sentence-transformers/squad huggingface dataset:
Passage: The first known smelting of iron began in Anatolia, around 1800 BC. Called the bloomery process, it produced very soft but ductile wrought iron. By 800 BC, iron-making technology had spread to Europe, arriving in Japan around 700 AD. Pig iron, a very hard but brittle alloy of iron and carbon, was being produced in China as early as 1200 BC, but did not arrive in Europe until the Middle Ages. Pig iron has a lower melting point than iron, and was used for making cast-iron. However, these metals found little practical use until the introduction of crucible steel around 300 BC. These steels were of poor quality, and the introduction of pattern welding, around the 1st century AD, sought to balance the extreme properties of the alloys by laminating them, to create a tougher metal. Around 700 AD, the Japanese began folding bloomery-steel and cast-iron in alternating layers to increase the strength of their swords, using clay fluxes to remove slag and impurities. This method of Japanese swordsmithing produced one of the purest steel-alloys of the early Middle Ages.

Question: Where did smelting of iron begin?

Question: When did the smelting of iron first begin?

Question: When did iron making technology begin in Japan?

Question: Pig iron is composed of iron and what else?

Question: What makes Pig iron different from regular iron?
Passage: While the use of iron started to become more widespread around 1200 BC, mainly because of interruptions in the trade routes for tin, the metal is much softer than bronze. However, very small amounts of steel, (an alloy of iron and around 1% carbon), was always a byproduct of the bloomery process. The ability to modify the hardness of steel by heat treatment had been known since 1100 BC, and the rare material was valued for the manufacture of tools and weapons. Because the ancients could not produce temperatures high enough to melt iron fully, the production of steel in decent quantities did not occur until the introduction of blister steel during the Middle Ages. This method introduced carbon by heating wrought iron in charcoal for long periods of time, but the penetration of carbon was not very deep, so the alloy was not homogeneous. In 1740, Benjamin Huntsman began melting blister steel in a crucible to even out the carbon content, creating the first process for the mass production of tool steel. Huntsman's process was used for manufacturing tool steel until the early 1900s.

Question: Heat treatment of steel has been know since what time?

Question: When did iron start to become melted by people?

Question: Who created the first process for the mass production of tool steel?

Question: When did Benjamin Huntsman begin to melt blister steel in a crucible
Passage: With the introduction of the blast furnace to Europe in the Middle Ages, pig iron was able to be produced in much higher volumes than wrought iron. Because pig iron could be melted, people began to develop processes of reducing the carbon in the liquid pig iron to create steel. Puddling was introduced during the 1700s, where molten pig iron was stirred while exposed to the air, to remove the carbon by oxidation. In 1858, Sir Henry Bessemer developed a process of steel-making by blowing hot air through liquid pig iron to reduce the carbon content. The Bessemer process was able to produce the first large scale manufacture of steel. Once the Bessemer process began to gain widespread use, other alloys of steel began to follow. Mangalloy, an alloy of steel and manganese exhibiting extreme hardness and toughness, was one of the first alloy steels, and was created by Robert Hadfield in 1882.

Question: What did the blast furnace help do to pig iron in the middle ages?

Question: By reducing carbon in liquid pig iron, what was created?

Question: When did puddling start occurring?

Question: When was the Bessemer process developed?

Question: Steel and manganese combines form to make what?
Passage: In 1906, precipitation hardening alloys were discovered by Alfred Wilm. Precipitation hardening alloys, such as certain alloys of aluminium, titanium, and copper, are heat-treatable alloys that soften when quenched (cooled quickly), and then harden over time. After quenching a ternary alloy of aluminium, copper, and magnesium, Wilm discovered that the alloy increased in hardness when left to age at room temperature. Although an explanation for the phenomenon was not provided until 1919, duralumin was one of the first "age hardening" alloys to be used, and was soon followed by many others. Because they often exhibit a combination of high strength and low weight, these alloys became widely used in many forms of industry, including the construction of modern aircraft.

Question: Who discovered precipitation hardening alloys?

