sentence-transformers/squad huggingface dataset:
Passage: The proper recitation of the Quran is the subject of a separate discipline named tajwid which determines in detail how the Quran should be recited, how each individual syllable is to be pronounced, the need to pay attention to the places where there should be a pause, to elisions, where the pronunciation should be long or short, where letters should be sounded together and where they should be kept separate, etc. It may be said that this discipline studies the laws and methods of the proper recitation of the Quran and covers three main areas: the proper pronunciation of consonants and vowels (the articulation of the Quranic phonemes), the rules of pause in recitation and of resumption of recitation, and the musical and melodious features of recitation.

Question: What discipline concerns the way the Quran is correctly recited?

Question: Tajwid deals with what aspect of the phonemes in the Quran?

Question: Tajwid describes rules for what noiseless aspect of articulating Quranic verses?

Question: Rhythm is an example of which features of Quranic recitation covered by tajwid?
Passage: Vocalization markers indicating specific vowel sounds were introduced into the Arabic language by the end of the 9th century. The first Quranic manuscripts lacked these marks, therefore several recitations remain acceptable. The variation in readings of the text permitted by the nature of the defective vocalization led to an increase in the number of readings during the 10th century. The 10th-century Muslim scholar from Baghdad, Ibn Mujāhid, is famous for establishing seven acceptable textual readings of the Quran. He studied various readings and their trustworthiness and chose seven 8th-century readers from the cities of Mecca, Medina, Kufa, Basra and Damascus. Ibn Mujahid did not explain why he chose seven readers, rather than six or ten, but this may be related to a prophetic tradition (Muhammad's saying) reporting that the Quran had been revealed in seven "ahruf" (meaning seven letters or modes). Today, the most popular readings are those transmitted by Ḥafṣ (d.796) and Warsh (d. 812) which are according to two of Ibn Mujahid's reciters, Aasim ibn Abi al-Najud (Kufa, d. 745) and Nafi‘ al-Madani (Medina, d. 785), respectively. The influential standard Quran of Cairo (1924) uses an elaborate system of modified vowel-signs and a set of additional symbols for minute details and is based on ʻAsim's recitation, the 8th-century recitation of Kufa. This edition has become the standard for modern printings of the Quran.

Question: The absence of which language feature made early Quranic recitation more diverse?

Question: Which Baghdad scholar identified justified seven different Quranic readings?

Question: Which century produced the seven readings selected by Ibn Mujāhid?

Question: Which recitation is the original basis of the Quran of Cairo?

Question: Which city corresponds to Asim's recitation of the Quran?
Passage: Before printing was widely adopted in the 19th century, the Quran was transmitted in manuscripts made by calligraphers and copyists. The earliest manuscripts were written in Ḥijāzī-type script. The Hijazi style manuscripts nevertheless confirm that transmission of the Quran in writing began at an early stage. Probably in the ninth century, scripts began to feature thicker strokes, which are traditionally known as Kufic scripts. Toward the end of the ninth century, new scripts began to appear in copies of the Quran and replace earlier scripts. The reason for discontinuation in the use of the earlier style was that it took too long to produce and the demand for copies was increasing. Copyists would therefore chose simpler writing styles. Beginning in the 11th century, the styles of writing employed were primarily the naskh, muhaqqaq, rayḥānī and, on rarer occasions, the thuluth script. Naskh was in very widespread use. In North Africa and Spain, the Maghribī style was popular. More distinct is the Bihari script which was used solely in the north of India. Nastaʻlīq style was also rarely used in Persian world.

Question: Who created Quranic manuscripts before the 19th century?

Question: What is the name of the thicker-stroked writing used for the Quran beginning in the 9th century?

Question: Which was the most widely used script by copyists in the 11th century?

Question: Where was the Maghribi script most commonly used by Quran copyists?

Question: Which script was only used to copy the Quran by people in northern India?
Passage: In the beginning, the Quran did not have vocalization markings. The system of vocalization, as we know it today, seems to have been introduced towards the end of the ninth century. Since it would have been too costly for most Muslims to purchase a manuscript, copies of the Quran were held in mosques in order to make them accessible to people. These copies frequently took the form of a series of 30 parts or juzʼ. In terms of productivity, the Ottoman copyists provide the best example. This was in response to widespread demand, unpopularity of printing methods and for aesthetic reasons.

Question: In which century were vocalization marking added to the Quran?

Question: Where were Quran copies kept for those who could not afford their own?

Question: What are the parts of the Quran called that are 30 in total?

