sentence-transformers/squad huggingface dataset:
Passage: In a switching circuit, the idea is to simulate, as near as possible, the ideal switch having the properties of open circuit when off, short circuit when on, and an instantaneous transition between the two states. Parameters are chosen such that the "off" output is limited to leakage currents too small to affect connected circuitry; the resistance of the transistor in the "on" state is too small to affect circuitry; and the transition between the two states is fast enough not to have a detrimental effect.

Question: How are parameters chosen in a switching circuit?

Question: What is a switching circuit trying to simulate when on?

Question: What is a switching circuit trying to simulate when off?

Question: How quickly does the change from open circuit to short circuit happen?
Passage: Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using both majority and minority carriers. The bipolar junction transistor, the first type of transistor to be mass-produced, is a combination of two junction diodes, and is formed of either a thin layer of p-type semiconductor sandwiched between two n-type semiconductors (an n–p–n transistor), or a thin layer of n-type semiconductor sandwiched between two p-type semiconductors (a p–n–p transistor). This construction produces two p–n junctions: a base–emitter junction and a base–collector junction, separated by a thin region of semiconductor known as the base region (two junction diodes wired together without sharing an intervening semiconducting region will not make a transistor).

Question: What gives bipolar transistors their name?

Question: What was the first mass-produced transistor?

Question: What is the bipolar junction transistor a combination of?

Question: What is the name for a layer of p-type semiconductor set between two n-type semiconductors?

Question: What is the name for a layer of n-type semiconductor set between two p-type semiconductors?
Passage: BJTs have three terminals, corresponding to the three layers of semiconductor—an emitter, a base, and a collector. They are useful in amplifiers because the currents at the emitter and collector are controllable by a relatively small base current. In an n–p–n transistor operating in the active region, the emitter–base junction is forward biased (electrons and holes recombine at the junction), and electrons are injected into the base region. Because the base is narrow, most of these electrons will diffuse into the reverse-biased (electrons and holes are formed at, and move away from the junction) base–collector junction and be swept into the collector; perhaps one-hundredth of the electrons will recombine in the base, which is the dominant mechanism in the base current. By controlling the number of electrons that can leave the base, the number of electrons entering the collector can be controlled. Collector current is approximately β (common-emitter current gain) times the base current. It is typically greater than 100 for small-signal transistors but can be smaller in transistors designed for high-power applications.

Question: How many terminals do BJTs have?

Question: How many layers of semiconductor do BJTs have?

Question: What are the layers of semiconductor in a BJT?

Question: How can one find the amount of collector current?

Question: What is the usual collector current for small-signal transistors?
Passage: In a FET, the drain-to-source current flows via a conducting channel that connects the source region to the drain region. The conductivity is varied by the electric field that is produced when a voltage is applied between the gate and source terminals; hence the current flowing between the drain and source is controlled by the voltage applied between the gate and source. As the gate–source voltage (VGS) is increased, the drain–source current (IDS) increases exponentially for VGS below threshold, and then at a roughly quadratic rate (IGS ∝ (VGS − VT)2) (where VT is the threshold voltage at which drain current begins) in the "space-charge-limited" region above threshold. A quadratic behavior is not observed in modern devices, for example, at the 65 nm technology node.

Question: What determines the conductivity in a FET?

Question: What controls the current between the drain and source?

Question: At what rate is the drain-source current increased when the gate-source current is increased?

Question: Where is a quadratic behavior not observed?
Passage: FETs are divided into two families: junction FET (JFET) and insulated gate FET (IGFET). The IGFET is more commonly known as a metal–oxide–semiconductor FET (MOSFET), reflecting its original construction from layers of metal (the gate), oxide (the insulation), and semiconductor. Unlike IGFETs, the JFET gate forms a p–n diode with the channel which lies between the source and drain. Functionally, this makes the n-channel JFET the solid-state equivalent of the vacuum tube triode which, similarly, forms a diode between its grid and cathode. Also, both devices operate in the depletion mode, they both have a high input impedance, and they both conduct current under the control of an input voltage.

Question: How many groups are FETs split into?

Question: How is a JFET different from an IGFET?

Question: What are the names of the groups of FETs

Question: What mode do both JFET and IGFET operate in?

Question: What is the common term for an IFGET?
Passage: FETs are further divided into depletion-mode and enhancement-mode types, depending on whether the channel is turned on or off with zero gate-to-source voltage. For enhancement mode, the channel is off at zero bias, and a gate potential can "enhance" the conduction. For the depletion mode, the channel is on at zero bias, and a gate potential (of the opposite polarity) can "deplete" the channel, reducing conduction. For either mode, a more positive gate voltage corresponds to a higher current for n-channel devices and a lower current for p-channel devices. Nearly all JFETs are depletion-mode because the diode junctions would forward bias and conduct if they were enhancement-mode devices; most IGFETs are enhancement-mode types.

