sentence-transformers/squad huggingface dataset:
Passage: The Enlightenment – known in French as the Siècle des Lumières, the Century of Enlightenment, and in German as the Aufklärung – was a philosophical movement which dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century. The Enlightenment included a range of ideas centered on reason as the primary source of authority and legitimacy, and came to advance ideals such as liberty, progress, tolerance, fraternity, constitutional government and ending the abuses of the church and state. In France, the central doctrines of the Lumières were individual liberty and religious tolerance, in opposition to the principle of absolute monarchy and the fixed dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church. The Enlightenment was marked by increasing empiricism, scientific rigor, and reductionism, along with increased questioning of religious orthodoxy.

Question: How was the Enlightenment known in French?

Question: Which movement dominated the world of ideas in Europe in the 18th century?

Question: In France, what were the central doctrines of the Lumieres?

Question: The principle of absolute monarchy of which group was at odds with those following the Enlightenment?
Passage: In the mid-18th century, Paris became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity challenging traditional doctrines and dogmas. The philosophic movement was led by Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who argued for a society based upon reason rather than faith and Catholic doctrine, for a new civil order based on natural law, and for science based on experiments and observation. The political philosopher Montesquieu introduced the idea of a separation of powers in a government, a concept which was enthusiastically adopted by the authors of the United States Constitution. While the Philosophes of the French Enlightenment were not revolutionaries, and many were members of the nobility, their ideas played an important part in undermining the legitimacy of the Old Regime and shaping the French Revolution.

Question: Which city in the mid-18th century became the center of an explosion of philosophic and scientific activity?

Question: Who were the two leaders of Paris' philosophic movement?

Question: Rousseau argued for a society based on what, rather than faith?

Question: Which philosopher introduced the idea of a separation of powers in government?

Question: Montesquieu's ideas were enthusiastically adopted by the authors of what American document?
Passage: The most influential publication of the Enlightenment was the Encyclopédie, compiled by Denis Diderot and (until 1759) by Jean le Rond d'Alembert and a team of 150 scientists and philosophers. It was published between 1751 and 1772 in thirty-five volumes, and spread the ideas of the Enlightenment across Europe and beyond. Other landmark publications were the Dictionnaire philosophique (Philosophical Dictionary, 1764) and Letters on the English (1733) written by Voltaire; Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality (1754) and The Social Contract (1762); and Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws (1748). The ideas of the Enlightenment played a major role in inspiring the French Revolution, which began in 1789. After the Revolution, the Enlightenment was followed by an opposing intellectual movement known as Romanticism.

Question: What was the most influential publication of the Enlightenment?

Question: The Encyclopedie was comprised of how many volumes?

Question: Voltaire wrote Letters on the English in what year?

Question: When was Rousseau's Discourse on Inequality published?

Question: What year did the French Revolution begin?
Passage: There were two distinct lines of Enlightenment thought: the radical enlightenment, inspired by the philosophy of Spinoza, advocating democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority; and a second, more moderate variety, supported by René Descartes, John Locke, Christian Wolff, Isaac Newton and others, which sought accommodation between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith. Both lines of thought were opposed by the conservative Counter-Enlightenment.

Question: What was the name of the conservative group opposing the Enlightenment?

Question: The radical enlightenment was inspired by the philosophy of whom?

Question: Which Enlightenment philosopher advocated democracy, individual liberty, freedom of expression, and eradication of religious authority?

Question: Which Enlightenment philosophers sought accomodatin between reform and the traditional systems of power and faith?
Passage: The "Radical Enlightenment" promoted the concept of separating church and state, an idea that often credited to English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704). According to his principle of the social contract, Locke said that the government lacked authority in the realm of individual conscience, as this was something rational people could not cede to the government for it or others to control. For Locke, this created a natural right in the liberty of conscience, which he said must therefore remain protected from any government authority.

Question: Who is credited with the concept of separating church and state?

Question: Which term describes John Locke's movement to seperate church and state?

Question: In what year was John Locke born?

