sentence-transformers/squad huggingface dataset:
Passage: In the beginning, racial classifications that identified race were inherently suspect and subject to strict scrutiny. These classifications would only be upheld if necessary to promote a compelling governmental interest. Later the U.S. Supreme Court decided that racial classifications that benefited underrepresented minorities were to only be upheld if necessary and promoted a compelling governmental purpose. (See Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co.) There is no clear guidance about when government action is not "compelling", and such rulings are rare.

Question: What kind of classification was subject to strict scrutiny?

Question: What was the only situation in which a racial classification could be considered acceptable?

Question: Who later confirmed that racial classifications were only to be upheld if they were necessary?

Question: What is an example case that can help display where upholding a racial classification is beneficial?
Passage: Ricci v. DeStefano was heard by the United States Supreme Court in 2009. The case concerns White and Hispanic firefighters in New Haven, Connecticut, who upon passing their test for promotions to management were denied the promotions, allegedly because of a discriminatory or at least questionable test. The test gave 17 whites and two Hispanics the possibility of immediate promotion. Although 23% of those taking the test were African American, none scored high enough to qualify. Because of the possibility the tests were biased in violation of Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, no candidates were promoted pending outcome of the controversy. In a split 5-4 vote, the Supreme Court ruled that New Haven had engaged in impermissible racial discrimination against the White and Hispanic majority.

Question: Which case concerning White and Hispanic firefighters was heard by the Supreme Court in 2009?

Question: Where was the issue of White and Hispanic firefighters heard in the case based out of?

Question: How many whites were given the possibility of immediate promotion as a result of taking the controversial test?

Question: What percentage of those people taking the test were African American?

Question: What was the final vote count for the Supreme Court over the issue?
Passage: President Kennedy stated in Executive Order 10925 that "discrimination because of race, creed, color, or national origin is contrary to the Constitutional principles and policies of the United States"; that "it is the plain and positive obligation of the United States Government to promote and ensure equal opportunity for all qualified persons, without regard to race, creed, color, or national origin, employed or seeking employment with the Federal Government and on government contracts"; that "it is the policy of the executive branch of the Government to encourage by positive measures equal opportunity for all qualified persons within the Government"; and that "it is in the general interest and welfare of the United States to promote its economy, security, and national defense through the most efficient and effective utilization of all available manpower".

Question: Which President declared that discrimination is contrary to the Constitutional principles of the United States?

Question: Which piece of legislation did President Kennedy use to claim that discrimination was a violation of the Constitution?

Question: What were the affected industries in terms of regulation as a result of Executive Order 10925?
Passage: Proponents of affirmative action argue that by nature the system is not only race based, but also class and gender based. To eliminate two of its key components would undermine the purpose of the entire system. The African American Policy Forum believes that the class based argument is based on the idea that non-poor minorities do not experience racial and gender based discrimination. The AAPF believes that "Race-conscious affirmative action remains necessary to address race-based obstacles that block the path to success of countless people of color of all classes". The groups goes on to say that affirmative action is responsible for creating the African American middle class, so it does not make sense to say that the system only benefits the middle and upper classes.

Question: Other than being race and gender based, what did believers in affirmative action also feel that the system discriminated against?

Question: Which organization believed in the class based argument?

Question: What group of people did the AAPF claim affirmative action created?

Question: What does the AAPF believe the foundation for the class based argument is?

Question: What does the AAPF believe the goal of affirmative action should be?
Passage: Following the end of World War II the educational gap between White and Black Americans was widened by Dwight D. Eisenhower's GI Bill. This piece of legislation paved the way for white GIs to attend college. Despite their veteran status returning black servicemen were not afforded loans at the same rate as whites. Furthermore, at the time of its introduction, segregation was still the law of the land barring blacks from the best institutions. Overall, "Nearly 8 million servicemen and servicewomen were educated under the provisions of the GI Bill after World War II. But for blacks, higher educational opportunities were so few that the promise of the GI Bill went largely unfulfilled."

Question: What major event preceded the growth of the divide in education between White and Black Americans?

Question: What was considered to be a major cause of the increase in educational gap?

Question: What did returning black veterans not receive?

Question: How many servicemen and women were educated as a result of the GI Bill?

