EDGAR 10-K Filing

Company CIK: 920148
Filing Year: 2022
Filename: 920148_10-K_2022_0000920148-22-000015.json

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ITEM 1. BUSINESS
Item 1. BUSINESS
Labcorp® is a leading global life sciences company that provides vital information to help doctors, hospitals, pharmaceutical companies, researchers, and patients make clear and confident decisions. By leveraging its unparalleled diagnostics and drug development capabilities, the Company provides insights and accelerates innovations to improve health and improve lives. With more than 75,500 employees, the Company serves clients in more than 100 countries.
Through its Labcorp Diagnostics (Dx) and Labcorp Drug Development (DD) segments, the Company provides diagnostic, drug development, and technology-enabled solutions for more than 160 million patient encounters per year, or more than 3 million per week. In addition, the Company's world-class central laboratory, preclinical, and clinical development businesses support clinical trial activity in approximately 100 countries. The Company's capabilities enable it to play a leading role in advancing healthcare across the globe, and to provide crucial, ongoing support for the response to the COVID-19 pandemic.
The significant reach, breadth, and advancement of the Company's offerings have resulted in revenue growth of 39.5%, and operating income growth of 145.0%, from 2019 through 2021. The Company believes that its diversified offerings across DD and Dx help to balance the impact of changes in the global economic and healthcare systems, as well as the continued impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.
For the period ended December 31, 2021, the Company generated revenues of $16,120.9 million, diluted earnings per share of $24.39, and had a total operating cash flow of $3,109.6 million.
The Company believes that science, technology, and innovation drive its continued success, differentiate the Company, and are foundational to its future. They are critical to the Company's ability to carry out its mission to improve health and improve lives.
Strategic Review of Company Structure and Capital Allocation Strategy
In March 2021, the Company announced the undertaking of a comprehensive review by its board of directors (the Board) and management team of Labcorp's structure and capital allocation strategy. The review reflected the Board's and management team's view that the Company's value was not appropriately reflected in its stock price. As a part of this review, the Board and management worked with outside advisors, held extensive discussions with third parties, and considered a wide range of options, including significant acquisitions, divestitures, spinning off businesses, as well as spinning and merging those businesses with strategic partners. Ultimately, the Board unanimously concluded that the Company's existing structure is in the best interest of all stakeholders at this time and represents compelling opportunities to grow and create significant shareholder value. In December 2021, the Company announced the Board's conclusion, as well as actions that the management team and the Board are taking to enhance shareholder returns. These actions include:
•initiating a dividend in the second quarter of 2022, with a target dividend payout ratio of between 15 to 20% of adjusted earnings;
•authorizing a $2.50 billion share repurchase program. As part of this program, $1.0 billion is being repurchased under an accelerated share repurchase plan that is expected to be complete by the end of April 2022;
•implementing a new LaunchPad business process improvement initiative, targeting savings of $350.0 million over the next three years;
•providing a longer-term outlook in connection with the announcement of the Company's 2021 year-end results in addition to the Company's annual guidance;
•providing additional business insights through enhanced disclosures beginning with Labcorp's results for the first quarter of 2022; and
•continuing a commitment to profitable growth through investments in science, innovation, and new technologies.
Management and the Board are committed to continuing to evaluate all avenues for enhancing shareholder value.
The updated capital allocation plan enables the Company to continue investment in key growth areas, including oncology, Alzheimer's disease, autoimmune disorders, and women's health. This plan is expected to fuel growth through innovation by using Labcorp's unparalleled data and insights to bring scientific advancements-both Labcorp-developed and those of other scientists-to market at scale. It reflects the Board's confidence in the Company's strong balance sheet and cash flow generation profile, as well as the Board's commitment to deploying capital to enhance value for shareholders, patients, providers, and pharmaceutical customers worldwide.
Enterprise Strategy
Labcorp delivers world-class diagnostics solutions, brings innovative medicines to patients faster, and uses technology to improve the delivery of care.
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The Company is expanding its important role in the rapidly evolving healthcare market by strengthening its market-leading positions across its portfolio of capabilities, growing strategic opportunities that drive new business, and differentiating its unique offerings, capabilities, and financial performance. To do so, Labcorp is focusing these efforts across the following strategic priorities:
1.Leveraging the Company's Diagnostic and Drug Development Capabilities
Together, Dx’s and DD’s core capabilities and scientific and technological expertise empower the Company to create compelling solutions for clients and patients. The Company’s collective strength allows it to help pharmaceutical, biotechnology, and medical device partners design better clinical studies, execute those studies faster through enhanced patient recruitment, take greater advantage of virtual and hybrid study options, and satisfy post-market surveillance requirements. For example, insights gained through diagnostics support drug development operations by assisting in the identification of patterns in disease progression, as well as individuals who would benefit from enrollment in certain clinical trials. Further, the Company's connections with a broad and diverse range of patients and healthcare providers allow it to both expand clinical trial participation opportunities to typically underrepresented communities, and to make clinical trials a viable treatment option for patients whose current treatment options may be limited or inadequate.
In addition, the Company can advance companion and complementary diagnostics and other precision medicine innovations that match patients with targeted treatments based on genomics and other individual characteristics due to the experience, resources and data harnessed by both Dx and DD. Through comprehensive integration of those capabilities, the Company has a unique opportunity to extend its position as a market leader in the development and commercialization of new therapies and tests by providing data, insights, and answers for doctors, drug developers, and the public.
2. Embedding Data and Digitalization Throughout the Company's Business
The healthcare and life sciences industries remain among the most significantly impacted by technological advancements. By maximizing the use of advances in artificial intelligence, data, digitalization, and analytics, the Company strives to improve operating efficiency and create new, differentiated products and services that the Company believes will help its customers and deliver better care to patients.
The Company is using artificial intelligence to better identify and predict trends such as the timing and location of demand shifts for certain tests. In doing so, the Company is supporting an efficient use of supplies, staffing, and the Company’s advanced logistics used to route testing to the most appropriate laboratories and quickly deliver results. Artificial intelligence capabilities and advanced logistics continue to play an important role in the Company’s response to periods of heightened demand for COVID-19 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing.
The Company creates, and has access to, significant volumes of data. By applying advanced analytics, the Company can help its customers improve their processes and reach better outcomes. The Company’s repository of test results help study sponsors assess patients' eligibility for clinical trials more quickly and accurately, enroll those patients faster, shorten the time needed for regulatory submission, and accelerate the availability of new medicines. Data is also being used by the Company to advance science and the public's understanding of certain treatments and illnesses, including chronic kidney disease.
Digitalization continues to be an area of focus for the Company as it responds to the use of technology-enabled tools and services by healthcare providers, patients and pharmaceutical companies for absorbing, handling, and disseminating information. These services include decentralized clinical trials, which offer the potential to remove barriers that may have slowed or prevented studies from being conducted in the past. Decentralized clinical trials can also make trial participation an option for more people, including individuals from underrepresented populations. Digitalization enabled many of the Company's employees to transition to remote work in the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic and maintain their remote work environment in 2021 with no discernible loss of productivity. Digitalization is also helping to reduce physical, study-related paperwork, which generates positive emissions impacts.
In the U.S., the Company continues to improve its patients' experience in patient service centers (PSCs) by creating a seamless digital journey from appointment scheduling to results delivery. With an average of 3 million patients served in a given week, the Company strives to enhance their experience using its digital channels. In addition, the Company enhanced its digital capabilities through the acquisition of Ovia Health, a leading digital platform trusted by millions of individuals for family planning, pregnancy, and parenting support.
3. Intensify Customer Focus
Labcorp serves a broad range of customers, including managed care organizations (MCOs), pharmaceutical, biotechnology, medical device and diagnostics companies, governmental agencies, physicians and other healthcare providers, hospitals and health systems, employers, patients and consumers, contract research organizations (CROs), and independent clinical laboratories. The Company prioritizes a consistent, coordinated focus across all aspects of its operations, placing the customer at the center of its services, with the objective of becoming the customer's primary partner for solutions to their needs. In an
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effort to provide a leading customer experience, the Company seeks customer feedback, communicates best practices and lessons learned, and provides robust employee training with respect to the needs of its customers.
Labcorp routinely introduces new products and services that benefit its customers. For example, in 2021, the Company began deploying the Labcorp Diagnostic Assistant, which delivers comprehensive lab results and clinical insights directly to the point of care. In April 2021, the Company opened an automated clinical trial kit production line in Belgium, doubling the automated production capacity of its industry leading central laboratory services business. The Company announced the opening of a new, integrated bioanalytical laboratory in Singapore during the fourth quarter of 2021, expanding customer access in the Asia-Pacific region. The Company also continued improving the patient experience in its U.S. PSCs, focusing its efforts to create a seamless digital journey from appointment scheduling to easier access to results. The Company will continue to explore and implement further actions to improve the experience for its customers.
4. Fortify the Company's Position as an Oncology Leader
The field of oncology receives significant investment in research, development, and treatment. However, it remains an area of great unmet medical need. The Company believes the diagnosis and treatment of cancer will be the fastest-growing therapeutic area in the near future.
With the increased adoption of precision medicine, health and cancer care providers are relying on advanced testing to identify patients who will benefit from new, targeted treatments and therapies that are more effective and often have fewer side effects than chemotherapy and other traditional treatments. To harness the breadth of the Company's unique capabilities and further address this need, the Company formed an oncology business unit and launched an enterprise oncology platform in 2021. By focusing its diagnostic and drug development services on the fight against cancer, the Company is delivering targeted solutions that power better decisions and improved patient outcomes.
The Company is expanding its leadership in oncology through the introduction of new tests, strategic partnerships, acquisitions, and customer wins in clinical trials. In 2021, the Company launched OmniSeq INSIGHT, a comprehensive genomic and immune profiling, tissue-based test that integrates next-generation sequencing (NGS) technology. The Company capitalized on a previous investment in OmniSeq, announcing in July 2021 that it exercised its option to acquire the remaining ownership interest. In addition, the Company enhanced its precision diagnostic portfolio and its ability to increase access to oncology care globally by agreeing in late 2021 to acquire Personal Genome Diagnostics (PGDx), a provider of comprehensive liquid biopsy and tissue-based genomic products and services. PGDx offers the only diagnostic kit cleared by the FDA for pan-solid cancer comprehensive tumor profiling using a 500+ gene panel. The acquisition of PGDx closed in February 2022. The Company’s work in oncology has created meaningful business relationships across the healthcare ecosystem that it plans to enhance and grow.
5. Pursue Opportunities with Short- and Long-Term and High-Growth Potential
The Company has a long history of disciplined use of capital to invest in the growth of the business. The Company has made significant investments in the deployment of new technologies through both licensing and internal research and development, as well as strategic and tuck-in acquisitions in oncology, women's health, autoimmune disorders, diagnostic testing, and other important areas. Labcorp has also invested in establishing collaborative partnerships with other leading companies and organizations that share the Company’s goals and expectations.
The Company continually evaluates its business and the broader healthcare and life sciences markets to proactively identify and assess:
•potential growth opportunities;
•business areas that might not support continued growth and should be revamped or divested;
•acquisition targets that meet its criteria for quality, value, and return on investment;
•new products that would successfully integrate with or extend the Company’s offerings; and
•a balanced formula for capital allocation.
Through a continued focus on these priorities, reinforced through the Company's review of its structure and capital allocation strategy that concluded in December 2021, Labcorp expects to be in an optimal position to make disciplined choices that maximize shareholder value, better protect the Company from market fluctuations and outside impacts, and fuel significant and profitable short- and long-term revenue growth.
COVID-19 Pandemic Response
The Company has been intensely focused on supporting the fight against COVID-19 since the earliest stages of the pandemic, and it continues to play a substantial role in ongoing response efforts.
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Diagnostic Testing and Clinical Trial Leadership
In 2021, the Company further expanded access to testing for COVID-19 and aided pharmaceutical companies in the development of critical COVID-19 vaccines and therapies by harnessing its diagnostic and drug development capabilities.
The Company received FDA Emergency Use Authorization (EUA) for multiple innovations during the year, including the use of its Pixel by Labcorp® COVID-19 test home collection kit for children ages 2-17. The Company was granted FDA EUA for a combined home collection kit enabling individuals as young as 2 years of age to simultaneously be tested for COVID-19 and influenza A/B. It also received FDA EUA for observed self-collection of COVID-19 PCR tests in its PSCs, providing flexibility and convenience for individuals who want the certainty of a PCR test or need PCR test results for work, travel, or other purposes. These achievements built on the Company's first COVID-19-related FDA EUA, which was received on March 16, 2020, for COVID-19 PCR testing. Labcorp was the first commercial laboratory in the U.S. to launch and receive an EUA for such testing. The Company also received FDA EUA in April 2020 for the Pixel by Labcorp® COVID-19 test home collection kit, and in December 2020 for over-the-counter purchase of these home collection kits.
Labcorp's additional contributions to the pandemic response in 2021 included:
•assisting in the identification and monitoring of COVID-19 variants and spikes in confirmed cases;
•facilitating mass vaccination programs and expanding access to at-home test collections for underserved populations through partnerships at the state and local level;
•partnering with the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to raise awareness of monoclonal antibody therapies;
•facilitating access to at-home COVID-19 test collection kits in retail stores such as Walgreens, and through on-demand delivery services; and
•introducing new test options and building on the Company's portfolio of antibody testing.
The Company maintained its ability to quickly scale-up COVID-19 PCR testing capacity throughout the year, even during periods of reduced demand. In doing so, the Company was able to immediately and effectively respond to surges in positive cases and testing needs. The Company performed approximately 30 million COVID-19 PCR tests and 4 million antibody tests in 2021, and since the start of the pandemic has performed approximately 61.5 million COVID-19 PCR tests and 8 million antibody tests.
In addition, the Company's expertise and understanding of COVID-19, developed through its diagnostic offerings, has allowed it to become a leader in supporting clinical trials of COVID-19 treatments and vaccines. By the end of 2021, the Company won approximately 700 COVID-19 trial and study opportunities, ranging from small, nonclinical programs to late-stage clinical trials.
Base Business
The Company's non-COVID-19 testing business (Base Business) continued its recovery in 2021. Base Business was negatively impacted in the first and second quarters of 2020, began to recover in the third quarter of 2020 and experienced a flattening in Base Business recovery in the fourth quarter of 2020. Patients continued their return to pre-pandemic healthcare routines in 2021, and the Company's pharmaceutical and biotechnology customers resumed their important research and development work. Throughout 2021, the Company's Base Business recovery helped to more than offset a decrease in PCR and antibody COVID-19 testing (COVID-19 Testing).
COVID-19 Outlook
COVID-19 has had, and continues to have, an extensive impact on the global health and economic environments. The Company continues to closely monitor the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on all aspects of its business, given continued unpredictability, corresponding state, local and federal government restrictions and policies, the continued emergence of new variants that may cause increases in cases that may impact the Company, and the potential for shifts in customer behavior.
While the Company anticipates that COVID-19 will continue to impact its business in 2022 and potentially beyond, the Company expects that increases in vaccination rates and booster shots, the development of new therapeutics and greater availability of rapid COVID-19 tests should result in a continued, significant decline in demand for COVID-19 Testing, with the potential for increases in demand at different times and across different geographies. As a result, COVID-19 Testing demand is not predicted to match 2021 levels.
Capital Allocation
The Company believes it has a strong track record of deploying capital to investments that enhance the Company's business and return capital to shareholders.
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During 2021, the Company invested $496.9 million in strategic business acquisitions. The acquisitions have expanded the Company’s service offerings, expanded its customer and revenue mix, and strengthened and broadened the scope of its geographic presence. The Company continues to evaluate acquisition opportunities that leverage the Company’s core competencies, complement existing scientific and technological capabilities, increase the Company’s presence in key geographic, therapeutic and strategic areas, and meet or exceed the Company’s financial criteria.
During 2021, the Company repurchased 5.2 million shares of its common stock at an average price of $282.05 for a total cost of $1,668.5 million, which included $1,000.0 million paid in respect of an Accelerated Share Repurchase (ASR) program for which the Company received 80% of the shares calculated at the price at the inception of the ASR Agreements. At the end of 2021, the Company had outstanding authorization from the Board to purchase $1,631.5 of Company common stock. The repurchase authorization has no expiration date.
During 2021, capital expenditures were $460.4 million. The Company also repaid $1,000.0 million of its Senior Notes along with $375.0 million of the outstanding 2019 Term Loan, and also issued $1,000.0 million of new Senior Notes. The Company expects capital expenditures in 2022 to be approximately 4.0% of revenues, primarily in connection with projects to support growth in the Company's core businesses, facility expansion and updates, projects related to its new LaunchPad initiative, and further acquisition integration initiatives.
The Company will continue to evaluate all opportunities for strategic deployment of capital in light of market conditions.
Seasonality and External Factors
The Company experiences seasonality across its business. For example, testing volume generally declines during the year-end holiday period and other major holidays and can also decline due to inclement weather or natural disasters. Declines in testing volume reduce revenues, operating margins and cash flows. Operations are also impacted by changes in the global economy, exchange rate fluctuations, political and regulatory changes, the progress of ongoing studies and the startup of new studies, as well as the level of expenditures made by the pharmaceutical, biotechnology and medical device industries in R&D. As discussed in more detail elsewhere in Item 1, COVID-19 impacted the Company in 2021. This impact included the effect of the Company’s response to the virus through its testing and drug development services, as well as the effect of COVID-19 on the global economy and demand for the Company’s non-COVID-19 services.
In 2021, approximately 15.3% of the Company's revenues were billed in currencies other than the U.S. dollar, with the Swiss franc, British pound, Canadian dollar, and the euro representing the largest components of its currency exposure. Given the seasonality and changing economic factors impacting the business, comparison of the results for successive quarters may not accurately reflect trends or results for the full year.
Company Reporting
The Company’s Annual Report on Form 10-K, Quarterly Reports on Form 10-Q, Current Reports on Form 8-K, and all amendments to those reports are made available free of charge through the Investor Relations section of the Company’s website at www.labcorp.com as soon as reasonably practicable after such material is electronically filed with, or furnished to, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). Additionally, the SEC maintains a website at http://www.sec.gov that contains reports, proxy and information statements, and other information regarding issuers, including the Company, that file electronically with the SEC.
The matters discussed in this “Business” section should be read in conjunction with the Consolidated Financial Statements found in Item 8 of Part II of this Annual Report, which include additional financial information about the Company. This Annual Report includes forward-looking statements that involve risks or uncertainties. The Company’s results could differ materially from those anticipated in these forward-looking statements as a result of certain factors, including the risk factors described in Item 1A of Part I of this Annual Report and elsewhere. For more information about forward-looking statements, see “Forward-Looking Statements” included prior to Part I in this Annual Report.
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The Company's Business
The Company experienced growth across all key financial metrics in 2021.
In Millions, Except Per Share Data Years Ended December 31,
2021 2020
Revenues $ 16,120.9 $ 13,978.5
Gross profit $ 5,624.3 $ 4,952.8
Operating income $ 3,259.5 $ 2,445.4
Net earnings attributable to Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings $ 2,377.3 $ 1,556.1
Cash flows from operating activities $ 3,109.6 $ 2,135.3
Basic earnings per common share $ 24.60 $ 15.99
Diluted earnings per common share $ 24.39 $ 15.88
The Company reports its business in two segments, Dx and DD. In 2021, Dx and DD contributed 64% and 36%, respectively, of revenues to the Company, and in 2020 contributed 65% and 35%, respectively. Nearly all of Dx’s revenues are generated in the U.S., with a smaller portion in Canada and a relatively small amount in the rest of the world. DD’s revenues are nearly evenly split between the U.S. and the rest of the world, with approximately 48% derived from the U.S. and approximately 52% from other countries. Although this allocation of revenues provides some protection from economic shifts in any one country, it is still heavily tilted towards the U.S. As a result, the Company continues to actively explore new and expanded business opportunities outside the U.S. to further diversify its sources of revenues. The Company's revenues by segment payers/customer groups and by geography for the years ended December 31, 2021, 2020 and 2019 are as follows:
For the Year Ended
December 31, 2021 For the Year Ended
December 31, 2020 For the Year Ended
December 31, 2019
North America Europe Other Total North America Europe Other Total North America Europe Other Total
Payer/Customer
Dx
Clients 17 % - % - % 17 % 20 % - % - % 20 % 17 % - % - % 17 %
Patients 6 % - % - % 6 % 6 % - % - % 6 % 8 % - % - % 8 %
Medicare and Medicaid 7 % - % - % 7 % 7 % - % - % 7 % 8 % - % - % 8 %
Third party 34 % - % - % 34 % 32 % - % - % 32 % 27 % - % - % 27 %
Total Dx revenues by payer 64 % - % - % 64 % 65 % - % - % 65 % 60 % - % - % 60 %
DD
Pharmaceutical, biotechnology and medical device companies 17 % 13 % 6 % 36 % 17 % 11 % 7 % 35 % 21 % 12 % 7 % 40 %
Total revenues 81 % 13 % 6 % 100 % 82 % 11 % 7 % 100 % 81 % 12 % 7 % 100 %
Dx Segment
During 2021, the Dx segment generated $10,363.6 million in total revenues and $2,988.5 million in operating income, resulting in an operating margin of 28.8%.
In Millions Year Ended December 31,
2021 2020
Revenues $ 10,363.6 $ 9,253.4
Operating income $ 2,988.5 $ 2,634.9
Dx is an independent clinical laboratory business. It offers a comprehensive menu of frequently requested core testing and specialty testing through an integrated network of primary and specialty laboratories across the U.S. This network is supported by a sophisticated information technology system, with more than 80,000 electronic interfaces to deliver test results, nimble and efficient logistics, and local labs offering rapid response testing.
Dx also provides patient access points that are strategically and conveniently located throughout the U.S., including nearly 2,000 PSCs and more than 6,000 in-office phlebotomists located in customer offices and facilities. Although testing for healthcare purposes and customers who provide healthcare services represents the most significant portion of the clinical laboratory industry, clinical laboratories also perform testing for other purposes and customers, including employment and occupational testing, DNA testing to determine parentage and to assist in immigration eligibility determinations, environmental
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testing, wellness testing, toxicology testing, pain management testing, and medical drug monitoring. Dx offers an expansive test menu that includes a wide range of clinical, anatomic pathology, genetic and genomic tests, and regularly adds new tests and improves the methodology of existing tests to enhance patient care. Dx also offers consumer-initiated wellness testing available online through its Labcorp OnDemand™ platform. The Pixel by Labcorp® COVID-19 PCR and combined COVID-19 + flu at-home collection kits are also available through Labcorp OnDemand. Dx typically processes tests for more than 3 million patient encounters each week.
As part of an ongoing commitment to be an efficient and high-value provider of laboratory services, beginning in 2015, Dx implemented a comprehensive business process improvement initiative known as LaunchPad. The initiative was designed to reengineer the Company's systems and processes to create a sustainable and more efficient business model, and to improve the experience of all stakeholders. Dx achieved its goals for the initial phase of LaunchPad of delivering both short- and long-term savings, and of implementing system and process improvements that are expected to continue generating benefits for the foreseeable future. Dx subsequently extended LaunchPad, adding new enterprise-wide projects and establishing the initiative as an ongoing continuous improvement program. Dx’s LaunchPad initiative delivered approximately $200 million in net savings for the period of late 2018 through the end of 2021. As mentioned above in Part I of this Annual Report, the Company is implementing a new, enterprise-wide LaunchPad initiative, targeting savings of $350 million beginning in 2022 and ending in 2024.
The Dx business can be categorized into the following components:
Service Key Features
Testing Operations and Productivity •Network of PSCs offering specimen collection services
•Comprehensive, nimble supply chain for transferring specimens across the entire life cycle of a patient sample
•1-2 day turnaround time for most test results, with the vast majority of results delivered electronically to healthcare providers and to patients who have a Labcorp Patient™ account
•Rigorous standard of quality - 22 regional/specialty labs hold ISO 15189 certification
Testing and Related Services •Standard Testing Services - frequently-ordered tests used in regular patient care include blood chemistry analyses, urinalyses, blood cell counts, thyroid tests, PAP tests, hemoglobin A1C, prostate-specific antigen (PSA), tests for sexually transmitted diseases (e.g. chlamydia, gonorrhea, trichomoniasis and human immunodeficiency (HIV), and hepatitis C (HCV)), vitamin D, microbiology cultures and procedures, and alcohol and other substance abuse tests
•Specialty Testing Services - industry leader in gene-based and esoteric testing; advanced tests target specific diseases and use new technologies; services include anatomic pathology/oncology, cardiovascular disease, coagulation, diagnostic genetics, endocrinology, infectious disease, women's health, pharmacogenetics, parentage and donor testing, occupational testing services, medical drug monitoring services, chronic disease programs, and kidney stone prevention
•Dx offers a range of health and wellness services to employers and MCOs, including health fairs, on-site and at-home testing, vaccinations and health screenings
Development of New Tests •Approximately 50 new tests launched in 2021
•Active diagnostics and therapeutics research division: more than 700 studies, articles, and presentations produced in 2021
•Continuous investing, internally and externally, in new testing technologies and advanced testing capabilities
Technology-Enabled Services and Support A range of services and support using proprietary technologies to improve the customer and patient experience and provide convenient access to data and analytics, including:
•Nearly 6.5 million enhanced clinical decision support (CDS) reports delivered to physicians and health systems
•Online and mobile applications improving the patient experience by allowing patients to schedule PSC visits, check-in upon arrival, complete documentation, access test results, and manage their accounts
•Online applications for MCOs and accountable care organizations (ACOs) to obtain test results and population and health management data
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Effect of U.S. Market Changes on the Clinical Laboratory Business
The delivery of, and reimbursement for, healthcare continues to change in the U.S., impacting all stakeholders, including the clinical laboratory business. Medicare (which principally serves patients who are 65 and older), Medicaid (which principally serves low-income patients) and insurers have increased their efforts to control the cost, utilization and delivery of healthcare services. Measures to regulate healthcare delivery in general and clinical laboratories in particular have resulted in reduced prices, added costs and decreased test utilization for the clinical laboratory industry by imposing new, increasingly complex regulatory and administrative requirements. The government also has continued to adjust the Medicare and Medicaid fee schedules at the national and local level, and the Company believes that pressure to reduce government reimbursement will continue.
