sentence-transformers/squad huggingface dataset:
Passage: The modern pharmaceutical industry traces its roots to two sources. The first of these were local apothecaries that expanded from their traditional role distributing botanical drugs such as morphine and quinine to wholesale manufacture in the mid 1800s. Rational drug discovery from plants started particularly with the isolation of morphine, analgesic and sleep-inducing agent from opium, by the German apothecary assistant Friedrich Sertürner, who named the compound after the Greek god of dreams, Morpheus. Multinational corporations including Merck, Hoffman-La Roche, Burroughs-Wellcome (now part of Glaxo Smith Kline), Abbott Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Upjohn (now part of Pfizer) began as local apothecary shops in the mid-1800s. By the late 1880s, German dye manufacturers had perfected the purification of individual organic compounds from coal tar and other mineral sources and had also established rudimentary methods in organic chemical synthesis. The development of synthetic chemical methods allowed scientists to systematically vary the structure of chemical substances, and growth in the emerging science of pharmacology expanded their ability to evaluate the biological effects of these structural changes.

Question: When was Morphine and Quinine first available?

Question: Who was the compound named after?

Question: Who came up with the name Morphine?

Question: Where were was Morphine extracted from?

Question: Who is responsible for purification of compounds found in mineral sources?

Question: Morphine was named after what Greek god?

Question: Burroughs-Wellcome is now part of what medical company?

Question: Who discovered morphine?

Question: What is the name of the plant that produces morphine?
Passage: Ehrlich’s approach of systematically varying the chemical structure of synthetic compounds and measuring the effects of these changes on biological activity was pursued broadly by industrial scientists, including Bayer scientists Josef Klarer, Fritz Mietzsch, and Gerhard Domagk. This work, also based in the testing of compounds available from the German dye industry, led to the development of Prontosil, the first representative of the sulfonamide class of antibiotics. Compared to arsphenamine, the sulfonamides had a broader spectrum of activity and were far less toxic, rendering them useful for infections caused by pathogens such as streptococci. In 1939, Domagk received the Nobel Prize in Medicine for this discovery. Nonetheless, the dramatic decrease in deaths from infectious diseases that occurred prior to World War II was primarily the result of improved public health measures such as clean water and less crowded housing, and the impact of anti-infective drugs and vaccines was significant mainly after World War II.

Question: Who received the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1939?

Question: Prontosil is in what drug class?

Question: Who is responsible for creating Prontosil?

Question: What causes Streptococci?

Question: Many deaths occurred before World War II due to what?

Question: What was the name of the first sulfonamine antibiotic?

Question: What award did Domagk receive in 1939?

Question: Anti-infective drugs became more prominent after what war?

Question: Were sulfonamides more or less toxic than arsphenamine?

Question: Streptococci and other pathogens could be treated by what type of antibiotics?
Passage: Early progress toward the development of vaccines occurred throughout this period, primarily in the form of academic and government-funded basic research directed toward the identification of the pathogens responsible for common communicable diseases. In 1885 Louis Pasteur and Pierre Paul Émile Roux created the first rabies vaccine. The first diphtheria vaccines were produced in 1914 from a mixture of diphtheria toxin and antitoxin (produced from the serum of an inoculated animal), but the safety of the inoculation was marginal and it was not widely used. The United States recorded 206,000 cases of diphtheria in 1921 resulting in 15,520 deaths. In 1923 parallel efforts by Gaston Ramon at the Pasteur Institute and Alexander Glenny at the Wellcome Research Laboratories (later part of GlaxoSmithKline) led to the discovery that a safer vaccine could be produced by treating diphtheria toxin with formaldehyde. In 1944, Maurice Hilleman of Squibb Pharmaceuticals developed the first vaccine against Japanese encephelitis. Hilleman would later move to Merck where he would play a key role in the development of vaccines against measles, mumps, chickenpox, rubella, hepatitis A, hepatitis B, and meningitis.

Question: Who created the first rabies vaccine?

