any such uniformly converging series produces a
holomorphic function on SQ).
In fact, one can define a similar set F(K) ⊂ C(K) for any closed K ⊂ C3. Due to Theorem
11, any polynomial on SQ is of the form (33) (which is a special case of (55)). Therefore, when
P(K) = C(K) for a compact K ⊂ SQ, then F(K) is dense in C(K) as well.
Examining (55), we observe that if this series converges at a point v = (x, y, z) it must converge
absolutely at any other point λ · v, were the complex number λ has modulus less than 1. For any
set Y ⊂ C3, we denote by Y • the set {λv| v ∈ Y, λ ∈ C, |λ| < 1} and call it the round hull of Y .
Consider the set S•Q. Because any complex line through the origin that does not belong to the
complex cone {Q = 0} hits SQ at a pair of antipodal points, S
Q is an open domain in C
3, com-
plementary to the cone whose boundary contains SQ (the origin belongs to S
Q). Therefore, any
function f ∈ F(SQ) must be a restriction of a function which is analytic in S
Q and continuous in
S•Q ∪ SQ. I doubt that the converse statement is true. Note that a given function f on SQ may
have many analytic extensions in S•Q: for example, 1 extends to 1 and to 1/Q (the latter has poles
along the complex cone).
If a section H of SQ by a totally real subspace V
3 ⊂ C3 is an ellipsoid, then its interior in V 3
coincides with S•Q ∩ V
3. Thus, any real function f on H that admits a representation as in (55)
must be real analytic in the interior of the ellipsoid. So, it is represented by its Taylor series at
the origin; on the other hand, series (55), uniformly converging in the vicinity of the origin, gives
rise to a very specialized Taylor series (just count the dimensions of the coefficient spaces of each
degree to see how special it is).
Since any function from O(SQ) admits a polynomial approximation on compacts, the subset F(SQ)
is dense in in the space of all holomorphic functions. So, F(SQ) is squeezed between the vector
space O(SQ) and its dense subspace P(SQ). It is not even clear whether F(SQ) is a vector space.
To understand the structure of the set F(SQ) is a challenge; unfortunately, our progress towards
this goal is minimal.
Note that, if a holomorphic function vanishes on a totally real analytic surface H ⊂ SQ, it must
vanish in a neighborhood of H in SQ.
We summarize the observations above in
Theorem 19 Any holomorphic function f on complex surface SQ is a limit in the topology of
uniform convergence on compacts of polynomial functions in C3. The approximating polynomials
each admit a representation as in (33). As a result, such an f can be described by a double-indexed
set of multipoles {wjk ∈ M(k)}0≤j≤k<∞.
A subset F(SQ) of functions that admit a representation as in (55) is dense in the space of all holo-
morphic functions O(SQ) and invariant under multiplications by scalars and the natural OQ(3;C)-
action15. Each function f ∈ F(SQ) admits a canonic holomorphic extension
f(λx, λy, λz) =
Lkj(x, y, z)
into the round hull S•Q. Here (x, y, z) ∈ SQ and |λ| < 1.
Any continuous function f : H → C on the totally real quadratic surfaces H = ΥQ or H = S
a limit in the topology of uniform convergence on compacts in H of polynomial functions in C3.
As a result, the set F(H) is dense in C(H). Each function from F(H) admits a canonic analytic
extension into the open portion of real cone over H, a portion that is bounded by H and contains
the origin. Again, f can be described by a double-indexed set of multipoles {wjk ∈ M(k)}0≤j≤k<∞.
Under the hypotheses of Theorem 19, unless a given function is in the sets F(SQ) or F(H), the set
of multipoles that represent it is far from being unique. In order to achieve some kind of uniqueness,
we need to consider multipole representations for the L2-integrable functions and to employ the
orthogonality. Hence, consider the vector space P(SQ) of all polynomial functions restricted to
SQ and equipped with the inner product 〈f, g〉 defined by (34). If P is a homogeneous nonzero
polynomial, then 〈P,P 〉 > 0. An homogeneous polynomial is determined by its restriction to SQ.
Evidently, 〈P,P 〉 = 0 implies that the restriction of P to ΥQ is zero. Since ΥQ ⊂ SQ is a totally real
analytic submanifold, P |ΥQ = 0 implies that P vanishes in the vicinity of ΥQ in SQ. By analyticity,
P must vanish everywhere in SQ, and hence, P is a zero polynomial. As a result, 〈P,P 〉 gives rise
to a norm on the space of homogeneous polynomials V (d). Because any function from P(SQ) is a
restriction of an homogeneous polynomial, we get a non-degenerated Hermitian inner product on
the vector space P(SQ). In view of Theorem 12 and by a similar line of arguments, 〈P,P 〉 = 0
implies that P = 0 for any complex polynomial P ∈ Ker(∆Q). Therefore, being restricted to
a space of Q-harmonic polynomials, the inner product 〈f, g〉 in (34) gives rise to an Hermitian
structure and an L2-norm ‖P‖ΥQ . In particular, each space HarQ(k) ≈ V
Q (k) inherits this norm,
and HarQ(k) is orthogonal to HarQ(l), provided l 6= k.
