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abstract: Solar cell theory, materials, fabrication, design, modules, and systems are discussed. The solar source of light energy is described and quantified, along with a review of semiconductor properties and the generation, recombination, and the basic equations of photovoltaic device physics. Particular attention is given to p n junction diodes, including efficiency limits, losses, and measurements. Si solar cell technology is described for the production of solar quality crystals and wafers, and design, improvements, and device structures are examined. Consideration is given to alternate semiconductor materials and applications in concentrating systems, storage, and the design and construction of standalone systems and systems for residential and centralized power generation. Bibtex entry for this abstract Preferred format for this abstract
author_names: Martin A Green
title: Solar Cells Operating Principles, Technology and System Applications
year: 1981

abstract: The advantages and limitations of photovoltaic solar modules for energy generation are reviewed with their operation principles and physical efficiency limits. Although the main materials currently used or investigated and the associated fabrication technologies are individually described, emphasis is on silicon based solar cells. Wafer based crystalline silicon solar modules dominate in terms of production, but amorphous silicon solar cells have the potential to undercut costs owing, for example, to the roll to roll production possibilities for modules. Recent developments suggest that thin film crystalline silicon (especially microcrystalline silicon) is becoming a prime candidate for future photovoltaics.
title: Photovoltaic technology: the case for thin film solar cells
venue: Science
year: 1999

