07041623rev_mod
arXiv:cond-mat/0704.1623 
Lecture Notes in Nanoscale Science and Technology, Vol. 2,  
Nanoscale Phenomena: Basic Science to Device Applications, 
Eds. Z.K. Tang and P.Sheng, Springer (2008)  
Nanodevices and Maxwell’s Demon 
Supriyo Datta 
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 
NSF Network for Computational Nanotechnology, 
 Purdue Universtiy, West Lafayette, IN-47906, USA.  
(Date: April 12, 2007)  
In the last twenty years there has been significant progress in our understanding of quantum transport far 
from equilibrium and a conceptual framework has emerged through a combination of the Landauer 
approach with the non-equilibrium Green function (NEGF) method, which is now being widely used in the 
analysis and design of nanoscale devices. It provides a unified description for all kinds of devices from 
molecular conductors to carbon nanotubes to silicon transistors covering different transport regimes from 
the ballistic to the diffusive limit. In this talk I use a simple version of this model to analyze a specially 
designed device that could be called an electronic Maxwell’s demon, one that lets electrons go 
preferentially in one direction over another. My objective is to illustrate the fundamental role of “contacts” 
and “demons” in transport and energy conversion. The discussion is kept at an academic level steering clear 
of real world details, but the illustrative devices we use are very much within the capabilities of present-day 
technology. For example, recent experiments on thermoelectric effects in molecular conductors agree well 
with the predictions from our model. The Maxwell’s demon device itself is very similar to the pentalayer 
spin-torque device which has been studied by a number of groups though we are not aware of any 
discussion of the possibility of using the device as a nanoscale heat engine or as a refrigerator as proposed 
here. However, my objective is not to evaluate possible practical applications. Rather it is to introduce a 
simple transparent model showing how out-of-equibrium demons suitably incorporated into nanodevices 
can achieve energy conversion. 
1. INTRODUCTION 
Maxwell invented his famous demon to illustrate the 
subtleties of the second law of thermodynamics and his 
conjecture has inspired much discussion ever since [see for 
example, Leff and Rex,1990,2003, Nikulov and Sheehan, 
2004]. When the subject of thermodynamics was relatively 
new, it was not clear that heat was a form of energy since 
heat could never be converted entirely into useful work. 
Indeed the second law asserts that none of it can be 
converted to work if it is all available at a single 
temperature. Heat engines can only function by operating 
between two reservoirs at two different temperatures. 
Maxwell’s demon is supposed to get around this 
fundamental principle by creating a temperature 
differential between two sides of a reservoir that is initially 
at a uniform temperature. This is achieved by opening and 
closing a little door separating the two sides at just the right 
times to allow fast molecules (white) to cross to the left but 
not the slow molecules (black, Fig.1a). As a result, faster 
molecules crowd onto the left side making its temperature 
higher than that of the right side. 
Technology has now reached a point where one can think 
of building an electronic Maxwell’s demon that can be 
interposed between the two contacts (labeled source and 
drain) of a nanoscale conductor (Fig.1b) to allow electrons 
to flow preferentially in one direction so that a current will 
flow in the external circuit even without any external 
source of power. Such a device can be built (indeed one 
could argue has already been built) though not surprisingly 
it is expected to operate in conformity with the second law. 
Here I would like to use this device simply to illustrate the 
fundamental role of “contacts” and “demons” in transport 
and energy conversion. I will try to keep the discussion at 
an academic level steering clear of real world details. But it 
should be noted that the illustrative devices we will discuss 
are very much within the capabilities of present-day 
technology. For example, recent pioneering experiments on 
thermoelectric effects in molecular conductors [Reddy 
et.al.2007] seem to agree well with the predictions from 
our model [Paulsson and Datta,2003]. The device 
discussed in Section 3 (Figs.5,6) incorporating an elastic 
Maxwell’s demon (Datta 2005b,c) is being investigated 
experimentally by introducing manganese impurities into a 
GaAs spin-valve device with MnAs contacts [Saha 
et.al.2006].  The device incorporating an inelastic demon 
described in Section 4 (Figs.9,10) is very similar to the 
pentalayer spin-torque device which has been studied by a 
number of groups both experimentally [Fuchs et.al.2006,   
Nanodevices and Maxwell’s demon 
Supriyo Datta 
(a) Maxwell’s demon    (b) Electronic demon 
Fig.1. (a) Maxwell’s demon opens and closes a trapdoor 
to separate fast (white) molecules from slow (black) 
molecules making the left warmer than the right, thus 
creating a temperature differential without expending 
energy . (b) Electronic Maxwell’s demon discussed in this 
talk lets electrons go preferentially from right to left thus 
creating a current in the external circuit without any 
external source of energy. 
Fig.2. Schematic representing the general approach used 
to model nanoscale devices: (a) Simple version with 
numbers γ , D used in this talk and (b) Complete version 
with matrices Σ ,H (Adapted from Datta2005a). 
Channel
Source Drain
<---- L ---->
Σ1 Σ2
µ1 µ2
µ1 µ2
1γ 2γ
 D(E)
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datta@purdue.edu 
Huai et.al.2004] and theoretically [Salahuddin and 
Datta,2006a,b] though we are not aware of any discussion 
of the possibility of using the device as a nanoscale heat 
engine or as a refrigerator as proposed here. We leave it to 
future work to assess whether these possibilities are of any 
practical importance.  Here my objective is to lay out a 
simple transparent model showing how out-of-equilibrium 
demons suitably incorporated into nanodevices can achieve 
energy conversion. 