Now, consider the vector space
k=0 HarQ(k) formed by sequences of vector-polynomials {Pk ∈
HarQ(k)} and the subspace L
2 := ⊕
k=0 HarQ(k) formed by infinite sequences {Pk ∈ HarQ(k)}
subject to the condition
k=0 ‖Pk‖
< ∞. Let L2(ΥQ) denote the complex Hilbert space of
L2-integrable functions on the ellipsoid ΥQ. Every function f ∈ L2(ΥQ) defines a unique system of
its “Fourier components” {fk ∈ HarQ(k)}. Each fk is the unique polynomial from HarQ(k) that
delivers the minimum minP∈HarQ(k) ‖f − P‖ΥQ . By Theorem 19, any f ∈ C(ΥQ) is a limit in the
sup-norm on ΥQ of harmonic polynomials, it must be also the limit in L2(ΥQ) of the same sequence
of polynomials. Therefore, if f ∈ C(ΥQ) is orthogonal to all the subspaces HarQ(k), it must be
the zero function. Hence, as an element of L2(ΥQ), f =
k=0 fk, and ‖f‖
k=0 ‖fk‖
15By its definition, every function from F(SQ) can be described by a sequence of multipoles {wk ∈ M(k)}0≤k<∞.
particular, any f ∈ O(SQ) determines a unique system of its harmonics {fk ∈ HarQ(k)}. Moreover,
it is determined by f |ΥQ , and thus, by its harmonics {fk}.
Evidently, the sequence of partial sums {f[d] :=
k=0 fk ∈ Ker(∆Q)}d converges in L2(ΥQ) to f .
In terms of homogeneous polynomials, we get an analogous sequence {f{d} :=
⌈(d−k)/2⌉fk}d
converging in L2(ΥQ) to f .
Similar arguments can be applied, instead of the ellipsoid ΥQ, to any surface H ⊂ SQ that is a
section of SQ by a totally real subspace V
3 ⊂ C3. In particular, they are valid for SRQ. First, we
pick a measure dm on H such that any polynomial P |H ∈ L2(H) (when H is compact, one can
choose any measure of finite volume). For example, consider the area 2-form ω on H induced by the
imbeddingH ⊂ C3 and multiply it by the factor exp[−(xx̄+yȳ+zz̄)] to get the “right measure” dm.
Then we define a new inner product by 〈f, g〉H =
f · ḡ dm. Since H is totally real, this will give
rise to an Hermitian structure in each space V (k). Notice that the multiplication-by-Q imbedding
V (k) → VQ(k+2) ⊂ V (k+2) is an isometry. As before, we form the orthogonal compliments V
Q (k)
to the subspaces VQ(k) (the only difference is that now the space V
Q (d) could be different from
the space HarQ(d) of Q-harmonic polynomials). Then we argue that the Hilbert space L2(H, dm)
is a closure of ⊕∞k=0 V
Q (k) in the L2-norm. As before, any continuous function f on H acquires a
unique representation f =
k=0 fk, where {fk ∈ V
Q (k)}, and ‖f‖
k=0 ‖fk‖
Thanks to Theorems 7 and 11, each complex homogeneous polynomial fk ∈ V
Q (k) can be repre-
sented by some multipole w
k ∈ M(k). Similarly, any real homogeneous polynomial fk ∈ V
Q (k;R)
can be represented by some multipole w
k ∈ M
(k). When Q is positive definite, these real multi-
poles are unique. However, in general, the ambiguity of the multipole representation could cause
trouble. So, we need to choose the representing multipoles with some care.
Due to the embedding Θ : M(k) → V (k) (see (15)) with the image Fact(k), the multipole space
M(k) acquires a metric ρ induced by the LH2 -norm ‖P‖H in V (k).
The lemma below helps to estimate the size of the fiber Φ
Q (u) over u ∈ V
Q (k) in terms of an
universal angle θk = θ(k,H, dm) and the L
2 -norm of u:
Lemma 10 Consider the distance function ρ on M(k) that is induced by the LH2 -norm ‖ ∼ ‖H in
V (k) via the embedding Θ : M(k) → Fact(k) ⊂ V (k). Then there exist an angle 0 < θk ≤ π/2
so that, for each u ∈ V ⊥Q (k) ⊂ V (k), the distance from any w ∈ Φ
Q (u) to the zero multipole is at
most ‖u‖/sin(θk), and thus the diameter of the fiber Φ
Q (u) is at most 2‖u‖/sin(θk).
