sentence-transformers/squad huggingface dataset:
Passage: As an academic field, history of science began with the publication of William Whewell's History of the Inductive Sciences (first published in 1837). A more formal study of the history of science as an independent discipline was launched by George Sarton's publications, Introduction to the History of Science (1927) and the Isis journal (founded in 1912). Sarton exemplified the early 20th-century view of the history of science as the history of great men and great ideas. He shared with many of his contemporaries a Whiggish belief in history as a record of the advances and delays in the march of progress. The history of science was not a recognized subfield of American history in this period, and most of the work was carried out by interested scientists and physicians rather than professional historians. With the work of I. Bernard Cohen at Harvard, the history of science became an established subdiscipline of history after 1945.

Question: What text is the foundation of the study of the history of science?

Question: Who wrote a more professional version of History of the Inductive Sciences?

Question: What was the history of science during the 20th century?

Question: How could Sarton's ideas be described?

Question: Who studied the history of science?
Passage: Much of the study of the history of science has been devoted to answering questions about what science is, how it functions, and whether it exhibits large-scale patterns and trends. The sociology of science in particular has focused on the ways in which scientists work, looking closely at the ways in which they "produce" and "construct" scientific knowledge. Since the 1960s, a common trend in science studies (the study of the sociology and history of science) has been to emphasize the "human component" of scientific knowledge, and to de-emphasize the view that scientific data are self-evident, value-free, and context-free. The field of Science and Technology Studies, an area that overlaps and often informs historical studies of science, focuses on the social context of science in both contemporary and historical periods.

Question: What is the large question that the history of science answers?

Question: What did sociology in science explain?

Question: What was the most popular method in the 1960s regarding science studies?
Passage: Humboldtian science refers to the early 19th century approach of combining scientific field work with the age of Romanticism sensitivity, ethics and aesthetic ideals. It helped to install natural history as a separate field, gave base for ecology and was based on the role model of scientist, naturalist and explorer Alexander von Humboldt. The later 19th century positivism asserted that all authentic knowledge allows verification and that all authentic knowledge assumes that the only valid knowledge is scientific.

Question: What did Humboldtian science aim to do?

Question: Who was the model for Humboldtian science?

Question: What idea did positivism provide?
Passage: The mid 20th century saw a series of studies relying to the role of science in a social context, starting from Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions in 1962. It opened the study of science to new disciplines by suggesting that the evolution of science was in part sociologically determined and that positivism did not explain the actual interactions and strategies of the human participants in science. As Thomas Kuhn put it, the history of science may be seen in more nuanced terms, such as that of competing paradigms or conceptual systems in a wider matrix that includes intellectual, cultural, economic and political themes outside of science. "Partly by selection and partly by distortion, the scientists of earlier ages are implicitly presented as having worked upon the same set of fixed problems and in accordance with the same set of fixed canons that the most recent revolution in scientific theory and method made seem scientific."

Question: Where did the social aspect of science originate?

Question: What idea did social science add to science as a whole?

Question: How did Kuhn view the history of science?
Passage: Further studies, e.g. Jerome Ravetz 1971 Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems referred to the role of the scientific community, as a social construct, in accepting or rejecting (objective) scientific knowledge. The Science wars of the 1990 were about the influence of especially French philosophers, which denied the objectivity of science in general or seemed to do so. They described as well differences between the idealized model of a pure science and the actual scientific practice; while scientism, a revival of the positivism approach, saw in precise measurement and rigorous calculation the basis for finally settling enduring metaphysical and moral controversies. However, more recently some of the leading critical theorists have recognized that their postmodern deconstructions have at times been counter-productive, and are providing intellectual ammunition for reactionary interests. Bruno Latour noted that "dangerous extremists are using the very same argument of social construction to destroy hard-won evidence that could save our lives. Was I wrong to participate in the invention of this field known as science studies? Is it enough to say that we did not really mean what we meant?"