In the last twenty years there has been significant progress 
in our ability to tackle the problem of quantum transport far 
from equilibrium and a conceptual framework has emerged 
through a combination of the Landauer approach with the 
non-equilibrium Green function (NEGF) method 
[Datta,1989,1990, Meir and Wingreen,1992],which is 
being widely used in the analysis and design of nanoscale 
devices [see Datta,2005a and references therein]. It 
provides a unified description for all kinds of devices from 
molecular conductors to carbon nanotubes to silicon 
transistors in terms of the Hamiltonian [H] describing the 
channel, the self-energies [ Σ1,2] describing the connection 
to the contacts and the [ Σ s] describing interactions inside 
the channel (Fig.2b). In each case the details are very 
different, but once these matrices (whose size depends on 
the number of basis functions needed to describe the 
channel) have been written down, the procedure for 
obtaining quantities of interest such as current flow and 
energy dissipation are the same regardless of the specifics 
of the problem at hand. The model covers different 
transport regimes from the ballistic to the diffusive limit 
depending on the relative magnitudes of Σ1,2  and Σ s . In 
this paper I will use a particularly simple version of this 
approach (Fig.2a) where matrices like Σ1,2  and Σs are 
replaced with numbers like γ1,2  and γ s  having simple 
physical interpretations: 
γ1,2 /ℏ  represents the rate of 
transfer of channel electrons in and out of the contacts 
while 
γ s /ℏ  represents the rate at which they interact with 
any “demons” that inhabit the channel. 
In the past it was common to have γ1,2  << γ s  so that 
transport was dominated by the interactions within the 
channel, with contacts playing a minor enough role that 
theorists seldom drew them prior to 1990! By contrast, 
today’s nanodevices have reached a point where γ1,2  >> 
γ s , placing them in what we could call the ballistic or 
“Landauer limit”. An appealing feature of this limit is that 
it physically separates the dynamics from the dissipation: 
reversible dynamics dominates the channel while 
dissipation dominates the contact. Usually these two 
aspects of transport are conceptually so intertwined that it 
is difficult to see how irreversibility is introduced into a 
problem described by reversible dynamic equations 
(Newton or Schrodinger) and this issue continues to spark 
debate and discussion ever since the path-breaking work of 
Boltzmann many years ago [see for example, 
McQuarrie,1976]. 
Let me start with a brief summary of the basic framework 
shown in Fig.2a that we call the bottom-up viewpoint 
(Section 2). We will then use this approach to discuss a 
specially designed device which is in the Landauer limit 
except for a particularly simple version of Maxwell’s 
demon that interacts with the channel electrons but does 
not exchange any energy with them (Section 3).We then 
consider a more sophisticated demon that exchanges 
energy as well and show how it can be used to build 
nanoscale heat engines and refrigerators (Section 4). We 
conclude with a few words about entangled demons and 
related conceptual issues that I believe need to be clarified 
in order to take transport physics to its next level (Section 
5). Readers may find the related video lectures posted on 
the nanoHUB useful [Datta,2006] and I will be happy to 
share the MATLAB codes used to generate the figures in 
this paper.  
2. BOTTOM-UP VIEWPOINT 
Consider the device shown in Fig.1b without the “demon” 
but with a voltage V applied across two contacts (labeled 
“source” and “drain”) made to a conductor (“channel”). 
How do we calculate the current I, as the length of the 
channel L is made shorter and shorter, down to a few 
atoms? This is not just an academic question since 
experimentalists are actually making current measurements 
through “channels” that are only a few atoms long. Indeed, 
this is also a question of great interest from an applied 
point of view, since every laptop computer contains about 
one billion nanotransistors, each of which is basically a 
conductor like the one in Figure 1b with L ~ 50 nm, but 
with the demon replaced by a third terminal that can be 
used to control the resistance of the channel. 
As the channel length L is reduced from macroscopic 
dimensions (~ millimeters) to atomic dimensions (~ 
nanometers), the nature of electron transport that is, current 
flow, changes significantly (Fig.3). At one end, it is 
described by a diffusion equation in which electrons are 
viewed as particles that are repeatedly scattered by various 
obstacles causing them to perform a “random walk” from 
the source to the drain. The resistance obeys Ohm’s law: a 
sample twice as long has twice the resistance. At the other 
end, there is the regime of ballistic transport where the 
resistance of a sample can be independent of length. Indeed 
due to wavelike interference effects it is even possible for a 
longer sample to have a lower resistance! 
The subject of current flow is commonly approached using 
a “top-down” viewpoint. Students start in high school from 
the macroscopic limit (large L) and seldom reach the 
atomic limit, except late in graduate school if at all. I 
believe that this is primarily for historical reasons. After 
all, twenty years ago, no one knew what the resistance was  
for an atomic scale conductor, or if it even made sense to  
Nanodevices and Maxwell’s demon 
Supriyo Datta 
Fig.3. Evolution of devices from the regime of diffusive 
transport to ballistic transport as the channel length L is 
scaled down from millimeters to nanometers. 
Fig.4. Plot of energy current in a 1-D ballistic conductor 
with G = e2 / h ≈ 40µS  and an applied voltage of V = 0.05 
volts. Energy dissipated is given by the drop in the energy 
current, showing that the Joule heating V 2G  = 0.1 µW is 
divided equally between the two contact-channel 
interfaces. 
Diffusive
Transport
1 mm   100 µm 10 µm  1 µm   100 nm 10 nm  1 nm  1
Ballistic
Transport
Macroscopic
dimensions
Atomic
dimensions
<----- L ----->
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Energy 
Current 
Normalized Distance Along Device 
Source Channel Drain 
Dissipationless channel
Newton’s law/
Schrodinger equation
Dissipation DissipationContacts assumed
to remain in equilibrium
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ask about its resistance But now that the bottom-line is 
known, I believe that a “bottom-up” approach is needed if 
only because nanoscale devices like the ones I want to talk 
about look too complicated from the “top-down” 
viewpoint. 
In the top-down view we start by learning that the 
conductance G=I/V is related to a material property called 
conductivity σ  through a relation that depends on the 
sample geometry and for a rectangular conductor of cross-
section A and length L is given by G = σA /L . We then 
learn that the conductivity is given by 
 σ = e2nτ /m  
where e is the electronic charge, n is the electron density, 
τ  is the mean free time and m is the electron mass. 
Unfortunately from this point of view it is very difficult to 
understand the ballistic limit. Since electrons get from one 
contact to the other without scattering it is not clear what 
the mean free time τ  is. Neither is it clear what one should 
use for ‘n’ since it stands for the density of free electrons 
and with molecular scale conductors it may not be clear 
which electrons are free. Even the mass is not very clear 
since the effective mass is deduced from the bandstructure 
of an infinite periodic solid and cannot be defined for really 
small conductors. 
