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abstract: Preface. 1 Introduction. 1.1 Historical Perspective. 1.2 Basic Concepts. 1.3 Optical Communication Systems. 1.4 Lightwave System Components. Problems. References. 2 Optical Fibers. 2.1 Geometrical Optics Description. 2.2 Wave Propagation. 2.3 Dispersion in Single Mode Fibers. 2.4 Dispersion Induced Limitations. 2.5 Fiber Losses. 2.6 Nonlinear Optical Effects. 2.7 Fiber Design and Fabrication. Problems. References. 3 Optical Transmitters. 3.1 Semiconductor Laser Physics. 3.2 Single Mode Semiconductor Lasers. 3.3 Laser Characteristics. 3.4 Optical Signal Generation. 3.5 Light Emitting Diodes. 3.6 Transmitter Design. Problems. References. 4 Optical Receivers. 4.1 Basic Concepts. 4.2 Common Photodetectors. 4.3 Receiver Design. 4.4 Receiver Noise. 4.5 Coherent Detection. 4.6 Receiver Sensitivity. 4.7 Sensitivity Degradation. 4.8 Receiver Performance. Problems. References. 5 Lightwave Systems. 5.1 System Architectures. 5.2 Design Guidelines. 5.3 Long Haul Systems. 5.4 Sources of Power Penalty. 5.5 Forward Error Correction. 5.6 Computer Aided Design. Problems. References. 6 Multichannel Systems. 6.1 WDM Lightwave Systems. 6.2 WDM Components. 6.3 System Performance Issues. 6.4 Time Division Multiplexing. 6.5 Subcarrier Multiplexing. 6.6 Code Division Multiplexing. Problems. References. 7 Loss Management. 7.1 Compensation of Fiber Losses. 7.2 Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifiers. 7.3 Raman Amplifiers. 7.4 Optical Signal To Noise Ratio. 7.5 Electrical Signal To Noise Ratio. 7.6 Receiver Sensitivity and Q Factor. 7.7 Role of Dispersive and Nonlinear Effects. 7.8 Periodically Amplified Lightwave Systems. Problems. References. 8 Dispersion Management. 8.1 Dispersion Problem and Its Solution. 8.2 Dispersion Compensating Fibers. 8.3 Fiber Bragg Gratings. 8.4 Dispersion Equalizing Filters. 8.5 Optical Phase Conjugation. 8.6 Channels at High Bit Rates. 8.7 Electronic Dispersion Compensation. Problems. References. 9 Control of Nonlinear Effects. 9.1 Impact of Fiber Nonlinearity. 9.2 Solitons in Optical Fibers. 9.3 Dispersion Managed Solitons. 9.4 Pseudo linear Lightwave Systems. 9.5 Control of Intrachannel Nonlinear Effects. Problems. References. 10 Advanced Lightwave Systems. 10.1 Advanced Modulation Formats. 10.2 Demodulation Schemes. 10.3 Shot Noise and Bit Error Rate. 10.4 Sensitivity Degradation Mechanisms. 10.5 Impact of Nonlinear Effects. 10.6 Recent Progress. 10.7 Ultimate Channel Capacity. Problems. References. 11 Optical Signal Processing. 11.1 Nonlinear Techniques and Devices. 11.2 All Optical Flip Flops. 11.3 Wavelength Converters. 11.4 Ultrafast Optical Switching. 11.5 Optical Regenerators. Problems. References. A System of Units. B Acronyms. C General Formula for Pulse Broadening. D Software Package.
author_names: Govind P Agrawal
title: Fiber optic communication systems
year: 1992

abstract: Celebrating the 20th anniversary of Optics Express, this paper reviews the evolution of optical fiber communication systems, and through a look at the previous 20 years attempts to extrapolate fiber optic technology needs and potential solution paths over the coming 20 years. Well aware that 20 year extrapolations are inherently associated with great uncertainties, we still hope that taking a significantly longer term view than most texts in this field will provide the reader with a broader perspective and will encourage the much needed out of the box thinking to solve the very significant technology scaling problems ahead of us. Focusing on the optical transport and switching layer, we cover aspects of large scale spatial multiplexing, massive opto electronic arrays and holistic optics electronics DSP integration, as well as optical node architectures for switching and multiplexing of spatial and spectral superchannels.
author_names: Peter J Winzer

