sentence-transformers/squad huggingface dataset:
Passage: In about 260 AD, the fall of the Agri Decumates territory north of the Rhine transformed today's Switzerland into a frontier land of the Empire. Repeated raids by the Alamanni tribes provoked the ruin of the Roman towns and economy, forcing the population to find shelter near Roman fortresses, like the Castrum Rauracense near Augusta Raurica. The Empire built another line of defense at the north border (the so-called Donau-Iller-Rhine-Limes), but at the end of the fourth century the increased Germanic pressure forced the Romans to abandon the linear defence concept, and the Swiss plateau was finally open to the settlement of German tribes.

Question: In what year did the fall of the Agri Decumates territory transform today's Switzerland?

Question: In about 260 AD, what forced the people of Roman towns to find shelter in Roman fortresses?

Question: What was the name of the concept used by the Roman Empire when building another line of defense at the north border?

Question: What increased pressure forced the Romans to abandon their line of defense concept at the end of the 4th century?

Question: Who was allowed to settle on the Swiss plateau by the end of the 4th century?
Passage: In the Early Middle Ages, from the end of the 4th century, the western extent of modern-day Switzerland was part of the territory of the Kings of the Burgundians. The Alemanni settled the Swiss plateau in the 5th century and the valleys of the Alps in the 8th century, forming Alemannia. Modern-day Switzerland was therefore then divided between the kingdoms of Alemannia and Burgundy. The entire region became part of the expanding Frankish Empire in the 6th century, following Clovis I's victory over the Alemanni at Tolbiac in 504 AD, and later Frankish domination of the Burgundians.

Question: From the end of the 4th century, what territory was the western extent of modern-day Switzerland part of?

Question: Where did the Alemanni settle in the 5th century?

Question: Where did the Alemanni settle in the 8th century, forming Alemannia?

Question: In the 8th century, what two kingdoms made up Modern-day Switzerland?

Question: What Empire did the entire region of Modern-day Switzerland become part of in the 6th century?
Passage: By 1200, the Swiss plateau comprised the dominions of the houses of Savoy, Zähringer, Habsburg, and Kyburg. Some regions (Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, later known as Waldstätten) were accorded the Imperial immediacy to grant the empire direct control over the mountain passes. With the extinction of its male line in 1263 the Kyburg dynasty fell in AD 1264; then the Habsburgs under King Rudolph I (Holy Roman Emperor in 1273) laid claim to the Kyburg lands and annexed them extending their territory to the eastern Swiss plateau.

Question: In 1200, what area did the houses of Savoy, Zahringer, Habsburg, and Kyburg comprise?

Question: In 1264 AD, what caused the Kyburg dynasty to fall?

Question: Who claimed the Kyburg lands after their fall in 1264 AD?

Question: Which Holy Roman Emperor were the Habsburgs under in 1273 AD?

Question: What did the three regions of Uri, Schwyz, and Unterwalden become known as?
Passage: By 1353, the three original cantons had joined with the cantons of Glarus and Zug and the Lucerne, Zürich and Bern city states to form the "Old Confederacy" of eight states that existed until the end of the 15th century. The expansion led to increased power and wealth for the federation. By 1460, the confederates controlled most of the territory south and west of the Rhine to the Alps and the Jura mountains, particularly after victories against the Habsburgs (Battle of Sempach, Battle of Näfels), over Charles the Bold of Burgundy during the 1470s, and the success of the Swiss mercenaries. The Swiss victory in the Swabian War against the Swabian League of Emperor Maximilian I in 1499 amounted to de facto independence within the Holy Roman Empire.

Question: In what year did the three original cantons join with five other cantons to form the "Old Confederacy" of eight states?

Question: Which century did the Old Confederacy of the eight states exist until?

Question: What effect did the expansion of the three cantons into eight have on the status of the federation?

Question: By 1460, who controlled most of the territory south and west of the Rhine?

