sentence-transformers/squad huggingface dataset:
Passage: Along with secular matters, readers also favoured an alphabetical ordering scheme over cumbersome works arranged along thematic lines. The historian Charles Porset, commenting on alphabetization, has said that "as the zero degree of taxonomy, alphabetical order authorizes all reading strategies; in this respect it could be considered an emblem of the Enlightenment." For Porset, the avoidance of thematic and hierarchical systems thus allows free interpretation of the works and becomes an example of egalitarianism. Encyclopedias and dictionaries also became more popular during the Age of Reason as the number of educated consumers who could afford such texts began to multiply. In the later half of the 18th century, the number of dictionaries and encyclopedias published by decade increased from 63 between 1760 and 1769 to approximately 148 in the decade proceeding the French Revolution (1780–1789). Along with growth in numbers, dictionaries and encyclopedias also grew in length, often having multiple print runs that sometimes included in supplemented editions.

Question: What ordering scheme did readers prefer?

Question: Who believed the avoidance of thematic and heirarhical systems allowed free interpretation of the works and caused them to beomce an example of eglitarianism?

Question: Why did Encyclopedias and dictionaries become more popular during the Age of Reason?

Question: How many dictionaries and encyclopedias were published between 1760 and 1769?

Question: How many dictionaries and encyclopedias were published in the decade preceding the French Revolution?
Passage: One of the most important developments that the Enlightenment era brought to the discipline of science was its popularization. An increasingly literate population seeking knowledge and education in both the arts and the sciences drove the expansion of print culture and the dissemination of scientific learning. The new literate population was due to a high rise in the availability of food. This enabled many people to rise out of poverty, and instead of paying more for food, they had money for education. Popularization was generally part of an overarching Enlightenment ideal that endeavoured "to make information available to the greatest number of people." As public interest in natural philosophy grew during the 18th century, public lecture courses and the publication of popular texts opened up new roads to money and fame for amateurs and scientists who remained on the periphery of universities and academies. More formal works included explanations of scientific theories for individuals lacking the educational background to comprehend the original scientific text. Sir Isaac Newton's celebrated Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education in the classics until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze the text in the vernacular.

Question: What caused an increasingly literate population to develop in the Enlightenment era?

Question: Instead of paying more for food, on what did people spend their money?

Question: Which ideal endeavoured to make information available to the greatest number of people?

Question: Who wrote the celebrated Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica?

Question: Which work of Isaac Newton was published in Latin and remained inaccessible to readers without education until Enlightenment writers began to translate and analyze it in the vernacular?
Passage: Circadian rhythms allow organisms to anticipate and prepare for precise and regular environmental changes. They thus enable organisms to best capitalize on environmental resources (e.g. light and food) compared to those that cannot predict such availability. It has therefore been suggested that circadian rhythms put organisms at a selective advantage in evolutionary terms. However, rhythmicity appears to be as important in regulating and coordinating internal metabolic processes, as in coordinating with the environment. This is suggested by the maintenance (heritability) of circadian rhythms in fruit flies after several hundred generations in constant laboratory conditions, as well as in creatures in constant darkness in the wild, and by the experimental elimination of behavioral, but not physiological, circadian rhythms in quail.

Question: For what do Circadian rhythms let an organism prepare?

Question: What can an organism that uses circadian rhythms use to its advantage that others can not?

Question: By better using resources, how does that improve an organism's chances of surviving?

Question: By improving what processes does the use of circadian rhythms serve to benefit the individual?

Question: What insect has been studied concerning the inheritability of rhythms?
Passage: Norwegian researchers at the University of Tromsø have shown that some Arctic animals (ptarmigan, reindeer) show circadian rhythms only in the parts of the year that have daily sunrises and sunsets. In one study of reindeer, animals at 70 degrees North showed circadian rhythms in the autumn, winter and spring, but not in the summer. Reindeer on Svalbard at 78 degrees North showed such rhythms only in autumn and spring. The researchers suspect that other Arctic animals as well may not show circadian rhythms in the constant light of summer and the constant dark of winter.