D Neilson

Andrew R Chraplyvy
title: Fiber optic transmission and networking: the previous 20 and the next 20 years [Invited]
venue: Optics express
year: 2018

abstract: Abstract Surface plasmon resonance has established itself as an immensely acclaimed and influential optical sensing tool with quintessential applications in life sciences, environmental monitoring, clinical diagnostics, pharmaceutical developments and ensuring food safety. The implementation of sensing principle of surface plasmon resonance employing an optical fiber as a substrate has concomitantly resulted in the evolution of fiber optic surface plasmon resonance as an exceptionally lucrative scaffold for chemical and biosensing applications. This perspective article outlines the contemporary studies on fiber optic sensors founded on the sensing architecture of propagating as well as localized surface plasmon resonance. An in depth review of the prevalent analytical and surface chemical tactics involved in configuring the sensing layer over an optical fiber for the detection of various chemical and biological entities is presented. The involvement of nanomaterials as a strategic approach to enhance the sensor sensitivity is furnished concurrently providing an insight into the diverse geometrical blueprints for designing fiber optic sensing probes. Representative examples from the literature are discussed to appreciate the latest advancements in this potentially valuable research avenue. The article concludes by identifying some of the key challenges and exploring the opportunities for expanding the scope and impact of surface plasmon resonance based fiber optic sensors.
author_names: Banshi Dhar Gupta

Ravi Kant
title: [INVITED] Recent advances in surface plasmon resonance based fiber optic chemical and biosensors utilizing bulk and nanostructures
year: 2018

abstract: Abstract The Internet of Things (IoT) has witnessed exponential growth over the past decade and will significantly reshape human life from every aspect, e.g. defense, environmental monitoring, energy, food safety, knowledge dissemination, healthcare and so on. Fiber optic sensors, with both communication and sensing functions, have become a bridge to connect people and the whole world, so they are essential parts for accelerating the development of the IoT. Fiber optic sensors possess the capability of translating a change of target analyte into optical signals and subsequently transmit an optical signal with target analyte information to people, machines or systems in real time, even from a long distance. Therefore, exploration of high performance fiber optic chemical sensors and biosensors could significantly promote the development of the IoT. This review paper presents the foundations of fiber optic chemical sensing or biosensing, including the sensing mechanisms of various fiber optic sensors, sensing materials and the novel techniques for sensing materials deposition. Furthermore, recent developments on fiber optic chemical sensors and biosensors are summarized, analyzed and discussed. Finally, the strategies and guidelines to further promote the development of fiber optic sensors are also discussed.
author_names: Ming-Jie Yin

Bobo Gu

Quan-Fu An

Chengbin Yang

Yong Liang Guan

Ken-Tye Yong
title: Recent development of fiber optic chemical sensors and biosensors: Mechanisms, materials, micro/nano fabrications and applications
year: 2018

abstract: Author(s) Lindsey, NJ; Martin, ER; Dreger, DS; Freifeld, B; Cole, S; James, SR; Biondi, BL; Ajo Franklin, JB Abstract: (c)2017. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved. Our understanding of subsurface processes suffers from a profound observation bias: seismometers are sparse and clustered on continents. A new seismic recording approach, distributed acoustic sensing (DAS) transforms telecommunication fiber optic cables into sensor arrays enabling meter scale recording over tens of kilometers of linear fiber length. We analyze cataloged earthquake observations from three DAS arrays with different horizontal geometries to demonstrate some possibilities using this technology. In Fairbanks, Alaska, we find that stacking ground motion records along 20 m of fiber yield a waveform that shows a high degree of correlation in amplitude and phase with a colocated inertial seismometer record at 0.8 1.6 Hz. Using an L shaped DAS array in Northern California, we record the nearly vertically incident arrival of an earthquake from The Geysers Geothermal Field and estimate its backazimuth and slowness via beamforming for different phases of the seismic wavefield. Lastly, we install a fiber in existing telecommunications conduits below Stanford University and show that little cable to soil coupling is required for teleseismic P and S phase arrival detection.
author_names: Nathaniel J Lindsey

Eileen R Martin

Douglas S Dreger

Barry Freifeld

Steve Cole

Stephanie R James

Biondo L Biondi

Jonathan B Ajo-Franklin
title: Fiber Optic Network Observations of Earthquake Wavefields: FIBER OPTIC EARTHQUAKE OBSERVATIONS
year: 2017

abstract: Abstract We present a U bent fiber optic SPR sensor based on the graphene/AgNPs, combined the virtues of graphene, AgNPs and U bent fiber. By changing the laser induced time, we achieved the optimal time for the deposition of AgNPs. With the proposed graphene/AgNPs U bent fiber optic sensor, we discussed and investigated the SPR behaviors. The shifts up to 32 and 16 nm are observed respectively for the detection of 90% aqueous ethanol and 20% aqueous glucose, corresponding refractive index (RI) 1.3657 and 1.3557. The sensitivity of this proposed is calculated as 1198 nm/RIU and the response and recovery time of this U bent fiber optic sensor are respectively 3 s and 80 s. These experimental results indicate that our proposed graphene/AgNPs U bent fiber optic sensor will be expected to open new avenue for the detection in the field of medicine, biotechnology and food safety.
author_names: C Zhang

