sentence-transformers/squad huggingface dataset:
Passage: Some legal scholars, such as John Baker of LSU, theorize that Madison's initial proposed language—that Congress should make no law regarding the establishment of a "national religion"—was rejected by the House, in favor of the more general "religion" in an effort to appease the Anti-Federalists. To both the Anti-Federalists and the Federalists, the very word "national" was a cause for alarm because of the experience under the British crown. During the debate over the establishment clause, Rep. Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts took issue with Madison's language regarding whether the government was a national or federal government (in which the states retained their individual sovereignty), which Baker suggests compelled Madison to withdraw his language from the debate.

Question: What is John Baker of LSU's profession?

Question: Why was a more general "religion" used in the language of the First Amendment?

Question: Why was the word "national" a cause for alarm to both Federalists and Anti-Federalists?

Question: Who took issue with Madison's language during the debate over the establishment clause?

Question: What was Elbridge Gerry's constituency?
Passage: Others, such as Rep. Roger Sherman of Connecticut, believed the clause was unnecessary because the original Constitution only gave Congress stated powers, which did not include establishing a national religion. Anti-Federalists such as Rep. Thomas Tucker of South Carolina moved to strike the establishment clause completely because it could preempt the religious clauses in the state constitutions. However, the Anti-Federalists were unsuccessful in persuading the House of Representatives to drop the clause from the first amendment.

Question: Where was Representative Roger Sherman from?

Question: Why did Sherman believe the establishment clause was unnecessary?

Question: What power was not granted to Congress by the Constitution?

Question: What was Tucker concerned the establishment clause could preempt?

Question: Where was Representative Thomas Tucker from?
Passage: The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (Amendment XIV) is one of the post-Civil War amendments, intended to secure rights for former slaves. It includes the due process and equal protection clauses among others. The amendment introduces the concept of incorporation of all relevant federal rights against the states. While it has not been fully implemented, the doctrine of incorporation has been used to ensure, through the Due Process Clause and Privileges and Immunities Clause, the application of most of the rights enumerated in the Bill of Rights to the states.

Question: When was the 14th Amendment to the US Constitution created?

Question: What was the intent of the 14th Amendment?

Question: What does the 14th Amendment also introduce the concept of?

Question: What clauses does the 14th Amendment include?

Question: What has the doctrine of incorporation been used to ensure?
Passage: The incorporation of the First Amendment establishment clause in the landmark case of Everson v. Board of Education has impacted the subsequent interpretation of the separation of church and state in regard to the state governments. Although upholding the state law in that case, which provided for public busing to private religious schools, the Supreme Court held that the First Amendment establishment clause was fully applicable to the state governments. A more recent case involving the application of this principle against the states was Board of Education of Kiryas Joel Village School District v. Grumet (1994).

Question: What landmark case has impacted all subsequent interpretations of the separation of church and state in regard to state governments?

Question: What did the Supreme Court uphold in Everson v. Board of Education?

Question: What did the Supreme Court hold the First Amendment establishment clause was fully applicable to?

Question: What was a recent case involving the application of the principle of the establishment clause against states?

Question: When was the case of v. Grumet?
Passage: Jefferson's concept of "separation of church and state" first became a part of Establishment Clause jurisprudence in Reynolds v. U.S., 98 U.S. 145 (1878). In that case, the court examined the history of religious liberty in the US, determining that while the constitution guarantees religious freedom, "The word 'religion' is not defined in the Constitution. We must go elsewhere, therefore, to ascertain its meaning, and nowhere more appropriately, we think, than to the history of the times in the midst of which the provision was adopted." The court found that the leaders in advocating and formulating the constitutional guarantee of religious liberty were James Madison and Thomas Jefferson. Quoting the "separation" paragraph from Jefferson's letter to the Danbury Baptists, the court concluded that, "coming as this does from an acknowledged leader of the advocates of the measure, it may be accepted almost as an authoritative declaration of the scope and effect of the amendment thus secured."

Question: What did Jefferson's concept of 'separation of church and state" became part of what jurisprudence?

Question: What case was Jefferson's concept apropos to?

Question: What does the constitution guarantee when it comes to religion?

Question: What word is not defined in the Constitution?

Question: Who had Jefferson's letter been sent to?
Passage: The centrality of the "separation" concept to the Religion Clauses of the Constitution was made explicit in Everson v. Board of Education, 330 U.S. 1 (1947), a case dealing with a New Jersey law that allowed government funds to pay for transportation of students to both public and Catholic schools. This was the first case in which the court applied the Establishment Clause to the laws of a state, having interpreted the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment as applying the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal legislature. Citing Jefferson, the court concluded that "The First Amendment has erected a wall between church and state. That wall must be kept high and impregnable. We could not approve the slightest breach."

