sentence-transformers/squad huggingface dataset:
Passage: During the 11th century, developments in philosophy and theology led to increased intellectual activity. There was debate between the realists and the nominalists over the concept of "universals". Philosophical discourse was stimulated by the rediscovery of Aristotle and his emphasis on empiricism and rationalism. Scholars such as Peter Abelard (d. 1142) and Peter Lombard (d. 1164) introduced Aristotelian logic into theology. In the late 11th and early 12th centuries cathedral schools spread throughout Western Europe, signalling the shift of learning from monasteries to cathedrals and towns. Cathedral schools were in turn replaced by the universities established in major European cities. Philosophy and theology fused in scholasticism, an attempt by 12th- and 13th-century scholars to reconcile authoritative texts, most notably Aristotle and the Bible. This movement tried to employ a systemic approach to truth and reason and culminated in the thought of Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274), who wrote the Summa Theologica, or Summary of Theology.

Question: What group opposed the nominalists on the subject of universals?

Question: What ancient philosopher was rediscovered, leading to a revival of philosophy?

Question: When did Peter Lombard die?

Question: What was the name of the school of thought that combined theology and philosophy?

Question: Who authored the Summa Theologica?
Passage: Chivalry and the ethos of courtly love developed in royal and noble courts. This culture was expressed in the vernacular languages rather than Latin, and comprised poems, stories, legends, and popular songs spread by troubadours, or wandering minstrels. Often the stories were written down in the chansons de geste, or "songs of great deeds", such as The Song of Roland or The Song of Hildebrand. Secular and religious histories were also produced. Geoffrey of Monmouth (d. c. 1155) composed his Historia Regum Britanniae, a collection of stories and legends about Arthur. Other works were more clearly history, such as Otto von Freising's (d. 1158) Gesta Friderici Imperatoris detailing the deeds of Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, or William of Malmesbury's (d. c. 1143) Gesta Regum on the kings of England.

Question: What does chansons de geste mean in English?

Question: Along with The Song of Ronald, what is a notable chanson de geste?

Question: Who wrote Historia Regum Britanniae?

Question: What legendary figure was featured in the Historia Regum Britanniae?

Question: Who was the subject of Gesta Friderici Imperatoris?
Passage: Legal studies advanced during the 12th century. Both secular law and canon law, or ecclesiastical law, were studied in the High Middle Ages. Secular law, or Roman law, was advanced greatly by the discovery of the Corpus Juris Civilis in the 11th century, and by 1100 Roman law was being taught at Bologna. This led to the recording and standardisation of legal codes throughout Western Europe. Canon law was also studied, and around 1140 a monk named Gratian (fl. 12th century), a teacher at Bologna, wrote what became the standard text of canon law—the Decretum.

Question: What is another name for canon law?

Question: What is another name for Roman law?

Question: Where could one study Roman law in 1100?

Question: In what century was the Corpus Juris Civilis rediscovered?

Question: Who wrote the Decretum?
Passage: Among the results of the Greek and Islamic influence on this period in European history was the replacement of Roman numerals with the decimal positional number system and the invention of algebra, which allowed more advanced mathematics. Astronomy advanced following the translation of Ptolemy's Almagest from Greek into Latin in the late 12th century. Medicine was also studied, especially in southern Italy, where Islamic medicine influenced the school at Salerno.

Question: What invention led to advances in mathematics?

Question: What influential astronomy text did Ptomely author?

Question: In what language was Almagest originally written?

Question: In what city was a medical school located that was notably influenced by Islamic medicine?

Question: Into what language was Almagest translated in the 12th century?
Passage: In the 12th and 13th centuries, Europe produced economic growth and innovations in methods of production. Major technological advances included the invention of the windmill, the first mechanical clocks, the manufacture of distilled spirits, and the use of the astrolabe. Concave spectacles were invented around 1286 by an unknown Italian artisan, probably working in or near Pisa.

Question: Along with the astrolabe, windmill and distilled spirits, what was a notable technological advancement of the 12th and 13th centuries?

Question: What was invented in approximately 1286?

Question: Near what city were concave spectacles invented?
Passage: The development of a three-field rotation system for planting crops[AA] increased the usage of land from one half in use each year under the old two-field system to two-thirds under the new system, with a consequent increase in production. The development of the heavy plough allowed heavier soils to be farmed more efficiently, aided by the spread of the horse collar, which led to the use of draught horses in place of oxen. Horses are faster than oxen and require less pasture, factors that aided the implementation of the three-field system.

Question: What fraction of land was under cultivation using the two-field system?

Question: What fraction of land was under cultivate using the three-field system?

Question: What invention allowed horses rather than oxen to be used to plow?

