Several State and DHS components have roles and responsibilities in the E-2 adjudication process, as shown in Table 1. Depending on which agency (State or USCIS) is conducting the E-2 adjudication, as well as the foreign national’s role in relation to the E-2 business, foreign nationals are described using various terms, as shown in table 2. Both the business and foreign national seeking E-2 status must meet specific eligibility requirements, as shown in table 3. The E-2 eligibility requirements for nationals of treaty countries and their qualified family members (i.e., dependents) are defined in the INA, as amended, as well as in federal regulation. Foreign nationals seeking E-2 status must provide evidence and supporting documentation to State’s consular officers or USCIS’s immigration officers showing that they and their related business meet these requirements. There are two pathways for an individual seeking E-2 status: (1) applying for an E-2 visa through State at a post abroad, and then being inspected and admitted at a U.S. port of entry by CBP, or (2) filing with USCIS to extend, or change to E-2 status if already in the United States in E-2 or other nonimmigrant status, as shown in figure 1. Prior to the expiration of the 2-year period typical for E-2 nonimmigrants, a foreign national seeking to remain in E-2 status must either petition USCIS for an E-2 extension; or depart the country, reapply for an E-2 visa with State at a U.S. embassy or consulate, and seek entry at a U.S. port of entry. However, if the E-2 visa is still valid after having departed, the foreign national may present that visa to apply for admission again at a U.S. port of entry. If applying through State, consular officers are responsible for adjudicating E-2 visa applications at one of State’s 220 posts. Although all posts can adjudicate E-2 visas, approximately 140 posts adjudicated at least one E-2 visa in fiscal year 2018. Taken together, State and USCIS adjudicated an annual volume of E-2 visa applications or petitions of more than 50,000 from fiscal years 2014 through 2018. State accounted for over 80 percent of these adjudications. About 90 percent of State’s E-2 visa applications were issued, and about 83 percent of USCIS’s E-2 petitions were approved. See appendix III for additional State and USCIS data on the characteristics of foreign nationals seeking E-2 status, including annual statistics, the relatively low number of E-2 nonimmigrants who remain in the United States beyond the conclusion of their authorized period of stay (i.e., overstay), and other post-adjudication outcomes. The volume of State’s E-2 visa adjudications increased from fiscal years 2014 through 2017, and decreased slightly in fiscal year 2018, as shown in figure 2. During this time period, State consular officers adjudicated an average of about 45,000 E-2 visas per year. Also during this time period, 44 percent of adjudications were for dependents, and a combined 53 percent were for principals, including 14 percent for the investor, 20 percent for managers, and 19 percent for essential employees. From fiscal years 2014 through 2017, the average E-2 visa refusal rate— that is, the number of refused visas divided by the total number of visas adjudicated during that time period—was about 8 percent, which is generally lower than for other types of nonimmigrant visas (see sidebar). We do not present the fiscal year 2018 refusal rate in figure 3 because that rate is subject to change until the end of fiscal year 2019. Specifically, an application adjudicated in fiscal year 2018 may require the applicant to submit additional information to demonstrate eligibility for an E-2 visa. In such cases, the application is refused under INA § 221(g). The applicant has one year after the date of refusal to overcome the refusal by, for example, providing missing or supplemental information. After one year, the applicant must reapply. As of November 2018, 8,184 of the 11,255 refusals in fiscal year 2018 were refused under INA § 221(g). Depending on the extent to which applicants refused in fiscal year 2018 under INA § 221(g) are able to overcome their refusals, State officials stated that they expected the fiscal year 2018 refusal rate to be similar to prior fiscal years. In addition to analyzing State data on adjudications and refusals, we also analyzed data to identify trends in refusal rates by applicant type, refusal reasons, nationality of applicants, and business sectors, and level of investment, as described below. Refusal Rates by Applicant Type. Our analysis showed that for fiscal years 2014 through 2018, average refusal rates were highest for investors (24 percent), followed by dependents (12 percent), managers (9 percent), and essential employees (6 percent). Figure 4 shows the refusal rates by fiscal year for each applicant type, and appendix III includes additional information on refusal rates for fiscal year 2018. According to State officials, refusal rates may be higher for investors because such applicants are typically the first in their company applying for an E-2 visa; if denied, then future E-2 applicants (e.g., manager or essential employee) would need to wait until such investor is approved or find another individual or business investor to form the basis for their E-2 employment status. Refusal Reasons. Our analysis showed that approximately 10 percent of E-2 visa adjudications from fiscal years 2014 through 2017 were refused. The majority of E-2 visa refusals for fiscal years 2014 through 2017 (75 percent) were because the applicant did not meet eligibility requirements. The next largest reason for refusal (22 percent) was INA § 221(g) for inadequate documentation. Few E-2 visa applicants are refused for other reasons, such as prior immigration violations, fraud, or terrorist activities. For example, in total, less than 4 percent of all E-2 visa adjudications during this time period were refused for other reasons, such as security or criminal-related ineligibilities, fraud or misrepresentation, and immigration violations, among others. Nationality. Our analysis showed that about 80 percent of E-2 visa adjudications from fiscal years 2014 through 2018 were for nationals from nine countries: five European countries (Germany, France, United Kingdom, Italy, and Spain), two Asian countries (Japan and South Korea), and two North American countries (Canada and Mexico). Japan was the largest country of nationality, with 29 percent, followed by Germany (10 percent), Canada (7 percent), and France (7 percent). Figure 5 shows the top ten countries by percentage of E-2 visa adjudications from fiscal years 2014 through 2018. Business Sectors. To obtain information on additional characteristics of E-2 visa principal applicants (i.e., investor, manager, and essential employee), such as their business sector and investment amounts, we reviewed a generalizable sample of 120 fiscal year 2018 E-2 visa applications. Based on our analysis, we estimate that about three- fourths of principal E-2 visa applicants were associated with 4 business sectors: manufacturing (44 percent), food services (13 percent), retail (11 percent), and professional services (10 percent). Figure 6 includes examples of the businesses we found within each of these sectors. Investment. Based on information reported by fiscal year 2018 principal applicants in our generalizable sample of issued visas, we estimate 64 percent of applications were for principal applicants associated with investments reportedly over $10 million, as shown in figure 7. Of these, 30 of 40 applications were for those in the manufacturing sector, particularly for the automotive sector, such as large automobile manufacturers. From fiscal year 2014 through 2018, USCIS adjudicated an average of about 9,400 E-2 petitions per year. During this time period, USCIS adjudicated petitions to extend E-2 status for an average of about 5,900 beneficiaries per year, about 60 percent of which were for E-2 dependents (i.e., an E-2 principal’s spouse or children). Also during the same time period, USCIS adjudicated petitions for an average of about 3,500 beneficiaries per year who were seeking to change to E-2 status from another nonimmigrant category. Of these, about 47 percent of which were E-2 principal beneficiaries (i.e., investors, managers, and essential employees). Figure 8 shows the number of petitions to extend or change to E-2 status from fiscal years 2014 through 2018. The average denial rate for E-2 petitions for fiscal years 2014 through 2018 was about 17 percent. Denial rates were higher for petitions to change status from another nonimmigrant category to E-2 (27 percent) than for petitions to extend E-2 status (11 percent), as shown in figure 9. Further, the denial rate for both extension and change of status petitions increased from fiscal years 2014 through 2017, but fell by several points in 2018. In addition to analyzing USCIS data on adjudications and denials, we also analyzed data to identify trends in country of birth, prior status, date of last U.S. entry, reasons for denial, business sectors, and level of investment, as described below. Country of Birth. Our analysis showed that the top countries of birth for individuals seeking to extend their E-2 status from fiscal years 2014 through 2018 were South Korea, Mexico, and Japan, and the top countries of birth for those seeking to change to E-2 status from another nonimmigrant category were South Korea, Pakistan, and Turkey, as shown in table 4. Although there are similarities with the top countries of nationality for State E-2 visas (see previous figure 5), there are some differences as well. For example, both Pakistan and Thailand are among the top countries of birth for petitioning with USCIS to extend or change to E-2 status, but are not among the top countries of nationality for State E-2 visas. Prior status. Our analysis showed that individuals seeking to change to E-2 status from another nonimmigrant category from fiscal years 2014 through 2018 were most often changing status from a tourist, business, or student visa, as shown in figure 10. For example, more than half (53 percent) of all petitions to change to E-2 status were for beneficiaries that were tourists (B-2) or business visitors (B-1). In addition, about 4 percent of beneficiaries were seeking to change status within the E-2 classification. For example, a child or spouse of an E-2 investor may later work at the company as a manager and therefore would need to petition to change from dependent to principal E-2 status as a manager. Date of last entry into the United States. On the basis of our review of a generalizable sample of petitions of E-2 principals (i.e., investors, managers, and essential employees), we estimate that one third of principal beneficiaries had been in the United States since 2014 or earlier at the time they sought to change to or extend E-2 status in 2018, some as long as 18 