Fees for most laboratory services reimbursed by Medicare are established in the Clinical Laboratory Fee Schedule (CLFS) and fees for other testing reimbursed by Medicare, primarily related to pathology, are covered by the Physician Fee Schedule (PFS). During 2021, approximately 8.5% of Dx’s revenue was reimbursed under the CLFS (8.8% in 2020), and approximately 0.4% was reimbursed under the PFS (0.4% in 2020). Over the past several years, Dx has experienced governmental reimbursement reductions as a direct result of several Congressional acts and regulatory initiatives. These laws include provisions designed to control healthcare expenses reimbursed by government programs through a combination of reductions to fee schedules, incentives to physicians to participate in alternative payment models such as risk-sharing, and new methods to establish and adjust fees.
The most significant of these developments was the Protecting Access to Medicare Act (PAMA), which became law on April 1, 2014, and which went into effect on January 1, 2018. Beginning in 2018, under PAMA, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) set the CLFS using the weighted median of reported private payer prices paid to certain laboratories that receive a majority of their Medicare revenue from the CLFS and PFS and that bill Medicare under their own National Provider Identifier (NPI). Applicable labs, including Dx, were required to begin reporting their test-specific private payer payment amounts to CMS during the first quarter of 2017. CMS used that private market data to calculate weighted median prices for each test (based on applicable current procedural technology (CPT) codes) to represent the new CLFS rates beginning in 2018, subject to certain phase-in limits. For 2018-2020, a test price could not be reduced by more than 10.0% per year. PAMA resulted in a net reduction in reimbursement revenue of approximately $245.0 million between 2018-2020 from all payers affected by the CLFS.
Due to enactment of the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security Act (CARES Act) passed by Congress on March 27, 2020, the Medicare reimbursement cuts that would have occurred under PAMA in 2021 were delayed by one year. In 2021, Dx realized an increase of approximately $0.3 million in PFS revenue as a result of the provisions included in the Omnibus Appropriations and Coronavirus Relief Package. In 2021, Dx realized an additional increase of approximately $5.8 million in aggregate Medicare reimbursement associated with the suspension of sequestration through December of 2021, as a result of provisions included in the Omnibus Appropriations and Coronavirus Relief Package that were extended as a result of an Act to Prevent Across-the-Board Direct Spending Cuts.
On December 10, 2021, President Biden signed into law S. 610, the Protecting Medicare and American Farmers from Sequester Cuts Act, which delayed by one additional year the data reporting requirements and Medicare reimbursement cuts that would have occurred under PAMA in 2022. In 2022, Dx anticipates that it will realize a decrease of approximately $0.4 million in PFS revenue, driven by reductions in reimbursement for flow cytometry procedures and a decrease of approximately $10.0 million in aggregate Medicare reimbursement associated with the phased in reinstitution of sequestration as a result of provisions included in the Protecting Medicare and American Farmers from Sequester Cuts Act.
The Protecting Medicare and American Farmers from Sequester Cuts Act also included mitigations to several other non-PAMA Medicare cuts in addition to delaying Medicare reimbursement cuts under PAMA. It delayed the 4% Medicare cuts that would otherwise have occurred in 2022 under statutory “pay-as-you-go,” or PAYGO, rules to offset the cost of the American Rescue Plan Act by one year. In addition, it delayed the resumption of the 2% Medicare sequestration until April 1, 2022, and reduces to 0.75% the previous 3.75% reduction to PFS reimbursement that was scheduled for 2022. To offset the cost, the Medicare sequestration is increased to 2.25% for January-June of 2030, and to 3.0% for July-December 2030.
Pursuant to PAMA, for 2023-2025, a test price cannot be reduced by more than 15.0% per year. CLFS rates for 2026 and subsequent periods will not be subject to phase-in limits. The phase-in of rates for Clinical Diagnostic Laboratory Tests (CDLTs) established in 2018 will continue in 2023. New CLFS rates will be established in 2024 based on data from 2019 to be reported in 2023. New CLFS rates will be established in 2027 based on data from 2025 to be reported in 2026. CLFS rates for Advanced Diagnostic Laboratory Tests will be updated annually.
The American Clinical Laboratory Association (ACLA) has filed a federal civil action challenging the legal basis for the data collection methodology CMS used to derive the data from which the median prices were calculated. Since the initial data
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collection, CMS has revised its PAMA regulations to increase the number of hospital outreach labs that will be required to report private market data in future collections. Reports by the U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), the HHS Office of Inspector General (OIG), and the Medicare Payment Advisory Commission (MedPAC) on PAMA implementation have identified certain instances of actual or potential increased Medicare expenditures under PAMA, as well as potential alternative methodologies for data collection under PAMA, which could result in further efforts to amend PAMA by Congress.
ACLA continues to work with Congress on potential legislative reform of PAMA, which if adopted could reduce the negative impact of PAMA as currently implemented by CMS. Under the Laboratory Access for Beneficiaries (LAB) Act, MedPAC was required to conduct a study and make recommendations to Congress on ways to improve data collection, reporting, and rate setting under PAMA to achieve, in a less burdensome manner, CLFS rates that accurately and fairly reflect private market rates. MedPAC's June 2021 report to Congress included an analysis of potential statistical sampling methodologies that could accomplish that objective, and ACLA has incorporated the concept in PAMA reform proposals to Congress. The Company supports the ongoing efforts to prevent or lessen the negative impact of the changes to the CLFS pursuant to PAMA, and the full impact of those efforts, and what the long-term effect will be on the CLFS rates is not yet known.
Further healthcare reform could occur in 2022, including changes to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) and Medicare reform, as well as administrative requirements that may continue to affect coverage, reimbursement, and utilization of laboratory services in ways that are currently unpredictable.
In addition, market-based changes have affected and will continue to affect the clinical laboratory business. Reimbursement from commercial payers for diagnostic testing may shift away from traditional, fee-for-service models to alternatives, including value-based, bundled pay-for-performance, and other risk-sharing payment models. The growth of the managed care sector and consolidation of MCOs present various challenges and opportunities to Dx and other clinical laboratories. Dx's ability to attract and retain MCO customers has become even more important as the impact of various healthcare reform initiatives continues, including expanded health insurance exchanges and ACOs.
The Company serves many MCOs. These organizations have different contracting philosophies, which are influenced by the design of their products. Some MCOs contract with a limited number of clinical laboratories and engage in direct negotiation of rates. Other MCOs adopt broader networks with generally uniform fee structures for participating clinical laboratories. In some cases, those fee structures are specific to independent clinical laboratories, while the fees paid to hospital-based and physician-office laboratories may be different, and are typically higher. MCOs may also offer Managed Medicare or Managed Medicaid plans. In addition, some MCOs use capitation rates to fix the cost of laboratory testing services for their enrollees. Under a capitated reimbursement arrangement, the clinical laboratory receives a per-member, per-month payment for an agreed upon menu of laboratory tests, or based upon the proportionate share earned by Dx from a capitation pool. When the agreed upon reimbursement is based solely on an established rate per member, revenue is not impacted by the volume of testing performed. Under a capitation pool arrangement, the aggregate value of an established rate per member is distributed based on the volume and complexity of the procedures performed by laboratories participating in the agreement. For the year ended December 31, 2021, capitated contracts with MCOs accounted for approximately $332.3 million, or 3.2%, of Dx's revenues.
In addition to reductions in test reimbursement, the Company also anticipates potential declines in test volumes as a result of increased controls over the utilization of laboratory services by Medicare, Medicaid, and other third-party payers, particularly MCOs. MCOs are implementing, directly or through third parties, various types of laboratory benefit management programs, which may include lab networks, utilization management tools (such as prior authorization and/or prior notification), and claims edits, which impact coverage and reimbursement of clinical laboratory tests. Some of these programs address clinical laboratory testing broadly, while others are focused on certain types of testing, including molecular, genetic and toxicology testing. In addition, continued movement by patients into consumer-driven health plans may have an impact on the utilization of laboratory testing. Test volumes in 2022 could also decline compared to 2021 and 2020 if demand for SARS-CoV-2 testing declines.
Despite the overall negative market changes regarding reimbursement discussed above, the Company believes that the volume of clinical laboratory testing is positively influenced by several factors, including the expansion of Medicaid, managed care, and private insurance exchanges. In addition, the Company believes that increased knowledge of the human genome and continued innovation in laboratory medicine will continue to foster greater appreciation of the value of gene-based diagnostic assays. Additional factors that may lead to future volume growth include an increase in the number and types of tests that are readily available (due to advances in technology and increased cost efficiencies) for the diagnosis of disease, and the general aging of the U.S. population. Periodic infectious disease outbreaks such as the SARS-CoV-2 virus also have the potential to generate additional testing volume in the future. The Company also believes that it and other large, independent clinical laboratory testing companies will be able to increase their share of the overall clinical laboratory testing market due to a number of market factors, primarily related to a continued drive to improve outcomes and reduce costs across the healthcare system, including but not limited to greater price transparency required under new “surprise billing” laws and regulations requiring
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disclosure of hospital charges. Dx believes that its enhanced and growing esoteric menu of tests, leading position with companion diagnostics, broad geographic footprint, and operating efficiency provide a strong platform for growth.
DD Segment
During 2021, the DD segment generated $5,845.5 million in total revenue and $547.7 million in operating income, resulting in an operating margin of 9.4%.
In Millions Year Ended December 31,
2021 2020
Revenues $ 5,845.5 $ 4,877.7
Operating income $ 547.7 $ 37.3
DD provides end-to-end drug development, medical device and companion diagnostic development solutions from early-stage research to clinical development and commercial market access. Its customers are comprised of pharmaceutical, biotechnology, medical device, and diagnostic companies across the world. With a global network of operations, DD offers deep expertise in early development and clinical trials in each therapeutic area. DD collaborated on 82% of the novel drugs and therapeutic products approved in 2021 by the U.S. FDA, including 63% of those specific to oncology and 95% of those specific to rare and orphan diseases. Through its industry-leading central laboratory business, it supports clinical trial activity in approximately 100 countries.
Service Key Features
Preclinical Services •Lead optimization: connects early discovery activities to regulated pre-clinical studies
•Analytical services: bioanalytical testing services offering appropriate dose and frequency of drug administration
•Safety assessment: general, genetic, and immunotoxicology services; nonclinical pathology; safety pharmacology services; preclinical medical device services; respiratory services; and developmental and reproductive toxicology (DART) studies
•Chemistry manufacturing services: robust, cost-effective solutions in the areas of safety, identity, strength, quality, and purity assessments for biologics
•Early phase development solutions: focused, multidisciplinary teams of experts that craft integrated solutions to identify and develop lead drug candidates and reduce development challenges
•Crop protection and chemical testing: Consulting services for chemical manufacturers and other firms engaged in the development of modern crop protection technology
Central Laboratory Services •Clinical laboratory services for individuals participating in clinical studies
•Provided to biopharmaceutical customers through its global network of central laboratories in the U.S., Europe, and Asia
•Operates world's largest automated clinical trial sample collection kit production line that enables kits to be produced with 5.5 sigma precision
•Six ISO 15189-certified laboratories
•Collaborated with more than 65 clients on more than 265 companion diagnostic projects in 2021
Clinical Development and Commercialization Services •Comprehensive range of services including the full-service delivery of Phase I through IV clinical studies, along with a wide offering of functional service provider solutions
•Dedicated group experienced in conduct of trials for medical devices and diagnostics to provide services for expanding market in medical devices
•Leader in clinical pharmacology
•Wide range of commercialization solutions including life cycle management and post-approval studies
•Market access solutions
Technology Solutions Proprietary digital tools and services providing customers with greater access to key insights and results, as well as improved trial management, enhanced transparency, quality, and speed of clinical trials, resulting in reduced costs and increased market potential for customers:
•Patient-facing software applications supporting virtual, hybrid, and traditional trials
•Metrics and benchmarking applications for trial performance monitoring and optimization
•Award-winning informatics software suite for risk-based quality management across clinical trials
•Patient randomization and Clinical Supply Management
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Rebranding
In December 2020, the Company announced the evolution of its brand to signify the pivotal role the Company's capabilities play in society as a source of health answers. It underscores the Company's commitment to science and data, moving with urgency, empowering better health outcomes, and breakthrough and transformative approaches to patient care using the Company's diverse and global expertise. As part of the rebranding, the Company introduced a new company logo and associated its business unit brands with the Labcorp name. The Company’s drug development segment, formerly referred to as Covance Drug Development, became Labcorp Drug Development in June 2021. The Company's diagnostics segment, formerly referred to as LabCorp Diagnostics, transitioned to Labcorp Diagnostics and a new logo in 2021.
Human Capital
Mission and Culture
Labcorp believes in the power of science to change lives. The Company’s culture centers around its mission to improve health and improve lives. The Company's more than 75,500 employees serve clients in over 100 countries. They are essential to the Company’s ability to innovate and advance science and technology to empower patients, providers, and pharmaceutical companies to make clear and confident decisions. Labcorp’s employees are also critical to its ongoing support of the COVID-19 pandemic response through diagnostic testing and its work to aid pharmaceutical companies in the development of vaccines and treatments. Engaging the collective expertise and passion of its employees is vital to achieving the Company’s mission, which permeates its performance-driven, collaborative, inclusive, customer-centered, and inquisitive culture.
Workforce Demographics
The Company’s success depends on its sustained ability to attract, develop, and retain a highly specialized and skilled global workforce. Management believes that the Company has good working relationships with its employees. Employees are globally dispersed, with 75% in the U.S. and Canada, 12% in Asia, 13% in Europe, the Middle East, and Africa, and less than 1% in Latin America. Of the Company’s global workforce, 90% of employees are full time, and 10% are part time. Four percent of Labcorp’s global workforce is employed under a collective bargaining agreement. Depending on business demand and the talent-hiring environment, Labcorp supplements up to 12% of its workforce with contingent workers.
The challenges of 2021, felt globally, also presented the Company with significant challenges in acquiring and retaining talent. Despite these obstacles, Labcorp’s global workforce increased by more than 4%. The majority of Labcorp's hires are sourced through an internal talent acquisition team. In addition, the Company continues to grow its workforce through mergers and acquisitions. The Company implemented significant investments to retain talent and enable the organization to meet the business needs for growth, which are discussed further in the section below on “Compensation and Benefits.”
Throughout the pandemic, a significant portion of Labcorp’s employees have been working diligently to serve patients and customers. To ensure the safety and welfare of our employees, the majority of employees who do not work with patients, animals, in labs, or in logistics, continue to work remotely. This includes call center employees, customer service teams, sales teams, and corporate and functional teams. Going forward, the Company expects that a significant number of employees will continue working remotely, or through hybrid, in-office and remote work arrangements. The Company believes that flexibility in work location and arrangements expands the pool from which it can source experienced and valuable talent.
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Diversity and Inclusion
Labcorp's diverse, global talent is core to its ability to innovate and meet patient and customer needs. The Company believes that the diversity of its employees and its inclusive programs contribute to a healthy, productive, and respectful work environment.
Workforce Diversity Profile:
Gender, Ethnicity, and Race
Global Workforce by GENDER
U.S. Workforce by GENDER
U.S. Workforce by RACE & ETHNICITY
The Company has a Diversity and Inclusion (D&I) strategic framework, with three overarching pillars of focus: empowering inclusive leadership; developing and sustaining a diverse talent pipeline; and creating an environment for engagement across the Company and in its communities. Labcorp’s D&I strategy is designed as a continuing journey to maintain and further evolve its inclusive workforce consistent with the changing dynamics of the global workforce. Highlights of actions supporting the Company’s D&I framework that it believes will foster a more inclusive environment and strengthen its culture include:
•the launch of an unconscious bias training program designed to improve self-awareness of personal biases. The program was rolled out globally to all of the Company's people leaders, with over 6,000 completing the training in 2021;
•a formal mentoring initiative that includes a Reverse Diverse Mentoring program that received the Gold Award in the category of Best Advance in Mentoring to Develop Diverse Leaders from the Brandon Hall Group;
•a first-ever virtual women's summit for executive women leaders. This event, called the Power of Women, is part of the Company's leadership development programs for women that include specific offerings for mid-level and senior leaders;
•the introduction of additional Employee Resource Groups (ERGs). ERGs are led by employee volunteers and are important resources to foster cross-company connections, encourage belonging, support career development, and champion employee voices. The Company now has eight unique ERGs with more than 70 chapters in 11 countries. Each ERG has executive sponsorship from senior leadership.
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The Company was named to FORTUNE® magazine's 2022 List of World's Most Admired Companies, making the annual list for the fourth time. Labcorp also made the Forbes 2021 list of World's Best Employers for the second consecutive year. In addition, the Company was named to Fast Company's list of the World's Most Innovative Companies for 2021. In 2021 and 2022, the Company was recognized for the fourth and fifth consecutive years as a Best Place to Work for LGBTQ+ Equality, with a perfect score on the Human Rights Campaign Foundation's Corporate Equality Index. The Index is the nation's foremost benchmarking survey and report on corporate policies and practices related to LGBTQ+ workplace equality.
The Company has also implemented opportunities for greater engagement between employees and management, including quarterly town halls that are held virtually and open to all employees, interaction with front-line employees on visits to the Company facilities, and town halls with employees in business units. In early 2022, the Company initiated a Voice of the Employee Survey.
Compensation
As the Company’s business becomes increasingly complex, global, and dynamic, the Company believes that its compensation and benefits programs must be competitive and flexible to attract and retain the caliber of talent needed to continue to move the business forward. In 2021, the Company faced unique challenges to growing and maintaining its global workforce. The Company believes that its ability to expand the workforce in 2021 evidences that the Company's compensation and benefit strategies are market competitive and support the business needs to attract and retain talent.
The Company continually monitors market activity and employee movement within and outside of the core life sciences industry to maintain competitiveness, given the dynamic business environment and labor market challenges it faces.
Labcorp’s employees met the unique challenges faced by patients and clients as the COVID-19 pandemic continued in 2021. The Company invested more than $120 million to recognize and reward our global workforce, with particular focus placed on frontline workers. These investments included:
•$51 million in market-based pay adjustments, including an increase in the minimum wage for all non-union employees in the U.S. to $15 per hour;
•$21 million to increase base wages up to an additional 1.5% to encourage participation in the 401(k) retirement savings plan for 37,000 U.S. employees earning less than $75,000 per year;
•$35 million in two separate, global “gratitude” bonuses for more than 61,500 employees; and
•$14 million in retention payments to employees in key global positions to encourage continued career development with the Company.
Employee Wellness
The Company also continued investing in the health and wellness of its global workforce, with particular emphasis on improving its U.S. health benefits program for employees. The Company’s efforts on this front included:
•no annual cost increase for the payroll contributions in its U.S. Healthy Value medical, dental and vision insurance plans, impacting approximately 36,000 covered employees and more than 30,000 dependents. For approximately 26,000 employees in the U.S. earning less than $50,000 per year, the Company further reduced the cost of monthly medical insurance contributions by $240 per year;
•adding company-paid disability insurance coverage for short- and long-term disability for all U.S. employees;
•providing up to $4,560 in annual medical plan contribution discounts for over 36,000 employees and their spouses for committing to and maintaining a healthy and tobacco-free lifestyle;
•encouraging health and wellness education and activities by providing up to $1,000 in Health Reimbursement Account contributions to approximately 31,000 employees and their spouses or partners. This included $100 for COVID-19 vaccines and $50 for Flu vaccines;
•reimbursing up to $300 in fitness-related costs for approximately 16,000 employees.
The Company continually educates its workforce on health issues of importance. For example, the Company provided a series of videos throughout 2021 from its medical experts covering the facts, safety, and effectiveness of the COVID-19 vaccines. Further, the Company has also prioritized continuous education on the importance of mental well-being, through communications and resources made available to all employees. The Company believes that its investments in compensation and wellness are crucial to maintaining competitive positioning and a productive and engaged workforce.
Development and Training
To meet the needs of patients and clients in the evolving and competitive diagnostics and drug development markets, the Company is committed to creating a work environment that supports a focus on the continuous development and training of its
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employees. With this focus, the Company believes it is well-positioned in the long term to meet the demands of the regulatory environment and accelerate its ability to innovate and develop talent in a highly skilled and competitive talent market.
Labcorp's curriculum has three primary focus areas: regulatory training, technical training, and professional development. Regulatory training is required by laws and regulations for the Company to operate in certain areas within the life sciences industry and in certain jurisdictions. Technical training and professional development enable the Company to compete more effectively in the life sciences industry.
The Company maintains an extensive library of over 46,000 courses that are available virtually within its global learning management system. In 2021, Labcorp employees completed over 3.2 million hours of training, primarily consisting of regulatory and technical training. In addition, due to the Company’s access to sensitive and personally identifiable information, employees completed over 1.3 million IT security training courses, representing more than 300,000 total hours, with the goal of maintaining IT system safety and security for clients and patients.
Labcorp also invests in the professional development of its talent, and in retaining our best employees for future internal opportunities. In 2021, employees completed more than 65,000 hours of professional development.
Challenges in the talent labor market have reinforced the need to offer new and engaging learning resources. In 2021, the Company expanded its approach to tuition assistance, helping an additional 500 employees complete college degrees in the life science and healthcare fields. In addition, Labcorp added new relationships with leading learning partners that provide open, online courses. These partners provide video courses, job aides, and short, self-paced learning taught by industry experts.
Health and Safety
The nature of the Company's business requires employees to work directly with patients and animals. This includes the handling, processing, and testing of human or animal specimens on a daily basis. As the health and safety of employees is a primary concern, the Company has established numerous employee health and safety protocols, including engineering and administrative controls, policies, procedures, processes, and training to minimize the potential for, and the severity of, work-related injuries and illnesses.
In 2021, the Company reorganized its Environment, Health and Safety (EHS) function, combining Dx and DD programs to enable consistency and common policies, procedures, and areas of focus. The Company was able to maintain its work-related injury rate per 100 employees at a low 1.6, and to reduce its work-related lost work injury rate per 100 employees by 40%, from 0.5 to 0.3. The Company also implemented a common Corporate EHS Audit process, allowing it to assess locations against common expectations and performance criteria. In response to COVID-19, the Company modified the audit format so that it could be effectively performed virtually.
While COVID-19 presented continued challenges, the Company minimized the impact on staff and operations through careful planning and consistent global implementation of precautionary measures. These measures included additional cleaning and sanitization, social distancing, the use of protective equipment such as facemasks, face shields and respirators, the increased utilization of work from home, and leveraging video and communications technology.
Employee Giving
The Labcorp Charitable Foundation, a private, charitable 501(c)(3) organization established by the Company, invested in more than 70 programs in 2021 that align with the Company’s strategic mission to improve health and improve lives. The Foundation’s funding supports the focus areas of health, education, and community across the globe.
In addition, the Company's employees took advantage of many opportunities to support charitable causes and make a positive impact in their communities.
Annually, U.S. colleagues have the opportunity to automatically direct a portion of each paycheck to one or more of six selected charities through the Employee Giving Campaign: the American Cancer Society, American Heart Association, American Diabetes Association, American Red Cross (Disaster Relief), United Way, and the National Urban League. Employee contributions support these charities to provide needed services in their local communities and across the nation.
The Company's global colleagues also support the local communities where they live and work. For example, as India endured a second, severe wave of positive COVID-19 cases, Labcorp’s India Crisis Management Team helped 2,398 employees and their families get vaccinated. Additionally, in celebration of Earth Day, Labcorp colleagues in China took an active part in the American Chamber of Commerce Shanghai Annual E-waste Drive, in which employees donated personal electronics that they no longer use. The donated equipment was distributed to schools throughout rural communities in China to improve access to technology.
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Customers
The Company provides its services to a broad range of customers across Dx and DD. The primary customer groups serviced by the Company include:
•Health Plans. The Company serves many health plans, including MCOs and other health insurance providers, each of which operate on a national, regional, or local basis. In certain locations, health plans may delegate to independent physician associations (IPAs) or other alternative delivery systems (e.g., ACOs) the ability to negotiate for services on behalf of certain members.
•Pharmaceutical, Biotechnology, Medical Device, and Diagnostics Companies. The Company provides development services to hundreds of pharmaceutical, biotechnology, medical device, and diagnostics companies, ranging from the world's largest multi-nationals to emerging, small and mid-market companies.