Question: When were precipitation hardening alloys discovered?

Question: What happens to precipitation hardening alloys after they quenched?

Question: One of the first "age hardening" alloys used were called?

Question: What was used in the construction of modern aircraft?
Passage: Norfolk Island (i/ˈnɔːrfək ˈaɪlənd/; Norfuk: Norf'k Ailen) is a small island in the Pacific Ocean located between Australia, New Zealand and New Caledonia, 1,412 kilometres (877 mi) directly east of mainland Australia's Evans Head, and about 900 kilometres (560 mi) from Lord Howe Island. The island is part of the Commonwealth of Australia. Together with two neighbouring islands, it forms one of Australia's external territories. It has 1,796 inhabitants living on a total area of about 35 km2 (14 sq mi). Its capital is Kingston.

Question: In what ocean is Norfolk Island found?

Question: How far away is the nearest land mass to Norfolk Island?

Question: What is the capital city of Norfolk Island?

Question: How many people live on Norfolk Island?

Question: How far away is Evans Head from Norfolk Island?
Passage: Norfolk Island was colonised by East Polynesians but was long unpeopled when it was settled by Great Britain as part of its settlement of Australia from 1788. The island served as a convict penal settlement from 6 March 1788 until 5 May 1855, except for an 11-year hiatus between 15 February 1814 and 6 June 1825, when it lay abandoned. On 8 June 1856, permanent civilian residence on the island began when it was settled from Pitcairn Island. In 1913, the UK handed Norfolk over to Australia to administer as an external territory.

Question: Who was Norfolk Island colonised by?

Question: What purpose did Norfolk Island serve for the majority of the time from 1788 until 1855?

Question: What date did civilians begin to permanently reside in Norfolk Island?

Question: Where did the first permanent civilians of Norfolk Island settle from in 1856?

Question: In what year did the UK hand Norfolk Island over to Australia to administrate?
Passage: Sir John Call argued the advantages of Norfolk Island in that it was uninhabited and that New Zealand flax grew there. In 1786 the British government included Norfolk Island as an auxiliary settlement, as proposed by John Call, in its plan for colonisation of New South Wales. The decision to settle Norfolk Island was taken due to Empress Catherine II of Russia's decision to restrict sales of hemp. Practically all the hemp and flax required by the Royal Navy for cordage and sailcloth was imported from Russia.

Question: In what year did the British government include Norfolk Island as a auxiliary settlement?

Question: Who proposed the idea to include Norfolk Island as a British auxiliary settlement in 1786?

Question: In including Norfolk Island as an auxiliary settlement, what Australian state did the British government plan to colonise?

Question: What woman influenced the decision by the British to settle Norfolk Island?

Question: Where was the majority of the hemp and flax used by the Royal Navy imported from?
Passage: As early as 1794, Lieutenant-Governor of New South Wales Francis Grose suggested its closure as a penal settlement, as it was too remote and difficult for shipping and too costly to maintain. The first group of people left in February 1805, and by 1808 only about 200 remained, forming a small settlement until the remnants were removed in 1813. A small party remained to slaughter stock and destroy all buildings, so that there would be no inducement for anyone, especially from other European powers, to visit and lay claim to the place. From 15 February 1814 to 6 June 1825 the island was abandoned.

Question: When did Lieutenant-Governor of New South Wales Francis Grose start suggesting Norfolk Island be closed as a penal settlement?

Question: Why did Francis Grose think that Norfolk Island should be closed as a penal settlement?

Question: When did the first group of people leave Norfolk Island?

Question: By 1808, how many people remained on Norfolk Island?