Question: How are FET's separated?

Question: At what point is a channel off in enhancement-mode?

Question: At what point is a channel on in depletion-mode?

Question: What channel corresponds with high current?

Question: What channel corresponds with low current?
Passage: The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was the most commonly used transistor in the 1960s and 70s. Even after MOSFETs became widely available, the BJT remained the transistor of choice for many analog circuits such as amplifiers because of their greater linearity and ease of manufacture. In integrated circuits, the desirable properties of MOSFETs allowed them to capture nearly all market share for digital circuits. Discrete MOSFETs can be applied in transistor applications, including analog circuits, voltage regulators, amplifiers, power transmitters and motor drivers.

Question: What was the most frequently used transistor in the 1960s and 70s?

Question: Why were BJTs so popular?

Question: What are some applications of discrete MOSFETs?

Question: What were the most popular digital circuits of the time?
Passage: The Pro Electron standard, the European Electronic Component Manufacturers Association part numbering scheme, begins with two letters: the first gives the semiconductor type (A for germanium, B for silicon, and C for materials like GaAs); the second letter denotes the intended use (A for diode, C for general-purpose transistor, etc.). A 3-digit sequence number (or one letter then 2 digits, for industrial types) follows. With early devices this indicated the case type. Suffixes may be used, with a letter (e.g. "C" often means high hFE, such as in: BC549C) or other codes may follow to show gain (e.g. BC327-25) or voltage rating (e.g. BUK854-800A). The more common prefixes are:

Question: What is the Pro Electron standard?

Question: How many letters does the part numbering scheme begin with?

Question: What is the first letter in the part numbering scheme?

Question: What is the second letter in the part numbering scheme?

Question: What follows the 2 letters in the part numbering scheme?
Passage: The JEDEC EIA370 transistor device numbers usually start with "2N", indicating a three-terminal device (dual-gate field-effect transistors are four-terminal devices, so begin with 3N), then a 2, 3 or 4-digit sequential number with no significance as to device properties (although early devices with low numbers tend to be germanium). For example, 2N3055 is a silicon n–p–n power transistor, 2N1301 is a p–n–p germanium switching transistor. A letter suffix (such as "A") is sometimes used to indicate a newer variant, but rarely gain groupings.

Question: What does the JEDEC EIA370 transistor number start with?

Question: what does the 2N is the JEDEC EIA370 mean?

Question: What follows the 2N in a JEDEC EIA370?

Question: What does a letter at the end of a device number mean?

Question: What does the number 2N1301 indicate?
Passage: Manufacturers of devices may have their own proprietary numbering system, for example CK722. Since devices are second-sourced, a manufacturer's prefix (like "MPF" in MPF102, which originally would denote a Motorola FET) now is an unreliable indicator of who made the device. Some proprietary naming schemes adopt parts of other naming schemes, for example a PN2222A is a (possibly Fairchild Semiconductor) 2N2222A in a plastic case (but a PN108 is a plastic version of a BC108, not a 2N108, while the PN100 is unrelated to other xx100 devices).

Question: What was once an indicator of the devices creator?

Question: What makes a manufacturer's prefix less reliable?

Question: What is the marking for a 2N2222A in a plastic case?

Question: What is a plastic version of a BC108?
Passage: The junction forward voltage is the voltage applied to the emitter–base junction of a BJT in order to make the base conduct a specified current. The current increases exponentially as the junction forward voltage is increased. The values given in the table are typical for a current of 1 mA (the same values apply to semiconductor diodes). The lower the junction forward voltage the better, as this means that less power is required to "drive" the transistor. The junction forward voltage for a given current decreases with increase in temperature. For a typical silicon junction the change is −2.1 mV/°C. In some circuits special compensating elements (sensistors) must be used to compensate for such changes.

Question: What is the junction forward voltage?

Question: What is the purpose of a junction forward voltage?

Question: What is the ideal junction forward voltage?

Question: Why is the ideal junction forward voltage lower?

Question: When happens to the junction forward voltage when temperature is raised?
Passage: Because the electron mobility is higher than the hole mobility for all semiconductor materials, a given bipolar n–p–n transistor tends to be swifter than an equivalent p–n–p transistor. GaAs has the highest electron mobility of the three semiconductors. It is for this reason that GaAs is used in high-frequency applications. A relatively recent FET development, the high-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT), has a heterostructure (junction between different semiconductor materials) of aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)-gallium arsenide (GaAs) which has twice the electron mobility of a GaAs-metal barrier junction. Because of their high speed and low noise, HEMTs are used in satellite receivers working at frequencies around 12 GHz. HEMTs based on gallium nitride and aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN/GaN HEMTs) provide a still higher electron mobility and are being developed for various applications.

