sentence-transformers/squad huggingface dataset:
Passage: The Church Fathers identified Jews and Judaism with heresy. They saw deviations from Orthodox Christianity as heresies that were essentially Jewish in spirit. Tertullian implied that it was the Jews who most inspired heresy in Christianity: "From the Jew the heretic has accepted guidance in this discussion [that Jesus was not the Christ.]" Saint Peter of Antioch referred to Christians that refused to venerate religious images as having "Jewish minds".

Question: What culture and religion did Fathers of the Church correlate with heresy?

Question: What religion were these Fathers of the Church?

Question: Who suggested that it were the Jews that brought dissension into Christianity?
Passage: The use of the word "heresy" was given wide currency by Irenaeus in his 2nd century tract Contra Haereses (Against Heresies) to describe and discredit his opponents during the early centuries of the Christian community.[citation needed] He described the community's beliefs and doctrines as orthodox (from ὀρθός, orthos "straight" + δόξα, doxa "belief") and the Gnostics' teachings as heretical.[citation needed] He also pointed out the concept of apostolic succession to support his arguments.

Question: Who gave more exposure to the term heresy when attempting to descredit opponents during the early centuries of Christianity?

Question: What term did Irenaeus use to describe the Christian community's ideologies?

Question: What concept did Irenaeus cite to help support his arguments?
Passage: Constantine the Great, who along with Licinius had decreed toleration of Christianity in the Roman Empire by what is commonly called the "Edict of Milan", and was the first Roman Emperor baptized, set precedents for later policy. By Roman law the Emperor was Pontifex Maximus, the high priest of the College of Pontiffs (Collegium Pontificum) of all recognized religions in ancient Rome. To put an end to the doctrinal debate initiated by Arius, Constantine called the first of what would afterwards be called the ecumenical councils and then enforced orthodoxy by Imperial authority.

Question: Who was the first Roman Emporor that was baptized?

Question: What did Constantine the Great and Licinius pass to introduce toleration of Christianity in the Roman Empire?

Question: What was the high priest in the College of Pontiffs called?

Question: What were the meetings called that were hosted by Constantine that helped enforce orthodoxy by Imperial authority?
Passage: The first known usage of the term in a legal context was in AD 380 by the Edict of Thessalonica of Theodosius I, which made Christianity the state church of the Roman Empire. Prior to the issuance of this edict, the Church had no state-sponsored support for any particular legal mechanism to counter what it perceived as "heresy". By this edict the state's authority and that of the Church became somewhat overlapping. One of the outcomes of this blurring of Church and state was the sharing of state powers of legal enforcement with church authorities. This reinforcement of the Church's authority gave church leaders the power to, in effect, pronounce the death sentence upon those whom the church considered heretical.

Question: In what year was the first usage of the term heresy in a legal context?

Question: Who intitiated Christianity to be a state church of the Roman Empire?

Question: What was the church lacking before the edict that would allow them to legally counter heresy?

Question: What did church authorities gain as a result of this edict?

Question: What punishment is cited as church authorities being able to exact on individuals perceived as heretics?
Passage: Within six years of the official criminalization of heresy by the Emperor, the first Christian heretic to be executed, Priscillian, was condemned in 386 by Roman secular officials for sorcery, and put to death with four or five followers. However, his accusers were excommunicated both by Ambrose of Milan and Pope Siricius, who opposed Priscillian's heresy, but "believed capital punishment to be inappropriate at best and usually unequivocally evil". For some years after the Reformation, Protestant churches were also known to execute those they considered heretics, including Catholics. The last known heretic executed by sentence of the Roman Catholic Church was Spanish schoolmaster Cayetano Ripoll in 1826. The number of people executed as heretics under the authority of the various "ecclesiastical authorities"[note 1] is not known.[note 2] One of the first examples of the word as translated from the Nag Hammadi's Apocalypse of Peter was" they will cleave to the name of a dead man thinking that they will become pure. But they will become greatly defiled and they will fall into the name of error and into the hands of an evil cunning man and a manifold dogma, and they will be ruled heretically".