Question: What type of animals have been shown to have circadian rhythms only at certain times?

Question: What daily feature do animals that show limited circadian rhythms need?

Question: In a study, when did reindeer at 70 degrees north only show circadian rhythms?

Question: At what degree north did reindeer show rhythms only in autumn and summer?

Question: What aninmals do researchers think might also show a variance in circadian rhythms in different seasons?
Passage: The central oscillator generates a self-sustaining rhythm and is driven by two interacting feedback loops that are active at different times of day. The morning loop consists of CCA1 (Circadian and Clock-Associated 1) and LHY (Late Elongated Hypocotyl), which encode closely related MYB transcription factors that regulate circadian rhythms in Arabidopsis, as well as PRR 7 and 9 (Pseudo-Response Regulators.) The evening loop consists of GI (Gigantea) and ELF4, both involved in regulation of flowering time genes. When CCA1 and LHY are overexpressed (under constant light or dark conditions), plants become arrhythmic, and mRNA signals reduce, contributing to a negative feedback loop. Gene expression of CCA1 and LHY oscillates and peaks in the early morning, whereas TOC1 gene expression oscillates and peaks in the early evening. While it was previously hypothesised that these three genes model a negative feedback loop in which over-expressed CCA1 and LHY repress TOC1 and over-expressed TOC1 is a positive regulator of CCA1 and LHY, it was shown in 2012 by Andrew Millar and others that TOC1 in fact serves as a repressor not only of CCA1, LHY, and PRR7 and 9 in the morning loop but also of GI and ELF4 in the evening loop. This finding and further computational modeling of TOC1 gene functions and interactions suggest a reframing of the plant circadian clock as a triple negative-component repressilator model rather than the positive/negative-element feedback loop characterizing the clock in mammals.

Question: What produces a self-sustaining rhythm?

Question: When do the CCA1 and LHY function?

Question: Which loop that consists of GI and ELF4 functions?

Question: What was the previous belief of feedback in the gene loop?

Question: What researcher showed that the gene feedback loop serves as a repressor?
Passage: A defect in the human homologue of the Drosophila "period" gene was identified as a cause of the sleep disorder FASPS (Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome), underscoring the conserved nature of the molecular circadian clock through evolution. Many more genetic components of the biological clock are now known. Their interactions result in an interlocked feedback loop of gene products resulting in periodic fluctuations that the cells of the body interpret as a specific time of the day.[citation needed]

Question: What is the Drosophila gene the cause of?

Question: What is the Drosophila gene also known as?

Question: What is Familial advanced sleep phase syndrome?

Question: What kind of clock have genetic functions?

Question: What does the body interpret from the gene feedback loop?
Passage: Due to the work nature of airline pilots, who often cross several timezones and regions of sunlight and darkness in one day, and spend many hours awake both day and night, they are often unable to maintain sleep patterns that correspond to the natural human circadian rhythm; this situation can easily lead to fatigue. The NTSB cites this as contributing to many accidents[unreliable medical source?] and has conducted several research studies in order to find methods of combating fatigue in pilots.

Question: Whose work habits and environment prevents them from maintaining a regular sleep pattern?

Question: What can the lack of regular sleep patterns cause?

Question: What organizations cites this disruption of sleep patterns as a cause of accidents?

Question: What has the NTSB conducted to find the cause of pilot fatigue?

Question: Of what does the NTSB want to find a means of doing?
Passage: The earliest recorded account of a circadian process dates from the 4th century B.C.E., when Androsthenes, a ship captain serving under Alexander the Great, described diurnal leaf movements of the tamarind tree. The observation of a circadian or diurnal process in humans is mentioned in Chinese medical texts dated to around the 13th century, including the Noon and Midnight Manual and the Mnemonic Rhyme to Aid in the Selection of Acu-points According to the Diurnal Cycle, the Day of the Month and the Season of the Year.

