Federal courts may not order a defendant to pay restitution to the victims of his or her crimes unless authorized to do so. Two general statutes authorize restitution. One, 18 U.S.C. 3663, permits it for certain crimes. The second, 18 U.S.C. 3663A, requires it for other crimes. In addition, several individual restitution statutes authorize awards for particular offenses. In addition, federal courts may order restitution as a condition of probation or supervised release. Section 3664 supplies the procedure under which the restitution orders are imposed. In the case of mandatory restitution, federal courts must order victim restitution when sentencing a defendant for a felony that constitutes either a crime of violence; an offense against property, including fraud or deceit proscribed in Title 18; maintaining a drug-involved premise; animal enterprise terrorism; failure to provide child support; human trafficking; sexual abuse; sexual exploitation of children; stalking or domestic violence; copyright infringement; telemarketing fraud; or amphetamine or methamphetamine offenses. The obligation exists even if the defendant is indigent, and restitution must take the form of in-kind, lump sum, or installment payments. Moreover, a court may not avoid the obligation by issuing a restitution order and then granting the defendant remission of restitution. When not required, federal courts are permitted to order restitution for various controlled substance and aviation safety offenses, as well as for any offense proscribed in Title 18 of the United States Code for which restitution is not already mandatory. Ordinarily, restitution is available only to victims who have suffered a physical injury or financial loss as a direct and proximate consequence of the crime of conviction, and only to the extent of their losses. Restitution has a diverse pedigree. Grounded in fairness and often thought of as an equitable remedy, its antecedents can as easily be found in law as in equity. As its name implies, restitution restores the victim to the status quo ante, that is, making the depleted victim whole again. Restitution has been a feature of the federal system of criminal justice for over a century. In its earliest form, some federal judges claimed it as a component of their inherent authority to grant probation and suspended sentences. Then in 1916, the Supreme Court held that the lower federal courts had no inherent power to suspend sentences. Congress responded by granting the courts explicit authority to suspend sentences and to place defendants on probation. In doing so, the courts were permitted to require probationers "to pay in one or several sums a fine imposed at the time of being placed on probation and ... to make restitution or reparation to the aggrieved party or parties for actual damages or loss caused by the offense for which conviction was had, and ... to provide for the support of any person or persons for whose support" they were "legally responsible." This authority continued essentially unchanged for more than 50 years. Even though the federal courts enjoyed no other power to order restitution in a criminal case, the authority was "infrequently used and indifferently enforced." Congress found this situation unsatisfactory. Thus, in the Victim and Witness Protection Act of 1982 (VWPA), it vested federal courts with the general discretion to order restitution in any criminal case arising out of a crime proscribed in Title 18 of the United States Code or in air piracy cases. In the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, Congress established mandatory restitution as a consequence of conviction for the federal crimes of sexual abuse, sexual exploitation of children, and domestic violence. Then, in the Mandatory Victim Restitution Act (MVRA) portion of the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996, Congress made mandatory restitution a consequence of conviction for most of the serious federal crimes (i.e., crimes of violence and, when proscribed in Title 18 of the United States Code , crimes against property, including fraud). Restitution's varied lineage—equitable and legal, civil and criminal—has spurred a number of constitutional challenges over the years. Some initially saw restitution as an alternative to civil litigation on behalf of the victims of crime. If this were the case, defendants claimed that they should enjoy a Seventh Amendment right to have a jury determine the facts upon which a restitution order was based. Their challenges came to naught. The Supreme Court held that the Seventh Amendment extends only to civil actions similar to those tried before a jury when the Amendment was ratified in 1791. The lower courts rejected the Seventh Amendment challenges either because they concluded that restitution was a criminal rather than a civil sanction or because, at common law, restitution was not a matter presented to a jury; in some cases, the challenges were rejected for both reasons. However, if restitution is a criminal sanction, must it observe the constitutional restrictions on sanctions, such as the proscriptions on ex post facto laws, excessive fines, and cruel and unusual punishments? If the Seventh Amendment right to a jury trial in civil cases has no bearing, what of the Sixth Amendment right to a jury trial in criminal cases? On the question of retroactive application of new laws and the ex post facto clause, there is no consensus among the lower federal appellate courts, although a majority take the position that the clause applies and, consequently, exposure to increased restitution liability may not be applied retroactively. The scant case law available on the issue indicates that the Eighth Amendment's excessive fines clause, as well as its cruel and unusual punishment clause, mark the outer bounds of the courts' restitution authority. These limitations, however, impose no real impediments. They condemn fines and punishments that are grossly disproportionate; restitution, by definition under federal law, must be precisely proportionate to the harm caused by the offense. As for the Sixth Amendment right to jury trial and the Fifth Amendment right to conviction only on proof beyond a reasonable doubt, the Supreme Court held in a series of cases beginning with Apprendi v. New Jersey and culminating in United States v. Booker , that the Sixth Amendment right to a jury trial and the Fifth Amendment right to due process require that "any fact (other than a prior conviction) which is necessary to support a sentence exceeding the maximum authorized by the facts established by a plea of guilty or a jury verdict must be admitted by the defendant or proved to a jury beyond a reasonable doubt." This might seem to pose a problem for federal restitution procedures under which restitution is determined by the court (not a jury) on the basis of a preponderance of the evidence (not beyond a reasonable doubt). Nevertheless, the lower federal appellate courts have rejected arguments that the Apprendi line of cases clouds the validity of a restitution order under such circumstances—either because they do not consider restitution a criminal sanction and thus see no Fifth or Sixth Amendment concerns or because they feel the restitution statutes fail to set the "statutory maximum" necessary to trigger Apprendi concerns. None of the other due process or equal protection challenges appear to have survived appellate scrutiny thus far. The various federal restitution statutes address three questions: Who qualifies as a victim? What crimes trigger restitution authority? What type of injuries or losses does restitution cover? As originally cast, §3663 (VWPA) authorized restitution for "any victim" of any crime proscribed in title 18 of the United States Code , but did not define the term "victim." The Supreme Court read the statute narrowly and concluded that restitution might only extend to harm attributable to the crime of conviction. Congress endorsed this view almost immediately with a more explicit statement of §3663's coverage. It replicated and enlarged that statement when it enacted §3663A six years later. Sections 3663 and 3663A authorize restitution orders for the benefit of the victims of the crime of conviction, and expressly define the term "victim" (i.e., "a person directly and proximately harmed as a result of the commission of an offense for which restitution may be ordered"). A victim is also someone harmed by a scheme, conspiracy, or pattern of activity that is an element of the crime of conviction. And, a victim may be someone whom the government and the defendant agree in a plea bargain is entitled to restitution. Harm is directly caused by the defendant's offense of conviction when the harm would not have occurred but for that misconduct. Directly caused harm is proximately caused when there is no attenuation between the crime and the harm; when the harm and but-for misconduct are closely, not remotely, related in time and fact. The presence of an intervening cause of the harm may suggest a want of either direct causation, or proximate causation, or both. The presence of an intervening cause will defeat an assertion of direct and proximate harm unless intervening cause is related to or a foreseeable consequence of the offense of conviction. As the Supreme Court explained in the context of one of the specialized restitution statutes, As a general matter, to say one event proximately caused another is a way of making two separate but related assertions. First, it means the former event caused the latter.... Every event has many causes, however, and only some of them are proximate.... So to say that one event was a proximate cause of another means that it was not just any cause, but one with a sufficient connection to the result. The idea of proximate cause.... is a flexible concept, that generally refers to the basic requirement that there must be some direct relation between the injury asserted and injurious conduct alleged.... Proximate cause is often explicated in terms of foreseeability or the scope of the risk created by the predicate conduct. A requirement of proximate cause thus serves, inter alia, to preclude liability in situations where the causal link between conduct and result is so attenuated that the consequence is more aptly described as mere fortuity. The definition of a victim for purposes of restitution under §§3663 and 3663A expands when the crime of conviction has as an element a conspiracy or a scheme or pattern of misconduct. In the case of conspiracy, a defendant may be compelled to make restitution both for the harm caused by his or her own misconduct and for the harm caused by the foreseeable misconduct of his or her coconspirators. As for the scheme and pattern exception, most federal crimes do not list schemes or patterns among their elements, although the mail fraud, wire fraud, and racketeering statutes do. In such cases, restitution may include the losses incurred from a different episode of the scheme than the one mentioned in the indictment. Yet the scheme must be the same; victims entitled to restitution do not include those harmed by an otherwise identical scheme but different in time or place than the crime of conviction. The courts are divided over which statutes qualify as "scheme, conspiracy or pattern" laws. Some say the scheme or pattern must be an element of the crime of conviction; it is not enough that the defendant's crime involves contrivance or repeated related criminality. Others say it is enough; the statute proscribing the crime of conviction need not use the words "scheme," or "conspiracy," or "pattern." Sections 3663 and 3663A describe, with somewhat overlapping grants of authority, the circumstances under which representatives and others may stand in the shoes of a victim. A court may also order restitution pursuant to a plea bargain for "victims" who would not otherwise qualify. Although a victim must be a "person" and governmental entities are ordinarily not considered persons, state, local, and federal governmental entities are entitled to restitution orders when they otherwise qualify as victims of a crime under §§3663 and 3663A. On the other hand, although the courts enjoy authority to order restitution paid to family members on behalf of the victims of crime, it is unclear whether the victimization of one member of a family constitutes victimization of its other members sufficient to warrant a restitution order for the benefit of a victim's family members in their own name. At one time, the lower federal appellate courts are divided over whether under §2259 a restitution order following conviction for possession of child pornography required the government to show that the subject of child pornography has sustained losses proximately caused by the possession offense. Thereafter, the Supreme Court concluded that "[r]estitution is therefore proper under §2259 only to the extent that the defendant's offense proximately caused a victim's losses." Although §§3663 and 3663A employ the same definition of victim , they do not authorize restitution for the same crimes. The list of crimes for which §3663 permits restitution supplements the list for which §3663A demands restitution. The mandatory restitution of §3663A applies upon conviction for a crime of violence, as defined in §16; an offense against property under 18 U.S.C., or under §416(a) of the Controlled Substances Act (21 U.S.C. 856(a)), including any offense committed by fraud or deceit; an offense described in §1365 (relating to tampering with consumer products); or an offense under §670 (relating to theft of medical products). Section 16 describes a crime of violence as either "(a) an offense that has as an element the use, attempted use, or threatened use of physical force against the person or property of another, or (b) any other offense that is a felony and that, by its nature, involves a substantial risk that physical force against the person or property of another may be used in the course of committing the offense." As a matter of application, the courts have found that threats, extortion, assault, harboring an illegal alien, burglary, and arson are crimes of violence for purposes of §3663A and that false statement offenses are not. Elsewhere, the Supreme Court has explained that "crime of violence as defined by §16" does not include crimes committed negligently or accidently, such as driving under the influence. Other courts have said that the term "crime of violence" does not encompass possession of a pipe bomb, reckless vehicular assault, or simple misdemeanor assault, but does include such crimes as unauthorized use of a vehicle. The controlled substance offense that carries with it a restitution requirement under §3663A (21 U.S.C. 856) consists of maintaining a place where controlled substances are manufactured, stored, or used. The property damage/fraud predicate in §3663A must involve a violation proscribed under title 18 of the United States Code rather than an offense found in another title. Yet, the general conspiracy provision in title 18 can provide the necessary basis for a mandatory restitution order when the defendant is convicted of conspiracy to commit property damage in violation of a federal law found outside of title 18. The product tampering offense consists of tampering