slotreck/pickle huggingface dataset:
Plant phospholipase Ds ( PLDs ) , essential regulators of phospholipid signaling , function in multiple signal transduction cascades ; however , the mechanisms regulating PLDs in response to pathogens remain unclear . Here , we found that Arabidopsis ( Arabidopsis thaliana ) PLDδ accumulated in cells at the entry sites of the barley powdery mildew fungus , Blumeria graminis f. sp hordei Using fluorescence recovery after photobleaching and single-molecule analysis , we observed higher PLDδ density in the plasma membrane after chitin treatment ; PLDδ also underwent rapid exocytosis . Fluorescence resonance energy transfer with fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy showed that the interaction between PLDδ and the microdomain marker AtREMORIN1.3 ( AtREM1.3 ) increased in response to chitin , indicating that exocytosis facilitates rapid , efficient sorting of PLDδ into microdomains upon pathogen stimulus . We further unveiled a trade-off between brefeldin A (BFA)-resistant and -sensitive pathways in secretion of PLDδ under diverse conditions . Upon pathogen attack , PLDδ secretion involved syntaxin-associated VAMP721/722-mediated exocytosis sensitive to BFA . Analysis of phosphatidic acid ( PA ) , hydrogen peroxide , and jasmonic acid ( JA ) levels and expression of related genes indicated that the relocalization of PLDδ is crucial for its activation to produce PA and initiate reactive oxygen species and JA signaling pathways . Together , our findings revealed that the translocation of PLDδ to papillae is modulated by exocytosis , thus triggering PA-mediated signaling in plant innate immunity.plantcell;31/12/3015/FX1F1fx1 .
Plant growth and development is often regulated by the interaction of environmental factors such as light and various phytohormones . Arabidopsis FAR-RED INSENSITIVE 219 (FIN219)/JASMONATE RESISTANT 1 ( JAR1 ) participates in phytochrome A-mediated far-red ( FR ) light signaling and interacts with different light signaling regulators . FIN219/JAR1 is a jasmonic acid (JA)-conjugating enzyme responsible for the formation of JA-isoleucine . However , how FIN219/JAR1 integrates FR light and JA signaling remains largely unknown . We used a microarray approach to dissect the effect of fin219 mutation on the interaction of FR light and JA signaling . The fin219 - 2 mutant was less sensitive than the wild type to various concentrations of methyl jasmonate ( MeJA ) under low and high FR light . High FR light reduced the sensitivity of Arabidopsis seedlings to MeJA likely through FIN219 . Intriguingly , in response to MeJA , FIN219 levels showed a negative feedback regulation . Further microarray assay revealed that FR light could regulate gene expression by FIN219-dependent or -independent pathways . The expression profiles affected in fin219 - 2 indicated that FIN219/JAR1 plays a critical role in the integration of multiple hormone-related signaling . In particular , FIN219 regulates a number of transcription factors ( TFs ) , including 94 basic helix-loop-helix ( bHLH ) TFs , in response to FR light and MeJA . Loss-of-function mutants of some bHLH TFs affected by FIN219 showed altered responses to MeJA in the regulation of hypocotyl and root elongation . Thus , FIN219/JAR1 is tightly regulated in response to exogenous MeJA . It also interacts with multiple plant hormones to modulate hypocotyl and root elongation of Arabidopsis seedlings likely by regulating a group of TFs .
The role of ethylene ( ET ) signaling in the responses of two hybrid aspen ( Populus tremula L. x P. tremuloides Michx . ) clones to chronic ozone ( O(3 ) ; 75 nL L(-1 ) ) was investigated . The hormonal responses differed between the clones ; the O(3)-sensitive clone 51 had higher ET evolution than the tolerant clone 200 during the exposure , whereas the free salicylic acid concentration in clone 200 was higher than in clone 51 . The cellular redox status , measured as glutathione redox balance , did not differ between the clones suggesting that the O(3 ) lesions were not a result of deficient antioxidative capacity . The buildup of salicylic acid during chronic O(3 ) exposure might have prevented the up-regulation of ET biosynthesis in clone 200 . Blocking of ET perception with 1-methylcyclopropene protected both clones from the decrease in net photosynthesis during chronic exposure to O(3 ) . After a pretreatment with low O(3 ) for 9 d , an acute 1.5-fold O(3 ) elevation caused necrosis in the O(3)-sensitive clone 51 , which increased substantially when ET perception was blocked . The results suggest that in hybrid aspen , ET signaling had a dual role depending on the severity of the stress . ET accelerated leaf senescence under low O(3 ) , but under acute O(3 ) elevation , ET signaling seemed to be required for protection from necrotic cell death .