Question: Which Swiss victory in 1499 amounted to de facto independence within the Holy Roman Empire?
Passage: The Old Swiss Confederacy had acquired a reputation of invincibility during these earlier wars, but expansion of the federation suffered a setback in 1515 with the Swiss defeat in the Battle of Marignano. This ended the so-called "heroic" epoch of Swiss history. The success of Zwingli's Reformation in some cantons led to inter-cantonal religious conflicts in 1529 and 1531 (Wars of Kappel). It was not until more than one hundred years after these internal wars that, in 1648, under the Peace of Westphalia, European countries recognized Switzerland's independence from the Holy Roman Empire and its neutrality.

Question: Which Battle was the first to interrupt the seeming invincibility of the Old Swiss Confederacy in 1515?

Question: What inter-cantonal conflicts resulted in the Wars of Kappel?

Question: In what year did European countries first recognize Switzerland's independence from the Holy Roman Empire?

Question: In what two years were the Wars of Kappel?

Question: Under the Peace of Westphalia, who finally recognized Switzerland's neutrality?
Passage: In 1798, the revolutionary French government conquered Switzerland and imposed a new unified constitution. This centralised the government of the country, effectively abolishing the cantons: moreover, Mülhausen joined France and Valtellina valley, the Cisalpine Republic, separating from Switzerland. The new regime, known as the Helvetic Republic, was highly unpopular. It had been imposed by a foreign invading army and destroyed centuries of tradition, making Switzerland nothing more than a French satellite state. The fierce French suppression of the Nidwalden Revolt in September 1798 was an example of the oppressive presence of the French Army and the local population's resistance to the occupation.

Question: Who conquered Switzerland in 1798?

Question: What did the French government impose on Switzerland in 1798, centralizing the Swiss government?

Question: What was abolished with the introduction of the unified constitution in Switzerland?

Question: What was the name of the new regime created when the Cisalpine Republic separated from Switzerland?

Question: Which unpopular republic destroyed centuries of Swiss traditions?
Passage: When war broke out between France and its rivals, Russian and Austrian forces invaded Switzerland. The Swiss refused to fight alongside the French in the name of the Helvetic Republic. In 1803 Napoleon organised a meeting of the leading Swiss politicians from both sides in Paris. The result was the Act of Mediation which largely restored Swiss autonomy and introduced a Confederation of 19 cantons. Henceforth, much of Swiss politics would concern balancing the cantons' tradition of self-rule with the need for a central government.

Question: Who refused to fight alongside the Helvetic Republic when it was invaded by the Russians and Austrians?

Question: During the Helvetic Republic, which forces invaded Switzerland when war broke out between France and its rivals?

Question: What Act was the result of a meeting of Swiss politicians organized by Napolean?

Question: What was the Act of Mediation responsible for restoring?

Question: How many cantons were introduced as a Confederation by the Act of Mediation?
Passage: The restoration of power to the patriciate was only temporary. After a period of unrest with repeated violent clashes such as the Züriputsch of 1839, civil war (the Sonderbundskrieg) broke out in 1847 when some Catholic cantons tried to set up a separate alliance (the Sonderbund). The war lasted for less than a month, causing fewer than 100 casualties, most of which were through friendly fire. Yet however minor the Sonderbundskrieg appears compared with other European riots and wars in the 19th century, it nevertheless had a major impact on both the psychology and the society of the Swiss and of Switzerland.

Question: What did Catholic cantons attempt to set up which caused a civil war in 1839?

Question: What was the name of the Swiss civil war in 1839?

Question: How big was the impact the Sonderbundskrieg had on the psychology and society of the Swiss and Switzerland?

Question: What was responsible for most of the 1100 casualties incurred during the Swiss civil war in 1839?

Question: How long did the Swiss civil war in 1839 last?
Passage: Thus, while the rest of Europe saw revolutionary uprisings, the Swiss drew up a constitution which provided for a federal layout, much of it inspired by the American example. This constitution provided for a central authority while leaving the cantons the right to self-government on local issues. Giving credit to those who favoured the power of the cantons (the Sonderbund Kantone), the national assembly was divided between an upper house (the Council of States, two representatives per canton) and a lower house (the National Council, with representatives elected from across the country). Referenda were made mandatory for any amendment of this constitution.