Question: What did Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems describe the scientific community as?

Question: What was the era called when scientists were rejecting the notion of objectivity of science?

Question: What was positivism called after it was revived?

Question: What did scientism aim to do?
Passage: Czech (/ˈtʃɛk/; čeština Czech pronunciation: [ˈt͡ʃɛʃcɪna]), formerly known as Bohemian (/boʊˈhiːmiən, bə-/; lingua Bohemica in Latin), is a West Slavic language strongly influenced by Latin and German language, spoken by over 10 million people and it is the official language of the Czech Republic. Czech's closest relative is Slovak, with which it is mutually intelligible. It is closely related to other West Slavic languages, such as Silesian and Polish. Although most Czech vocabulary is based on shared roots with Slavic, Romance, and Germanic languages, many loanwords (most associated with high culture) have been adopted in recent years.

Question: How many people speak Czech?

Question: Which two languages strongly influenced Czech?

Question: In which country is Czech the official language?

Question: Which language is closest to Czech?

Question: What name was the Czech language formerly known as?

Question: What was Czech formerly known as?

Question: What languages strongly influenced Czech?

Question: Over how many million people speak Czech?

Question: What vocabulary associated with higher classed culture have been adopted over the years?

Question: What is the official language of the Czech republic?
Passage: The languages have not undergone the deliberate highlighting of minor linguistic differences in the name of nationalism as has occurred in the Bosnian, Serbian and Croatian standards of Serbo-Croatian. However, most Slavic languages (including Czech) have been distanced in this way from Russian influences because of widespread public resentment against the former Soviet Union (which occupied Czechoslovakia in 1968). Czech and Slovak form a dialect continuum, with great similarity between neighboring Czech and Slovak dialects. (See "Dialects" below.)

Question: When did the Soviet Union occupy Czechoslovakia?

Question: What language forms a dialect continuum with Czech?

Question: Name three Serbo-Croatian languages that have made a point of establishing their own unique linguistic identities.

Question: Why have many Slavic languages sought to separate themselves from Russian influence?

Question: What deliberate action has been done to some languages in the name of nationalism?

Question: What language family is Czech?

Question: Why did many Slavic languages distance themselves from Russian influences?

Question: When did the Soviet Union occupy Czechoslovakia?

Question: What language does Czech form a dialect continuum with?
Passage: One study showed that Czech and Slovak lexicons differed by 80 percent, but this high percentage was found to stem primarily from differing orthographies and slight inconsistencies in morphological formation; Slovak morphology is more regular (when changing from the nominative to the locative case, Praha becomes Praze in Czech and Prahe in Slovak). The two lexicons are generally considered similar, with most differences in colloquial vocabulary and some scientific terminology. Slovak has slightly more borrowed words than Czech.

Question: How much do the lexicons of Czech and Slovak differ, according to on study?

Question: What was the high percentage of differing lexicons found to derive from?

Question: When is Slovak morphology more regular than Czech?

Question: The most differences between Czech and Slovak can be found in colloquial vocabulary as well as what?

Question: What does Slovak have slightly more of than Czech?
Passage: The similarities between Czech and Slovak led to the languages being considered a single language by a group of 19th-century scholars who called themselves "Czechoslavs" (Čechoslováci), believing that the peoples were connected in a way which excluded German Bohemians and (to a lesser extent) Hungarians and other Slavs. During the First Czechoslovak Republic (1918–1938), although "Czechoslovak" was designated as the republic's official language both Czech and Slovak written standards were used. Standard written Slovak was partially modeled on literary Czech, and Czech was preferred for some official functions in the Slovak half of the republic. Czech influence on Slovak was protested by Slovak scholars, and when Slovakia broke off from Czechoslovakia in 1938 as the Slovak State (which then aligned with Nazi Germany in World War II) literary Slovak was deliberately distanced from Czech. When the Axis powers lost the war and Czechoslovakia reformed, Slovak developed somewhat on its own (with Czech influence); during the Prague Spring of 1968, Slovak gained independence from (and equality with) Czech. Since then, "Czechoslovak" refers to improvised pidgins of the languages which have arisen from the decrease in mutual intelligibility.