Ca2 + and calmodulin ( CaM ) , a key Ca2 + sensor in all eukaryotes , have been implicated in defense responses in plants . To elucidate the role of Ca2 + and CaM in defense signaling , we used 35S-labeled CaM to screen expression libraries prepared from tissues that were either treated with an elicitor derived from Phytophthora megasperma or infected with Pseudomonas syringae pv . tabaci . Nineteen cDNAs that encode the same protein , pathogen-induced CaM-binding protein ( PICBP ) , were isolated . The PICBP fusion proteins bound 35S-CaM , horseradish peroxidase-labeled CaM and CaM-Sepharose in the presence of Ca2 + whereas EGTA , a Ca2 + chelator , abolished binding , confirming that PICBP binds CaM in a Ca2 + -dependent manner . Using a series of bacterially expressed truncated versions of PICBP , four CaM-binding domains , with a potential CaM-binding consensus sequence of WSNLKKVILLKRFVKSL , were identified . The deduced PICBP protein sequence is rich in leucine residues and contains three classes of repeats . The PICBP gene is differentially expressed in tissues with the highest expression in stem . The expression of PICBP in Arabidopsis was induced in response to avirulent Pseudomonas syringae pv . tomato carrying avrRpm1 . Furthermore , PICBP is constitutively expressed in the Arabidopsis accelerated cell death2 - 2 mutant . The expression of PICBP in bean leaves was also induced after inoculation with avirulent and non-pathogenic bacterial strains . In addition , the hrp1 mutant of Pseudomonas syringae pv . tabaci and inducers of plant defense such as salicylic acid , hydrogen peroxide and a fungal elicitor induced PICBP expression in bean . Our data suggest a role for PICBP in Ca2 + -mediated defense signaling and cell-death . Furthermore , PICBP is the first identified CBP in eukaryotes with four Ca2 + -dependent CaM-binding domains .
Black pepper ( Piper nigrum L. ) is one of the most popular and oldest spices in the world with culinary uses and various pharmacological properties . In order to satisfy the growing worldwide demand for black pepper , improved productivity of pepper is highly desirable . A primary constraint in black pepper production is the non-synchronous nature of flower development and non-uniform fruit ripening within a spike . The uneven ripening of pepper berries results in a high labour requirement for selective harvesting contributes to low productivity and affects the quality of the pepper products . In Malaysia , there are a few recommended varieties for black pepper planting , each having some limitations in addition to the useful characteristics . Therefore , a comparative study of different black pepper varieties will provide a better understanding of the mechanisms regulates fruit development and ripening . Plant hormones are known to influence the fruit development process and their roles in black pepper flower and fruit development were inferred based on the probe-based gene expression analysis and the quantification of the multiple plant hormones using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry ( HPLC-MS/MS ) . In this study , jasmonic acid and salicylic acid were found to play roles in flowering and fruit setting , whereas auxin , gibberellin and cytokinins are important for fruit growth . Abscisic acid has positive role in fruit maturation and ripening in the development process . Distinct pattern of plant hormones related gene expression profiles with the hormones accumulation profiles suggested a complex network of regulation is involved in the signaling process and crosstalk between plant hormones was another layer of regulation in the black pepper fruit development mechanisms . The current study provides clues to help in elucidating the timing of the action of each specific plant hormone during fruit development and ripening which could be applied to enhance our ability to control the ripening process , leading to improving procedures for the production and post-harvest handling of pepper fruits .