Question: Which group of Quran copyists produced the most in-demand manuscripts?
Passage: According to Sahih al-Bukhari, the Quran was recited among Levantines and Iraqis, and discussed by Christians and Jews, before it was standardized. Its language was similar to the Syriac language.[citation needed] The Quran recounts stories of many of the people and events recounted in Jewish and Christian sacred books (Tanakh, Bible) and devotional literature (Apocrypha, Midrash), although it differs in many details. Adam, Enoch, Noah, Eber, Shelah, Abraham, Lot, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Job, Jethro, David, Solomon, Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, Aaron, Moses, Zechariah, John the Baptist and Jesus are mentioned in the Quran as prophets of God (see Prophets of Islam). In fact, Moses is mentioned more in the Quran than any other individual. Jesus is mentioned more often in the Quran than Muhammad, while Mary is mentioned in the Quran more than the New Testament. Muslims believe the common elements or resemblances between the Bible and other Jewish and Christian writings and Islamic dispensations is due to their common divine source,[citation needed] and that the original Christian or Jewish texts were authentic divine revelations given to prophets.

Question: Which Biblical character is the most often mentioned person in the Quran?

Question: Who has claimed that Christians and Jews had heard and discussed the Quran before it took on its standardized Arabic form?

Question: Which older language is thought to strongly resemble that of the Quran?

Question: Which relative of Jesus appears more often in the Quran than the New Testament?

Question: What do devout Muslims believe is the reason for the overlap of events and characters in the Bible and Quran?
Passage: According to Tabatabaei, there are acceptable and unacceptable esoteric interpretations. Acceptable ta'wil refers to the meaning of a verse beyond its literal meaning; rather the implicit meaning, which ultimately is known only to God and can't be comprehended directly through human thought alone. The verses in question here refer to the human qualities of coming, going, sitting, satisfaction, anger and sorrow, which are apparently attributed to God. Unacceptable ta'wil is where one "transfers" the apparent meaning of a verse to a different meaning by means of a proof; this method is not without obvious inconsistencies. Although this unacceptable ta'wil has gained considerable acceptance, it is incorrect and cannot be applied to the Quranic verses. The correct interpretation is that reality a verse refers to. It is found in all verses, the decisive and the ambiguous alike; it is not a sort of a meaning of the word; it is a fact that is too sublime for words. God has dressed them with words to bring them a bit nearer to our minds; in this respect they are like proverbs that are used to create a picture in the mind, and thus help the hearer to clearly grasp the intended idea.

Question: What are the two type of ta'wil?

Question: Which type of esoteric interpretation involves a transfer by proof of a verse's meaning?

Question: The implicit meaning of a Quranic verse that is known fully only by God is which type of ta'wil?
Passage: The Quran most likely existed in scattered written form during Muhammad's lifetime. Several sources indicate that during Muhammad's lifetime a large number of his companions had memorized the revelations. Early commentaries and Islamic historical sources support the above-mentioned understanding of the Quran's early development. The Quran in its present form is generally considered by academic scholars to record the words spoken by Muhammad because the search for variants has not yielded any differences of great significance.[page needed] University of Chicago professor Fred Donner states that "...there was a very early attempt to establish a uniform consonantal text of the Qurʾān from what was probably a wider and more varied group of related texts in early transmission. [...] After the creation of this standardized canonical text, earlier authoritative texts were suppressed, and all extant manuscripts—despite their numerous variants—seem to date to a time after this standard consonantal text was established." Although most variant readings of the text of the Quran have ceased to be transmitted, some still are. There has been no critical text produced on which a scholarly reconstruction of the Quranic text could be based. Historically, controversy over the Quran's content has rarely become an issue, although debates continue on the subject.

Question: Who had begun memorizing Muhammad's revelations in his lifetime?

Question: What was done to the Quranic text early in its history leaving few markedly different variants?

Question: Which which university is Fred Donner affiliated?