with a product or its labeling that affects interstate or foreign commerce or spreading false rumors that such a product is contaminated. Section 670 outlaws the theft of, or unlawful trafficking in, pre-retail medical products. Three qualifications temper the mandatory restitution requirements facing defendants convicted of the predicate offenses listed in §3663A(c)(1)(A). First, there must be an identifiable victim who has suffered a physical injury or a pecuniary loss. Second, in the case of the property damage/fraud predicates, restitution need not be ordered when the number of victims makes an order impractical. Third, again in the case of property damage/fraud predicates, restitution need not be ordered when the complexity that restitution would introduce into the sentencing process would represent an undue burden. A few other federal statutes authorize restitution. All but the animal enterprise statute, require it. Most apply the procedures that govern §§3663 and 3663A to a narrower range of crimes but a wider range of losses than §§3663 and 3663A and their attendant enforcement procedures might otherwise permit. Numbered among these provisions are 18 U.S.C. 43 (animal enterprise); 18 U.S.C. 228(d) (restitution child support cases); 18 U.S.C. 1593 (restitution in cases under chapter 77 relating to peonage, slavery, and trafficking in persons); 18 U.S.C. 2248 (restitution in cases under chapter 109A relating to sexual abuse); 18 U.S.C. 2259 (restitution in cases under chapter 110 relating to sexual exploitation of children); 18 U.S.C. 2264 (restitution in cases under chapter 110A relating to domestic violence and stalking); 18 U.S.C. 2323(c) (restitution in copyright infringement cases); 18 U.S.C. 2327 (restitution in telemarketing fraud cases); and 21 U.S.C. 853(q) (restitution in controlled substances cases involving amphetamine and methamphetamine offenses). Section 3663 authorizes restitution when the defendant has been convicted of a crime proscribed under title 18 of the United States Code . It comes into play when the mandatory restitution statutes do not control. It also authorizes restitution when the defendant is convicted of any of several trafficking offenses under the Controlled Substances Act, or of any of a few air safety prohibitions. Finally, as noted earlier, a court may order restitution with respect to any crime consistent with a plea agreement or as a condition of either probation or supervised release, even with respect to crimes for which restitution is not authorized under §§3663 or 3663A. Restitution is a creature of statute. A court may order reimbursement only for those losses authorized by statute. Sections 3663 and 3663A recognize three categories of reimbursable losses: property losses, losses relating to bodily injuries, and losses relating to participation in the investigation or prosecution of the victimizing offense. Sections 3663 and 3663A have essentially identical restitution provisions: both call for the return of the property, if that provides full victim restitution. If not, restitution takes the form of compensatory payments. As a general rule, victims are entitled only to be made whole; unlike the sentencing guidelines which calculate sentence enhancements based on both actual and intended losses, the restitution statutes permit awards only for actual losses. It is often not the fact of a reimbursable loss, but its measure, that challenges the courts. Nevertheless, the types of reimbursable property losses contemplated by §§3663(b)(1) and 3663A(b)(1) include things like the salary of a faithless employee, or the insurance replacement costs of a stolen car, or the losses visited upon a loan guarantor by a mortgage fraud scheme. Circumstances dictate whether attorneys' fees qualify as reimbursable property losses. The strongest arguments for recovery seem to attend those cases in which the scurrilous litigation is an integral part of the crime of conviction. On the other hand, the courts seem less receptive when restitution is sought as a property loss under either §3663(b)(1) or §3663A(b)(1) in order to compensate a victim for the costs of civil litigation filed against the offender. Section 3663, unlike its counterpart, permits the court to order those convicted of crime-assisting identity theft or aggravated identity theft to pay for the costs incurred by their victims to remedy the actual or intended harm associated with the offense. Section 3663(c) also authorizes community restitution in the form of awards apportioned between state victim assistance agencies and state agencies dedicated to the reduction of substance abuse. The court may order restitution in certain drug trafficking cases where there are no identifiable victims, capped by the amount of the fine that the court may impose for commission of the offense. Moreover, at least one court has held that the section authorizes restitution only in those cases where the court actually imposes a fine as well; if the court fails to impose a fine, it may not order community restitution. Section 3663 expressly provides for restitution for the remedial effects of the victims of identity theft committed in relation to other offenses and for state agencies in certain drug trafficking cases if there are no other identifiable victims. Section 3663A has no comparable provision. The individual restitution sections fall within two categories. One group focuses on restitution for the victims of crimes involving property damage or loss; the other on restitution for the victims of crimes involving personal injury. Among the first group, only the copyright infringement statute adopts by cross reference the mandatory restitution provisions of §3663A. Each of the others follows the same general pattern as §3663A but adds at least one unique feature of its own. The child support restitution section, 18 U.S.C. 228(d), adopts the procedures of §3663A upon conviction for interstate evasion of child support orders. The amount of restitution that must be awarded is determined by reference to a state court support order or by other governing state law and, as such, may include the interest on overdue support payments and support owed after children have reached their majority. The peonage restitution section, 18 U.S.C. 1593, uses the common definition of "victim" and affords victims of human trafficking offenses a wide range of compensation that, unlike §§3663 and 3663A, includes the economic benefits derived from the victim's services and a catch-all clause ensuring compensation for predicate crime-related injuries and losses. The telemarketing fraud restitution statute, 18 U.S.C. 2327, originally enacted two years before the passage of the mandatory restitution provisions of §3663A, once had highly individualistic features. It has since been amended so that its provisions more closely track those of the general restitution provisions for losses caused by predicate crimes. The methamphetamine statute, 21 U.S.C. 853(q), covers the cleanup cost of closing down illicit amphetamine and methamphetamine production sites. At one time, the section applied only to those convicted of manufacturing offenses and consequently reached convictions for attempted manufacture but not for possession with intent to distribute. The USA PATRIOT Improvement and Reauthorization Act amended the section so that it now authorizes restitution upon conviction for offenses involving possession, possession with intent to distribute, or manufacture of amphetamine and methamphetamine. The animal enterprise interference section, 18 U.S.C. 43(c), permits a sentencing court to order a defendant convicted of violating its