Question: How many cases of Diphtheria were there in 1921?

Question: In 1923, what was discovered to be safer to treat Diphtheria Toxin?

Question: Who created a vaccine to treat Japanese Encephalitis?

Question: How many deaths occurred due to Diphtheria?

Question: The rabies vaccine was created in what year?

Question: In what year was the diphtheria vaccine made?

Question: What compound made the diphtheria vaccine safer to use?

Question: Who developed the first encephalitis vaccine?

Question: What company did Hilleman later work for?
Passage: In 1937 over 100 people died after ingesting "Elixir Sulfanilamide" manufactured by S.E. Massengill Company of Tennessee. The product was formulated in diethylene glycol, a highly toxic solvent that is now widely used as antifreeze. Under the laws extant at that time, prosecution of the manufacturer was possible only under the technicality that the product had been called an "elixir", which literally implied a solution in ethanol. In response to this episode, the U.S. Congress passed the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938, which for the first time required pre-market demonstration of safety before a drug could be sold, and explicitly prohibited false therapeutic claims.

Question: Who manufactured "Elixir Sulfanilamide"?

Question: What was one of the things the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act do?

Question: What year did Congress pass the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act?

Question: What drug killed 100 people in 1937?

Question: What is Diethylene Glycol commonly used for now?

Question: What company manufactured Elixir Sulfanilamide?

Question: What drug killed over 100 people in 1937?

Question: Diethylene glycol is mainly used today as what liquid?

Question: What law did Congress pass following the Elixir Sulfanilamide incident?

Question: The name "elixir" implied a solution in what liquid?
Passage: The aftermath of World War II saw an explosion in the discovery of new classes of antibacterial drugs including the cephalosporins (developed by Eli Lilly based on the seminal work of Giuseppe Brotzu and Edward Abraham), streptomycin (discovered during a Merck-funded research program in Selman Waksman's laboratory), the tetracyclines (discovered at Lederle Laboratories, now a part of Pfizer), erythromycin (discovered at Eli Lilly and Co.) and their extension to an increasingly wide range of bacterial pathogens. Streptomycin, discovered during a Merck-funded research program in Selman Waksman's laboratory at Rutgers in 1943, became the first effective treatment for tuberculosis. At the time of its discovery, sanitoriums for the isolation of tuberculosis-infected people were an ubiquitous feature of cities in developed countries, with 50% dying within 5 years of admission.

Question: When was the first effective treatment for Tuberculosis discovered?

Question: 50% of tuberculosis-infected people died within 5 years where?

Question: What drug effectively treated Tuberculosis?

Question: Who was Eli Lilly's work based off of?

Question: Where was Tetracyclines discovered?

Question: What was the first treatment for tuberculosis?

Question: What percentage of patients infected with tuberculosis died within 5 years?

Question: In what year was streptomycin discovered?

Question: Many more antibiotics were made following the end of what war?

Question: What company funded the research that led to the discovery of streptomycin?
Passage: During the years 1940-1955, the rate of decline in the U.S. death rate accelerated from 2% per year to 8% per year, then returned to the historical rate of 2% per year. The dramatic decline in the immediate post-war years has been attributed to the rapid development of new treatments and vaccines for infectious disease that occurred during these years. Vaccine development continued to accelerate, with the most notable achievement of the period being Jonas Salk's 1954 development of the polio vaccine under the funding of the non-profit National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis. The vaccine process was never patented, but was instead given to pharmaceutical companies to manufacture as a low-cost generic. In 1960 Maurice Hilleman of Merck Sharp & Dohme identified the SV40 virus, which was later shown to cause tumors in many mammalian species. It was later determined that SV40 was present as a contaminant in polio vaccine lots that had been administered to 90% of the children in the United States. The contamination appears to have originated both in the original cell stock and in monkey tissue used for production. In 2004 the United States Cancer Institute announced that it had concluded that SV40 is not associated with cancer in people.