abstract: About the Editors. List of Contributors. Preface to the 2nd Edition. 1 Achievements and Challenges of Solar Electricity from Photovoltaics (Steven Hegedus and Antonio Luque) 1.1 The Big Picture. 1.2 What is Photovoltaics? 1.3 Photovoltaics Today. 1.4 The Great Challenge. 1.5 Trends in Technology. 1.6 Conclusions. 2 The Role of Policy in PV Industry Growth: Past, Present and Future (John Byrne and Lado Kurdgelashvili) 2.1 Introduction. 2.2 Policy Review of Selected Countries. 2.3 Policy Impact on PV Market Development. 2.4 Future PV Market Growth Scenarios. 2.5 Toward a Sustainable Future. 3 The Physics of the Solar Cell (Jeffery L. Gray) 3.1 Introduction. 3.2 Fundamental Properties of Semiconductors. 3.3 Solar Cell Fundamentals. 3.4 Additional Topics. 3.5 Summary. 4 Theoretical Limits of Photovoltaic Conversion and New generation Solar Cells (Antonio Luque and Antonio Marti) 4.1 Introduction. 4.2 Thermodynamic Background. 4.3 Photovoltaic Converters. 4.4 The Technical Efficiency Limit for Solar Converters. 4.5 Very high efficiency Concepts. 4.6 Conclusions. 5 Solar Grade Silicon Feedstock (Bruno Ceccaroli and Otto Lohne) 5.1 Introduction. 5.2 Silicon. 5.3 Production of Silicon Metal/Metallurgical Grade Silicon. 5.4 Production of Polysilicon/Silicon of Electronic and Photovoltaic Grade. 5.5 Current Silicon Feedstock to Solar Cells. 5.6 Requirements of Silicon for Crystalline Solar Cells. 5.7 Routes to Solar Grade Silicon. 5.8 Conclusions. 6 Bulk Crystal Growth and Wafering for PV (Hugo Rodriguez, Ismael Guerrero, Wolfgang Koch, Arthur L. Endros, Dieter Franke, Christian Hassler, Juris P. Kalejs and H. J. Moller) 6.1 Introduction. 6.2 Bulk Monocrystalline Material. 6.3 Bulk Multicrystalline Silicon. 6.4 Wafering. 6.5 Silicon Ribbon and Foil Production. 6.6 Numerical Simulations of Crystal Growth Techniques. 6.7 Conclusions. 7 Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells and Modules (Ignacio Tobias, Carlos del Ca"nizo and Jesus Alonso) 7.1 Introduction. 7.2 Crystalline Silicon as a Photovoltaic Material. 7.3 Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells. 7.4 Manufacturing Process. 7.5 Variations to the Basic Process. 7.6 Other Industrial Approaches. 7.7 Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Modules. 7.8 Electrical and Optical Performance of Modules. 7.9 Field Performance of Modules. 7.10 Conclusions. 8 High efficiency III V Multijunction Solar Cells (D. J. Friedman, J. M. Olson and Sarah Kurtz) 8.1 Introduction. 8.2 Applications. 8.3 Physics of III V Multijunction and Single junction Solar Cells. 8.4 Cell Configuration. 8.5 Computation of Series connected Device Performance. 8.6 Materials Issues Related to GaInP/GaAs/Ge Solar Cells. 8.7 Epilayer Characterization and Other Diagnostic Techniques. 8.8 Reliability and Degradation. 8.9 Future generation Solar Cells. 8.10 Summary. 9 Space Solar Cells and Arrays (Sheila Bailey and Ryne Raffaelle) 9.1 The History of Space Solar Cells. 9.2 The Challenge for Space Solar Cells. 9.3 Silicon Solar Cells. 9.4 III V Solar Cells. 9.5 Space Solar Arrays. 9.6 Future Cell and Array Possibilities. 9.7 Power System Figures of Merit. 9.8 Summary. 10 Photovoltaic Concentrators (Gabriel Sala and Ignacio Anton) 10.1 What is the Aim of Photovoltaic Concentration and What Does it Do? 10.2 Objectives, Limitations and Opportunities. 10.3 Typical Concentrators: an Attempt at Classification. 10.4 Concentration Optics: Thermodynamic Limits. 10.5 Factors of Merit for Concentrators in Relation to the Optics. 10.6 Photovoltaic Concentration Modules and Assemblies. 10.7 Tracking for Concentrator Systems. 10.8 Measurements of Cells, Modules and Photovoltaic Systems in Concentration. 10.9 Summary. 11 Crystalline Silicon Thin Film Solar Cells via High temperature and Intermediate temperature Approaches (Armin G. Aberle and Per I. Widenborg) 11.1 Introduction. 11.2 Modelling. 11.4 Crystalline Silicon Thin Film Solar Cells on Intermediate T Foreign Supporting Materials. 11.5 Conclusions. 12 Amorphous Silicon based Solar Cells (Eric A. Schiff, Steven Hegedus and Xunming Deng) 12.1 Overview. 12.2 Atomic and Electronic Structure of Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon. 12.3 Depositing Amorphous Silicon. 12.4 Understanding a Si pin Cells. 12.5 Multijunction Solar Cells. 