Question: Who was the first Christian individual to be sentenced to death by the church for heresy in Rome?

Question: What happened to the people that sentenced Priscillian to death?

Question: What religion is an example of Protestants killing for conviction of heresy after the Reformation?

Question: Who was the last known person to be sentenced to death for the crime of heresy by the Roman Catholic Church?

Question: From what passage is cited as being one of the first known examples of using the word heresy?
Passage: In the Roman Catholic Church, obstinate and willful manifest heresy is considered to spiritually cut one off from the Church, even before excommunication is incurred. The Codex Justinianus (1:5:12) defines "everyone who is not devoted to the Catholic Church and to our Orthodox holy Faith" a heretic. The Church had always dealt harshly with strands of Christianity that it considered heretical, but before the 11th century these tended to centre around individual preachers or small localised sects, like Arianism, Pelagianism, Donatism, Marcionism and Montanism. The diffusion of the almost Manichaean sect of Paulicians westwards gave birth to the famous 11th and 12th century heresies of Western Europe. The first one was that of Bogomils in modern day Bosnia, a sort of sanctuary between Eastern and Western Christianity. By the 11th century, more organised groups such as the Patarini, the Dulcinians, the Waldensians and the Cathars were beginning to appear in the towns and cities of northern Italy, southern France and Flanders.

Question: What is thought of to spiritually cut one off from the Church even before excommunication?

Question: What book gives the definition of a heretic as anyone that does not follow the Catholic Church or the orthodox holy faith?

Question: What groups are cited as being considered heretical by the Church before the 11th century?

Question: What group moved westward to give rise to the famous 11th and 12th century heresy in western Europe?

Question: What groups began to appear in northern Italy and southern France during the 11th century?
Passage: In France the Cathars grew to represent a popular mass movement and the belief was spreading to other areas. The Cathar Crusade was initiated by the Roman Catholic Church to eliminate the Cathar heresy in Languedoc. Heresy was a major justification for the Inquisition (Inquisitio Haereticae Pravitatis, Inquiry on Heretical Perversity) and for the European wars of religion associated with the Protestant Reformation.

Question: In what country did the Cathars grow to represent a popular movement?

Question: What was started by the Roman Catholic Church to dispense of the Cathars in Languedoc?

Question: What was a major reason and justification for the Europian wars of religion?
Passage: Galileo Galilei was brought before the Inquisition for heresy, but abjured his views and was sentenced to house arrest, under which he spent the rest of his life. Galileo was found "vehemently suspect of heresy", namely of having held the opinions that the Sun lies motionless at the centre of the universe, that the Earth is not at its centre and moves, and that one may hold and defend an opinion as probable after it has been declared contrary to Holy Scripture. He was required to "abjure, curse and detest" those opinions.

Question: Who was brought before the Inquisition for heresy but renounced his beliefs and thus remained under house arrest for life?

Question: What belief did Galileo have at the time that appeared to be extremely heretical to the church?
Passage: Pope St. Gregory stigmatized Judaism and the Jewish People in many of his writings. He described Jews as enemies of Christ: "The more the Holy Spirit fills the world, the more perverse hatred dominates the souls of the Jews." He labeled all heresy as "Jewish", claiming that Judaism would "pollute [Catholics and] deceive them with sacrilegious seduction." The identification of Jews and heretics in particular occurred several times in Roman-Christian law,

Question: Who denounced Jewish People in many of his writings?

Question: What were the Jews described as enemies of?

Question: According to Pope St. Gregory what religion must you be in order to be a heretic?

Question: In what culture of law were Jews and heretics often lumped together?
Passage: In Eastern Christianity heresy most commonly refers to those beliefs declared heretical by the first seven Ecumenical Councils.[citation needed] Since the Great Schism and the Protestant Reformation, various Christian churches have also used the concept in proceedings against individuals and groups those churches deemed heretical. The Orthodox Church also rejects the early Christian heresies such as Arianism, Gnosticism, Origenism, Montanism, Judaizers, Marcionism, Docetism, Adoptionism, Nestorianism, Monophysitism, Monothelitism and Iconoclasm.