•Physicians and Other Healthcare Providers. Physicians who require clinical laboratory testing for their patients are a primary source of requests for Dx's testing services.
•Hospitals and Health Systems. The Company provides hospitals and health systems with services ranging from core and specialty testing to supply chain and technical support services, and the opportunity to be a research partner for participation in studies and clinical trials with DD. In some cases, a hospital’s on-site laboratory may be operated or managed by an outside contractor or independent laboratory, including the Company.
•Other Customers. The Company serves a broad range of other customers, including, but not limited to, governmental agencies, employers, patients and consumers, CROs, crop protection and chemical companies, academic institutions, independent clinical laboratories, and retailers.
Sales, Marketing, and Customer Service
The Company offers its services through a sales force focused on serving the specific needs of customers in different market segments. The Company's sales force is responsible for both new sales and for customer retention and relationship building.
For Dx, these market segments generally include primary care, women's health, specialty medicine (e.g., infectious diseases, endocrinology, gastroenterology, and rheumatology), oncology, ACOs, and hospitals and health systems, with different representatives focused on each segment to better understand and respond to the unique needs of each clinical area. The DD global sales organization provides customer coverage across the pharmaceutical, biotechnology, and medical device industries for services including lead optimization, preclinical safety assessment, analytical services, clinical trials, central laboratories, biomarkers, and companion diagnostics, market access and technology solutions. As part of the Company's ongoing strategic priority to maximize the value of its unique leadership in both diagnostics and drug development, sales representatives from each business segment work together on outreach to potential customers of each business, including hospitals and health systems that may purchase testing and participate in clinical trials, or pharmaceutical, biotechnology or medical device companies whose studies may benefit from use of Dx’s specialty testing or network of PSCs.
In mid-2021, Labcorp launched its “In Pursuit of Answers” campaign to emphasize the Company's commitment to its customers and the dedication of its employees. This campaign also highlights the Company's impact on public health, its new, unified brand, and its critical role in the fight against COVID-19.
Market Opportunity
Dx
The Company believes that in 2021, the U.S. clinical laboratory testing industry generated revenues of more than $80 billion. The clinical laboratory industry consists primarily of three types of providers: hospital-based laboratories, physician-office laboratories, and independent clinical and anatomical pathology laboratories, such as those operated by Dx.
The clinical laboratory business is intensely competitive. CMS has estimated that, as of January 2022, there were 9,254 hospital-based laboratories, 131,238 physician-office laboratories, and 8,430 independent clinical and anatomic pathology laboratories in the U.S. Dx competes with all of those laboratories.
Dx believes that the selection of a laboratory is primarily based on the following factors, all of which the Company believes it competes favorably in:
•quality, timeliness, and consistency in reporting test results;
•reputation of the laboratory in the medical community or field of specialty;
•contractual relationships with MCOs;
•service capability and convenience;
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•number and type of tests performed;
•connectivity solutions offered; and
•pricing of the laboratory’s services.
Dx believes that consolidation in the clinical laboratory testing business will continue. In addition, Dx believes that it and other large, independent clinical laboratory testing companies will be able to increase their share of the overall clinical laboratory testing market due to a number of factors, including cost efficiencies afforded by large-scale automated testing, mergers and acquisitions of complementary businesses, changes in payment models to performance and value-based reimbursement to deliver better outcomes at lower cost, and the increasing importance of large, integrated service networks. In addition, legal restrictions on physician referrals and physician ownership of laboratories, as well as ongoing regulation of laboratories, are expected to continue to contribute to the ongoing consolidation of the industry.
DD
Drug development services companies like DD are also referred to as CROs and typically derive substantially all of their revenue from research and development (R&D), as well as marketing expenditures, of the pharmaceutical, biotechnology and medical device industries.
Outsourcing of R&D services to CROs has increased in the past, and is expected to continue increasing in the future. Increasing pressures to improve return on investment, to increase R&D productivity, to stay abreast of scientific advances and to comply with stringent government regulations and attempts to reduce and control the price of prescription drugs have all contributed to this outsourcing to CROs. A CRO provides clients with flexibility in aligning resources to demand. In the face of mounting complexity, the investment and amount of time required to develop new products are significant and have been increasing. These trends create opportunities for DD and other CROs that can help make the development process more efficient.
The drug development industry has many participants ranging from hundreds of small providers to a limited number of large CROs with global capabilities. DD competes against these small and large CROs, as well as in-house departments of pharmaceutical, biotechnology, medical device and diagnostic companies, and to a lesser extent, selected academic research centers, universities and teaching hospitals.
DD believes that customers selecting a CRO often consider the following factors, all of which the Company believes it competes favorably in:
•reputation for quality and regulatory compliance;
•efficient, timely performance;
•expertise and experience in operations;
•application of technology and innovation;
•specific therapeutic and scientific expertise;
•data and analytical capabilities;
•post-approval and market access services;
•ability to recruit patients;
•scope of service offerings;
•strengths in various geographic markets;
•price;
•quality of facilities;
•quality of relationships, including investigator and patient;
•ability to manage large-scale clinical trials both domestically and internationally, including the recruitment of appropriate and sufficient clinical trial subjects;
•size and scale;
•decentralized clinical trial capabilities;
•ability to develop companion diagnostics; and
•access to talent.
Quality
Dx and DD have comprehensive quality systems and processes appropriate for their respective businesses. The Company's quality programs are overseen by Dx's National Office of Quality, DD’s Global Regulatory Compliance and Quality Assurance Unit, DD's clinical trial services global vendor management department, DD's central laboratory services expanded laboratory management services department, and the Company's global supply chain management department and project management staff. The Company has procedures for monitoring its internal performance, as well as that of its vendors, suppliers, and other key stakeholders. In addition, various groups and departments within the Company provide oversight to monitor and control
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vendor products and performance, and play an essential role in the Company’s approach to quality through improvements in processes and automation.
Virtually all facets of the Company’s services are subject to quality programs and procedures, including accuracy and reproducibility of tests; turnaround time; customer service; data integrity; patient satisfaction; and billing. The Company’s quality programs include measures that compare current performance against desired performance goals to monitor critical aspects of service to its customers and patients. This includes licensing, credentialing, training and competency of professional and technical staff, and internal auditing. In addition to the Company's own quality programs, the Company’s laboratories, facilities and processes are subject to on-site regulatory agency inspections and accreditation evaluations, in addition to surveys and proficiency testing, by local or national government agencies; independent external accrediting programs; and inspections and audits by customers.
Twenty eight of the Company's laboratories have received ISO-15189 accreditation, demonstrating that they meet international standards for quality and technical competence.
Information Systems
The Company is committed to developing and commercializing technology-enabled solutions to support its operations and provide better care. The Company operates standard platforms for its core business services and its financial and reporting systems. These standard systems provide consistency within workflows and information as well as a high level of system availability, security, and stability. The primary laboratory systems include standardized support for molecular diagnostics, digital pathology and enhanced specialty laboratory solutions. The Company's centralized information systems are responsible for operational efficiencies, enabling the Company to achieve consistent, structured, and standardized operating results and effective patient care.
In addition, the information systems used by Dx and DD are discussed in more detail in the sections dedicated to each of those segments.
Intellectual Property Rights
The Company relies on a combination of patents, trademarks, copyrights, trade secrets, and nondisclosure and non-competition agreements to establish and protect its proprietary technology. The Company has filed and obtained numerous patents in the U.S. and abroad, and regularly files patent applications, when appropriate, to establish and protect its proprietary technology. Occasionally, the Company also licenses U.S. and non-U.S. patents, patent applications, technology, trade secrets, know-how, copyrights or trademarks owned by others. The Company believes, however, that no single patent, technology, trademark, intellectual property asset or license is material to its business as a whole.
Patents covering the Company's technologies are subject to challenges. Issued patents may be successfully challenged, invalidated, circumvented, or declared unenforceable so that patent rights would not create an effective competitive barrier. In addition, the laws of some countries may not protect proprietary rights to the same extent as do the laws of the U.S.
Parties may file claims asserting that the Company's technologies infringe on their intellectual property. The Company cannot predict whether parties will assert such claims against it, or whether those claims will harm its business. If the Company is forced to defend against such claims, the Company could face costly litigation and diversion of management’s attention and resources. As result of such disputes, the Company may have to develop costly non-infringing technology or enter into licensing agreements. These agreements, if necessary, may require financial or other terms that could have an adverse effect on the Company's business and financial condition.
Regulation and Reimbursement
General
Because the Company operates in a number of distinct environments and in a variety of locations worldwide, it is subject to numerous, and sometimes overlapping, regulatory requirements. Both the clinical laboratory industry and the drug development business are subject to significant governmental regulation at the national, state and local levels. As described below, these regulations concern licensure and operation of clinical laboratories, claim submission and reimbursement for laboratory services, healthcare fraud and abuse, drug development services, security and confidentiality of health information, quality, and environmental and occupational safety.
Regulation of Clinical Laboratories
Virtually all clinical laboratories operating in the U.S. must be certified by the federal government or by a federally approved accreditation agency. In most cases, that certification is regulated by CMS through CLIA, which requires that applicable clinical laboratories meet quality assurance, quality control, and personnel standards. Laboratories also must undergo
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proficiency testing and are subject to inspections. Clinical laboratories in locations other than the U.S. are generally subject to comparable regulation in their respective jurisdictions.
Standards for testing under CLIA are based on the complexity of the tests performed by the laboratory, with tests classified as “high complexity,” “moderate complexity,” or “waived.” Laboratories performing high-complexity testing are required to meet more stringent requirements than moderate-complexity laboratories. Laboratories performing only waived tests, which are tests determined by the FDA to have a low potential for error and requiring little oversight, may apply for a certificate of waiver exempting them from most CLIA requirements. All major and many smaller Company facilities hold CLIA certificates to perform high-complexity testing. The Company's remaining smaller testing sites hold CLIA certificates to perform moderate-complexity testing or a certificate of waiver. The sanctions for failure to comply with CLIA requirements include suspension, revocation, or limitation of a laboratory's CLIA certificate, which is necessary to conduct business; cancellation or suspension of the laboratory's approval to receive Medicare and/or Medicaid reimbursement; as well as significant fines and/or criminal penalties. The loss or suspension of a CLIA certification, imposition of a fine or other penalties, or future changes in the CLIA law or regulations (or interpretation of the law or regulations) could have a material adverse effect on the Company.
The Company is also subject to state and local laboratory regulation. CLIA provides that a state may adopt laboratory regulations different from or more stringent than those under federal law, and a number of states have implemented their own laboratory regulatory requirements. State laws may require that laboratory personnel meet certain qualifications, specify certain quality controls, or require maintenance of certain records.
The Company believes that it is in compliance in all material respects with all laboratory requirements applicable to its laboratories operating both within the U.S. and in other countries. The Company's laboratories have continuing programs to maintain operations in compliance with all such regulatory requirements, but no assurances can be given that the Company's laboratories will pass all future licensure or certification inspections.
FDA and Other Regulatory Agency Laws and Regulations
Various regulatory agencies, including CMS and the FDA in the U.S., regulate the development, testing, manufacturing, labeling, advertising, marketing, distribution, storage, import, export, performance, and surveillance of diagnostic and therapeutic products and services, including certain products and services offered by the Company and the development of therapeutic products that comprise the majority of DD’s business. The FDA and other regulatory agencies periodically inspect and review the manufacturing processes and product performance of diagnostic and therapeutic products, while CMS, certain state programs, and accreditation entities inspect and review the facilities, personnel, and procedures of clinical laboratories and their laboratory operations. The FDA and other regulatory agencies also periodically inspect clinical study sites and CROs that conduct clinical trials, including test facilities that perform tests on samples from human subjects enrolled in such clinical studies of drugs, biologics, and medical devices. These agencies have the authority to take various administrative and legal actions for noncompliance, such as fines, withdrawal of product approval, warning or untitled letters, seizures, recalls, injunctions, and other civil and criminal sanctions.
Since 2014, there have been ongoing discussions and advocacy between stakeholders, including the clinical laboratory industry, the FDA, and Congress, about potential FDA regulation of laboratory-developed tests (LDTs), which are assays developed and performed in-house by clinical laboratories and can be made available to the public without pre-market review by the FDA (although COVID-19 diagnostic PCR LDTs have been subject to FDA pre-market requirements as a consequence of the national health emergency). Various regulatory and legislative proposals are under consideration, including some that could increase general FDA oversight of clinical laboratories and LDTs. The outcome and ultimate impact of such proposals on the Company is difficult to predict at this time.
There are similar national and regional regulatory agencies, and regulations, in the jurisdictions outside of the U.S. in which the Company operates. For example, the European Union In Vitro Diagnostics Regulation (Regulation (EU) 2017/746 (EU IVDR)), scheduled to become applicable May 26, 2022, establishes a new legislative framework for in vitro diagnostic devices including a rule-based classification and quality and safety standards. The Company continues to assess and prepare for compliance with the EU IVDR, where applicable.
DD’s laboratory facilities and Dx's clinical laboratory facilities that perform testing in support of clinical trials, must conform to a range of standards and regulations, including good laboratory practice (GLP) and good clinical practice (GCP), good manufacturing practice (cGMP), human subject protection and investigational product exemption regulations, and quality system regulation (QSR) requirements, as applicable. The preclinical and clinical studies that the Company conducts are subject to periodic inspections by the FDA as well as other regulatory agencies in the jurisdictions outside the U.S. in which the Company operates, which may include, without limitation, the Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) in the U.K., the European Medicines Agency, the National Medical Products Administration in China, and the Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency in Japan, to determine compliance with GLP and GCP as well as other
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applicable standards and regulations. If a regulatory agency determines during an inspection that the Company’s equipment, facilities, laboratories, operations, or processes do not comply with applicable regulations and GLP and/or GCP standards, the regulatory agency may issue a formal notice, which may be followed by a warning letter if observations are not addressed satisfactorily. Noncompliance may result in, among other things, unanticipated compliance expenditures, or the regulatory agency seeking civil, criminal or administrative sanctions and/or remedies against the Company, including suspension of its operations.
Additionally, certain DD services and activities, such as chemistry, manufacturing, and controls (CMC) services and manufacturing of investigational medicinal products for use in certain Phase I studies managed by DD, must conform to cGMP. DD is subject to periodic inspections by the FDA and the MHRA, as well as other regulatory agencies in the jurisdictions outside the U.S. in which the Company operates, in order to assess, among other things, cGMP compliance. If a regulatory agency identifies deficiencies during an inspection, it may issue a formal notice, which may be followed by a warning letter if observations are not addressed satisfactorily. Failure to maintain compliance with cGMP regulations and other applicable requirements of various regulatory agencies could result in, among other things, fines, warnings or untitled letters, unanticipated compliance expenditures, suspension of manufacturing, enforcement actions, product seizures or recalls, injunctions, or criminal prosecution.
Some Dx products are regulated by the FDA as medical devices. The FDA defines a medical device in part as an instrument, apparatus, implement, machine, contrivance, implant, in vitro reagent, or other similar or related article which is intended for the diagnosis of disease or other conditions or in the cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease in man. FDA regulates the development, testing, manufacturing, marketing, post-market surveillance, distribution, advertising and labeling of products classified as medical devices separate from clinical diagnostic testing services offered under CLIA requirements. FDA regulatory requirements include: all of the relevant elements of the Quality System Regulation (which requires manufacturers to follow stringent design, testing, control, documentation and other quality assurance procedures), labeling regulations, restrictions on promotion and advertising, Medical Device Reporting regulations (which requires the manufacturer to report to the FDA if its device may have caused or contributed to a death or serious injury or malfunctioned in a way that would likely cause or contribute to a death or serious injury if it were to recur), the Reports of Corrections and Removals regulations (which requires manufacturers to report certain recalls and field actions to the FDA), and other post-market requirements.
To ensure compliance with regulatory requirements, medical device manufacturers are subject to market surveillance and periodic, pre-scheduled and unannounced inspections by the FDA. Failure to comply with applicable regulatory requirements can result in enforcement action by the FDA, which may include sanctions, operating restrictions, partial suspension or total shutdown of production; refusal to grant clearance or approvals of new devices; withdrawal of clearance or approval; and civil or criminal prosecution.
Animal Welfare Laws and Regulations
The conduct of animal research at DD’s facilities in the U.S. must be in compliance with the Animal Welfare Act (AWA), which governs the care and use of warm-blooded animals for research in the U.S. other than laboratory rats, mice, and chickens, and is enforced through periodic inspections by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). The AWA establishes facility standards regarding several aspects of animal welfare, including housing, ventilation, lighting, feeding and watering, handling, veterinary care, and recordkeeping. DD complies with licensing and registration requirement standards set by the USDA and similar agencies in foreign jurisdictions such as the European Union, the U.K., and China for the care and use of regulated species. If the USDA determines that DD’s equipment, facilities, laboratories or processes do not comply with applicable AWA standards, it may issue an inspection report documenting the deficiencies and setting deadlines for any required corrective actions. The USDA may impose fines, suspend and/or revoke licenses and registrations, or confiscate research animals. Other countries where the Company conducts business have similar laws and regulations with which the Company must also comply. In addition, certain of DD’s animal-related activities may be subject to regulation by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare of the National Institutes of Health, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and similar organizations in other jurisdictions.
Payment for Clinical Laboratory Services
In 2021, Dx derived approximately 10.1% of its revenue directly from traditional Medicare and Medicaid programs. In addition, Dx's other commercial laboratory testing business that is not directly related to Medicare or Medicaid nevertheless depends significantly on continued participation in these programs and in other government healthcare programs, in part because customers often want a single laboratory to perform all of their testing services. In recent years, both governmental and private-sector payers have made efforts to contain or reduce healthcare costs, including reducing reimbursement for clinical laboratory services.
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Reimbursement under the Medicare PFS is capped at different rates in each Medicare Administrative Contractor's jurisdiction. Pursuant to PAMA, reimbursement under the CLFS is set at a national rate that is updated every three years for most tests. State Medicaid programs are prohibited from paying more than the Medicare fee schedule limit for clinical laboratory services furnished to Medicaid recipients. Laboratories primarily bill and are reimbursed by Medicare and Medicaid directly for covered tests performed on behalf of Medicare and Medicaid beneficiaries. For beneficiaries that participate in Managed Medicare and Managed Medicaid plans, laboratory bills are submitted to and paid by MCOs that manage those plans. Approximately 8.5% of Dx's revenue is reimbursed directly by Medicare under the CLFS.
Many pathology services performed by Dx are reimbursed by Medicare under the PFS. The PFS assigns relative value units to each procedure or service, and a conversion factor is applied to calculate the reimbursement. The PFS is also subject to adjustment on an annual basis. Such adjustments can impact both the conversion factor and relative value units. The Sustainable Growth Rate (SGR), the formula previously used to calculate the fee schedule conversion factor, would have resulted in significant decreases in payment for most physician services for each year since 2003. However, Congress intervened repeatedly to prevent these payment reductions, and the conversion factor was increased or frozen for the subsequent year. The Medicare Access and CHIP Reauthorization Act of 2015 (MACRA) permanently replaced the SGR formula and transitioned PFS reimbursement to a value-based payment system. MACRA retroactively avoided a 21.2% reduction in PFS reimbursement that had been scheduled for April 1, 2015, and provided for PFS conversion factor increases of 0.5% from July 1, 2015 to December 31, 2015, and 0.5% in each of years 2016-2019, followed by no updates for 2020-2025, and updates that vary based on participation in alternative payment models in subsequent years. These changes to the conversion factor may be offset by reductions to the relative value units, as was the case with the 2016 PFS reductions. For 2022, Congress increased the conversion factor by 3.0% over the amount announced in the final rule, instead of allowing a 3.75% reduction to take effect. Approximately 0.4% of Dx's revenue is reimbursed under the PFS.
In addition to changes in reimbursement rates, Dx is also impacted by changes in coverage policies for laboratory tests and annual CPT coding revisions. Medicare, Medicaid and private payer diagnosis code requirements and payment policies negatively impact Dx's ability to be paid for some of the tests it performs. Further, some payers require additional information to process claims, employ third-party utilization management tools, or have implemented prior authorization policies which delay or prohibit payment. In 2021, there were limited coding and billing changes. While limited changes are expected to be implemented in 2022, the Company typically expects some delays in pricing and reimbursement as new codes are introduced.
Future changes in national, state and local laws and regulations (or in the interpretation of current regulations) affecting government payment for clinical laboratory testing could have a material adverse effect on the Company.
Further healthcare reform could occur in 2022, including changes to the ACA and Medicare reform, as well as administrative requirements that may continue to affect coverage, reimbursement, and utilization of laboratory services in ways that are currently unpredictable.
Privacy, Security and Confidentiality of Health Information and Other Personal Information
In the U.S., the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) was designed to address issues related to the security and confidentiality of health information and to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the healthcare system by facilitating the electronic exchange of information in certain financial and administrative transactions. These regulations apply to health plans and healthcare providers that conduct standard transactions electronically and healthcare clearinghouses (covered entities). Six such regulations include: (i) the Transactions and Code Sets Rule; (ii) the Privacy Rule; (iii) the Security Rule; (iv) the Standard Unique Employer Identifier Rule; (v) the National Provider Identifier Rule; and (vi) the Health Plan Identifier Rule. The Company believes that it is in compliance in all material respects with each of the HIPAA Rules identified above.
The Privacy Rule regulates the use and disclosure of protected health information (PHI) by covered entities. It also sets forth certain rights that an individual has with respect to his or her PHI maintained by a covered entity, such as the right to access or amend certain records containing PHI or to request restrictions on the use or disclosure of PHI. The Privacy Rule requires covered entities to contractually bind third parties, known as business associates, in the event that they perform an activity or service for or on behalf of the covered entity that involves the creation, receipt, maintenance, or transmission of PHI.
On February 6, 2014, CMS and HHS published final regulations that amended the HIPAA Privacy Rule to provide individuals (or their personal representatives) with the right to receive copies of their test reports from laboratories subject to HIPAA, or to request that copies of their test reports be transmitted to designated third parties.
On December 12, 2018, HHS issued a request for information (RFI) seeking input from the public on how the HIPAA regulations and the Privacy Rule, in particular, could be modified to amend existing, or impose additional, obligations relating to the processing of PHI. Subsequent to the RFI, on January 21, 2021, HHS published a notice of proposed rulemaking (NPRM) containing potential modifications to the Privacy Rule addressing standards that may impede the transition to value-based
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healthcare and strengthen individuals' rights to access their health information. The public comment period for the NPRM was closed on May 6, 2021. The Company is monitoring the NPRM process. If modifications to the Privacy Rule are adopted, they may impact the Company's compliance obligations under HIPAA.
The U.S. Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act (HITECH), which was enacted in February 2009, with regulations effective on September 23, 2013, strengthened and expanded the HIPAA Privacy and Security Rules and their restrictions on use and disclosure of PHI. HITECH includes, but is not limited to, prohibitions on exchanging PHI for remuneration and additional restrictions on the use of PHI for marketing. HITECH also fundamentally changes a business associate’s obligations by imposing a number of Privacy Rule requirements and a majority of Security Rule provisions directly on business associates that were previously only directly applicable to covered entities. Moreover, HITECH requires covered entities to provide notice to individuals, HHS, and, as applicable, the media when unsecured PHI is breached, as that term is defined by HITECH. Business associates are similarly required to notify covered entities of a breach.
The administrative simplification provisions of HIPAA mandate the adoption of standard unique identifiers for healthcare providers. The intent of these provisions is to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of the electronic transmission of health information. The National Provider Identifier Rule requires that all HIPAA-covered healthcare providers, whether they are individuals or organizations, must obtain an NPI to identify themselves in standard HIPAA transactions. NPI replaces the unique provider identification number and other provider numbers previously assigned by payers and other entities for the purpose of identifying healthcare providers in standard electronic transactions.
The Health Plan Identifier (HPID) was a unique identifier designed to furnish a standard way to identify health plans in electronic transactions. CMS published the final rule adopting the HPID for health plans required by HIPAA on September 12, 2012. Effective October 31, 2014, CMS announced a delay, until further notice, in enforcement of regulations pertaining to health plan enumeration and use of the HPID in HIPAA transactions adopted in the HPID final rule. On October 28, 2019, CMS published a final rule rescinding the adopted standard unique HPID and implementation specifications and requirements for its use and other entity identifier and implementation specifications for its use, effective December 27, 2019. This delay remains in effect. The Company will continue to monitor future developments related to the HPID and respond accordingly.
Violations of the HIPAA provisions could result in civil and/or criminal penalties, including significant fines and up to 10 years in prison. HITECH also significantly strengthened HIPAA enforcement by increasing the civil penalty amounts that may be imposed, requiring HHS to conduct periodic audits to confirm compliance and authorizing state attorneys general to bring civil actions seeking either injunctions or damages in response to violations of the HIPAA privacy and security regulations that affect the privacy of state residents.
The total cost associated with meeting the ongoing requirements of HIPAA and HITECH is not expected to be material to the Company’s operations or cash flows. However, future regulations and interpretations of HIPAA and HITECH could impose significant costs on the Company.