12.6 Module Manufacturing. 12.7 Conclusions and Future Projections. 13 Cu(InGa)Se2 Solar Cells (William N. Shafarman, Susanne Siebentritt and Lars Stolt) 13.1 Introduction. 13.2 Material Properties. 13.3 Deposition Methods. 13.4 Junction and Device Formation. 13.5 Device Operation. 13.6 Manufacturing Issues. 13.7 The Cu(InGa)Se2 Outlook. 14 Cadmium Telluride Solar Cells (Brian E. McCandless and James R. Sites) 14.1 Introduction. 14.2 Historical Development. 14.3 CdTe Properties. 14.4 CdTe Film Deposition. 14.5 CdTe Thin Film Solar Cells. 14.6 CdTe Modules. 14.7 Future of CdTe based Solar Cells. 15 Dye sensitized Solar Cells (Kohjiro Hara and Shogo Mori) 15.1 Introduction. 15.2 Operating Mechanism of DSSC. 15.3 Materials. 15.4 Performance of Highly Efficient DSSCs. 15.5 Electron transfer Processes. 15.6 New Materials. 15.7 Stability. 15.8 Approach to Commercialization. 15.9 Summary and Prospects. 16 Sunlight Energy Conversion Via Organics (Sam Shajing Sun and Hugh O'Neill) 16.1 Principles of Organic and Polymeric Photovoltaics. 16.2 Evolution and Types of Organic and Polymeric Solar Cells. 16.3 Organic and Polymeric Solar Cell Fabrication and Characterization. 16.4 Natural Photosynthetic Sunlight Energy Conversion Systems. 16.5 Artificial Photosynthetic Systems. 16.6 Artificial Reaction Centers. 16.7 Towards Device Architectures. 16.8 Summary and Future Perspectives. 17 Transparent Conducting Oxides for Photovoltaics (Alan E. Delahoy and Sheyu Guo) 17.1 Introduction. 17.2 Survey of Materials. 17.3 Deposition Methods. 17.4 TCO Theory and Modeling: Electrical and Optical Properties and their Impact on Module Performance. 17.5 Principal Materials and Issues for Thin Film and Wafer based PV. 17.6 Textured Films. 17.7 Measurements and Characterization Methods. 17.8 TCO Stability. 17.9 Recent Developments and Prospects. 18 Measurement and Characterization of Solar Cells and Modules (Keith Emery) 18.1 Introduction. 18.2 Rating PV Performance. 18.3 Current Voltage Measurements. 18.4 Spectral Responsivity Measurements. 18.5 Module Qualification and Certification. 18.6 Summary. 19 PV Systems (Charles M. Whitaker, Timothy U. Townsend, Anat Razon, Raymond M. Hudson and Xavier Vallve) 19.1 Introduction: There is gold at the end of the rainbow. 19.2 System Types. 19.3 Exemplary PV Systems. 19.4 Ratings. 19.5 Key System Components. 19.6 System Design Considerations. 19.7 System Design. 19.8 Installation. 19.9 Operation and Maintenance/Monitoring. 19.10 Removal, Recycling and Remediation. 19.11 Examples. 20 Electrochemical Storage for Photovoltaics (Dirk Uwe Sauer) 20.1 Introduction. 20.2 General Concept of Electrochemical Batteries. 20.3 Typical Operation Conditions of Batteries in PV Applications. 20.4 Secondary Electrochemical Accumulators with Internal Storage. 20.5 Secondary Electrochemical Battery Systems with External Storage. 20.6 Investment and Lifetime Cost Considerations. 20.7 Conclusion. 21 Power Conditioning for Photovoltaic Power Systems (Heribert Schmidt, Bruno Burger and Jurgen Schmid) 21.1 Charge Controllers and Monitoring Systems for Batteries in PV Power Systems. 21.2 Inverters. 22 Energy Collected and Delivered by PV Modules (Eduardo Lorenzo) 22.1 Introduction. 22.2 Movement between Sun and Earth. 22.3 Solar Radiation Components. 22.4 Solar Radiation Data and Uncertainty. 22.5 Radiation on Inclined Surfaces. 22.6 Diurnal Variations of the Ambient Temperature. 22.7 Effects of the Angle of Incidence and of Dirt. 22.8 Some Calculation Tools. 22.9 Irradiation on Most Widely Studied Surfaces. 22.10 PV Generator Behaviour Under Real Operation Conditions. 22.11 Reliability and Sizing of Stand alone PV Systems. 22.12 The Case of Solar Home Systems. 22.13 Energy Yield of Grid connected PV Systems. 22.14 Conclusions. 23 PV in Architecture (Tjerk H. Reijenga and Henk F. Kaan) 23.1 Introduction. 23.2 PV in Architecture. 23.3 BIPV Basics. 23.4 Steps in the Design Process with PV. 23.5 Concluding Remarks. 24 Photovoltaics and Development (Jorge M. Huacuz, Jaime Agredano and Lalith Gunaratne) 24.1 Electricity and Development. 24.2 Breaking the Chains of Underdevelopment. 24.3 The PV Alternative. 24.4 Examples of PV Rural Electrification. 24.5 Toward a New Paradigm for Rural Electrification. References. Index.
author_names: Antonio Luque