Question: When was the centrality of the "separation" concept to the Religion Clauses of the Constitution made explicit?

Question: What was the topic of the Everson v. Board of Education?

Question: What case was the concept relevant?

Question: What was the case of Everson v. Board of Education the first instance of?

Question: How must the wall separating church and state be kept?
Passage: While the decision (with four dissents) ultimately upheld the state law allowing the funding of transportation of students to religious schools, the majority opinion (by Justice Hugo Black) and the dissenting opinions (by Justice Wiley Blount Rutledge and Justice Robert H. Jackson) each explicitly stated that the Constitution has erected a "wall between church and state" or a "separation of Church from State": their disagreement was limited to whether this case of state funding of transportation to religious schools breached that wall. Rutledge, on behalf of the four dissenting justices, took the position that the majority had indeed permitted a violation of the wall of separation in this case: "Neither so high nor so impregnable today as yesterday is the wall raised between church and state by Virginia's great statute of religious freedom and the First Amendment, now made applicable to all the states by the Fourteenth." Writing separately, Justice Jackson argued that "[T]here are no good grounds upon which to support the present legislation. In fact, the undertones of the opinion, advocating complete and uncompromising separation of Church from State, seem utterly discordant with its conclusion yielding support to their commingling in educational matters."

Question: What did the decision ultimately uphold?

Question: What was the state allowed to continue to fund?

Question: What did both the majority and dissenting opinions reiterate?

Question: What was the disagreement between the Justices over whether funding breached what?

Question: What did Justice Jackson argue there were no grounds upon which to support what?
Passage: In 1962, the Supreme Court addressed the issue of officially-sponsored prayer or religious recitations in public schools. In Engel v. Vitale, 370 U.S. 421 (1962), the Court, by a vote of 6-1, determined it unconstitutional for state officials to compose an official school prayer and require its recitation in public schools, even when the prayer is non-denominational and students may excuse themselves from participation. (The prayer required by the New York State Board of Regents prior to the Court's decision consisted of: "Almighty God, we acknowledge our dependence upon Thee, and we beg Thy blessings upon us, our parents, our teachers, and our country. Amen.") As the Court stated:

Question: When did the Supreme Court address the issue of officially sponsored prayer in public schools?

Question: What was the case in 1962 where the Supreme Court addressed the issue of officially sponsored school prayer?

Question: By what vote did the Supreme Court determine it unconstitutional for state official to compose an official school prayer?

Question: Even if a prayer is non-denominational it's still considered what?
Passage: The court noted that it "is a matter of history that this very practice of establishing governmentally composed prayers for religious services was one of the reasons which caused many of our early colonists to leave England and seek religious freedom in America." The lone dissenter, Justice Potter Stewart, objected to the court's embrace of the "wall of separation" metaphor: "I think that the Court's task, in this as in all areas of constitutional adjudication, is not responsibly aided by the uncritical invocation of metaphors like the "wall of separation," a phrase nowhere to be found in the Constitution."

Question: What was one of the reasons early colonists left England to seek religious freedom in America?

Question: Who was the lone dissenter in the Supreme Court's ruling?

Question: What did Stewart object to?

Question: Stewart felt the court was not responsibly aided by the uncritical invocation of what?

Question: Stewart pointed out that the phrase "Wall of separation" was nowhere to be found in what?
Passage: In Epperson v. Arkansas, 393 U.S. 97 (1968), the Supreme Court considered an Arkansas law that made it a crime "to teach the theory or doctrine that mankind ascended or descended from a lower order of animals," or "to adopt or use in any such institution a textbook that teaches" this theory in any school or university that received public funds. The court's opinion, written by Justice Abe Fortas, ruled that the Arkansas law violated "the constitutional prohibition of state laws respecting an establishment of religion or prohibiting the free exercise thereof. The overriding fact is that Arkansas' law selects from the body of knowledge a particular segment which it proscribes for the sole reason that it is deemed to conflict with a particular religious doctrine; that is, with a particular interpretation of the Book of Genesis by a particular religious group." The court held that the Establishment Clause prohibits the state from advancing any religion, and that "[T]he state has no legitimate interest in protecting any or all religions from views distasteful to them."

Question: When did the case of Epperson v. Arkansas take place?

Question: What did the Arkansas law violate the constitutional prohibition of state laws in respect to?