years, as shown in figure 11. Such beneficiaries may have changed status from other kinds of nonimmigrant status, or may have requested to extend their E-2 status multiple times. There is no limit on the number of times a foreign national may request to extend their E-2 status. Reason for denial. On the basis of our review of a generalizable sample of fiscal year 2018 denied petitions for E-2 principals, we estimate that the top reasons petitions were denied included (1) the enterprise was not real and operating, and (2) the investment was not substantial, as shown in table 5. Of the denied petitions in fiscal year 2018, about one-third were either withdrawn by petitioner or abandoned, meaning that the petitioner did not respond to USCIS requests for additional evidence. Business Sectors. On the basis of our review, we estimate that the majority of E-2 principal beneficiaries were associated with 4 business sectors, as shown in figure 12: food services (38 percent), retail (18 percent), manufacturing (9 percent), and professional services (13 percent). Comparing our two generalizable samples, a smaller percentage of USCIS’s E-2 principal beneficiaries were associated with manufacturing (44 versus 9 percent) and more with food services (13 versus 38 percent) than State’s E-2 principal visa applicants. Investment. We estimate that about two-thirds of the approved petitions were for principal beneficiaries associated with investments of $200,000 or less, as shown in figure 13. We found that about 30 percent of USCIS’s E-2 principal beneficiaries were associated with investment amounts of $100,000 or less and 7 percent were associated with investments over $10 million. State and USCIS have agency-specific guidance, procedures, and training intended to ensure E-2 applicants and petitioners, respectively, meet E-2 eligibility requirements. However, officials from both agencies identified challenges in the E-2 adjudication process. Some of State’s posts have developed E-2 company registration programs to help streamline the E-2 adjudication process, but there are no minimum standards for these programs, which may result in different processing of companies and applicants across posts. Further, State and USCIS require that consular and immigration officers retain certain documentation for all E-2 applications and petitions; however, during our case file review of E-2 applications and petitions adjudicated in fiscal year 2018, we found that State did not consistently retain all required documents. State and USCIS have guidance and resources to help officers adjudicate E-2 applications and petitions. Both agencies have similar high-level procedures for adjudicating E-2 applications and petitions, but there are some key differences in how each agency implements these procedures based on their specific roles and responsibilities. Further, both agencies provide their staff with some training on E-2 eligibility requirements. Guidance and resources. State and USCIS have guidance and resources available to staff who adjudicate E-2 visas and petitions to help ensure that applicants and petitioners meet E-2 eligibility requirements. Although the guidance documents have some minor differences, they are based on the same eligibility requirements. For example, the main guidance documents for State and USCIS—State’s Foreign Affairs Manual (FAM) and USCIS’s national E-visa standard operating procedures—both include the same eligibility criteria and provide additional explanation on each of the eligibility requirements. State also provides supplementary resources for consular officers on its intranet, such as E-2 adjudication best practices, an adjudication guide, and case studies. State and USCIS both provide headquarters-based legal advisors and attorneys with whom officers can consult for case-specific guidance. For example, a State consular officer at one post we visited told us that he requested such assistance for an application from an investor whose company had a particularly complex ownership structure that made it difficult to determine if at least 50 percent of the company was owned by nationals of a treaty country. Adjudication procedures. State and USCIS high-level procedures for adjudicating E-2 applications and petitions are generally similar, but there are some key differences based on their specific roles and responsibilities. As shown in figure 14, both agencies require foreign nationals to submit an E-2 application or petition, and pay any relevant fees. Additionally, both agencies vet individuals by conducting security checks and reviewing submitted information to ensure that all E-2 eligibility requirements are met. There are four key differences in State and USCIS procedures for adjudicating E-2 visa applications and petitions: Interviews. State requires in-person interviews of most E-2 applicants. According to USCIS officials, USCIS does not conduct interviews of beneficiaries and petitioners because they do not have the resources or facilities to do so. In any case, USCIS’s process for adjudicating nonimmigrant visa petitions for foreign nationals who have already been lawfully admitted into the United States, in E-2 or other nonimmigrant status does not include an interview requirement. Locally Employed Staff (LES) and E-2 Visa Adjudication Consular officers and managers stated that LES play an important role in E-2 visa processing and adjudication. LES are employees hired under the local compensation plan at a U.S. post overseas. LES include foreign service nationals, U.S. citizens residing abroad, third country nationals, and eligible family members of State employees. LES can provide the institutional knowledge and expertise in E-2 visa issues, as consular officers rotate posts every 2 years but LES do not rotate. Consular managers at 4 of the 14 posts we interviewed or visited stated that their post specifically hired LES to work on E-2 visas because of their specialized knowledge and backgrounds in business or law. For example, a consular officer may consult with LES on an application to better understand the legal relationship between two companies, as some LES have a background or developed expertise in financial law. Locally Employed Staff (LES) initial processing and prescreening. In addition to consular officers, State employs local residents in its host country to help with consular services (see sidebar). For example, at some posts State’s LES prescreen visa applications before consular officers adjudicate the application. Procedures for LES varied at the posts we interviewed and visited. For example, LES at some posts provide administrative help and processing—such as scanning application documents, checking applications for completeness, and scheduling interviews. LES at other posts provide additional analytical support—such as by summarizing applications, completing eligibility checklists, and maintaining databases on previously issued E-2 visas. Regardless of the kind of help LES may provide at post, only consular officers adjudicate E-2 visa applications and make decisions on whether or not the visa is issued. The number of LES supporting E-2 visa applications at the 14 posts we visited or interviewed ranged from one part-time position to five full-time LES. Consular managers and officers at all four of the posts we visited described the role of LES in processing E-2 visas as critical (see sidebar). Although USCIS’ California Service Center has staff who assist with processing petitions, such as by organizing folders with the petition materials, immigration officers generally perform the analytical tasks themselves. Staffing model. Depending on E-2 visa application volume, staffing considerations, and workload arrangements, the number of consular officers adjudicating E-2 visas at the 14 posts abroad we interviewed ranged from one to six per post. Further, on the basis of our observations and interviews with consular officials at 14 posts, we found that State’s posts have generally developed three different staffing models for adjudicating E-2 visa applications, as shown in table 6. Consular managers stated that the kind of model used at a post may depend on E-2 visa volume, as well as other factors. For example, a consular manager at a post we visited explained that the specialist model worked well at his post because it had a relatively low volume of E-2 adjudications each year, which meant that a single officer could focus on such visas. In contrast, a consular manager at a post we visited that was staffed with a hybrid of generalists and specialists had higher E-2 visa volume and stated that their model allowed them to balance efficiency and specialization. For USCIS, a specialized office of five immigration officers review and adjudicate all E-petitions (including E-1 and E-2) at one location –USCIS’ California Service Center, as of July 2018. Training. State and USCIS provide training to their respective E-2 processing and adjudication staff on E-2 eligibility requirements. State’s consular officers assigned to adjudicate E-2 visas receive the majority of their adjudication training at post, with a brief introduction to E-2 visas during a mandatory 6-week Foreign Service Institute training course taken prior to serving as a consular officer overseas. According to Foreign Service Institute officials, the course provides consular officers with an overview of the various visa classes they may adjudicate, but focuses on visas that all consular officers will address at post. Because E-2 visas are not adjudicated at every post, and consular officers typically cannot specialize in only one particular classification like USCIS counterparts who have a dedicated E-2 unit, the course does not concentrate on that visa classification. Instead, State relies on the individual posts to provide training to prepare consular officers to adjudicate E-2 visas on an “as needed” basis. On the basis of our interviews and observations, we found that E-2 training programs for consular officers at post generally consist of three components. First, consular managers and senior consular officers at post provide the consular officer who will be adjudicating E-2 visa applications for the first time with an overview of the E-2 eligibility requirements along with any supplementary E-2 training resources, such as illustrative examples of challenging E-2 visa cases the post has previously adjudicated. Second, new consular officers are to observe senior consular officers adjudicate E-2 visas for 1 to 3 weeks, which helps the new officer to learn how the requirements are applied. Finally, new officers adjudicate E-2 visas under the supervision of a senior consular officer with experience adjudicating E-2 visa applications, with 100 percent of their adjudications reviewed by consular managers until management determines that the new officer is proficient. As needed, supervisors will meet with new officers to discuss specific