Steven Hegedus
title: Handbook of photovoltaic science and engineering
year: 2011

abstract: A polymer solar cell based on a bulk hetereojunction design with an internal quantum efficiency of over 90% across the visible spectrum (425 nm to 575 nm) is reported. The device exhibits a power conversion efficiency of 6% under standard air mass 1.5 global illumination tests.
author_names: Sung Heum Park

Anshuman Vijay Roy

Serge Beaupre

Shinuk Cho

Nelson E Coates

Ji Sun Moon

Daniel Moses

Mario Leclerc

Kwanghee Lee

Alan J Heeger
title: Bulk heterojunction solar cells with internal quantum efficiency approaching 100
year: 2009

abstract: Abstract We review the technical progress made in the past several years in the area of mono and polycrystalline thin film photovoltaic (PV) technologies based on Si, III V, II VI, and I III VI2 semiconductors, as well as nano PV. PV electricity is one of the best options for sustainable future energy requirements of the world. At present, the PV market is growing rapidly at an annual rate of 35 40% with PV production around 10.66 GW in 2009. Si and GaAs monocrystalline solar cell efficiencies are very close to the theoretically predicted maximum values. Mono and polycrystalline wafer Si solar cells remain the predominant PV technology with module production cost around $1.50 per peak watt. Thin film PV was developed as a means of substantially reducing the cost of solar cells. Remarkable progress has been achieved in this field in recent years. CdTe and Cu(In,Ga)Se2 thin film solar cells demonstrated record efficiencies of 16.5% and almost 20% respectively. These values are the highest achieved for thin film solar cells. Production cost of CdTe thin film modules is presently around $0.76 per peak watt.
author_names: T M Razykov

Christos S Ferekides

Don L Morel

Elias K Stefanakos

Harin S Ullal

Hari M Upadhyaya
title: Solar photovoltaic electricity: Current status and future prospects
year: 2011

abstract: The Sandia Photovoltaic Program conducted research in crystalline silicon solar cells between 1986 and 2000 for the U.S. Department of Energy. This period saw rapid improvements in the fundamental understanding of c Si materials and devices, improvements in c Si PV manufacturing and control, and a rapid expansion of c Si PV manufacturing capacity. Crystalline silicon technology has provided the basis for PV to emerge as a serious option for global energy needs. The c Si cell research at Sandia examined c Si materials, devices, processing, and process integration. This report summarizes research conducted in this program over the past 15 years.
author_names: Douglas Scott W Ruby

James M Gee
title: History of the Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Cell Research Program at Sandia National Laboratories
year: 2001

abstract: We study the femtosecond laser ablation properties of borosilicate glass using atomic force microscopy and laser pulses of 200 fs duration, centered at 780 nm wavelength. We show that both single shot and multishot ablation threshold fluences can be determined by studying the diameter and the depth of single shot ablated craters. The linear relationship between the square of the crater diameter and the logarithm of the laser fluence in the form of D2=2w02ln(F0/FthN=1) provides the single shot ablation threshold, FthN=1, whereas the linear relationship between the ablation depth and the logarithm of laser fluence in the form of ha=aeff 1ln(F0/FthN>1) provides the multishot ablation threshold, FthN>1. The results depict a multishot ablation threshold of 1.7J/cm2 independent of the atmospheric conditions. The slopes of the linear fits also provide a precise estimate of the beam radius at the surface, w05.9mm, and the "effective optical penetration depth," aeff 1238nm in air. The method is systematic, prov.
author_names: Adela Ben-Yakar

Robert L Byer
title: Femtosecond laser ablation properties of borosilicate glass
year: 2004

abstract: Monolithic series interconnection is a key advantage of thin film PV. The standard approach is to alternate layer deposition and laser scribing. Here the M Solv patented One Step Interconnect (OSI) process is introduced as an alternative to the conventional all laser interconnect. OSI interconnects TF PV modules in a single step after all deposition is complete with considerable advantages: reduced capital expenditure; better process control; less vacuum/air interfaces, reduced line footprint and faster panel transit. OSI employs a combination of laser scribing and inkjet printing of functional materials. OSI mini modules have been fabricated on CdTe with good electrical performance. Although the focus here has been CdTe, OSI is applicable to all thin film technologies. The laser and inkjet processes presented are fully scalable for industrial production.
author_names: Mickey Crozier