Question: What opportunities were few for black veterans?
Passage: According to a study by Dr. Paul Brest, Hispanics or "Latinos" include immigrants who are descendants of immigrants from the countries comprising Central and South America. In 1991, Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Cuban Americans made up 80% of the Latino population in the United States. Latinos are disadvantaged compared to White Americans and are more likely to live in poverty. They are the least well educated major ethnic group and suffered a 3% drop in high school completion rate while African Americans experienced a 12% increase between 1975-1990. In 1990, they constituted 9% of the population, but only received 3.1% of the bachelors's degrees awarded. At times when it is favorable to lawmakers, Latinos were considered "white" by the Jim Crow laws during the Reconstruction. In other cases, according to Paul Brest, Latinos have been classified as an inferior race and a threat to white purity. Latinos have encountered considerable discrimination in areas such as employment, housing, and education. Brest finds that stereotypes continue to be largely negative and many perceive Latinos as "lazy, unproductive, and on the dole." Furthermore, native-born Latino-Americans and recent immigrants are seen as identical since outsiders tend not to differentiate between Latino groups.

Question: Who conducted a study about the origins of "Latinos"?

Question: How much of the Latino population did Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans and Cuban Americans make up in 1991?

Question: In relation to other major ethnic groups, what is the education level of Latinos?

Question: What was the percentage increase of the high school completion rate for African Americans between 1975 and 1990?

Question: How many of the total bachelor degrees awarded in 1990 went to Latinos?
Passage: The category of Native American applies to the diverse group of people who lived in North America before European settlement. During the U.S. government's westward expansion, Native Americans were displaced from their land which had been their home for centuries. Instead, they were forced onto reservations which were far smaller and less productive. According to Brest, land belonging to Native Americans was reduced from 138 million acres in 1887 to 52 million acres in 1934. In 1990, the poverty rate for Native Americans was more than triple that of the whites and only 9.4% of Native Americans have completed a bachelor's degree as opposed to 25.2% of whites and 12.2% of African Americans.

Question: Which groups can be categorized as Native Americans?

Question: When did the Native Americans lose their land?

Question: Where were Native Americans forced to live after they lost their land?

Question: How much land did the Native Americans own in 1934?

Question: In relation to whites, what was the poverty rate for Native Americans in 1990?
Passage: Early Asian immigrants experienced prejudice and discrimination in the forms of not having the ability to become naturalized citizens. They also struggled with many of the same school segregation laws that African Americans faced. Particularly, during World War II, Japanese Americans were interned in camps and lost their property, homes, and businesses. Discrimination against Asians began with the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and then continued with the Scott Act of 1888 and the Geary Act of 1892. At the beginning of the 20th century, the United States passed the Immigration Act of 1924 to prevent Asian immigration out of fear that Asians were stealing white jobs and lowering the standard for wages. In addition, whites and non-Asians do not differentiate among the different Asian groups and perpetuate the "model minority" stereotype. According to a 2010 article by Professor Qin Zhang of Fairfield University, Asians are characterized as one dimensional in having great work ethic and valuing education, but lacking in communication skills and personality. A negative outcome of this stereotype is that Asians have been portrayed as having poor leadership and interpersonal skills. This has contributing to the "glass ceiling" phenomenon in which although there are many qualified Asian Americans, they occupy a disproportionately small number of executive positions in businesses. Furthermore, the model minority stereotype has led to resentment of Asian success and several universities and colleges have limited or have been accused of limiting Asian matriculation.

Question: What form of discrimination did early Asian immigrants experience?

Question: What law type did Asian immigrants struggle with?

Question: Which piece of legislature marked the start of discrimination against Asians?

Question: Which bill was passed in an attempt to limit or prevent Asian immigration?

Question: According to studies, what are Asians perceived to be lacking?
Passage: Proponents of affirmative action recognize that the policy is inherently unequal; however, minding the inescapable fact that historic inequalities exist in America, they believe the policy is much more fair than one in which these circumstances are not taken into account. Furthermore, those in favor of affirmative action see it as an effort towards inclusion rather than a discriminatory practice. "Job discrimination is grounded in prejudice and exclusion, whereas affirmative action is an effort to overcome prejudicial treatment through inclusion. The most effective way to cure society of exclusionary practices is to make special efforts at inclusion, which is exactly what affirmative action does."

Question: What is one of the issues with affirmative action?

Question: How do people who are in favor of affirmative action view it?

Question: What does affirmative action supposedly aim to do?