adjudications, including whether the officer properly documented their decision. State’s E-2 training for LES is entirely at post. According to consular managers and LES, LES training generally consists of a review of eligibility requirements and supervision. First, new LES assigned to E-2 visa processing and prescreening receive an overview of the E-2 eligibility requirements from a senior LES. According to LES we interviewed, the overview of the eligibility requirements helps them to identify the types of documents E-2 applicants typically submit to establish E-2 eligibility. Second, new LES are observed by senior LES until management determines that the LES is proficient at processing and prescreening. As noted above, USCIS has staff dedicated to E-2 petitions and USCIS provides training to new E-2 immigration officers that include the same basic components as State, such as a review of eligibility requirements and job shadowing. First, immigration officers who will work on E-2 adjudications receive 3 weeks of classroom training during which they review the E-2 eligibility requirements. The classroom training is followed by a 1-week practicum session where USCIS immigration officers apply the classroom training to sample E-2 petitions. Specifically, immigration officers explained to us that during the practicum they are given example cases to which they are to apply their classroom training. After each officer has adjudicated the example case, they discuss how each applied the various E-2 eligibility requirements and reconcile any differences with the assistance of the immigration supervisor facilitating the training. Second, after the 4 weeks of training, USCIS immigration officers begin to adjudicate E-2 petitions under the guidance of an E-2 immigration supervisor. Third, new E-2 immigration officers have 100 percent of their cases reviewed by their supervisor until they are deemed proficient. State’s consular officers and LES, as well as USCIS officials, stated that given the complexity of adjudicating E-2 applications and petitions, and the level of documentation and time required, the E-2 adjudication process can present challenges with respect to the analysis of the E-2 eligibility requirements. Consular officers and LES we spoke with stated that additional training on E-2 eligibility requirements would be beneficial. USCIS officials said that while E-2 petitions can be challenging to adjudicate, additional training was not necessary. Consular officers we spoke with noted that E-2 visa adjudications are particularly complicated and resource-intensive, involving potentially complex business issues, and often requiring more documentation and time to adjudicate than is typically needed to adjudicate other visas. Specifically, consular officers at 10 of 14 posts we interviewed stated that E-2 visas are among the most difficult nonimmigrant visas to adjudicate because of the amount of supporting documentation that is required to demonstrate that both the business and applicant meet all eligibility requirements, as well as the time required to prescreen and adjudicate the application package. For example, E-2 application packages can include 200 pages or more of supporting documentation, and include a range of detailed business and financial documents (see sidebar). Further, consular officers told us that it can take between 45 minutes to 4 hours to review a single E-2 application with its supporting documents. Consular officers explained that, in contrast, other nonimmigrant visa categories do not require the same amount of time or number of documents to adjudicate. For example, business and tourism nonimmigrant visas typically take less than 10 minutes to adjudicate and do not require that any documentation be submitted by the applicant prior to the adjudication. Consular officers at the 14 posts we visited or interviewed identified challenges with respect to the analysis of the E-2 eligibility requirements. Table 7 provides examples of some of these challenges, as identified by consular officers at the 14 posts. Substantial investment requirement: No prescribed minimum amount of capital, although it must be substantial in proportion to the cost of the business. Sufficient to ensure the investor’s financial commitment to the successful operation of the business. Large enough to ensure the likelihood of success of the business. Determining substantial investment. Consular officers at 10 of 14 posts indicated that it can be challenging to determine substantiality of capital investment amounts. According to the FAM, there is no set amount of capital which is considered substantial; instead, various factors must be considered to ensure there is a large enough investment to support the business. Consular officers noted that it can be difficult to determine how much capital is needed to support the many types of businesses that consular officers see in E-2 applications, which can range from small restaurants to technology start-ups to large automobile manufacturers. For example, a consular officer may be presented with an application for an investor seeking an E-2 visa to open a business that the consular officer has never seen before in an E-2 visa application, such as an airport internet café that rents hourly sleeping pods to travelers on long layovers. The consular officer may be initially unfamiliar with what is considered to be a more unique type of business, and may not know immediately how much investment would be sufficient to ensure the successful operation of the business. In such cases, the officer might gather additional information from the applicant on similar businesses, which the officer could use to inform their determination as to the amount of capital that would be needed to support successful operation of the business in the United States. Real and operating business requirement: The business is a real and active commercial or entrepreneurial undertaking that produces goods (i.e. commodities) or services for profit, and meets applicable legal requirements for doing business in the particular jurisdiction of the United States. Determining real and operating business. Consular officers at 7 of 14 posts indicated that it can be challenging to determine whether the business is real and operating. Consular officers explained that particularly difficult issues may arise for new businesses, which may not be operational yet at the time of the interview. Consular officers stated that it can be very clear when a business is not yet operating, but that additional analysis is required for newly-formed businesses that do not yet have customers or revenue but may have taken other actions to start the business. Consular officers at one post explained it is sometimes very clear that a business is not operating because, for example, the business has not yet made any contracts with clients, does not have a website advertising its services, and has no evidence of any expenses made on behalf of the business. As for newly-formed businesses, consular officers at another post we visited provided a hypothetical example of a restaurant whose owner had a lease for the restaurant space, bought equipment, and hired employees, but had not opened to customers yet because it was waiting for the chef to receive an E-2 visa as an essential employee. The officers indicated that in such a hypothetical scenario in which a business’s qualification as an E-2 business depends on E-2 visa issuance of a key worker, it may not be immediately clear without further analysis, whether such business would be considered real and operating. Manager requirement: The individual is an employee in an executive or supervisory position. Determining manager qualifications. Consular officers at 6 of 14 posts indicated that it can be challenging to determine whether a prospective manager had or will have sufficient executive or supervisory duties to meet the E-2 managerial requirement. Consular officers provided a hypothetical example in which a consular officer may interview an applicant seeking an E-2 visa to become a manager at a restaurant, but the applicant may not have any prior management experience nor will she have any subordinates in the restaurant. Such a situation may pose challenges to the consular officer to determine if the applicant would be eligible for an E-2 visa as a manager. Officers noted that the FAM requirements did not specifically state that the applicant must have prior experience or subordinates to qualify as a manager. In such situations, consular officers said they might request additional information from the applicant about the restaurant, her skills and experience, and the nature of her managerial role in the business. Essential employee requirement: The individual is employed in a lesser capacity than a manager, but possesses special qualifications (i.e. skills and/or aptitudes) essential to the business’ successful or efficient operations in the United States. Determining essential employee qualifications. Consular officers at 6 of 14 posts indicated that it can be challenging to determine whether a prospective essential employee has special qualifications (i.e. essential skills or aptitudes). Consular officers noted that they can ask questions and obtain information about the applicant’s specialized skills, but that often further research is needed to determine if those skills are essential to the business’ operations in the United States. For example, an officer at one post we interviewed provided a hypothetical example of a pet groomer seeking an E-2 visa as an essential employee for a pet grooming service. Although one might be skeptical that pet grooming is a specialized skill and that such an employee would be considered essential, in such a situation, the officer noted that he would likely conduct further research. In doing so, he might determine that the applicant is a well-known expert who specializes in grooming certain breeds of exotic or show animals, and that the grooming service is planning to target that type of animal. Other requirements. Consular officers told us that some of the other E-2 eligibility requirements are not particularly challenging. For example, consular officers at all 14 posts told us that it is relatively straightforward to determine if the applicant has a clear intent to depart the United States upon termination of E-2 status because applicants typically provide an affidavit attesting to their nonimmigrant intent. Further, consular officers stated that it is easy to determine if the applicant is an eligible dependent because consular officers are familiar with local identity information (e.g., birth and marriage certificates) and there are no nationality requirements for dependents. In addition to potential challenges with respect to the analysis of the eligibility requirements, consular officers at 4 of 14 posts also identified challenges in understanding business and financial