Question: Why did a small group of people remain on Norfolk Island, after others had already left?
Passage: In 1824 the British government instructed the Governor of New South Wales Thomas Brisbane to occupy Norfolk Island as a place to send "the worst description of convicts". Its remoteness, previously seen as a disadvantage, was now viewed as an asset for the detention of recalcitrant male prisoners. The convicts detained have long been assumed to be a hardcore of recidivists, or 'doubly-convicted capital respites' – that is, men transported to Australia who committed fresh colonial crimes for which they were sentenced to death, and were spared the gallows on condition of life at Norfolk Island. However, a recent study has demonstrated, utilising a database of 6,458 Norfolk Island convicts, that the reality was somewhat different: more than half were detained at Norfolk Island without ever receiving a colonial conviction, and only 15% had been reprieved from a death sentence. Furthermore, the overwhelming majority of convicts sent to Norfolk Island had committed non-violent property sentences, and the average length of detention was three years.

Question: Who instructed the Governor of New South Wales Thomas Brisbane to send the worst convicts to Norfolk Island?

Question: What previous disadvantage of Norfolk Island was seen as an advantage for holding male convicts?

Question: What were the prisoners on Norfolk Island spared from on the the mainland?

Question: How many convicts are listed in the database at Norfolk Island?

Question: What was the average length of a prisoner's detention at Norfolk Island?
Passage: On 8 June 1856, the next settlement began on Norfolk Island. These were the descendants of Tahitians and the HMS Bounty mutineers, including those of Fletcher Christian. They resettled from the Pitcairn Islands, which had become too small for their growing population. On 3 May 1856, 193 persons left Pitcairn Islands aboard the "Morayshire". On 8 June 194 persons arrived, a baby having been born in transit. The Pitcairners occupied many of the buildings remaining from the penal settlements, and gradually established traditional farming and whaling industries on the island. Although some families decided to return to Pitcairn in 1858 and 1863, the island's population continued to grow. They accepted additional settlers, who often arrived with whaling fleets.

Question: Who were the next settlement of people on Norfolk Island descended from?

Question: Where did the next settlement of people on Norfolk Island settle from?

Question: On May 3, 1856, how many Pitcairners left for Norfolk Island?

Question: What was the name of the ship the Pitcairners traveled on to Norfolk Island?

Question: What trades did the Pitcairners establish while on Norfolk Island?
Passage: After the creation of the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, Norfolk Island was placed under the authority of the new Commonwealth government to be administered as an external territory. During World War II, the island became a key airbase and refuelling depot between Australia and New Zealand, and New Zealand and the Solomon Islands. The airstrip was constructed by Australian, New Zealand and United States servicemen during 1942. Since Norfolk Island fell within New Zealand's area of responsibility it was garrisoned by a New Zealand Army unit known as N Force at a large Army camp which had the capacity to house a 1,500 strong force. N Force relieved a company of the Second Australian Imperial Force. The island proved too remote to come under attack during the war and N Force left the island in February 1944.

Question: When was the Commonwealth of Australia created?

Question: During what major event did Norfolk Island become an important airbase and refuelling station?

Question: Who contructed the airbase used on Norfolk Island during World War II?

Question: Norfolk Island fell under whose responsibility during World War II?

Question: When did N Force leave Norfolk Island during the time of World War II?
Passage: Financial problems and a reduction in tourism led to Norfolk Island's administration appealing to the Australian federal government for assistance in 2010. In return, the islanders were to pay income tax for the first time but would be eligible for greater welfare benefits. However, by May 2013 agreement had not been reached and islanders were having to leave to find work and welfare. An agreement was finally signed in Canberra on 12 March 2015 to replace self-government with a local council but against the wishes of the Norfolk Island government. A majority of Norfolk Islanders have objected to the Australian plan to make changes to Norfolk Island without first consulting them and allowing their say with 68% of voters against forced changes.

Question: What lead to Norfolk Island asking for assistance from Australia in 2010?

Question: What benefit were residents of Norfolk Island told they would receive as a result of Australia's assistance?

Question: What actually ended up happening after Norfolk Island asked Australia for help?

Question: An agreement was finally signed in Canberra on March 12, 2015, to do what for Norfolk Island?