Question: What example inspired much of a new Swiss constitution providing for a federal layout?

Question: Under the new Swiss constitution, what did the cantons have the right to self-govern?

Question: How many houses was the Swiss national assembly divided into?

Question: What was the name of the upper house, which included 2 representatives from each canton?

Question: What was the name of the lower house, whose representatives were elected throughout the country?
Passage: During World War II, detailed invasion plans were drawn up by the Germans, but Switzerland was never attacked. Switzerland was able to remain independent through a combination of military deterrence, concessions to Germany, and good fortune as larger events during the war delayed an invasion. Under General Henri Guisan central command, a general mobilisation of the armed forces was ordered. The Swiss military strategy was changed from one of static defence at the borders to protect the economic heartland, to one of organised long-term attrition and withdrawal to strong, well-stockpiled positions high in the Alps known as the Reduit. Switzerland was an important base for espionage by both sides in the conflict and often mediated communications between the Axis and Allied powers.

Question: Though invasion plans were drawn up the the Germans, which war did Switzerland escape attack during?

Question: Who was the head of the Swiss central command during World War II?

Question: What did General Henry Guisan order a general mobilisation of during World War II?

Question: What was the original goal of the Swiss military strategy?

Question: What were the Reduit?
Passage: Switzerland's trade was blockaded by both the Allies and by the Axis. Economic cooperation and extension of credit to the Third Reich varied according to the perceived likelihood of invasion and the availability of other trading partners. Concessions reached a peak after a crucial rail link through Vichy France was severed in 1942, leaving Switzerland completely surrounded by the Axis. Over the course of the war, Switzerland interned over 300,000 refugees and the International Red Cross, based in Geneva, played an important part during the conflict. Strict immigration and asylum policies as well as the financial relationships with Nazi Germany raised controversy, but not until the end of the 20th century.

Question: Who blockaded Switzerland's trade during World War II?

Question: What was severed in 1942, leaving Switzerland completely surrounded by the Axis?

Question: How many refugees did Switzerland intern during World War II?

Question: When did the financial relationship Switzerland had with Nazi Germany begin to raise controversy?

Question: Where was the International Red Cross based?
Passage: Switzerland was the last Western republic to grant women the right to vote. Some Swiss cantons approved this in 1959, while at the federal level it was achieved in 1971 and, after resistance, in the last canton Appenzell Innerrhoden (one of only two remaining Landsgemeinde) in 1990. After obtaining suffrage at the federal level, women quickly rose in political significance, with the first woman on the seven member Federal Council executive being Elisabeth Kopp, who served from 1984–1989, and the first female president being Ruth Dreifuss in 1999.

Question: Who did Switzerland finally grant the right to vote to following the rest of the Western republic?

Question: When were Switzerland women granted the right to vote on a federal level?

Question: Who was the first woman to serve on the Federal Council?

Question: In what year did Ruth Dreifuss become president?

Question: Who was Switzerland's first female president?
Passage: In 2002 Switzerland became a full member of the United Nations, leaving the Vatican City as the last widely recognised state without full UN membership. Switzerland is a founding member of the EFTA, but is not a member of the European Economic Area. An application for membership in the European Union was sent in May 1992, but not advanced since the EEA was rejected in December 1992 when Switzerland was the only country to launch a referendum on the EEA. There have since been several referenda on the EU issue; due to a mixed reaction from the population the membership application has been frozen. Nonetheless, Swiss law is gradually being adjusted to conform with that of the EU, and the government has signed a number of bilateral agreements with the European Union. Switzerland, together with Liechtenstein, has been completely surrounded by the EU since Austria's entry in 1995. On 5 June 2005, Swiss voters agreed by a 55% majority to join the Schengen treaty, a result that was regarded by EU commentators as a sign of support by Switzerland, a country that is traditionally perceived as independent and reluctant to enter supranational bodies.

Question: In what year did Switzerland become a full member of the United Nations?

