sentence-transformers/squad huggingface dataset:
Passage: Serological methods are highly sensitive, specific and often extremely rapid tests used to identify microorganisms. These tests are based upon the ability of an antibody to bind specifically to an antigen. The antigen, usually a protein or carbohydrate made by an infectious agent, is bound by the antibody. This binding then sets off a chain of events that can be visibly obvious in various ways, dependent upon the test. For example, "Strep throat" is often diagnosed within minutes, and is based on the appearance of antigens made by the causative agent, S. pyogenes, that is retrieved from a patients throat with a cotton swab. Serological tests, if available, are usually the preferred route of identification, however the tests are costly to develop and the reagents used in the test often require refrigeration. Some serological methods are extremely costly, although when commonly used, such as with the "strep test", they can be inexpensive.

Question: What methods are highly sensitive, specifc and rapid tests used to identify microorganisms?

Question: What are serological tests based upon the ability of an antibody to do?

Question: What is the antigen bound to by the antibody usually?

Question: What does the binding set off that will result in something visibly obvious in various ways?

Question: What is the causative agent of "strep throat"?
Passage: Complex serological techniques have been developed into what are known as Immunoassays. Immunoassays can use the basic antibody – antigen binding as the basis to produce an electro - magnetic or particle radiation signal, which can be detected by some form of instrumentation. Signal of unknowns can be compared to that of standards allowing quantitation of the target antigen. To aid in the diagnosis of infectious diseases, immunoassays can detect or measure antigens from either infectious agents or proteins generated by an infected organism in response to a foreign agent. For example, immunoassay A may detect the presence of a surface protein from a virus particle. Immunoassay B on the other hand may detect or measure antibodies produced by an organism's immune system that are made to neutralize and allow the destruction of the virus.

Question: What are immunoassays?

Question: What type of signal do immunoassays produce?

Question: What allows quantitation of the target antigen?

Question: Immunoassays are able to detect what type of proteins?
Passage: Technologies based upon the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method will become nearly ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics of the near future, for several reasons. First, the catalog of infectious agents has grown to the point that virtually all of the significant infectious agents of the human population have been identified. Second, an infectious agent must grow within the human body to cause disease; essentially it must amplify its own nucleic acids in order to cause a disease. This amplification of nucleic acid in infected tissue offers an opportunity to detect the infectious agent by using PCR. Third, the essential tools for directing PCR, primers, are derived from the genomes of infectious agents, and with time those genomes will be known, if they are not already.

Question: What does the acronym PCR expand to?

Question: What will be the ubiquitous gold standards of diagnostics in the near future?

Question: What has the catalog of infectious agents grown to the point of?

Question: What must an infectious agent do to cause disease?

Question: What are primers derived from the genomes of?
Passage: Thus, the technological ability to detect any infectious agent rapidly and specifically are currently available. The only remaining blockades to the use of PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis are in its cost and application, neither of which is insurmountable. The diagnosis of a few diseases will not benefit from the development of PCR methods, such as some of the clostridial diseases (tetanus and botulism). These diseases are fundamentally biological poisonings by relatively small numbers of infectious bacteria that produce extremely potent neurotoxins. A significant proliferation of the infectious agent does not occur, this limits the ability of PCR to detect the presence of any bacteria.

Question: What technological ability with regards to detection is currently available?

Question: What are the remaining blockades to the use or PCR as a standard tool of diagnosis?

Question: What are some diseases which won't benefit from PCR methods?

Question: PCR can't detect the presence of any bacteria when what doesn't occur?
Passage: There is usually an indication for a specific identification of an infectious agent only when such identification can aid in the treatment or prevention of the disease, or to advance knowledge of the course of an illness prior to the development of effective therapeutic or preventative measures. For example, in the early 1980s, prior to the appearance of AZT for the treatment of AIDS, the course of the disease was closely followed by monitoring the composition of patient blood samples, even though the outcome would not offer the patient any further treatment options. In part, these studies on the appearance of HIV in specific communities permitted the advancement of hypotheses as to the route of transmission of the virus. By understanding how the disease was transmitted, resources could be targeted to the communities at greatest risk in campaigns aimed at reducing the number of new infections. The specific serological diagnostic identification, and later genotypic or molecular identification, of HIV also enabled the development of hypotheses as to the temporal and geographical origins of the virus, as well as a myriad of other hypothesis. The development of molecular diagnostic tools have enabled physicians and researchers to monitor the efficacy of treatment with anti-retroviral drugs. Molecular diagnostics are now commonly used to identify HIV in healthy people long before the onset of illness and have been used to demonstrate the existence of people who are genetically resistant to HIV infection. Thus, while there still is no cure for AIDS, there is great therapeutic and predictive benefit to identifying the virus and monitoring the virus levels within the blood of infected individuals, both for the patient and for the community at large.

