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abstract: Preface. Preface to the First Edition. Contributors. Contributors to the First Edition. Chapter 1. Fundamentals of Impedance Spectroscopy (J.Ross Macdonald and William B. Johnson) 1.1. Background, Basic Definitions, and History. 1.1.1 The Importance of Interfaces. 1.1.2 The Basic Impedance Spectroscopy Experiment. 1.1.3 Response to a Small Signal Stimulus in the Frequency Domain. 1.1.4 Impedance Related Functions. 1.1.5 Early History. 1.2. Advantages and Limitations. 1.2.1 Differences Between Solid State and Aqueous Electrochemistry. 1.3. Elementary Analysis of Impedance Spectra. 1.3.1 Physical Models for Equivalent Circuit Elements. 1.3.2 Simple RC Circuits. 1.3.3 Analysis of Single Impedance Arcs. 1.4. Selected Applications of IS. Chapter 2. Theory (Ian D. Raistrick, Donald R. Franceschetti, and J. Ross Macdonald) 2.1. The Electrical Analogs of Physical and Chemical Processes. 2.1.1 Introduction. 2.1.2 The Electrical Properties of Bulk Homogeneous Phases. 2.1.2.1 Introduction. 2.1.2.2 Dielectric Relaxation in Materials with a Single Time Constant. 2.1.2.3 Distributions of Relaxation Times. 2.1.2.4 Conductivity and Diffusion in Electrolytes. 2.1.2.5 Conductivity and Diffusion a Statistical Description. 2.1.2.6 Migration in the Absence of Concentration Gradients. 2.1.2.7 Transport in Disordered Media. 2.1.3 Mass and Charge Transport in the Presence of Concentration Gradients. 2.1.3.1 Diffusion. 2.1.3.2 Mixed Electronic Ionic Conductors. 2.1.3.3 Concentration Polarization. 2.1.4 Interfaces and Boundary Conditions. 2.1.4.1 Reversible and Irreversible Interfaces. 2.1.4.2 Polarizable Electrodes. 2.1.4.3 Adsorption at the Electrode Electrolyte Interface. 2.1.4.4 Charge Transfer at the Electrode Electrolyte Interface. 2.1.5 Grain Boundary Effects. 2.1.6 Current Distribution, Porous and Rough Electrodes the Effect of Geometry. 2.1.6.1 Current Distribution Problems. 2.1.6.2 Rough and Porous Electrodes. 2.2. Physical and Electrochemical Models. 2.2.1 The Modeling of Electrochemical Systems. 2.2.2 Equivalent Circuits. 2.2.2.1 Unification of Immitance Responses. 2.2.2.2 Distributed Circuit Elements. 2.2.2.3 Ambiguous Circuits. 2.2.3 Modeling Results. 2.2.3.1 Introduction. 2.2.3.2 Supported Situations. 2.2.3.3 Unsupported Situations: Theoretical Models. 2.2.3.4 Unsupported Situations: Equivalent Network Models. 2.2.3.5 Unsupported Situations: Empirical and Semiempirical Models. Chapter 3. Measuring Techniques and Data Analysis. 3.1. Impedance Measurement Techniques (Michael C. H. McKubre and Digby D. Macdonald) 3.1.1 Introduction. 3.1.2 Frequency Domain Methods. 3.1.2.1 Audio Frequency Bridges. 3.1.2.2 Transformer Ratio Arm Bridges. 3.1.2.3 Berberian Cole Bridge. 3.1.2.4 Considerations of Potentiostatic Control. 3.1.2.5 Oscilloscopic Methods for Direct Measurement. 3.1.2.6 Phase Sensitive Detection for Direct Measurement. 3.1.2.7 Automated Frequency Response Analysis. 3.1.2.8 Automated Impedance Analyzers. 3.1.2.9 The Use of Kramers Kronig Transforms. 3.1.2.10 Spectrum Analyzers. 3.1.3 Time Domain Methods. 3.1.3.1 Introduction. 3.1.3.2 Analog to Digital (A/D) Conversion. 3.1.3.3 Computer Interfacing. 3.1.3.4 Digital Signal Processing. 3.1.4 Conclusions. 3.2. Commercially Available Impedance Measurement Systems (Brian Sayers) 3.2.1 Electrochemical Impedance Measurement Systems. 3.2.1.1 System Configuration. 3.2.1.2 Why Use a Potentiostat? 3.2.1.3 Measurements Using 2, 3 or 4 Terminal Techniques. 3.2.1.4 Measurement Resolution and Accuracy. 3.2.1.5 Single Sine and FFT Measurement Techniques. 3.2.1.6 Multielectrode Techniques. 3.2.1.7 Effects of Connections and Input Impedance. 3.2.1.8 Verification of Measurement Performance. 3.2.1.9 Floating Measurement Techniques. 3.2.1.10 Multichannel Techniques. 3.2.2 Materials Impedance Measurement Systems. 3.2.2.1 System Configuration. 3.2.2.2 Measurement of Low Impedance Materials. 3.2.2.3 Measurement of High Impedance Materials. 3.2.2.4 Reference Techniques. 3.2.2.5 Normalization Techniques. 3.2.2.6 High Voltage Measurement Techniques. 3.2.2.7 Temperature Control. 3.2.2.8 Sample Holder Considerations. 3.3. Data Analysis (J. Ross Macdonald) 3.3.1 Data Presentation and Adjustment. 3.3.1.1 Previous Approaches. 3.3.1.2 Three Dimensional Perspective Plotting. 3.3.1.3 Treatment of Anomalies. 3.3.2 Data Analysis Methods. 3.3.2.1 Simple Methods. 3.3.2.2 Complex Nonlinear Least Squares. 3.3.2.3 Weighting. 3.3.2.4 Which Impedance Related Function to Fit? 3.3.2.5 The Question of "What to Fit" Revisited. 3.3.2.6 Deconvolution Approaches. 3.3.2.7 Examples of CNLS Fitting. 3.3.2.8 Summary and Simple Characterization Example. Chapter 4. Applications of Impedance Spectroscopy. 