proscriptions to pay restitution for specific kinds of damage (i.e., the cost of repeating disrupted experiments, the loss of farm income, and the costs of economic disruption). Sections 3663 and 3663A have parallel provisions governing the restitution for personal injuries that permit or, in the case of §3663A require, compensation for medical expenses, lost income, rehabilitation, and funeral expenses in the event the victim is killed. The medical expenses covered by a restitution order may include those paid on the victim's behalf by a third party, and may include the costs of psychiatric and psychological treatment when the victim has suffered a physical injury. Restitution for lost income extends to both past and future lost income. Prior to passage of the general mandatory restitution authority in §3663A, Congress authorized restitution for three related small sets of offenses. Those authorizations, found in 18 U.S.C. 2248, 2259 and 2264, require the courts to order restitution following conviction for an offense proscribed in chapters 109A (sexual abuse), 110 (sexual exploitation of children), and 110A (domestic violence and stalking), respectively. Other than their designation of predicate offenses, the sections are identical. They each insist on restitution of the "full amount of the victim's losses," define "victims" in much the manner of §§3663 and 3663A, supply a list of losses for which restitution must be ordered, make it clear that neither the defendant's poverty nor victim compensation from other sources absolves the court of its obligation to order restitution, and otherwise adopt the procedural mechanisms used for restitution under Section 3663A. Unlike §§3663 and 3663A, the three sections on their face do not require bodily injury of the victim as a precondition for the award of the cost of psychiatric treatments. They also have a catch-all clause that has no counterpart in either §§3663 or 3663A. On the other hand, unlike §§3663 and 3663A, they do not authorize payments to third parties to reimburse them for crime-related treatment of a victim. Sections 3663 and 3663A cover a victim's lost income, as well as necessary child care expenses, transportation costs, and other expenses associated with his or her participation in the investigation and prosecution of the crime, regardless of whether the resulting injury is to person or to property. A number of courts seem to share the view of that "investigation costs—including attorneys' fees—incurred by private parties as a direct and foreseeable result of the defendant's wrongful conduct may be recoverable" under §§3663(b)(4) or 3663A(b)(4). At least one appellate court, however, has concluded that those sections do not permit "restitution for the costs of an organization's internal investigation, at least when (as here) the internal investigation was neither required nor requested by the criminal investigators or prosecutors." The sections mention child care, attendance at judicial proceedings, and other matters that bespeak a human victim, but the courts have made it clear that corporations and other legal entities are likewise entitled to restitution under the provisions. Governmental entities may be entitled to restitution awards when they are the victims of a qualifying offense, but not for the costs of investigating and prosecuting the offense. Awards for investigative and prosecutorial participation have included relocation expenses for threatened victims; compensation for wages lost while the victim assisted in the investigation; and attorneys' fees related to the recovery of the victim of international parental kidnapping. Except to the limited extent otherwise provided in the individual authorization statutes, §3664 supplies the procedure that governs the issuance of restitution orders. Upon conviction of a defendant, the court directs the probation service to investigate and prepare a report identifying each victim of the offense and the extent of their injuries, damages, or losses. Prosecutors are to provide the probation officer with pertinent information. The officer is also to ask victims to detail the extent and specifics of their predicate crime-related losses. The defendant is obliged to give the officer a complete description of his or her financial situation. The probation officer's report is presented to the court, the defendant, and the prosecutor. The court resolves contested restitution issues by a preponderance of the evidence following a hearing, at which the prosecution bears the burden of establishing the existence and extent of the victim's losses, and the defendant bears the burden on questions regarding his or her finances and the extent to which the defendant has compensated the victim for the losses. The court may conduct a hearing or task the probation officer to secure additional information and resolve disputes. Section 3664 is precise when it describes how the court must frame the restitution order. The order must envision full compensation for the losses of each victim without regard to the financial circumstances of the defendant. In its calculation of the manner and schedule of payment for each victim, however, the court is to consider the defendant's assets, anticipated future income, and other financial obligations. Compensation may be made in a lump sum, in-kind payments, installments, or any combination of such methods of payment. In-kind payments may take the form of a return of lost property, replacement in-kind or otherwise, or personal services. When the defendant's financial condition precludes any alternative, the order may call for nominal periodic payments. Several courts have emphasized the importance of the court's close attention to the restitution payment schedule by prohibiting sentencing courts from initially ordering that restitution be paid immediately when it is readily apparent that the defendant is unable to do so, thereby effectively leaving the task of establishing a payment schedule to the probation officer or the Bureau of Prisons. When it sets the restitution owed by the defendant, the court may not take into account the fact that a victim may have been compensated by insurance or any other alternative form of compensation of his or her injury, loss, or damage. The amount of a restitution order may later be reduced to account for compensatory damages for the same loss recovered in a civil action. When the government and the probation officer have been unable to determine the full extent of victim losses within 10 days of sentencing, they are obligated to inform the court. The court is then to set a date, no later than 90 days after sentencing, for the final determination of victim losses. Thereafter, victims have a limited option to present claims for restitution relating to undiscovered losses. The Supreme Court has resolved a circuit split over how these provisions should be applied, particularly in cases where the timelines have not been observed. It held in Dolan that a sentencing court may determine the extent of a victim's losses and order restitution after the expiration of the statutory 90-day deadline, as long as the defendant was aware beforehand that the court intended to order restitution. Victims may assign their right to receive restitution payments to Crime Victims Fund, but there is no consensus over whether the court may order restitution to be paid to the Crime Victims Fund on its own initiative if the victim refuses to accept it. Should the court determine that more than one defendant contributed to the victim's loss, it may apportion restitution accordingly or it may make the defendants jointly and severally liable. When defendants