Question: What is used in the treatment of AIDS?

Question: How was the course of AIDS followed?

Question: What could be done by understanding how the disease was transmitted?

Question: What did the genotypic identification of HIV later enable?

Question: What is now commonly used to identify HIV in healthy people before the onset of the illnes?
Passage: Techniques like hand washing, wearing gowns, and wearing face masks can help prevent infections from being passed from one person to another. Frequent hand washing remains the most important defense against the spread of unwanted organisms. There are other forms of prevention such as avoiding the use of illicit drugs, using a condom, and having a healthy lifestyle with a balanced diet and regular exercise. Cooking foods well and avoiding foods that have been left outside for a long time is also important.

Question: What can wearing gowns and face masks help prevent?

Question: What is the most important defense against the spread of unwanted organisms?

Question: Avoiding drugs and using condoms are other forms of what?

Question: Why is it important to cook foods well?

Question: What should one do with foods that have been left outside for a long time?
Passage: One of the ways to prevent or slow down the transmission of infectious diseases is to recognize the different characteristics of various diseases. Some critical disease characteristics that should be evaluated include virulence, distance traveled by victims, and level of contagiousness. The human strains of Ebola virus, for example, incapacitate their victims extremely quickly and kill them soon after. As a result, the victims of this disease do not have the opportunity to travel very far from the initial infection zone. Also, this virus must spread through skin lesions or permeable membranes such as the eye. Thus, the initial stage of Ebola is not very contagious since its victims experience only internal hemorrhaging. As a result of the above features, the spread of Ebola is very rapid and usually stays within a relatively confined geographical area. In contrast, the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) kills its victims very slowly by attacking their immune system. As a result, many of its victims transmit the virus to other individuals before even realizing that they are carrying the disease. Also, the relatively low virulence allows its victims to travel long distances, increasing the likelihood of an epidemic.

Question: Recognizing the different characteristics of various diseases is one way to do what?

Question: What are some critical disease characteristics that should be evaluated?

Question: What virus' strains incapacitate their victims extremely quickly before killing them?

Question: Why is the initial stage of Ebola not very contagious?

Question: What does the low virulence of HIV allow victims to do?
Passage: Another effective way to decrease the transmission rate of infectious diseases is to recognize the effects of small-world networks. In epidemics, there are often extensive interactions within hubs or groups of infected individuals and other interactions within discrete hubs of susceptible individuals. Despite the low interaction between discrete hubs, the disease can jump to and spread in a susceptible hub via a single or few interactions with an infected hub. Thus, infection rates in small-world networks can be reduced somewhat if interactions between individuals within infected hubs are eliminated (Figure 1). However, infection rates can be drastically reduced if the main focus is on the prevention of transmission jumps between hubs. The use of needle exchange programs in areas with a high density of drug users with HIV is an example of the successful implementation of this treatment method. Another example is the use of ring culling or vaccination of potentially susceptible livestock in adjacent farms to prevent the spread of the foot-and-mouth virus in 2001.

Question: Recognizing the effects of small-world networks allows one to decrease what?

Question: What type of interactions happen within groups of infected individuals in epidemics?

Question: What is a way of drastically reducing infection rates?

Question: What is an example of a success implementation of preventing transmission jumps?

Question: When was vaccination used to prevent the spread of the foot-and-mouth virus?
Passage: Resistance to infection (immunity) may be acquired following a disease, by asymptomatic carriage of the pathogen, by harboring an organism with a similar structure (crossreacting), or by vaccination. Knowledge of the protective antigens and specific acquired host immune factors is more complete for primary pathogens than for opportunistic pathogens. There is also the phenomenon of herd immunity which offers a measure of protection to those otherwise vulnerable people when a large enough proportion of the population has acquired immunity from certain infections.

Question: What is resistance to infection known technically as?

Question: When may immunity be acquired?

Question: What is knowledge of protective antigens more complete for?

Question: What does herd immunity offer to vulnerable people when a large enough proportion of the population has acquired immunity?

Question: Vaccination is a way in which what may be acquired?
Passage: The clearance of the pathogens, either treatment-induced or spontaneous, it can be influenced by the genetic variants carried by the individual patients. For instance, for genotype 1 hepatitis C treated with Pegylated interferon-alpha-2a or Pegylated interferon-alpha-2b (brand names Pegasys or PEG-Intron) combined with ribavirin, it has been shown that genetic polymorphisms near the human IL28B gene, encoding interferon lambda 3, are associated with significant differences in the treatment-induced clearance of the virus. This finding, originally reported in Nature, showed that genotype 1 hepatitis C patients carrying certain genetic variant alleles near the IL28B gene are more possibly to achieve sustained virological response after the treatment than others. Later report from Nature demonstrated that the same genetic variants are also associated with the natural clearance of the genotype 1 hepatitis C virus.