4.1. Characterization of Materials (N. Bonanos, B. C. H. Steele, and E. P. Butler) 4.1.1 Microstructural Models for Impedance Spectra of Materials. 4.1.1.1 Introduction. 4.1.1.2 Layer Models. 4.1.1.3 Effective Medium Models. 4.1.1.4 Modeling of Composite Electrodes. 4.1.2 Experimental Techniques. 4.1.2.1 Introduction. 4.1.2.2 Measurement Systems. 4.1.2.3 Sample Preparation Electrodes. 4.1.2.4 Problems Associated With the Measurement of Electrode Properties. 4.1.3 Interpretation of the Impedance Spectra of Ionic Conductors and Interfaces. 4.1.3.1 Introduction. 4.1.3.2 Characterization of Grain Boundaries by IS. 4.1.3.3 Characterization of Two Phase Dispersions by IS. 4.1.3.4 Impedance Spectra of Unusual Two phase Systems. 4.1.3.5 Impedance Spectra of Composite Electrodes. 4.1.3.6 Closing Remarks. 4.2. Characterization of the Electrical Response of High Resistivity Ionic and Dielectric Solid Materials by Immittance Spectroscopy (J. Ross Macdonald) 4.2.1 Introduction. 4.2.2 Types of Dispersive Response Models: Strengths and Weaknesses. 4.2.2.1 Overview. 4.2.2.2 Variable slope Models. 4.2.2.3 Composite Models. 4.2.3 Illustration of Typical Data Fitting Results for an Ionic Conductor. 4.3. Solid State Devices (William B. Johnson and Wayne L. Worrell) 4.3.1 Electrolyte Insulator Semiconductor (EIS) Sensors. 4.3.2 Solid Electrolyte Chemical Sensors. 4.3.3 Photoelectrochemical Solar Cells. 4.3.4 Impedance Response of Electrochromic Materials and Devices (Gunnar A. Niklasson, Anna Karin Johsson, and Maria Stromme) 4.3.4.1 Introduction. 4.3.4.2 Materials. 4.3.4.3 Experimental Techniques. 4.3.4.4 Experimental Results on Single Materials. 4.3.4.5 Experimental Results on Electrochromic Devices. 4.3.4.6 Conclusions and Outlook. 4.3.5 Time Resolved Photocurrent Generation (Albert Goossens) 4.3.5.1 Introduction Semiconductors. 4.3.5.2 Steady State Photocurrents. 4.3.5.3 Time of Flight. 4.3.5.4 Intensity Modulated Photocurrent Spectroscopy. 4.3.5.5 Final Remarks. 4.4. Corrosion of Materials (Digby D. Macdonald and Michael C. H. McKubre) 4.4.1 Introduction. 4.4.2 Fundamentals. 4.4.3 Measurement of Corrosion Rate. 4.4.4 Harmonic Analysis. 4.4.5 Kramer Kronig Transforms. 4.4.6 Corrosion Mechanisms. 4.4.6.1 Active Dissolution. 4.4.6.2 Active Passive Transition. 4.4.6.3 The Passive State. 4.4.7 Point Defect Model of the Passive State (Digby D. Macdonald) 4.4.7.1 Introduction. 4.4.7.2 Point Defect Model. 4.4.7.3 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy. 4.4.7.4 Bilayer Passive Films. 4.4.8 Equivalent Circuit Analysis (Digby D. Macdonald and Michael C. H. McKubre) 4.4.8.1 Coatings. 4.4.9 Other Impedance Techniques. 4.4.9.1 Electrochemical Hydrodynamic Impedance (EHI) 4.4.9.2 Fracture Transfer Function (FTF) 4.4.9.3 Electrochemical Mechanical Impedance. 4.5. Electrochemical Power Sources. 4.5.1 Special Aspects of Impedance Modeling of Power Sources (Evgenij Barsoukov) 4.5.1.1 Intrinsic Relation Between Impedance Properties and Power Sources Performance. 4.5.1.2 Linear Time Domain Modeling Based on Impedance Models, Laplace Transform. 4.5.1.3 Expressing Model Parameters in Electrical Terms, Limiting Resistances and Capacitances of Distributed Elements. 4.5.1.4 Discretization of Distributed Elements, Augmenting Equivalent Circuits. 4.5.1.5 Nonlinear Time Domain Modeling of Power Sources Based on Impedance Models. 4.5.1.6 Special Kinds of Impedance Measurement Possible with Power Sources Passive Load Excitation and Load Interrupt. 4.5.2 Batteries (Evgenij Barsoukov) 4.5.2.1 Generic Approach to Battery Impedance Modeling. 4.5.2.2 Lead Acid Batteries. 4.5.2.3 Nickel Cadmium Batteries. 4.5.2.4 Nickel Metal hydride Batteries. 4.5.2.5 Li ion Batteries. 4.5.3 Impedance Behavior of Electrochemical Supercapacitors and Porous Electrodes (Brian E. Conway) 4.5.3.1 Introduction. 4.5.3.2 The Time Factor in Capacitance Charge or Discharge. 4.5.3.3 Nyquist (or Argand) Complex Plane Plots for Representation of Impedance Behavior. 4.5.3.4 Bode Plots of Impedance Parameters for Capacitors. 4.5.3.5 Hierarchy of Equivalent Circuits and Representation of Electrochemical Capacitor Behavior. 4.5.3.6 Impedance and Voltammetry Behavior of Brush Electrode Models of Porous Electrodes. 4.5.3.7 Impedance Behavior of Supercapacitors Based on Pseudocapacitance. 4.5.3.8 Deviations of Double layer Capacitance from Ideal Behavior: Representation by a Constant phase Element (CPE) 4.5.4 Fuel Cells (Norbert Wagner) 4.5.4.1 Introduction. 4.5.4.2 Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC) 4.5.4.3 Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells (PEFC) 4.5.4.4 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) Appendix. Abbreviations and Definitions of Models. References. Index.
author_names: Evgenij Barsoukov