Question: The Quran is widely accepted by historians to contain a relatively accurate record of whose words?
Passage: Sahih al-Bukhari narrates Muhammad describing the revelations as, "Sometimes it is (revealed) like the ringing of a bell" and Aisha reported, "I saw the Prophet being inspired Divinely on a very cold day and noticed the sweat dropping from his forehead (as the Inspiration was over)." Muhammad's first revelation, according to the Quran, was accompanied with a vision. The agent of revelation is mentioned as the "one mighty in power", the one who "grew clear to view when he was on the uppermost horizon. Then he drew nigh and came down till he was (distant) two bows' length or even nearer." The Islamic studies scholar Welch states in the Encyclopaedia of Islam that he believes the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition at these moments may be regarded as genuine, because he was severely disturbed after these revelations. According to Welch, these seizures would have been seen by those around him as convincing evidence for the superhuman origin of Muhammad's inspirations. However, Muhammad's critics accused him of being a possessed man, a soothsayer or a magician since his experiences were similar to those claimed by such figures well known in ancient Arabia. Welch additionally states that it remains uncertain whether these experiences occurred before or after Muhammad's initial claim of prophethood.

Question: What physical symptom accompanied Muhammad's revelations?

Question: What measure of distance described the nearness of the Angel's approach to Mohammad?

Question: In which work did Welch express his belief that Mohammad's physical reaction to the revelation was historically accurate?

Question: Which people would Mohammad's critics have compared him to at the time?
Passage: Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei says that according to the popular explanation among the later exegetes, ta'wil indicates the particular meaning a verse is directed towards. The meaning of revelation (tanzil), as opposed to ta'wil, is clear in its accordance to the obvious meaning of the words as they were revealed. But this explanation has become so widespread that, at present, it has become the primary meaning of ta'wil, which originally meant "to return" or "the returning place". In Tabatabaei's view, what has been rightly called ta'wil, or hermeneutic interpretation of the Quran, is not concerned simply with the denotation of words. Rather, it is concerned with certain truths and realities that transcend the comprehension of the common run of men; yet it is from these truths and realities that the principles of doctrine and the practical injunctions of the Quran issue forth. Interpretation is not the meaning of the verse—rather it transpires through that meaning, in a special sort of transpiration. There is a spiritual reality—which is the main objective of ordaining a law, or the basic aim in describing a divine attribute—and then there is an actual significance that a Quranic story refers to.

Question: What was the original meaning of ta'wil?

Question: What can interpretation find that lies the behind the apparent events referred to in a Quranic story?

Question: What philosophical term corresponds to the type of interpretation in ta'wil?
Passage: According to Shia beliefs, those who are firmly rooted in knowledge like Muhammad and the imams know the secrets of the Quran. According to Tabatabaei, the statement "none knows its interpretation except God" remains valid, without any opposing or qualifying clause. Therefore, so far as this verse is concerned, the knowledge of the Quran's interpretation is reserved for God. But Tabatabaei uses other verses and concludes that those who are purified by God know the interpretation of the Quran to a certain extent.

Question: Who do Shia Muslims believe can approach Quranic truths besides God and Muhammad?

Question: According to Shia Muslims, who is the only one who can fully know the a Quranic interpretation?

Question: How must God have treated those who are qualified to know Quranic sectets?
Passage: A great power is a sovereign state that is recognized as having the ability and expertise to exert its influence on a global scale. Great powers characteristically possess military and economic strength, as well as diplomatic and soft power influence, which may cause middle or small powers to consider the great powers' opinions before taking actions of their own. International relations theorists have posited that great power status can be characterized into power capabilities, spatial aspects, and status dimensions. Sometimes the status of great powers is formally recognized in conferences such as the Congress of Vienna or an international structure such as the United Nations Security Council (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United States serve as the body's five permanent members). At the same time the status of great powers can be informally recognized in a forum such as the G7 which consists of Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom and the United States of America.

Question: What is a nation which can exert its influence on a global scale called?

Question: What two dominant traits do great powers usually possess?

Question: China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States serve as what body's five permanent members?

Question: What two lesser traits do great powers usually possess?

Question: Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States are part of what international forum?

Question: What do great powers usually have?

Question: What are the permanent members of UN Security Council?

Question: What are the countries in the G7?

Question: What 3 factors have international relations theorists considered factors for great power status?
Passage: The term "great power" was first used to represent the most important powers in Europe during the post-Napoleonic era. The "Great Powers" constituted the "Concert of Europe" and claimed the right to joint enforcement of the postwar treaties. The formalization of the division between small powers and great powers came about with the signing of the Treaty of Chaumont in 1814. Since then, the international balance of power has shifted numerous times, most dramatically during World War I and World War II. While some nations are widely considered to be great powers, there is no definitive list of them. In literature, alternative terms for great power are often world power or major power, but these terms can also be interchangeable with superpower.

Question: The term "great power" was first used on which continent?

Question: Which treaty made the distinction of small powers and great powers a formal affair?

Question: What year was this treaty signed?

Question: During which two wars has the balance of power shifted the most dramatically?