Jasmonate ( JA ) signaling is a key mediator of plant development and defense which arose during plants transition from an aqueous to terrestrial environment . Elucidating the evolution of JA signaling is important for understanding plant development , defense , and production of specialized metabolites . The lineage of key protein domains characterizing JA signaling factors was traced to identify the origins of CORONITINE INSENSITIVE 1 ( COI1 ) , JASMONATE ZIM-DOMAIN ( JAZ ) , NOVEL INTERACTOR OF JAZ , MYC2 , TOPLESS , and MEDIATOR SUBUNIT 25 . Charophytes do not possess genes encoding key JA signaling components , including COI1 , JAZ , MYC2 , and the JAZ-interacting bHLH factors , yet their orthologs are present in bryophytes . TIFY family genes were found in charophyta and chlorophya algae . JAZs evolved from ZIM genes of the TIFY family through changes to several key amino acids . Dating placed the origin of JA signaling 515 to 473 million years ago during the middle Cambrian to early Ordovician periods . This time is known for rapid biodiversification and mass extinction events . An increased predation from the diversifying and changing fauna may have driven evolution of JA signaling and plant defense .
Redox processes regulate plant/insect responses , but the precise roles of environmental triggers and specific molecular components remain poorly defined . Aphid fecundity and plant responses were therefore measured in Arabidopsis thaliana mutants deficient in either catalase 2 ( cat2 ) , different protein phosphatase 2A ( PP2A ) subunits or glutathione ( cad2 , pad2 , and clt1 ) under either moderate ( 250 μmol m(-2 ) s(-1 ) ) or high ( 800 μmol m(-2 ) s(-1 ) ) light . Aphid fecundity was decreased in pp2a-b'γ , cat2 and the cat2 pp2a-b'γ double mutants relative to the wild type under moderate irradiance . High light decreased aphid numbers in all genotypes except for cat2 . Aphid fecundity was similar in the cat2 and glutathione- , phytoalexin- , and glucosinolate-deficient cat2cad2 double mutants under both irradiances . Aphid-induced increases in transcripts encoding the abscisic acid-related ARABIDOPSIS ZINC-FINGER PROTEIN 1 transcription factor were observed only under moderate light . Conversely , aphid induced increases in transcripts encoding the jasmonate-synthesis enzyme ALLENE OXIDE CYCLASE 3 was observed in all genotypes only under high light . Aphid-induced increases in REDOX RESPONSIVE TRANSCRIPTION FACTOR 1 mRNAs were observed in all genotypes except pp2a-b'ζ1 - 1 under both irradiances . Aphid fecundity is therefore regulated by cellular redox signalling that is mediated , at least in part , through PP2A-dependent mitochondria to nucleus signalling pathways .
The hemibiotrophic fungus Zymoseptoria tritici causes Septoria tritici blotch disease of wheat ( Triticum aestivum ) . Pathogen reproduction on wheat occurs without cell penetration , suggesting that dynamic and intimate intercellular communication occurs between fungus and plant throughout the disease cycle . We used deep RNA sequencing and metabolomics to investigate the physiology of plant and pathogen throughout an asexual reproductive cycle of Z. tritici on wheat leaves . Over 3,000 pathogen genes , more than 7,000 wheat genes , and more than 300 metabolites were differentially regulated . Intriguingly , individual fungal chromosomes contributed unequally to the overall gene expression changes . Early transcriptional down-regulation of putative host defense genes was detected in inoculated leaves . There was little evidence for fungal nutrient acquisition from the plant throughout symptomless colonization by Z. tritici , which may instead be utilizing lipid and fatty acid stores for growth . However , the fungus then subsequently manipulated specific plant carbohydrates , including fructan metabolites , during the switch to necrotrophic growth and reproduction . This switch coincided with increased expression of jasmonic acid biosynthesis genes and large-scale activation of other plant defense responses . Fungal genes encoding putative secondary metabolite clusters and secreted effector proteins were identified with distinct infection phase-specific expression patterns , although functional analysis suggested that many have overlapping/redundant functions in virulence . The pathogenic lifestyle of Z. tritici on wheat revealed through this study , involving initial defense suppression by a slow-growing extracellular and nutritionally limited pathogen followed by defense ( hyper ) activation during reproduction , reveals a subtle modification of the conceptual definition of hemibiotrophic plant infection .
