sentence-transformers/squad huggingface dataset:
Passage: There is little consensus on the precise beginning of the Age of Enlightenment; the beginning of the 18th century (1701) or the middle of the 17th century (1650) are often used as epochs. French historians usually place the period, called the Siècle des Lumières (Century of Enlightenments), between 1715 and 1789, from the beginning of the reign of Louis XV until the French Revolution. If taken back to the mid-17th century, the Enlightenment would trace its origins to Descartes' Discourse on Method, published in 1637. In France, many cited the publication of Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica in 1687. It is argued by several historians and philosophers that the beginning of the Enlightenment is when Descartes shifted the epistemological basis from external authority to internal certainty by his cogito ergo sum published in 1637. As to its end, most scholars use the last years of the century, often choosing the French Revolution of 1789 or the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars (1804–15) as a convenient point in time with which to date the end of the Enlightenment.

Question: Most scholars use the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars or which other battle as a convenient date to end the Enlightenment?

Question: French historians generally use the beginning of which King's reign to date the start of the Enlightenment?

Question: What do French historians commonly call the Age of Enlightenment?

Question: In what year was Descartes' Discourse on Method published?

Question: In what year was Issaac Newton's Principia Mathematica published?
Passage: The creation of the public sphere has been associated with two long-term historical trends: the rise of the modern nation state and the rise of capitalism. The modern nation state, in its consolidation of public power, created by counterpoint a private realm of society independent of the state, which allowed for the public sphere. Capitalism also increased society's autonomy and self-awareness, and an increasing need for the exchange of information. As the nascent public sphere expanded, it embraced a large variety of institutions; the most commonly cited were coffee houses and cafés, salons and the literary public sphere, figuratively localized in the Republic of Letters. In France, the creation of the public sphere was helped by the aristocracy's move from the King's palace at Versailles to Paris in about 1720, since their rich spending stimulated the trade in luxuries and artistic creations, especially fine paintings.

Question: The creation of the public sphere is associated with the rise of capitalism and which other historical trend?

Question: What increased society's autonomy, self-awareness, and need for exchange of information?

Question: In what year did the aristocracy move from the King's palace at Versailles to Paris?
Passage: The desire to explore, record and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on music publications. Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Dictionnaire de musique (published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris) was a leading text in the late 18th century. This widely available dictionary gave short definitions of words like genius and taste, and was clearly influenced by the Enlightenment movement. Another text influenced by Enlightenment values was Charles Burney's A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period (1776), which was a historical survey and an attempt to rationalize elements in music systematically over time. Recently, musicologists have shown renewed interest in the ideas and consequences of the Enlightenment. For example, Rose Rosengard Subotnik's Deconstructive Variations (subtitled Music and Reason in Western Society) compares Mozart's Die Zauberflöte (1791) using the Enlightenment and Romantic perspectives, and concludes that the work is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment".

Question: The desire to explore, record and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on what other form of publication?

Question: What publication of Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a leading text in the late 18th century and was published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris?

Question: In what year was Charles Burney's A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period published?

Question: What Mozart piece did Rose Rosengard Subotnik conclude is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment"?

Question: Which two perspectives did Rose Rosengard Subotnik use to compare Mozart's Die Cauberflote?
Passage: Many women played an essential part in the French Enlightenment, due to the role they played as salonnières in Parisian salons, as the contrast to the male philosophes. The salon was the principal social institution of the republic, and "became the civil working spaces of the project of Enlightenment." Women, as salonnières, were "the legitimate governors of [the] potentially unruly discourse" that took place within. While women were marginalized in the public culture of the Ancien Régime, the French Revolution destroyed the old cultural and economic restraints of patronage and corporatism (guilds), opening French society to female participation, particularly in the literary sphere.

Question: What was the principal social institution of the republic during the French Enlightenment?

Question: Was French society open or fearful of female participation in the literary sphere during the Enlightenment?

Question: What female occupation allowed women to play an essential part in the French Enlightenment?