documents that are provided in support of an E-2 application. For example, at one post we visited, a consular officer explained the challenges he faced in understanding U.S. tax documentation and the differences between various types of corporations. Further, consular managers at two posts stated that officers without prior knowledge in basic business concepts can find E-2 visa adjudication challenging when they first arrive at post. A manager from a third post stated that the complexity of some E-2 visa cases requires knowledge of business and finance acquired through substantial experience or education. More than marginal business requirement: The investment must be made in a business that has the capacity to generate more than enough income to provide a minimal living for the treaty investor or employee and family, or has the present or future capacity (generally within five years) to make a significant economic contribution. Although LES do not adjudicate visas, LES at 6 of 14 posts also indicated that they had encountered challenges with respect to the analysis of the E-2 eligibility requirements. For example, LES at one post indicated that it can be challenging to determine whether a company is more than marginal (see sidebar) because the size, type or investment sector of each E-2 company presents unique facts and circumstances. LES at one post told us that they needed additional examples of how applicants can meet the various criteria, which would help the LES flag potential areas of concern for the consular officer. Further, LES also expressed challenges in understanding some business and financial aspects of prescreening. For example, LES at two posts stated that determining the nationality of large companies can be difficult because they need to trace back ownership to the original, parent company, and that corporate structures can be very complicated. Given the complexity of adjudicating E-2 visas, the majority of consular officers and consular managers we spoke with stated that additional training and resources would be beneficial, such as online training, conferences to share best practices, or documents clarifying eligibility requirements. Specifically, consular officers at 9 of 14 posts and consular managers at 8 of the 14 posts stated that additional E-2 training or resources would be beneficial to consular officers. For example, a consular manager at one post noted that the additional resources provided on State’s intranet, such as the adjudication guide and case studies, have already helped to improve clarity on the eligibility requirements, but more resources and training are needed. Further, consular managers at 4 posts stated that additional training related to tax and business concepts would be useful. For example, one manager stated that additional training on how to read and analyze U.S. tax returns could be helpful to accurately evaluate a company’s overall financial health and make a determination that a business meets the requirement to be “more than marginal.” Further, LES at all 14 posts in our review also stated that additional training or resources would help them perform their responsibilities. For example, LES at one post we visited stated that additional training and resources that clarify the eligibility standards would allow them to better prepare application packages for the consular officers to adjudicate. Further, consular managers at 9 of the 14 posts in our review also stated that additional training and guidance for LES would be helpful. For example, one consular manager suggested that State develop an online training course for both E-2 adjudicating officers and LES that reviews common business documents. Another manager stated that a training or workshop would provide opportunities to LES and E-2 adjudicating officers to learn best practices from other posts that adjudicate E-2 visas. Although State provides guidance and training on adjudicating E-2 visas, consular officers, managers, and LES identified challenges in the E-2 adjudication process, such as ensuring adjudicators adequately understand supporting financial and business documents. Many of these officials indicated that given the complexity of E-2 adjudications, additional training and resources would help them in making E-2 eligibility determinations. State officials noted that eligibility requirements are broadly defined so as to cover various business types and investment amounts. According to the Standards for Internal Control in the Federal Government, management establishes expectations of competence for key roles to help the entity achieve its objectives, which requires that staff have the relevant knowledge, skills, and abilities, needed to carry out their responsibility. Such knowledge, skills, and abilities can be obtained by on-the-job training, formal training, and other training resources, which should be available to all staff performing such roles, regardless of their post. Providing additional E-2 training or related resources would help better ensure that all consular officers and LES prescreening and adjudicating these visas have the necessary knowledge, skills, and abilities to carry out their responsibilities effectively. Such training or other resources should cover topics that include information on E-2 eligibility requirements and how to understand business- and tax-related documents. USCIS Immigration Officers Identified Challenges in Adjudicating Petitions and Noted Ways in Which They Address Them USCIS immigration officers we spoke with communicated challenges with respect to the analysis of E-2 eligibility requirements, but explained that they are able to overcome these challenges with local resources. For example, USCIS immigration officers indicated that it is sometimes challenging to determine whether a prospective “essential employee” has requisite special qualifications, or a business is “more than marginal.” For example, immigration officers indicated that determining if an employee is considered essential depends on the relevant facts and circumstances. Further, immigration officers noted that the non-marginality eligibility requirement can be difficult to determine in some cases because the officer may have to project how successful the business will be in the future. However, the immigration officers explained that their colocation with all of the other immigration officers who adjudicate E-2 petitions helps to mitigate the challenges because the officers can coordinate with each other to determine how USCIS has typically adjudicated such cases. Generally, the USCIS immigration officers stated that additional training or resources for E-2 adjudication was not needed. As of April 2019, 7 of the top 10 E-2 adjudicating posts worldwide have implemented E-2 company registration programs. An E-2 company registration program is a process by which posts assess companies against applicable E-2 eligibility requirements. Companies that meet eligibility requirements are placed on an approved or registered companies list. Companies on the registered list do not have to be reassessed for eligibility each time one of their employees seeks an E-2 visa, which creates processing efficiencies for these posts. Consular managers stated that E-2 company registration programs are intended to give consular officers reasonable assurance that a company meets the minimum E-2 business and investment eligibility requirements, allowing the adjudicating officer to focus the majority of their effort on evaluating the applicant ‘s E-2 eligibility. In fact, we found that at posts with E-2 company registration programs, the consular officer may not need to collect or review any supporting documentation related to the company prior to adjudicating the visa. In contrast, E-2 adjudicating posts without an E-2 company registration program would assess both the company and the applicant against the E-2 eligibility criteria each time they review and adjudicate an E-2 visa application. While State has identified E-2 company registration programs as a potential best practice, these programs are not mentioned in the FAM and State has not developed guidance or minimum standards for how these programs should be implemented. Instead, State has permitted posts to develop and implement their own registration programs, which has led to variation in how the programs are implemented depending on post- specific factors. Specifically, we found that posts with E-2 company registration programs varied in three ways: Registration criteria: Three of the 7 posts with E-2 registration programs require all companies to register, while the remaining 4 posts established criteria so that only certain companies can register, such as large companies or companies with multiple E-2 visa issuances. For example, at one post, only companies with more than 500 employees in the United States are allowed to register. At posts that require all companies to register, the number of registered companies ranged from approximately 2,200 to 4,000. At posts that allow only certain companies to register, the number of registered companies ranged from about 100 to 200. Documentation requirements: Employees of E-2 registered companies seeking to obtain an E-2 visa provide different types of documentation during their E-2 adjudication, depending on the requirements of the post. For example, at two posts, applicants of registered E-2 companies must provide their resume and a company letter that outlines the applicant’s specific role within the company, and do not need to provide any other supporting documentation regarding the company or underlying investment. At these posts, consular officers review their E-2 company registration database to ensure that the company in question is registered with the post’s E-2 company registration program. Revetting policy: Two of 7 posts with E-2 company registration programs vet registered companies annually while the remaining five posts vet companies every 5 years. Consular managers added that if changes, such as changes in ownership, occur without the post knowing it, prospective applicants may no longer be eligible for the visa. However, according to consular managers, companies on the list are required to contact their post sooner than the 5- or 1- year renewal period if there are any changes in the company that would impact visa eligibility for company investors or employees. Although such programs may allow posts to more efficiently adjudicate E- 2 visas, the variation in these programs may result in different processing of companies and applicants across posts, as well as acceptance of varying levels of risk by posts. The more time a post allows companies before reassessing the company’s eligibility for registration, the more risk that post is assuming, as the companies may no longer meet the eligibility requirements and continue to send or keep employees in the United States on E-2 visas for which they are