On May 1, 2020, HHS published a final rule making the information blocking provisions (Information Blocking Rules) of the 21st Century Cures Act effective on November 2, 2020. On November 4, 2020, HHS extended the effective date of the Information Blocking Rules to April 5, 2021. The Information Blocking Rules prohibit covered actors, including healthcare providers, from engaging in activity that is likely to interfere with the access, exchanges, or use of electronic health information (EHI) unless such activity falls into one of eight exceptions. The Information Blocking Rules provide for civil monetary penalties for noncompliance by healthcare IT vendors and, separately, “appropriate disincentives” for noncompliance by healthcare providers. The Company believes that it is in compliance in all material respects with the requirements of the Information Blocking Rules.
In addition to the regulations described above, numerous other data protection, privacy and similar laws govern the confidentiality, security, use, and disclosure of personal information. These laws vary by jurisdiction, but they most commonly regulate or restrict the collection, use, and disclosure of medical and financial information and other personal information. In the U.S., some state laws are more restrictive and, therefore, are not preempted by HIPAA. Penalties for violation of these laws may include sanctions against a laboratory's licensure, as well as civil and/or criminal penalties.
Congress and state legislatures also have been implementing new legislation relating to privacy and data protection. For example, on June 28, 2018, the California legislature passed the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA), which became effective January 1, 2020. The CCPA created transparency requirements and granted California residents several new rights with regard to their personal information. In addition, in November 2020, California voters approved the California Privacy Rights Act (CPRA) ballot initiative, which introduced significant amendments to the CCPA and established and funded a dedicated California privacy regulator, the California Privacy Protection Agency (CPPA). The amendments introduced by the CPRA go into effect on January 1, 2023, and new implementing regulations are expected to be introduced by the CPPA. Failure to comply with the CCPA may result in, among other things, significant civil penalties and injunctive relief, or potential
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statutory or actual damages. In addition, California residents have the right to bring a private right of action in connection with certain types of incidents. These claims may result in significant liability and potential damages. Other states have passed legislation similar to the CCPA, including the Virginia Consumer Data Protection Act (VCDPA), effective January 1, 2023, and the Colorado Privacy Act (CPA), effective July 1, 2023. Both the VCDPA and CPA heavily mirror the principles and requirements of the CCPA; however, neither provides for a private right of action. The Company implemented processes to manage compliance with the CCPA and continues to assess the impact of the CPRA, VCDPA, and CPA on the Company’s business as additional information and guidance becomes available.
Effective August 14, 2020, the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration of HHS (SAMHSA) announced the finalization of proposed changes to the Confidentiality of Substance Use Disorder Patient Records regulation, 42 Code of Federal Regulations Part 2. This regulation protects the confidentiality of patient records relating to the identity, diagnosis, prognosis, or treatment that are maintained in connection with the performance of any federally assisted program or activity relating to substance use disorder education, prevention, training, treatment, rehabilitation, or research. Under the regulation, patient identifying information may only be released with the individual’s written consent, subject to certain limited exceptions. The latest changes to this regulation seek to better facilitate care coordination, while maintaining more stringent confidentiality of substance use disorder information. The Company adopted changes to its policies and procedures necessary for compliance.
The European Union General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) Regulation (EU) 2016/679, became effective May 25, 2018, replacing Directive 95/46/EC. The GDPR established requirements applicable to the use and transfer of personal data and imposes penalties for noncompliance of up to the greater of €20 million or 4% of worldwide revenue. The GDPR requires transparency with regard to the means and purposes of processing of personal data; collection of consent to process personal data in certain circumstances; the ability to provide records of processing upon request by a supervisory authority or data controller; implementation of appropriate technical and organizational measures to maintain security of personal data; notification of personal data breaches to supervisory authorities, data controllers, and individuals within expedient time frames; and performance of data protection impact assessments for certain processing activities. The GDPR also provides individual data subjects with certain rights, where applicable, including the right of access, the right to rectification, the right to be forgotten, the right to restrict or object to processing, and the right to data portability. The GDPR requires that personal data may only be transferred outside of the European Union to a country that offers an adequate level of data protection under standards set by the European Union, or where such transfer is otherwise pursuant to a legal framework approved by the European Union. On July 16, 2020, the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) released its decision in Data Protection Commission v. Facebook Ireland Limited, Maximillian Schrems (Schrems II), which invalidated the EU-U.S. Privacy Shield as a legal framework for the transfer of personal data outside of the European Union, and suggesting additional safeguards for the use of Standard Contractual Clauses (SCCs) as a legal framework for the transfer of personal data outside of the European Union. On June 4, 2021, the European Commission release updated SCCs, which, in part, adopted many of the additional safeguards highlighted in the Schrems II decision. Companies using SCCs for the transfer of personal data outside of the European Union are required to use the new SCCs for new transfers of personal data as of September 27, 2021, and for all transfers of personal data as of December 27, 2022. The Company has established processes and frameworks to manage compliance with the GDPR and other global privacy and data protection requirements, and to manage preparation for future enacted regulations. Compliance could impose significant costs on the Company.
In addition to the GDPR, numerous other countries have laws governing the collection, use, disclosure, and transmission (including cross-border transfer) of personal information, including medical information. The legislative and regulatory landscape for privacy and data protection is complex and continually evolving. Data protection regulations have been enacted or updated in regions where the Company does business including in Asia, Latin America, and Europe, and in countries such as Canada, India, and the UK. Failure to comply with these regulations may result in, among other things, civil, criminal and contractual liability, fines, regulatory sanctions and damage to the Company’s reputation.
Fraud and Abuse Laws and Regulations
Existing U.S. laws governing federal healthcare programs, including Medicare and Medicaid, as well as similar state laws, impose a variety of broadly described fraud and abuse prohibitions on healthcare providers, including clinical laboratories. These laws are interpreted liberally and enforced aggressively by multiple government agencies, including the U.S. Department of Justice, OIG and various state agencies. Historically, the clinical laboratory industry has been the focus of major governmental enforcement initiatives. The U.S. government's enforcement efforts have been conducted under regulations such as HIPAA, which includes several provisions related to fraud and abuse enforcement, including the establishment of a program to coordinate and fund U.S., state and local law enforcement efforts, and the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005, which includes requirements directed at Medicaid fraud, including increased spending on enforcement and financial incentives for states to adopt false claims act provisions similar to the U.S. False Claims Act. Amendments to the False Claims Act, and other enhancements to the U.S. fraud and abuse laws enacted as part of the ACA, have further increased fraud and abuse enforcement
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efforts and compliance risks. For example, the ACA established an obligation to report and refund overpayments from Medicare or Medicaid within 60 days of identification (whether or not paid through any fault of the recipient); failure to comply with this requirement can give rise to additional liability under the False Claims Act and Civil Monetary Penalties statute.
The U.S. Anti-Kickback Statute prohibits knowingly providing anything of value in return for, or to induce the referral of, Medicare, Medicaid or other U.S. federal healthcare program business. Violations can result in imprisonment, fines, penalties, and/or exclusion from participation in U.S. federal healthcare programs. The OIG has published “safe harbor” regulations that specify certain arrangements that are protected from prosecution under the Anti-Kickback Statute if all conditions of the relevant safe harbor are met. Failure to fit within a safe harbor does not necessarily constitute a violation of the Anti-Kickback Statute; rather, the arrangement would be subject to scrutiny by regulators and prosecutors and would be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. Many states have their own Medicaid anti-kickback laws, and several states also have anti-kickback laws that apply to all payers (i.e., not just government healthcare programs).
From time to time, the OIG issues alerts and other guidance on certain practices in the healthcare industry that implicate the Anti-Kickback Statute or other fraud and abuse laws. OIG Special Fraud Alerts and Advisory Opinions relevant to the Company set forth a number of practices allegedly engaged in by some clinical laboratories and healthcare providers that raise issues under the U.S. fraud and abuse laws, including the Anti-Kickback Statute. These practices include: (i) providing employees to furnish valuable services for physicians (other than collecting patient specimens for testing) that are typically the responsibility of the physicians’ staff; (ii) offering or providing discounted laboratory services billed to referral sources in return for referrals of other tests that are billed to U.S. federal healthcare programs; (iii) providing free testing to physicians’ managed care patients in situations where the referring physicians benefit from such reduced laboratory utilization; (iv) providing free pickup and disposal of biohazardous waste for physicians for items unrelated to a laboratory’s testing services; (v) providing general-use facsimile machines or computers to physicians that are not exclusively used in connection with the laboratory services; (vi) providing free testing for healthcare providers, their families and their employees (i.e., so-called “professional courtesy” testing); (vii) rental of space in physician offices by equipment suppliers or other healthcare entities to which the physicians make referrals; (viii) compensation paid by laboratories to physicians for blood specimen processing and for submitting patient data to registries; and (ix) remuneration provided to physicians and other health care professionals by pharmaceutical and medical device companies in connection with company-sponsored speaker programs.
In addition to the Anti-Kickback Statute, in October 2018, the U.S. enacted the Eliminating Kickbacks in Recovery Act of 2018 (EKRA), as part of the Substance Use-Disorder Prevention that Promotes Opioid Recovery and Treatment for Patients and Communities Act (SUPPORT Act). EKRA is an all-payer anti-kickback law that makes it a criminal offense to pay any remuneration to induce referrals to, or in exchange for, patients using the services of a recovery home, a substance use clinical treatment facility, or laboratory. Although it appears that EKRA was intended to reach patient brokering and similar arrangements to induce patronage of substance use recovery and treatment, the language in EKRA is broadly written. As drafted, an EKRA prohibition on incentive compensation to sales employees is inconsistent with the federal anti-kickback statute and regulations, which permit payment of employee incentive compensation, a practice that is common in the industry. Significantly, EKRA permits the U.S. Department of Justice to issue regulations clarifying EKRA’s exceptions or adding additional exceptions, but such regulations have not yet been issued, and there is no additional DOJ or other government guidance to indicate how and to what extent it will be applied and enforced in the industry. The Company is working through its trade association to address the scope of EKRA.
Under another U.S. statute, known as the Stark Law or “physician self-referral” prohibition, physicians who have a financial or a compensation relationship with a commercial laboratory may not, unless an exception applies, refer Medicare or Medicaid patients for testing to the laboratory, regardless of the intent of the parties. Similarly, laboratories may not bill Medicare or Medicaid for services furnished pursuant to a prohibited self-referral. There are several Stark Law exceptions that are relevant to arrangements involving clinical laboratories, including: i) fair market value compensation for the provision of items or services; ii) payments by physicians to a laboratory for commercial laboratory services; iii) ancillary services (including laboratory services) provided within the referring physician's own office, if certain criteria are satisfied; iv) physician investment in a company whose stock is traded on a public exchange and has stockholder equity exceeding $75.0 million; and v) certain space and equipment rental arrangements that are set at a fair market value rate and satisfy other requirements. Many states have their own self-referral laws as well, which in some cases apply to all patient referrals, not just government reimbursement programs.
In December 2020, the OIG and CMS published final rules to amend the regulations implementing the Anti-Kickback Statute and the Stark Law, respectively. The amendments were primarily intended to alleviate perceived impediments to coordinated care and value-based compensation arrangements through new safe harbors to the Anti-Kickback Statute and new exceptions to the Stark Law, and have varying degrees of applicability to laboratories. The CMS final rule incorporates laboratories and permits support for value-based arrangements, under certain conditions for purposes of the Stark Law. However, the OIG final rule generally excludes laboratories from protection under the Anti-Kickback Statute safe harbors for
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value-based arrangements.
There are a variety of other types of U.S. and state fraud and abuse laws, including laws prohibiting submission of false or fraudulent claims and that require certain companies to disclose payments and other transfers of value to certain healthcare professionals and providers. The Company seeks to conduct its business in compliance with all U.S. and state fraud and abuse laws. The Company is unable to predict how these laws will be applied in the future, and no assurances can be given that its arrangements will not be subject to scrutiny under such laws. Sanctions for violations of these laws may include exclusion from participation in Medicare, Medicaid, and other U.S. or state healthcare programs, significant criminal and civil fines and penalties, and loss of licensure. Any exclusion from participation in a U.S. healthcare program, or material loss of licensure, arising from any action by any federal or state regulatory or enforcement authority, would likely have a material adverse effect on the Company's business. In addition, any significant criminal or civil penalty resulting from such proceedings could have a material adverse effect on the Company's business.
Enrollment and re-enrollment in U.S. healthcare programs, including Medicare and Medicaid, are subject to certain program integrity requirements intended to protect the programs from fraud, waste, and abuse. In September 2019, CMS published a final rule implementing program integrity enhancements to provider enrollment requiring Medicare, Medicaid, and Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP) providers and suppliers to disclose on an enrollment application or a revalidation application any current or previous direct or indirect affiliation with a provider or supplier that (1) has uncollected debt; (2) has been or is subject to a payment suspension under a federal health care program; (3) has been or is excluded by the OIG from Medicare, Medicaid, or CHIP; or (4) has had its Medicare, Medicaid, or CHIP billing privileges denied or revoked. This rule permits CMS to deny enrollment based on such an affiliation when CMS determines that the affiliation poses an undue risk of fraud, waste, or abuse. CMS is phasing in this new affiliation disclosure requirement.
In November 2021, CMS published a final rule for the 2022 Medicare Physician Fee Schedule, which included further program integrity requirements. CMS finalized its proposal to expand the categories of parties within the purview of the denial and revocation provisions to include excluded administrative or management services personnel who furnish services payable by a federal healthcare program, such as a billing specialist, accountant, or human resources specialist. CMS also codified the billing privilege deactivation rebuttal process, under which a provider or supplier would have 15 calendar days from receipt of written notice of a deactivation to submit a rebuttal, and CMS could, in its discretion, extend the 15-day period to account for certain special situations. In addition, CMS defined factors it would use to determine whether revocation or suspension of billing privileges is appropriate due to a pattern or practice of non-compliant billing, which would be: (a) the percentage of submitted claims that were denied during the period under consideration; (b) whether the provider or supplier has any history of final adverse actions and the nature of any such actions; (c) the type of billing non-compliance and the specific facts surrounding said non-compliance (to the extent this can be determined); and (d) any other information regarding the provider's or supplier's specific circumstances that CMS deems relevant to the determination. This is a reduction in the number of factors that were previously considered and a revision of some previous factors.
Environment, Health, and Safety
The Company is subject to licensing and requirements under laws and regulations relating to the protection of the environment, and employee health and safety. These laws and regulations include the safe handling, use, transportation and disposal of potentially infectious and hazardous materials; the assessment of potential work-related risks and establishment of work practice and engineering controls, and providing protective clothing and equipment, training, and medical surveillance; designed to minimize risk to employee health and safety and the environment.
The Company is committed to reducing its carbon footprint. Labcorp participates in the Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP) and the EcoVadis sustainable procurement rating processes and has committed to submitting a Science Based Target by the end of 2022. Energy-saving measures at Company facilities include for example, installation of more efficient boilers, chillers, ventilation systems and LED lighting, engaging in waste-to-energy disposition, and reducing waste going to landfills. Funding for these and similar projects continued through 2021 and are continuing in 2022.
The Company seeks to comply with all relevant environment, employee health and safety laws and regulations. Failure to comply could subject the Company to various administrative and/or other enforcement actions.
Drug Testing
Drug testing for public sector employees is regulated by the SAMHSA, which has established detailed performance and quality standards that laboratories must meet to be approved to perform drug testing on employees of U.S. government contractors and certain other entities. To the extent that the Company’s laboratories perform such testing, each must be certified as meeting SAMHSA standards. The Company’s laboratories in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina; Raritan, New Jersey; Houston, Texas; Southaven, Mississippi; and St. Paul, Minnesota are all SAMHSA certified.
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Controlled Substances
DD handles controlled substances as part of the services it provides in preclinical testing and clinical trials. The use of controlled substances in testing for drugs of abuse is regulated by the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. The Company seeks to conduct its business in compliance with these regulations as applicable. Violations of these rules may result in criminal and civil fines and penalties.
Compliance Program
The Company maintains a comprehensive, global compliance program that includes ongoing evaluation and monitoring of its compliance with the laws and regulations of the U.S. and the other countries in which it has operations. The objective of the Company’s compliance program is to develop, implement, monitor, and update compliance safeguards, as appropriate. Although the Company is subject to a broad range of regulations, its compliance program has a particular focus on regulations related to healthcare fraud and abuse, anti-kickback, physician self-referral, government reimbursement programs, anti-bribery/anti-corruption, anti-human trafficking, and trade sanctions, among others. Emphasis is placed on developing and implementing compliance policies and guidelines, personnel training programs, monitoring and auditing activities, and providing systems for reporting and investigation of potential or actual compliance concerns. The compliance program demonstrates the Company's commitment to conducting business at the highest standards of ethical conduct and integrity.
The Company seeks to conduct its business in compliance with all statutes, regulations, and other requirements applicable to its clinical laboratory operations and drug development business. The clinical laboratory industry and drug development industries are, however, subject to extensive regulation, and many of these statutes and regulations have not been interpreted by the courts. In addition, the applicability or interpretation of statutes and regulations may not be clear in light of emerging changes in clinical testing science, healthcare technology, and healthcare organizations. Applicable statutes and regulations may be interpreted or applied by a prosecutorial, regulatory or judicial authority in a manner that would materially adversely affect the Company. Potential sanctions for violation of these statutes and regulations include significant civil and criminal penalties, fines, exclusion from participation in governmental healthcare programs, and the loss of various licenses, certificates, and authorizations necessary to operate, as well as potential liabilities from third-party claims, all of which could have a material adverse effect on the Company’s business.
Information Security
Information security is one of the Company's top priorities. Securing personal and health information is critical to the Company’s business operations and to future growth, as the Company is committed to using technology to improve the delivery of care. A security breach could have a material adverse operational, financial, regulatory, and reputational impact to the Company. The Company employs a secure technology framework that enables continuous operations of laboratory devices, computers, and communications systems. The Company has experienced and expects to continue to confront attempts by cybercriminals who seek access to its systems and data.
The Company uses state-of-the art tools and advanced analytics to proactively identify and protect against potential information system disruptions and breaches; to monitor, test and secure key networks and services; and to facilitate prompt resumption of operations if a system disruption or interruption should occur. The Company has implemented policies and procedures designed to comply with global laws and regulations related to the privacy and security of personal and health information. Additionally, the Company maintains a comprehensive behavior management and communications program, which addresses the human element of cybersecurity by providing staff with extensive awareness, education, and training to help prevent cybercrime from succeeding through human error.
The Company is exposed to risks related to information security arising from the information technology systems and operations of third parties, including the Company's vendors and partners. Therefore, a stringent process is followed for evaluating the cybersecurity status of vendors or third parties that will have access to the Company's data or information technology systems. The Company also carries cybersecurity and business interruption insurance.
Over the past several years, the Company has significantly increased its investment in cybersecurity technology and training to help protect its information technology systems and operations in response to the ever-evolving cyber threat landscape. Additional resources will be dedicated as needed to expand the Company’s ability to investigate and remediate any cybersecurity vulnerabilities, and to manage any impact of a cybersecurity event on its business and operations.
In July 2018, the Company experienced a ransomware incident which affected certain Dx information technology systems. The incident temporarily affected certain other information technology systems involved in conducting Company-wide operations. An investigation determined that the ransomware did not and could not transfer patient or client data outside of Company systems and that there was no theft or misuse of patient or client data.
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On May 14, 2019, Retrieval-Masters Credit Bureau, Inc. d/b/a/ American Medical Collections Agency (AMCA), an external collection agency, notified the Company about a security incident AMCA experienced that may have involved certain personal information about some of the Company's patients (the AMCA Incident). The Company is involved in pending and threatened litigation related to the AMCA Incident, as well as various government and regulatory inquiries and processes. For additional information about the AMCA Incident, see Note 14 Commitments and Contingencies to the Consolidated Financial Statements.

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ITEM 1A. RISK FACTORS
Item 1A. Risk Factors
Investors should carefully consider all of the information set forth in this Annual Report, including the following risk factors, before deciding to invest in any of the Company’s securities. The risks below are not the only ones that the Company faces. Additional risks not presently known to the Company, or that it presently deems immaterial, may also negatively impact the Company. The Company’s business, consolidated financial condition, revenues, results of operations, profitability, reputation or cash flows could be materially impacted by any of these factors.
Risks Related to the COVID-19 Pandemic
The effects of the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic could have material adverse impacts on the Company’s business, results of operations, cash flows, and financial position.
The Company is closely monitoring the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on all aspects of its business. Fluctuations in the number of COVID-19 cases typically result in corresponding fluctuations in the Company's COVID-19 PCR and antibody testing (COVID-19 Testing) volumes and its Base Business (operations except for COVID-19 Testing), and may have a negative effect on the Company's business and financial performance. Given the continued unpredictability pertaining to the COVID-19 pandemic, the impact on the Company's business continues to be uncertain and depends on a number of evolving factors that the Company may not be able to predict or effectively respond to.
A further spread of COVID-19, including the rise of variants, and the Company’s initiatives to help limit the spread of the illness, continue to impact the Company’s ability to carry out its business as usual, which could materially adversely impact its business and financial condition. The Company has incurred additional costs in order to provide for the safety of its employees and the continuity of its operations, including increased frequency of deep cleaning and sanitation at each of its physical locations, additional safety training and processes, enhanced hygiene practices and materials, flexible and remote working where possible, and allowing for greater social distancing for the Company’s employees who must work on-site. Additionally, the Company has made a number of changes at the Company’s patient service centers (PSCs) for the comfort and safety of the patients, many of which have also increased costs for the Company. For example, the Company set aside the first business hour of every day for vulnerable patients, launched a mobile check-in process that allows patients to wait for their appointment from within their car or other nearby location, and increased sanitation and disinfection in check-in areas, waiting rooms, bathrooms, and hallways with CDC-approved disinfectants.
The Company faces increased cybersecurity risks due to the number of employees that are working remotely in regions impacted by stay-at-home orders. Increased levels of remote access create additional opportunities for cybercriminals to exploit vulnerabilities, and employees may be more susceptible to phishing and social engineering attempts. The Company may also be subject to increased cyber-attacks, such as phishing attacks by threat actors using the attention placed on the pandemic as a method for targeting the Company's personnel. In addition, technological resources may be strained due to the number of remote users.
Adverse changes in government and third-party payer regulations, reimbursement, or coverage policies (or in the interpretation of current regulations) relating to COVID-19 testing could materially impact the Company's results of operations, cash flows and financial position.
The Company expects to continue to incur additional costs, which may be significant, as it continues to implement operational changes in response to this pandemic. Further, the COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted and could continue to disrupt the Company’s supply chain, including by impacting its ability to secure test collection supplies, equipment and testing supplies for its facilities, personal protective equipment for its employees in its testing locations, PSCs, and drug development clinics. For similar reasons, the COVID-19 pandemic has also adversely impacted, and may continue to adversely impact, third parties that are critical to the Company’s business, including vendors, suppliers, and business partners. These developments, and others that are difficult or impossible to predict, could materially impact the Company’s business, financial results, cash flows, and financial position.
During 2020 and 2021, the Company diverted resources to developing and enhancing the accessibility of COVID-19 testing, while at the same time taking certain steps with respect to its business strategy in order to increase cash flexibility. For example, in 2020 the Company temporarily suspended its share repurchase program, applied a heightened threshold to acquisition
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activity, and delayed some of its non-COVID-19 related capital expenditures. These measures, and any other measures the Company has taken and will continue to take to mitigate COVID-19, may be insufficient to ensure the financial stability of the Company, or may have other adverse impacts on the Company’s business, results of operations, cash flows, and financial position. Additionally, if the pandemic continues for an extended period of time, the Company may be forced to prioritize its application of resources to the continued mitigation of COVID-19, at the expense of other potentially profitable opportunities or initiatives, such as through the development of new products or selected business acquisitions.
If the Company does not respond appropriately to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, or if the Company’s customers do not perceive its response to be adequate, the Company could suffer damage to its reputation, which could adversely affect its business.
On March 11, 2020, the outbreak of COVID-19 was declared a global pandemic and containment and mitigation measures were recommended; six days prior to this characterization, the Company announced the availability of its Labcorp 2019 Novel Coronavirus (COVID-19) PCR test, which detects the presence of the underlying virus that causes COVID-19, for use with patients who meet current guidance for evaluation of infection with COVID-19. Through 2020 and 2021, the Company launched multiple options to expand access to COVID-19 PCR and antibody testing, and introduced a series of innovations to increase test capacity, throughput, and efficiency to maximize the use of supplies. The Company performed approximately 30 million PCR tests and 4 million antibody tests in 2021, and has maintained the capacity to perform 275,000 PCR tests and 300,000 antibody tests per day. The Company's testing capacity remains dependent on access to multiple testing platforms and the availability of equipment and testing supplies and key personnel. The Company's central laboratory business has also seen a significant increase in demand for sample collection supplies and kits and for clinical trials testing, which has put some pressure on the Company's supply chain and caused some delays in delivery of kit orders and clinical trial testing result delivery. Despite the Company's efforts to obtain adequate clinical trial kit and testing supplies and expand its capacity to make clinical trials collection kits and perform clinical trials testing, the Company may not be successful in meeting the increased demand, and the Company’s customers and other stakeholders may perceive the Company’s responses to the pandemic as insufficient, inadequate or not equivalent to or better than competitors, including with respect to the availability of testing, collection kits, and the amount of time it takes for delivery of test results or fulfillment of kit orders. Factors that may be out of the Company’s control, such as the availability of equipment, supplies, and key personnel and geographical changes in demand, may impact the Company’s ability to meet customer demand and the Company's other responses to the COVID-19 pandemic, and may have an adverse effect on the Company’s operations. Any such disruptions could result in negative publicity, and the Company could suffer damage to its reputation, which could adversely affect its business, results of operations, cash flows, and financial position.