Proof. Let S(k) denote a unit sphere (with respect to the ‖ ∼ ‖H -norm) in V (k) and centered at
the origin. Because Q is irreducible, Fact(k) ∩ VQ(k) = ∅. Thus, the compact sets S(k) ∩ Fact(k)
and SQ(k) = S(k)∩VQ(k) are disjoint. Therefore, there is a number 0 < θ ≤ π/2 so that the angle
between any two vectors u ∈ S(k)∩Fact(k) and v ∈ SQ(k) is greater than or equal to θ. Note that
S(k) ∩ Fact(k) and SQ(k) are invariant under the circle action S
1 ⊂ C∗. So, Fact(k) and VQ(k)
also are real cones with their tips at the origin and bases S(k) ∩ Fact(k) and SQ(k). We conclude
that the angle between any two vectors u ∈ Fact(k) and v ∈ VQ(k) has the same lower bound
θ > 0. Now consider an open real cone CQ(k) ⊂ V (d) comprised of vectors that form an angle
φ < θ with the subspace VQ(k) and a complementary cone C
Q(k) := V (d) \ CQ(k) ⊃ V
Q (k). The
argument above shows that Fact(k) ⊂ C⊥Q(k). Hence, the distance from any w ∈ Φ
Q (u) to the
zero multipole is at most ‖u‖/sin(θk), and the diameter of the fiber Φ
Q (u) is at most 2‖u‖/sin(θk).
Corollary 20 Consider a continuous function f ∈ L2(H) and its orthogonal decomposition
k=0 fk, where fk ∈ V
Q (k). Then, for any choice of the multipoles wk ∈ Φ
Q (fk),
sin2(θk) · ρ(wk,0)
2 < ∞, (56)
where ρ(wk,0) = ‖Θ(wk)‖H . �
It seems to be far from trivial to understand the asymptotic behavior of {sin(θk)} as k → ∞.
Perhaps, the lack of understanding of this asymptotics it is the most significant gap in our analysis.
To state the last claim in the next theorem, we need one technical definition that likely has very
little to do with the essence of the statement. The set D(ΦQ) ⊂ V
Q (k) is a complex algebraic
variety. Itis stratified by algebraic sets {Dk,π} which are labeled by various partitions π of 2k. This
labeling is done by attaching the divisor P ∩Q ∈ Sym2k(Q), or rather the partition π of 2k defined
by the multiplicity function of P ∩Q, to each homogeneous polynomial P (x, y, z) restricted to the
cone {Q = 0} and viewed as an element of V ⊥Q (k). In particular, when π = {2d = 1+1+1+ . . .+1}
or {2d = 2 + 1 + 1 + . . . + 1}, then Dk,π = V
Q (k) or Dk,π = D(ΦQ), respectively. The natural
partial order among partitions reflects the inclusions of the corresponding strata. If we delete all
the substrata from a given stratum Dk,π, we get a “pure” stratum that we denote D
k,π. The variety
D(ΦQ) is a Whitney stratified space; as a result, the vicinity of every stratum D
k,π has a structure
of a bundle whose fiber is a real cone over another stratified space Lkk,π —the link of D
k,π. We will
make use of this fact together with another important feature of the stratification Dk,π: namely,
all the strata of Lkk,π have even real codimensions.
We say that a parametric curve γ : [0, 1] → V ⊥Q (k) ≈ HarQ(k) is tame if it consists of a finite
number of arcs, each of which has the following property: the interior of each arc is contained in
some stratum D◦k,π. We say that a continuous function family {ft ∈ L2(ΥQ)}0≤t≤1 is tame, if for
each k, the path {(ft)k ∈ HarQ(k)}0≤t≤1 is tame.
First, consider the functions f ∈ O(SQ) such that, for each k, the polynomial fk ∈ HarQ(k) ≈
V ⊥Q (k) does not belong to the ramification locus D(ΦQ) ⊂ V
Q (k) of the map ΦQ (the rest of the
functions form a complex codimension one subset D ⊂ O(SQ)). Over the compliment to the variety
D(ΦQ), the map ΦQ is a covering map. Thus, for each initial lifting, the deformation (ft)k admits
a unique lifting to the multipole space, as long as (ft)k ∈ V
Q (k) \ D(ΦQ).