2.1. Conductance formula: the “bottom-up” version 
A more transparent approach at least for small conductors 
is provided by the bottom-up viewpoint [Datta, 2005a, 
Chapter 1] which leads to an expression for conductance in 
terms of two basic factors, namely the density of states D 
around the equilibrium electrochemical potential and the 
effective escape rate   γ /ℏ  from the channel into the 
contacts (  ℏ = h / 2π , h being Planck’s constant): 
       (1a) 
The escape rate appearing above is the series combination 
of the escape rates associated with each contact:  
       (1b) 
This is an expression that we can apply to the smallest of 
conductors, even a hydrogen molecule. Although it looks 
very different from the expression for conductivity 
mentioned earlier, it is closer in spirit to another well-
known expression for the conductivity  
       (2) 
in terms of the density of states per unit volume ˜ N  and the 
diffusion coefficient ˜ D . Indeed we could obtain Eq.(1a) 
from Eq.(2) if we make the replacements 
       (3) 
which look reasonable since the density of states for a large 
conductor is expected to be proportional to the volume AL 
and the time taken to escape from a diffusive channel is ~ 
˜ D /L2. 
 2.2 Current-voltage relation: without demons 
The result cited above (Eq.(1a) is a linear response version 
of a more general set of equations that can be used to 
calculate the full current-voltage characteristics, which in 
turn follow from the NEGF-Landauer formulation (Fig.2b). 
For our purpose in this talk the simpler version (Fig.2a) 
will be adequate and in this version the basic equations are 
fairly intuitive: 
       (4) 
These equations relate the currents per unit energy at 
contacts 1 and 2 to the density of states D(E) , the Fermi 
functions at the two contacts related to their 
electrochemical potentials 
       (5) 
and the distribution function f(E) inside the channel. 
The total currents at the source and drain contacts are 
obtained by integrating the corresponding energy resolved 
currents 
       (6) 
If the electrons in the channel do not interact with any 
demons, we can simply set i1(E) = i2 (E) , calculate f(E) 
and substitute back into Eq.(4) to obtain 
        (7) 
The conductance expression stated earlier (Eq.(1a)) follows 
from Eqs.(6) and (7) by noting that 
       (8) 
G = (e2 / h) 2πD γ  
γ = γ
D → ˜ N . AL and γ /ℏ → ˜ D / L2 
i1(E) = (e /ℏ) γ1 D(E) [ f1 (E) − f (E)]
i2 (E) = (e /ℏ) γ 2 D(E) [ f (E) − f2 (E)]
f1,2 (E) =
1+ exp((E − µ1,2) / kBT1,2)
i1(E) = i2 (E)
= (e /ℏ)
γ1γ 2
γ1 + γ 2
D(E) [ f1(E) − f2 (E)]
dE [ f1(E) − f2 (E)] = µ1 − µ2∫  
I1 = dE∫ i1(E) , I2 = dE∫ i2 (E)  
σ = e2 ˜ N ˜ D  
Nanodevices and Maxwell’s demon 
Supriyo Datta 
and assuming the density of states D(E) to be nearly 
constant over the energy range of transport where 
f1(E) − f2 (E)  is significantly different from zero.  
One-level conductor: Eq.(7) can be used more generally 
even when the density of states has sharp structures in 
energy. For example, for a very small conductor with just 
one energy level in the energy range of interest, the density 
of states is a “delta function” that is infinitely large at a 
particular energy. Eqs.(6,7) then yield a current-voltage 
characteristic as sketched below. 
The maximum current is equal to 
eγ1 / 2ℏ , assuming 
γ 2= γ1. It might appear that the maximum conductance can 
be infinitely large, since the voltage scale over which the 
current  rises is ~ kBT , so that dI/dV can increase without 
limit as the temperature tends to zero. However, the 
uncertainty principle requires that the escape rate of   γ /ℏ  
into the contacts from an energy level also broadens the 
level by γ  as shown below. This means that the voltage 
scale over which the current rises is at least ~ (γ1 +γ2) /e 
= 2γ1 /e , even at zero temperature. 
This means that a small device has a maximum 
conductance of 
This rough estimate is not too far from the correct result 
       (9) 
which is one of the seminal results of mesoscopic physics 
that was not known before 1988. One could view this as a 
consequence of the energy broadening required by the 
uncertainty principle which comes out automatically in the 
full Landauer-NEGF approach (Fig.2b), but has to be 
inserted by hand into the simpler version we are using 
where the density of states D(E) is an input parameter 
(Fig.2a). 
For our examples in this paper we will use a density of 
states that is constant in the energy range of interest, for 
which the current-voltage characteristic is basically linear. 
2.3 Current-voltage relation: with demons 
Defining is (E)  as the “scattering current” induced by 
interaction of the electrons with the “demon”, we can 
write 
       (10) 
This current can be modeled in general as a difference 
between two processes one involving a loss of energy ε  
from the demon and the other involving a gain of energy 
by the demon.  
       (11)) 
The basic principle of equilibrium statistical mechanics 
requires that if the demon is in equilibrium at some 
temperature TD  then the strength F (ε)  of the energy loss 
processes is related to the strength F (−ε)  of energy gain 
processes by the ratio: 
       (12) 
With a little algebra one can show that this relation ensures 
that if the electron distribution f(E) is given by an 
equilibrium Fermi function with the same temperature T 
is (E) = (e /ℏ) γ s D(E) dε∫ D(E +ε)
[F (ε) f (E) (1− f (E +ε)
− F (−ε) f (E +ε) (1− f (E)]
i1(E) = i2 (E) + is (E)
F (ε) = F (−ε) exp (−ε / kBTD )
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Normalized voltage 
Normalized 
current 
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Normalized voltage 
Normalized 
current 
eγ1 /2ℏ
Gmax = e
2 /h ≈ 25.8 KΩ 
eγ1 / 2ℏ
eγ1 / 2ℏ µ1 
Normalized voltage 
Normalized 
current 
D(E) 
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
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the two terms in Eq.(11) will cancel out. This result is 
independent of the detailed shape of the function F (ε)  
describing the spectrum of the demon, as long as Eq.(12) is 
true. This means that if the demon is in equilibrium with 
the electrons with the same temperature, there can be no 
net flow of energy either to or from the demon. Indeed 
one could view this as the basic principle of equilibrium 
statistical mechanics and work backwards to obtain Eq.(12) 
as the condition needed to ensure compliance with this 
principle. 