Question: What percentage of Norfolk Island voters were against the changes brought by Australia?
Passage: Norfolk Island is located in the South Pacific Ocean, east of the Australian mainland. Norfolk Island is the main island of the island group the territory encompasses and is located at 29°02′S 167°57′E﻿ / ﻿29.033°S 167.950°E﻿ / -29.033; 167.950. It has an area of 34.6 square kilometres (13.4 sq mi), with no large-scale internal bodies of water and 32 km (20 mi) of coastline. The island's highest point is Mount Bates (319 metres (1,047 feet) above sea level), located in the northwest quadrant of the island. The majority of the terrain is suitable for farming and other agricultural uses. Phillip Island, the second largest island of the territory, is located at 29°07′S 167°57′E﻿ / ﻿29.117°S 167.950°E﻿ / -29.117; 167.950, seven kilometres (4.3 miles) south of the main island.

Question: What part of the Pacific Ocean is Norfolk Island located?

Question: What direction is Norfolk Island in relation to Australia?

Question: What are the coordinates for Norfolk Island?

Question: What is the name of the mountain at Norfolk Island's highest point?

Question: What is the name of the second largest island of the territory of Norfolk Island?
Passage: The coastline of Norfolk Island consists, to varying degrees, of cliff faces. A downward slope exists towards Slaughter Bay and Emily Bay, the site of the original colonial settlement of Kingston. There are no safe harbour facilities on Norfolk Island, with loading jetties existing at Kingston and Cascade Bay. All goods not domestically produced are brought in by ship, usually to Cascade Bay. Emily Bay, protected from the Pacific Ocean by a small coral reef, is the only safe area for recreational swimming, although surfing waves can be found at Anson and Ball Bays.

Question: What is the coastline of Norfolk made of?

Question: Where is the site of the original colonial settlement of Kingston, Norfolk Islands, currently located?

Question: How are goods imported to Norfolk Island?

Question: Where are imported goods usually sent on Norfolk Island?

Question: Where can you go to surf on Norfolk Island?
Passage: Norfolk Island has 174 native plants; 51 of them are endemic. At least 18 of the endemic species are rare or threatened. The Norfolk Island palm (Rhopalostylis baueri) and the smooth tree-fern (Cyathea brownii), the tallest tree-fern in the world, are common in the Norfolk Island National Park but rare elsewhere on the island. Before European colonization, most of Norfolk Island was covered with subtropical rain forest, the canopy of which was made of Araucaria heterophylla (Norfolk Island pine) in exposed areas, and the palm Rhopalostylis baueri and tree ferns Cyathea brownii and C. australis in moister protected areas. The understory was thick with lianas and ferns covering the forest floor. Only one small tract (5 km2) of rainforest remains, which was declared as the Norfolk Island National Park in 1986.

Question: How many plants can only be found on Norfolk Island?

Question: How many of the plants that can only be found on Norfolk Island are rare or threatened?

Question: Where can the tallest tree-fern in the world be found?

Question: What was the majority of Norfolk Island covered with, before European colonization?

Question: How much of the rainforest remains in Norfolk Island today?
Passage: As a relatively small and isolated oceanic island, Norfolk has few land birds but a high degree of endemicity among them. Many of the endemic species and subspecies have become extinct as a result of massive clearance of the island's native vegetation of subtropical rainforest for agriculture, hunting and persecution as agricultural pests. The birds have also suffered from the introduction of mammals such as rats, cats, pigs and goats, as well as from introduced competitors such as common blackbirds and crimson rosellas.

Question: What type of bird does Norfolk Island have few of?

Question: What is one reason that has caused many of the birds of Norfolk Island to become extinct?

Question: What is the second thing that caused many of the birds of Norfolk Island to become extinct?

Question: What non-bird animals caused the bird populations of Norfolk Island to suffer?

Question: What non-native birds caused the bird populations of Norfolk Island to suffer?
Passage: The Norfolk Island Group Nepean Island is also home to breeding seabirds. The providence petrel was hunted to local extinction by the beginning of the 19th century, but has shown signs of returning to breed on Phillip Island. Other seabirds breeding there include the white-necked petrel, Kermadec petrel, wedge-tailed shearwater, Australasian gannet, red-tailed tropicbird and grey ternlet. The sooty tern (known locally as the whale bird) has traditionally been subject to seasonal egg harvesting by Norfolk Islanders.