Question: In what realm did John Locke feel the government lacked authority?
Passage: A number of novel ideas about religion developed with the Enlightenment, including Deism and talk of atheism. Deism, according to Thomas Paine, is the simple belief in God the Creator, with no reference to the Bible or any other miraculous source. Instead, the Deist relies solely on personal reason to guide his creed, which was eminently agreeable to many thinkers of the time. Atheism was much discussed, but there were few proponents. Wilson and Reill note that, "In fact, very few enlightened intellectuals, even when they were vocal critics of Christianity, were true atheists. Rather, they were critics of orthodox belief, wedded rather to skepticism, deism, vitalism, or perhaps pantheism." Some followed Pierre Bayle and argued that atheists could indeed be moral men. Many others like Voltaire held that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined. That is, since atheists gave themselves to no Supreme Authority and no law, and had no fear of eternal consequences, they were far more likely to disrupt society. Bayle (1647–1706) observed that in his day, "prudent persons will always maintain an appearance of [religion].". He believed that even atheists could hold concepts of honor and go beyond their own self-interest to create and interact in society. Locke said that if there were no God and no divine law, the result would be moral anarchy: every individual "could have no law but his own will, no end but himself. He would be a god to himself, and the satisfaction of his own will the sole measure and end of all his actions".

Question: According to Thomas Paine, what is the definition of Deism?

Question: Which philosopher argued that atheists could indeed be moral men?

Question: Which philosopher argued that without belief in a God who punishes evil, the moral order of society was undermined?

Question: Who felt that since atheists gave themselves no Supreme Authority and no law, they were more likely to disrupt society?
Passage: The word "public" implies the highest level of inclusivity – the public sphere by definition should be open to all. However, this sphere was only public to relative degrees. Enlightenment thinkers frequently contrasted their conception of the "public" with that of the people: Condorcet contrasted "opinion" with populace, Marmontel "the opinion of men of letters" with "the opinion of the multitude," and d'Alembert the "truly enlightened public" with "the blind and noisy multitude". Additionally, most institutions of the public sphere excluded both women and the lower classes. Cross-class influences occurred through noble and lower class participation in areas such as the coffeehouses and the Masonic lodges.

Question: Whixh population groups were excluded from most institutions of the public sphere?

Question: Which two areas experienced criss-cross influences through noble and lower class participation?

Question: Marmontel contrasted "the opinion of men of letters" with what?

Question: d'Alembert contrasted the "truly enlightened public" with whom?
Passage: The increased consumption of reading materials of all sorts was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment. Developments in the Industrial Revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices, encouraging the spread of books, pamphlets, newspapers and journals – "media of the transmission of ideas and attitudes". Commercial development likewise increased the demand for information, along with rising populations and increased urbanisation. However, demand for reading material extended outside of the realm of the commercial, and outside the realm of the upper and middle classes, as evidenced by the Bibliothèque Bleue. Literacy rates are difficult to gauge, but in France at least, the rates doubled over the course of the 18th century. Reflecting the decreasing influence of religion, the number of books about science and art published in Paris doubled from 1720 to 1780, while the number of books about religion dropped to just one-tenth of the total.

Question: The increased consumption of what type of material was one of the key features of the "social" Enlightenment?

Question: Developments in which revolution allowed consumer goods to be produced in greater quantities at lower prices?

Question: In additional to rising populations and increased urbanisation, what else did Commercial development increase the need for?

Question: In what country did literacy rates double over the course of the 18th century?

Question: The number of books about religion in Paris from 1720 to 1780 dropped by what percentage?
Passage: As musicians depended more and more on public support, public concerts became increasingly popular and helped supplement performers' and composers' incomes. The concerts also helped them to reach a wider audience. Handel, for example, epitomized this with his highly public musical activities in London. He gained considerable fame there with performances of his operas and oratorios. The music of Haydn and Mozart, with their Viennese Classical styles, are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals.

Question: Whose incomes did public concerts help support?

Question: Handel gained considerable fame with performances of what two types of artistic work?

Question: Which two composers are usually regarded as being the most in line with the Enlightenment ideals?

Question: What style of music did Haydn and Mozart share?
Passage: The history of Academies in France during the Enlightenment begins with the Academy of Science, founded in 1635 in Paris. It was closely tied to the French state, acting as an extension of a government seriously lacking in scientists. It helped promote and organize new disciplines, and it trained new scientists. It also contributed to the enhancement of scientists' social status, considering them to be the "most useful of all citizens". Academies demonstrate the rising interest in science along with its increasing secularization, as evidenced by the small number of clerics who were members (13 percent). The presence of the French academies in the public sphere cannot be attributed to their membership; although the majority of their members were bourgeois, the exclusive institution was only open to elite Parisian scholars. They perceived themselves as "interpreters of the sciences for the people". For example, it was with this in mind that academicians took it upon themselves to disprove the popular pseudo-science of mesmerism.