Zhe Li

Shou Zhen Jiang

Chong Li

Shi Cai Xu

Jing Yu

Zhen Li

Ming Hong Wang

A H Liu

Baoyuan Man
title: U bent fiber optic SPR sensor based on graphene/AgNPs
year: 2017

abstract: Abstract Fiber optic distributed sensing, employing the Brillouin effect, is already a commercially available measurement technique for the accurate estimation of the static strain/temperature fields along tens of kilometers with a spatial resolution of the order of a meter. Furthermore, relentless research efforts are paving the way to even much wider usability of the technique through recently achieved enhanced performance in each of its critical dimensions: measurement range has been extended to hundreds of kilometers; spatial resolution is of the order of a centimeter or less, signal to noise ratio has been significantly improved; fast dynamic events can be captured at kHz's sampling rates; and a much better understanding of the underlying physics has been obtained, along with the formulation of figures of merit, and the preparation and early adoption of appropriate standards and guidelines. This paper describes the basics, as well as the state of the art, of the leading Brillouin interrogation methods, with emphasis on the significant progress made in the last 3 years. It also includes a short introduction to coding, which has proven instrumental in many of the recently obtained performance records.
author_names: Avi Motil

Arik Bergman

Moshe Tur
title: [INVITED] State of the art of Brillouin fiber optic distributed sensing
year: 2016

abstract: This paper provides an overview of the different types of fiber optic sensors (FOS) that can be used with composite materials and also their compatibility with and suitability for embedding inside a composite material. An overview of the different types of FOS used for strain/temperature sensing in composite materials is presented. Recent trends, and future challenges for FOS technology for condition monitoring in smart composite materials are also discussed. This comprehensive review provides essential information for the smart materials industry in selecting of appropriate types of FOS in accordance with end user requirements.
author_names: Manjusha Ramakrishnan

Ginu Rajan

Yuliya Semenova

Gerald Farrell
title: Overview of Fiber Optic Sensor Technologies for Strain/Temperature Sensing Applications in Composite Materials
venue: Sensors
year: 2016

abstract: Distributed fiber optic vibration sensors receive extensive investigation and play a significant role in the sensor panorama. Optical parameters such as light intensity, phase, polarization state, or light frequency will change when external vibration is applied on the sensing fiber. In this paper, various technologies of distributed fiber optic vibration sensing are reviewed, from interferometric sensing technology, such as Sagnac, Mach Zehnder, and Michelson, to backscattering based sensing technology, such as phase sensitive optical time domain reflectometer, polarization optical time domain reflectometer, optical frequency domain reflectometer, as well as some combinations of interferometric and backscattering based techniques. Their operation principles are presented and recent research efforts are also included. Finally, the applications of distributed fiber optic vibration sensors are summarized, which mainly include structural health monitoring and perimeter security, etc. Overall, distributed fiber optic vibration sensors possess the advantages of large scale monitoring, good concealment, excellent flexibility, and immunity to electromagnetic interference, and thus show considerable potential for a variety of practical applications.
author_names: Xin Liu

Bao-quan Jin

Qing Bai

Yu Wang

Dong Wang

Yuncai Wang
title: Distributed Fiber Optic Sensors for Vibration Detection
venue: Sensors
year: 2016

abstract: We demonstrate a novel all fiber optic humidity sensor comprised of a WS2 film overlay on a side polished fiber (SPF) This sensor can achieve optical power variation of up to 6 dB in a relative humidity (RH) range of 35% 85% In particular, this novel humidity fiber sensor has a linear correlation coefficient of 99.39% sensitivity of 0.1213 dB/%RH, and a humidity resolution of 0.475%RH. Furthermore, this sensor shows good repeatability and reversibility, and fast response to breath stimulus. This WS2 based all fiber optic humidity sensor is easy to fabricate, is compatible with pre established fiber optic systems, and holds great potential in photonics applications such as in all fiber optic humidity sensing networks.
author_names: Yunhan Luo

Chaoying Chen

Kai Xia

Shuihua Peng

Heyuan Guan

Jieyuan Tang

Huiui Lu

Jianhui Yu

Jun Zhang

Yi Xiao

Zhe Chen
title: Tungsten disulfide (WS2) based all fiber optic humidity sensor.
venue: Optics express
year: 2016