Question: What can the clearance of pathogens be influenced by in an individual?

Question: What is the brand name Pegasys for?

Question: What are patients carrying certain genetic variant alleles near the IL28B gene more likely to achieve?
Passage: When infection attacks the body, anti-infective drugs can suppress the infection. Several broad types of anti-infective drugs exist, depending on the type of organism targeted; they include antibacterial (antibiotic; including antitubercular), antiviral, antifungal and antiparasitic (including antiprotozoal and antihelminthic) agents. Depending on the severity and the type of infection, the antibiotic may be given by mouth or by injection, or may be applied topically. Severe infections of the brain are usually treated with intravenous antibiotics. Sometimes, multiple antibiotics are used in case there is resistance to one antibiotic. Antibiotics only work for bacteria and do not affect viruses. Antibiotics work by slowing down the multiplication of bacteria or killing the bacteria. The most common classes of antibiotics used in medicine include penicillin, cephalosporins, aminoglycosides, macrolides, quinolones and tetracyclines.[citation needed]

Question: What type of drugs can suppress an infection when it attacks the body?

Question: How many broad types of anti-infective drugs exist?

Question: What depends on the method an antibiotic is given?

Question: How are severe infections of the brain usually treated?

Question: How do antibiotics work?
Passage: The top three single agent/disease killers are HIV/AIDS, TB and malaria. While the number of deaths due to nearly every disease have decreased, deaths due to HIV/AIDS have increased fourfold. Childhood diseases include pertussis, poliomyelitis, diphtheria, measles and tetanus. Children also make up a large percentage of lower respiratory and diarrheal deaths. In 2012, approximately 3.1 million people have died due to lower respiratory infections, making it the number 4 leading cause of death in the world.

Question: What are the top three killer diseases?

Question: How much have deaths due to HIV/AIDS increased?

Question: What are some popular childhood diseases?

Question: Who makes up a large percentage of diarrheal deaths?

Question: What is the number 4 leading cause of death in the world?
Passage: The medical treatment of infectious diseases falls into the medical field of Infectious Disease and in some cases the study of propagation pertains to the field of Epidemiology. Generally, infections are initially diagnosed by primary care physicians or internal medicine specialists. For example, an "uncomplicated" pneumonia will generally be treated by the internist or the pulmonologist (lung physician). The work of the infectious diseases specialist therefore entails working with both patients and general practitioners, as well as laboratory scientists, immunologists, bacteriologists and other specialists.

Question: What medical field does the treatment of infectious diseases fall into?

Question: Disease propagation can fall under the purview of what field of study?

Question: Who tends to initially diagnose an infection?

Question: What is the non-medical mumbo jumbo term for pulmonologist?

Question: Who works with both patients and general practitioners to identify a disease?
Passage: A number of studies have reported associations between pathogen load in an area and human behavior. Higher pathogen load is associated with decreased size of ethnic and religious groups in an area. This may be due high pathogen load favoring avoidance of other groups, which may reduce pathogen transmission, or a high pathogen load preventing the creation of large settlements and armies that enforce a common culture. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more restricted sexual behavior, which may reduce pathogen transmission. It also associated with higher preferences for health and attractiveness in mates. Higher fertility rates and shorter or less parental care per child is another association that may be a compensation for the higher mortality rate. There is also an association with polygyny which may be due to higher pathogen load, making selecting males with a high genetic resistance increasingly important. Higher pathogen load is also associated with more collectivism and less individualism, which may limit contacts with outside groups and infections. There are alternative explanations for at least some of the associations although some of these explanations may in turn ultimately be due to pathogen load. Thus, polygny may also be due to a lower male:female ratio in these areas but this may ultimately be due to male infants having increased mortality from infectious diseases. Another example is that poor socioeconomic factors may ultimately in part be due to high pathogen load preventing economic development.

Question: What have a number of studies found a correlation between?

Question: What is higher pathogen load associated with?

Question: What does avoidance of other groups reduce?

Question: What does more restricted sexual behavior result in?

Question: What may poor socioeconomic factors ultimately in part be due to?
Passage: Evidence of infection in fossil remains is a subject of interest for paleopathologists, scientists who study occurrences of injuries and illness in extinct life forms. Signs of infection have been discovered in the bones of carnivorous dinosaurs. When present, however, these infections seem to tend to be confined to only small regions of the body. A skull attributed to the early carnivorous dinosaur Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis exhibits pit-like wounds surrounded by swollen and porous bone. The unusual texture of the bone around the wounds suggests they were afflicted by a short-lived, non-lethal infection. Scientists who studied the skull speculated that the bite marks were received in a fight with another Herrerasaurus. Other carnivorous dinosaurs with documented evidence of infection include Acrocanthosaurus, Allosaurus, Tyrannosaurus and a tyrannosaur from the Kirtland Formation. The infections from both tyrannosaurs were received by being bitten during a fight, like the Herrerasaurus specimen.