To summarize, if the electrons in the channel do not 
interact with any “demons”, the current voltage 
characteristics are obtained from Eq.(7) using the Fermi 
functions from Eq.(5). For the more interesting case with 
interactions, we solve for the distribution f(E) inside the 
channel from Eqs.(4),(10) and (11) and then calculate the 
currents. Usually the current flow is driven by an external 
voltage that separates the electrochemical potentials µ1 
and µ2 in Eq.(7). But thermoelectric currents driven by a 
difference in temperatures T1 and T2  can also be 
calculated from this model [Paulsson and Datta,2003] as 
mentioned in the introduction. Our focus here is on a 
different possibility for energy conversion, namely through 
out-of-equilibrium demons. 
2.4. Where is the heat? 
Before we move on, let me say a few words about an 
important conceptual issue that caused much argument in 
the early days: Where is the heat dissipated in a ballistic 
conductor? After all, if there is no demon to take up the 
energy, there cannot be any dissipation inside the channel. 
The answer is that the transiting electron appears as a hot 
electron in the drain (right) contact and leaves behind a hot 
hole in the source (left) contact (see Fig.4). The contacts 
are immediately restored to their equilibrium states by 
unspecified dissipative processes operative within each 
contact. These processes can be quite complicated but are 
usually incorporated surreptitiously into the model through 
what appears to be an innocent boundary condition, namely 
that the electrons in the contacts are always maintained in 
thermal equilibrium described by Fermi distributions 
(Eq.(5)) with electrochemical potentials µ1 and µ2 and 
temperatures T1 and T2 . 
To understand the spatial distribution of the dissipated 
energy it is useful to look at the energy current which is 
obtained by replacing the charge ‘e’ with the energy E of 
the electron: 
       (13) 
The energy currents at the source and drain contacts are 
written simply as 
       (14) 
assuming that the entire current flows around the 
corresponding electrochemical potentials, 
Fig.4 shows a spatial plot of the energy current from the 
source end to the drain end for a uniform 1-D ballistic 
conductor with a voltage of 50 mV applied across it. For a 
conductor with no demon for electrons to exchange energy 
with, i1(E) = i2 (E)  making the energy current uniform 
across the entire channel implying that no energy is 
dissipated inside the channel. But the energy current 
entering the source contact is larger than this value while 
that leaving the drain contact is lower. Wherever the 
energy current drops, it means that the rate at which energy 
flows in is greater than the rate at which it flows out, 
indicating a net energy dissipation. Clearly in this example, 
0.05 µW is dissipated in each of the two contacts thus 
accounting for the expected Joule heating given by V 2G  = 
0.1 µW.  
Real conductors have distributed demons throughout the 
channel so that dissipation occurs not just in the contacts 
but in the channel as well. Indeed we commonly assume 
the Joule heating to occur uniformly across a conductor. 
But there are now experimental examples of nanoscale 
conductors that would have been destroyed if all the heat 
were dissipated internally and it is believed that the 
conductors survive only because most of the heat is 
dissipated in the contacts which are large enough to get rid 
of it efficiently. The idealized model depicted in Fig.4 thus 
may not be too far from real nanodevices of today. 
As I mentioned in the introduction, what distinguishes the 
Landauer model (Fig.4) is the physical separation of 
dynamics and dissipation clearly showing that what makes 
transport an irreversible process is the continual restoration 
of the contacts back to equilibrium. Without this repeated 
restoration, all flow would cease once a sufficient number 
of electrons have transferred from the source to the drain. 
Over a hundred years ago Boltzmann showed how pure 
Newtonian dynamics could be supplemented to describe 
transport processes, and his celebrated equation stands 
today as the centerpiece for the flow of all kinds of 
particles. Boltzmann’s approach too involved “repeated 
restoration” through an assumption referred to as the 
“Stohsslansatz” [see for example, McQuarrie 1976] 
Today’s devices often involve Schrodinger dynamics in 
place of Newtonian dynamics and the non-equilibrium 
Green function (NEGF) method that we use (Fig.2b) 
supplements the Schrodinger equation with similar 
assumptions about the repeated restoration of the 
I E s (E) = (µ1 /e) I1 ,
I E d (E) = (µ 2 /e) I2
IE1 = (1 /e) dE∫ E i1(E) ,
IE 2 = (1 /e) dE∫ E i2 (E)
Nanodevices and Maxwell’s demon 
Supriyo Datta 
surroundings that enter the evaluation of the various self-
energy functions Σ  or the corresponding quantities γ  in 
the simpler model that we are using. 
“Contacts” and “demons” are an integral part of all 
devices, the most common demon being the phonon bath 
for which the relation in Eq.(12) is satisfied by requiring 
that  energy loss ~ N and energy gain ~ (N+1), N being the 
number of phonons given by the Bose Einstein factor if the 
bath is maintained in equlibrium. Typically such demons 
add channels for dissipation, but our purpose here is to 
show how suitably engineered out-of-equilibrium demons 
can act as sources of energy. 
For this purpose, it is convenient to study a device 
specially designed to accentuate the impact of the demon. 
Usually the interactions with the demon do not have any 
clear distinctive effect on the terminal current that can be 
easily detected. But in this special device, ideally no 
current flows unless the channel electrons interact with 
the demon. Let me now describe how such a device can be 
engineered. 
3. ELASTIC DEMON 
Let us start with a simple 1-D ballistic device but having 
two rather special kinds of contacts. The source contact 
allows one type of spin, say “black” (upspins, drawn 
pointing to the right), to go in and out of the channel much 
more easily than the other type, say “white” (downspins, 
drawn pointing to the left, Fig.5a). Devices like this are 
called spin-valves and are widely used to detect magnetic 
fields in magnetic memory devices [see for example the 
articles in Heinreich and Bland, 2004].  