The success of the Company is dependent in part on the efforts of its management team and employees, and the COVID-19 pandemic could divert or hinder the Company’s human capital resources, which may adversely affect the Company’s operations.
The Company’s management team and employees have been acutely focused on efforts to respond to and mitigate COVID-19, including developing COVID-19 Testing. The Company has maintained its capacity to perform COVID-19 Testing and maintain the time for delivering test results. The Company’s management team continues to work closely with federal and state authorities, health officials, clients, and other key constituencies to make testing available to patients. These response efforts have required, and will continue to require, a large investment of time and resources that would otherwise be focused on the development and growth of the Company. Further, the Company's ability to maintain and expand testing capacity depends upon maintaining and expanding its employee population. If the Company’s management team or employees become unavailable due to illness or from other related factors, its operations could be materially adversely affected.
The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has created significant volatility, uncertainty, and economic disruption that could have an adverse impact on the Company’s financial position.
While the Company believes that it maintains a solid financial position, including a strong balance sheet, investment grade ratings, and significant access to credit, the sweeping nature of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has created cascading effects, all of which are difficult to predict. The Company may also experience greater than normal impact due to fluctuations in foreign exchange rates and interest rates, decreased sales volumes, changes in employment rates and health insurance coverage, the speed of the anticipated recovery, the ability of its customers to pay for its services, and governmental and business reactions to the pandemic, all of which are highly uncertain and cannot be predicted. In March of 2020, the Company implemented several measures in order to increase cash flexibility in light of these economic uncertainties, including temporarily suspending its share repurchase program, applying a heightened threshold to acquisition activity, and delaying some of its non-COVID-19 related capital expenditures. In October of 2020, the Company reinstituted its share repurchase program. If the pandemic creates further disruptions or turmoil in the credit and financial markets, the Company’s ability to access capital on favorable terms and continue to meet its liquidity needs in the future could be adversely impacted which may have other adverse impacts on the Company’s business, results of operations, cash flows, and financial position.
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Risks Related to Regulatory and Compliance Matters
Changes in payer regulations or policies (or in the interpretation of current regulations or policies), insurance regulations or approvals, or changes in other laws, regulations or policies in the U.S., may adversely affect U.S. governmental and third-party coverage or reimbursement for clinical laboratory testing and may have a material adverse effect upon the Company.
U.S. and state government payers, such as Medicare and Medicaid, as well as insurers, including MCOs, have increased their efforts to control the cost, utilization and delivery of healthcare services. From time to time, Congress has considered and implemented changes in Medicare fee schedules in conjunction with budgetary legislation. The first phase of reductions pursuant to PAMA came into effect on January 1, 2018, and will continue annually subject to certain phase-in limits through 2025, and without limitations for subsequent periods. Further reductions due to changes in policy regarding coverage of tests or other requirements for payment, such as prior authorization, diagnosis code and other claims edits, may be implemented from time to time. Reimbursement for pathology services performed by Dx is also subject to statutory and regulatory reduction. Reductions in the reimbursement rates and changes in payment policies of other third-party payers may occur as well. Such changes in the past have resulted in reduced payments as well as added costs and have decreased test utilization for the commercial laboratory industry by adding more complex new regulatory and administrative requirements. Further changes in third-party payer regulations, policies, or laboratory benefit or utilization management programs may have a material adverse effect on Dx's business. Actions by federal and state agencies regulating insurance, including healthcare exchanges, or changes in other laws, regulations, or policies may also have a material adverse effect upon Dx's business.
The Company could face significant monetary damages and penalties and/or exclusion from government programs if it violates anti-fraud and abuse laws.
The Company is subject to extensive government regulation at the federal, state, and local levels in the U.S. and other countries where it operates. The Company’s failure to meet governmental requirements under these regulations, including those relating to billing practices and financial relationships with physicians, hospitals, and health systems could lead to civil and criminal penalties, exclusion from participation in Medicare and Medicaid and possible prohibitions or restrictions on the use of its laboratories. While the Company believes that it is in material compliance with all statutory and regulatory requirements, there is a risk that government authorities might take a contrary position. This risk includes, but is not limited to, the potential that government enforcement authorities may take a contrary position with respect to the Eliminating Kickbacks in Recovery Act, given the lack of associated regulations to clarify or add exceptions. Such occurrences, regardless of their outcome, could damage the Company’s reputation and adversely affect important business relationships.
The Company’s business could be harmed from the loss or suspension of a license or imposition of a fine or penalties under, or future changes in, or interpretations of, the law or regulations of CLIA, Medicare, Medicaid or other national, state or local agencies in the U.S. and other countries where the Company operates laboratories.
The commercial laboratory testing industry is subject to extensive U.S. regulation, and many of these statutes and regulations have not been interpreted by the courts. CLIA extends federal oversight to virtually all clinical laboratories operating in the U.S. by requiring that they be certified by the federal government or by a federally approved accreditation agency. The sanction for failure to comply with CLIA requirements may be suspension, revocation or limitation of a laboratory’s CLIA certificate, which is necessary to conduct business, as well as significant fines and/or criminal penalties. In addition, the Company is subject to regulation under state law. State laws may require that laboratories and/or laboratory personnel meet certain qualifications, specify certain quality controls or require maintenance of certain records. The Company also operates laboratories outside of the U.S. and is subject to laws governing its laboratory operations in the other countries where it operates.
Applicable statutes and regulations could be interpreted or applied by a prosecutorial, regulatory or judicial authority in a manner that would adversely affect the Company's business. Potential sanctions for violation of these statutes and regulations include significant fines and the suspension or loss of various licenses, certificates and authorizations, which could have a material adverse effect on the Company’s business. In addition, compliance with future legislation could impose additional requirements on the Company, which may be costly.
Failure to comply with privacy and security laws and regulations could result in fines, penalties and damage to the Company’s reputation with customers and have a material adverse effect upon the Company’s business.
If the Company does not comply with existing or new laws and regulations related to protecting the privacy and security of personal or health information, it could be subject to monetary fines, civil penalties or criminal sanctions.
In the U.S., the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) privacy and security regulations, including the expanded requirements under U.S. Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health Act
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(HITECH), establish comprehensive standards with respect to the use and disclosure of protected health information (PHI), by covered entities, in addition to setting standards to protect the confidentiality, integrity and security of PHI.
HIPAA restricts the Company’s ability to use or disclose PHI, without patient authorization, for purposes other than payment, treatment or healthcare operations (as defined by HIPAA), except for disclosures for various public policy purposes and other permitted purposes outlined in the privacy regulations. HIPAA and HITECH provide for significant fines and other penalties for wrongful use or disclosure of PHI in violation of the privacy and security regulations, including potential civil and criminal fines and penalties. The regulations establish a complex regulatory framework on a variety of subjects, including:
•the circumstances under which the use and disclosure of PHI are permitted or required without a specific authorization by the patient, including, but not limited to, treatment purposes, activities to obtain payments for the Company’s services, and its healthcare operations activities;
•a patient’s rights to access, amend and receive an accounting of certain disclosures of PHI;
•the content of notices of privacy practices for PHI;
•administrative, technical and physical safeguards required of entities that use or receive PHI; and
•the protection of computing systems maintaining electronic PHI.
The Company has implemented policies and procedures designed to comply with the HIPAA privacy and security requirements as applicable. The privacy and security regulations establish a “floor” and do not supersede state laws that are more stringent. Therefore, the Company is required to comply with both additional federal privacy and security regulations and varying state privacy and security laws. In addition, federal and state laws that protect the privacy and security of patient information may be subject to enforcement and interpretations by various governmental authorities and courts, resulting in complex compliance issues. For example, the Company could incur damages under state laws, including pursuant to an action brought by a private party for the wrongful use or disclosure of health information or other personal information.
The Company may also be required to comply with the data privacy and security laws of other countries in which it operates or with which it transfers and receives data. For example, the EU's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), which took effect May 25, 2018, created a range of compliance obligations for subject companies and imposes penalties for noncompliance of up to the greater of €20 million or 4% of worldwide revenue. The Company has established processes and frameworks to manage compliance with the GDPR. Potential fines and penalties in the event of a violation of the GDPR could have a material adverse effect on the Company’s business and operations. In addition, similar data protection regulations addressing access, use, disclosure and transfer of personal data have been enacted or updated in regions where the Company does business, including in Asia, Latin America, and Europe. The Company expects to make changes to its business practices and to incur additional costs associated with compliance with these evolving and complex regulations.
The Company's international operations could subject it to additional risks and expenses that could adversely impact the business or results of operations.
The Company's international operations expose it to risks from potential failure to comply with foreign laws and regulations that differ from those under which the Company operates in the U.S. In addition, the Company may be adversely affected by other risks of expanded operations in foreign countries, including, but not limited to, changes in reimbursement by foreign governments for services provided by the Company; compliance with export controls and trade regulations; changes in tax policies or other foreign laws; compliance with foreign labor and employee relations laws and regulations; restrictions on currency repatriation; judicial systems that less strictly enforce contractual rights; countries that do not have clear or well-established laws and regulations concerning issues relating to commercial laboratory testing or drug development services; countries that provide less protection for intellectual property rights; and procedures and actions affecting approval, production, pricing, reimbursement and marketing of products and services. Further, international operations could subject the Company to additional expenses that the Company may not fully anticipate, including those related to enhanced time and resources necessary to comply with foreign laws and regulations, difficulty in collecting accounts receivable and longer collection periods, and difficulties and costs of staffing and managing foreign operations. In some countries, the Company's success will depend in part on its ability to form relationships with local partners. The Company's inability to identify appropriate partners or reach mutually satisfactory arrangements could adversely affect the business and operations.
Expanded international operations may increase the Company’s exposure to liabilities under the anti-corruption laws.
Anti-corruption laws in the countries where the Company conducts business, including the U.S. Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA), U.K. Bribery Act, and similar laws in other jurisdictions, prohibit companies and their intermediaries from engaging in bribery including improperly offering, promising, paying or authorizing the giving of anything of value to individuals or entities for the purpose of corruptly obtaining or retaining business. The Company operates in some parts of the world where corruption may be common and where anti-corruption laws may conflict to some degree with local customs and practices. The Company maintains an anti-corruption program including policies, procedures, training and safeguards in the
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engagement and management of third parties acting on the Company’s behalf. Despite these safeguards, the Company cannot guarantee protection from corrupt acts committed by employees or third parties associated with the Company. Violations or allegations of violations of anti-corruption laws could have a significant adverse effect on the business or results of operations.
Failure to comply with the regulations of pharmaceutical and medical device regulatory agencies, such as the FDA, the Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency in the United Kingdom (U.K.), the European Medicines Agency, the National Medical Products Administration in China (NMPA), and the Pharmaceuticals and Medical Devices Agency in Japan, could result in sanctions and/or remedies against DD and have a material adverse effect upon the Company.
The operation of DD's preclinical laboratory facilities and clinical trial operations must conform to good laboratory practice (GLP) and good clinical practice (GCP), as applicable, as well as all other applicable standards and regulations, as further described in Item 1 of Part I of this Annual Report. The business operations of DD’s clinical and preclinical laboratories also require the import, export and use of medical devices, in vitro diagnostic devices, reagents, and human and animal biological products. Such activities are subject to numerous applicable local and international regulations with which DD must comply. If DD does not comply, DD could potentially be subject to civil, criminal or administrative sanctions and/or remedies, including suspension of its ability to conduct preclinical and clinical studies, and to import or export to or from certain countries, which could have a material adverse effect upon the Company.
Additionally, certain DD services and activities must conform to current good manufacturing practice (cGMP), as further described in Item 1 of Part I of this Annual Report. Failure to maintain compliance with GLP, GCP, or cGMP regulations and other applicable requirements of various regulatory agencies could result in warning or untitled letters, fines, unanticipated compliance expenditures, suspension of manufacturing, and civil, criminal or administrative sanctions and/or remedies against DD, including suspension of its laboratory operations, which could have a material adverse effect upon the Company.
Actions of animal rights activists may have an adverse effect on the Company.
DD's preclinical services utilize animals in preclinical testing of the safety and efficacy of drugs. Such activities are required for the development of new medicines and medical devices under regulatory regimes in the U.S., Europe, Japan, and other countries. Acts of vandalism and other acts by animal rights activists who object to the use of animals in drug development could have an adverse effect on the Company.
Animal populations may suffer diseases that can damage DD's inventory, harm its reputation, or result in other liability.
It is important that research products be free of diseases, including infectious diseases. The presence of diseases can distort or compromise the quality of research results, cause loss of animals in DD’s inventory, result in harm to humans or outside animal populations if the disease is not contained to animals in inventory, or result in other losses. Such results could harm DD’s reputation or have an adverse effect on DD's financial condition, results of operations, and cash flows.
Failure to conduct animal research in compliance with animal welfare laws and regulations could result in sanctions and/or remedies against DD and have a material adverse effect upon the Company.
The conduct of animal research at DD’s facilities must be in compliance with applicable laws and regulations in the jurisdictions in which those activities are conducted. These laws and regulations include the U.S. Animal Welfare Act (AWA), which governs the care and use of warm-blooded animals for research in the U.S. other than laboratory rats, mice and chickens, and is enforced through periodic inspections by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). The AWA establishes facility standards regarding several aspects of animal welfare, including housing, ventilation, lighting, feeding and watering, handling, veterinary care, and recordkeeping. Similar laws and regulations apply in other jurisdictions in which DD conducts animal research, including the UK, EU, and China. DD complies with licensing and registration requirement standards set by these laws and regulations in the jurisdictions in which it conducts animal research. If an enforcement agency determines that DD’s equipment, facilities, laboratories or processes do not comply with applicable standards, it may issue an inspection report documenting the deficiencies and setting deadlines for any required corrective actions. For noncompliance, the agency may take action against DD that may include fines, suspension and/or revocation of animal research licenses, or confiscation of research animals.
U.S. FDA regulation of diagnostic products, increased FDA regulation of laboratory-developed tests (LDTs), and regulation by other countries of diagnostic products could result in increased costs and the imposition of fines or penalties, and could have a material adverse effect upon the Company’s business.
The FDA has regulatory responsibility for instruments, test kits, reagents and other devices used by clinical laboratories. The FDA enforces laws and regulations that govern the development, testing, manufacturing, performance, labeling, advertising, marketing, distribution, and surveillance of diagnostic products, and it regularly inspects and reviews the
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manufacturing processes and product performance of diagnostic products. Dx’s point-of-care testing devices are subject to regulation by the FDA.
Since the 1990s, the FDA has asserted that it has authority to regulate LDTs as medical devices, but has exercised enforcement discretion to refrain from systematic regulation of LDTs. In 2014, the FDA issued draft guidance describing how it intended to discontinue its enforcement discretion policy and begin regulating LDTs as medical devices; however, that draft guidance has not been finalized, and FDA has instead continued its enforcement discretion policy and has indicated that it intends to work with Congress to enact comprehensive legislative reform of diagnostics oversight. As such, LDTs developed by high complexity clinical laboratories are currently generally offered as services to health care providers under the CLIA regulatory framework administered by CMS, without the requirement for FDA clearance or approval. There are other regulatory and legislative proposals that would increase general FDA oversight of clinical laboratories and LDTs. The outcome and ultimate impact of such proposals on the business is difficult to predict at this time. On February 20, 2020, the FDA issued a statement with a table of pharmacogenetic associations setting forth certain gene-drug interactions that the agency has determined are supported by the scientific literature to help ensure that claims being made for pharmacogenetic tests are grounded in sound science, thereby reducing the risk of enforcement actions with respect to LDTs offering claims consistent with the table. The FDA noted that while it is committed to work with Congress on new comprehensive diagnostic oversight reform legislation, it could still take enforcement actions under the current medical device framework regarding diagnostic claims the agency determines not to be sufficiently supported. Even without issuance of a finalized LDT oversight framework, in light of the April 4, 2019, FDA warning letter issued to Inova Genomics Laboratory related to certain LDTs that Inova offered, as well as the February 2020 pharmacogenetics statement, there may be an increased risk of FDA enforcement actions for laboratory tests offered by companies without FDA clearance or approval.
Current FDA regulation of the Company’s diagnostic products and the potential for future increased regulation of the Company’s LDTs in the future could result in increased costs and administrative and legal actions for noncompliance, including warning letters, fines, penalties, product suspensions, product recalls, injunctions, and other civil and criminal sanctions, which could have a material adverse effect upon the Company.
Regulation of diagnostics products in jurisdictions outside the U.S. in which the Company operates may impact laboratory testing offered by the Company in both Dx and DD. For example, the European Union In Vitro Diagnostics Regulation (Regulation (EU) 2017/746 (EU IVDR)), scheduled to become applicable May 26, 2022, establishes a new legislative framework for in vitro diagnostic devices including a rule-based classification and quality and safety standards.
Failure to comply with U.S., state, local or international environmental, health and safety laws and regulations, including the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration Act and the U.S. Needlestick Safety and Prevention Act, could result in fines and penalties and loss of licensure, and have a material adverse effect upon the Company’s business.
As previously discussed in Item 1 of Part I of this Annual Report, the Company is subject to licensing and regulation under laws and regulations relating to the protection of the environment and human health and safety, including laws and regulations relating to the handling, transportation and disposal of medical specimens, infectious and hazardous waste and radioactive materials, as well as regulations relating to the safety and health of laboratory employees. Failure to comply with these laws and regulations could subject the Company to denial of the right to conduct business, fines, criminal penalties and/or other enforcement actions that would have a material adverse effect on its business. In addition, compliance with future legislation could impose additional requirements on the Company that may be costly.
Risks Related to the Company's Business
General or macro-economic factors in the U.S. and globally may have a material adverse effect upon the Company, and a significant deterioration in the economy could negatively impact testing volumes, drug development services, cash collections and the availability of credit.
The Company’s operations are dependent upon ongoing demand for diagnostic testing and drug development services by patients, physicians, hospitals, MCOs, pharmaceutical, biotechnology and medical device companies and others. A significant downturn in the economy could negatively impact the demand for diagnostic testing and drug development services, as well as the ability of customers to pay for services rendered. In addition, uncertainty in the credit markets could reduce the availability of credit and impact the Company’s ability to meet its financing needs in the future. For additional risks, see “Risk Factors - Risks Related to the COVID-19 Pandemic” in Part I - Item 1A.
Healthcare reform and changes to related products (e.g., health insurance exchanges), changes in government payment and reimbursement systems, or changes in payer mix, including an increase in capitated reimbursement mechanisms and evolving delivery models, could have a material adverse effect on the Company's revenues, profitability and cash flow.
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Dx's testing services are billed to MCOs, Medicare, Medicaid, physicians and physician groups, hospitals, patients and employer groups. Most testing services are billed to a party other than the physician or other authorized person who ordered the test. Increases in the percentage of services billed to government and MCOs could have an adverse effect on the Company’s revenues.
The Company serves many MCOs. These organizations have different contracting philosophies, which are influenced by the design of their products. Some MCOs contract with a limited number of clinical laboratories and engage in direct negotiation of rates. Other MCOs adopt broader networks with generally uniform fee structures for participating clinical laboratories. In some cases, those fee structures are specific to independent clinical laboratories, while the fees paid to hospital-based and physician-office laboratories may be different, and are typically higher. MCOs may also offer Managed Medicare or Managed Medicaid plans. In addition, some MCOs use capitation rates to fix the cost of laboratory testing services for their enrollees. Under a capitated reimbursement arrangement, the clinical laboratory receives a per-member, per-month payment for an agreed upon menu of laboratory tests provided to MCO members during the month, regardless of the number of tests performed.
Capitation shifts the risk of increased test utilization (and the underlying mix of testing services) to the commercial laboratory provider. The Company makes significant efforts to obtain adequate compensation for its services in its capitated arrangements. For the year ended December 31, 2021, such capitated contracts accounted for approximately $332.3 million, or 3.2%, of Dx's revenues.
The Company's ability to attract and retain MCOs is critical given the impact of healthcare reform, related products and expanded coverage (e.g. health insurance exchanges and Medicaid expansion) and evolving value-based care and risk-based reimbursement delivery models (e.g., accountable care organizations (ACOs) and Independent Physician Associations (IPAs)).
A portion of the managed care fee-for-service revenues is collectible from patients in the form of deductibles, coinsurance and copayments. As patient cost-sharing has been increasing, the Company's collections may be adversely impacted.
In addition, Medicare and Medicaid and private insurers have increased their efforts to control the cost, utilization and delivery of healthcare services, including commercial laboratory services. Measures to regulate healthcare delivery in general, and clinical laboratories in particular, have resulted in reduced prices, added costs and decreased test utilization for the commercial laboratory industry by increasing complexity and adding new regulatory and administrative requirements. Pursuant to legislation passed in late 2003, the percentage of Medicare beneficiaries enrolled in Managed Medicare plans has increased. The percentage of Medicaid beneficiaries enrolled in Managed Medicaid plans has also increased, and is expected to continue to increase; however, changes to, or repeal of, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) may continue to affect coverage, reimbursement, and utilization of laboratory services, as well as administrative requirements, in ways that are currently unpredictable. Further healthcare reform could adversely affect laboratory reimbursement from Medicare, Medicaid or commercial carriers.
The Company has also experienced delays in the pricing and implementation of coding and billing changes among various payers, including Medicaid, Medicare and commercial carriers. While some delays were expected, payer policy changes in coverage have had a negative impact on revenue, revenue per requisition, and margins and cash flows. In 2020, limited coding and billing changes were implemented beyond those specifically related to COVID-19 Testing. While limited changes are expected to be implemented in 2021, the Company typically expects some delays in pricing and reimbursement as new codes are introduced.
In addition, some MCOs are implementing, directly or through third parties, various types of laboratory benefit management programs that may include lab networks, utilization management tools (such as prior authorization and/or prior notification), and claims edits, which may impact coverage or reimbursement for commercial laboratory tests. Some of these programs address commercial laboratory testing broadly, while others are focused on certain types of testing such as molecular, genetic and toxicology testing.
The Company expects the efforts to impose reduced reimbursement, more stringent payment policies, and utilization and cost controls by government and other payers to continue. If Dx cannot offset additional reductions in the payments it receives for its services by reducing costs, increasing test volume, and/or introducing new services and procedures, it could have a material adverse effect on the Company’s revenues, profitability and cash flows. In 2014, Congress passed PAMA, requiring Medicare to change the way payment rates are calculated for tests paid under the CLFS, and to base the payment on the weighted median of rates paid by private payers. On June 23, 2016, CMS issued a final rule to implement PAMA that required applicable laboratories, including Dx, to begin reporting their test-specific private payer payment amounts to CMS during the first quarter of 2017. CMS exercised enforcement discretion to permit reporting for an additional 60 days, through May 30, 2017. CMS used that private market data to calculate weighted median prices for each test (based on applicable current procedural technology (CPT) codes) to represent the new CLFS rates beginning in 2018, subject to certain phase-in limits,
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which were revised by Congress in 2019 and 2020. For 2018-2020, a test price could not be reduced by more than 10% per year. As a result of provisions included within the CARES Act, PAMA rate reductions for 2021 were suspended, and therefore the Company did not experience any incremental reimbursement rate impact due to PAMA in 2021. As a result of the Protecting Medicare and American Farmers from Sequester Cuts Act that became law in December 2021, the data reporting requirements and Medicare reimbursement cuts that would have occurred under PAMA in 2022 were delayed by one additional year, and the Company will not experience incremental reimbursement rate impact due to PAMA in 2022.
For 2023-2025, a test price cannot be reduced by more than 15.0% per year. The process of data reporting and repricing will be repeated every three years for Clinical Diagnostic Laboratory Tests (CDLTs) beginning in 2023. CFLS rates for 2026 and subsequent periods will not be subject to phase-in limits. The phase-in of rates for CDLTs established in 2018 will continue in 2023. New CLFS rates will be established in 2024 based on data from 2019 to be reported in 2023. New CLFS rates will be established in 2027 based on data from 2025 to be reported in 2026. CLFS rates for Advanced Diagnostic Laboratory Tests (ADLTs) will be updated annually.
CMS published its initial proposed CLFS rates under PAMA for 2018-2020 on September 22, 2017. Following a public comment period, CMS made adjustments and published final CLFS rates for 2018-2020 on November 17, 2017, with additional adjustments published on December 1, 2017. For 2020, the Company realized a net reduction in reimbursement of approximately $72.01 million from all payers affected by the CLFS (approximately $107.0 million in 2019). 2021 and 2022 PAMA rates were frozen as described above. Unless implementation of PAMA is further delayed or changed, an additional reduction of approximately $100.0 million is expected for 2023, from all payers affected by the CLFS.
Healthcare reform legislation also contains numerous regulations that will require the Company, as an employer, to implement significant process and record-keeping changes to be in compliance. These changes increase the cost of providing healthcare coverage to employees and their families. Given the limited release of regulations to guide compliance, as well as potential changes to the ACA, the exact impact to employers, including the Company, is uncertain.