Question: What area of Christianity commonly cited the first seven Ecumenical Councils in regards to heresy?

Question: After what two events did various Christian churches also begin using the first seven Ecumenical Councils to identify heresy?

Question: What beginning Christian heresies did the Orthodox Church also reject during this time?
Passage: In his work "On the Jews and Their Lies" (1543), German Reformation leader Martin Luther claims that Jewish history was "assailed by much heresy", and that Christ the logos swept away the Jewish heresy and goes on to do so, "as it still does daily before our eyes." He stigmatizes Jewish Prayer as being "blasphemous" (sic) and a lie, and vilifies Jews in general as being spiritually "blind" and "surely possessed by all devils." Luther calls the members of the Orthodox Catholic Church "papists" and heretics, and has a special spiritual problem with Jewish circumcision.

Question: What is the work called that Martin Luther created regarding Jews and heresy?

Question: What term does Luther assign to the practice of Jewish Prayer?

Question: What is said to be a special spiritual problem?
Passage: In England, the 16th-century European Reformation resulted in a number of executions on charges of heresy. During the thirty-eight years of Henry VIII's reign, about sixty heretics, mainly Protestants, were executed and a rather greater number of Catholics lost their lives on grounds of political offences such as treason, notably Sir Thomas More and Cardinal John Fisher, for refusing to accept the king's supremacy over the Church in England. Under Edward VI, the heresy laws were repealed in 1547 only to be reintroduced in 1554 by Mary I; even so two radicals were executed in Edward's reign (one for denying the reality of the incarnation, the other for denying Christ's divinity). Under Mary, around two hundred and ninety people were burned at the stake between 1555 and 1558 after the restoration of papal jurisdiction. When Elizabeth I came to the throne, the concept of heresy was retained in theory but severely restricted by the 1559 Act of Supremacy and the one hundred and eighty or so Catholics who were executed in the forty-five years of her reign were put to death because they were considered members of "...a subversive fifth column." The last execution of a "heretic" in England occurred under James VI and I in 1612. Although the charge was technically one of "blasphemy" there was one later execution in Scotland (still at that date an entirely independent kingdom) when in 1697 Thomas Aikenhead was accused, among other things, of denying the doctrine of the Trinity.

Question: What event in England during the 16th century had an outcome of many deaths for heresy?

Question: During what king's reign did 60 Protestants die for heresy?

Question: What two notable figures are cited to have perished for refusing to give up the Church in England?

Question: Under which king were the heresy laws repealed in 1547?

Question: In what year was the last known person sentenced to death in England for heresy?
Passage: Another example of the persecution of heretics under Protestant rule was the execution of the Boston martyrs in 1659, 1660, and 1661. These executions resulted from the actions of the Anglican Puritans, who at that time wielded political as well as ecclesiastic control in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. At the time, the colony leaders were apparently hoping to achieve their vision of a "purer absolute theocracy" within their colony .[citation needed] As such, they perceived the teachings and practices of the rival Quaker sect as heretical, even to the point where laws were passed and executions were performed with the aim of ridding their colony of such perceived "heresies".[citation needed] It should be noticed that the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox communions generally regard the Puritans themselves as having been heterodox or heretical.

Question: During which years did the execution of the Boston martyrs take place?

Question: Which group was responsible for the deaths of the Boston martyrs?

Question: What goal is cited as the reason these killings took place?

Question: What rival group did the Anglican Puritans want purged from their area?

Question: Which two groups viewed the Puritans themselves as nothing more than heresy?
Passage: The era of mass persecution and execution of heretics under the banner of Christianity came to an end in 1826 with the last execution of a "heretic", Cayetano Ripoll, by the Catholic Inquisition.

Question: What year did the deaths of heretics under Christianity come to an end?