are made jointly and severally liable, each is liable for the entire amount, but the victim is entitled to no more than what is required to be made whole, regardless of what portion each of the defendants ultimately contributes. There had been a difference of opinion over whether joint and severable liability may be imposed other than with respect to co-defendants. The Supreme Court has recently provided some clarification as to how courts should deal with restitution when those who are not co-defendants are responsible for a substantial portion of the victim's losses. The defendant in the case viewed child pornography of which the victim was the subject. To hold the defendant liable for all of the victim's losses attributable to production, distribution, and viewing of the material might contravene the proscriptions of the Eighth Amendment's excessive fines clause, the Court suggested. Rather, it held that the defendant's restitution order should be calculated to reflect his relative contribution to the harm caused. Section 3664(i) declares that when it comes to restitution, the United States is to be served last. The provision is cited most often to confirm that under the appropriate circumstances, the government and its departments and agencies may be considered victims for restitution purposes. When the government is not a victim, the defendant is not entitled to have the restitution award offset by the value of any forfeited property. There may be some question whether the same thing can be said when the government is both the victim of the offense and the recipient of the forfeited property. Section 3664(j) permits a court to order restitution to third parties who, as insurers or otherwise, have assumed some or all of the victim's losses, although in such cases, the victim must be fully compensated first. It also permits a court to reduce an earlier restitution order by any amounts that the victim later receives in the course of related federal or state civil litigation. The victim, the defendant, or the government may petition to have a restitution order's payment schedule amended to reflect the defendant's changed economic circumstances. The changed economic circumstances envisioned in §3664(k) do not include anticipated future changes or a later, better-informed understanding of the defendant's financial condition at the time of sentence. Nor does the section provide defendants with a mechanism with which to later challenge the legality of their restitution orders. There are several means to enforce a restitution order. Section 3664(m) declares that restitution orders may be enforced in the manner used to collect fines or "by all other available and reasonable means." When restitution is a condition of probation or supervised release, failure to make restitution may provide the grounds for revocation. Moreover, a restitution order operates as a lien in the name of the United States on the defendant's property that remains in effect for 20 years. The government may also use garnishment and the other collection mechanisms of the Federal Debt Collection Procedures Act (FDCPA) to enforce a restitution order. A victim may use a restitution order to secure a lien in his own name against the defendant's property to ensure the payment of restitution. In addition, the victims' rights provisions of 18 U.S.C. 3771 entitle a victim to "full and timely restitution as provided in law," a right, enforceable in the face of legally insufficient restitution order through a liberalized form of mandamus in some circuits. In most instances, a victim may also sue the defendant based on the conduct that led to the conviction and the issuance of the restitution order. During the course of such civil litigation, the defendant may be precluded from denying the facts that formed the basis of the conviction. Section 3664(o) provides that the court's restitution order constitutes a final order notwithstanding the fact it may later be corrected, modified, or appealed under various court rules and statutory provisions. This does not mean that the district court may later reduce a restitution order in the absence of specific authority. Nor does it convey appellate rights upon third parties who claim a right to restitution for expenses necessarily incurred on behalf of a victim. In a criminal law context, the lower federal courts have generally taken the view that the death of a defendant at any time prior to the determination of his or her final direct appeal abates all underlying proceedings; appeals are dismissed as moot, convictions are overturned, indictments are dismissed, and abated convictions cannot be used in related civil litigation against the estate—all as if the defendant was never criminally charged. It might seem from this that a restitution order would abate as well, but there is no consensus among the lower federal courts on the issue. (a)(1)(A) The court, when sentencing a defendant convicted of an offense under this title, Section 401, 408(a), 409, 416, 420, or 422(a) of the Controlled Substances Act (21 U.S.C. 841, 848(a), 849, 856, 861, 863) (but in no case shall a participant in an offense under such sections be considered a victim of such offense under this section), or Section 5124, 46312, 46502, or 46504 of Title 49, other than an offense described in Section 3663A(c), may order, in addition to or, in the case of a misdemeanor, in lieu of any other penalty authorized by law, that the defendant make restitution to any victim of such offense, or if the victim is deceased, to the victim's estate. The court may also order, if agreed to by the parties in a plea agreement, restitution to persons other than the victim of the offense. (B)(i) The court, in determining whether to order restitution under this section, shall consider— (I) the amount of the loss sustained by each victim as a result of the offense; and (II) the financial resources of the defendant, the financial needs and earning ability of the defendant and the defendant's dependents, and such other factors as the court deems appropriate. (ii) To the extent that the court determines that the complication and prolongation of the sentencing process resulting from the fashioning of an order of restitution under this section outweighs the need to provide restitution to any victims, the court may decline to make such an order. (2) For the purposes of this section, the term "victim" means a person directly and proximately harmed as a result of the commission of an offense for which restitution may be ordered including, in the case of an offense that involves as an element a scheme, conspiracy, or pattern of criminal activity, any person directly harmed by the defendant's criminal conduct in the course of the scheme, conspiracy, or pattern. In the case of a victim who is under 18 years of age, incompetent, incapacitated, or deceased, the legal guardian of the victim or representative of the victim's estate, another family member, or any other person appointed as suitable by the court, may assume the victim's rights under this section, but in no event shall the defendant be named as such representative or guardian. (3) The court may also order restitution in any criminal case to the extent agreed to by the parties in a plea agreement. (b) The order may require that such defendant— (1) in the case of an offense resulting in damage to or loss or destruction of property of a victim of the offense— (A) return the property to the owner of the property or someone designated by the owner; or (B) if return of the property under subparagraph (A) is impossible, impractical, or inadequate, pay an amount equal to the greater of— (i) the