Question: What invention led to an increase in efficiency in the farming of heavy soils?

Question: In addition to requiring less pasture, what distinguishes horses from oxen?
Passage: The construction of cathedrals and castles advanced building technology, leading to the development of large stone buildings. Ancillary structures included new town halls, houses, bridges, and tithe barns. Shipbuilding improved with the use of the rib and plank method rather than the old Roman system of mortise and tenon. Other improvements to ships included the use of lateen sails and the stern-post rudder, both of which increased the speed at which ships could be sailed.

Question: Along with bridges, tithe barns and town halls, what notable new structures were built during this period?

Question: What method, derived from the Romans, was traditionally used to build ships?

Question: What new shipbuilding method was invented in this period?

Question: What type of rudder was introduced during this period?

Question: What type of sails were first used during this era?
Passage: In military affairs, the use of infantry with specialised roles increased. Along with the still-dominant heavy cavalry, armies often included mounted and infantry crossbowmen, as well as sappers and engineers. Crossbows, which had been known in Late Antiquity, increased in use partly because of the increase in siege warfare in the 10th and 11th centuries.[AB] The increasing use of crossbows during the 12th and 13th centuries led to the use of closed-face helmets, heavy body armour, as well as horse armour. Gunpowder was known in Europe by the mid-13th century with a recorded use in European warfare by the English against the Scots in 1304, although it was merely used as an explosive and not as a weapon. Cannon were being used for sieges in the 1320s, and hand-held guns were in use by the 1360s.

Question: In what century did Europeans become aware of gunpowder?

Question: Who was recorded as using gunpowder in 1304?

Question: Against whom was gunpowder used in 1304?

Question: In what decade were siege cannon known to have been used?

Question: What led to the increased use of armor in the 12th century?
Passage: In the 10th century the establishment of churches and monasteries led to the development of stone architecture that elaborated vernacular Roman forms, from which the term "Romanesque" is derived. Where available, Roman brick and stone buildings were recycled for their materials. From the tentative beginnings known as the First Romanesque, the style flourished and spread across Europe in a remarkably homogeneous form. Just before 1000 there was a great wave of building stone churches all over Europe. Romanesque buildings have massive stone walls, openings topped by semi-circular arches, small windows, and, particularly in France, arched stone vaults. The large portal with coloured sculpture in high relief became a central feature of façades, especially in France, and the capitals of columns were often carved with narrative scenes of imaginative monsters and animals. According to art historian C. R. Dodwell, "virtually all the churches in the West were decorated with wall-paintings", of which few survive. Simultaneous with the development in church architecture, the distinctive European form of the castle was developed, and became crucial to politics and warfare.

Question: In what century was Romanesque architecture first used?

Question: What feature of Romanesque architecture was especially prevalent in France?

Question: Who noted the prevalence of wall-paintings in Western churches of this era?

Question: What non-church architectural structure developed in the 10th century?

Question: Around what year did the great wave of church-building in stone occur?
Passage: Romanesque art, especially metalwork, was at its most sophisticated in Mosan art, in which distinct artistic personalities including Nicholas of Verdun (d. 1205) become apparent, and an almost classical style is seen in works such as a font at Liège, contrasting with the writhing animals of the exactly contemporary Gloucester Candlestick. Large illuminated bibles and psalters were the typical forms of luxury manuscripts, and wall-painting flourished in churches, often following a scheme with a Last Judgement on the west wall, a Christ in Majesty at the east end, and narrative biblical scenes down the nave, or in the best surviving example, at Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe, on the barrel-vaulted roof.

Question: Who was a noted figure in Mosan art?

Question: What year saw the death of Nicholas of Verdun?

Question: On what wall of a church was the Last Judgment typically painted?

Question: Where are narrative biblical scenes painted in the church at Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe?

Question: What notable Romanesque metalwork is named for Gloucester?
Passage: From the early 12th century, French builders developed the Gothic style, marked by the use of rib vaults, pointed arches, flying buttresses, and large stained glass windows. It was used mainly in churches and cathedrals, and continued in use until the 16th century in much of Europe. Classic examples of Gothic architecture include Chartres Cathedral and Reims Cathedral in France as well as Salisbury Cathedral in England. Stained glass became a crucial element in the design of churches, which continued to use extensive wall-paintings, now almost all lost.

Question: In what century did the Gothic style first flourish?

Question: In what century did the Gothic style cease to be used?

Question: Along with Reims, where is a notable Gothic cathedral in France located?

Question: What is a notable English Gothic cathedral?