Question: What profession finds evidence of infection in fossil remains to be interesting?

Question: What do paleopathologists study?

Question: What has been discovered in the bones of carnivorous dinosaurs?

Question: What dinosaur's skull had pit-like wounds surrounded by swollen and porous bone?

Question: How did tyrannosaurs become infected?
Passage: Hunting is the practice of killing or trapping any animal, or pursuing or tracking it with the intent of doing so. Hunting wildlife or feral animals is most commonly done by humans for food, recreation, to remove predators which are dangerous to humans or domestic animals, or for trade. In the 2010s, lawful hunting is distinguished from poaching, which is the illegal killing, trapping or capture of the hunted species. The species that are hunted are referred to as game or prey and are usually mammals and birds.

Question: What is the practice of killing or trapping any animal?

Question: Why do humans most commonly hunt wildlife?

Question: What is there a distinction between lawful hunting and?

Question: What is poaching?

Question: What is the species which is hunted referred to as?

Question: What is the practice of killing or trapping any animal called?

Question: When was lawful hunting distinguished from poaching?

Question: Illegally killing, capturing or trapping an hunted species is called what?

Question: Hunted species are usually referred to as what?

Question: What animals are usually hunted?

Question: What is it called to kill or trap an animal?

Question: What species are usually hunted?

Question: Why do humans hunt?

Question: When was lawful hunting distinguished from poaching?

Question: Species hunted are referred to as what?
Passage: Furthermore, evidence exists that hunting may have been one of the multiple environmental factors leading to extinctions of the holocene megafauna and their replacement by smaller herbivores. North American megafauna extinction was coincidental with the Younger Dryas impact event, possibly making hunting a less critical factor in prehistoric species loss than had been previously thought. However, in other locations such as Australia, humans are thought to have played a very significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna that was widespread prior to human occupation.

Question: What does evidence suggest hunting may have been a factor in the extinction of?

Question: What was the North American megafauna extinction coincidental with?

Question: What are humans thought to have played a significant role in, in Australia?

Question: When was Australian's megafauna widespread?

Question: What along with multiple environmental factors led to the extinction of the holocene megafauna?

Question: What replaced the holocene megafauna?

Question: What event was coincidental with the North American megafauna extinction?

Question: What is thought to have played a significant role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna?
Passage: While it is undisputed that early humans were hunters, the importance of this for the emergence of the Homo genus from the earlier Australopithecines, including the production of stone tools and eventually the control of fire, are emphasised in the hunting hypothesis and de-emphasised in scenarios that stress omnivory and social interaction, including mating behaviour, as essential in the emergence of human behavioural modernity. With the establishment of language, culture, and religion, hunting became a theme of stories and myths, as well as rituals such as dance and animal sacrifice.

Question: What is undisputed about early humans?

Question: Hunting was important for the emergence of the Homo genus from what?

Question: Production of stone tools and control of fire were also pushed forward by what?

Question: What became a theme of stories and myths?

Question: Hunting allowed what type of rituals?

Question: What is undisputed about earlier humans?

Question: What did hunting become a theme of?

Question: Stone tools and control of fire are emphasised in what hypothesis?
Passage: Hunter-gathering lifestyles remained prevalent in some parts of the New World, Sub-Saharan Africa, and Siberia, as well as all of Australia, until the European Age of Discovery. They still persist in some tribal societies, albeit in rapid decline. Peoples that preserved paleolithic hunting-gathering until the recent past include some indigenous peoples of the Amazonas (Aché), some Central and Southern African (San people), some peoples of New Guinea (Fayu), the Mlabri of Thailand and Laos, the Vedda people of Sri Lanka, and a handful of uncontacted peoples. In Africa, the only remaining full-time hunter-gatherers are the Hadza of Tanzania.[citation needed]

Question: What type of lifestyle was prevalent in Siberia until the European Age of Discovery?

Question: Where does the hunter-gathering lifestyle persist, though in decline?

Question: Indigenous peoples of the Amazonas preserved what until the recent past?

Question: Who are the only remaining full-time hunter-gatherers in Africa?

Question: Hunter-gathering lifestyles remained prevalent until when?

Question: What parts of the New World did the hunter-gathering lifestyles remain?

Question: Who are the only remaining full-time hunter-gatherers in Africa?