Question: Which event destroyed the former patronage and corporatism of France and allowed women to participate in society?
Passage: The vast majority of the reading public could not afford to own a private library, and while most of the state-run "universal libraries" set up in the 17th and 18th centuries were open to the public, they were not the only sources of reading material. On one end of the spectrum was the Bibliothèque Bleue, a collection of cheaply produced books published in Troyes, France. Intended for a largely rural and semi-literate audience these books included almanacs, retellings of medieval romances and condensed versions of popular novels, among other things. While some historians have argued against the Enlightenment's penetration into the lower classes, the Bibliothèque Bleue represents at least a desire to participate in Enlightenment sociability. Moving up the classes, a variety of institutions offered readers access to material without needing to buy anything. Libraries that lent out their material for a small price started to appear, and occasionally bookstores would offer a small lending library to their patrons. Coffee houses commonly offered books, journals and sometimes even popular novels to their customers. The Tatler and The Spectator, two influential periodicals sold from 1709 to 1714, were closely associated with coffee house culture in London, being both read and produced in various establishments in the city. This is an example of the triple or even quadruple function of the coffee house: reading material was often obtained, read, discussed and even produced on the premises.

Question: Where was Bibliotheque Bleue located?

Question: For what audience were the books of the Bibliotheque Bleue written?

Question: Which two influential periodicals were closely associated with London coffee house culture and were sold from 1909 to 1714?

Question: What collection of cheaply produced books represents the lower class' desire to participate in the Enlightenment?
Passage: The target audience of natural history was French polite society, evidenced more by the specific discourse of the genre than by the generally high prices of its works. Naturalists catered to polite society's desire for erudition – many texts had an explicit instructive purpose. However, natural history was often a political affair. As E. C. Spary writes, the classifications used by naturalists "slipped between the natural world and the social ... to establish not only the expertise of the naturalists over the natural, but also the dominance of the natural over the social". The idea of taste (le goût) was a social indicator: to truly be able to categorize nature, one had to have the proper taste, an ability of discretion shared by all members of polite society. In this way natural history spread many of the scientific developments of the time, but also provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class. From this basis, naturalists could then develop their own social ideals based on their scientific works.

Question: Who was the target audience of natural history?

Question: Many texts had explicit instructive purposes as Naturalists catered to polite society's desire for what?

Question: The idea of what quality was a social indicator that provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class?

Question: Was the target audience of natural history evidenced more by the price of publications or its specific discourse of the genre?
Passage: The first technical dictionary was drafted by John Harris and entitled Lexicon Technicum: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. Harris' book avoided theological and biographical entries; instead it concentrated on science and technology. Published in 1704, the Lexicon technicum was the first book to be written in English that took a methodical approach to describing mathematics and commercial arithmetic along with the physical sciences and navigation. Other technical dictionaries followed Harris' model, including Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopaedia (1728), which included five editions, and was a substantially larger work than Harris'. The folio edition of the work even included foldout engravings. The Cyclopaedia emphasized Newtonian theories, Lockean philosophy, and contained thorough examinations of technologies, such as engraving, brewing, and dyeing.

Question: Who drafted the first technical dictionary?

Question: What was the first technical dictionary drafted by John Harris titled?

Question: Did the Lexicon Technicum focus on theological and biographical entries or science and technology?

Question: What year was the Lexicon Technicum published?

Question: In what language was the Lexicon Technicum written?
Passage: The first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular, and with the entertainment of readers in mind, was Bernard de Fontenelle's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686). The book was produced specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar works. These popular works were written in a discursive style, which was laid out much more clearly for the reader than the complicated articles, treatises, and books published by the academies and scientists. Charles Leadbetter's Astronomy (1727) was advertised as "a Work entirely New" that would include "short and easie [sic] Rules and Astronomical Tables." The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the Principia was Eléments de la philosophie de Newton, published by Voltaire in 1738. Émilie du Châtelet's translation of the Principia, published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton's theories beyond scientific academies and the university. Francesco Algarotti, writing for a growing female audience, published Il Newtonianism per le dame, which was a tremendously popular work and was translated from Italian into English by Elizabeth Carter. A similar introduction to Newtonianism for women was produced by Henry Pembarton. His A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy was published by subscription. Extant records of subscribers show that women from a wide range of social standings purchased the book, indicating the growing number of scientifically inclined female readers among the middling class. During the Enlightenment, women also began producing popular scientific works themselves. Sarah Trimmer wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782), which was published for many years after in eleven editions.

Question: What book was published in 1686 specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing?

Question: Who was the author of Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686)?

Question: Who wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782)?

Question: How many editions were published of Sarah Trimmer's history textbook for children?