Question: What did Swiss voters agree to join on June 5, 2005?

Question: What percentage of Swiss voters voted to join the Schengen treaty?

Question: Though Switzerland is a founding member of the EFTA, what are they not a member of?

Question: What has completely surrounded Switzerland and Liechtenstein since 1995?
Passage: Extending across the north and south side of the Alps in west-central Europe, Switzerland encompasses a great diversity of landscapes and climates on a limited area of 41,285 square kilometres (15,940 sq mi). The population is about 8 million, resulting in an average population density of around 195 people per square kilometre (500/sq mi). The more mountainous southern half of the country is far more sparsely populated than the northern half. In the largest Canton of Graubünden, lying entirely in the Alps, population density falls to 27 /km² (70 /sq mi).

Question: How large is Switzerland?

Question: What is the average population density of Switzerland?

Question: What is the population density of the largest Canton of Graubunden, located in the Alps?

Question: Which half of Switzerland is more mountainous?

Question: Which mountain range does Switzerland extend over on both the north and south sides?
Passage: Switzerland lies between latitudes 45° and 48° N, and longitudes 5° and 11° E. It contains three basic topographical areas: the Swiss Alps to the south, the Swiss Plateau or Central Plateau, and the Jura mountains on the west. The Alps are a high mountain range running across the central-south of the country, comprising about 60% of the country's total area. The majority of the Swiss population live in the Swiss Plateau. Among the high valleys of the Swiss Alps many glaciers are found, totalling an area of 1,063 square kilometres (410 sq mi). From these originate the headwaters of several major rivers, such as the Rhine, Inn, Ticino and Rhône, which flow in the four cardinal directions into the whole of Europe. The hydrographic network includes several of the largest bodies of freshwater in Central and Western Europe, among which are included Lake Geneva (also called le Lac Léman in French), Lake Constance (known as Bodensee in German) and Lake Maggiore. Switzerland has more than 1500 lakes, and contains 6% of Europe's stock of fresh water. Lakes and glaciers cover about 6% of the national territory. The largest lake is Lake Geneva, in western Switzerland shared with France. The Rhône is both the main source and outflow of Lake Geneva. Lake Constance is the second largest Swiss lake and, like the Lake Geneva, an intermediate step by the Rhine at the border to Austria and Germany. While the Rhône flows into the Mediterranean Sea at the French Camarque region and the Rhine flows into the North Sea at Rotterdam in the Netherlands, about 1000 km apart, both springs are only about 22 km apart from each other in the Swiss Alps.

Question: Which basic topographical area is in the south of Switzerland?

Question: Which basic topographical area is in central Switzerland?

Question: Which basic topographical area is in western Switzerland?

Question: How much of Switzerland's total area do the Alps comprise?

Question: What is the largest lake in Switzerland?
Passage: 48 of Switzerland's mountains are 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) above sea in altitude or higher. At 4,634 m (15,203 ft), Monte Rosa is the highest, although the Matterhorn (4,478 m or 14,692 ft) is often regarded as the most famous. Both are located within the Pennine Alps in the canton of Valais. The section of the Bernese Alps above the deep glacial Lauterbrunnen valley, containing 72 waterfalls, is well known for the Jungfrau (4,158 m or 13,642 ft) Eiger and Mönch, and the many picturesque valleys in the region. In the southeast the long Engadin Valley, encompassing the St. Moritz area in canton of Graubünden, is also well known; the highest peak in the neighbouring Bernina Alps is Piz Bernina (4,049 m or 13,284 ft).

Question: What is the highest mountain in Switzerland?

Question: What is often regarded as the most famous mountain in Switzerland?

Question: How many of Switzerland's mountains are at least 4000 meters above sea level?

Question: Where are both Monte Rosa and Matterhorn located?
Passage: The Swiss climate is generally temperate, but can vary greatly between the localities, from glacial conditions on the mountaintops to the often pleasant near Mediterranean climate at Switzerland's southern tip. There are some valley areas in the southern part of Switzerland where some cold-hardy palm trees are found. Summers tend to be warm and humid at times with periodic rainfall so they are ideal for pastures and grazing. The less humid winters in the mountains may see long intervals of stable conditions for weeks, while the lower lands tend to suffer from inversion, during these periods, thus seeing no sun for weeks.