Question: What do proponents of affirmative action believe is the best way to combat exclusionary practices?
Passage: There are a multitude of supporters as well as opponents to the policy of affirmative action. Many presidents throughout the last century have failed to take a very firm stance on the policy, and the public has had to discern the president's opinion for themselves. Bill Clinton, however, made his stance on affirmative action very clear in a speech on July 19, 1995, nearly two and a half years after his inauguration. In his speech, he discussed the history in the United States that brought the policy into fruition: slavery, Jim Crow, and segregation. Clinton also mentioned a point similar to President Lyndon B. Johnson's "Freedom is not Enough" speech, and declared that just outlawing discrimination in the country would not be enough to give everyone in America equality. He addressed the arguments that affirmative action hurt the white middle class and said that the policy was not the source of their problems. Clinton plainly outlined his stance on affirmative action, saying:

Question: Which President made their stance on affirmative action clear in 1995?

Question: How long after his inauguration was Bill Clinton's speech?

Question: Which speech did Bill Clinton's speech draw parallels to?

Question: What did President Clinton claim would not be enough to give everyone in American equality?

Question: What was President Clinton's response to the claim that affirmative action was hurting the white middle class.
Passage: The National Conference of State Legislatures held in Washington D.C. stated in a 2014 overview that many supporters for affirmative action argue that policies stemming from affirmative action help to open doors for historically excluded groups in workplace settings and higher education. Workplace diversity has become a business management concept in which employers actively seek to promote an inclusive workplace. By valuing diversity, employers have the capacity to create an environment in which there is a culture of respect for individual differences as well as the ability to draw in talent and ideas from all segments of the population. By creating this diverse workforce, these employers and companies gain a competitive advantage in an increasingly global economy. According to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, many private sector employers have concluded that a diverse workforce makes a "company stronger, more profitable, and a better place to work." Therefore, these diversity promoting policies are implemented for competitive reasons rather than as a response to discrimination, but have shown the value in having diversity.

Question: Where was the National Conference of State Legislatures held in 2014?

Question: What did proponents of affirmative action claim some of the effects of policies that support affirmative action had done?

Question: What has the concept of workplace diversity caused employers to do?

Question: Having a diverse workplace allows for employers to do what?

Question: Which organization claims that private sector employers believe having a diverse workplace is beneficial?
Passage: In the year 2000, according to a study by American Association of University Professors (AAUP), affirmative action promoted diversity within colleges and universities. This has been shown to have positive effects on the educational outcomes and experiences of college students as well as the teaching of faculty members. According to a study by Geoffrey Maruyama and José F. Moreno, the results showed that faculty members believed diversity helps students to reach the essential goals of a college education, Caucasian students suffer no detrimental effects from classroom diversity, and that attention to multicultural learning improves the ability of colleges and universities to accomplish their missions. Furthermore, a diverse population of students offers unique perspectives in order to challenge preconceived notions through exposure to the experiences and ideas of others. According to Professor Gurin of the University of Michigan, skills such as "perspective-taking, acceptance of differences, a willingness and capacity to find commonalities among differences, acceptance of conflict as normal, conflict resolution, participation in democracy, and interest in the wider social world" can potentially be developed in college while being exposed to heterogeneous group of students. In addition, broadening perspectives helps students confront personal and substantive stereotypes and fosters discussion about racial and ethnic issues in a classroom setting. Furthermore, the 2000 AAUP study states that having a diversity of views leads to a better discussion and greater understanding among the students on issues of race, tolerance, fairness, etc.

Question: What does AAUP stand for?

Question: What were the effects of affirmative action on universities according to the study done by the AAUP?

Question: What did a study claim about the beliefs of faculty members on increased diversity?

Question: Who supposedly suffers no detrimental effects from classroom diversity?

Question: In which year did the AAUP release their study?
Passage: Richard Sander claims that by artificially elevating minority students into schools they otherwise would not be capable of attending, this discourages them and tends to engender failure and high dropout rates for these students. For example, about half of black college students rank in the bottom 20 percent of their classes, black law school graduates are four times as likely to fail bar exams as are whites, and interracial friendships are more likely to form among students with relatively similar levels of academic preparation; thus, blacks and Hispanics are more socially integrated on campuses where they are less academically mismatched. He claims that the supposed "beneficiaries" of affirmative action – minorities – do not actually benefit and rather are harmed by the policy. Sander's claims have been disputed, and his empirical analyses have been subject to substantial criticism. A group including some of the country's lead statistical methodologists told the Supreme Court that Sander's analyses were sufficiently flawed that the Court would be wise to ignore them entirely. At the same time many scholars have found that minorities gain substantially from affirmative action.