Question: What year was the Academy of Science in France founded?

Question: Members of what group were considered to be the "most useful of all citizens?"

Question: What percentage of clerics were members of the Academy of Science?

Question: The Academy of Science was only open to which societal group?

Question: How did elite Parisian scholars perceive themselves?
Passage: Many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles were located in northern Europe, with the most renowned being the universities of Leiden, Göttingen, Halle, Montpellier, Uppsala and Edinburgh. These universities, especially Edinburgh, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on Britain's North American colonies and, later, the American Republic. Within the natural sciences, Edinburgh's medical also led the way in chemistry, anatomy and pharmacology. In other parts of Europe, the universities and schools of France and most of Europe were bastions of traditionalism and were not hospitable to the Enlightenment. In France, the major exception was the medical university at Montpellier.

Question: Where were many of the leading universities associated with Enlightenment progressive principles located?

Question: Which six universities were the most renowned in northern Europe?

Question: Which university, especially, produced professors whose ideas had a significant impact on the colonies?

Question: Which of France's universities was the exception and was hospitable to the Enlightenment?
Passage: The predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward, especially in northern European countries was associationism, the notion that the mind associates or dissociates ideas through repeated routines. In addition to being conducive to Enlightenment ideologies of liberty, self-determination and personal responsibility, it offered a practical theory of the mind that allowed teachers to transform longstanding forms of print and manuscript culture into effective graphic tools of learning for the lower and middle orders of society. Children were taught to memorize facts through oral and graphic methods that originated during the Renaissance.

Question: How can associationism be defined?

Question: What was the predominant educational psychology from the 1750s onward?

Question: Children were taught to memorize facts through methods that originated during which time period?
Passage: However, the prime example of reference works that systematized scientific knowledge in the age of Enlightenment were universal encyclopedias rather than technical dictionaries. It was the goal of universal encyclopedias to record all human knowledge in a comprehensive reference work. The most well-known of these works is Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert's Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. The work, which began publication in 1751, was composed of thirty-five volumes and over 71 000 separate entries. A great number of the entries were dedicated to describing the sciences and crafts in detail, and provided intellectuals across Europe with a high-quality survey of human knowledge. In d'Alembert's Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot, the work's goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences is outlined:

Question: What were the prime examples of reference works that systemasized scientific knowledge in the age oif Enlightenment?

Question: What was the goal of universal encyclopedias?

Question: Which universal encyclopedia began publication in 1751 and was composed of 35 volumes and over 71,000 seperate entries?

Question: In what work is the goal to record the extent of human knowledge in the arts and sciences outlined?

Question: Who wrote the Preliminary Discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot?
Passage: Broadly speaking, Enlightenment science greatly valued empiricism and rational thought, and was embedded with the Enlightenment ideal of advancement and progress. The study of science, under the heading of natural philosophy, was divided into physics and a conglomerate grouping of chemistry and natural history, which included anatomy, biology, geology, mineralogy, and zoology. As with most Enlightenment views, the benefits of science were not seen universally; Rousseau criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier. Science during the Enlightenment was dominated by scientific societies and academies, which had largely replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development. Societies and academies were also the backbone of the maturation of the scientific profession. Another important development was the popularization of science among an increasingly literate population. Philosophes introduced the public to many scientific theories, most notably through the Encyclopédie and the popularization of Newtonianism by Voltaire and Émilie du Châtelet. Some historians have marked the 18th century as a drab period in the history of science; however, the century saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics, and physics; the development of biological taxonomy; a new understanding of magnetism and electricity; and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline, which established the foundations of modern chemistry.

Question: Anatomy, biology, geology, mineralogy, and zoology are all studies of which subject?

Question: Who criticized the sciences for distancing man from nature and not operating to make people happier?

Question: Who replaced universities as centres of scientific research and development during the Enlightenment?

Question: Which century is considered by some as a "drab" period, however saw significant advancements in the practice of medicine, mathematics, and physics, the development of biological taxonomy, a new understanding of magnetism, and the maturation of chemistry as a discipline?

Question: Voltaire and Emilie du Chatelet populatized which scientific philosophy?
Passage: Science came to play a leading role in Enlightenment discourse and thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favour of the development of free speech and thought. Scientific progress during the Enlightenment included the discovery of carbon dioxide (fixed air) by the chemist Joseph Black, the argument for deep time by the geologist James Hutton, and the invention of the steam engine by James Watt. The experiments of Lavoisier were used to create the first modern chemical plants in Paris, and the experiments of the Montgolfier Brothers enabled them to launch the first manned flight in a hot-air balloon on 21 November 1783, from the Château de la Muette, near the Bois de Boulogne.