Although today’s spin-valves operate with contacts that are 
far from perfect, since we are only trying to make a 
conceptual point, let us simplify things by assuming 
contacts that are perfect in their discrimination between the 
two spins. One only lets black spins while the other only 
lets white spins to go in and out of the channel. We then 
have the situation shown in Fig.5b and no current can flow 
since neither black nor white spins communicate with both 
contacts. But if we introduce impurities into the channel 
(the demon) with which electrons can interact and flip their 
spin, then current flow should be possible as indicated: 
black spins come in from the left, interact with impurities 
to flip into white spins and go out the right contact 
(Fig.5c). 
Consider now what happens if the impurities are say all 
white (Fig.6a). Electrons can now flow only when the bias 
is such that the source injects and drain collects (positive 
drain voltage), but not if the drain injects and the source 
collects (negative drain voltage). This is because the source 
injects black spins which interact with the white impurities, 
flip into whites and exit through the drain. But the drain 
only injects white spins which cannot interact with the 
white impurities and cannot cross over into the source. 
Similarly if the impurities are all black, current flows only 
for negative drain voltage (Fig.6b). At non-zero 
temperatures the cusps in the current-voltage 
characteristics get smoothed out and we get the smoother 
curves shown in Figs.6a,b. 
Note the surprising feature of the plots at T=300K: there is 
a non-zero current even at zero voltage! This I believe is 
correct. Devices like those shown in Figs.6a,b with 
polarized impurities could indeed be used to generate 
power and one could view the system of impurities as a 
Maxwell’s demon that lets electrons go preferentially from 
source to drain or from drain to source. The second law is 
in no danger, since the energy is extracted at the expense of 
the entropy of the system of impurities that collectively 
constitute the demon. Assuming the spins are all non-
interacting and it takes no energy to flip one, the polarized 
state of the demon represents an unnatural low entropy 
state. Every time an electron goes through, a spin gets 
flipped raising the entropy and the flow will eventually 
stop when demon has been restored to its natural 
unpolarized state with the highest entropy of N I kB ln 2 , 
where N I  is the number of impurities. To perpetuate the 
flow an external source will have to spend the energy 
needed to maintain the demon in its low entropy state. 
3.1. Current versus voltage: Model summary 
Let me now summarize the equations that I am using to 
analyze structures like the one in Fig.6 quantitatively. 
Basically it is an extension of the equations described 
earlier (see Eq.(4), Section 2) to include the two spin 
channels denoted by the subscripts ‘u’ (up or black) and ‘d’ 
(down or white): 
      (15) 
      (16) 
For the scattering current caused by the demon we write 
(see Eq.(11))  
    (17) 
i1,u (E) = (e /ℏ) γ1,u Du (E) [ f1(E) − fu (E)]  
i2,u (E) = (e /ℏ) γ 2,u Du (E) [ fu (E) − f2 (E)]
i1,d (E) = (e /ℏ) γ1,d Dd (E) [ f1(E) − fd (E)]  
i2,d (E) = (e /ℏ) γ 2,d Dd (E) [ fd (E) − f2 (E)]  
is,u (E) = − is,d (E)
= (e /ℏ) (2π J 2N I ) Du (E) Dd (E)
[Fd fu (E) (1− fd (E) − Fu fd (E) (1− fu (E)]
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Fig.5. Anti-parallel (AP) Spin-valve: (a) Physical 
structure, (b) no current flows if the contacts can 
discriminate between the two spins perfectly, (c) current 
flow is possible if impurities are present to induce spin-
flip processes, Adapted from Datta, 2005b,c. 
Source
Drain
Spin-flip
impurities
Source
Drain
(b (c) 
Current
Voltage
(b) w/o spin-flip
(c) with spin-flip
DrainSource Channel
Nanodevices and Maxwell’s demon 
Supriyo Datta 
Fig.6. Perfect AP Spin-valve with  (a) white (down spin, 
drawn as pointing to the left)  impurities and (b) black 
(upspin, drawn  as pointing to the right) impurities. Note 
the non-zero current at zero voltage for non-zero 
temperatures. Adapted from Datta, 2005b,c. 
-0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1
5x 10
Voltage 
-0.1 -0.05 0 0.05 0.1
5x 10
Voltage 
Current (A) 
300K 
300K 
0 K 0 K 
Source
Drain
(a) “White” impurities
Source
Drain
(b) “Black” impurities
11 arXiv:cond-mat/0704.1623 
datta@purdue.edu 
Fig.7. An anti-parallel (AP) spin-valve with spin-flip 
impurities and a simple equivalent circuit to help 
visualize the equations we use to describe it, namely 
Eqs.(15) through (17), Adapted from Datta, 2005b,c. 
DrainSource
Magnetic
Impurities
down spin
up spin
g2,dg1,d
⇑ idem
Nanodevices and Maxwell’s demon 
Supriyo Datta 
noting that we are considering an elastic demon that can 
neither absorb nor give up energy (ε =0). The first term 
within parenthesis in Eq.(17) represents an up electron 
flipping down by interacting with a down-impurity while 
the second term represents a down electron flipping up by 
interacting with  an up-impurity. The strengths of the two 
processes are proportional to the fractions Fd  and Fu  of 
down and up-spin impurities.The overall strength of the 
interaction is governed by the number of impurities N I  and 
the square of the matrix element J governing the electron-
impurity interaction. 
Eqs.(15),(16) can be visualized in terms of an equivalent 
circuit (Fig.7) if we think of the various f’s as “voltages” 
since the currents are proportional to differences in ‘f’ just 
as we expect for conductances 
     etc. 