Question: What semiconductor has the highest electron mobility?

Question: What is quicker, a bipolar n-p-n transistor or a p-n-p transistor?

Question: What is the common application of GaAs?

Question: What does HEMT stand for?

Question: What are common applications of HEMT?
Passage: Discrete transistors are individually packaged transistors. Transistors come in many different semiconductor packages (see image). The two main categories are through-hole (or leaded), and surface-mount, also known as surface-mount device (SMD). The ball grid array (BGA) is the latest surface-mount package (currently only for large integrated circuits). It has solder "balls" on the underside in place of leads. Because they are smaller and have shorter interconnections, SMDs have better high-frequency characteristics but lower power rating.

Question: What is a discrete transistor?

Question: What are the two most common types of transistor?

Question: What is the newest surface-mount transistor?

Question: What is another name for the surface-mount transistor?

Question: What is a ball grid array composed of?
Passage: In the Pre-Modern era, many people's sense of self and purpose was often expressed via a faith in some form of deity, be that in a single God or in many gods. Pre-modern cultures have not been thought of creating a sense of distinct individuality, though. Religious officials, who often held positions of power, were the spiritual intermediaries to the common person. It was only through these intermediaries that the general masses had access to the divine. Tradition was sacred to ancient cultures and was unchanging and the social order of ceremony and morals in a culture could be strictly enforced.

Question: What did many people in the Pre-Modern era express their faith through?

Question: What were Religious officials perceived as in the Pre-Modern era?

Question: Through whom did the general masses have access to the divine?

Question: What belief did ancient cultures consider sacred?

Question: How were the moral standards of ancient cultures enforced?

Question: Who were spiritual intermediates?

Question: Peoples sense of worth was expressed through what in the Pre-modern era?

Question: Through who did the masses have access to the divine?

Question: What did social order mandate be strictly enforced?

Question: What belief was considered sacred by ancient civilizations?
Passage: The term "modern" was coined in the 16th century to indicate present or recent times (ultimately derived from the Latin adverb modo, meaning "just now). The European Renaissance (about 1420–1630), which marked the transition between the Late Middle Ages and Early Modern times, started in Italy and was spurred in part by the rediscovery of classical art and literature, as well as the new perspectives gained from the Age of Discovery and the invention of the telescope and microscope, expanding the borders of thought and knowledge.

Question: What term was coined in the 16th century to indicate present time?

Question: The term "modern" was derived from what Latin adverb?

Question: What caused the transition between the middle ages and early modern times?

Question: In what country did The European Renaissance start?

Question: What two instruments were invented during The European Renaissance?

Question: The phrase modern originated form what?

Question: What did The European renaissance mark?

Question: What phrase was coined in the 16th century to reference recent times?

Question: Through what time period did The European renaissance last?

Question: In what country did The European renaissance begin?
Passage: The term "Early Modern" was introduced in the English language in the 1930s. to distinguish the time between what we call Middle Ages and time of the late Enlightenment (1800) (when the meaning of the term Modern Ages was developing its contemporary form). It is important to note that these terms stem from European history. In usage in other parts of the world, such as in Asia, and in Muslim countries, the terms are applied in a very different way, but often in the context with their contact with European culture in the Age of Discovery.

Question: What term was created in the 1930's to separate the middle ages form the 1800's?

Question: The 1800"s are referred to as?

Question: What do the terms "Early Modern" and 'Modern Ages" originate from?

Question: What are the terms "Early Modern" and "Modern Ages" used for i other countries?

Question: What does the term "Early Modern" mean?

Question: When was the term "Early Modern" implemented into the English language?

Question: What time period is referred to as The Late Enlightenment?

Question: Where do the terms "Middle Ages" and "Modern Ages" originate from?

Question: What are the terms "Middle Ages" and "Modern Ages" used for in other countries?
Passage: In the Contemporary era, there were various socio-technological trends. Regarding the 21st century and the late modern world, the Information age and computers were forefront in use, not completely ubiquitous but often present in daily life. The development of Eastern powers was of note, with China and India becoming more powerful. In the Eurasian theater, the European Union and Russian Federation were two forces recently developed. A concern for Western world, if not the whole world, was the late modern form of terrorism and the warfare that has resulted from the contemporary terrorist acts.

Question: In what era were there many socio-technological trends?

Question: The 21st century is refereed to as what?

Question: What device was used most during the The Information age?

Question: What was a major concern for Western civilization during the 21 century?

Question: In what time were there many socio-technological trends?

Question: What is the 21st century also known as?

Question: What device was used most during 21st century?