Question: What island in the Norfolk Island Group is home to breeding seabirds?

Question: What near extinct bird of Norfolk Island has shown signs of population increase?

Question: Where has the providence petrel been seen breeding on Norfolk Island?

Question: What other types of petrels breed on Phillip Island?

Question: What is the sooty tern known as on Norfolk Island?
Passage: Cetaceans were historically abundant around the island as commercial hunts on the island was operating until 1956. Today, numbers of larger whales have disappeared, but even today many species such humpback whale, minke whale, sei whale, and dolphins can be observed close to shores, and scientific surveys have been conducted regularly. Southern right whales were once regular migrants to the Norfolk hence naming the island as the "Middle ground" by whalers, but had been severely depleted by historical hunts, and further by illegal Soviet and Japan whaling, resulting in none of very few, if remnants still live, right whales in these regions along with Lord Howe Island.

Question: What used to be abundant in the waters around Norfolk Island?

Question: When did commercial sea hunts on Norfolk Island stop operating?

Question: What are some species of whales that can be seen around Norfolk Island today?

Question: What other species can be seen close to the shores of Norfolk Island?

Question: What type of whales were once common in Norfolk Island, but hardly any remain today?
Passage: Sixty-two percent of islanders are Christians. After the death of the first chaplain Rev G. H. Nobbs in 1884, a Methodist church was formed and in 1891 a Seventh-day Adventist congregation led by one of Nobbs' sons. Some unhappiness with G. H. Nobbs, the more organised and formal ritual of the Church of England service arising from the influence of the Melanesian Mission, decline in spirituality, the influence of visiting American whalers, literature sent by Christians overseas impressed by the Pitcairn story, and the adoption of Seventh-day Adventism by the descendants of the mutineers still on Pitcairn, all contributed to these developments. The Roman Catholic Church began work in 1957 and in the late 1990s a group left the former Methodist (then Uniting Church) and formed a charismatic fellowship. In 2011, 34 percent of the ordinary residents identified as Anglican, 13 percent as Uniting Church, 12 percent as Roman Catholic and three percent as Seventh-day Adventist. Nine percent were from other religions. Twenty four percent had no religion, and seven percent did not indicate a religion. Typical ordinary congregations in any church do not exceed 30 local residents as of 2010[update]. The three older denominations have good facilities. Ministers are usually short-term visitors.

Question: Christians make up what percentage of the population of Norfolk Island?

Question: Who was the first chaplain of Norfolk Island?

Question: What type of church was formed after Rev G.H. Nobbs' death in 1884?

Question: Who led Norfolk Island's first Seventh-day Adventist church?

Question: Typical church congregations on Norfolk Island as of 2010 don't exceed what number?
Passage: Islanders speak both English and a creole language known as Norfuk, a blend of 18th-century English and Tahitian. The Norfuk language is decreasing in popularity as more tourists travel to the island and more young people leave for work and study reasons; however, there are efforts to keep it alive via dictionaries and the renaming of some tourist attractions to their Norfuk equivalents. In 2004 an act of the Norfolk Island Assembly made it a co-official language of the island. The act is long-titled: "An Act to recognise the Norfolk Island Language (Norf'k) as an official language of Norfolk Island." The "language known as 'Norf'k'" is described as the language "that is spoken by descendants of the first free settlers of Norfolk Island who were descendants of the settlers of Pitcairn Island". The act recognises and protects use of the language but does not require it; in official use, it must be accompanied by an accurate translation into English. 32% of the total population reported speaking a language other than English in the 2011 census, and just under three-quarters of the ordinarily resident population could speak Norfuk.

Question: What languages do residents of Norfolk Island speak?

Question: What is the Norfuk language a mixture of?

Question: The Norfuk language of Norfolk Island was first spoken by whom?

Question: What is the official co-language of Norfolk Island?

Question: What part of the residents of Norfolk Island could speak Norfuk as of 2011?