Question: What is the earliest recorded instance of circadian rhythm?

Question: What ship captain described daily leaf movements?

Question: What tree leaves did Androsthenes describe?

Question: What type of Chinese texts mention circadian process in humans?

Question: When did the Chinese use diurnal rhythms to remember Acu-points?
Passage: Plant circadian rhythms tell the plant what season it is and when to flower for the best chance of attracting pollinators. Behaviors showing rhythms include leaf movement, growth, germination, stomatal/gas exchange, enzyme activity, photosynthetic activity, and fragrance emission, among others. Circadian rhythms occur as a plant entrains to synchronize with the light cycle of its surrounding environment. These rhythms are endogenously generated and self-sustaining and are relatively constant over a range of ambient temperatures. Important features include two interacting transcription-translation feedback loops: proteins containing PAS domains, which facilitate protein-protein interactions; and several photoreceptors that fine-tune the clock to different light conditions. Anticipation of changes in the environment allows appropriate changes in a plant's physiological state, conferring an adaptive advantage. A better understanding of plant circadian rhythms has applications in agriculture, such as helping farmers stagger crop harvests to extend crop availability and securing against massive losses due to weather.

Question: What is the plant expression of circadian rhythm?

Question: What do plants need to attract to their flowering?

Question: With what feature of environment do plants need to be in sync?

Question: What does adaptive advantage allow for plants?

Question: Where can an understanding of circadian rhythms of plants be an advantage?
Passage: The simplest known circadian clock is that of the prokaryotic cyanobacteria. Recent research has demonstrated that the circadian clock of Synechococcus elongatus can be reconstituted in vitro with just the three proteins (KaiA, KaiB, KaiC) of their central oscillator. This clock has been shown to sustain a 22-hour rhythm over several days upon the addition of ATP. Previous explanations of the prokaryotic circadian timekeeper were dependent upon a DNA transcription/translation feedback mechanism.[citation needed]

Question: What has the simplest known circadian clock?

Question: With how many proteins can the circadian clock of Synechococcus elongatus are needed to reproduce its effect?

Question: What type of feedback mechanism was previously thought to be needed to sustain the clock?

Question: How long a rhythm were researchers able to sustain in the in vitro experiment?

Question: What were the only proteins necessary to the circadian timekeeper experiment?
Passage: The rhythm is linked to the light–dark cycle. Animals, including humans, kept in total darkness for extended periods eventually function with a free-running rhythm. Their sleep cycle is pushed back or forward each "day", depending on whether their "day", their endogenous period, is shorter or longer than 24 hours. The environmental cues that reset the rhythms each day are called zeitgebers (from the German, "time-givers"). Totally blind subterranean mammals (e.g., blind mole rat Spalax sp.) are able to maintain their endogenous clocks in the apparent absence of external stimuli. Although they lack image-forming eyes, their photoreceptors (which detect light) are still functional; they do surface periodically as well.[page needed]

Question: To what is the circadian rhythm tied?

Question: What conditions will produce a free-running rhythm in humans?

Question: What are the environmental factors that can change the rhythm?

Question: What do blind mole rats have in place of vision?
Passage: Melatonin is absent from the system or undetectably low during daytime. Its onset in dim light, dim-light melatonin onset (DLMO), at roughly 21:00 (9 p.m.) can be measured in the blood or the saliva. Its major metabolite can also be measured in morning urine. Both DLMO and the midpoint (in time) of the presence of the hormone in the blood or saliva have been used as circadian markers. However, newer research indicates that the melatonin offset may be the more reliable marker. Benloucif et al. found that melatonin phase markers were more stable and more highly correlated with the timing of sleep than the core temperature minimum. They found that both sleep offset and melatonin offset are more strongly correlated with phase markers than the onset of sleep. In addition, the declining phase of the melatonin levels is more reliable and stable than the termination of melatonin synthesis.