not eligible. According to Standards for Internal Control in the Federal Government, management should design and implement policies and procedures that enforce management’s directives to achieve the entity’s objectives and address related risks. However, State’s Bureau of Consular Affairs has not provided posts with minimum standards governing the implementation of E-2 company registration programs, and thus, it is unclear whether the variations among these programs are consistent with the agency’s requirements and objectives. Establishing minimum standards for posts that choose to implement such programs would better ensure that all posts’ E-2 visa adjudication processes are aligned with State’s policies, objectives, and risk tolerance. State and USCIS require certain information and documents be retained for all E-2 applications and petitions; however, during our file review of State and USCIS E-2 adjudications, we identified that some required documents were missing from State files; USCIS was able to provide copies of all the documents required to be retained for each file we reviewed. State. State’s FAM includes requirements related to the collection of E-2 visa application information for all E-2 principals (i.e. investors, managers, and essential employees). Principal investors provide their information when they complete their application online, which is automatically uploaded to State’s consular database system. However, managers and essential employees provide some information by completing a paper form DS-156E, and the FAM requires officials to scan the forms each applicant’s record. On the basis of our file review, we estimate that about 20 percent of fiscal year 2018 E-2 application files for managers and essential employees were missing required documentation, either in part or in full. Specifically, 14 percent of E-2 applications were missing the entire DS- 156E, and 8 percent (6 of 80) were missing pages of the DS-156E. According the Standards for Internal Control in the Federal Government, management performs ongoing monitoring of the design and operating effectiveness of the internal control system as part of the normal course of operations. Ongoing monitoring includes regular management and supervisory activities. According to State officials, the responsibility for ensuring that document retention is consistent with standards rests with posts, and consular managers are responsible for ensuring compliance. State officials noted that the Bureau of Consular Affairs does not have an ongoing monitoring process in place to ensure that posts are complying with the FAM requirement. Developing a process to ensure that posts are retaining all required E-2 visa documentation by monitoring implementation of the requirement could better position State to be able to access applicant information, should it be needed for law enforcement, anti-fraud, or security purposes later. USCIS. According to USCIS officials, USCIS requires the I-129 petition, supporting documentation, and decision letters for refused petitions to be retained for all petitioners. As part of our review of petition files, we requested 124 randomly selected fiscal year 2018 petition files for investors, managers, and essential employees. In response, USCIS was able to provide us with all of the required elements for each of the petition files. State has resources to help combat nonimmigrant visa fraud, including for E-2 visas. State officials said that the resources available and the steps they take if E-2 fraud is suspected are similar for all types of visa fraud. If a consular officer reviewing an E-2 visa application suspects fraud— either during prescreening or after the interview—the officer is to make a fraud referral to the post’s fraud prevention manager or to diplomatic security officials. According to State officials, not every case with potential fraud concerns will be referred for additional investigation. If a consular officer does not find the applicant to be qualified or overcome immigrant intent, officers may refuse the case without additional fraud assessments. Fraud prevention managers, who are part of State’s Bureau of Consular Affairs, investigate fraud cases and provide information on fraud trends to consular officers. At some posts, State’s Bureau of Diplomatic Security’s ARSO-Is specialize in criminal investigations of visa fraud and coordinate with local law enforcement. Both fraud prevention managers and ARSO-Is are to conduct additional research to determine if fraud exists, such as through open source searches, interviews, and coordination with other U.S. and local government entities. State officials we spoke with stated that they take fraud in all visa fraud categories seriously, but generally consider E-2 visa fraud to be lower risk relative to other visa categories because they believe the large amount of complex paperwork required for the visa would discourage malicious actors. For example, consular officers at 12 of the 14 posts we interviewed stated that E-2 visas were a low fraud risk. Similarly, consular managers at 10 of the 14 posts stated that E-2 visa fraud was generally not a concern at their post. State headquarters officials attributed the low fraud risk to the large amount of paperwork that is required, which includes complex financial documents and U.S. government produced tax forms. For example, State headquarters officials indicated that, given the documentation burden for both the applicant and the company, the E-2 nonimmigrant classification may be less susceptible to fraud than other nonimmigrant classifications. According to State’s E-2 fraud data, the number of E-2 fraud referrals has decreased since fiscal year 2015, but the number of confirmed fraud cases was consistent from fiscal years 2014 through 2018, as shown in figure 15. There was an initial increase in referrals from fiscal year 2014 to 2015, which State officials attributed to consular staff more consistently making such requests through the official system of record rather than by email. From fiscal years 2015 through 2018 the number of E-2 visa fraud referrals decreased each year, from 664 in fiscal year 2015 to 280 in fiscal year 2018. Throughout this time period, the number of confirmed fraud cases stayed about the same, ranging from 39 to 59 cases per year. Although consular officials at 12 of the 14 posts considered E-2 visas to be low fraud risk, consular officers also identified country-specific E-2 fraud trends and indicators that they monitored at their post, as appropriate, such as the type of business, the location of the business, or the nationality of the applicant. Some of the posts in our review have taken additional actions to address E-2 fraud, such as additional fraud reviews and conducting validation studies: Additional fraud review: Consular managers at one post told us that the post has devoted additional resources to ensure that all E-2 visa applications undergo an additional fraud review, given that E-2 visas can have a relatively long validity period than most nonimmigrant visas. At this post, all E-2 visa applications are sent to the fraud prevention manager and the ARSO-I, both of whom conduct additional research and look for fraud indicators. Validation study: Validation studies determine the extent to which foreign nationals who were issued visas later overstayed or misused their visa, and can be conducted by post officials for any visa classification. One post in our review conducted a validation study that focused on E-2 visas that post had issued to foreign nationals associated with food service companies (e.g., restaurants) to determine how many remained in business and how many E-2 visa holders continued to travel or stay in the United States after the business failed. According to this 2016 validation study, the post had concluded that almost one-quarter of food service companies in its study had failed within about three years, and nearly half of E-2 visa holders for those companies did not depart after the company had failed or continued to travel to the United States on their E-2 visa. According to the post’s fraud team, the study showed that even prospective E-2 visa enterprises that meet the applicable requirements at the time of application can become unqualified over time, and that adjudicators should take long-term viability into account when determining the marginality of a business. The post’s fraud team also stated that other posts may wish to consider standardized follow- ups for approved E-2 enterprises and routine confirmations of vetted E companies as the E-2 visa category continues to grow in popularity. USCIS officials stated they consider E-2 fraud to be a significant issue and take several steps to identify fraud, including fraud referrals, fraud assessment technology, and site visits. First, according to USCIS officials, immigration officers reviewing the E-2 petition look for anomalies and other indicators of fraud and send a fraud referral for any potential fraud cases by forwarding the case to the service center’s fraud detection office. Immigration officers in the fraud detection office then are to conduct further research, such as reviewing open sources (e.g., company website) or may request a site visit to the business. Second, USCIS uses a fraud assessment technology on all petitions to determine if an E-2 company exists and is financially viable. Specifically, the Validation Instrument for Business Enterprises (VIBE) is a technology that helps immigration officers to determine if a business is operating, financially strong and viable, has good credit, and has not been involved in past fraud. According to USCIS officials, VIBE reviews existing business-related information on an enterprise, such as an office supply store account or utility bills, to determine if it is real and operating. Finally, immigration officers may request site visits based on their review of the application or VIBE results. During such site visits, immigration officers visit the business location to determine if the business is performing as stated in the petition and in compliance with the E-2 visa eligibility requirements. The results of the site visit are sent back to the originating location for adjudication. According to USCIS officials, if a larger conspiracy is uncovered, such as fraud involving multiple beneficiaries, the immigration officer may make a referral to U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement for further criminal investigation and potential prosecution, but added that this is very rare. USCIS immigration officers made 252 requests for site visits based on VIBE results from fiscal year 2014 through 2018 for E-2s. Of these site visits, USCIS determined there was confirmed fraud for 25 percent (63), as shown in figure 16. Of the 63 confirmed fraud cases, 42 enterprises were not located at the site provided in the petition and 14 enterprises had provided fraudulent documents or otherwise mispresented the facts. For example, in one case, the beneficiary paid a dental laboratory to assign her in a fictitious position of office manager so that she could obtain E-2 status, but the beneficiary had never worked there. In another example, an investor seeking E-2 status in May 2015 submitted a petition based on a discount store that had gone out of business in January 2013. According to USCIS officials, when fraud is confirmed, the immigration officer will deny the petition, review any pending or previously approved petitions from the petitioner, and fraud finding will be entered into VIBE, which affects the applicant’s ability to obtain future immigration benefits, including visa application or petition approvals from the United States government. State consular officers can also request that USCIS conduct site visits to help in its adjudication of E-2 visa applications, but USCIS data indicate that such requests are rare. According to USCIS, the agency received 10 external site visit requests from State from fiscal years 2014 through 2018. Of the 10 requests, USCIS conducted site visits to seven businesses and found one incidence of fraud involving a restaurant. According to State officials, site visits are considered to be resource intensive for the USCIS and can take several weeks or months to complete. The officials added that if a consular officer determines that an applicant is unqualified for the visa, it would not be considered an effective use of the post’s resources to conduct additional investigations or request a U.S.