James Ross Macdonald
title: Impedance spectroscopy theory, experiment, and applications
year: 2005

abstract: Description: A skillful balance of theoretical considerations and practical know how Backed by a team of expert contributors, the Second Edition of this highly acclaimed publication brings a solid understanding of impedance spectroscopy to students, researchers, and engineers in physical chemistry, electrochemistry, and physics. Starting with general principles, the book moves on to explain in detail practical applications for the characterization of materials in electrochemistry, semiconductors, solid electrolytes, corrosion, solid state devices, and electrochemical power sources. The book covers all of the topics needed to help readers identify whether impedance spectroscopy may be an appropriate method for their particular research problem. The book helps readers quickly grasp how to apply their new knowledge of impedance spectroscopy methods to their own research problems through the use of unique features such as: Step by step instructions for setting up experiments and then analyzing the results Theoretical considerations for dealing with modeling, equivalent circuits, and equations in the complex domain Best measurement methods for particular systems and alerts to potential sources of errors Equations for the most widely used impedance models Figures depicting impedance spectra of typical materials and devices Extensive references to the scientific literature for more information on particular topics and current research This Second Edition incorporates the results of the last two decades of research on the theories and applications of impedance spectroscopy. Most notably, it includes new chapters on batteries, supercapacitors, fuel cells, and photochromic materials. A new chapter on commercially available measurement systems reflects the emergence of impedance spectroscopy as a mainstream research tool. With its balanced focus on both theory and practical problem solving, Impedance Spectroscopy: Theory, Experiment, and Applications, Second Edition serves as an excellent graduate level textbook as well as a hands on guide and reference for researchers and engineers.
author_names: Tal M Nahir
title: Impedance Spectroscopy: Theory, Experiment, and Applications, 2nd ed Edited by Evgenij Barsoukov (Texas Instruments Inc. and J. Ross Macdonald (University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill) John Wiley Sons, Inc. Hoboken, NJ. 2005. xvii 596 pp. $125.00. ISBN 0471 64749 7.
year: 2005