Question: Among which builders was the Gothic style first used?
Passage: During this period the practice of manuscript illumination gradually passed from monasteries to lay workshops, so that according to Janetta Benton "by 1300 most monks bought their books in shops", and the book of hours developed as a form of devotional book for lay-people. Metalwork continued to be the most prestigious form of art, with Limoges enamel a popular and relatively affordable option for objects such as reliquaries and crosses. In Italy the innovations of Cimabue and Duccio, followed by the Trecento master Giotto (d. 1337), greatly increased the sophistication and status of panel painting and fresco. Increasing prosperity during the 12th century resulted in greater production of secular art; many carved ivory objects such as gaming-pieces, combs, and small religious figures have survived.

Question: Who noted that 14th century monks bought books in shops?

Question: What form of art had the most prestige in this era?

Question: When did Giotto die?

Question: What were many pieces of secular art carved from in this period?

Question: Along with Duccio, what Italian artist was a noted innovator in this period?
Passage: Monastic reform became an important issue during the 11th century, as elites began to worry that monks were not adhering to the rules binding them to a strictly religious life. Cluny Abbey, founded in the Mâcon region of France in 909, was established as part of the Cluniac Reforms, a larger movement of monastic reform in response to this fear. Cluny quickly established a reputation for austerity and rigour. It sought to maintain a high quality of spiritual life by placing itself under the protection of the papacy and by electing its own abbot without interference from laymen, thus maintaining economic and political independence from local lords.

Question: In what century was thought given to monastic reform?

Question: In what year was Cluny Abbey founded?

Question: In what part of France was Cluny Abbey founded?

Question: Along with rigor, what did Cluny have a reputation for?

Question: What reforms were named for the abbey at Cluny?
Passage: Monastic reform inspired change in the secular church. The ideals that it was based upon were brought to the papacy by Pope Leo IX (pope 1049–1054), and provided the ideology of the clerical independence that led to the Investiture Controversy in the late 11th century. This involved Pope Gregory VII (pope 1073–85) and Emperor Henry IV, who initially clashed over episcopal appointments, a dispute that turned into a battle over the ideas of investiture, clerical marriage, and simony. The emperor saw the protection of the Church as one of his responsibilities as well as wanting to preserve the right to appoint his own choices as bishops within his lands, but the papacy insisted on the Church's independence from secular lords. These issues remained unresolved after the compromise of 1122 known as the Concordat of Worms. The dispute represents a significant stage in the creation of a papal monarchy separate from and equal to lay authorities. It also had the permanent consequence of empowering German princes at the expense of the German emperors.

Question: During what century did the Investiture Controversy occur?

Question: When did the reign of Pope Leo IX begin?

Question: What pope was involved in the Investiture Controversy?

Question: In what year was the Concordat of Worms agreed to?

Question: What secular rulers did the Concordat of Worms increase the power of?
Passage: The High Middle Ages was a period of great religious movements. Besides the Crusades and monastic reforms, people sought to participate in new forms of religious life. New monastic orders were founded, including the Carthusians and the Cistercians. The latter especially expanded rapidly in their early years under the guidance of Bernard of Clairvaux (d. 1153). These new orders were formed in response to the feeling of the laity that Benedictine monasticism no longer met the needs of the laymen, who along with those wishing to enter the religious life wanted a return to the simpler hermetical monasticism of early Christianity, or to live an Apostolic life. Religious pilgrimages were also encouraged. Old pilgrimage sites such as Rome, Jerusalem, and Compostela received increasing numbers of visitors, and new sites such as Monte Gargano and Bari rose to prominence.

Question: What monastic order did Bernard of Clairvaux belong to?

Question: When did Bernard of Clairvaux die?

Question: Along with Bari, what was a notable new pilgrimage site in this era?

Question: Along with Rome and Jerusalem, what traditional pilgrimage site saw a greater number of visitors in the High Middle Ages?

Question: Along with the Cistercians, what new monastic order was founded in the High Middle Ages?
Passage: In the 13th century mendicant orders—the Franciscans and the Dominicans—who swore vows of poverty and earned their living by begging, were approved by the papacy. Religious groups such as the Waldensians and the Humiliati also attempted to return to the life of early Christianity in the middle 12th and early 13th centuries, but they were condemned as heretical by the papacy. Others joined the Cathars, another heretical movement condemned by the papacy. In 1209, a crusade was preached against the Cathars, the Albigensian Crusade, which in combination with the medieval Inquisition, eliminated them.

Question: Along with the Dominicans, what mendicant order was founded in the 13th century?

Question: What notable vow was sworn by the mendicant orders?

Question: How did the mendicant orders make a living?

Question: What was the crusade against the Cathars called?