Question: When was the Polio vaccine created?

Question: Who announced that SV40 was not associated with cancer?

Question: Who identified the SV40 virus?

Question: What was a complication of the SV40 virus?

Question: Who funded the Polio vaccine?

Question: In what year was the polio vaccine created?

Question: Who created the polio vaccine?

Question: What virus caused tumors in most mammals?

Question: Who identified the SV40 virus?

Question: SV40 was present in what vaccine?
Passage: On 2 July 2012, GlaxoSmithKline pleaded guilty to criminal charges and agreed to a $3 billion settlement of the largest health-care fraud case in the U.S. and the largest payment by a drug company. The settlement is related to the company's illegal promotion of prescription drugs, its failure to report safety data, bribing doctors, and promoting medicines for uses for which they were not licensed. The drugs involved were Paxil, Wellbutrin, Advair, Lamictal, and Zofran for off-label, non-covered uses. Those and the drugs Imitrex, Lotronex, Flovent, and Valtrex were involved in the kickback scheme.

Question: How much was the settlement GlaxoSmithKline agree to?

Question: What was one of the causes of the health-care fraud case?

Question: When did GlaxoSmithKline plead guilty?

Question: What drugs were related to a kickback scheme?

Question: What drugs were used for off-label uses?

Question: In what year did GlaxoSmithKline pay a $3 billion dollar settlement?

Question: How much was the largest healthcare fraud case in the US settled for?

Question: What company was sued for promoting medicines for unlicensed uses and bribing doctors?
Passage: In the US, starting in 2013, under the Physician Financial Transparency Reports (part of the Sunshine Act), the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services has to collect information from applicable manufacturers and group purchasing organizations in order to report information about their financial relationships with physicians and hospitals. Data are made public in the Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services website. The expectation is that relationship between doctors and Pharmaceutical industry will become fully transparent.

Question: What is the speculation of the relationship between doctors and the drug industry?

Question: What is the Physician Financial Transparency Report part of?

Question: Where can you obtain information about the Sunshine Act?

Question: What information is collected by Centers for Medicine & Medicaid Services?

Question: When did Centers for Medicine & Medicaid Services have to start collecting information?

Question: The Physician Financial Transparency Reports was part of what other act?

Question: In what year were Medicaid and Medicare required to disclose information about their relationships with doctors and hospitals?

Question: Where can financial relationships between Medicaid, Medicare and pharmaceutical companies be found?

Question: What is expected when the relationships are made public?
Passage: A Federal Trade Commission report issued in 1958 attempted to quantify the effect of antibiotic development on American public health. The report found that over the period 1946-1955, there was a 42% drop in the incidence of diseases for which antibiotics were effective and only a 20% drop in those for which antibiotics were not effective. The report concluded that "it appears that the use of antibiotics, early diagnosis, and other factors have limited the epidemic spread and thus the number of these diseases which have occurred". The study further examined mortality rates for eight common diseases for which antibiotics offered effective therapy (syphilis, tuberculosis, dysentery, scarlet fever, whooping cough, meningococcal infections, and pneumonia), and found a 56% decline over the same period. Notable among these was a 75% decline in deaths due to tuberculosis.

Question: What disease had the biggest decline of deaths?

Question: What was responsible for the decline in spreading diseases?

Question: What period was the report issued in 1958 cover?

Question: Who issued the report in 1958?

Question: What were eight diseases examined for?

Question: How much did the mortality rate of common bacterial infections decline between 1946-1955?

Question: How much did the mortality rate of tuberculosis drop between 1946-1955?

Question: Who issued a report describing the effects of antibiotic developments?

