sentence-transformers/squad huggingface dataset:
Passage: During adolescence, the human body undergoes various physical, physiological and immunological changes triggered and mediated by hormones, of which the most significant in females is 17-β-oestradiol (an oestrogen) and, in males, is testosterone. Oestradiol usually begins to act around the age of 10 and testosterone some months later. There is evidence that these steroids act directly not only on the primary and secondary sexual characteristics but also have an effect on the development and regulation of the immune system, including an increased risk in developing pubescent and post-pubescent autoimmunity. There is also some evidence that cell surface receptors on B cells and macrophages may detect sex hormones in the system.

Question: What is the primary trigger for immunological changes in teens?

Question: What specific hormone catalyzes these changes in females?

Question: Which specific hormone precipitates the change in immunology in males?

Question: Adolescent immunological changes can also result in what?

Question: Evidence suggests that receptors on B cells may do what?
Passage: Immunology is strongly experimental in everyday practice but is also characterized by an ongoing theoretical attitude. Many theories have been suggested in immunology from the end of the nineteenth century up to the present time. The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century saw a battle between "cellular" and "humoral" theories of immunity. According to the cellular theory of immunity, represented in particular by Elie Metchnikoff, it was cells – more precisely, phagocytes – that were responsible for immune responses. In contrast, the humoral theory of immunity, held by Robert Koch and Emil von Behring, among others, stated that the active immune agents were soluble components (molecules) found in the organism’s “humors” rather than its cells.

Question: The routine practice of immunology can best be characterized as?

Question: What are two opposing theories of early 20th century immunology?

Question: Cellular immunology expressed the theory that what cells caused immune responses?

Question: Humoral immunology theorized that the origin of the immune system lay in what?

Question: Rather than cells, in humoral immunology where did the molecules that cause immune response reside?
Passage: In the mid-1950s, Frank Burnet, inspired by a suggestion made by Niels Jerne, formulated the clonal selection theory (CST) of immunity. On the basis of CST, Burnet developed a theory of how an immune response is triggered according to the self/nonself distinction: "self" constituents (constituents of the body) do not trigger destructive immune responses, while "nonself" entities (e.g., pathogens, an allograft) trigger a destructive immune response. The theory was later modified to reflect new discoveries regarding histocompatibility or the complex "two-signal" activation of T cells. The self/nonself theory of immunity and the self/nonself vocabulary have been criticized, but remain very influential.

Question: What medical scientist first proposed the clonal selection theory of immunology?

Question: What triggers an immune response according to CST?

Question: In CST, what triggers a destructive immune response?

Question: What property of T cells caused modification of CST?

Question: When was clonal selection theory first proposed?
Passage: Bioscience is the overall major in which undergraduate students who are interested in general well-being take in college. Immunology is a branch of bioscience for undergraduate programs but the major gets specified as students move on for graduate program in immunology. The aim of immunology is to study the health of humans and animals through effective yet consistent research, (AAAAI, 2013). The most important thing about being immunologists is the research because it is the biggest portion of their jobs.

Question: What discipline can undergraduate students interested in general health study?

Question: Immunology is a branch of what larger field of study?

Question: The goal of an immunologist is to study what beings?

Question: The biggest part of an immunologist's job is what?

Question: What two conditions apply to good immunological study?
Passage: Most graduate immunology schools follow the AAI courses immunology which are offered throughout numerous schools in the United States. For example, in New York State, there are several universities that offer the AAI courses immunology: Albany Medical College, Cornell University, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York University Langone Medical Center, University at Albany (SUNY), University at Buffalo (SUNY), University of Rochester Medical Center and Upstate Medical University (SUNY). The AAI immunology courses include an Introductory Course and an Advance Course. The Introductory Course is a course that gives students an overview of the basics of immunology.

Question: Most graduate schools specializing in immunology follow what organization's parameters?

Question: What is the name of the immunology school at Mount Sinai?

Question: AAI immunology courses include what two components?