Changes in government regulation or in practices relating to the pharmaceutical, biotechnology, or medical device industries could decrease the need for certain services that DD provides.
DD assists pharmaceutical, biotechnology and medical device companies in navigating the regulatory approval process. Changes in regulations such as a relaxation in regulatory requirements or the introduction of simplified approval procedures, or an increase in regulatory requirements that DD has difficulty satisfying or that make its services less competitive, could eliminate or substantially reduce the demand for its services. Also, if government efforts to contain drug and medical product and device costs impact profits from such items, or if health insurers were to change their practices with respect to reimbursement for those items, some of DD’s customers may spend less, or reduce their growth in spending on R&D.
On December 13, 2016, the 21st Century Cures Act was signed into law. This Act provides funding designed to increase government spending on certain drug development initiatives; contains several provisions designed to help make the drug development process more streamlined and efficient; and allows the FDA to increase staffing to support drug, medical product and device development, review and regulation. These provisions should be helpful to CROs, including DD, and their customers to the extent that they capitalize on the use of data, adaptive trial designs, real-world evidence, biomarkers and other development tools that are accepted by the FDA.
In addition, implementation of healthcare reform legislation that adds costs could limit the profits that can be made from the development of new drugs and medical products and devices. This could adversely affect R&D expenditures by such companies, which could in turn decrease the business opportunities available to DD both in the U.S. and other countries. New laws or regulations may create a risk of liability, increase DD costs or limit service offerings through DD.
Increased competition, including price competition, could have a material adverse effect on the Company’s revenues and profitability.
As further described in Item 1 of Part I of this Annual Report, both Dx and DD operate in highly competitive industries. The commercial laboratory business is intensely competitive both in terms of price and service. Pricing of laboratory testing services is often one of the most significant factors used by physicians, third-party payers and consumers in selecting a laboratory. As a result of significant consolidation in the commercial laboratory industry, larger commercial laboratory providers are able to increase cost efficiencies afforded by large-scale automated testing. This consolidation results in greater price competition. Dx may be unable to increase cost efficiencies sufficiently, if at all, and as a result, its net earnings and cash flows could be negatively impacted by such price competition. The Company may also face increased competition from companies that do not comply with existing laws or regulations or otherwise disregard compliance standards in the industry. Additionally, the Company may also face changes in fee schedules, competitive bidding for laboratory services, or other actions or pressures reducing payment schedules as a result of increased or additional competition.
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Competitors in the CRO industry range from hundreds of smaller CROs to a limited number of large CROs with global capabilities. DD’s main competition consists of these small and large CROs, as well as in-house departments of pharmaceutical, biotechnology and medical device companies and, to a lesser extent, select universities and teaching hospitals. DD’s services have from time to time experienced periods of increased price competition that had an adverse effect on a segment's profitability and consolidated revenues and net income. There is competition among CROs for both customers and potential acquisition candidates. Additionally, few barriers to entering the CRO industry further increases possible new competition.
These competitive pressures may affect the attractiveness or profitability of Dx’s and DD’s services, and could adversely affect the financial results of the Company.
Failure to obtain and retain new customers, the loss of existing customers or material contracts, or a reduction in services or tests ordered or specimens submitted by existing customers, or the inability to retain existing and/or create new relationships with health systems could impact the Company’s ability to successfully grow its business.
To maintain and grow its business, the Company needs to obtain and retain new customers and business partners. In addition, a reduction in tests ordered or specimens submitted by existing customers, a decrease in demand for the Company's services from existing customers, or the loss of existing contracts, without offsetting growth in its customer base, could impact the Company's ability to successfully grow its business and could have a material adverse effect on the Company’s revenues and profitability. The Company competes primarily on the basis of the quality of services, reporting and information systems, reputation in the medical community and the drug development industry, the pricing of services and ability to employ qualified personnel. The Company's failure to successfully compete on any of these factors could result in the loss of existing customers, an inability to gain new customers and a reduction in the Company's business.
Discontinuation or recalls of existing testing products; failure to develop or acquire licenses for new or improved testing technologies; or the Company’s customers using new technologies to perform their own tests could adversely affect the Company’s business.
From time to time, manufacturers discontinue or recall reagents, test kits or instruments used by the Company to perform laboratory testing. Such discontinuations or recalls could adversely affect the Company’s costs, testing volume and revenue.
The commercial laboratory industry is subject to changing technology and new product introductions. The Company’s success in maintaining a leadership position in genomic and other advanced testing technologies will depend, in part, on its ability to develop, acquire or license new and improved technologies on favorable terms and to obtain appropriate coverage and reimbursement for these technologies. The Company may not be able to negotiate acceptable licensing arrangements, and it cannot be certain that such arrangements will yield commercially successful diagnostic tests. If the Company is unable to license these testing methods at competitive rates, its research and development (R&D) costs may increase as a result. In addition, if the Company is unable to license new or improved technologies to expand its esoteric testing operations, its testing methods may become outdated when compared with the Company’s competition, and testing volume and revenue may be materially and adversely affected.
In addition, advances in technology may lead to the development of more cost-effective technologies such as point-of-care testing equipment that can be operated by physicians or other healthcare providers (including physician assistants, nurse practitioners and certified nurse midwives, generally referred to herein as physicians) in their offices or by patients themselves without requiring the services of freestanding clinical laboratories. Development of such technology and its use by the Company’s customers could reduce the demand for its laboratory testing services and the utilization of certain tests offered by the Company and negatively impact its revenues.
Currently, most commercial laboratory testing is categorized as high or moderate complexity, and thereby is subject to extensive and costly regulation under CLIA. The cost of compliance with CLIA makes it impractical for most physicians to operate clinical laboratories in their offices, and other laws limit the ability of physicians to have ownership in a laboratory and to refer tests to such a laboratory. Manufacturers of laboratory equipment and test kits could seek to increase their sales by marketing point-of-care of laboratory equipment to physicians and by selling test kits approved for home or physician office use to both physicians and patients. Diagnostic tests approved for home use are automatically deemed to be “waived” tests under CLIA and may be performed in physician office laboratories as well as by patients in their homes with minimal regulatory oversight. Other tests meeting certain FDA criteria also may be classified as “waived” for CLIA purposes. The FDA has regulatory responsibility over instruments, test kits, reagents and other devices used by clinical laboratories, and it has taken responsibility from the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention for classifying the complexity of tests for CLIA purposes. Increased approval of “waived” test kits could lead to increased testing by physicians in their offices or by patients at home, which could affect the Company’s market for laboratory testing services and negatively impact its revenues.
Operations may be disrupted and adversely impacted by the effects of adverse weather, other natural disasters, geopolitical events, public health crises, and other events outside of the Company's control.
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Natural disasters, such as adverse weather, fires, earthquakes, power shortages and outages, geopolitical events, such as terrorism, war, political instability, or other conflict, criminal activities, public health crises, such as coronavirus (COVID-19) and disease epidemics and pandemics, and other disruptions or events outside of the Company’s control could negatively affect the Company’s operations. Any of these events may result in a temporary decline of volumes in both segments. In addition, such events may temporarily interrupt the Company’s ability to transport specimens, the Company's ability to efficiently commence studies, the Company’s ability to utilize information technology systems, the Company’s ability to utilize certain laboratories, and/or the Company’s ability to receive material from its suppliers. Such events can also affect customer operations and thereby impact testing volume. Long-term disruptions in the infrastructure and operations caused by such events (particularly involving locations in which the Company has operations), could harm the Company's operating results. For additional risks, see “Risk Factors - Risks Related to the COVID-19 Pandemic” in Part I - Item 1A.
Changes or disruption in services or supplies provided by third parties, including transportation, could adversely affect the Company’s business.
The Company depends on third parties to provide services critical to the Company’s business. Although the Company has a significant proprietary network of ground and air transport capabilities, certain of the Company's businesses are heavily reliant on third-party ground and air travel for transport of clinical trial and diagnostic testing supplies and specimens, research products, and people. A significant disruption to these travel systems, or the Company's access to them, could have a material adverse effect on the Company's business. The Company is also reliant on an extensive network of third-party suppliers and vendors of certain services and products, including for certain animal populations. Disruptions to the continued supply, or increases in costs, of these services, products, or animal populations may arise from export/import restrictions or embargoes, political or economic instability, pressure from animal rights activists, adverse weather, natural disasters, public health crises, transportation disruptions, cyber attacks, or other causes, as well as from termination of relationships with suppliers or vendors for their failure to follow the Company’s performance standards and requirements. Disruption of supply could have a material adverse effect on the Company’s business.
A failure to identify and successfully close and integrate strategic acquisition targets could have a material adverse effect on the Company's business objectives and its revenues and profitability.
Part of the Company's strategy involves deploying capital in investments that enhance the Company's business, which includes pursuing strategic acquisitions to strengthen the Company's scientific capabilities and enhance therapeutic expertise, enhance esoteric testing and global drug development capabilities, and increase presence in key geographic areas. Since 2016, the Company has invested net cash of approximately $4.2 billion in strategic business acquisitions. However, the Company cannot assure that it will be able to identify acquisition targets that are attractive to the Company or that are of a large enough size to have a meaningful impact on the Company's operating results. Furthermore, the successful closing and integration of a strategic acquisition entails numerous risks, including, among others:
•failure to obtain regulatory clearance, including due to antitrust concerns;
•loss of key customers or employees;
•difficulty in consolidating redundant facilities and infrastructure and in standardizing information and other systems;
•unidentified regulatory problems;
•failure to maintain the quality of services that such companies have historically provided;
•unanticipated costs and other liabilities;
•potential liabilities related to litigation including the acquired companies;
•potential periodic impairment of goodwill and intangible assets acquired;
•coordination of geographically separated facilities and workforces; and
•the potential disruption of the ongoing business and diversion of management's resources.
The Company cannot assure that current or future acquisitions, if any, or any related integration efforts will be successful, or that the Company's business will not be adversely affected by any future acquisitions, including with respect to revenues and profitability. Even if the Company is able to successfully integrate the operations of businesses that it may acquire in the future, the Company may not be able to realize the benefits that it expects from such acquisitions.
Continued and increased consolidation of MCOs, pharmaceutical, biotechnology and medical device companies, health systems, physicians and other customers could adversely affect the Company's business.
Many healthcare companies and providers, including MCOs, pharmaceutical, biotechnology and medical device companies, health systems and physician practices are consolidating through mergers, acquisitions, joint ventures and other types of transactions and collaborations. In addition to these more traditional horizontal mergers that involve entities that previously competed against each other, the healthcare industry is experiencing an increase in vertical mergers, which involve entities that previously did not offer competing goods or services. As the healthcare industry consolidates, competition to
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provide goods and services may become more intense, and vertical mergers may give those combined companies greater control over more aspects of healthcare, including increased bargaining power. This competition and increased customer bargaining power may adversely affect the price and volume of the Company’s services.
In addition, as the broader healthcare industry trend of consolidation continues, including the acquisition of physician practices by health systems, relationships with hospital-based health systems and integrated delivery networks are becoming more important. Dx has a well-established base of relationships with those systems and networks, including collaborative agreements. Dx's inability to retain its existing relationships with those physicians as they become part of healthcare systems and networks and/or to create new relationships could impact its ability to successfully grow its business.
Unproductive labor environments, union strikes, work stoppages, Works Council negotiations, or failure to comply with labor or employment laws could adversely affect the Company's operations and have a material adverse effect upon the Company's business.
The Company is a party to a limited number of collective bargaining agreements with various labor unions and is subject to employment and labor laws and unionization activity in the U.S. Similar employment and labor obligations exist across other countries in which it conducts business, including appropriate engagement with Works Councils in Europe. Disputes with regard to the terms of labor agreements or obligations for consultation, potential inability to negotiate acceptable contracts with these unions, unionization activity, or a failure to comply with labor or employment laws could result in, among other things, labor unrest, strikes, work stoppages, slowdowns by the affected workers, fines and penalties. If any of these events were to occur, or other employees were to become unionized, the Company could experience a significant disruption of its operations or higher ongoing labor costs, either of which could have a material adverse effect upon the Company's business. Additionally, future labor agreements, or renegotiation of labor agreements or provisions of labor agreements, or changes in labor or employment laws, could compromise its service reliability and significantly increase its costs, which could have a material adverse effect upon the Company's business. Also, the Company may incur substantial additional costs and become subject to litigation and enforcement actions if the Company fails to comply with legal requirements affecting its workforce and labor practices, including laws and regulations related to wage and hour practices, Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs (OFCCP) compliance, and unlawful workplace harassment and discrimination.
An inability to attract and retain experienced and qualified personnel, including key management personnel, could adversely affect the Company’s business.
The loss of key management personnel or the inability to attract and retain experienced and qualified employees at the Company’s clinical laboratories, drug development, and diagnostic facilities could adversely affect the business. The success of the Company is dependent in part on the efforts of key members of its management team. Success in maintaining the Company’s leadership position in genomic and other advanced testing and diagnostic technologies will depend in part on the Company’s ability to attract and retain skilled research professionals. In addition, the success of the Company’s early discovery, clinical and commercial laboratories also depend on employing and retaining qualified and experienced professionals, including specialists, who perform laboratory research activities and testing services. The same is true for patient-facing staff with specialized training required to perform activities related to specimen collection or clinical research activities. In the future, if competition for the services of these professionals increases, the Company may not be able to continue to attract and retain individuals in its markets. Changes in key management, or the ability to attract and retain qualified personnel, as a result of increased competition for talent, wage growth, or other market factors, could lead to strategic and operational challenges and uncertainties, distractions of management from other key initiatives, and inefficiencies and increased costs, any of which could adversely affect the Company’s business, financial condition, results of operations, and cash flows.
Global economic conditions and government and regulatory changes, including, but not limited to, the U.K.'s exit from the European Union (EU) could adversely impact the Company’s business and results of operations.
The Company could be adversely impacted due to the consequences of changes in the economy, governments or regulations across the globe. On January 31, 2020 the U.K. withdrew from its membership of the EU (often referred to as Brexit). The EU and the U.K. reached an agreement in December 2020.
This type of development or other government or regulatory change could depress economic activity, which could adversely impact the Company’s business, financial condition and results of operations. This could include long-term volatility in the currency markets and long-term detrimental effects on the value of affected currencies.
Damage or disruption to the Company’s facilities could adversely affect the Company’s business.
Many of the Company’s facilities could be difficult to replace in a short period of time. Any event that causes a disruption of the operation of these facilities might impact the Company's ability to provide services to customers and, therefore, could have a material adverse effect on the Company's financial condition, results of operations, and cash flows.
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Risks Related to Financial Matters
The Company bears financial risk for contracts that, including for reasons beyond the Company's control, may be underpriced, subject to cost overruns, delayed, or terminated or reduced in scope.
The Company has many contracts that are structured as fixed-price for fixed-contracted services or fee-for-service with a cap. The Company bears the financial risk if these contracts are underpriced or if contract costs exceed estimates. Such underpricing or significant cost overruns could have an adverse effect on the Company's business, results of operations, financial condition and cash flows.
Many of DD’s contracts, in particular, provide for services on a fixed-price or fee-for-service with a cap basis and they may be terminated or reduced in scope either immediately or upon notice. Cancellations may occur for a variety of reasons, including:
•failure of products to satisfy safety requirements;
•unexpected or undesired results of the products;
•insufficient clinical trial subject enrollment;
•insufficient investigator recruitment;
•a customer's decision to terminate the development of a product or to end a particular study; and
•DD’s failure to perform its duties properly under the contract.
Although its contracts often entitle it to receive the costs of winding down the terminated projects, as well as all fees earned up to the time of termination, the loss, reduction in scope or delay of a large contract or the loss, delay or conclusion of multiple contracts could materially adversely affect DD.
A significant increase in Dx's or DD's days sales outstanding could have an adverse effect on the Company’s business, including its cash flow, by increasing its bad debt or decreasing its cash flow.
Billing for laboratory services is a complex process. Laboratories bill many different payers, including doctors, patients, hundreds of insurance companies, Medicare, Medicaid and employer groups, all of which have different billing requirements. In addition to billing complexities, Dx has experienced an increase in patient responsibility as a result of managed care fee-for-service plans that continue to increase patient deductibles, coinsurance and copayments, or implement restrictive coverage or administrative policies that can further increase patient costs. Dx expects this trend to continue. A material increase in Dx’s days sales outstanding level could have an adverse effect on the Company's business, including potentially increasing its bad debt rate and decreasing its cash flows. Although DD does not face the same level of complexity in its billing processes, it could also experience delays in billing or collection, and a material increase in DD’s days sales outstanding could have an adverse effect on the Company’s business, including potentially decreasing its cash flows.
DD’s revenues depend on the pharmaceutical, biotechnology and medical device industries.
DD’s revenues depend greatly on the expenditures made by the pharmaceutical, biotechnology and medical device industries in R&D. In some instances, these companies are reliant on their ability to raise capital in order to fund their R&D projects. These companies are also reliant on reimbursement for their products from government programs and commercial payers. Accordingly, economic factors and industry trends affecting DD’s customers in these industries may also affect DD. If these companies were to reduce the number of R&D projects they conduct or outsource, whether through the inability to raise capital, reductions in reimbursement from governmental programs or commercial payers, industry trends, economic conditions or otherwise, DD could be materially adversely affected.
Foreign currency exchange fluctuations could have an adverse effect on the Company’s business.
The Company has business and operations outside the U.S., and DD derives a significant portion of its revenues from international operations. Since the Company's consolidated financial statements are denominated in U.S. dollars, fluctuations in exchange rates from period to period will have an impact on reported results. In addition, DD may incur costs in one currency related to its services or products for which it is paid in a different currency. As a result, factors associated with international operations, including changes in foreign currency exchange rates, could significantly affect DD's results of operations, financial condition and cash flows.
The Company’s uses of financial instruments to limit its exposure to interest rate and currency fluctuations could expose it to risks and financial losses that may adversely affect the Company’s financial condition, liquidity and results of operations.
To reduce the Company’s exposure to interest rate fluctuations and currency exchange fluctuations, it has entered into, and in the future may enter into for these or other purposes, financial swaps, or hedging arrangements, with various financial counterparties. In addition to any risks related to the counterparties, there can be no assurances that the Company’s hedging
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activity will be effective in insulating it from the risks associated with the underlying transactions, that the Company would not have been better off without entering into these hedges, or that the Company will not have to pay additional amounts upon settlement.
The Company’s level of indebtedness could adversely affect the Company’s liquidity, results of operations and business.
At December 31, 2021, indebtedness on the Company's outstanding Senior Notes totaled approximately $5,450.0 million in aggregate principal. The Company is also a party to credit agreements relating to a $1.0 billion revolving credit facility. Under the revolving credit facility, the Company is subject to negative covenants limiting subsidiary indebtedness and certain other covenants typical for investment-grade-rated borrowers, and the Company is required to maintain a leverage ratio within certain limits.
The Company’s level of indebtedness could adversely affect its business. In particular, it could increase the Company’s vulnerability to sustained, adverse macroeconomic weakness, limit its ability to obtain further financing, and limit its ability to pursue certain operational and strategic opportunities, including large acquisitions.
The Company may also enter into additional transactions or credit facilities, including other long-term debt, which may increase its indebtedness and result in additional restrictions upon the business. In addition, major debt rating agencies regularly evaluate the Company's debt based on a number of factors. There can be no assurance that the Company will be able to maintain its existing debt ratings, and failure to do so could adversely affect the Company's cost of funds, liquidity and access to capital markets.
The Company's quarterly operating results may vary.
The Company's operating results, may vary significantly from quarter to quarter and are influenced by factors over which the Company has little control, such as:
•changes in the general global economy;
•exchange rate fluctuations;
•the commencement, completion, delay or cancellation of large projects or contracts or groups of projects;
•the progress of ongoing projects;
•weather;
•the timing of and charges associated with completed acquisitions or other events; and
•changes in the utilization mix of the Company's services.
The Company believes that operating results for any particular quarter are not necessarily a meaningful indication of future results. While fluctuations in the Company's quarterly operating results could negatively or positively affect the market price of the Company's common stock, these fluctuations may not be related to the Company's future overall operating performance.
Risks Related to Technology and Cybersecurity
Failure to maintain the security of customer-related information or compliance with security requirements could damage the Company’s reputation with customers, cause it to incur substantial additional costs and become subject to litigation and enforcement actions.
The Company receives and stores certain personal and financial information about its customers. In addition, the Company depends upon the secure transmission of confidential information over public networks, including information permitting cashless payments. The Company also works with third-party service providers and vendors that provide technology systems and services that are used in connection with the receipt, storage, and transmission of customer personal and financial information. A compromise in the Company’s security systems, or those of the Company's third-party service providers and vendors, that results in customer personal information being obtained by unauthorized persons, or the Company’s or a third party's failure to comply with security requirements for financial transactions, including security standards for payment cards (e.g., the Payment Card Industry Data Security Standard), could adversely affect the Company’s reputation with its customers and others, as well as the Company’s results of operations, financial condition and liquidity. It could also result in litigation against the Company and the imposition of fines and penalties. For example, in connection with the AMCA Incident the Company has incurred, and expects to continue to incur, costs, and the Company is involved in pending and threatened litigation, as well as various government and regulatory inquiries and processes. For additional information about the AMCA Incident, see Note 14 Commitments and Contingencies to the Consolidated Financial Statements.
Failure in the Company’s information technology systems or delays or failures in the development and implementation of updates or enhancements to those systems could significantly increase testing turnaround time or delay billing processes and otherwise disrupt the Company’s operations or customer relationships.
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The Company’s operations and customer relationships depend, in part, on the continued performance of its information technology systems. Despite network security measures and other precautions the Company has taken, its information technology systems are potentially vulnerable to physical or electronic break-ins, computer viruses and similar disruptions. In addition, the Company may experience system failures or interruptions as it integrates the information technology systems of newly acquired businesses. Sustained system failures or interruption of the Company’s systems in one or more of its operations could disrupt the Company’s ability to process laboratory requisitions, perform testing, provide test results or drug development data in a timely manner and/or bill the appropriate party. Failure of the Company’s information technology systems could adversely affect the Company’s business, profitability and financial condition.
Hardware and software failures, delays in the operation of computer and communications systems, the failure to implement new systems or system enhancements to existing systems, and cybersecurity breaches may harm the Company.
The Company's success depends on the efficient and uninterrupted operation of its computer and communications systems. A failure of the network or data-gathering procedures could impede the processing of data, delivery of databases and services, customer orders and day-to-day management of the business and could result in the corruption or loss of data. While certain operations have appropriate disaster recovery plans in place, there currently are not redundant facilities everywhere in the world to provide information technology capacity in the event of a system failure. Despite any precautions the Company may take, damage from fire, floods, hurricanes, power loss, telecommunications failures, computer viruses, break-ins, cybersecurity breaches and similar events at the Company's various computer facilities could result in interruptions in the flow of data to the servers and from the servers to customers. In addition, any failure by the computer environment to provide required data communications capacity could result in interruptions in service. In the event of a delay in the delivery of data, the Company could be required to transfer data collection operations to an alternative provider of server-hosting services. Such a transfer could result in delays in the ability to deliver products and services to customers. Additionally, significant delays in the planned delivery of system enhancements, or improvements and inadequate performance of the systems once they are completed could damage the Company's reputation and harm the business.
Security breaches and unauthorized access to the Company's or its customers’ data could harm the Company’s reputation and adversely affect its business.
The Company has experienced and expects to continue to experience attempts by computer programmers and hackers to attack and penetrate the Company’s layered security controls, like the 2018 ransomware attack. The Company has also experienced and expects to continue to experience similar attempts to attack and penetrate the systems of third-party suppliers and vendors to whom the Company has provided data, like the 2019 AMCA data breach. These attempts, if successful, could result in the misappropriation or compromise of personal information or proprietary or confidential information stored within the Company's systems or within the systems of third parties, create system disruptions or cause shutdowns. External actors are developing and deploying viruses, worms and other malicious software programs that attack the Company’s systems, the systems of third-parties, or otherwise exploit any security vulnerabilities. Outside parties may also attempt to fraudulently induce employees to take actions, including the release of confidential or sensitive information or to make fraudulent payments through illegal electronic spamming, phishing, spear phishing, or other tactics. The Company has robust information security procedures and other safeguards in place, including evaluating the cybersecurity status of third-party suppliers and vendors that will have access to the Company’s data or information technology systems, which are monitored and routinely tested internally and by external parties. However, because the techniques used to obtain unauthorized access, disable or degrade service, or sabotage systems change frequently and often are not recognized until launched against a target, the Company may be unable to anticipate all of these techniques or to implement adequate preventive measures. In addition, as cyber threats continue to evolve, the Company may be required to expend additional resources to continue to enhance the Company’s information security measures or to investigate and remediate any information security vulnerabilities. The Company’s remediation efforts may not be successful and could result in interruptions, delays or cessation of service. This could also impact the cost and availability of cyber insurance to the Company. Breaches of the Company’s or third parties' security measures and the unauthorized dissemination of personal, proprietary or confidential information about the Company or its customers or other third parties could expose customers’ private information. Such breaches could expose customers to the risk of financial or medical identity theft or expose the Company or other third parties to a risk of loss or misuse of this information, result in litigation and potential liability for the Company, damage the Company’s brand and reputation or otherwise harm the Company’s business. Any of these disruptions or breaches of security could have a material adverse effect on the Company’s business, regulatory compliance, financial condition and results of operations.