Question: Who called themselves "Czechoslavs"?

Question: Why did the Czechoslavs consider Czech and Slovak to be a single language?

Question: When was the first Czechoslovak Republic?

Question: What was standard written Slovak partially modeled on?

Question: When was the Prague Spring?
Passage: Around the sixth century AD, a tribe of Slavs arrived in a portion of Central Europe. According to legend they were led by a hero named Čech, from whom the word "Czech" derives. The ninth century brought the state of Great Moravia, whose first ruler (Rastislav of Moravia) invited Byzantine ruler Michael III to send missionaries in an attempt to reduce the influence of East Francia on religious and political life in his country. These missionaries, Constantine and Methodius, helped to convert the Czechs from traditional Slavic paganism to Christianity and established a church system. They also brought the Glagolitic alphabet to the West Slavs, whose language was previously unwritten. This language, later known as Proto-Czech, was beginning to separate from its fellow West Slavic hatchlings Proto-Slovak, Proto-Polish and Proto-Sorbian. Among other features, Proto-Czech was marked by its ephemeral use of the voiced velar fricative consonant (/ɣ/) and consistent stress on the first syllable.

Question: When did a tribe of Slavs arrive in Central Europe?

Question: Who was the hero who led the Slavs to their new home, according to legend?

Question: What did the ninth century bring?

Question: Whose influence was Rastislav eager to reduce, when he invited Michael III to send missionaries?

Question: What alphabet did the missionaries bring to the West Slavs?
Passage: The Czechs' language separated from other Slavic tongues into what would later be called Old Czech by the thirteenth century, a classification extending through the sixteenth century. Its use of cases differed from the modern language; although Old Czech did not yet have a vocative case or an animacy distinction, declension for its six cases and three genders rapidly became complicated (partially to differentiate homophones) and its declension patterns resembled those of Lithuanian (its Balto-Slavic cousin).

Question: How did Old Czech's use of cases differ from modern usage?

Question: What other language did Old Czech's declension patterns resemble?

Question: How many cases did Old Czech have?

Question: How long was the precursor to Czech classified as Old Czech?

Question: By the thirteenth century, what had the Czech language separated from?
Passage: While Old Czech had a basic alphabet from which a general set of orthographical correspondences was drawn, it did not have a standard orthography. It also contained a number of sound clusters which no longer exist; allowing ě (/jɛ/) after soft consonants, which has since shifted to e (/ɛ/), and allowing complex consonant clusters to be pronounced all at once rather than syllabically. A phonological phenomenon, Havlik's law (which began in Proto-Slavic and took various forms in other Slavic languages), appeared in Old Czech; counting backwards from the end of a clause, every odd-numbered yer was vocalized as a vowel, while the other yers disappeared.

Question: What type of orthography did Old Czech lack?

Question: Why aren't some sound clusters used in modern Czech?

Question: How did old Czech allow some complex consonant clusters to be pronounced?

Question: What type of phenomenon is Havlik's law?

Question: Which "yer"s were vocalized as vowels?
Passage: Bohemia (as Czech civilization was known by then) increased in power over the centuries, as its language did in regional importance. This growth was expedited during the fourteenth century by Holy Roman Emperor Charles IV, who founded Charles University in Prague in 1348. Here, early Czech literature (a biblical translation, hymns and hagiography) flourished. Old Czech texts, including poetry and cookbooks, were produced outside the university as well. Later in the century Jan Hus contributed significantly to the standardization of Czech orthography, advocated for widespread literacy among Czech commoners (particularly in religion) and made early efforts to model written Czech after the spoken language.

Question: What was Czech civilization called back in the day?

Question: What Holy Roman Emperor expedited the growth of Bohemia in the 14th century?