Question: What chemical is absent or low during daylight?

Question: When is the melatonin onset?

Question: At its onset, what can be measured in blood or saliva?

Question: The presence of what is a circadian marker?

Question: What are the more reliable markers in determining sleep timing?
Passage: For temperature studies, subjects must remain awake but calm and semi-reclined in near darkness while their rectal temperatures are taken continuously. Though variation is great among normal chronotypes, the average human adult's temperature reaches its minimum at about 05:00 (5 a.m.), about two hours before habitual wake time. Baehr et al. found that, in young adults, the daily body temperature minimum occurred at about 04:00 (4 a.m.) for morning types but at about 06:00 (6 a.m.) for evening types. This minimum occurred at approximately the middle of the eight hour sleep period for morning types, but closer to waking in evening types.

Question: What physical factor must be continuously monitored during temperature studies>

Question: At what time does the average adult human reach his lowest temperature?

Question: How long before wake time is the lowest temperature reached?

Question: When does the temperature of morning type young adults reach its lowest?

Question: What is the time of lowest temperature for evening type young adults?
Passage: In 1896, Patrick and Gilbert observed that during a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, sleepiness increases and decreases with a period of approximately 24 hours. In 1918, J.S. Szymanski showed that animals are capable of maintaining 24-hour activity patterns in the absence of external cues such as light and changes in temperature. In the early 20th century, circadian rhythms were noticed in the rhythmic feeding times of bees. Extensive experiments were done by Auguste Forel, Ingeborg Beling, and Oskar Wahl to see whether this rhythm was due to an endogenous clock.[citation needed] Ron Konopka and Seymour Benzer isolated the first clock mutant in Drosophila in the early 1970s and mapped the "period" gene, the first discovered genetic determinant of behavioral rhythmicity. Joseph Takahashi discovered the first mammalian circadian clock mutation (clockΔ19) using mice in 1994. However, recent studies show that deletion of clock does not lead to a behavioral phenotype (the animals still have normal circadian rhythms), which questions its importance in rhythm generation.

Question: Who noticed that sleepiness increases and decreases in a 24 hour period?

Question: Who showed the animals could maintain activity in the absence of light and temperature changes?

Question: What animals rhythmic feeding times were studied in the early 20th century ?

Question: What gene did Konopka and Benzer map in the early 1970 s?

Question: What mutation did Takahashi discover in 1994?
Passage: It is now known that the molecular circadian clock can function within a single cell; i.e., it is cell-autonomous. This was shown by Gene Block in isolated mollusk BRNs.[clarification needed] At the same time, different cells may communicate with each other resulting in a synchronised output of electrical signaling. These may interface with endocrine glands of the brain to result in periodic release of hormones. The receptors for these hormones may be located far across the body and synchronise the peripheral clocks of various organs. Thus, the information of the time of the day as relayed by the eyes travels to the clock in the brain, and, through that, clocks in the rest of the body may be synchronised. This is how the timing of, for example, sleep/wake, body temperature, thirst, and appetite are coordinately controlled by the biological clock.[citation needed]

Question: Inside of what can the molecular circadian clock operate?

Question: By functioning within a single, what is the system?

Question: What section of the brain periodically releases hormones?

Question: How are sleep and wake cycles as well as body functions coordinated?

Question: What do body hormone receptors do with the body's organs?
Passage: Light is the signal by which plants synchronize their internal clocks to their environment and is sensed by a wide variety of photoreceptors. Red and blue light are absorbed through several phytochromes and cryptochromes. One phytochrome, phyA, is the main phytochrome in seedlings grown in the dark but rapidly degrades in light to produce Cry1. Phytochromes B–E are more stable with phyB, the main phytochrome in seedlings grown in the light. The cryptochrome (cry) gene is also a light-sensitive component of the circadian clock and is thought to be involved both as a photoreceptor and as part of the clock's endogenous pacemaker mechanism. Cryptochromes 1–2 (involved in blue–UVA) help to maintain the period length in the clock through a whole range of light conditions.