Wilt caused by Verticillium dahliae significantly reduces cotton yields , as host resistance in commercially cultivated Gossypium species is lacking . Understanding the molecular basis of disease resistance in non-commercial Gossypium species could galvanize the development of Verticillium wilt resistance in cultivated species . Nucleotide-binding site leucine-rich repeat ( NBS-LRR ) proteins play a central role in plant defence against pathogens . In this study , we focused on the relationship between a locus enriched with eight NBS-LRR genes and Verticillium wilt resistance in G. barbadense . Independent virus-induced gene silencing of each of the eight NBS-LRR genes in G. barbadense cultivar Hai 7124 revealed that silencing of GbaNA1 alone compromised the resistance of G. barbadense to V. dahliae isolate Vd991 . In cultivar Hai 7124 , GbaNA1 could be induced by V. dahliae isolate Vd991 and by ethylene , jasmonic acid and salicylic acid . Nuclear protein localization of GbaNA1 was demonstrated by transient expression . Sequencing of the GbaNA1 orthologue in nine G.   hirsutum accessions revealed that all carried a non-functional allele , caused by a premature peptide truncation . In addition , all 10 G. barbadense and nine G. hirsutum accessions tested carried a full-length ( ∼1140 amino acids ) homologue of the V. dahliae race 1 resistance gene Gbve1 , although some sequence polymorphisms were observed . Verticillium dahliae Vd991 is a non-race 1 isolate that lacks the Ave1 gene . Thus , the resistance imparted by GbaNA1 appears to be mediated by a mechanism distinct from recognition of the fungal effector Ave1 .
Poplar trees synthesize flavan-3-ols ( catechin and proanthocyanidins ) as a defense against foliar rust fungi , but the regulation of this defense response is poorly understood . Here , we investigated the role of hormones in regulating flavan-3-ol accumulation in poplar during rust infection . We profiled levels of defense hormones , signaling genes , and flavan-3-ol metabolites in black poplar leaves at different stages of rust infection . Hormone levels were manipulated by external sprays , genetic engineering , and drought to reveal their role in rust fungal defenses . Levels of salicylic acid ( SA ) , jasmonic acid , and abscisic acid increased in rust-infected leaves and activated downstream signaling , with SA levels correlating closely with those of flavan-3-ols . Pretreatment with the SA analog benzothiadiazole increased flavan-3-ol accumulation by activating the MYB-bHLH-WD40 complex and reduced rust proliferation . Furthermore , transgenic poplar lines overproducing SA exhibited higher amounts of flavan-3-ols constitutively via the same transcriptional activation mechanism . These findings suggest a strong association among SA , flavan-3-ol biosynthesis , and rust resistance in poplars . Abscisic acid also promoted poplar defense against rust infection , but likely through stomatal immunity independent of flavan-3-ols . Jasmonic acid did not confer any apparent defense responses to the fungal pathogen . We conclude that SA activates flavan-3-ol biosynthesis in poplar against rust infection .
Acer pseudoplatanus seeds are characterized by a deep physiological embryo dormancy that requires a few weeks of cold stratification in order to promote germination . Understanding the function of proteins and their related metabolic pathways , in conjunction with the plant hormones implicated in the breaking of seed dormancy , would expand our knowledge pertaining to this process . In this study , a proteomic approach was used to analyze the changes occurring in seeds in response to cold stratification , which leads to dormancy release . In addition , the involvement of abscisic ( ABA ) and gibberellic acids ( GA ) was also examined . Fifty-three proteins showing significant changes were identified by mass spectrometry . An effect of ABA on protein variation was observed at the beginning of stratification , while the influence of GA on protein abundance was observed during the middle phase of stratification . The majority of proteins associated with dormancy breaking in the presence of only water , and also ABA or GA , were classified as being involved in metabolism and genetic information processing . For metabolic-related proteins , the effect of ABA on protein abundance was stimulatory for half of the proteins and inhibitory for half of the proteins . On the other hand , the effect on genetic information processing related proteins was stimulatory . GA was found to upregulate both metabolic-related and genetic information processing-related proteins . While seed dormancy breaking depends on proteins involved in a variety of processes , proteins associated with methionine metabolism ( adenosine kinase , methionine synthase ) and glycine-rich RNA binding proteins appear to be of particular importance .