The scattering current (Eq.(17)) too could be represented 
with a conductance gs  if we set Fd  = Fu  = 0.5 
                 (18a) 
However, this is true only if the impurities are in 
equilibrium, while the interesting current-voltage 
characteristics shown in Fig.6 require an out-of-
equilibrium demon with Fd  ≠ Fu . So we write the total 
scattering current from Eq.(17) as a sum of two 
components, one given by Eq.(18a) and another 
proportional to ( Fd  - Fu ) which we denote with a 
subscript ‘dem’: 
     (18b) 
Eqs.(16) and (17) can be solved to obtain the distribution 
functions fu (E) and  fd (E) by imposing the requirement 
of overall current conservation (cf. Eq.(11)): 
       (19) 
The currents are then calculated and integrated over energy 
to obtain the terminal currents shown in Fig.6. We can also 
find the energy currents using equations like Eqs.(14), (15) 
and the results are shown in Fig.8 for Fd  - Fu  = -1 and for 
Fd  - Fu  = 0 each with a voltage difference of 2 kBT =50 
mV between the two terminals. With Fd  - Fu  = 0 the 
direction of current is in keeping with an external battery 
driving the device. But with Fd  - Fu  = -1, the external 
current flows against the terminal voltage indicating that 
the device is acting as a source of energy driving a load as 
shown in the inset. This is also borne out by the energy 
current flow which shows a step up at each interface 
indicating that energy is being absorbed from the contacts 
(~ 10 nW from each) and delivered to the external load. 
But isn’t this exactly what the second law forbids? After all 
if we could just absorb energy from our surroundings (the 
contacts) and do useful things, there would be no energy 
problem. The reason this device is able to perform this 
impossible feat is that the impurities are assumed to be held 
in a non-equilibrium state with very low entropy. A 
collection of N I  impurities can be unpolarized in 2
different ways having an entropy of S = N I kB ln 2 . But it 
can be completely polarized ( Fd  - Fu  = ± 1) in only one 
way with an entropy of S = 0. What this device does is to 
exchange entropy for energy. Many believe that the 
universe as a whole is evolving the same way, with 
constant total energy, from a particularly low entropy state 
continually towards a higher entropy one. But that is a 
different matter. 
To have our device continue delivering energy indefinitely 
we will need an external source to maintain the impurities 
in their low entropy state which will cost energy. The 
details will depend on the actual mechanism used for the 
purpose but we will not go into this. Note that if we do not 
have such a mechanism, the current will die out as the 
spins get unpolarized. This depolarization process can be 
described by an equation of the form: 
 (20) 
where ˜ τ 0  and si  are related to the scattering current as 
defined in Eqs.(18), while the additional time constant 
represents processes unrelated to the channel electrons by 
which impurities can relax their spins. 
4. INELASTIC DEMON 
We have argued above that although one can extract 
energy from polarized impurities, energy is needed to keep 
them in that state since their natural high entropy state is 
the unpolarized one. It would seem that one way to keep 
the spins naturally in a polarized state is to use a 
nanomagnet, a collection of spins driven by a 
ferromagnetic interaction that keeps them all pointed in the 
is = (e /ℏ) (πJ
2NI ) Du (E)Dd (E) ( fd − fu )  
idem = (Fd − Fu ) eNI / ˜ τ 0(E)
˜ τ 0(E )
= (1/ℏ) (πJ2) Du (E)Dd (E)
[ fd (1− fu ) + fu (1− fd )]
i1,u (E) = i2,u (E) + is,u (E)
i1,d (E) = i2,d (E) + is,d (E)
g1,u = (e
2 /ℏ) γ1,u Du  
dP ∫=
13 arXiv:cond-mat/0704.1623 
datta@purdue.edu 
same direction. Could such a magnet remain polarized 
naturally and enable us to extract energy from the contacts  
Fig.8. Energy currents with Fd  - Fu  = -1 and with Fd  - 
Fu  = 0 each with a voltage difference of 2 kBT =50 mV 
between the two terminals. With Fd  - Fu  = 0 the direction 
of current is in keeping with an external battery driving 
the device. But with Fd  - Fu  = -1, the external current 
flows against the terminal voltage indicating that the 
device is acting as a source of energy driving a load as 
shown in the inset. This is also borne out by the energy 
current flow which shows a step up at each interface 
indicating that energy is being absorbed from the contacts 
(~ 10 nW from each) and delivered to the external load. 
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
4x 10
Energy 
Current 
Normalized Distance Along Device 
Source 
Channel 
Drain 
0.05 V  
Fd  - Fu  = 0 
++++  0.05 V ---- 
Drain Source 
Fd  - Fu  = -1 
Load 
Resistor 
Nanodevices and Maxwell’s demon 
Supriyo Datta 
forever? The answer can be “yes” if the magnet is at a 
different temperature from the electrons. What we then 
have is a heat engine working between two reservoirs (the 
electrons and the magnet) at different temperatures and we 
will show that its operation is in keeping with Carnot’s 
principle as required by the second Law. 
To model the interaction of the electrons with the 
nanomagnet we need to modify the expression for the 
scattering current (Eq.(17)) for it now takes energy to flip a 
spin. We can write 
       (21) 
where F (ε)  denotes the magnon spectrum obeying the 
general law stated earlier (see Eq.(12)) if the magnet has a 
temperature TD . Eq.(21) can be solved along with 
Eqs.(15,(16),(19) and (21) as before to obtain currents, 
energy currents etc. But let us first try to get some insight 
using simple approximations. 
If we assume that the electron distribution functions fu (E)  
and fd (E)  are described by Fermi functions with 
electrochemical potentials µu  and µd  respectively and 
temperature T, and make use of Eq.(12) we can rewrite the 
scattering current from Eq.(21) in the form 
        (22) 
If we further assume the exponent to be small, so that 1 – 
exp(-x) ≈ x , we can write 
       (23) 
The first term represents a dissipative 
current proportional to the potential 
difference and can be represented by a  
conductance like the gs  in Fig.7, 
while the second term is  the demon 
induced source term that can be 
harnessed to do external work. It 
vanishes when the demon temperature 
TD  equals the electron temperature T. 