Question: Emilie du Chatelet's translation of what Newton work was published after her death in 1756?
Passage: The strongest contribution of the French Academies to the public sphere comes from the concours académiques (roughly translated as 'academic contests') they sponsored throughout France. These academic contests were perhaps the most public of any institution during the Enlightenment. The practice of contests dated back to the Middle Ages, and was revived in the mid-17th century. The subject matter had previously been generally religious and/or monarchical, featuring essays, poetry, and painting. By roughly 1725, however, this subject matter had radically expanded and diversified, including "royal propaganda, philosophical battles, and critical ruminations on the social and political institutions of the Old Regime." Topics of public controversy were also discussed such as the theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women's education, and justice in France.

Question: The practice of contests dates back to what time period?

Question: Previous to 1725, what subject matter was focused on by the concours academiques?

Question: Which topics of public controversy became more widely discussed around 1725?

Question: Were the concours academiques public or private matters?
Passage: The first English coffeehouse opened in Oxford in 1650. Brian Cowan said that Oxford coffeehouses developed into "penny universities", offering a locus of learning that was less formal than structured institutions. These penny universities occupied a significant position in Oxford academic life, as they were frequented by those consequently referred to as the "virtuosi", who conducted their research on some of the resulting premises. According to Cowan, "the coffeehouse was a place for like-minded scholars to congregate, to read, as well as learn from and to debate with each other, but was emphatically not a university institution, and the discourse there was of a far different order than any university tutorial."

Question: Where did the first English coffeehouse open in 1650?

Question: According to Brian Cowan, was learning more or less formal in coffehouses as opposed to private institutions?

Question: What term did Brian Cowan give Oxford coffeehouses?
Passage: Historians have long debated the extent to which the secret network of Freemasonry was a main factor in the Enlightenment. The leaders of the Enlightenment included Freemasons such as Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Pope, Horace Walpole, Sir Robert Walpole, Mozart, Goethe, Frederick the Great, Benjamin Franklin, and George Washington. Norman Davies said that Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of Liberalism in Europe, from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists.

Question: Diderot, Voltaire, Mozart, Goethe, and Benjamin Franklin were all members of what secret network?

Question: To whom was Freemasonry most attractive?

Question: Freemasonry expanded rapidly to nearly every country in which continent?
Passage: The Age of Enlightenment was preceded by and closely associated with the scientific revolution. Earlier philosophers whose work influenced the Enlightenment included Francis Bacon, Descartes, Locke, and Spinoza. The major figures of the Enlightenment included Cesare Beccaria, Voltaire, Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, David Hume, Adam Smith, and Immanuel Kant. Some European rulers, including Catherine II of Russia, Joseph II of Austria and Frederick I of Prussia, tried to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance, which became known as enlightened absolutism. The Americans Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson came to Europe during the period and contributed actively to the scientific and political debate, and the ideals of the Enlightenment were incorporated into the United States Declaration of Independence and the Constitution of the United States.

Question: Trying to apply Enlightenment thought on religious and political tolerance became known as what?

Question: Which two Americans travelled to Europe during the Enlightenment and actively contributed to the scienific and political debate?

Question: The ideals of the Enlightenment were incorporated into which two United States documents?

Question: Did the scientific revolution precede or follow the Age of Enlightenment?
Passage: Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) tried to reconcile rationalism and religious belief, individual freedom and political authority, as well as map out a view of the public sphere through private and public reason. Kant's work continued to shape German thought, and indeed all of European philosophy, well into the 20th century. Mary Wollstonecraft was one of England's earliest feminist philosophers. She argued for a society based on reason, and that women, as well as men, should be treated as rational beings. She is best known for her work A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1791).

Question: Kant's work continued to shape German thought and European philosophy well into what century?

Question: In what year was Immanuel Kant born?

Question: For which work is Mary Wollstonecraft best known?

Question: In what year was A Vindication on the Rights of Woman published?

Question: Mary Wollstonecraft argued for a society based on what idea?
Passage: Hume and other Scottish Enlightenment thinkers developed a 'science of man', which was expressed historically in works by authors including James Burnett, Adam Ferguson, John Millar, and William Robertson, all of whom merged a scientific study of how humans behaved in ancient and primitive cultures with a strong awareness of the determining forces of modernity. Modern sociology largely originated from this movement, and Hume's philosophical concepts that directly influenced James Madison (and thus the U.S. Constitution) and as popularised by Dugald Stewart, would be the basis of classical liberalism.