Question: In what year was the FTC's report issued?
Passage: In March 2001, 40 multi-national pharmaceutical companies brought litigation against South Africa for its Medicines Act, which allowed the generic production of antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) for treating HIV, despite the fact that these drugs were on-patent. HIV was and is an epidemic in South Africa, and ARVs at the time cost between 10,000 and 15,000 USD per patient per year. This was unaffordable for most South African citizens, and so the South African government committed to providing ARVs at prices closer to what people could afford. To do so, they would need to ignore the patents on drugs and produce generics within the country (using a compulsory license), or import them from abroad. After international protest in favour of public health rights (including the collection of 250,000 signatures by MSF), the governments of several developed countries (including The Netherlands, Germany, France, and later the US) backed the South African government, and the case was dropped in April of that year.

Question: How much did treatment for each patient in Africa cost?

Question: Who backed the South African government which caused the case to be dropped?

Question: Who brought litigation to South Africa?

Question: How many signatures were collected by MSF?

Question: When was litigation brought to South Africa?

Question: How many companies sued South Africa for its Medicines Act?

Question: South Africa's Medicines Act allowed for the generic production of what kind of drugs?

Question: How much did ARV drugs cost patients yearly?

Question: How many signatures were collected supporting public health rights?
Passage: Prior to the 20th century drugs were generally produced by small scale manufacturers with little regulatory control over manufacturing or claims of safety and efficacy. To the extent that such laws did exist, enforcement was lax. In the United States, increased regulation of vaccines and other biological drugs was spurred by tetanus outbreaks and deaths caused by the distribution of contaminated smallpox vaccine and diphtheria antitoxin. The Biologics Control Act of 1902 required that federal government grant premarket approval for every biological drug and for the process and facility producing such drugs. This was followed in 1906 by the Pure Food and Drugs Act, which forbade the interstate distribution of adulterated or misbranded foods and drugs. A drug was considered misbranded if it contained alcohol, morphine, opium, cocaine, or any of several other potentially dangerous or addictive drugs, and if its label failed to indicate the quantity or proportion of such drugs. The government's attempts to use the law to prosecute manufacturers for making unsupported claims of efficacy were undercut by a Supreme Court ruling restricting the federal government's enforcement powers to cases of incorrect specification of the drug's ingredients.

Question: What Act forbade misbranded drugs?

Question: What caused a Tetanus outbreak?

Question: What act allowed premarket approval for drugs?

Question: When did the Pure Food and Drugs Act get implemented?

Question: Who restricted the federal government's enforcement powers?

Question: What was the name of the law that required premarket approval for producing drugs?

Question: What law banned the interstate distribution of mislabeled food and drugs?

Question: In what year was the Pure Food and Drugs Act passed?
Passage: Patents have been criticized in the developing world, as they are thought to reduce access to existing medicines. Reconciling patents and universal access to medicine would require an efficient international policy of price discrimination. Moreover, under the TRIPS agreement of the World Trade Organization, countries must allow pharmaceutical products to be patented. In 2001, the WTO adopted the Doha Declaration, which indicates that the TRIPS agreement should be read with the goals of public health in mind, and allows some methods for circumventing pharmaceutical monopolies: via compulsory licensing or parallel imports, even before patent expiration.

Question: Who adopted the Doha Declaration?

Question: What did the TRIPS agreement accomplish?

Question: Why are patents criticized?

Question: What did the Doha Declaration do?

Question: When was the Doha Declaration adopted?

Question: What has been accused of reducing access to medicines in developing countries?

Question: The Doha Declaration allows for what ways for monopolies to be bypassed?

Question: When did the World Trade Organization adopt the Doha Declaration?
Passage: Pharmaceutical fraud involves deceptions which bring financial gain to a pharmaceutical company. It affects individuals and public and private insurers. There are several different schemes used to defraud the health care system which are particular to the pharmaceutical industry. These include: Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) Violations, Off Label Marketing, Best Price Fraud, CME Fraud, Medicaid Price Reporting, and Manufactured Compound Drugs. Of this amount $2.5 billion was recovered through False Claims Act cases in FY 2010. Examples of fraud cases include the GlaxoSmithKline $3 billion settlement, Pfizer $2.3 billion settlement and Merck & Co. $650 million settlement. Damages from fraud can be recovered by use of the False Claims Act, most commonly under the qui tam provisions which rewards an individual for being a "whistleblower", or relator (law).