value of the property on the date of the damage, loss, or destruction, or (ii) the value of the property on the date of sentencing, less the value (as of the date the property is returned) of any part of the property that is returned; (2) in the case of an offense resulting in bodily injury to a victim including an offense under chapter 109A or chapter 110— (A) pay an amount equal to the cost of necessary medical and related professional services and devices relating to physical, psychiatric, and psychological care, including nonmedical care and treatment rendered in accordance with a method of healing recognized by the law of the place of treatment; (B) pay an amount equal to the cost of necessary physical and occupational therapy and rehabilitation; and (C) reimburse the victim for income lost by such victim as a result of such offense; (3) in the case of an offense resulting in bodily injury also results in the death of a victim, pay an amount equal to the cost of necessary funeral and related services; (4) in any case, reimburse the victim for lost income and necessary child care, transportation, and other expenses related to participation in the investigation or prosecution of the offense or attendance at proceedings related to the offense; (5) in any case, if the victim (or if the victim is deceased, the victim's estate) consents, make restitution in services in lieu of money, or make restitution to a person or organization designated by the victim or the estate; and (6) in the case of an offense under Sections 1028(a)(7) or 1028A(a) of this title, pay an amount equal to the value of the time reasonably spent by the victim in an attempt to remediate the intended or actual harm incurred by the victim from the offense. (c)(1) Notwithstanding any other provision of law (but subject to the provisions of subsections (a)(1)(B)(i)(II) and (ii), when sentencing a defendant convicted of an offense described in Section 401, 408(a), 409, 416, 420, or 422(a) of the Controlled Substances Act (21 U.S.C. 841, 848(a), 849, 856, 861, 863), in which there is no identifiable victim, the court may order that the defendant make restitution in accordance with this subsection. (2)(A) An order of restitution under this subsection shall be based on the amount of public harm caused by the offense, as determined by the court in accordance with guidelines promulgated by the United States Sentencing Commission. (B) In no case shall the amount of restitution ordered under this subsection exceed the amount of the fine which may be ordered for the offense charged in the case. (3) Restitution under this subsection shall be distributed as follows: (A) 65 percent of the total amount of restitution shall be paid to the State entity designated to administer crime victim assistance in the State in which the crime occurred. (B) 35 percent of the total amount of restitution shall be paid to the State entity designated to receive Federal substance abuse block grant funds. (4) The court shall not make an award under this subsection if it appears likely that such award would interfere with a forfeiture under chapter 46 or chapter 96 of this title or under the Controlled Substances Act (21 U.S.C. 801 et seq.). (5) Notwithstanding Section 3612(c) or any other provision of law, a penalty assessment under Section 3013 or a fine under subchapter C of chapter 227 shall take precedence over an order of restitution under this subsection. (6) Requests for community restitution under this subsection may be considered in all plea agreements negotiated by the United States. (7)(A) The United States Sentencing Commission shall promulgate guidelines to assist courts in determining the amount of restitution that may be ordered under this subsection. (B) No restitution shall be ordered under this subsection until such time as the Sentencing Commission promulgates guidelines pursuant to this paragraph. (d) An order of restitution made pursuant to this section shall be issued and enforced in accordance with Section 3664. (a)(1) Notwithstanding any other provision of law, when sentencing a defendant convicted of an offense described in subsection (c), the court shall order, in addition to, or in the case of a misdemeanor, in addition to or in lieu of, any other penalty authorized by law, that the defendant make restitution to the victim of the offense or, if the victim is deceased, to the victim's estate. (2) For the purposes of this section, the term "victim" means a person directly and proximately harmed as a result of the commission of an offense for which restitution may be ordered including, in the case of an offense that involves as an element a scheme, conspiracy, or pattern of criminal activity, any person directly harmed by the defendant's criminal conduct in the course of the scheme, conspiracy, or pattern. In the case of a victim who is under 18 years of age, incompetent, incapacitated, or deceased, the legal guardian of the victim or representative of the victim's estate, another family member, or any other person appointed as suitable by the court, may assume the victim's rights under this section, but in no event shall the defendant be named as such representative or guardian. (3) The court shall also order, if agreed to by the parties in a plea agreement, restitution to persons other than the victim of the offense. (b) The order of restitution shall require that such defendant— (1) in the case of an offense resulting in damage to or loss or destruction of property of a victim of the offense— (A) return the property to the owner of the property or someone designated by the owner; or (B) if return of the property under subparagraph (A) is impossible, impracticable, or inadequate, pay an amount equal to— (i) the greater of— (I) the value of the property on the date of the damage, loss, or destruction; or (II) the value of the property on the date of sentencing, less (ii) the value (as of the date the property is returned) of any part of the property that is returned; (2) in the case of an offense resulting in bodily injury to a victim— (A) pay an amount equal to the cost of necessary medical and related professional services and devices relating to physical, psychiatric, and psychological care, including nonmedical care and treatment rendered in accordance with a method of healing recognized by the law of the place of treatment; (B) pay an amount equal to the cost of necessary physical and occupational therapy and rehabilitation; and (C) reimburse the victim for income lost by such victim as a result of such offense; (3) in the case of an offense resulting in bodily injury that results in the death of the victim, pay an amount equal to the cost of necessary funeral and related services; and (4) in any case, reimburse the victim for lost income and necessary child care, transportation, and other expenses incurred during participation in the investigation or prosecution of the offense or attendance at proceedings related to the offense. (c)(1) This section shall apply in all sentencing proceedings for convictions of, or plea agreements relating to charges for, any offense— (A) that is— (i) a crime of violence, as defined in section 16; (ii) an offense against property under this title, or under section 416(a) of the Controlled Substances Act (21 U.S.C. 856(a)), including any offense committed by fraud or deceit; (iii) an offense described in section 1365 (relating to tampering with consumer products); or (iv) an offense under section 670 (relating to theft of medical products); and (B) in which an identifiable victim or victims has suffered a physical injury or pecuniary loss. (2) In the case of a plea agreement