Question: Who claims that artificially raising minority students into schools has a negative effect on them?

Question: What was a negative effect of affirmative action according to Richard Sander?

Question: Where do half of the black college students rank in terms of their performance relative to the rest of their class?

Question: What is the failure rate for black law school graduates compared to whites for the bar exam?
Passage: The controversy surrounding affirmative action's effectiveness is based on the idea of class inequality. Opponents of racial affirmative action argue that the program actually benefits middle- and upper-class African Americans and Hispanic Americans at the expense of lower-class European Americans and Asian Americans. This argument supports the idea of class-based affirmative action. America's poor is disproportionately made up of people of color, so class-based affirmative action would disproportionately help people of color. This would eliminate the need for race-based affirmative action as well as reducing any disproportionate benefits for middle- and upper-class people of color.

Question: Which idea is the controversy of affirmative action primarily based upon?

Question: Other than African Americans, who do detractors of affirmative action claim benefit most from affirmative action?

Question: At who's expense other than Asian Americans are upper-class African Americans and Hispanic Americans supposedly benefiting?

Question: What do some people believe should be the basis for affirmative action instead of race based legislation?

Question: Who primarily makes up America's poor group?
Passage: In 1976, a group of Italian American professors at City University of New York asked to be added as an affirmative action category for promotion and hiring. Italian Americans are usually considered white in the US and would not be covered under affirmative action policies, but the professors believed they were underrepresented. Libertarian economist Thomas Sowell wrote in his book, Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study, that affirmative action policies encourage non-preferred groups to designate themselves as members of preferred groups [i.e., primary beneficiaries of affirmative action] to take advantage of group preference policies.

Question: Where were the Italian American professors employed that asked to be added as an affirmative action category?

Question: Which year did the Italian American Professors make their request?

Question: What category of race do Italian Americans normally fall under?

Question: What was the title of the book written by Thomas Sowell?

Question: Why would Italian Americans want to get themselves designated as members of a preferred group?
Passage: Frederick Lynch, the author of Invisible Victims: White Males and the Crisis of Affirmative Action, did a study on white males that said they were victims of reverse discrimination. Lynch explains that these white men felt frustrated and unfairly victimized by affirmative action. Shelby Steele, another author against affirmative action, wanted to see affirmative action go back to its original meaning of enforcing equal opportunity. He argued that blacks had to take full responsibility in their education and in maintaining a job. Steele believes that there is still a long way to go in America to reach our goals of eradicating discrimination.

Question: What book did Frederick Lynch author?

Question: What did white males feel was happening to them as a result of affirmative action?

Question: What moral position does Shelby Steele hold?

Question: What does Shelby Steele believe that the true concept of affirmative action is?
Passage: Terry Eastland, the author who wrote From Ending Affirmative Action: The Case for Colorblind Justice states, "Most arguments for affirmative action fall into two categories: remedying past discrimination and promoting diversity". Eastland believes that the founders of affirmative action did not anticipate how the benefits of affirmative action would go to those who did not need it, mostly middle class minorities. Additionally, she argues that affirmative action carries with it a stigma that can create feelings of self-doubt and entitlement in minorities. Eastland believes that affirmative action is a great risk that only sometimes pays off, and that without it we would be able to compete more freely with one another. Libertarian economist Thomas Sowell identified what he says are negative results of affirmative action in his book, Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study. Sowell writes that affirmative action policies encourage non-preferred groups to designate themselves as members of preferred groups [i.e., primary beneficiaries of affirmative action] to take advantage of group preference policies; that they tend to benefit primarily the most fortunate among the preferred group (e.g., upper and middle class blacks), often to the detriment of the least fortunate among the non-preferred groups (e.g., poor white or Asian); that they reduce the incentives of both the preferred and non-preferred to perform at their best – the former because doing so is unnecessary and the latter because it can prove futile – thereby resulting in net losses for society as a whole; and that they engender animosity toward preferred groups as well.:115–147

Question: Which book did Terry Eastland write?

Question: What did Eastland believe the founders of affirmative action did not consider?

Question: Outside of promoting diversity, was does Eastland believe the other reason to be in favor of affirmative action is?

Question: Why does Sowell believe that there is little to no incentive for the preferred minority groups to perform at their best?

Question: What argument does Sowell make in his claim that non - preferred minorities have less incentive to perform at their best?