-based site visit from USCIS. Based on the results of the site visits and other factors, USCIS officials stated that they have prioritized E-2 fraud, and initiated a site visit pilot program in February 2018 to better determine the extent to which fraud exists. This pilot program focuses on businesses associated with individuals approved for an E-2 status extension and certain eligibility criteria. According to USCIS officials in July 2019, the most commonly encountered fraud or noncompliance issues thus far have involved enterprises that were not operational, not engaged in any business activities, or were not operating as stated in the petition. USCIS plans to continue the E-2 pilot into fiscal year 2020 and to share the results with State. State’s and USCIS’s respective roles in the E-2 process, along with a current lack of coordination on E-2 anti-fraud efforts, may contribute to the differences in the way the agencies view and prioritize the risks of E-2 fraud. Drawing on the results of its site visit pilot project, USCIS has said it views E-2 fraud as a significant issue and plans to prioritize efforts to combat E-2 fraud moving forward. While State has taken some steps to examine and combat E-2 visa fraud, officials we spoke with at posts and at headquarters told us that E-2 fraud is rare and generally low risk. The E-2 validation study that one post conducted, noted earlier, also provided evidence that E-2 fraud occurred, at least in that business sector from that particular country. While it is possible that additional validation studies across different posts and business sectors would uncover fraud trends, State officials noted that validation studies are resource intensive, and that E-2 visas represent only a small fraction of the total visas they adjudicate each year. Therefore, State officials stated that such studies are likely to be focused on more common visa types, such as tourist and business visitor visas. Although some factors may explain why USCIS and State view the risk of E-2 fraud differently, both agencies encounter foreign nationals seeking the E-2 status in the United States. Officials from both agencies stated that USCIS may be more likely to uncover fraud than State because USCIS processes E-2 status extensions for individuals already in the United States. E-2 principals (i.e., investors, managers, and essential employees) would have had up to 2 years to try to run, manage, or work for their business, with the intention to depart at the conclusion of their authorized period of stay. If they failed, gave up, or ended employment, but still sought an E-2 status extension, any materially false representations made as to their eligibility could be considered fraudulent. Officials from both agencies suggested that State may be adjudicating visas for more new businesses, which may qualify at the time of initial adjudication but could ultimately fail. However, during our observations and file reviews, we found that USCIS also adjudicates petitions for new businesses for beneficiaries seeking to change to E-2 status, and State also adjudicates E-2 visa applications for existing businesses that have previously been associated with E-2 visa holders. Further, neither State nor USCIS collect data that track the number of new businesses seeking E-2 status for their employees. As such, we cannot verify the accuracy of this reason for explaining why or if USCIS is more likely to encounter fraud among individuals seeking E-2 status than State. Both State and USCIS collect information that could potentially be useful to each other’s activities to identify and address E-2 fraud, but the agencies do not have a mechanism for regular coordination on fraud. For example, as previously noted, consular officers adjudicating E-2 visas overseas learn to identify country-based fraud trends as well as trends specific to E-2 visas. USCIS immigration officers can identify similar trends, and the results of USCIS’s site visits may further identify potential fraud trends that would be useful for State consular officers. However, interagency coordination is ad hoc, generally among headquarters officials only, and relatively rare. For example, both State and USCIS officials stated that the main formal mechanism of coordination on all E-2 visa issues is a quarterly teleconference. However, such meetings were cancelled 7 out of 8 times in fiscal years 2017 and 2018 because officials did not identify agenda topics to discuss, according to State and USCIS officials. Further, such meetings have not included discussions of E-2 fraud issues. State officials stated that they share country fraud summaries with USCIS. However, these fraud summaries do not focus on E-2 visas, but fraud trends more generally. According to A Framework for Managing Fraud Risks in Federal Programs, agencies should establish collaborative relationships with stakeholders to share information on fraud risks and emerging fraud schemes, as well as lessons learned related to fraud control activities. Managers can collaborate and communicate through a variety of means, including task forces, working groups, or communities of practice. Although State and USCIS have some informal mechanisms in place to share fraud-related information, such as emails among headquarters officials and by sharing high-level country fraud reports, formal information sharing mechanisms have not been regularly operating. Although the two entities view the risk of E-2 fraud visa differently, both State’s and USCIS’ E-2 antifraud efforts would benefit from ensuring that they regularly share information on fraud risks. Doing so will help both entities to better identify emerging fraud trends, prevent foreign nationals from fraudulently obtaining E-2 status, and identify areas for potential collaboration and resource sharing. The E-2 nonimmigrant classification helps to facilitate foreign investment in the United States, which contributes to the U.S. economy each year. State and USCIS share the responsibility for adjudicating thousands of E- 2 visa applications and petitions annually for foreign nationals seeking E- 2 status. Both State and USCIS officials stated that given the complexity of adjudicating E-2 applications and petitions, and the level of documentation and time required, the E-2 adjudication process can present challenges with respect to the analysis of E-2 eligibility requirements. State consular officers, managers, and LES noted that additional training and resources are needed to help them better understand the eligibility requirements and supporting financial and business documents. Enhancing E-2 training and providing additional resources such as documents clarifying E-2 eligibility requirements would help better ensure that consular officers and LES prescreening and adjudicating these visas have the necessary knowledge, skills, and abilities to carry out their responsibilities effectively across posts worldwide. Additionally, some overseas State posts have developed E-2 company registration programs to more efficiently process and adjudicate E-2 visa applications. Although there are benefits to such programs, the variation in the standards of these programs may result in different processing of companies and applicants across posts, as well as acceptance of varying levels of risk by posts. Establishing guidance or minimum standards for posts that choose to implement such programs would better ensure that all posts’ E-2 visa adjudication processes are consistent with State’s policies, objectives, and risk tolerance. Further, State and USCIS require certain information and documents be retained for all E-2 applications and petitions; however, during our file review of State and USCIS E-2 adjudications, we identified that some required documents were missing from State files. Ensuring that posts retain all required E-2 documentation would better position State to be able access applicant information, which could be needed for law enforcement, anti-fraud, or security purposes later. Finally, although State and USCIS collect information that could potentially be useful to each other’s activities to address E-2 fraud, coordination between State and USCIS on E-2 fraud has been ad hoc, generally among headquarters officials only, and relatively rare. Developing regular coordination mechanisms would help both entities to better identify emerging fraud trends and prevent foreign nationals from fraudulently obtaining E-2 status. We are making the following five recommendations to State and USCIS: The Assistant Secretary of State for Consular Affairs should provide additional training or related resources to consular officers and locally employed staff on adjudicating E-2 visas, to cover topics that include the E-2 eligibility requirements and understanding business- and tax- related documents. (Recommendation 1) The Assistant Secretary of State for Consular Affairs should develop minimum standards for E-2 company registration programs, such as standards for how often companies are to be re-vetted. (Recommendation 2) The Assistant Secretary of State for Consular Affairs should develop and implement a process to ensure that posts maintain required E-2 visa application documentation. (Recommendation 3) The Secretary of State, in coordination with the Director of USCIS, should establish regular coordination mechanisms