that does not result in a conviction for an offense described in paragraph (1), this section shall apply only if the plea specifically states that an offense listed under such paragraph gave rise to the plea agreement. (3) This section shall not apply in the case of an offense described in paragraph (1)(A)(ii) if the court finds, from facts on the record, that— (A) the number of identifiable victims is so large as to make restitution impracticable; or (B) determining complex issues of fact related to the cause or amount of the victim's losses would complicate or prolong the sentencing process to a degree that the need to provide restitution to any victim is outweighed by the burden on the sentencing process. (d) An order of restitution under this section shall be issued and enforced in accordance with Section 3664. (a) For orders of restitution under this title, the court shall order the probation officer to obtain and include in its presentence report, or in a separate report, as the court may direct, information sufficient for the court to exercise its discretion in fashioning a restitution order. The report shall include, to the extent practicable, a complete accounting of the losses to each victim, any restitution owed pursuant to a plea agreement, and information relating to the economic circumstances of each defendant. If the number or identity of victims cannot be reasonably ascertained, or other circumstances exist that make this requirement clearly impracticable, the probation officer shall so inform the court. (b) The court shall disclose to both the defendant and the attorney for the Government all portions of the presentence or other report pertaining to the matters described in subsection (a) of this section. (c) The provisions of this chapter, chapter 227, and Rule 32(c) of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure shall be the only rules applicable to proceedings under this section. (d)(1) Upon the request of the probation officer, but not later than 60 days prior to the date initially set for sentencing, the attorney for the Government, after consulting, to the extent practicable, with all identified victims, shall promptly provide the probation officer with a listing of the amounts subject to restitution. (2) The probation officer shall, prior to submitting the presentence report under subsection (a), to the extent practicable — (A) provide notice to all identified victims of— (i) the offense or offenses of which the defendant was convicted; (ii) the amounts subject to restitution submitted to the probation officer; (iii) the opportunity of the victim to submit information to the probation officer concerning the amount of the victim's losses; (iv) the scheduled date, time, and place of the sentencing hearing; (v) the availability of a lien in favor of the victim pursuant to subsection (m)(1)(B); and (vi) the opportunity of the victim to file with the probation officer a separate affidavit relating to the amount of the victim's losses subject to restitution; and (B) provide the victim with an affidavit form to submit pursuant to subparagraph (A)(vi). (3) Each defendant shall prepare and file with the probation officer an affidavit fully describing the financial resources of the defendant, including a complete listing of all assets owned or controlled by the defendant as of the date on which the defendant was arrested, the financial needs and earning ability of the defendant and the defendant's dependents, and such other information that the court requires relating to such other factors as the court deems appropriate. (4) After reviewing the report of the probation officer, the court may require additional documentation or hear testimony. The privacy of any records filed, or testimony heard, pursuant to this section shall be maintained to the greatest extent possible, and such records may be filed or testimony heard in camera. (5) If the victim's losses are not ascertainable by the date that is 10 days prior to sentencing, the attorney for the Government or the probation officer shall so inform the court, and the court shall set a date for the final determination of the victim's losses, not to exceed 90 days after sentencing. If the victim subsequently discovers further losses, the victim shall have 60 days after discovery of those losses in which to petition the court for an amended restitution order. Such order may be granted only upon a showing of good cause for the failure to include such losses in the initial claim for restitutionary relief. (6) The court may refer any issue arising in connection with a proposed order of restitution to a magistrate judge or special master for proposed findings of fact and recommendations as to disposition, subject to a de novo determination of the issue by the court. (e) Any dispute as to the proper amount or type of restitution shall be resolved by the court by the preponderance of the evidence. The burden of demonstrating the amount of the loss sustained by a victim as a result of the offense shall be on the attorney for the Government. The burden of demonstrating the financial resources of the defendant and the financial needs of the defendant's dependents, shall be on the defendant. The burden of demonstrating such other matters as the court deems appropriate shall be upon the party designated by the court as justice requires. (f)(1)(A) In each order of restitution, the court shall order restitution to each victim in the full amount of each victim's losses as determined by the court and without consideration of the economic circumstances of the defendant. (B) In no case shall the fact that a victim has received or is entitled to receive compensation with respect to a loss from insurance or any other source be considered in determining the amount of restitution. (2) Upon determination of the amount of restitution owed to each victim, the court shall, pursuant to Section 3572, specify in the restitution order the manner in which, and the schedule according to which, the restitution is to be paid, in consideration of— (A) the financial resources and other assets of the defendant, including whether any of these assets are jointly controlled; (B) projected earnings and other income of the defendant; and (C) any financial obligations of the defendant; including obligations to dependents. (3)(A) A restitution order may direct the defendant to make a single, lump-sum payment, partial payments at specified intervals, in-kind payments, or a combination of payments at specified intervals and in-kind payments. (B) A restitution order may direct the defendant to make nominal periodic payments if the court finds from facts on the record that the economic circumstances of the defendant do not allow the payment of any amount of a restitution order, and do not allow for the payment of the full amount of a restitution order in the foreseeable future under any reasonable schedule of payments. (4) An in-kind payment described in paragraph (3) may be in the form of— (A) return of property; (B) replacement of property; or (C) if the victim agrees, services rendered to the victim or a person or organization other than the victim. (g)(1) No victim shall be required to participate in any phase of a restitution order. (2) A victim may at any time assign the victim's interest in restitution payments to the Crime Victims Fund in the Treasury without in any way impairing the obligation of the defendant to make such payments. (h) If the court finds that more than 1 defendant has contributed to the loss of a victim, the court may make each defendant liable for payment of the full amount of restitution or may apportion liability among