Question: Along with the Cathars and Humiliati, what group was notably condemned as heretics in this period?
Passage: The first years of the 14th century were marked by famines, culminating in the Great Famine of 1315–17. The causes of the Great Famine included the slow transition from the Medieval Warm Period to the Little Ice Age, which left the population vulnerable when bad weather caused crop failures. The years 1313–14 and 1317–21 were excessively rainy throughout Europe, resulting in widespread crop failures. The climate change—which resulted in a declining average annual temperature for Europe during the 14th century—was accompanied by an economic downturn.

Question: In what years did the Great Famine occur?

Question: What period resulted in poor weather that increased crop failures?

Question: What period preceded the Little Ice Age?

Question: Along with 1317–21, what span saw extreme rains in Europe?

Question: In what century did the European average annual temperature decrease?
Passage: These troubles were followed in 1347 by the Black Death, a pandemic that spread throughout Europe during the following three years.[AC] The death toll was probably about 35 million people in Europe, about one-third of the population. Towns were especially hard-hit because of their crowded conditions.[AD] Large areas of land were left sparsely inhabited, and in some places fields were left unworked. Wages rose as landlords sought to entice the reduced number of available workers to their fields. Further problems were lower rents and lower demand for food, both of which cut into agricultural income. Urban workers also felt that they had a right to greater earnings, and popular uprisings broke out across Europe. Among the uprisings were the jacquerie in France, the Peasants' Revolt in England, and revolts in the cities of Florence in Italy and Ghent and Bruges in Flanders. The trauma of the plague led to an increased piety throughout Europe, manifested by the foundation of new charities, the self-mortification of the flagellants, and the scapegoating of Jews. Conditions were further unsettled by the return of the plague throughout the rest of the 14th century; it continued to strike Europe periodically during the rest of the Middle Ages.

Question: When did the Black Death start?

Question: How many million people died from the Black Death?

Question: What popular uprising occurred in France during this period?

Question: What English popular revolt took place during this period?

Question: What Italian city experienced a popular revolt?
Passage: Society throughout Europe was disturbed by the dislocations caused by the Black Death. Lands that had been marginally productive were abandoned, as the survivors were able to acquire more fertile areas. Although serfdom declined in Western Europe it became more common in Eastern Europe, as landlords imposed it on those of their tenants who had previously been free. Most peasants in Western Europe managed to change the work they had previously owed to their landlords into cash rents. The percentage of serfs amongst the peasantry declined from a high of 90 to closer to 50 per cent by the end of the period. Landlords also became more conscious of common interests with other landholders, and they joined together to extort privileges from their governments. Partly at the urging of landlords, governments attempted to legislate a return to the economic conditions that existed before the Black Death. Non-clergy became increasingly literate, and urban populations began to imitate the nobility's interest in chivalry.

Question: By the end of this period, about what percentage of Western Europeans were serfs?

Question: At serfdom's greatest extent, what percentage of Western Europeans were serfs?

Question: In what part of Europe did serfdom increase in this period?

Question: Instead of work, how did most Western European peasants pay their landlords in this period?

Question: What noble interest did city-dwellers start to mimic in this period?
Passage: Jewish communities were expelled from England in 1290 and from France in 1306. Although some were allowed back into France, most were not, and many Jews emigrated eastwards, settling in Poland and Hungary. The Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, and dispersed to Turkey, France, Italy, and Holland. The rise of banking in Italy during the 13th century continued throughout the 14th century, fuelled partly by the increasing warfare of the period and the needs of the papacy to move money between kingdoms. Many banking firms loaned money to royalty, at great risk, as some were bankrupted when kings defaulted on their loans.[AE]

Question: In what year were the Jews expelled from England?

Question: What year saw the expulsion of the French Jewish community?

Question: Along with Hungary, where did many expelled French Jews relocate to?

Question: In what year were Jews kicked out of Spain?

Question: Along with Turkey, France and Italy, where did expelled Spanish Jews travel to?
Passage: Strong, royalty-based nation states rose throughout Europe in the Late Middle Ages, particularly in England, France, and the Christian kingdoms of the Iberian Peninsula: Aragon, Castile, and Portugal. The long conflicts of the period strengthened royal control over their kingdoms and were extremely hard on the peasantry. Kings profited from warfare that extended royal legislation and increased the lands they directly controlled. Paying for the wars required that methods of taxation become more effective and efficient, and the rate of taxation often increased. The requirement to obtain the consent of taxpayers allowed representative bodies such as the English Parliament and the French Estates General to gain power and authority.

Question: Along with Aragon and Castile, what Christian kingdom was present on the Iberian Peninsula?

Question: Why did kings increase the tax rate during this period?

Question: What English representative body provided consent for royal taxation?

Question: What French body was similar in purpose to the English Parliament?

Question: What social class was harmed by the lengthy wars of this era?