Question: How much money was recovered through the False Claims?

Question: What are some of the schemes used to defraud the health care system?

Question: What is pharmaceutical fraud?

Question: Who had the biggest fraud case settlement?

Question: What provision rewards "whistle-blowers"?

Question: What kind of fraud financially benefits a drug company?

Question: Who is affected by pharmaceutical fraud?

Question: How much money lost to pharmaceutical fraud was recovered in 2010?

Question: Which act allows whistleblowers to recover money lost from pharmaceutical fraud?
Passage: A 2009 Cochrane review concluded that thiazide antihypertensive drugs reduce the risk of death (RR 0.89), stroke (RR 0.63), coronary heart disease (RR 0.84), and cardiovascular events (RR 0.70) in people with high blood pressure. In the ensuring years other classes of antihypertensive drug were developed and found wide acceptance in combination therapy, including loop diuretics (Lasix/furosemide, Hoechst Pharmaceuticals, 1963), beta blockers (ICI Pharmaceuticals, 1964) ACE inhibitors, and angiotensin receptor blockers. ACE inhibitors reduce the risk of new onset kidney disease [RR 0.71] and death [RR 0.84] in diabetic patients, irrespective of whether they have hypertension.

Question: What drugs reduce the risk of death and other events in people with high blood pressure?

Question: Who conducted the review on Thiazide Antihypertensive drugs?

Question: What were Thiazide Antihypertensive drugs used with?

Question: What do ACE inhibitors do?

Question: In what year did Cochrane release the report?

Question: What reduces the risk of new onset kidney diseases and death?

Question: What type of drugs reduced the risk of strokes and heart disease for people with high blood pressure?

Question: In what year was thiazide antihypertensive drugs shown to help those with heart problems?
Passage: Others have argued that excessive regulation suppresses therapeutic innovation, and that the current cost of regulator-required clinical trials prevents the full exploitation of new genetic and biological knowledge for the treatment of human disease. A 2012 report by the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology made several key recommendations to reduce regulatory burdens to new drug development, including 1) expanding the FDA's use of accelerated approval processes, 2) creating an expedited approval pathway for drugs intended for use in narrowly defined populations, and 3) undertaking pilot projects designed to evaluate the feasibility of a new, adaptive drug approval process.

Question: Who put out a report in 2012?

Question: What has been argued restricted innovation?

Question: What was a recommendations brought about from the report?

Question: What is one thing excessive regulations causes?

Question: What can be used to evaluate new approval processes?

Question: What is excessive drug regulation said to suppress?

Question: In what year was a report made to reduce the burdens of drug development?

Question: What was argued to be holding back new knowledge for treating diseases?
Passage: In 1952 researchers at Ciba discovered the first orally available vasodilator, hydralazine. A major shortcoming of hydralazine monotherapy was that it lost its effectiveness over time (tachyphylaxis). In the mid-1950s Karl H. Beyer, James M. Sprague, John E. Baer, and Frederick C. Novello of Merck and Co. discovered and developed chlorothiazide, which remains the most widely used antihypertensive drug today. This development was associated with a substantial decline in the mortality rate among people with hypertension. The inventors were recognized by a Public Health Lasker Award in 1975 for "the saving of untold thousands of lives and the alleviation of the suffering of millions of victims of hypertension".

Question: Who discovered Hydralazine?

Question: Why were the researchers recognized in 1975?

Question: Who developed Chlorothiazide?

Question: What is Chlorothiazide used to treat?

Question: What was the main shortcoming in the drug Hydralazine?

Question: What was the name of the first oral vasodilator?

Question: What is the most used antihypertensive drug today?

Question: Beyer, Sprague, Baer, and Novello received what award in 1975?

Question: In what year was hydralazine discovered?

Question: Chlorothiazide helped reduce the mortality rate among those with what disease?