Question: Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in the sciences and associated scientific advancement with overthrow of religion and traditional authority in favor of what?

Question: Who discovered carbon dioxide or fixed air?

Question: Who created the argument for deep time?

Question: Who invented the steam engine?

Question: Who launched the first manned flight in a hot-air balloon in November 1783?
Passage: Cesare Beccaria, a jurist and one of the great Enlightenment writers, became famous for his masterpiece Of Crimes and Punishments (1764), which was later translated into 22 languages. Another prominent intellectual was Francesco Mario Pagano, who wrote important studies such as Saggi Politici (Political Essays, 1783), one of the major works of the Enlightenment in Naples, and Considerazioni sul processo criminale (Considerations on the criminal trial, 1787), which established him as an international authority on criminal law.

Question: For which masterpiece did Cesare Beccaria become famous?

Question: Into how many languages was Cesare Beccaria's Crimes and Punishments (1764) translated?

Question: Which work established Francesco Mario Pagano as an international authority on criminal law?

Question: In what year did Francesco Mario Pagano publish Saggi Politici?
Passage: Scientific academies and societies grew out of the Scientific Revolution as the creators of scientific knowledge in contrast to the scholasticism of the university. During the Enlightenment, some societies created or retained links to universities. However, contemporary sources distinguished universities from scientific societies by claiming that the university's utility was in the transmission of knowledge, while societies functioned to create knowledge. As the role of universities in institutionalized science began to diminish, learned societies became the cornerstone of organized science. Official scientific societies were chartered by the state in order to provide technical expertise. Most societies were granted permission to oversee their own publications, control the election of new members, and the administration of the society. After 1700, a tremendous number of official academies and societies were founded in Europe, and by 1789 there were over seventy official scientific societies. In reference to this growth, Bernard de Fontenelle coined the term "the Age of Academies" to describe the 18th century.

Question: What did contemporary sources claim was the purpose of the universiity in contrast to the societies?

Question: Contemporary sources considered societies functioned for what purpose in contrast to universities?

Question: By what year were there over seventy official scientific societies?

Question: Who coined the term "the Age of Academies" to describe the 18th century?
Passage: The Enlightenment has been frequently linked to the French Revolution of 1789. One view of the political changes that occurred during the Enlightenment is that the "consent of the governed" philosophy as delineated by Locke in Two Treatises of Government (1689) represented a paradigm shift from the old governance paradigm under feudalism known as the "divine right of kings". In this view, the revolutions of the late 1700s and early 1800s were caused by the fact that this governance paradigm shift often could not be resolved peacefully, and therefore violent revolution was the result. Clearly a governance philosophy where the king was never wrong was in direct conflict with one whereby citizens by natural law had to consent to the acts and rulings of their government.

Question: The Enlightenment is frequently linked to the French Revolution of what year?

Question: Who delineated the "consent of the governed" in Two Treatises of Government (1689)?

Question: The "divine right of kings" was in direct conflict with which of Locke's philosophies?

Question: According to Locke, the revolutions of the late 1700s and early 1800s were caused when what could not be resolved peacefully?
Passage: Though much of Enlightenment political thought was dominated by social contract theorists, both David Hume and Adam Ferguson criticized this camp. Hume's essay Of the Original Contract argues that governments derived from consent are rarely seen, and civil government is grounded in a ruler's habitual authority and force. It is precisely because of the ruler's authority over-and-against the subject, that the subject tacitly consents; Hume says that the subjects would "never imagine that their consent made him sovereign", rather the authority did so. Similarly, Ferguson did not believe citizens built the state, rather polities grew out of social development. In his 1767 An Essay on the History of Civil Society, Ferguson uses the four stages of progress, a theory that was very popular in Scotland at the time, to explain how humans advance from a hunting and gathering society to a commercial and civil society without "signing" a social contract.

Question: In what work did Ferguson explain how humans advanced from a hunting and gathering society to a commercial and civil society without "signing" a social contract?

Question: In what year did Ferguson publish An Essay on the History of Civil Society?

Question: How many stages of progress did Ferguson theorize?

Question: Who, along with Adam Ferguson, criticized the idea of social contract theorists?