Question: What does the introductory AAI immunology course do?

Question: The Langone Medical Center is part of what college?
Passage: In addition, this Introductory Course gives students more information to complement general biology or science training. It also has two different parts: Part I is an introduction to the basic principles of immunology and Part II is a clinically-oriented lecture series. On the other hand, the Advanced Course is another course for those who are willing to expand or update their understanding of immunology. It is advised for students who want to attend the Advanced Course to have a background of the principles of immunology. Most schools require students to take electives in other to complete their degrees. A Master’s degree requires two years of study following the attainment of a bachelor's degree. For a doctoral programme it is required to take two additional years of study.

Question: Part 1 of the AAI introductory immunology course is meant to be what?

Question: Part 2 of the AAI introductory immunology course revolves around what?

Question: What pre-requisite should enrollees in the advanced immunology course have?

Question: How long does it typically take to earn a Master's degree?

Question: What program requires an additional two years of study?
Passage: MPEG-1 or MPEG-2 Audio Layer III, more commonly referred to as MP3, is an audio coding format for digital audio which uses a form of lossy data compression. It is a common audio format for consumer audio streaming or storage, as well as a de facto standard of digital audio compression for the transfer and playback of music on most digital audio players.

Question: What is the common name for MPEG-2 Audio Layer III?

Question: What kind of audio is the coding format for?

Question: Other than storage, what is the common audio format used for?

Question: What does MP3 use to format it's data?

Question: Where will MP3 files most commonly be found?
Passage: The use of lossy compression is designed to greatly reduce the amount of data required to represent the audio recording and still sound like a faithful reproduction of the original uncompressed audio for most listeners. An MP3 file that is created using the setting of 128 kbit/s will result in a file that is about 1/11 the size of the CD file created from the original audio source (44,100 samples per second × 16 bits per sample × 2 channels = 1,411,200 bit/s; MP3 compressed at 128 kbit/s: 128,000 bit/s [1 k = 1,000, not 1024, because it is a bit rate]. Ratio: 1,411,200/128,000 = 11.025). An MP3 file can also be constructed at higher or lower bit rates, with higher or lower resulting quality.

Question: What is the main goal aside from reducing the amount of data required to store the audio?

Question: What kind of compression is used?

Question: If a file is created using 128 kbit/s, what size is the file going to be compared to a CD?

Question: How many total bit/s would a CD have?

Question: How many total bit/s would an MP3 compressed at 128 kbit/s have?
Passage: The compression works by reducing the accuracy of certain parts of a sound that are considered to be beyond the auditory resolution ability of most people. This method is commonly referred to as perceptual coding. It uses psychoacoustic models to discard or reduce precision of components less audible to human hearing, and then records the remaining information in an efficient manner.

Question: What does the compression target in the song?

Question: The targetting focuses on what aspect that is beyond the ability of most people?

Question: What is this method commonly referred to as?

Question: What kind of model is used in this kind of compression?

Question: These models ensure that the precision is reduced for the components that are what to human hearing?
Passage: MP3 was designed by the Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) as part of its MPEG-1 standard and later extended in the MPEG-2 standard. The first subgroup for audio was formed by several teams of engineers at Fraunhofer IIS, University of Hannover, AT&T-Bell Labs, Thomson-Brandt, CCETT, and others. MPEG-1 Audio (MPEG-1 Part 3), which included MPEG-1 Audio Layer I, II and III was approved as a committee draft of ISO/IEC standard in 1991, finalised in 1992 and published in 1993 (ISO/IEC 11172-3:1993). Backwards compatible MPEG-2 Audio (MPEG-2 Part 3) with additional bit rates and sample rates was published in 1995 (ISO/IEC 13818-3:1995).

Question: Who designed MP3?

Question: What was the first standard that this group had?

Question: The first standard later developed into which standard?

Question: When was the draft passed to have MPEG-1 Audio approved as a standard?