abstract: Umfassende Monographie mit ausfuhrlichem Theorieteil und verschiedene Anwendungen der elektrochemischen Impedanzspektroskopie
author_names: James Ross Macdonald

William B Johnson

Ian D Raistrick

Donald R Franceschetti

Norbert Wagner

Michael Charles Harold Mckubre

Digby D Macdonald

Brian Sayers

N Bonanos

Brian Charles Hilton Steele

Ernest Paul Butler

Wayne L Worell

Gunnar A Niklasson

Sara Malmgren

Maria Stromme

S Kamakshi Sundaram

George R Engelhardt

Evgenij Barsoukov

B E Conway

Wendy Pell

C M Roland

Robert S Eisenberg
title: Impedance Spectroscopy: Theory, Experiment, and Applications, Third Edition
year: 2018

author_names: Aleksei M Zheltikov
title: Impedance Spectroscopy: Theory, Experiment, and Applications Second Edition. Evgenij Barsoukov and J. Ross Macdonald (eds) John Wiley Sons, Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey, 2005, pp. 595
year: 2007

author_names: Wayne Reitz
title: A Review of: "Impedance Spectroscopy, Theory, Experiment, and Applications"
year: 2006

author_names: Wayne Reitz
title: A Review of: "Impedance Spectroscopy, Theory, Experiment, and Applications, E. Barsoukov and J. R. Macdonald, (editors)"
year: 2007

abstract: For the purpose of predicting the state of charge of Lithium ion rechargeable battery accurately, we introduced the method of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy to solve the problem. The experiment data of impedance spectroscopy is comprised of an inductive arc in the high frequency region and two capacitive arcs in the low frequency region, and by which the reasonable equivalent circuit of battery was established. The component parameters obtained at several state of charge values of the battery had been analyzed by a non linear least squares fitting procedure and some electrochemical knowledge. Through researching the changing regulation of parameters with the different States of charge, the frequency of maximum of the semicircle (fmax) the phase angle o, the equivalent series capacitance (Cs) had been substantiated to be the suitable parameters for analyzing and predicting the state of charge values of the lithium ion battery.
author_names: Li Ran