Question: Who was the last heretic put to death under the Catholic Inquisition?
Passage: Although less common than in earlier periods, in modern times, formal charges of heresy within Christian churches still occur. Issues in the Protestant churches have included modern biblical criticism and the nature of God. In the Catholic Church, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith criticizes writings for "ambiguities and errors" without using the word "heresy".

Question: Under which religion do charges of heresy still occur in modern times?

Question: Which religion is cited as having problems with modern biblical criticism?

Question: What belief of the Catholic Church criticizes writings without using the word heresy?
Passage: Perhaps due to the many modern negative connotations associated with the term heretic, such as the Spanish inquisition, the term is used less often today. The subject of Christian heresy opens up broader questions as to who has a monopoly on spiritual truth, as explored by Jorge Luis Borges in the short story "The Theologians" within the compilation Labyrinths.

Question: What event is stated as a reason why the word heretic is used less often in modern times?

Question: Who was the author of the short story "The Theologians"?

Question: What subject does the question of who has a monopoly on spiritual truth regard?
Passage: Ottoman Sultan Selim the Grim, regarded the Shia Qizilbash as heretics, reportedly proclaimed that "the killing of one Shiite had as much otherworldly reward as killing 70 Christians."

Question: What group did Sultan Selim the Grim label as heretics?

Question: What number of Christians did Selim the Grim equate to the killing of one Shiite?
Passage: In some modern day nations and regions in which Sharia law is ostensibly practiced, heresy remains an offense punishable by death. One example is the 1989 fatwa issued by the government of Iran, offering a substantial bounty for anyone who succeeds in the assassination of author Salman Rushdie, whose writings were declared as heretical.

Question: What type of law is still in practice in which heresy results in execution?

Question: What author was declared a heretic and had a bounty placed on his head by the government of Iran?
Passage: Orthodox Judaism considers views on the part of Jews who depart from traditional Jewish principles of faith heretical. In addition, the more right-wing groups within Orthodox Judaism hold that all Jews who reject the simple meaning of Maimonides's 13 principles of Jewish faith are heretics. As such, most of Orthodox Judaism considers Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism heretical movements, and regards most of Conservative Judaism as heretical. The liberal wing of Modern Orthodoxy is more tolerant of Conservative Judaism, particularly its right wing, as there is some theological and practical overlap between these groups.

Question: What does Orthodox Judaism regard Jews who depart from traditional practices as?

Question: What alignment within Orthodox Judaism view individuals as heretics that reject Maimonides's 13 principles of Jewish faith?

Question: Which wing of Orthodox Judaism is stated as having a more tolerant view of Conservative Judaism?
Passage: The act of using Church of Scientology techniques in a form different than originally described by Hubbard is referred to within Scientology as "squirreling" and is said by Scientologists to be high treason. The Religious Technology Center has prosecuted breakaway groups that have practiced Scientology outside the official Church without authorization.

Question: What term is used for the act of using Church of Scientology techniques in contrast to what Hubbard envisioned?

Question: What institution has prosecuted groups that practice outside the official Church without permission?
Passage: In other contexts the term does not necessarily have pejorative overtones and may even be complimentary when used, in areas where innovation is welcome, of ideas that are in fundamental disagreement with the status quo in any practice and branch of knowledge. Scientist/author Isaac Asimov considered heresy as an abstraction, Asimov's views are in Forward: The Role of the Heretic. mentioning religious, political, socioeconomic and scientific heresies. He divided scientific heretics into endoheretics (those from within the scientific community) and exoheretics (those from without). Characteristics were ascribed to both and examples of both kinds were offered. Asimov concluded that science orthodoxy defends itself well against endoheretics (by control of science education, grants and publication as examples), but is nearly powerless against exoheretics. He acknowledged by examples that heresy has repeatedly become orthodoxy.

Question: What must be welcomed in areas for the term do be perceived as complimentary?

Question: What did Isaac Asimov consider heresy as?

Question: Which type of heresy is the scientific community well equipped to defend itself against?