Question: When was MPEG-2 Audio finally published?
Passage: The MP3 lossy audio data compression algorithm takes advantage of a perceptual limitation of human hearing called auditory masking. In 1894, the American physicist Alfred M. Mayer reported that a tone could be rendered inaudible by another tone of lower frequency. In 1959, Richard Ehmer described a complete set of auditory curves regarding this phenomenon. Ernst Terhardt et al. created an algorithm describing auditory masking with high accuracy. This work added to a variety of reports from authors dating back to Fletcher, and to the work that initially determined critical ratios and critical bandwidths.

Question: What does the MP3 compression take advantage of?

Question: What is the limitation in human hearing referred to as?

Question: Who was the physicist to report that a tone could be rendered inaudible.

Question: When were audio curves described by Richard Ehmer?

Question: The initial work was aimed at determining critical ratios and what else?
Passage: The psychoacoustic masking codec was first proposed in 1979, apparently independently, by Manfred R. Schroeder, et al. from Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. in Murray Hill, NJ, and M. A. Krasner both in the United States. Krasner was the first to publish and to produce hardware for speech (not usable as music bit compression), but the publication of his results as a relatively obscure Lincoln Laboratory Technical Report did not immediately influence the mainstream of psychoacoustic codec development. Manfred Schroeder was already a well-known and revered figure in the worldwide community of acoustical and electrical engineers, but his paper was not much noticed, since it described negative results due to the particular nature of speech and the linear predictive coding (LPC) gain present in speech. Both Krasner and Schroeder built upon the work performed by Eberhard F. Zwicker in the areas of tuning and masking of critical bands, that in turn built on the fundamental research in the area from Bell Labs of Harvey Fletcher and his collaborators. A wide variety of (mostly perceptual) audio compression algorithms were reported in IEEE's refereed Journal on Selected Areas in Communications. That journal reported in February 1988 on a wide range of established, working audio bit compression technologies, some of them using auditory masking as part of their fundamental design, and several showing real-time hardware implementations.

Question: What was first proposed in 1979?

Question: Which country were the researchers located in?

Question: Who was the first to produce hardware for speech?

Question: What does LPC stand for?

Question: What was reported in IEEE's Journal on Selected Areas in Communications?
Passage: The immediate predecessors of MP3 were "Optimum Coding in the Frequency Domain" (OCF), and Perceptual Transform Coding (PXFM). These two codecs, along with block-switching contributions from Thomson-Brandt, were merged into a codec called ASPEC, which was submitted to MPEG, and which won the quality competition, but that was mistakenly rejected as too complex to implement. The first practical implementation of an audio perceptual coder (OCF) in hardware (Krasner's hardware was too cumbersome and slow for practical use), was an implementation of a psychoacoustic transform coder based on Motorola 56000 DSP chips.

Question: What does OCF stand for?

Question: What does PXFM stand for?

Question: What was the name of the codec that OCF, PFXM and other contributes merged into?

Question: Which competition did ASPEC win?

Question: What was the first practical implementation based on?
Passage: As a doctoral student at Germany's University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Karlheinz Brandenburg began working on digital music compression in the early 1980s, focusing on how people perceive music. He completed his doctoral work in 1989. MP3 is directly descended from OCF and PXFM, representing the outcome of the collaboration of Brandenburg—working as a postdoc at AT&T-Bell Labs with James D. Johnston ("JJ") of AT&T-Bell Labs—with the Fraunhofer Institut for Integrated Circuits, Erlangen, with relatively minor contributions from the MP2 branch of psychoacoustic sub-band coders. In 1990, Brandenburg became an assistant professor at Erlangen-Nuremberg. While there, he continued to work on music compression with scientists at the Fraunhofer Society (in 1993 he joined the staff of the Fraunhofer Institute).

Question: What kind of student was Karlheinz Brandenburg?

Question: When did Karlheinz start working on digitmal music compression?

Question: Where did Bradenburg become an assistant professor at?

Question: Who did Brandenburg work with in music compression?