Ginseng is one of the most important plants in oriental medicine . The pharmacological effects of this medicinal herb are mostly correlated to the major bioactive triterpene saponin , called ginsenoside . Due to the long cultivation period of ginseng and increased ginsenoside level in aged root , we need to develop strategies to increase ginseng productivity in cell and tissue culture in a faster way . Elicitation is already considered to improve the yield of this valuable secondary metabolite ; especially , different types , timings , and durations of elicitation could affect the ginsenoside production and heterogeneity . Activation of ginsenoside biosynthetic genes and ginsenoside accumulation mediated by elicitor-induced signaling molecules would be helpful for commercial production of individual ginsenosides . Jasmonic acid is the well-known signaling molecule which mainly involved in ginsenoside accumulation . Ca(2 + ) spiking and reactive oxygen species , nitric oxide , and ethylene production are other messengers which mediate production of ginsenoside . This review highlights the elicitation strategies for production of the ginsenoside based on the principle of putative signal transduction pathways .
Calcium-dependent protein kinases ( CPKs ) play important roles in multiple signal transduction pathways but the precise role of individual CPK is largely unknown . We isolated two cDNAs encoding two CPK isoforms ( Cicer arietinum CPKs-CaCPK1 and CaCPK2 ) of chickpea . Their expression in various organs and in response to various phytohormones , and dehydration , high salt stress and fungal spore in excised leaves as well as localization in leaf and stem tissues were analyzed in this study . CaCPK1 protein and its activity were ubiquitous in all tissues examined . In contrast , CaCPK2 transcript , CaCPK2 protein and its activity were almost undetectable in flowers and fruits . Both CaCPK1 and CaCPK2 transcripts and proteins were abundant in roots but in minor quantities in leaves and stems . Of the three phytohormones tested , viz . indole-3-acetic acid ( IAA ) , gibberellin ( GA(3 ) ) and benzyladenine ( BA ) , only BA increased both CaCPK1 and CaCPK2 transcripts , proteins and their activities . GA(3 ) induced accumulation of CaCPK2 transcript and protein but CaCPK1 remained unaffected . The expression of CaCPK1 and CaCPK2 in leaves was enhanced in response to high salt stress . Treatments with Aspergillus sp. spores increased expression of CaCPK1 in chickpea leaf tissue but had no effect on CaCPK2 . Excised leaves subjected to dehydration showed increase in CaCPK2 expression but not in CaCPK1 . Both isoforms were located in the plasma membrane ( PM ) and chloroplast membrane of leaf mesophyll cells as well as in the PM of stem xylem parenchyma cells . These results suggest specific roles for CaCPK isoforms in phytohormone/defense/stress signaling pathways .
The pentose phosphate pathway ( PPP ) plays an important role in plant growth and development , and plant responses to biotic and abiotic stresses . Yet , whether the PPP regulates plant defenses against herbivorous insects remains unclear . In this study , we cloned a rice cytosolic 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase gene , Os6PGDH1 , which encodes the key enzyme catalyzing the third step in the reaction involving the oxidative phase of the PPP , and explored its role in rice defenses induced by brown planthopper ( BPH ) Nilaparvata lugens . Levels of Os6PGDH1 transcripts were detected in all five examined tissues , with the highest in outer leaf sheaths and lowest in inner leaf sheaths . Os6PGDH1 expression was strongly induced by mechanical wounding , infestation of gravid BPH females , and jasmonic acid ( JA ) treatment . Overexpressing Os6PGDH1 ( oe6PGDH ) decreased the height of rice plants and the mass of the aboveground part of plants , but slightly increased the length of plant roots . In addition , the overexpression of Os6PGDH1 enhanced levels of BPH-induced JA , jasmonoyl-isoleucine ( JA-Ile ) , and H(2)O(2 ) , but decreased BPH-induced levels of ethylene . Bioassays revealed that gravid BPH females preferred to feed and lay eggs on wild-type ( WT ) plants over oe6PGDH plants ; moreover , the hatching rate of BPH eggs raised on oe6PGDH plants and the fecundity of BPH females fed on these were significantly lower than the eggs and the females raised and fed on WT plants . Taken together , these results indicate that Os6PGDH1 plays a pivotal role not only in rice growth but also in the resistance of rice to BPH by modulating JA , ethylene , and H(2)O(2 ) pathways .