Question: When was Charles University founded in Prague?

Question: Who contributed heavily to the effort to standardize Czech orthography?

Question: What did Jan Hus advocate for among the Czech commoners?
Passage: Czech continued to evolve and gain in regional importance for hundreds of years, and has been a literary language in the Slovak lands since the early fifteenth century. A biblical translation, the Kralice Bible, was published during the late sixteenth century (around the time of the King James and Luther versions) which was more linguistically conservative than either. The publication of the Kralice Bible spawned widespread nationalism, and in 1615 the government of Bohemia ruled that only Czech-speaking residents would be allowed to become full citizens or inherit goods or land. This, and the conversion of the Czech upper classes from the Habsburg Empire's Catholicism to Protestantism, angered the Habsburgs and helped trigger the Thirty Years' War (where the Czechs were defeated at the Battle of White Mountain). The Czechs became serfs; Bohemia's printing industry (and its linguistic and political rights) were dismembered, removing official regulation and support from its language. German quickly became the dominant language in Bohemia.

Question: How many years as Czech continued to evolve and gain in regional importance?

Question: When was the Kralice Bible published?

Question: What did the publication of the Kralice Bible spawn?

Question: In what war were the Czechs defeated at the Battle of White Mountain?

Question: What language became dominant in Bohemia after the Czech's defeat?
Passage: The consensus among linguists is that modern, standard Czech originated during the eighteenth century. By then the language had developed a literary tradition, and since then it has changed little; journals from that period have no substantial differences from modern standard Czech, and contemporary Czechs can understand them with little difficulty. Changes include the morphological shift of í to ej and é to í (although é survives for some uses) and the merging of í and the former ejí. Sometime before the eighteenth century, the Czech language abandoned a distinction between phonemic /l/ and /ʎ/ which survives in Slovak.

Question: When do linguists agree modern Czech originated?

Question: What had Czech developed by the 18th century?

Question: Journals from the 18th century have no substantial differences from what?

Question: How much difficulty do contemporary Czechs have in understanding material from the 18th century?

Question: What did the Czech language abandon which survives in Slovak?
Passage: The Czech people gained widespread national pride during the mid-eighteenth century, inspired by the Age of Enlightenment a half-century earlier. Czech historians began to emphasize their people's accomplishments from the fifteenth through the seventeenth centuries, rebelling against the Counter-Reformation (which had denigrated Czech and other non-Latin languages). Czech philologists studied sixteenth-century texts, advocating the return of the language to high culture. This period is known as the Czech National Revival (or Renascence).

Question: What did the Czechs as a people gain during the mid-18th century?

Question: What inspired the Czech's national pride?

Question: What did Czech historians emphasize about their countrymen?

Question: What did Czech philologists advocate?

Question: What is the period during the mid-eighteenth century also remembered as?
Passage: During the revival, in 1809 linguist and historian Josef Dobrovský released a German-language grammar of Old Czech entitled Ausführliches Lehrgebäude der böhmischen Sprache (Comprehensive Doctrine of the Bohemian Language). Dobrovský had intended his book to be descriptive, and did not think Czech had a realistic chance of returning as a major language. However, Josef Jungmann and other revivalists used Dobrovský's book to advocate for a Czech linguistic revival. Changes during this time included spelling reform (notably, í in place of the former j and j in place of g), the use of t (rather than ti) to end infinitive verbs and the non-capitalization of nouns (which had been a late borrowing from German). These changes differentiated Czech from Slovak. Modern scholars disagree about whether the conservative revivalists were motivated by nationalism or considered contemporary spoken Czech unsuitable for formal, widespread use.

Question: What was the professions of Joseph Dobrovský?

Question: What didn't Dobrovský think Czech had a chance of returning as?

Question: What year did Joseph Dobrovský release a German-language grammar of Old Czech?

Question: What did Josef Jungmann advocate for?