Question: When did Brandenburg join the Fraunhofen Institute?
Passage: The song "Tom's Diner" by Suzanne Vega was the first song used by Karlheinz Brandenburg to develop the MP3. Brandenburg adopted the song for testing purposes, listening to it again and again each time refining the scheme, making sure it did not adversely affect the subtlety of Vega's voice.

Question: What was the name of the first song used to develop the MP3?

Question: Who was the artist of the first song used?

Question: Who adjusted the song?

Question: The song was listened to multiple times to try and refine what?

Question: What particular aspect of the artists voice was he trying to preserve?
Passage: In 1991, there were only two proposals available that could be completely assessed for an MPEG audio standard: Musicam (Masking pattern adapted Universal Subband Integrated Coding And Multiplexing) and ASPEC (Adaptive Spectral Perceptual Entropy Coding). The Musicam technique, as proposed by Philips (the Netherlands), CCETT (France) and Institut für Rundfunktechnik (Germany) was chosen due to its simplicity and error robustness, as well as its low computational power associated with the encoding of high quality compressed audio. The Musicam format, based on sub-band coding, was the basis of the MPEG Audio compression format (sampling rates, structure of frames, headers, number of samples per frame).

Question: How many proposals were available in 1991?

Question: Other than ASPEC what was another proposal?

Question: The Musicam format was proposed by Philips, based in which country?

Question: Which other quality alongside simplicty was key in selecting this proposal?

Question: What was the Musican format based on?
Passage: Much of its technology and ideas were incorporated into the definition of ISO MPEG Audio Layer I and Layer II and the filter bank alone into Layer III (MP3) format as part of the computationally inefficient hybrid filter bank. Under the chairmanship of Professor Musmann (University of Hannover) the editing of the standard was made under the responsibilities of Leon van de Kerkhof (Layer I) and Gerhard Stoll (Layer II).

Question: What was only incorporated into Layer III and not Layers I or II?

Question: Who was the chair that oversaw the editing of the standard?

Question: Who's responsibility was it to edit the standard for Layer I?

Question: Who's responsibility was it to edit the standard for Layer II?
Passage: ASPEC was the joint proposal of AT&T Bell Laboratories, Thomson Consumer Electronics, Fraunhofer Society and CNET. It provided the highest coding efficiency.

Question: What was the name given to the proposal?

Question: What did the joint proposal provide?

Question: Other than Thomson Consumer Electronics, Fraunhofer Society and CNET, who else was a part of the joint proposal?
Passage: A working group consisting of Leon van de Kerkhof (The Netherlands), Gerhard Stoll (Germany), Leonardo Chiariglione (Italy), Yves-François Dehery (France), Karlheinz Brandenburg (Germany) and James D. Johnston (USA) took ideas from ASPEC, integrated the filter bank from Layer 2, added some of their own ideas and created MP3, which was designed to achieve the same quality at 128 kbit/s as MP2 at 192 kbit/s.

Question: What did the working group integrate their ideas with?

Question: Where was the filter bank taken from?

Question: What did the working group take ideas from?

Question: What did the working group eventually create?

Question: What quality were they hoping to match at 128 kbit/s?
Passage: All algorithms for MPEG-1 Audio Layer I, II and III were approved in 1991 and finalized in 1992 as part of MPEG-1, the first standard suite by MPEG, which resulted in the international standard ISO/IEC 11172-3 (a.k.a. MPEG-1 Audio or MPEG-1 Part 3), published in 1993.

Question: When were the algorithms approved?

Question: When were the approved algorithms finalized?

Question: What was the first started suite by MPEG?

Question: What was the official name of the internation standard?