Question: The basis of classical liberalism comes from whose philosophical concepts?

Question: Whose philosophical concepts directly influenceed James Madison and thus the U.S. Constitution?

Question: Who popularised Hume's philosophical concepts?
Passage: Both Locke and Rousseau developed social contract theories in Two Treatises of Government and Discourse on Inequality, respectively. While quite different works, Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau agreed that a social contract, in which the government's authority lies in the consent of the governed, is necessary for man to live in civil society. Locke defines the state of nature as a condition in which humans are rational and follow natural law; in which all men are born equal and with the right to life, liberty and property. However, when one citizen breaks the Law of Nature, both the transgressor and the victim enter into a state of war, from which it is virtually impossible to break free. Therefore, Locke said that individuals enter into civil society to protect their natural rights via an "unbiased judge" or common authority, such as courts, to appeal to. Contrastingly, Rousseau's conception relies on the supposition that "civil man" is corrupted, while "natural man" has no want he cannot fulfill himself. Natural man is only taken out of the state of nature when the inequality associated with private property is established. Rousseau said that people join into civil society via the social contract to achieve unity while preserving individual freedom. This is embodied in the sovereignty of the general will, the moral and collective legislative body constituted by citizens.

Question: What did Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau agree was necessary for a man to live in civil society?

Question: Who wrote Discourse on Inequality?

Question: Which theorist wrote Two Treatises of Government?

Question: For what reason did Rousseau feel people joined into civil society?

Question: From which state does Locke believe it is virtually improssible to break free?
Passage: In several nations, rulers welcomed leaders of the Enlightenment at court and asked them to help design laws and programs to reform the system, typically to build stronger national states. These rulers are called "enlightened despots" by historians. They included Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, Leopold II of Tuscany, and Joseph II of Austria. Joseph was over-enthusiastic, announcing so many reforms that had so little support that revolts broke out and his regime became a comedy of errors and nearly all his programs were reversed. Senior ministers Pombal in Portugal and Struensee in Denmark also governed according to Enlightenment ideals. In Poland, the model constitution of 1791 expressed Enlightenment ideals, but was in effect for only one year as the nation was partitioned among its neighbors. More enduring were the cultural achievements, which created a nationalist spirit in Poland.

Question: Leaders of the Enlightenment that helped design laws and programs to reform the court system are called what by historians?

Question: Which enlightened despot was so over-enthusiastic that revolts broke out and nearly all of his programs were reversed?

Question: In what country was the model constitution of 1791 in effect for only one year?

Question: From what country was Enlightenment leader Catherine the Great?
Passage: Enlightenment scholars sought to curtail the political power of organized religion and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war. Spinoza determined to remove politics from contemporary and historical theology (e.g. disregarding Judaic law). Moses Mendelssohn advised affording no political weight to any organized religion, but instead recommended that each person follow what they found most convincing. A good religion based in instinctive morals and a belief in God should not theoretically need force to maintain order in its believers, and both Mendelssohn and Spinoza judged religion on its moral fruits, not the logic of its theology.

Question: Did Mendelssohn and Spinoza judge religion on its moral fruits or logic of its theology??

Question: What did Enlightenment scholars seek to curtail and thereby prevent another age of intolerant religious war?

Question: Spinoza was determined to remove what from contemporary and historical theology?

Question: Did Moses Mendelssohn advise to follow a specific organized religion, or to whatever one found most convincing?
Passage: In the Scottish Enlightenment, Scotland's major cities created an intellectual infrastructure of mutually supporting institutions such as universities, reading societies, libraries, periodicals, museums and masonic lodges. The Scottish network was "predominantly liberal Calvinist, Newtonian, and 'design' oriented in character which played a major role in the further development of the transatlantic Enlightenment". In France, Voltaire said "we look to Scotland for all our ideas of civilization." The focus of the Scottish Enlightenment ranged from intellectual and economic matters to the specifically scientific as in the work of William Cullen, physician and chemist; James Anderson, an agronomist; Joseph Black, physicist and chemist; and James Hutton, the first modern geologist.

Question: Who did Voltaire say that France looked to for ideas of civilization?

Question: What was the profession of James Anderson?

Question: Who was the first modern geologist?

Question: William Cullen and Joseph Black shared what two occupations?