Question: What signals plants to synchronize their internal clocks?

Question: What do plants use to sense light?

Question: What receptors absorb red and blue light in plants?

Question: Which phytochrome found in seedlings deteriorates with light and growth?

Question: What is the main phytochrome found in seedling grown in light?
Passage: Studies by Nathaniel Kleitman in 1938 and by Derk-Jan Dijk and Charles Czeisler in the 1990s put human subjects on enforced 28-hour sleep–wake cycles, in constant dim light and with other time cues suppressed, for over a month. Because normal people cannot entrain to a 28-hour day in dim light if at all,[citation needed] this is referred to as a forced desynchrony protocol. Sleep and wake episodes are uncoupled from the endogenous circadian period of about 24.18 hours and researchers are allowed to assess the effects of circadian phase on aspects of sleep and wakefulness including sleep latency and other functions.[page needed]

Question: What time cycle did studies in 1938 and 1990s use on humans?

Question: What conditions were suppressed in the 28 hour wake-sleep cycle studies ?

Question: How long did the suppression of time clues study last?

Question: What is this forced type of study called?

Question: When in the cycle do wake-sleep cycles break off from the circadian period?
Passage: Shift-work or chronic jet-lag have profound consequences on circadian and metabolic events in the body. Animals that are forced to eat during their resting period show increased body mass and altered expression of clock and metabolic genes.[medical citation needed] In humans, shift-work that favors irregular eating times is associated with altered insulin sensitivity and higher body mass. Shift-work also leads to increased metabolic risks for cardio-metabolic syndrome, hypertension, inflammation.

Question: What effect does jet-lag and shift-work have on the human body?

Question: Animals that eat during resting periods show what body increase?

Question: How does irregular eating during shift-work effect insulin?

Question: Besides insulin sensitivity, what other effect does shift-work have on the body?

Question: What type of work can lead to heart, hypertension and inflammation?
Passage: Studies conducted on both animals and humans show major bidirectional relationships between the circadian system and abusive drugs. It is indicated that these abusive drugs affect the central circadian pacemaker. Individuals suffering from substance abuse display disrupted rhythms. These disrupted rhythms can increase the risk for substance abuse and relapse. It is possible that genetic and/or environmental disturbances to the normal sleep and wake cycle can increase the susceptibility to addiction.

Question: What do studies show has a bidirectional relationship with the circadian system?

Question: What do abusive drugs effect in the circadian system?

Question: What do drug abusers show in their circadian processes?

Question: What can the disrupted circadian system cause?

Question: What can disruption to genetics and environment in the sleep cycle cause?
Passage: What drove circadian rhythms to evolve has been an enigmatic question. Previous hypotheses emphasized that photosensitive proteins and circadian rhythms may have originated together in the earliest cells, with the purpose of protecting replicating DNA from high levels of damaging ultraviolet radiation during the daytime. As a result, replication was relegated to the dark. However, evidence for this is lacking, since the simplest organisms with a circadian rhythm, the cyanobacteria, do the opposite of this - they divide more in the daytime. Recent studies instead highlight the importance of co-evolution of redox proteins with circadian oscillators in all three kingdoms of life following the Great Oxidation Event approximately 2.3 billion years ago. The current view is that circadian changes in environmental oxygen levels and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the presence of daylight are likely to have driven a need to evolve circadian rhythms to preempt, and therefore counteract, damaging redox reactions on a daily basis.

Question: What is theorized to have evolved with circadian rhythms?

Question: What is thought that circadian rhythm evolved to protect?

Question: From what did DNA need to be protected in the earliest cells?

Question: One possible reason for the development of the circadian system is the need to counteract what ?

Question: What environmental event occurred 2.3 million years ago?