Question: What was considered a threat to Western civilization?
Passage: In Asia, various Chinese dynasties and Japanese shogunates controlled the Asian sphere. In Japan, the Edo period from 1600 to 1868 is also referred to as the early modern period. And in Korea, from the rising of Joseon Dynasty to the enthronement of King Gojong is referred to as the early modern period. In the Americas, Native Americans had built a large and varied civilization, including the Aztec Empire and alliance, the Inca civilization, the Mayan Empire and cities, and the Chibcha Confederation. In the west, the European kingdoms and movements were in a movement of reformation and expansion. Russia reached the Pacific coast in 1647 and consolidated its control over the Russian Far East in the 19th century.

Question: Who controlled the Asian Sphere during the period between 1600-1868?

Question: What is the period between 1600-1868 referred to as?

Question: What is the Edo period also known as?

Question: What is time is considered the "Modern Period" in Korea?

Question: Name one of the tribes Native Americans established in the Americas.

Question: What two groups controlled the Asian Sphere?

Question: What time is referred to as the Edo period?

Question: What is the 'Early Modern period" known as in Japan?

Question: Name one of the tribes Native Americans formed in the Americas?
Passage: In China, urbanization increased as the population grew and as the division of labor grew more complex. Large urban centers, such as Nanjing and Beijing, also contributed to the growth of private industry. In particular, small-scale industries grew up, often specializing in paper, silk, cotton, and porcelain goods. For the most part, however, relatively small urban centers with markets proliferated around the country. Town markets mainly traded food, with some necessary manufactures such as pins or oil. Despite the xenophobia and intellectual introspection characteristic of the increasingly popular new school of neo-Confucianism, China under the early Ming dynasty was not isolated. Foreign trade and other contacts with the outside world, particularly Japan, increased considerably. Chinese merchants explored all of the Indian Ocean, reaching East Africa with the treasure voyages of Zheng He.

Question: Name one of the reasons urbanization grew in China.

Question: What did Nanjing and Beijing contribute to?

Question: What are Nanjing and Beijing?

Question: Under what rule was China not isolated?

Question: During The Early MIng Dynasty Chinese merchants explored all of what?

Question: What caused urbanization to increase in China?

Question: Where did Chinese merchants explore?
Passage: The Qing dynasty (1644–1911) was founded after the fall of the Ming, the last Han Chinese dynasty, by the Manchus. The Manchus were formerly known as the Jurchens. When Beijing was captured by Li Zicheng's peasant rebels in 1644, the Chongzhen Emperor, the last Ming emperor, committed suicide. The Manchus then allied with former Ming general Wu Sangui and seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty. The Mancus adopted the Confucian norms of traditional Chinese government in their rule of China proper. Schoppa, the editor of The Columbia Guide to Modern Chinese History argues, "A date around 1780 as the beginning of modern China is thus closer to what we know today as historical 'reality'. It also allows us to have a better baseline to understand the precipitous decline of the Chinese polity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."

Question: What was founded after the fall of the Ming?

Question: The Qing dynasty lasted through what time period?

Question: What were the Manchus originally known as?

Question: Why did the last Ming Emperor commit suicide?

Question: Who became allies with the Manchus to seize control over Beijing?

Question: The Qing dynasty formed after what event?

Question: During what time period did the Qing dynasty rule?

Question: What were the Manchus originally named?

Question: Who was Beijing captured by in 1644?

Question: Who did the Manchus make an Ally with to seize control of Beijing?
Passage: Society in the Japanese "Tokugawa period" (Edo society), unlike the shogunates before it, was based on the strict class hierarchy originally established by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The daimyo, or lords, were at the top, followed by the warrior-caste of samurai, with the farmers, artisans, and traders ranking below. In some parts of the country, particularly smaller regions, daimyo and samurai were more or less identical, since daimyo might be trained as samurai, and samurai might act as local lords. Otherwise, the largely inflexible nature of this social stratification system unleashed disruptive forces over time. Taxes on the peasantry were set at fixed amounts which did not account for inflation or other changes in monetary value. As a result, the tax revenues collected by the samurai landowners were worth less and less over time. This often led to numerous confrontations between noble but impoverished samurai and well-to-do peasants, ranging from simple local disturbances to much bigger rebellions. None, however, proved compelling enough to seriously challenge the established order until the arrival of foreign powers.

Question: What was society based on during the Tukugawa period?

Question: Strict class hierarchy was established by who?

Question: What group were considered to be at the top of the Strict Class Hierarchy?

Question: How were taxes charged during the Tukugawa period?

Question: What effect did having taxes charged at a fixed amount have on it's revenue?

Question: What is the Tokugawa period also known as?

Question: What was society in the Tokugawa period based in?

Question: What group was considered at the top of the Strict Class Society?

Question: What effect did the way the taxes were charged have on it's revenue.

Question: How were taxes charged in the Tokugawa period?