to share information on E-2 fraud risks. (Recommendation 4) The Director of USCIS, in coordination with the Secretary of State, should establish regular coordination mechanisms to share information on E-2 fraud risks. (Recommendation 5) We provided a draft of this report to State and DHS for their review and comment. State and DHS provided written comments, which are reproduced in appendices IV and V, respectively. Both State and DHS concurred with our recommendations. State and DHS also provided technical comments, which we incorporated as appropriate. State concurred with all four recommendations addressed to it in the report (recommendations 1, 2, 3, and 4), and described actions it plans to take in response. To address recommendation 1, State plans to increase the frequency and specificity of E-2 content through webinars, workshops, and guidance, and by developing subject matter experts domestically who can provide consultative services on an as-needed basis for business and tax-related documents. To address recommendation 2, State plans to require a minimum 5-year mandatory review of companies registered at any post using a company registration program. To address recommendation 3, State plans to reinforce its E-2 visa documentation retention policy in regular policy guidance to consular managers. To address recommendation 4, State plans to hold regular, high-level coordination meetings with USCIS to include coordination on E visa adjudication standards. DHS concurred with recommendation 5, and stated that the department plans to share the results of its site visits during quarterly coordination meetings with State. These actions, if effectively implemented, should address the intent of our recommendations. We are sending copies of the report to the Acting Secretary of Homeland Security, Secretary of State, and appropriate congressional committees. In addition, the report will be available at no charge on GAO’s website at http://www.gao.gov. If you or your staff have any questions about this report, please contact Rebecca Gambler at (202) 512-8777 or gamblerr@gao.gov or Jason Bair at (202) 512-6881 or bairj@gao.gov. Contact points for our Offices of Congressional Relations and Public Affairs may be found on the last page of this report. GAO staff who made key contributions to this report are listed in appendix VI. This report reviews the Department of State’s (State) and Homeland Security’s (DHS) U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services’ (USCIS) oversight and implementation of E-2 adjudications. Specifically, this report examines (1) the outcomes and characteristics of foreign nationals who have sought or received E-2 status during fiscal years 2014 through 2018, (2) State’s and USCIS’s policies and procedures to ensure that individuals meet E-2 eligibility requirements, and (3) State’s and USCIS’s efforts to assess and address potential fraud in the E-2 adjudication process. To determine the outcomes and characteristics of foreign nationals who have sought or received E-2 status, we analyzed data from State’s Bureau of Consular Affairs and USCIS on E-2 visa applications and petitions adjudicated from fiscal years 2014 through 2018. For example, the data we analyzed included E-2 role (e.g., investor, manager, essential employee, and dependents), adjudication outcome (i.e., issued or refused), and nationality, among other data points. To assess the reliability of the E-2 data, we interviewed State and USCIS officials that maintain the data and checked the data for missing information, outliers, and obvious errors, among other actions. For example, we identified and removed duplicate entries in State’s data. On the basis of these steps, we determined that the data were sufficiently reliable for the purposes of our reporting objectives, including providing summary statistics on E-2 adjudications, outcomes, and the characteristics of those seeking E-2 status. To obtain additional data points, such as types of business and investment amount, we analyzed generalizable stratified random samples of E-2 visa applications and petitions adjudicated in fiscal year 2018. Specifically, we reviewed 124 E-2 petitions from USCIS and 120 State applications for E-2 investors, managers, and essential employees. The documents in our file review included, for example, State’s DS-160 online nonimmigrant visa application and DS-156E supplemental application, USCIS’s I-129 petition for nonimmigrant workers, and supporting documents, when available. To collect information from the applications and petitions, we created a data collection instrument and established standard procedures to ensure that we accurately collected the information from the original forms. We chose sample sizes to achieve precision levels for a percentage estimate of plus or minus 10 percentage points for important sub-populations, such as denied petitions and role (e.g., investor, manager, and essential employee). As a result, all percentage estimates presented in this report have a precision of plus or minus 10 percentage points or fewer, unless otherwise noted. Further, we classified the types of businesses in the applications and petitions using the North American Industry Classification System by conducting a content analysis of the business description field in the applications and petitions to group related business types into larger groups, such a food service and manufacturing. Further, we also collected and analyzed data and information from USCIS and U.S. Customs and Border Protection on post E-2 adjudication outcomes, including changing status from E-2 to another nonimmigrant category, adjusting from E-2 status to lawful permanent residency, and E- 2 nonimmigrants who remain in the United States beyond the expiration of their authorized period of stay, known as overstays. We present the results of this analysis in Appendix III. To assess the reliability of these data, we interviewed officials that maintain the data and checked the data for missing information, outliers, and obvious errors, among other actions. On the basis of these steps, we determined that the data were sufficiently reliable for the purpose of providing summary statistics on E-2 post adjudication outcomes. To assess State and USCIS policies and procedures to ensure that individuals meet E-2 eligibility requirements, we reviewed relevant State and USCIS guidance documentation, including State’s Foreign Affairs Manual and USCIS’s E-2 standard operating procedures. We also reviewed relevant provisions of the Immigration and Nationality Act and implementing regulations, which set forth the E-2 eligibility requirements. We interviewed officials from State’s Bureau of Consular Affairs and Foreign Service Institute, and USCIS on their respective agencies’ E-2 processes and procedures, as well as training provided to State’s consular officers and USCIS’s immigration officers. Further, we assessed State’s and USCIS’s policies and procedures to ensure that individuals meet E-2 eligibility requirements against control environment, control activities, and monitoring internal control standards in Standards for Internal Control in the Federal Government, as well as documentation retention requirements in agency guidance. We conducted site visits to State and USCIS locations that adjudicate E-2 visas and petitions, respectively. For State, we conducted site visits to four posts abroad—London, United Kingdom; Seoul, South Korea; Tokyo, Japan; and Toronto, Canada from October through December 2018. For our site visits, we selected posts that (1) were among the 10 highest E-2 adjudicating posts by volume in fiscal year 2017, (2) had different staffing models for processing E-2 visa adjudications, such as posts that had a single officer specializing in E-2 visas or posts that had all consular officers adjudicate E-2 visas, and (3) were geographically dispersed. During these visits, we observed the prescreening and adjudication of E-2 applications and used a data collection instrument to collect information on the cases we observed, such as adjudication outcome and other non- personally identifiable information about the case. We interviewed consular officers and managers, locally employed staff (LES), fraud prevention managers, and the assistant regional security officer- investigators (ARSO-I), where available, about topics such as E-2 visa adjudication policies, procedures, resources and training available at post. Our observations from these site visits provided useful insights into State’s E-2 adjudication procedures, but are not generalizable to all posts that adjudicate E-2 visas. For USCIS, in November 2018, we visited the California Service Center in Laguna Niguel, California—which is the only USCIS service center that adjudicates E-2 petitions—to observe E-2 petition adjudications and interview USCIS officials. In addition to our site visits, we conducted telephonic interviews with consular officers and LES who are responsible for prescreening and adjudicating E-2 visa applications at the remaining six of the top 10 posts in terms of E-2 annual adjudications, as well as four randomly selected low-volume posts. The 4 low-volume posts were selected at random from a list of posts that had adjudicated at least 100 E-2 visa applications in fiscal year 2017. We collected copies of post-specific standard operating procedures and local E-2 visa adjudication tools (e.g., checklists), as available, from the 14 posts we visited or interviewed. Further, we reviewed written responses from the consular managers responsible for supervising E-2 visa adjudications at these 14 posts to a set of questions regarding E-2 adjudication processes and procedures, challenges, E-2 company registration programs, and E-2 training. To determine the efforts that State and USCIS take to assess and address E-2 fraud, we reviewed relevant State and USCIS standard operating procedures and guidance. We interviewed headquarters officials from State and USCIS, such as State’s Office of Fraud Prevention Program and USCIS’s Fraud Detection and National Security Directorate, on how both agencies identify and address potential E-2 fraud and what, if any, coordination or information sharing occur between State and USCIS. During our 4 site visits abroad, we interviewed officials, such as fraud prevention managers and ARSO-Is, on anti-fraud efforts for E-2 visas at their posts, including potential fraud trends. Similarly, we interviewed immigration officers at USCIS’s California Service Center on their anti-fraud efforts for E-2 petitions. We obtained data from State and USCIS on fraud referrals—that is, cases sent to fraud experts for additional research and review—and the results of fraud site visits from fiscal year 2014 through 2018. To assess the reliability of these data, we interviewed State and USCIS officials that maintain the data and checked the data for missing information, outliers, and obvious