Next, for any tame t-family {ft ∈ O(SQ)}0≤t≤1, consider the tame curve {(ft)k ∈ V
Q (k)}0≤t≤1 and
the first arc γ in a finite sequence of arcs that form this curve. There are two possibilities: 1) the
arc starts at a stratum D◦k,π and is confined to it for a while, 2) the arc starts at a stratum D
but moves instantly into an ambient stratum D◦k,π′ . In the first case, over D
k,π, ΦQ is a covering
map and there is a unique lifting of γ extending each lifting γ̃(0) of γ(0). In the second case, we
claim that, for any lifting γ̃(0) of γ(0), in the vicinity of γ̃(0), the map ΦQ is onto. Indeed, it is a
proper holomorphic map, and thus, its image must be an analytic space (see [N], Theorem 2, page
129). Because ΦQ is finite, the image of a neighborhood of γ̃(0) under ΦQ must be of the maximal
dimension, and hence, must contain a neighborhood of γ(0). As a result, the set Φ−1Q (γ) (it is a
finite graph) must be present in any neighborhood of γ̃(0); so, we can lift γ to an arc γ̃ that starts
at γ̃(0). An induction by the number of arcs in the curve (ft)k proves the existence of its lifting to
the multipole space. Note that an analogous argument fails for ΦRQ: a finite image of a real analytic
set is a real semi-analytic set that can miss the arc γ. Therefore, in Theorem 22 the lifting property
for tame deformations is absent.
The arguments above prove the following theorem:
Theorem 21 Let Q(x, y, z) be an irreducible complex quadratic form, and let SQ be a complex
quadratic surface defined by the equation {Q = 1}. Denote by A a complex change of coordinates
that reduces the form Q to the sum of squares. Let ΥQ ⊂ SQ be a totally real ellipsoid defined by the
equations {Q((x, y, z)A) = 1, Im((x, y, z)A) = 0} and equipped with the measure defined by (34).
Let f be an analytic function on SQ. Then there exists sequence of multipoles {w
k ∈ M(k)}0≤k<+∞
such that:
• the sequence gives rise, via the maps {ΦQ}, to complex Q-harmonic polynomials P
d (x, y, z) =
k=0ΦQ(w
k ), where the mutually orthogonal polynomials {ΦQ(w
k ) ∈ HarQ(k)} are uniquely
determined by f .
• as d → ∞, the polynomials {P
} converge in the space L2(ΥQ) to the function f |ΥQ , and
therefore, uniquely determine f ∈ O(SQ).
• for a given f , there are at most (2k − 1)!! choices for each multipole w
• the multipoles {w
} satisfy property (56) from Corollary 20.
• for any tame deformation {ft ∈ O(SQ)}0≤t≤1 of the function f = f0, there exists a continuous
deformation {w
k ∈ M(k)} of the ft-representing multipoles, such that {w
k = w
k}. For
functions f and their continuous deformations ft outside a subspace D ⊂ O(SQ) of complex
codimension one and for each choice of the appropriate multipoles {w
}, the lifting of the
deformation ft to the multipole spaces is unique. �
Similarly, we get
Theorem 22 Let Q(x, y, z) be an irreducible real quadratic form. Let SRQ := {Q = 1} be a real
quadratic surface, equipped a measure dm for which any polynomial in x, y, and z is an L2-integrable
function on the surface. Let f be an L2-integrable continuous function on S
Q. Then there exists
sequence of multipoles {w
k ∈ M(k)}0≤k<+∞ such that:
• the sequence gives rise, via the maps {Φ
Q}, to real polynomials P
d (x, y, z) =
where the mutually orthogonal polynomials {Φ
)} are uniquely determined by f ;
• As d → ∞, the polynomials {P
d } converge to f in the space L2(S
• The multipoles {w
} satisfy property (56) from Corollary 20.
When Q is positive-definite,
• the mutually orthogonal polynomials {Φ
) ∈ HarQ(k;R)};
• each multipole w
k is uniquely determined by f ;
• for any continuous deformation {ft ∈ C(S
Q)}0≤t≤1, of the function f = f0, there exists a
unique continuous deformation {w
∈ M(k)} of the ft-representing multipoles, such that
Acknowledgments. I am grateful to Jeff Weeks for introducing me to the subject. My conversations
with Michael Shubin about the aspects of this investigation, motivated by harmonic analysis, were
equally enlightening. I also would like to thank Blaine Lawson for explaining to me a few facts and
constructions that turned out to be very helpful.
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William Paterson University,
Wayne, NJ 07470-2103, U.S.A.
e-mail: katzg@wpunj.edu & ygkatz@yahoo.com
http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0307507
http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0405631
http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0409081
http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0302496
http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0412231
	Introduction
	Multipoles and polynomials on complex quadratic surfaces
	Deconstructing reality
	Why one does rarely see multipoles in non-quadratic skies?
	Multipoles and function approximations on quadratic surfaces
	References