To be specific, let us assume that the demon is cooler than 
the rest of the device (TD  < T) so that 
giving rise to a flow of electrons out of the upspin node 
and back into the downspin node. If we use this to drive an 
external load then µu − µd  > 0, which will tend to reduce 
the net current given by Eq.(23) and the maximum output 
voltage one can get corresponds to “open circuit” 
conditions with zero current: 
       (24) 
This expression has a simple interpretation in terms of the 
Carnot principle. Every time an electron flows around the 
circuit giving up energy ε  to the demon, it delivers energy 
µu − µd  to the load. All this energy µu − µd + ε  is 
absorbed from the contacts and the Carnot principle 
requires that 
 Energy from contacts / T   ≤   Energy to demon / TD  
 that is, 
which is just a restatement of Eq.(24). Note that usual 
derivations of the Carnot principle do not put the system 
simultaneously in contact with two reservoirs at different 
temperatures as we have done. Our treatment is closer in 
spirit to the classic discussion of the ratchet and pawl in the 
Feynman Lectures [Feynman et.al. 1963]. 
Fig.9 shows numerical results obtained by solving 
Eqs.(21),(19),(15) and (16). The extracted power is a 
maximum (Fig.9d) when the output voltage is somewhere 
halfway between zero and the maximum output voltage of 
80 mV (a few kBT ).Fig.9b shows the energy current 
profile at an output voltage of 50 mV: energy is absorbed 
from the source and drain contacts and given up partly to  
is,u (E) = − is,d (E)
= (e /ℏ) (2π J 2N I ) dε∫ Du (E) Dd (E +ε)
[F (ε) fu (E) (1− fd (E +ε))
− F (−ε) fd (E +ε) (1− fu (E)]
is,u (E) = − is,d (E)
= (e /ℏ) (2π J 2N I ) dε∫ Du (E) Dd (E +ε)
F (ε) fu (E) (1− fd (E +ε)
F (−ε)
F (+ε)
fd (E +ε)
1− fd (E +ε)
1− fu (E)
fu (E)
= (e /ℏ) (2π J 2N I )
dε∫ Du (E) Dd (E +ε)F (ε) fu (E) (1− fd (E +ε)
1 − exp
µd −ε − µu
is,u = − is,d
µu − µd
is,u  
< 0  
is,u  
µu − µd +ε
µu − µd
15 arXiv:cond-mat/0704.1623 
datta@purdue.edu 
Fig.9. Heat engine: (a) AP Spin-valve with a cooled 
magnet as Maxwell’s demon controlling the flow of 
electrons. (b) Output current and output power versus 
output voltage as the load is varied from short circuit 
(V=0) to open circuit conditions (I=0). The spectrum of 
the magnet is assumed to consist of a single energy ε = 
2kBT  = 50 meV. (c) Energy current profile assuming a 
load such that the output voltage is 50 mV. 
Output Voltage (V) Output Voltage (V) 
Current (A) Power (W) 
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
14x 10
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
2x 10
Normalized Distance Along Device 
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
2x 10
Source Drain 
“Demon” 
Energy 
Current 
Drain 
at 600 K 
Source 
at 600 K 
“Magnet” 
at 300 K 
Nanodevices and Maxwell’s demon 
Supriyo Datta 
Fig.10. (a) Heat engine  from Fig.9 operated as a 
refrigerator by applying an external battery to inject 
downspin (white) electrons from the drain that flip down 
the thermally created upspins in the magnet, thus cooling 
it. (b) Energy current profile showing that energy is 
absorbed from the external battery and the demon and 
dissipated in the source and drain contacts. 
Fig.11. We have described spin-flip processes in terms of 
a direct conversion from state A to state B. Quantum 
mechanics, however, requires an intermediate state 
consisting of a superposition of A and B before 
wavefunction collapse reduces it to a B. This state may 
have a significant role in devices with weak contacts and 
strong interactions in the channel, requiring a model that 
can deal with entangled states. 
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
1.5 x 10
Normalized Distance Along Device 
Energy 
Current 
Source Drain 
“Demon” 
Source
Drain
Source
Drain
Drain 
at 300 K Source 
at 300 K 
“Magnet” 
at 250 K 
17 arXiv:cond-mat/0704.1623 
datta@purdue.edu 
the demon and the rest is delivered to the external load.  
The efficiency (energy given to load / energy absorbed 
from contact) is a maximum close to open circuit 
conditions, but the energy delivered is very small at that 
point as evident from Fig.9d. 
As one might expect, one can also operate the same device 
as a refrigerator by using an external source that seeks to 
inject downspins (white) from the drain contact that flip 
back thermally created upspins in the magnet thus cooling 
it. It is evident from the energy current profile shown in 
Fig.10 that in this case, energy is absorbed from the demon 
and from the battery and given up to the source and drain 
contacts. 
5. ENTANGLED DEMON 
In this talk I have tried to introduce a simple transparent 
model showing how out-of-equibrium demons suitably 
incorporated into nanodevices can achieve energy 
conversion. At the same time this model illustrates the 
fundamental role played by “contacts” and “demons” in 
these processes. I would like to end by pointing out another 
aspect of contacts that I believe is important in taking us to 
our next level of understanding. The basic point can be 
appreciated by considering a simple version of the spin 
capacitor we started with (see Fig.5) but having just one 
impurity (Fig.11). No current can flow in this structure 
without spin-flip processes since the source injects black 
(up) electrons while the drain only collects white (down) 
electrons. But if the black electron interacts with the white 
impurity(A) to produce a black impurity then the white 
electron can be collected resulting in a flow of current. 
The process of conversion 
 From A: Black electron ⊗  White impurity 
 To  B: White electron ⊗  Black impurity 
is incorporated into our model through the scattering 
current (see Eq.(17)). A more complete quantum transport 
model involving matrices (Fig.3a) rather than numbers 
(Fig.3b) could be used to describe this effect, but the 
essential underlying assumption in either case is that the 
state of the electron-impurity system changes from A to B. 
Quantum mechanics, however, paints a different picture of 
the process involving an intermediate entangled state. It 
says that the system goes from A into a state consisting of a 
superposition of A and B and it is only when the electron is 
collected by the drain that the wavefunction collapses to a 
B.If the collection rates 
γ1,2 /ℏ  are much larger than the 
interaction rate per impurity
γ s /ℏN I , we expect the 
entangled state to play a minor role. But this may not be 
true of devices with weak contacts and strong interactions 
in the channel, requiring a model that can deal with 
entangled states. 