Wu Junfeng

Wang Haiying

Li Gechen
title: Prediction of state of charge of Lithium ion rechargeable battery with electrochemical impedance spectroscopy theory
venue: 2010 5th IEEE Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications
year: 2010

abstract: A comprehensive review of porosity origin, microstructure peculiarities, fabrication methods, and mathematical models, as well as systematical experimental results for different porous piezoceramics with 3 0/3 3 connectivity is presented. Critical comparison of numerical FEM calculations with the results of various approximated formulas, unit cell models, and experimental data for different porous piezoceramics was carried out. Complex sets of elastic, dielectric and piezoelectric coefficients were measured by ultrasonic and impedance spectroscopy methods. Finite element modeling of effective constants of the porous piezoceramics was performed using ANSYS software package. Microstructural and physical mechanisms of losses and dispersion in porous piezoceramics, as well as technological aspects of its large scale manufacture and application in ultrasonic transducers were considered.
author_names: Andrey Rybianets

A V Nasedkin
title: Porous ferroelectric ceramics: theory, experiment and applications
year: 2007

abstract: The fast modulation of lasers is a fundamental requirement for applications in optical communications, high resolution spectroscopy and metrology. In the terahertz frequency range, the quantum cascade laser (QCL) is a high power source with the potential for high frequency modulation. However, conventional electronic modulation is limited fundamentally by parasitic device impedance, and so alternative physical processes must be exploited to modulate the QCL gain on ultrafast timescales. Here, we demonstrate an alternative mechanism to modulate the emission from a QCL device, whereby optically generated acoustic phonon pulses are used to perturb the QCL bandstructure, enabling fast amplitude modulation that can be controlled using the QCL drive current or strain pulse amplitude, to a maximum modulation depth of 6% in our experiment. We show that this modulation can be explained using perturbation theory analysis. While the modulation rise time was limited to ~800 ps by our measurement system, theoretical considerations suggest considerably faster modulation could be possible. The typical electronic modulation of terahertz quantum cascade lasers is fundamentally limited at fast timescales by device properties. Here the authors propose and study an alternative, acoustic mechanism for modulating such THz QCLs at high speed.
author_names: Aniela Dunn

Caroline L Poyser

Paul Dean

Aleksandar Demic

Alexander Valavanis

Dragan Indjin

Mohammed Salih

Iman Kundu

Lianhe Li

Andrey V Akimov

Alexander Giles Davies

Edmund H Linfield

John E Cunningham

Anthony J Kent
title: High speed modulation of a terahertz quantum cascade laser by coherent acoustic phonon pulses
venue: Nature Communications
year: 2020

abstract: Ionic liquids are of high interest for the development of safe electrolytes in modern electrochemical cells, such as batteries, supercapacitors and dye sensitised solar cells. However, electrochemical applications of ionic liquids are still hindered by the limited understanding of the interface between electrode materials and ionic liquids. In this article, we first review the state of the art in both experiment and theory. Then we illustrate some general trends by taking the interface between the extremely pure ionic liquid 1 butyl 1 methylpyrrolidinium tris(pentafluoroethyl)trifluorophosphate and an Au(111) electrode as an example. For the study of this interface, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy was combined with in situ STM and in situ AFM techniques. In addition, we present new results for the temperature dependence of the interfacial capacitance and dynamics. Since the interfacial dynamics are characterised by different processes taking place on different time scales, the temperature dependence of the dynamics can only be reliably studied by recording and carefully analysing broadband capacitance spectra. Single frequency experiments may lead to artefacts in the temperature dependence of the interfacial capacitance. We demonstrate that the fast capacitive process exhibits a Vogel Fulcher Tamman temperature dependence, since its time scale is governed by the ionic conductivity of the ionic liquid. In contrast, the slower capacitive process appears to be Arrhenius activated. This suggests that the time scale of this process is determined by a temperature independent barrier, which may be related to structural reorganisations of the Au surface and/or to charge redistributions in the strongly bound innermost ion layer.
author_names: Marcel Druschler

Natalia Borisenko

Jens Wallauer

Christian Winter

Benedikt Huber

Frank Endres

Bernhard Roling
title: New insights into the interface between a single crystalline metal electrode and an extremely pure ionic liquid: slow interfacial processes and the influence of temperature on interfacial dynamics.
venue: Physical chemistry chemical physics PCCP
year: 2012