Question: What has heresy within the scientific community repeatedly become?
Passage: The revisionist paleontologist Robert T. Bakker, who published his findings as The Dinosaur Heresies, treated the mainstream view of dinosaurs as dogma. "I have enormous respect for dinosaur paleontologists past and present. But on average, for the last fifty years, the field hasn't tested dinosaur orthodoxy severely enough." page 27 "Most taxonomists, however, have viewed such new terminology as dangerously destabilizing to the traditional and well-known scheme..." page 462. This book apparently influenced Jurassic Park. The illustrations by the author show dinosaurs in very active poses, in contrast to the traditional perception of lethargy. He is an example of a recent scientific endoheretic.

Question: What is the title of the book published by Robert T. Bakker regarding mainstream opinion of dinosaurs?

Question: What criticism did Robert T. Bakker share about the paleontologist community regarding the last fifty years?

Question: What film did Robert T. Bakker's book reportedly influence?

Question: What type of poses did the book's illustrations portray dinosaurs as?

Question: What label is associated with Robert T. Bakker as a result of his work?
Passage: Immanuel Velikovsky is an example of a recent scientific exoheretic; he did not have appropriate scientific credentials or did not publish in scientific journals. While the details of his work are in scientific disrepute, the concept of catastrophic change (extinction event and punctuated equilibrium) has gained acceptance in recent decades.

Question: What label is associated with Immanuel Velikovsky due to his works outside the accepted discipline?

Question: What medium did Immanuel Velikovsky not publish his works in that is accepted practice?

Question: What two examples of ideas from Immanuel Velikovsky are stated as to have gained some acceptance?
Passage: The term heresy is also used as an ideological pigeonhole for contemporary writers because, by definition, heresy depends on contrasts with an established orthodoxy. For example, the tongue-in-cheek contemporary usage of heresy, such as to categorize a "Wall Street heresy" a "Democratic heresy" or a "Republican heresy," are metaphors that invariably retain a subtext that links orthodoxies in geology or biology or any other field to religion. These expanded metaphoric senses allude to both the difference between the person's views and the mainstream and the boldness of such a person in propounding these views.

Question: By definition, what contrast does heresy depend on?

Question: What figure of speech is the word heresy commonly used as in present day scenarios?
Passage: The Warsaw Pact (formally, the Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation, and Mutual Assistance, sometimes, informally WarPac, akin in format to NATO) was a collective defense treaty among Soviet Union and seven Soviet satellite states in Central and Eastern Europe in existence during the Cold War. The Warsaw Pact was the military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CoMEcon), the regional economic organization for the communist states of Central and Eastern Europe. The Warsaw Pact was created in reaction to the integration of West Germany into NATO in 1955 per the Paris Pacts of 1954, but it is also considered to have been motivated by Soviet desires to maintain control over military forces in Central and Eastern Europe.

Question: In which year was the Warsaw Pact established?

Question: Which nation formed the nucleus of the Warsaw Pact?

Question: Which conflict was the impetus for the formation of the Pact?

Question: How many Soviet allied countries were members of the Warsaw Pact?

Question: The acceptance of which country into NATO prompted the formation of the Warsaw Pact?
Passage: While the Warsaw Pact was established as a balance of power or counterweight to NATO, there was no direct confrontation between them. Instead, the conflict was fought on an ideological basis. Both NATO and the Warsaw Pact led to the expansion of military forces and their integration into the respective blocs. The Warsaw Pact's largest military engagement was Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia (with the participation of all Pact nations except Romania and Albania). The Pact failed to function when the Revolutions of 1989 spread through Eastern Europe, beginning with the Solidarity movement in Poland and its success in June 1989.

Question: Which organization was in direct competition with the Warsaw Pact?

Question: Which nation saw the most significant Warsaw Pact military deployment?

Question: What was the name of the Polish revolutionary movement which the Warsaw Pact failed to suppress?

Question: Which country saw the largest Warsaw Pact deployment?

Question: In which year did the Warsaw Pact cease to function effectively?

Question: What was the name of the Polish labor movement which successfully defied the Warsaw Pact?