The Company depends on third parties to provide services critical to the Company's business, and depends on them to comply with applicable laws and regulations. Additionally, any breaches of the information technology systems of third parties could have a material adverse effect on the Company's operations.
The Company depends on third parties to provide services critical to the Company's business, including supplies, ground
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and air transport of clinical and diagnostic testing supplies and specimens, research products, and people, among other services. Third parties that provide services to the Company are subject to similar risks related to security of customer-related information and compliance with U.S., state, local, or international environmental, health and safety, and privacy and security laws and regulations as the Company. Any failure by third parties to comply with applicable laws, or any failure of third parties to provide services more generally, could have a material impact on the Company, whether because of the loss of the ability to receive services from the third parties, legal liability of the Company for the actions or inactions of third parties, or otherwise.
In addition, third parties to whom the Company outsources certain services or functions may process personal data, or other confidential information of the Company. A breach or cyber attack affecting these third parties, like the AMCA Incident, could also harm the Company's business, results of operations and reputation.
Risks Related to Legal Matters
Adverse results in material litigation matters could have a material adverse effect upon the Company’s business.
The Company may become subject in the ordinary course of business to material legal actions related to, among other things, intellectual property disputes, contract disputes, data and privacy issues, professional liability and employee-related matters. The Company may also receive inquiries and requests for information from governmental agencies and bodies, including Medicare or Medicaid payers, requesting comment and/or information on allegations of billing irregularities, billing and pricing arrangements, or privacy practices that are brought to its attention through audits or third parties. Legal actions could result in substantial monetary damages as well as damage to the Company’s reputation with customers, which could have a material adverse effect upon its business.
The failure to successfully obtain, maintain and enforce intellectual property rights and defend against challenges to the Company’s intellectual property rights could adversely affect the Company.
Many of the Company’s services, products and processes rely on intellectual property, including patents, copyrights, trademarks and trade secrets. In some cases, that intellectual property is owned by another party and licensed to the Company, sometimes exclusively. The value of the Company’s intellectual property relies in part on the Company’s ability to maintain its proprietary rights to such intellectual property. If the Company is unable to obtain or maintain the proprietary rights to its intellectual property, if it is unable to prevent attempted infringement against its intellectual property, or if it is unable to defend against claims that it is infringing on another party’s intellectual property, the Company could be adversely affected. These adverse effects could include the Company having to abandon, alter and/or delay the deployment of products, services or processes that rely on such intellectual property; having to procure and pay for licenses from the holders of intellectual property rights that the Company seeks to use; and having to pay damages, fines, court costs and attorney's fees in connection with intellectual property litigation.
Changes in tax laws and regulations or the interpretation of such may have a significant impact on the financial position, results of operations and cash flows of the Company.
U.S. and foreign governments continue to review, reform and modify tax laws, including with respect to the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development’s base erosion and profit shifting initiative. Changes in tax laws and regulations could result in material changes to the domestic and foreign taxes that the Company is required to provide for and pay.
In addition, the Company is subject to regular audits with respect to its various tax returns and processes in the jurisdictions in which it operates. Errors or omissions in tax returns, process failures or differences in interpretation of tax laws by tax authorities and the Company may lead to litigation, payments of additional taxes, penalties and interest.
Contract research services in the drug development industry create liability risks.
In contracting to work on drug development trials and studies, DD faces a range of potential liabilities, including:
•Errors or omissions that create harm to clinical trial subjects during a trial or to consumers of a drug after the trial is completed and regulatory approval of the drug has been granted;
•General risks associated with clinical pharmacology facilities, including negative consequences from the administration of drugs to clinical trial participants or the professional malpractice of clinical pharmacology physicians;
•Risks that animals in DD’s facilities may be infected with diseases that may be harmful and even lethal to themselves and humans despite preventive measures contained in DD's business policies, including those for the quarantine and handling of imported animals; and
•Errors and omissions during a trial or study that may undermine the usefulness of a trial or study, or data from the trial or study or that may delay the entry of a drug to the market.
DD contracts with physicians, also referred to as investigators, to conduct the clinical trials to test new drugs on clinical trial subjects. These tests can create a risk of liability for personal injury or death to clinical trial subjects resulting from negative
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reactions to the drugs administered or from professional malpractice by third party investigators.
While DD endeavors to include in its contracts provisions entitling it to be indemnified and entitling it to a limitation of liability, these provisions are not always successfully obtained and, even if obtained, do not uniformly protect DD against liability arising from certain of its own actions. DD could be materially and adversely affected if it were required to pay damages or bear the costs of defending any claim that is not covered by a contractual indemnification provision, or in the event that a party which must indemnify it does not fulfill its indemnification obligations, or in the event that DD is not successful in limiting its liability or in the event that the damages and costs exceed DD's insurance coverage. DD may also be required to agree to contract provisions with clinical trial sites or its customers related to the conduct of clinical trials, and DD could be materially and adversely affected if it were required to indemnify a site or customer against claims pursuant to such contract terms. There can be no assurance that DD will be able to maintain sufficient insurance coverage on acceptable terms.

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ITEM 1B. UNRESOLVED STAFF COMMENTS
Item 1B. UNRESOLVED STAFF COMMENTS
None.
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ITEM 2. PROPERTIES
Item 2. PROPERTIES
The Company's corporate headquarters are located in Burlington, North Carolina, and include facilities that are both owned and leased.
Labcorp Diagnostics (Dx) operates through a network of patient service centers, branches, rapid response laboratories, primary laboratories, and specialty laboratories. The table below summarizes certain information as to Dx's principal operating and administrative facilities as of December 31, 2021.
Location Nature of Occupancy
Primary Facilities:
Birmingham, Alabama Leased
Phoenix, Arizona Owned
Los Angeles, California Leased
Monrovia, California Leased
San Diego, California Leased
San Francisco, California Leased
Shelton, Connecticut Leased
Tampa, Florida Leased
South Bend, Indiana Leased
Westborough, Massachusetts Leased
St. Paul, Minnesota Owned
Raritan, New Jersey Owned
Burlington, North Carolina (5) Owned/Leased
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (3) Leased
Dublin, Ohio Owned
Brentwood, Tennessee Leased
Dallas, Texas Leased
Houston, Texas Leased
Herndon, Virginia Leased
Seattle, Washington Leased
Spokane, Washington (3) Leased
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Labcorp Drug Development (DD) operates on a global scale. The table below summarizes certain information as to DD's principal operating and administrative facilities as of December 31, 2021.
Location
Nature of Occupancy
Primary Facilities:
Mechelen, Belgium Leased
Beijing, China Leased
Shanghai, China (2) Owned/Leased
Muenster, Germany Owned
Pune, India Leased
Bangalore, India Leased
Singapore Leased
Geneva, Switzerland Owned
Eye, United Kingdom Owned
Harrogate, United Kingdom Owned
Huntingdon, United Kingdom Owned
Leeds, United Kingdom Owned
Maidenhead, United Kingdom Leased
Shardlow, United Kingdom Owned
York, United Kingdom Leased
San Francisco, California Leased
Daytona Beach, Florida Leased
Greenfield, Indiana Owned
Indianapolis, Indiana Leased
Bedford, Massachusetts Owned
Ann Arbor, Michigan Leased
Minneapolis, Minnesota Leased
Princeton, New Jersey Leased
Somerset, New Jersey Owned
Dallas, Texas Leased
Chantilly, Virginia Leased
Madison, Wisconsin Owned
All of the Company’s primary laboratory and drug development facilities have been built or improved for the purpose of providing commercial laboratory testing or drug development services. The Company believes that these existing facilities and plans for expansion are suitable and adequate and will provide sufficient production capacity for the Company's currently foreseeable level of operations. The Company believes that if it were unable to renew a lease or if a lease were to be terminated on any of the facilities it presently leases, it could find alternate space at competitive market rates and readily relocate its operations to such new locations without material disruption to its operations.

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ITEM 3. LEGAL PROCEEDINGS
Item 3. LEGAL PROCEEDINGS
See Note 14 Commitments and Contingencies to the Consolidated Financial Statements.

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ITEM 4. MINE SAFETY DISCLOSURE
Item 4. MINE SAFETY DISCLOSURES
Not applicable.
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PART II

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ITEM 5. MARKET FOR REGISTRANT'S COMMON EQUITY
Item 5. MARKET FOR REGISTRANT'S COMMON EQUITY, RELATED STOCKHOLDER MATTERS, AND ISSUER PURCHASES OF EQUITY SECURITIES
Market Information
The Company's common stock, par value $0.10 per share, or Common Stock, trades on the New York Stock Exchange or NYSE under the symbol “LH.”
Holders
On February 24, 2022, there were approximately 1,322 holders of record of the Common Stock.
Transfer Agent
The transfer agent for the Company's Common Stock is American Stock Transfer & Trust Company, Shareholder Services, 6201 Fifteenth Avenue, Brooklyn, NY 11219, telephone: 800-937-5449, website: www.amstock.com.
Dividends
The Company has not historically paid dividends on its Common Stock. In December 2021, the Company announced that it plans to initiate a quarterly dividend beginning in the second quarter of 2022.
Common Stock Performance
The graph below shows the cumulative total return assuming an investment of $100 on December 31, 2016, in each of the Company’s Common Stock, the Standard & Poor’s, or S&P Composite-500 Stock Index and the S&P 500 Health Care Index, or Peer Group, and assuming that all dividends were reinvested.
Comparison of Cumulative Total Return
12/2016 12/2017 12/2018 12/2019 12/2020 12/2021
Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings $ 100.00 $ 124.25 $ 98.43 $ 131.77 $ 158.55 $ 244.75
S&P 500 Index $ 100.00 $ 121.83 $ 116.49 $ 153.17 $ 181.35 $ 233.41
S&P 500 Health Care Index $ 100.00 $ 122.08 $ 129.97 $ 157.04 $ 178.15 $ 224.71
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Issuer Purchases of Equity Securities (all amounts in millions, except per share amounts)
The following table sets forth information with respect to purchases of shares of the Company’s Common Stock made during the quarter ended December 31, 2021, by or on behalf of the Company, inclusive of amounts paid in respect of the accelerated share repurchase agreements (collectively, the ASR Agreements) for which the Company received 80% of the shares calculated at the price at the inception of the Agreements:
Total Number of Shares Repurchased Average Price Paid Per Share Total Number of Shares Repurchased as Part of Publicly Announced Program Maximum Dollar Value of Shares that May Yet Be Repurchased Under the Program
October 1 - October 31 - $ - - $ 131.5
November 1 - November 30 - - - 131.5
December 1 - December 31 2.7 307.16 2.7 1,631.5
2.7 $ 307.16 2.7
At the end of 2020, the Company had outstanding authorization from the board of directors (Board) to purchase $800.0 of Company common stock. On December 8, 2021, the Board adopted a new share repurchase plan authorizing repurchase of up to $2,500.0 of the Company's shares in addition to the remaining amount outstanding under the previous plan. On December 13, 2021, the Company entered into the ASR Agreements with Goldman Sachs & Co. LLC and Barclays Bank PLC (collectively, the Financial Institutions) to repurchase approximately $1,000.0 in the aggregate of the Company’s common stock (Common Stock), as part of the Company’s Common Stock repurchase program. The repurchase authorization has no expiration date.
During the first 11 months of 2021, the Company purchased 2.5 shares of its common stock at an average price of $270.55 for a total cost of $668.5. Under the ASR Agreements in December 2021, $1,000.0 was paid to the banks and the Company received 80% of the shares calculated at the price at the inception of the Agreements, approximately 2.7 shares. When the forward contract is settled during the first half of 2022, and the Company receives the remaining shares, an additional adjustment to Common Stock and additional paid-in-capital / retained earnings will be recorded. The specific number of shares that the Company ultimately will repurchase under the ASR Agreements will be based generally on the average of the daily volume-weighted average price per share of the Common Stock during a repurchase period, less a discount and subject to adjustments pursuant to the terms and conditions of the ASR Agreements. The ASR Agreements contain provisions customary for agreements of this type, including provisions for adjustments to the transaction terms, the circumstances generally under which the ASR Agreements may be accelerated, extended or terminated early by the Financial Institutions and various acknowledgments, representations and warranties made by the parties to one another. The initial shares received under the ASR have been removed from the outstanding share count and the final settlement is expected to be completed by the end of April 2022.
When the Company repurchases shares, the amount paid to repurchase the shares in excess of the par or stated value is allocated to additional paid-in-capital unless subject to limitation or the balance in additional paid-in-capital is exhausted. Remaining amounts are recognized as a reduction in retained earnings. At the end of 2021, the Company had outstanding authorization from the Board to purchase up to $1,631.5 of the Company's common stock.

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ITEM 6. SELECTED FINANCIAL DATA
Item 6. SELECTED FINANCIAL DATA
Not applicable.

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ITEM 7. MANAGEMENT'S DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS
Item 7. MANAGEMENT'S DISCUSSION AND ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL CONDITION AND RESULTS OF OPERATIONS (in millions)
General
During the year ended December 31, 2021, the Company's revenues grew by 15.3%, due to organic growth of 13.8%, acquisitions of 0.7% and favorable foreign currency translation of 0.9%, partially offset by the disposition of a business of 0.1%. The 13.8% increase in organic revenues includes a 14.0% contribution from Company's organic Base Business and a 0.2% decrease in COVID-19 Testing. Base Business includes the Company's business operations except for COVID-19 Testing.
The Company defines organic growth as the increase in revenue excluding the year over year impact of acquisitions, divestitures, and currency. Acquisition and divestiture impact is considered for a twelve month period following the close of each transaction.
Strategic Review of Company Structure and Capital Allocation Strategy
In March 2021, the Company announced the undertaking of a comprehensive review by its Board and management team of Labcorp's structure and capital allocation strategy. The review reflected the Board's and management team's view that the
Company's value was not appropriately reflected in its stock price. As a part of this review, the Board and management worked with outside advisors, held extensive discussions with third parties, and considered a wide range of options, including significant acquisitions, divestitures, spinning off businesses, as well as spinning and merging those businesses with strategic partners. Ultimately, the Board unanimously concluded that the Company's existing structure is in the best interest of all stakeholders at this time and represents compelling opportunities to grow and create significant shareholder value. In December 2021, the Company announced the Board's conclusion, as well as actions that the management team and the Board are taking to enhance shareholder returns. These actions include:
•initiating a dividend in the second quarter of 2022, with a target dividend payout ratio of between 15% to 20% of adjusted earnings;
•authorizing a $2,500.0 share repurchase program. As part of this program, $1,000.0 is being repurchased under an accelerated share repurchase plan that is expected to be complete by the end of April 2022. On December 13, 2021, the Company entered into the ASR Agreements with the Financial Institutions to repurchase approximately $1,000.0 in the aggregate of the Common Stock, as part of the Company’s Common Stock repurchase program;
•implementing a new LaunchPad business process improvement initiative, targeting savings of $350.0 over the next three years;
•providing a longer-term outlook in connection with the announcement of the Company's 2021 year-end results in addition to the Company's annual guidance;
•providing additional business insights through enhanced disclosures beginning with Labcorp's results for the first quarter of 2022; and
•continuing a commitment to profitable growth through investments in science, innovation, and new technologies.
Management and the Board are committed to continuing to evaluate all avenues for enhancing shareholder value.
The updated capital allocation plan enables the Company to continue investment in key growth areas, including oncology, Alzheimer's disease, autoimmune disorders, and women's health. This plan is designed to fuel growth through innovation by using Labcorp's unparalleled data and insights to bring scientific advancements-both Labcorp-developed and those of other scientists-to market at scale. It reflects the Board's confidence in the Company's strong balance sheet and cash flow generation profile, as well as the Board's commitment to deploying capital to enhance value for shareholders, patients, providers, and pharmaceutical customers worldwide.
Results of Operations
The following tables present the financial measures that management considers to be the most significant indicators of the Company's performance. For discussion of 2020 results and comparison with 2019 results refer to “Management's Discussion and Analysis of Financial Conditions and Results of Operations” in the Company's Annual Report on Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2020.
Years ended December 31, 2021 and 2020
Revenues
Years Ended December 31,
2021 2020 Change
Dx $ 10,363.6 $ 9,253.4 12.0 %
DD 5,845.5 4,877.7 19.8 %
Intercompany eliminations (88.2) (152.6) (42.2) %
Total $ 16,120.9 $ 13,978.5 15.3 %
The 15.3% increase in revenues for the year ended December 31, 2021, as compared with the corresponding period in 2020 was primarily due to organic growth of 13.8%, acquisitions of 0.7% and favorable foreign currency translation of 0.9%, partially offset by the disposition of a business of 0.1%. The 13.8% increase in organic revenues includes a 14.0% contribution from the Company's organic Base Business and a 0.2% decrease in COVID-19 Testing.
Dx revenues for the year ended December 31, 2021, were $10,363.6, an increase of 12.0% over revenues of $9,253.4 in the corresponding period in 2020. The increase in revenues was due to organic growth of 10.9%, acquisitions of 0.7%, and foreign currency translation of 0.4%. The 10.9% increase in organic revenue was due to a 11.2% contribution from organic Base Business, partially offset by a 0.3% decline in COVID-19 Testing.
Dx total volume, measured by requisitions, increased by 10.9% as organic volume increased by 10.5% and acquisition volume contributed growth of 0.5%. The organic volume growth is due to demand for organic Base Business of 10.5%, partially offset by a 0.1% reduction of COVID-19 Testing. Price/mix increased by 1.1% due to organic Base Business of 0.6%,
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acquisitions of 0.3%, and favorable foreign currency translation of 0.4%, partially offset by a 0.2% decline from COVID-19 Testing.
DD revenues for the year ended December 31, 2021, were $5,845.5, an increase of 19.8% over revenues of $4,877.7 in the corresponding period in 2020. The increase in revenues was due to organic Base Business growth of 19.2%, the benefit of acquisitions of 0.7%, favorable foreign currency translation of 1.8%, partially offset by lower COVID-19 Testing performed through its Central Laboratories business of 1.6% and a business disposition of 0.2%.
Cost of Revenues
Years Ended December 31,
2021 2020 Change
Cost of revenues $ 10,496.6 $ 9,025.7 16.3 %
Cost of revenues as a % of revenues
65.1 % 64.6 %
Cost of revenues increased 16.3% in 2021 as compared with 2020 and increased as a percentage of revenues to 65.1% in 2021 as compared to 64.6% in 2020. This increase was primarily due to COVID-19 Testing partially offset by Base Business recovery.
Selling, General and Administrative Expenses
Years Ended December 31,
2021 2020 Change
Selling, general and administrative expenses $ 1,952.1 $ 1,729.3 12.9 %
SG&A as a % of revenues 12.1 % 12.4 %
Selling, general and administrative expenses as a percentage of revenues decreased to 12.1% in 2021 compared to 12.4% in 2020. The decrease in selling, general and administrative expenses as a percentage of revenues is primarily due to the leveraging of the organic revenue growth and the impact of LaunchPad savings.
During 2021, the Company incurred special charges of $25.1 of acquisition and divestiture related costs, $13.3 in COVID-related costs, $6.3 in management transition costs, $18.2 in retention bonuses, $8.6 of non-capitalized costs associated with the implementation of a major system as part of its LaunchPad business process improvement initiative, and $24.3 related to miscellaneous other items. These items increased selling, general and administrative expenses by $95.8. Excluding these charges, selling, general and administrative expenses as a percentage of revenues were 11.5% for the year ended December 31, 2021. The decrease in selling, general and administrative expenses, excluding the above items, as a percentage of revenues is primarily due to leveraging the Company's infrastructure on higher revenue.
During 2020, the Company incurred special charges of $28.3 of acquisition and divestiture related costs, $10.4 in COVID-related costs, $14.6 in management transition costs, and $1.3 of non-capitalized costs associated with the implementation of a major system as part of its LaunchPad business process improvement initiative, partially offset by $2.7 in other miscellaneous items. These items increased selling, general and administrative expenses by $51.9. Excluding these charges, selling, general and administrative expenses as a percentage of revenues were 12.0% for the year ended December 31, 2020.
Goodwill and Other Asset Impairments
Years Ended December 31,
2021 2020 Change
Goodwill and other asset impairments $ - $ 462.1 N/A
During 2020, the Company recorded goodwill and other asset impairment charges of $462.1, $450.5 within DD and $11.6 within Dx. The Company concluded that the fair value was less than carrying value for two of its reporting units and recorded goodwill impairment of $418.7 and $3.7 for DD and Dx, respectively. Additional impairment of identifiable intangible and tangible assets of $31.8 and $7.9 was recorded for DD and Dx, respectively, for impairment of a tradename, software, customer relationships, technology assets and a note receivable. There were no goodwill and other asset impairments for the year ended December 31, 2021.
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Amortization Expense
Years Ended December 31,
2021 2020 Change
Dx $ 117.1 $ 104.9 11.7 %
DD 252.5 170.5 48.0 %
Amortization of intangibles and other assets $ 369.6 $ 275.4 34.2 %
The increase in amortization of intangibles and other assets from 2020 through 2021 primarily reflects the impact of acquisitions partially offset by impairment of intangible assets recorded in fiscal 2020. In addition, amortization acceleration of certain intangible assets related to trade names as a result of the Company's rebranding initiative of $88.4 and $27.5 were recognized for the years ended December 31, 2021 and 2020, respectively.
Restructuring and Other Charges
Years Ended December 31,
2021 2020 Change
Restructuring and other charges $ 43.1 $ 40.6 6.1 %
During 2021, the Company recorded net restructuring charges of $43.1; $18.6 within Dx and $24.5 within DD. The charges were comprised of $16.3 in severance and other personnel costs and $28.0 in facility closures, lease terminations, and general integration activities. The charges were offset by the reversal of previously established liability of $0.4 and $0.8 in unused severance costs and facility-related costs, respectively.
During 2020, the Company recorded net restructuring charges of $40.6; $15.3 within Dx and $25.3 within DD. The charges were comprised of $14.1 in severance and other personnel costs and $17.4 for facility, operating lease right-of-use and equipment impairments, and $18.9 in facility closures and general integration activities. The charges were offset by the reversal of previously established liability of $0.6 and $9.2 in unused severance costs and facility-related costs, respectively.
Interest Expense
Years Ended December 31,
2021 2020 Change
Interest expense $ 212.1 $ 207.4 2.3 %
The increase in interest expense for 2021 as compared with the corresponding period in 2020 is primarily due to the costs of redeeming the 3.20% and 3.75% notes and issuing the new senior notes, partially offset by lower debt and lower cost of debt.
Equity Method Income, Net
Years Ended December 31,
2021 2020 Change
Equity method income, net $ 26.5 $ 2.9 812.6 %
Equity method income, net represents the Company's ownership share in joint venture partnerships along with equity investments in other companies in the health care industry. The increase in income for 2021 as compared with the corresponding period in 2020 was primarily due to the write off or write down of certain of the Company's investments in 2020, which was primarily due to the negative impact of the COVID19 global pandemic, and increased profitability of the Company's joint ventures in 2021.
Other, Net
Years Ended December 31,
2021 2020 Change
Other, net $ 42.5 $ (32.1) 231.8 %
The change in Other, net for the year ended December 31, 2021, as compared to the year ended December 31, 2020, was primarily due to investment activity. During the year ended December 31, 2021, the Company recorded investment gains of $61.8 which were partially offset by a loss on a sale of a business of $6.2. During the year ended December 31, 2020, the Company adjusted certain investments due to the negative impact of the COVID-19 global pandemic. In addition, foreign currency transaction losses of $4.4 and $10.1 were recognized for the years ended December 31, 2021 and 2020, respectively.
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Income Tax Expense
Years Ended December 31,
2021 2020
Income tax expense $ 747.1 $ 662.1
Income tax expense as a % of income before tax 23.9 % 29.8 %
In 2021, the Company's effective tax rate of 23.9% was favorable as compared to the 2020 tax rate of 29.8%. This was primarily related to impairment charges recorded during 2020 that were not deductible, finalization of tax audits, and the geographic mix of earnings.
Operating Results by Segment
Years Ended December 31,
2021 2020 Change
Dx operating income $ 2,988.5 $ 2,634.9 13.4 %
Dx operating margin 28.8 % 28.5 % 0.3 %
DD operating income $ 547.7 $ 37.3 1,371.0 %
DD operating margin 9.4 % 0.8 % 8.6 %
General corporate expenses $ (276.7) $ (226.8) 22.0 %
Total operating income $ 3,259.5 $ 2,445.4 33.3 %
Dx operating income was $2,988.5 for the year ended December 31, 2021, an increase of 13.4% over operating income of $2,634.9 in the corresponding period of 2020 and an increase of 270 basis points in operating margin year-over-year. The increase in operating income and margin were primarily due to a recovery in the Base Business, partially offset by a decrease in COVID-19 Testing and higher personnel costs. The Company achieved its goal to deliver approximately $200 million of net savings from its three-year Diagnostics LaunchPad initiative by the end of 2021.