Entangled states are difficult to describe within the 
conceptual framework we have been using where both the 
electrons and the impurity are assumed to exist in 
independent states. It is hard to describe a “conditional 
state” where the electron is black if the impurity is white or 
vice versa, let alone a superposition of the two. To account 
for this entangled state we need to treat the electron and 
impurity as one big system and write rate equations for it, 
in the spirit of the many-electron rate equations widely 
used to treat Coulomb blockade but the standard approach 
[Beenakker 1991, Likharev 1999] needs to be extended to 
include coherences and broadening. This is an area of 
active research [see for example Braun et.al. 2004, Braig 
and Brouwer 2005] where an adequate general approach 
does not yet exist.  
Actually correlated states (classical version of 
entanglement) were an issue even before the advent of 
quantum mechanics. Boltzmann ignored them through his 
assumption of “molecular chaos” or “Stohsslansatz”,and it 
is believed that it is precisely this assumption that leads to 
irreversibility [see for example, McQuarrie 1976]. An 
intervening entangled or correlated state is characteristic of 
all “channel”-“contact" interactions, classical or quantum, 
and the increase in entropy characteristic of irreversible 
processes can be associated with the destruction or neglect 
of the correlation and/or entanglement generated by the 
interaction (see for example, Zhang 2007, Datta 2007). 
This aspect is largely ignored in today’s transport theory, 
just as even the presence of a contact was barely 
acknowledged before the advent of mesoscopic physics. 
But new experiments showing the effect of entanglements 
on current flow are on the horizon and will hopefully lead 
us to the next level of understanding. 
This work was supported by the Office of Naval Research 
under Grant No. N00014-06-1-0025 and the Network for 
Computational Nanotechnology. 
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Nanodevices and Maxwell’s demon 
Supriyo Datta 
Datta S., 2005a, Quantum Transport: Atom to Transistor, 
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Springer-Verlag, Berlin.  
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entropy, information and computing, Princeton Series in 
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Leff H. S. and Rex A.F. (eds) 2003, Maxwell’s demon 2, 
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the current through an interacting electron region. In 
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Paulsson M. and Datta S., 2003, Thermoelectric effect in 
molecular electronics. In Physical Review, B67, 
241403(R). 
Reddy P., Jang S.Y., Segalman R. and Majumdar A., 2007, 
Thermoelectricity in molecular junctions. In Science, 
315,1568. 
Saha D., Holub M., Bhattacharya P. and Liao Y.C., 2006, 
Epitaxially grown MnAs/GaAs lateral spin valves. In 
Applied Physics Letters, 89, 142504. 
Salahuddin S. and Datta S., 2006a, Electrical Detection of 
Spin Excitations. In Physical Review, B73, 081201(R). 
Salahuddin S. and Datta S., 2006b, Self-consistent 
simulation of quantum transport and magnetization 
dynamics in spin-torque based devices, In 
Applied.Physics Letters, 89, 153504. 
Zhang Qi-Ren, 2007, A General Information Theoretical 
Proof for the Second Law of Thermodynamics, 
arXiv:quantph/0610005v3.

  In the last twenty years there has been significant progress in our
understanding of quantum transport far from equilibrium and a conceptual
framework has emerged through a combination of the Landauer approach with the
non-equilibrium Green function (NEGF) method, which is now being widely used in
the analysis and design of nanoscale devices. It provides a unified description
for all kinds of devices from molecular conductors to carbon nanotubes to
silicon transistors covering different transport regimes from the ballistic to
the diffusive limit. In this talk I use a simple version of this model to
analyze a specially designed device that could be called an electronic
Maxwell's demon, one that lets electrons go preferentially in one direction
over another. My objective is to illustrate the fundamental role of contacts
and demons in transport and energy conversion. The discussion is kept at an
academic level steering clear of real world details, but the illustrative
devices we use are very much within the capabilities of present-day technology.
For example, recent experiments on thermoelectric effects in molecular
conductors agree well with the predictions from our model. The Maxwell's demon
device itself is very similar to the pentalayer spin-torque device which has
been studied by a number of groups though we are not aware of any discussion of
the possibility of using the device as a nanoscale heat engine or as a
refrigerator as proposed here. However, my objective is not to evaluate
possible practical applications. Rather it is to introduce a simple transparent
model showing how out-of-equibrium demons suitably incorporated into
nanodevices can achieve energy conversion.

Introduction to 
micromagnetics in ultrathin magnetic structures, vol.IV, 
Springer-Verlag, Berlin.  
Leff H. S. and Rex A.F. (eds) 1990, Maxwell’s demon, 
entropy, information and computing, Princeton Series in 
Physics. 
Leff H. S. and Rex A.F. (eds) 2003, Maxwell’s demon 2, 
entropy, classical and quantum information and 
computing, IOP Publishing, Bristol. 
Likharev K., 1999, Single electron devices and their 
applications. In Proceedings IEEE, 87, 606. 
McQuarrie D.A., 1976. Statistical Mechanics, Harper and 
Row. 
Meir Y. and Wingreen N.S. 1992. Landauer formula for 
the current through an interacting electron region. In 
Physical Review Letters 68, 2512. 
Nikulov A. and Sheehan D. (eds.) 2004, Entropy, 6. 
Paulsson M. and Datta S., 2003, Thermoelectric effect in 
molecular electronics. In Physical Review, B67, 
241403(R). 
Reddy P., Jang S.Y., Segalman R. and Majumdar A., 2007, 
Thermoelectricity in molecular junctions. In Science, 
315,1568. 
Saha D., Holub M., Bhattacharya P. and Liao Y.C., 2006, 
Epitaxially grown MnAs/GaAs lateral spin valves. In 
Applied Physics Letters, 89, 142504. 
Salahuddin S. and Datta S., 2006a, Electrical Detection of 
Spin Excitations. In Physical Review, B73, 081201(R). 
Salahuddin S. and Datta S., 2006b, Self-consistent 
simulation of quantum transport and magnetization 
dynamics in spin-torque based devices, In 
Applied.Physics Letters, 89, 153504. 
Zhang Qi-Ren, 2007, A General Information Theoretical 
Proof for the Second Law of Thermodynamics, 
arXiv:quantph/0610005v3.