Adam N Brunton

Ali Abbas

Jake W Bowers

Piotr Kaminski

John M Walls

Jonathan D Shephard
title: One step thin film PV interconnection process using laser and inkjet
venue: 2013 IEEE 39th Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC)
year: 2013

abstract: Thin film solar cells offer the most promising options for substantially reducing the cost of photovoltaic systems. A multiplicity of options, in terms of materials and devices, are currently being developed worldwide. Some of the leading contenders are: amorphous and polycrystalline silicon, compound semiconductor thin films such as CuInSe2 based alloys, and CdTe thin film solar cells. Enormous progress in device performance has been made in most of these technologies, and considerable effort is devoted to commercialization of these technologies. Exciting new developments are happening in some relatively new materials and devices.
author_names: Satyen K Deb
title: Thin film solar cells: An overview
year: 1996

abstract: Laser Surface Texturing, Crystallization and Scribing of Thin Films in Solar Cell Applications Hongliang Wang Thin films have been considered for use in terrestrial solar cell applications because of their significantly reduced cost compared with bulk crystalline silicon. However, their overall efficiency and stability are less than that of their bulk crystalline counterpart. The work presented in this thesis seeks to investigate these issues via a series of experimental and numerical analysis of the influences of laser processing on microstructure, optical and electrical properties of two absorber materials, a Si:H (hydrogenated amorphous silicon) and CdTe (cadmium telluride) a Si:H thin film solar cells suffer from disadvantages of low efficiencies and light induced degradation. A one step laser processing is investigated for introducing light trapping structure and crystallization on a Si:H thin films, which can potentially simultaneously alleviate the two weaknesses of a Si:H. The nanoscale conical and pillar shaped spikes formed on the surface of a Si:H films by irradiation of both femtosecond (fs) infrared and nanosecond (ns) excimer lasers enhanced light absorption, while the formation of a mixture of hydrogenated nanocrystalline silicon (nc Si:H) and a Si:H after crystallization suggests that the overall material stability can potentially improve. It is shown that growth is a more dominant spike formation mechanism in excimer laser processing, rather than ablation which is dominant during fs laser texturing. Experimental and analytical approaches are also developed revealing the effect of hydrogen on texturing behavior and crystallization during excimer laser irradiation, and a step by step crystallization process is proposed to prevent the hydrogen from diffusing out in order to reduce the defect density. In addition, a comparison of absorptance spectra for various surface morphologies and crystallinity is developed and the absorptance across the solar spectrum shows that the combination of surface texturing and crystallization induced by laser processing is very promising for a Si:H thin film solar cell applications. CdTe thin film solar cells are the basis of a significant technology with major commercial impact on terrestrial photovoltaic production, since CdTe leads to substantial cost reduction. Laser scribing is a key process used to increase thin film solar panel efficiency through the formation of serial interconnections to reduce photocurrent and resistance losses. Currently, scribing is performed using glass side laser processes which have led to increased scribe quality. Defects formed during scribing such as micro cracks, film delamination, thermal effect and tapered sidewall geometries, however, still keep solar panels from reaching their theoretical efficiencies. In this study, a ns Nd:YAG laser operating at the fundamental (1064nm) or frequency doubled (532nm) wavelengths is employed for pattern 1 (P1) and 2 (P2) scribing on CdTe thin film solar cells. The experimental investigation shows that film removal mechanisms for different materials are due to laser induced ablation, thermal stress and micro explosion processes. The formation mechanisms and mitigation techniques of the defects during micro explosion process are studied. A fully coupled thermal and mechanical finite element model is developed to analyze the laserinduced spatio temporal temperature and thermal stress distribution responsible for SnO2:F film removal, and a plasma expansion model is also investigated to simulate the film removal of CdTe/Cds multilayer due to the micro explosion process. The characterization of removal qualities will enable the process optimization and design required to enhance solar module efficiency.
author_names: Hongliang Wang
title: Laser Surface Texturing, Crystallization and Scribing of Thin Films in Solar Cell Applications
year: 2013