Question: Who wrote the court's opinion in Epperson v. Arkansas?

Question: What does the State have no legitimate interest in protecting any or all religions from?

Question: What did an Arkansas law make it a crime to teach the theory of?
Passage: In Lemon v. Kurtzman, 403 U.S. 602 (1971), the court determined that a Pennsylvania state policy of reimbursing the salaries and related costs of teachers of secular subjects in private religious schools violated the Establishment Clause. The court's decision argued that the separation of church and state could never be absolute: "Our prior holdings do not call for total separation between church and state; total separation is not possible in an absolute sense. Some relationship between government and religious organizations is inevitable," the court wrote. "Judicial caveats against entanglement must recognize that the line of separation, far from being a "wall," is a blurred, indistinct, and variable barrier depending on all the circumstances of a particular relationship."

Question: When was the case of Lemon v. Kurtzman?

Question: What state's policy was in question in Lemon v. Kurtzman?

Question: Whose salaries were being reimbursed in private religious schools?

Question: What did the state's policy violate?

Question: What did the court's decision argue that the separation of church and state could never be?
Passage: Subsequent to this decision, the Supreme Court has applied a three-pronged test to determine whether government action comports with the Establishment Clause, known as the "Lemon Test". First, the law or policy must have been adopted with a neutral or non-religious purpose. Second, the principle or primary effect must be one that neither advances nor inhibits religion. Third, the statute or policy must not result in an "excessive entanglement" of government with religion. (The decision in Lemon v. Kurtzman hinged upon the conclusion that the government benefits were flowing disproportionately to Catholic schools, and that Catholic schools were an integral component of the Catholic Church's religious mission, thus the policy involved the state in an "excessive entanglement" with religion.) Failure to meet any of these criteria is a proof that the statute or policy in question violates the Establishment Clause.

Question: How many prongs is the Supreme COurt's test to determine if a government action comports with the Establishment Clause?

Question: What is the three-pronged test regarding the Establishment Clause know as?

Question: To not violate the Establishment Clause, a law must be adopted with neutral or what purpose?

Question: What much the primary effect of a law neither advance or inhibit?

Question: Excessive entanglement occurs when a state policy results in a close relationship of what?
Passage: In 2002, a three judge panel on the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals held that classroom recitation of the Pledge of Allegiance in a California public school was unconstitutional, even when students were not compelled to recite it, due to the inclusion of the phrase "under God." In reaction to the case, Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow, both houses of Congress passed measures reaffirming their support for the pledge, and condemning the panel's ruling. The case was appealed to the Supreme Court, where the case was ultimately overturned in June 2004, solely on procedural grounds not related to the substantive constitutional issue. Rather, a five-justice majority held that Newdow, a non-custodial parent suing on behalf of his daughter, lacked standing to sue.

Question: How many judges were on the panel which held the Pledge of Allegiance in California public schools was unconstitutional?

Question: When did the three judge panel make their ruling?

Question: What did both houses of Congress pass measures reaffirming their support for?

Question: Why was the case of Elk Grove Unified School District v. Newdow overturned?

Question: What did the five-justice majority hold that Newdow lacked?
Passage: On December 20, 2005, the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit ruled in the case of ACLU v. Mercer County that the continued display of the Ten Commandments as part of a larger display on American legal traditions in a Kentucky courthouse was allowed, because the purpose of the display (educating the public on American legal traditions) was secular in nature. In ruling on the Mount Soledad cross controversy on May 3, 2006, however, a federal judge ruled that the cross on public property on Mount Soledad must be removed.

Question: When did the US Court of Appeals rule in the case of ACLU v. Mercer County?

Question: What was displayed in Kentucky courthouses?

Question: What did a federal judge rule must be removed from public property?

Question: When was a ruling handed down on the Mount Soledad cross controversy?

Question: Why were the displays of the ten Commandments allowed?
Passage: In what will be the case is Town of Greece v. Galloway, 12-696, the Supreme Court agreed to hear a case regarding whether prayers at town meetings, which are allowed, must allow various faiths to lead prayer, or whether the prayers can be predominately Christian. On May 5, 2014, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 5-4 in favor of the Town of Greece by holding that the U.S. Constitution not only allows for prayer at government meetings, but also for sectarian prayers like predominately Christian prayers.

Question: What case is in regards to whether prayers at town meetings must allow various faiths?

Question: When did the Supreme Court rule on Town of Greece v. Galloway?

Question: What was the Supreme Court's final vote in Town of Greece v. Galloway?

Question: Who did the Supreme Court rule in favor of?