Question: What is another more modern term used in place of "great power"?

Question: What was the formalization of the division of small powers and great powers?

Question: During the post Napoleonic era where were the first Great Powers concentrated?

Question: What is another term for Great Power?

Question: During what 2 wars was the balance of power shift most dramatic?
Passage: Early writings on the subject tended to judge states by the realist criterion, as expressed by the historian A. J. P. Taylor when he noted that "The test of a great power is the test of strength for war." Later writers have expanded this test, attempting to define power in terms of overall military, economic, and political capacity. Kenneth Waltz, the founder of the neorealist theory of international relations, uses a set of five criteria to determine great power: population and territory; resource endowment; economic capability; political stability and competence; and military strength. These expanded criteria can be divided into three heads: power capabilities, spatial aspects, and status.

Question: What one criteria was used in early times to judge a great power's status?

Question: Besides military, what two other capacities were used to describe great powers in later times?

Question: Who is the founder of the neorealist theory of international relations?

Question: How many criteria are used to judge a great power in the neorealist theory?

Question: Who wrote, "The test of a great power is the test of strength for war."?

Question: What 5 criteria did neorealist use to determine great powers?

Question: Whos was the founder of the neorealist theory of international relations?

Question: What 3 areas can summarize the great power determination?
Passage: All states have a geographic scope of interests, actions, or projected power. This is a crucial factor in distinguishing a great power from a regional power; by definition the scope of a regional power is restricted to its region. It has been suggested that a great power should be possessed of actual influence throughout the scope of the prevailing international system. Arnold J. Toynbee, for example, observes that "Great power may be defined as a political force exerting an effect co-extensive with the widest range of the society in which it operates. The Great powers of 1914 were 'world-powers' because Western society had recently become 'world-wide'."

Question: What three things do all states have in their geographic scope?

Question: Which societal values had become world-wide by 1914?

Question: What is the scope of a regional power restricted to?

Question: What should a great power possess?

Question: What were the great powers of 1914 called?

Question: Who stated that "Great power may be defined as a political force exerting an effect co-extensive with the widest range of the society in which it operates. The Great powers of 1914 were 'world-powers"?

Question: What do all states have?

Question: What type of powers should have actual influence throughout the scope of the prevailing international system?

Question: What type of power is restricted to its region?
Passage: Other important criteria throughout history are that great powers should have enough influence to be included in discussions of political and diplomatic questions of the day, and have influence on the final outcome and resolution. Historically, when major political questions were addressed, several great powers met to discuss them. Before the era of groups like the United Nations, participants of such meetings were not officially named, but were decided based on their great power status. These were conferences which settled important questions based on major historical events. This might mean deciding the political resolution of various geographical and nationalist claims following a major conflict, or other contexts.

Question: What discussion should great powers be included on?

Question: Historically, when would great powers meet?

Question: What types of decisions would great powers reach?
Passage: Lord Castlereagh, the British Foreign Secretary, first used the term in its diplomatic context, in a letter sent on February 13, 1814: "It affords me great satisfaction to acquaint you that there is every prospect of the Congress terminating with a general accord and Guarantee between the Great powers of Europe, with a determination to support the arrangement agreed upon, and to turn the general influence and if necessary the general arms against the Power that shall first attempt to disturb the Continental peace."

Question: When did Lord Castlereagh first use the term Great Powers?

Question: What position did Lord Castlereagh hold?

Question: What did Castlereagh determine as the last resort of great power's influence?
Passage: Of the five original great powers recognised at the Congress of Vienna, only France and the United Kingdom have maintained that status continuously to the present day, although France was defeated in the Franco-Prussian War and occupied during World War II. After the Congress of Vienna, the British Empire emerged as the pre-eminent power, due to its navy and the extent of its territories, which signalled the beginning of the Pax Britannica and of the Great Game between the UK and Russia. The balance of power between the Great Powers became a major influence in European politics, prompting Otto von Bismarck to say "All politics reduces itself to this formula: try to be one of three, as long as the world is governed by the unstable equilibrium of five great powers."

Question: What 2 powers named in the 5 orignal great powers of the congress of vienna have maintained that status?

Question: What country emerged as the pre-eminent power, due to its navy and the extent of its territories?

Question: What country lost Franco-Prussian war?

Question: Balance of power of great powers was a major influence on what continents politics?

Question: Who stated that "All politics reduces itself to this formula: try to be one of three, as long as the world is governed by the unstable equilibrium of five great powers.?"