errors, among other actions. On the basis of these steps, we determined that the data were sufficiently reliable for the purposes of our reporting objectives, including providing summary statistics on fraud referrals and the results of fraud site visits. Further, we assessed State’s and USCIS’s anti-fraud efforts against best practices found in A Framework for Managing Fraud Risks in Federal Programs. We conducted this performance audit from July 2018 to July 2019 in accordance with generally accepted government auditing standards. Those standards require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain sufficient, appropriate evidence to provide a reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions based on our audit objectives. We believe that the evidence obtained provides a reasonable basis for our findings and conclusions based on our audit objectives. The Immigration and Nationality Act requires the existence of a qualifying treaty of commerce and navigation between the United States and a foreign state in order for E-2 visa classification to be accorded to nationals of that foreign state. According to Department of State guidance, such qualifying treaties may include treaties of friendship, commerce and navigation, and bilateral investment treaties. As of June 2019, nationals of the 82 countries listed in Table 7 may be accorded E-2 status pursuant to a qualifying treaty, or pursuant to legislation enacted to extend that same privilege. This appendix presents various statistics on adjudications by State for E-2 visas as well as those by U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) for E-2 petitions for fiscal years 2014 through 2018. We present these data broken out by fiscal year, outcome (e.g., issued or refused), type (e.g., investor, manager, essential employee, dependent), country of nationality or birth, reason for refusal, and prior nonimmigrant status, if available. Further, we also provide statistics on some post-adjudication outcomes—that is, data on characteristics of those who obtained E-2 status. These outcomes include changes to another nonimmigrant status or lawful permanent residency, or the extent to which E-2 status holders remained in the United States beyond their authorized period of stay, known as overstaying. For the purposes of this appendix, there are four potential roles for foreign nationals seeking E-2 status. First, a foreign national who has committed funds to a U.S. enterprise and is in a position to develop and direct the operations of the enterprise in which he or she has invested substantial capital is known as an investor. Second, a foreign national employee in an executive or supervisory position is known as a manager. Third, a foreign national employee, in a lesser capacity than a manager, but having special qualifications essential to successful or efficient business operations, is known as an essential employee. Finally, the spouse or qualifying child of an investor, manager, or essential employee is known as a dependent. State consular officers will adjudicate the visa application as either issued or refused. A foreign national seeking E-2 status as an investor, manager, or essential employee is known as a principal, and a spouse or qualifying child of a principal is known as a dependent. Foreign nationals seeking E- 2 status through USCIS use different forms based on whether they are a principal or a dependent. USCIS immigration officers will generally adjudicate the petition as either approved or denied. Change of Status From E-2 to Another Nonimmigrant Category. From fiscal years 2014 through 2018, about 5,000 foreign nationals sought to change from E-2 status to another nonimmigrant status. As shown in figure 17 and table 16, most of these requests were to change to academic student status (F-1, 31 percent), temporary workers in specialty occupation status (H-1B, 10 percent), tourist status (B-2, 9 percent), and intracompany transferee executive or manager status (L-1A, 7 percent), as well as dependents of these statuses. Further, about 11 percent of these foreign nationals were requesting to change from one role within E- 2 status to another. As previously noted, this could include, for example, a spouse of an E-2 investor later seeking to work at the company as a manager. Adjusting from E-2 Status to Lawful Permanent Resident. From fiscal years 2014 through 2018, over 22,000 foreign nationals changed from E- 2 status to lawful permanent residents. The large majority of these (73.1 percent) were employment-based (i.e., sponsored by a U.S. employer), as shown in figure 18 and table 17. Overstays. According to DHS data, a relatively low percentage of foreign nationals with E-2 status—obtained either through an E-2 visa from State or an approval to change to, or extend, their E-2 status from USCIS— overstayed their authorized period of admission compared to other nonimmigrant statuses. From fiscal years 2016 through 2018, DHS reported that the total overstay rate decreased slightly from 1.5 percent to 1.2 percent. Similarly, the overstay rate for E-2 status for the same years decreased from 0.8 percent from 0.6 percent, as shown in table 18. As we previously reported, U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) implemented system changes in 2015 that allowed CBP to identify E-2 overstays, along with other nonimmigrant categories beginning in fiscal year 2016. DHS officials stated that the process to track E-2 visa overstays is the same as with other visa categories. They noted that specific visa categories are not prioritized; CBP and U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement focus on those overstays where the individual is identified as a national security or public safety risk. In addition to the individuals named above, Adam Hoffman (Assistant Director), Kim Frankena (Assistant Director), Erin O’Brien (Analyst-in- Charge), Juan Pablo Avila-Tournut, Kristen E. Farole, James Ashley, Caitlin Cusati, Eric Hauswirth, Amanda Miller, Sasan J. “Jon” Najmi, Adam Vogt, and K. Nicole Willems made significant contributions to this report.

Summary: Foreign nationals from 82 countries may obtain E-2 nonimmigrant investor status in the United States. The E-2 nonimmigrant classification allows an eligible foreign national to be temporarily admitted to the United States to direct the operations of a business in which they have invested a substantial amount of capital, or to work in an approved position (e.g., manager or essential employee). To obtain E-2 status, a foreign national can apply through State for an E-2 visa abroad, or if already in the United States, by petitioning USCIS to extend or change to E-2 status. GAO was asked to review State's and USCIS' E-2 adjudication process. This report addresses: (1) outcomes and characteristics of foreign nationals who sought or received E-2 status from fiscal years 2014 through 2018, (2) policies and procedures for ensuring that individuals meet E-2 eligibility requirements, and (3) efforts to assess and address potential E-2 fraud. GAO analyzed State and USCIS data on E-2 adjudications, generalizable samples of E-2 visa applications and petitions, and relevant documents. GAO interviewed officials at 14 State posts abroad, selected based on E-2 application volume and other factors, and observed E-2 adjudications at four of these posts and USCIS's California Service Center. The Department of State (State) and U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) annually adjudicated about 54,000 visa applications or petitions from fiscal years 2014 through 2018 for foreign nationals seeking E-2 nonimmigrant status, over 80 percent of which were approved. About eighty percent of E-2 adjudications were for State visa applications, and the remaining 20 percent were for USCIS petitions to extend or change to E-2 status. Generally, about half of the foreign nationals seeking E-2 status were investors, managers, or essential employees of an E-2 business, and the other half were their spouses or children. State and USCIS have guidance, procedures, and training intended to help consular and immigration officers ensure foreign nationals meet E-2 eligibility requirements; however, officials GAO interviewed from both agencies identified challenges in the E-2 adjudication process. State. Consular officers noted that E-2 visa adjudications are complicated and resource-intensive, often requiring more documentation and time to complete than other visas. For example, the requirement that the investment in the business be substantial does not prescribe a minimum capital amount. Rather, the investment must be large enough to support the likely success of the business, among other criteria. Consular officers at 10 of 14 posts GAO interviewed indicated that determining the investment's substantiality is difficult for newly encountered business types. Providing additional E-2 training or related resources would help ensure that consular officers and locally employed staff have the necessary knowledge and abilities to carry out their responsibilities. USCIS. Officials identified similar challenges with respect to E-2 adjudications. However, officials stated that colocating immigration officers who adjudicate E-2 petitions helps to mitigate the challenges because the officers can communicate with each other on how USCIS has typically adjudicated such cases. State and USCIS have resources to address E-2 fraud, which includes submitting falsified documents or making false statements material to the adjudication; however, coordination on E-2 anti-fraud efforts is limited. State has anti-fraud efforts in place for all nonimmigrant visa types, but State officials stated that they consider E-2 visa fraud to be lower risk compared to other visas because the large amount of complex paperwork required for the E-2 visa discourages malicious actors. USCIS officials consider E-2 fraud to be a significant issue and have taken steps to identify fraud, such as using fraud assessment technology to determine if a business is financially viable and conducting site visits if fraud is suspected. Both State and USCIS collect information that could be useful to each other's anti-fraud efforts, but interagency coordination on E-2 fraud issues is ad hoc and relatively rare. For example, the main formal mechanism of coordination on E-2 visa issues—a quarterly teleconference—was cancelled 7 out of 8 times in fiscal years 2017 and 2018. Coordinating regularly on fraud issues, which is a best practice from GAO's Fraud Risk Framework, will help both entities to better identify emerging E-2 fraud trends and areas for potential resource sharing. GAO is making five recommendations, including that State provide more E-2 training or resources to consular officers, and that State and USCIS establish a regular coordination mechanism to share information on E-2 fraud risks. State and USCIS concurred with all five recommendations.