Question: What did the Supreme Court rule the Constitution allowed for?
Passage: Some scholars and organizations disagree with the notion of "separation of church and state", or the way the Supreme Court has interpreted the constitutional limitation on religious establishment. Such critics generally argue that the phrase misrepresents the textual requirements of the Constitution, while noting that many aspects of church and state were intermingled at the time the Constitution was ratified. These critics argue that the prevalent degree of separation of church and state could not have been intended by the constitutional framers. Some of the intermingling between church and state include religious references in official contexts, and such other founding documents as the United States Declaration of Independence, which references the idea of a "Creator" and "Nature's God", though these references did not ultimately appear in the Constitution nor do they mention any particular religious view of a "Creator" or "Nature's God."

Question: What do some organizations disagree with the notion of?

Question: What do the critics argue the phrase misrepresents?

Question: What do scholars also disagree with about the way the Supreme Court has interpreted what?

Question: What do critics note were intermingled at the time the Constitution was ratified?

Question: What do these critics argue couldn't have been intended by the framers of the constitution?
Passage: These critics of the modern separation of church and state also note the official establishment of religion in several of the states at the time of ratification, to suggest that the modern incorporation of the Establishment Clause as to state governments goes against the original constitutional intent.[citation needed] The issue is complex, however, as the incorporation ultimately bases on the passage of the 14th Amendment in 1868, at which point the first amendment's application to the state government was recognized. Many of these constitutional debates relate to the competing interpretive theories of originalism versus modern, progressivist theories such as the doctrine of the Living Constitution. Other debates center on the principle of the law of the land in America being defined not just by the Constitution's Supremacy Clause, but also by legal precedence, making an accurate reading of the Constitution subject to the mores and values of a given era, and rendering the concept of historical revisionism irrelevant when discussing the Constitution.

Question: Critics of modern separation of church and state note there was official establishment of what in several states at the time of ratification?

Question: When was the passage of the 14th Amendment?

Question: What was recognized by the time the 14th Amendment passed?

Question: What kind of theory is the doctrine of the Living Constitution?

Question: What do some debates center on the law of the land not being just defined by the Constitution's Supremacy Clause but also by what?
Passage: The "religious test" clause has been interpreted to cover both elected officials and appointed ones, career civil servants as well as political appointees. Religious beliefs or the lack of them have therefore not been permissible tests or qualifications with regard to federal employees since the ratification of the Constitution. Seven states, however, have language included in their Bill of Rights, Declaration of Rights, or in the body of their constitutions that require state office-holders to have particular religious beliefs, though some of these have been successfully challenged in court. These states are Texas, Massachusetts, Maryland, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and Tennessee.

Question: What clause are both elected officials and appointed ones covered by?

Question: What type of beliefs are not an allowed job qualification test for federal employees?

Question: How many states violate the religious test clause with language somewhere in their official policies?

Question: What do states violate the clause require state office-holders to possess?
Passage: The required beliefs of these clauses include belief in a Supreme Being and belief in a future state of rewards and punishments. (Tennessee Constitution Article IX, Section 2 is one such example.) Some of these same states specify that the oath of office include the words "so help me God." In some cases these beliefs (or oaths) were historically required of jurors and witnesses in court. At one time, such restrictions were allowed under the doctrine of states' rights; today they are deemed to be in violation of the federal First Amendment, as applied to the states via the 14th amendment, and hence unconstitutional and unenforceable.

Question: What do the non-permissible clauses require a belief in?

Question: What's one example in Tennessee's constitution?

Question: What language do some of the same states specify the oath of office include?

Question: Requiring oaths invoking God are today deemed to be in violation of what?

Question: Because such oaths are in violation of the First Amendment, they're what?
Passage: Relaxed zoning rules and special parking privileges for churches, the tax-free status of church property, the fact that Christmas is a federal holiday, etc., have also been questioned, but have been considered examples of the governmental prerogative in deciding practical and beneficial arrangements for the society. The national motto "In God We Trust" has been challenged as a violation, but the Supreme Court has ruled that ceremonial deism is not religious in nature. A circuit court ruling affirmed Ohio's right to use as its motto a passage from the Bible, "With God, all things are possible", because it displayed no preference for a particular religion.

Question: Why have perks like relaxed zoning rules and special parking privileges been allowed for churches?

Question: What is the national motto "In God We Trust" officially known as?

Question: What has the Supreme Court ruled about ceremonial deism?

Question: What state uses as a motto a passage from the Bible?

Question: Why was Ohio allowed to use a biblical passage as its motto?