Question: Where are Switzerland's glacial conditions located?

Question: What is typical weather in Switzerland during the summer months?

Question: What can the lower lands, suffering from inversion, sometimes lack for weeks?

Question: What is the climate on Switzerland's southern tip?
Passage: A weather phenomenon known as the föhn (with an identical effect to the chinook wind) can occur at all times of the year and is characterised by an unexpectedly warm wind, bringing air of very low relative humidity to the north of the Alps during rainfall periods on the southern face of the Alps. This works both ways across the alps but is more efficient if blowing from the south due to the steeper step for oncoming wind from the south. Valleys running south to north trigger the best effect. The driest conditions persist in all inner alpine valleys that receive less rain because arriving clouds lose a lot of their content while crossing the mountains before reaching these areas. Large alpine areas such as Graubünden remain drier than pre-alpine areas and as in the main valley of the Valais wine grapes are grown there.

Question: What is the weather phenomena characterized by an unexpected warm wind bringing low reletive humidity to the northern Alps during rainfall in the southern Alps?

Question: At what time of year can the fohn occur?

Question: Where do clouds lose most of their content before getting to the inner alpine valleys?

Question: What type of grapes are grown in the valley of Valais?

Question: During the fohn, from which direction is the blowing wind more efficient?
Passage: Switzerland's ecosystems can be particularly fragile, because the many delicate valleys separated by high mountains often form unique ecologies. The mountainous regions themselves are also vulnerable, with a rich range of plants not found at other altitudes, and experience some pressure from visitors and grazing. The climatic, geological and topographical conditions of the alpine region make for a very fragile ecosystem that is particularly sensitive to climate change. Nevertheless, according to the 2014 Environmental Performance Index, Switzerland ranks first among 132 nations in safeguarding the environment, due to its high scores on environmental public health, its heavy reliance on renewable sources of energy (hydropower and geothermal energy), and its control of greenhouse gas emissions.

Question: What rank was Switzerland in safeguarding the environment according to the 2014 Environmental Performance Index?

Question: What do mountainous regions have that make their ecosystems particularly fragile?

Question: What is the ecosystem in the alpine region particularly sensitive to?

Question: What sources of energy does Switzerland heavily rely on?
Passage: The Federal Constitution adopted in 1848 is the legal foundation of the modern federal state. It is among the oldest constitutions in the world. A new Constitution was adopted in 1999, but did not introduce notable changes to the federal structure. It outlines basic and political rights of individuals and citizen participation in public affairs, divides the powers between the Confederation and the cantons and defines federal jurisdiction and authority. There are three main governing bodies on the federal level: the bicameral parliament (legislative), the Federal Council (executive) and the Federal Court (judicial).

Question: When was Switzerland's Federal Constitution adopted?

Question: When was a new Constitution adopted in Switzerland?

Question: How many main governing bodies are on the federal level in Switzerland?

Question: What is the legislative body of the Swiss government called?

Question: What is the executive body of the Swiss government called?
Passage: The Swiss Parliament consists of two houses: the Council of States which has 46 representatives (two from each canton and one from each half-canton) who are elected under a system determined by each canton, and the National Council, which consists of 200 members who are elected under a system of proportional representation, depending on the population of each canton. Members of both houses serve for 4 years. When both houses are in joint session, they are known collectively as the Federal Assembly. Through referendums, citizens may challenge any law passed by parliament and through initiatives, introduce amendments to the federal constitution, thus making Switzerland a direct democracy.

Question: How many members are on the National Council?

Question: How long do members of both houses of the Swiss Parliament serve?

Question: What are both houses of the Swiss Parliament collectively known as when both are in joint session?

Question: What can citizens use to challenge any law passed by Parliament?

Question: What can citizens use to introduce amendments to the federal constitution?