the defendants to reflect the level of contribution to the victim's loss and economic circumstances of each defendant. (i) If the court finds that more than 1 victim has sustained a loss requiring restitution by a defendant, the court may provide for a different payment schedule for each victim based on the type and amount of each victim's loss and accounting for the economic circumstances of each victim. In any case in which the United States is a victim, the court shall ensure that all other victims receive full restitution before the United States receives any restitution. (j)(1) If a victim has received compensation from insurance or any other source with respect to a loss, the court shall order that restitution be paid to the person who provided or is obligated to provide the compensation, but the restitution order shall provide that all restitution of victims required by the order be paid to the victims before any restitution is paid to such a provider of compensation. (2) Any amount paid to a victim under an order of restitution shall be reduced by any amount later recovered as compensatory damages for the same loss by the victim in— (A) any Federal civil proceeding; and (B) any State civil proceeding, to the extent provided by the law of the State. (k) A restitution order shall provide that the defendant shall notify the court and the Attorney General of any material change in the defendant's economic circumstances that might affect the defendant's ability to pay restitution. The court may also accept notification of a material change in the defendant's economic circumstances from the United States or from the victim. The Attorney General shall certify to the court that the victim or victims owed restitution by the defendant have been notified of the change in circumstances. Upon receipt of the notification, the court may, on its own motion, or the motion of any party, including the victim, adjust the payment schedule, or require immediate payment in full, as the interests of justice require. (l) A conviction of a defendant for an offense involving the act giving rise to an order of restitution shall estop the defendant from denying the essential allegations of that offense in any subsequent Federal civil proceeding or State civil proceeding, to the extent consistent with State law, brought by the victim. (m)(1)(A)(i) An order of restitution may be enforced by the United States in the manner provided for in subchapter C of chapter 227 and subchapter B of chapter 229 of this title; or (ii) by all other available and reasonable means. (B) At the request of a victim named in a restitution order, the clerk of the court shall issue an abstract of judgment certifying that a judgment has been entered in favor of such victim in the amount specified in the restitution order. Upon registering, recording, docketing, or indexing such abstract in accordance with the rules and requirements relating to judgments of the court of the State where the district court is located, the abstract of judgment shall be a lien on the property of the defendant located in such State in the same manner and to the same extent and under the same conditions as a judgment of a court of general jurisdiction in that State. (2) An order of in-kind restitution in the form of services shall be enforced by the probation officer. (n) If a person obligated to provide restitution, or pay a fine, receives substantial resources from any source, including inheritance, settlement, or other judgment, during a period of incarceration, such person shall be required to apply the value of such resources to any restitution or fine still owed. (o) A sentence that imposes an order of restitution is a final judgment notwithstanding the fact that— (1) such a sentence can subsequently be— (A) corrected under Rule 35 of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure and Section 3742 of chapter 235 of this title; (B) appealed and modified under Section 3742; (C) amended under subsection (d)(5); or (D) adjusted under Section 3664(k), 3572, or 3613A; or (2) the defendant may be resentenced under Section 3565 or 3614. (p) Nothing in this section or Sections 2248, 2259, 2264, 2327, 3663, and 3663A and arising out of the application of such sections, shall be construed to create a cause of action not otherwise authorized in favor of any person against the United States or any officer or employee of the United States.

Summary: Federal courts may not order a defendant to pay restitution to the victims of his or her crimes unless authorized by statute to do so. Several statutes supply such authorization. For instance, federal courts are statutorily required to order victim restitution when sentencing a defendant either for an offense against property, including fraud or deceit, proscribed in Title 18 of the United States Code or for a crime of violence. The obligation exists even if the defendant is indigent, and restitution must take the form of in-kind, lump sum, or installment payments. Federal courts are permitted, but not required, to order victim restitution when sentencing a defendant for any offense proscribed in Title 18 for which restitution is not required. Federal courts are permitted to order victim restitution when sentencing a defendant for various controlled substance and aviation safety offenses. In addition, a federal court may order restitution pursuant to a plea bargain or as a condition of probation or supervised release. As a general rule, restitution is available only to victims who have suffered a physical injury or financial loss as a direct and proximate consequence of the crime of conviction, and only to the extent of their losses. Several provisions governing restitution following conviction for particular crimes permit awards for types of losses that might not otherwise be permitted under the general restitution provisions. For example, the Identity Theft Enforcement and Restitution Act of 2008 (18 U.S.C. 3663(b)(6)) authorizes restitution orders to compensate victims for the cost of remediating the intended or actual harm caused by certain identity theft violations. The courts are divided over the extent to which a defendant convicted of possession of child pornography may be ordered to make restitution to the child depicted in the material. When restitution is to be ordered, a probation officer gathers information from victims, the government, the defendant, and other sources for a report to the court. The parties receive copies of the report and may contest its recommendations. The court has considerable discretion as to the manner and scheduling of restitution payments, but the authority may not be delegated to probation or prison officials. Furthermore, the order must provide for full restitution for all victims unless the sheer number of victims or the complications of a given case preclude such an order. Under the abatement doctrine, when a defendant dies before his or her appeal has become final, the law treats the indictment and conviction as though they had never happened. The conviction is vacated and the indictment dismissed. The courts do not agree on whether the doctrine also reaches unfulfilled obligations under a restitution order. This report is available in an abridged form—without footnotes, citations to most authorities, or appendixes—as CRS Report RS22708, Restitution in Federal Criminal Cases: A Sketch. Related reports include CRS Report RL33679, Crime Victims' Rights Act: A Summary and Legal Analysis of 18 U.S.C. 3771, by [author name scrubbed], available in abridged form as CRS Report RS22518, Crime Victims' Rights Act: A Sketch of 18 U.S.C. 3771, by [author name scrubbed].