Question: Who disagree about whether the revivalists were motivated by nationalism or if they considered contemporary spoken Czech unsuitable for formal use?
Passage: Czech, the official language of the Czech Republic (a member of the European Union since 2004), is one of the EU's official languages and the 2012 Eurobarometer survey found that Czech was the foreign language most often used in Slovakia. Economist Jonathan van Parys collected data on language knowledge in Europe for the 2012 European Day of Languages. The five countries with the greatest use of Czech were the Czech Republic (98.77 percent), Slovakia (24.86 percent), Portugal (1.93 percent), Poland (0.98 percent) and Germany (0.47 percent).

Question: What is the official language of the Czech republic?

Question: How long has the Czech Republic been a member of the European Union?

Question: What distinction does Czech have in Slovakia?

Question: Who collected data on language knowledge in Europe for the 2012 European Day of Languages?

Question: Of the five countries with the greatest use of Czech, which country had the lowest percent of use?
Passage: Immigration of Czechs from Europe to the United States occurred primarily from 1848 to 1914. Czech is a Less Commonly Taught Language in U.S. schools, and is taught at Czech heritage centers. Large communities of Czech Americans live in the states of Texas, Nebraska and Wisconsin. In the 2000 United States Census, Czech was reported as the most-common language spoken at home (besides English) in Valley, Butler and Saunders Counties, Nebraska and Republic County, Kansas. With the exception of Spanish (the non-English language most commonly spoken at home nationwide), Czech was the most-common home language in over a dozen additional counties in Nebraska, Kansas, Texas, North Dakota and Minnesota. As of 2009, 70,500 Americans spoke Czech as their first language (49th place nationwide, behind Turkish and ahead of Swedish).

Question: Czechs immigrated from Europe to the U.S. primary from 1848 to when?

Question: What kind of language is Czech in U.S. schools?

Question: What states have large communities of Czech Americans?

Question: What is the most commonly spoken non-English language at homes nationwide in the U.S.?

Question: How many Americans spoke Czech as their first language as of 2009?
Passage: In addition to a spoken standard and a closely related written standard, Czech has several regional dialects primarily used in rural areas by speakers less proficient in other dialects or standard Czech. During the second half of the twentieth century, Czech dialect use began to weaken. By the early 1990s dialect use was stigmatized, associated with the shrinking lower class and used in literature or other media for comedic effect. Increased travel and media availability to dialect-speaking populations has encouraged them to shift to (or add to their own dialect) standard Czech. Although Czech has received considerable scholarly interest for a Slavic language, this interest has focused primarily on modern standard Czech and ancient texts rather than dialects. Standard Czech is still the norm for politicians, businesspeople and other Czechs in formal situations, but Common Czech is gaining ground in journalism and the mass media.

Question: How many regional dialects does Czech have?

Question: Where are dialects of Czech commonly found?

Question: What is dialect use associated with and thus stigmatized because of?

Question: What kind of scholarly interest has Czech received?

Question: What Czech dialect is gaining ground in journalism and the mass media?
Passage: The Czech dialects spoken in Moravia and Silesia are known as Moravian (moravština). In the Austro-Hungarian Empire, "Bohemian-Moravian-Slovak" was a language citizens could register as speaking (with German, Polish and several others). Of the Czech dialects, only Moravian is distinguished in nationwide surveys by the Czech Statistical Office. As of 2011, 62,908 Czech citizens spoke Moravian as their first language and 45,561 were diglossal (speaking Moravian and standard Czech as first languages).

Question: What are the dialects spoken in Moravia and Silesia known as?

Question: Where could citizens register "Bohemian-Moravian-Slovak' as being their spoken language?

Question: Which of the Czech dialects is the only one distinguished in the nationwide surveys by the Czech Statistical Office?

Question: How many Czechs spoke Moravian as their first language as of 2011?

Question: How many Czechs spoke both Moravian and standard Czech as first languages in 2011?