Question: When was the international standard published?
Passage: Further work on MPEG audio was finalized in 1994 as part of the second suite of MPEG standards, MPEG-2, more formally known as international standard ISO/IEC 13818-3 (a.k.a. MPEG-2 Part 3 or backwards compatible MPEG-2 Audio or MPEG-2 Audio BC), originally published in 1995. MPEG-2 Part 3 (ISO/IEC 13818-3) defined additional bit rates and sample rates for MPEG-1 Audio Layer I, II and III. The new sampling rates are exactly half that of those originally defined in MPEG-1 Audio. This reduction in sampling rate serves to cut the available frequency fidelity in half while likewise cutting the bitrate by 50%. MPEG-2 Part 3 also enhanced MPEG-1's audio by allowing the coding of audio programs with more than two channels, up to 5.1 multichannel.

Question: Further work on MPEG was finalized as a part of which MPEG standard?

Question: What was the official name of ISO/IEC 13818-3 better known as?

Question: At what rate were the new sampling rates defined in comparison to MPEG-1 Audio?

Question: Apart from cutting the frequency fidelity in half, what else was cut in half?

Question: Allowing the coding of audio programs with more than two channels was a major aspect of what?
Passage: An additional extension to MPEG-2 is named MPEG-2.5 audio, as MPEG-3 already had a different meaning. This extension was developed at Fraunhofer IIS, the registered MP3 patent holders. Like MPEG-2, MPEG-2.5 adds new sampling rates exactly half of that previously possible with MPEG-2. It thus widens the scope of MP3 to include human speech and other applications requiring only 25% of the frequency reproduction possible with MPEG-1. While not an ISO recognized standard, MPEG-2.5 is widely supported by both inexpensive and brand name digital audio players as well as computer software based MP3 encoders and decoders. A sample rate comparison between MPEG-1, 2 and 2.5 is given further down. MPEG-2.5 was not developed by MPEG and was never approved as an international standard. MPEG-2.5 is thus an unofficial or proprietary extension to the MP3 format.

Question: As MPEG-3 had a different meaning, what was the name given to the extension of MPEG-2?

Question: Where was this extension developed?

Question: The new sampling rates widened the scope of MP3 to be able to include what?

Question: What is not an ISO recognized standard?

Question: As MPEG-2.5 is unofficial, it is considered what kind of extension to the MP3 format?
Passage: Compression efficiency of encoders is typically defined by the bit rate, because compression ratio depends on the bit depth and sampling rate of the input signal. Nevertheless, compression ratios are often published. They may use the Compact Disc (CD) parameters as references (44.1 kHz, 2 channels at 16 bits per channel or 2×16 bit), or sometimes the Digital Audio Tape (DAT) SP parameters (48 kHz, 2×16 bit). Compression ratios with this latter reference are higher, which demonstrates the problem with use of the term compression ratio for lossy encoders.

Question: What defines the compression efficiency of encoders?

Question: Compression ratio depends on the sample rate and bit depth of which signal?

Question: What does CD stand for?

Question: Other than CD parameters, what else can be used as parameter references?

Question: What can CD parameters be used as references for?
Passage: Karlheinz Brandenburg used a CD recording of Suzanne Vega's song "Tom's Diner" to assess and refine the MP3 compression algorithm. This song was chosen because of its nearly monophonic nature and wide spectral content, making it easier to hear imperfections in the compression format during playbacks. Some refer to Suzanne Vega as "The mother of MP3". This particular track has an interesting property in that the two channels are almost, but not completely, the same, leading to a case where Binaural Masking Level Depression causes spatial unmasking of noise artifacts unless the encoder properly recognizes the situation and applies corrections similar to those detailed in the MPEG-2 AAC psychoacoustic model. Some more critical audio excerpts (glockenspiel, triangle, accordion, etc.) were taken from the EBU V3/SQAM reference compact disc and have been used by professional sound engineers to assess the subjective quality of the MPEG Audio formats.

Question: What type of recording did Brandenburg use?

Question: What did Brandenburg use the recording to refine?

Question: What word describes the nature of the song used?

Question: As a result of her song being used, Suzanne Vega is sometimes referred to as what?

Question: Excerpts were taken from which reference compact disc to assess the subjective quality of the MPEG audio formats?