DD operating income was $547.7 for the year ended December 31, 2021, an increase of 1,371.0% from operating income of $37.3 in the corresponding period of 2020. The increase was primarily due to goodwill and other asset impairments in 2020, and organic Base Business growth and LaunchPad savings, partially offset by lower COVID-19 Testing and higher personnel costs in 2021. The Company continues to develop and execute new LaunchPad programs to support profitable growth in DD.
General corporate expenses are comprised primarily of administrative services such as executive management, human resources, legal, finance, corporate affairs, and information technology. Corporate expenses were $276.7 for the year ended December 31, 2021, an increase of 22.0% over corporate expenses of $226.8 in the corresponding period of 2020. The increase in corporate expenses in 2021 is primarily due to higher incentive based compensation resulting from the financial performance of the Company.
Liquidity, Capital Resources and Financial Position
The Company's strong cash-generating capability and financial condition typically have provided ready access to capital markets. The Company's principal source of liquidity is operating cash flow, supplemented by proceeds from debt offerings. The Company's senior unsecured revolving credit facility is further discussed in Note 10 Debt to the Company's Consolidated Financial Statements.
Management’s discussion and analysis of cash flows for the year ended December 31, 2020 compared to the year ended December 31, 2019 may be found in the “Management’s Discussion and Analysis of Financial Condition and Results of Operations, Liquidity, Capital Resources and Financial Position” section of the Company's Annual Report on Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2020.
In summary the Company's cash flows were as follows:
For the Year Ended December 31,
2021 2020 2019
Net cash provided by operating activities $ 3,109.6 $ 2,135.3 $ 1,444.7
Net cash used for investing activities (884.6) (643.2) (1,283.1)
Net cash used for financing activities (2,065.8) (517.4) (252.7)
Effect of exchange rate on changes in cash and cash equivalents (7.3) 8.6 1.8
Net change in cash and cash equivalents $ 151.9 $ 983.3 $ (89.3)
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Cash and Cash Equivalents
Cash and cash equivalents at December 31, 2021 and 2020 totaled $1,472.7 and $1,320.8, respectively. Cash and cash equivalents consist of highly liquid instruments, such as time deposits and other money market investments, which have original maturities of three months or less.
Cash Flows from Operating Activities
During the year ended December 31, 2021, the Company's operations provided $3,109.6 of cash as compared to $2,135.3 in 2020. The $974.3 increase in cash provided from operations in 2021 as compared with the corresponding 2020 period was primarily due to higher earnings and favorable working capital.
Cash Flows from Investing Activities
Net cash used by investing activities for the year ended December 31, 2021 was $884.6 as compared to net cash used by investing activities of $643.2 for the year ended December 31, 2020. The $241.4 increase in net cash used by investing activities for the year ended December 31, 2021, was primarily due to a year over year increase of $229.3 in cash paid for acquisitions. The Company had proceeds of 42.1 from the sale of assets and disposition of businesses during 2020 in comparison to $87.3 during 2021. Capital expenditures were $460.4 and $381.7 for the years ended December 31, 2021 and 2020, respectively. Capital expenditures in 2021 were 2.9% of revenues, primarily in connection with projects to support growth in the Company's core businesses. The Company intends to continue to pursue acquisitions to drive growth, to make important investments in its business, including in information technology, and to improve efficiency and enable the execution of the Company's mission. Such expenditures are expected to be funded by cash flow from operations or, as needed, through borrowings under debt facilities, including the Company's revolving credit facility or any successor facility. The Company expects capital expenditures in 2022 to be approximately 4.0% of revenues, primarily in connection with projects to support growth in the Company's core businesses, facility updates, projects related to LaunchPad, and further acquisition integration initiatives.
Cash Flows from Financing Activities
Net cash used in financing activities for the year ended December 31, 2021 was $2,065.8 compared to cash used in financing activities of $517.4 for the year ended December 31, 2020. This movement in cash within financing activities for 2021, as compared to 2020, was primarily a result of $1,668.5 in share repurchases in 2021 compared to $100.0 in 2020.
On May 26, 2021, the Company issued new senior notes representing $1,000.0 in debt securities and consisting of $500.0 aggregate principal amount of 1.55% senior notes due 2026 and $500.0 aggregate principal amount of 2.70% senior notes due 2031. Interest on these notes is payable semi-annually in arrears on June 1 and December 1 of each year, commencing on December 1, 2021. Net proceeds from the offering of these notes were $989.4 after deducting underwriting discounts and other expenses of the offering. The net proceeds were used to redeem, prior to maturity, the Company's outstanding 3.20% senior notes due February 1, 2022 and 3.75% senior notes due August 23, 2022.
During the second quarter of 2021, the Company entered into fixed-to-variable interest rate swap agreements for its 2.70% senior notes due 2031 with an aggregate notional amount of $500.0 and variable interest rates based on three-month LIBOR plus 1.0706%. These instruments are designated as hedges against changes in the fair value of a portion of the Company's long-term debt. The aggregate fair value of $2.9 at December 31, 2021, was included as a component of other long-term assets and added to the reported value of the senior notes.
On April 30, 2021, the Company amended and restated its revolving credit facility. It consists of a five-year revolving facility in the principal amount of up to $1,000.0, with the option of increasing the facility by up to an additional $500.0, subject to the agreement of one or more new or existing lenders to provide such additional amounts and certain other customary conditions. The Company is required to pay a facility fee on the aggregate commitments under the revolving credit facility, at a per annum rate ranging from 0.100% to 0.225%, depending on the Company’s debt ratings. Borrowings under the revolving credit facility will accrue interest at a per annum rate equal to, at the Company’s election, either (x) a LIBOR rate plus a margin ranging from 0.775% to 1.275% or (y) a base rate plus a margin ranging from 0% to 0.275%, in each case, depending on the Company’s debt ratings.
On August 17, 2020, the Company redeemed the remaining $412.2 of its 4.625% Senior Notes due November 15, 2020, using available cash on hand. The Company exited the remaining fixed-to-variable interest rate swap agreement in August 2020, in connection with this redemption and recorded a gain of $1.6 on the extinguishment. The gain was included in Other, net on the Consolidated Statement of Operations.
The Company continues to evaluate its outstanding debt portfolio to take advantage of market conditions that would allow the Company to reduce its interest rate or financing risk and provide a lower long-term borrowing cost.
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Under the Company's revolving credit facility, the Company is subject to negative covenants limiting subsidiary indebtedness and certain other covenants typical for investment grade-rated borrowers and the Company is required to maintain certain leverage ratios. The Company was in compliance with all covenants under the revolving credit facility at December 31, 2021, and expects that it will remain in compliance with its existing debt covenants for the next twelve months.
During 2021, the Company repurchased 5.2 shares of its Common Stock at an average price of $282.05 for a total cost of $1,668.5, which included $1,000.0 paid in respect of an ASR for which the Company received 80% of the shares calculated at the price at the inception of the Agreements. At the end of 2021, the Company had outstanding authorization from the Board to purchase $1,631.5 of Company common stock. The repurchase authorization has no expiration date.
Credit Ratings
The Company’s investment grade debt ratings from Moody’s and Standard & Poor's (S&P) contribute to its ability to access capital markets.
Contractual Cash Obligations
Payments Due by Period
Total Short-term Long-term
Operating lease obligations $ 829.5 $ 187.0 $ 642.5
Contingent future licensing and royalty payments (a) 41.8 6.2 35.6
Purchase obligations 45.2 27.4 17.8
Finance lease obligations 95.1 10.5 84.6
Scheduled interest payments on Senior Notes 1,662.8 181.0 1,481.8
Long-term debt (b) 5,418.0 1.5 5,416.5
Total contractual cash obligations (c) (d) (e) (f) $ 8,092.4 $ 413.6 $ 7,678.8
(a)Contingent future licensing payments will be made if certain events take place, such as the launch of a specific test, the transfer of certain technology, and the achievement of specified revenue milestones.
(b)The table does not include obligations under the Company’s pension and postretirement benefit plans, which are included in Note 15 Pension and Postretirement Plans to Consolidated Financial Statements. Benefits under the Company's postretirement medical plan are paid when claims are submitted for payment, the timing of which is not practicable to estimate.
(c)The table does not include the Company’s reserve for unrecognized tax benefits. The Company had a $58.9 reserve for unrecognized tax benefits, including interest and penalties, at December 31, 2021, which is included in Note 12 Income Taxes to Consolidated Financial Statements.
(d)Excludes amount of debt issuance costs included in the long-term debt balance.
(e)The table does not include obligations related to the Company's ASR Agreements which are discussed in Note 11 Preferred Stock and Common Shareholder's Equity to the Consolidated Financial Statements.
(f)This table does not include obligations for venture fund commitments which totaled $13.2 at December 31, 2021, and are subject to calls from the individual venture funds
Off-Balance Sheet Arrangements
The Company does not have transactions or relationships with “special purpose” entities, and the Company does not have any off-balance sheet financing other than normal operating leases and letters of credit.
Other Commercial Commitments
As of December 31, 2021, the Company provided letters of credit aggregating approximately $79.8, primarily in connection with certain insurance programs which are renewed annually.
The contractual value of the noncontrolling interest put in the Company's Ontario subsidiary totaled $16.3 and $16.2 at December 31, 2021, and 2020, respectively, and has been classified as mezzanine equity in the Company's consolidated balance sheet.
Based on current and projected levels of cash flows from operations, coupled with availability under its revolving credit facility, the Company believes it has sufficient liquidity to meet both its anticipated short-term and long-term cash needs; however, the Company continually reassesses its liquidity position in light of market conditions and other relevant factors.
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Critical Accounting Estimates
The preparation of financial statements in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles requires management to make estimates and assumptions that affect the reported amounts of assets and liabilities and disclosure of contingent assets and liabilities at the date of the financial statements and the reported amounts of revenues and expenses during the reported periods. While the Company believes these estimates are reasonable and consistent, they are by their very nature estimates of amounts that will depend on future events. Accordingly, actual results could differ from these estimates. The Company’s Audit Committee periodically reviews the Company’s significant accounting policies. The Company’s critical accounting policies arise in conjunction with the following:
•Revenue recognition;
•Business combinations;
•Income taxes; and
•Goodwill and indefinite-lived assets.
Revenue Recognition
Dx
Within the Dx segment, a revenue transaction is initiated when Dx receives a requisition order to perform a diagnostic test. The information provided on the requisition form is used to determine the party that will be billed for the testing performed and the expected reimbursement. Dx recognizes revenue and satisfies its performance obligation for services rendered when the testing process is complete and the associated results are reported. Revenues are distributed among four payer portfolios - clients, patients, Medicare and Medicaid and third party. Dx considers negotiated discounts and anticipated adjustments, including historical collection experience for the payer portfolio, when revenues are recorded.
The following are descriptions of the Dx payer portfolios:
Clients
Client payers represent the portion of Dx’s revenue related to physicians, hospitals, health systems, accountable care organizations (ACOs), employers and other entities where payment is received exclusively from the entity ordering the testing service. Generally, client revenues are recorded on a fee-for-service basis at Dx’s client list price, less any negotiated discount. A portion of client billing is for laboratory management services, collection kits and other non-testing services or products. In these cases, revenue is recognized when services are rendered or delivered.
Patients
This portfolio includes revenue from uninsured patients and member cost-share for insured patients (e.g., coinsurance, deductibles and non-covered services). Uninsured patients are billed based upon Dx’s patient fee schedules, net of any discounts negotiated with physicians on behalf of their patients. Dx bills insured patients as directed by their health plan and after consideration of the fees and terms associated with an established health plan contract.
Medicare and Medicaid
This portfolio relates to fee-for-service revenue from traditional Medicare and Medicaid programs. Net revenue from these programs is based on the fee schedule established by the related government authority. In addition to contractual discounts, other adjustments including anticipated payer denials are considered when determining net revenue. Any remaining adjustments to revenue are recorded at the time of final collection and settlement. These adjustments are not material to Dx’s results of operations in any period presented.
Third Party
Third party includes revenue related to MCOs. The majority of Dx's third-party revenue is reimbursed on a fee-for-service basis. These payers are billed at Dx's established list price and revenue is recorded net of contractual discounts. The majority of Dx’s MCO revenues are recorded based upon contractually negotiated fee schedules with revenues for non-contracted MCOs recorded based on historical reimbursement experience.
Third-party reimbursement is also received through capitation agreements with MCOs and independent physician associations (IPAs). Under capitated agreements, revenue is recognized based on a negotiated per-member, per-month payment for an agreed upon menu of tests, or based upon the proportionate share earned by Dx from a capitation pool. When the agreed upon reimbursement is based solely on an established rate per member, revenue is not impacted by the volume of testing performed. Under a capitation pool arrangement, the aggregate value of an established rate per member is distributed based on
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the volume and complexity of the procedures performed by laboratories participating in the agreement. Dx recognizes revenue monthly, based upon the established capitation rate or anticipated distribution from a capitated pool.
Dx has a formal process to estimate implicit price concessions for uncollectable accounts. The majority of Dx's collection risk is related to accounts receivable from both insured and uninsured patients who are unwilling or unable to pay. Anticipated write-offs are recorded as adjustments to revenue at an amount considered necessary to record the segment's revenue at its net realizable value. In addition to contractual discounts, other adjustments including anticipated payer denials and other external factors that could affect the collectability of its receivables are considered when determining revenue and the net receivable amount. Any remaining adjustments to revenue are recorded at the time of final collection and settlement. These adjustments are not material to Dx's results of operations in any period presented.
DD
The nature of DD’s obligations includes agreements to provide preclinical services, to manage a full clinical trial, provide services for a specific phase of a trial, or provide research products to the customer. DD provides these services predominantly to pharmaceutical, biotechnology and medical device companies worldwide. A majority of DD’s revenues are earned under contracts that range in duration from a few months to many years. These contracts generally take the form of fee-for-service or fixed-price arrangements subject to pricing adjustments based on changes in scope. The total contract value is estimated at the beginning of the contract, and is equal to the amount expected to be billed to the customer. Other payments and billing adjustments may also factor into the calculation of total contract value, such as the reimbursement of out-of-pocket costs and volume-based rebates.
The majority of DD's contracts contain a single performance obligation. For contracts that include multiple performance obligations, DD allocates the contract value to the goods and services based on a customer price list, if available. If a price list is not available, DD will estimate the transaction price using either market prices or an “expected cost plus margin” approach.
Fee-for-service contracts are typically priced based on transaction volume or time and materials. For volume based contracts the contract value is entirely variable and revenue is recognized as the specific product or service is completed. For services billed based on time and materials, revenue is recognized using the right to invoice practical expedient.
Fixed-price contracts are typically recognized as revenue over time based on a proportional-performance basis, using either input or output methods that are specific to the service provided. In an output method, revenue is determined by dividing the actual units of output achieved by the total units of output required under the contract and multiplying that percentage by the total contract value. When using an input method, revenue is recognized by dividing the actual units of input incurred by the total units of input budgeted in the contract, and multiplying that percentage by the total contract value. The estimate of total units of input at completion requires significant judgment and estimates are based on various assumptions of events that often span several years. These estimates are reviewed periodically and any adjustments are recognized on a cumulative catch-up basis in the period they become known.
Contracts are often modified to account for changes in contract specifications and requirements. Generally, when contract modifications create new performance obligations, the modification is considered to be a separate contract and revenue is recognized prospectively. When contract modifications change existing performance obligations, the impact on the existing transaction price and measure of progress for the performance obligation to which it relates is generally recognized as an adjustment to revenue (either as an increase in or a reduction of revenue) on a cumulative catch-up basis.
Most contracts are terminable with or without cause by the customer, either immediately or upon notice. These contracts often require payment to DD of expenses to wind-down the study or project, fees earned to date and, in some cases, a termination fee or a payment to DD of some portion of the fees or profits that could have been earned by DD under the contract if it had not been terminated early. Termination fees are included in revenues when services are performed and realization is assured.
Business Combinations
The Company accounts for business combination transactions under the acquisition method of accounting and reported the results of operations of the acquired entities from its respective date of acquisition. Assets acquired were recorded at their estimated fair values as of the acquisition date. Estimated fair values were based on various valuation methodologies, including an income approach using primarily discounted cash flow techniques for the customer relationships intangible assets. The aforementioned income methods utilize management's estimates of future operating results and cash flows discounted using a weighted-average cost of capital that reflects market participant assumptions. The excess of the fair value of the consideration conveyed over the fair value of the assets acquired was recorded as goodwill. The goodwill reflects management's expectations of the ability to gain access to and penetrate the acquired entities' historical patient base and the benefits of being able to leverage operational efficiencies with favorable growth opportunities based on positive demographic trends in the market.
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Income Taxes
The Company accounts for income taxes utilizing the asset and liability method. Under this method, deferred tax assets and liabilities are recognized for the future tax consequences attributable to differences between the financial statement carrying amounts of existing assets and liabilities and their respective tax bases and for tax loss carryforwards. Deferred tax assets and liabilities are measured using enacted tax rates expected to apply to taxable income in the years in which those temporary differences are expected to be recovered or settled. The effect on deferred tax assets and liabilities of a change in tax rates is recognized in income in the period that includes the enactment date. The Company does not recognize a tax benefit, unless the Company concludes that it is more likely than not that the benefit will be sustained on audit by the taxing authority based solely on the technical merits of the associated tax position. If the recognition threshold is met, the Company recognizes a tax benefit measured at the largest amount of the tax benefit that the Company believes is greater than 50% likely to be realized. The Company records interest and penalties in income tax expense.
Goodwill and Indefinite-Lived Assets
The Company assesses goodwill and indefinite-lived intangibles for impairment at least annually or whenever events or changes in circumstances indicate that the carrying amount of such assets may not be recoverable. The annual impairment test for goodwill includes an option to perform a qualitative assessment of whether it is more likely than not that a reporting unit's fair value is less than its carrying value. Reporting units are businesses with discrete financial information that is available and reviewed by management. If the Company determines that it is more likely than not that the fair value of a reporting unit is less than its carrying value, then the Company performs the quantitative goodwill impairment test. The Company may also choose to bypass the qualitative assessment for any reporting unit in its goodwill assessment and proceed directly to performing the quantitative assessment. The Company recognizes an impairment charge for the amount by which the reporting unit's carrying amount exceeds its fair value.
In the qualitative assessment, the Company considers relevant events and circumstances for each reporting unit, including (i) current year results, (ii) financial performance versus management’s annual and five-year strategic plans, (iii) changes in the reporting unit carrying value since prior year, (iv) industry and market conditions in which the reporting unit operates, (v) macroeconomic conditions, including discount rate changes, and (vi) changes in products or services offered by the reporting unit. If applicable, performance in recent years is compared to forecasts included in prior quantitative valuations. Based on the results of the qualitative assessment, if the Company concludes that it is not more likely than not that the fair value of the reporting unit is less than its carrying values of the reporting unit, then no quantitative assessment is performed.
The quantitative assessment includes the estimation of the fair value of each reporting unit as compared to the carrying value of the reporting unit. The Company estimates the fair value of a reporting unit using both income-based and market-based valuation methods. The income-based approach is based on the reporting unit's forecasted future cash flows that are discounted to the present value using the reporting unit's weighted average cost of capital. For the market-based approach, the Company utilizes a number of factors such as publicly available information regarding the market capitalization of the Company as well as operating results, business plans, market multiples, and present value techniques. Based upon the range of estimated values developed from the income and market-based methods, the Company determines the estimated fair value for the reporting unit. If the estimated fair value of the reporting unit exceeds the carrying value, the goodwill is not impaired and no further review is required.
The income-based fair value methodology requires management's assumptions and judgments regarding economic conditions in the markets in which the Company operates and conditions in the capital markets, many of which are outside of management's control. At the reporting unit level, fair value estimation requires management's assumptions and judgments regarding the effects of overall economic conditions on the specific reporting unit, along with assessment of the reporting unit's strategies and forecasts of future cash flows. Forecasts of individual reporting unit cash flows involve management's estimates and assumptions regarding:
•Annual cash flows, on a debt-free basis, arising from future revenues and profitability, changes in working capital, capital spending and income taxes for at least a five-year forecast period.
•A terminal growth rate for years beyond the forecast period. The terminal growth rate is selected based on consideration of growth rates used in the forecast period, historical performance of the reporting unit and economic conditions.
•A discount rate that reflects the risks inherent in realizing the forecasted cash flows. A discount rate considers the risk-free rate of return on long-term treasury securities, the risk premium associated with investing in equity securities of comparable companies, the beta obtained from the comparable companies and the cost of debt for investment grade issuers. In addition, the discount rate may consider any company-specific risk in achieving the prospective financial information.
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Under the market-based fair value methodology, judgment is required in evaluating market multiples and recent transactions. Management believes that the assumptions used for its impairment tests are representative of those that would be used by market participants performing similar valuations of the reporting units.
Based upon the revised forecasted revenues and operating income following the declaration of the COVID-19 global pandemic, management concluded there was a triggering event and updated its annual 2019 goodwill impairment testing as of March 31, 2020, for certain of its DD reporting units and Dx reporting units. Based on the quantitative impairment assessment performed in the same manner as its annual quantitative assessment, the Company concluded that the fair value was less than carrying value for two of its reporting unit and recorded a goodwill impairment of $418.7 for DD and $3.7 for Dx.
Management performed its annual goodwill and intangible asset impairment testing as of the beginning of the fourth quarter of 2021. The Company elected to perform the qualitative assessment for goodwill and intangible assets for the domestic Dx reporting units and all of the DD reporting units and a quantitative assessment for the Canadian reporting unit and its indefinite-lived assets consisting of acquired Canadian licenses. Based upon the results of the qualitative and quantitative assessments, the Company concluded that the fair values of each of its reporting units, as of October 1, 2021, were greater than the carrying values.
Although the Company believes that the current assumptions and estimates used in its goodwill analysis are reasonable, supportable, and appropriate, continued efforts to maintain or improve the performance of these businesses could be impacted by unfavorable or unforeseen changes which could impact the existing assumptions used in the impairment analysis. Various factors could reasonably be expected to unfavorably impact existing assumptions: primarily delays in new customer bookings and the related delay in revenue from new customers, increases in customer termination activity or increases in operating costs. In addition, given the ongoing and rapidly changing nature of the COVID-19 pandemic, there is significant uncertainty regarding the duration and severity of the pandemic as well as any future government restrictions, which may unfavorably impact existing assumptions. Accordingly, there can be no assurance that the estimates and assumptions made for the purposes of the goodwill impairment analysis will prove to be accurate predictions of future performance.

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ITEM 7A. QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DISCLOSURES ABOUT MARKET RISK
Item 7A. QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE DISCLOSURE ABOUT MARKET RISK (in millions)
Market risk is the potential loss arising from adverse changes in market rates and prices, such as foreign currency exchange rates, interest rates and other relevant market rate or price changes. In the ordinary course of business, the Company is exposed to various market risks, including changes in foreign currency exchange and interest rates, and the Company regularly evaluates the exposure to such changes. The Company addresses its exposure to market risks, principally the market risks associated with changes in foreign currency exchange rates and interest rates, through a controlled program of risk management that includes, from time to time, the use of derivative financial instruments such as foreign currency forward contracts, cross currency swaps and interest rate swap agreements. The Company does not hold or issue derivative financial instruments for trading purposes.
Foreign Currency Exchange Rates
Approximately 15.3% and 10.7% of the Company's revenues for the year ended December 31, 2021 and 2020, respectively, were denominated in currencies other than the U.S. dollar (USD). The Company's financial statements are reported in USD and, accordingly, fluctuations in exchange rates will affect the translation of revenues and expenses denominated in foreign currencies into USD for purposes of reporting the Company's consolidated financial results. In both 2021 and 2020, the most significant currency exchange rate exposures were to the Canadian dollar, Swiss franc, euro and British pound. Excluding the impacts from any outstanding or future hedging transactions, a hypothetical change of 10% in average exchange rates used to translate all foreign currencies to USD would have impacted income before income taxes for 2021 by approximately $31.0. Gross accumulated currency translation adjustments recorded as a separate component of shareholders’ equity were $(104.6) and $264.1 at December 31, 2021, and 2020, respectively. The Company does not have significant operations in countries in which the economy is considered to be highly inflationary.
The Company earns revenue from service contracts over a period of several months and, in some cases, over a period of several years. Accordingly, exchange rate fluctuations during this period may affect the Company's profitability with respect to such contracts. The Company is also subject to foreign currency transaction risk for fluctuations in exchange rates during the period of time between the consummation and cash settlement of transactions. The Company limits its foreign currency transaction risk through exchange rate fluctuation provisions stated in some of its contracts with customers, or it may hedge transaction risk with foreign currency forward contracts. At December 31, 2021, the Company had 28 open foreign exchange forward contracts with various amounts maturing monthly through January 2021 with a notional value totaling approximately $600.7. At December 31, 2020, the Company had 31 open foreign exchange forward contracts with various amounts maturing monthly through January 2021 with a notional value totaling approximately $601.2.
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The Company is party to USD to Swiss Franc cross-currency swap agreements with a notional amount of $600.0, maturing in 2022 and 2025, as a hedge against the impact of foreign exchange movements on its net investment in its Swiss Franc functional currency subsidiary.
Interest Rates
Some of the Company's debt is subject to interest at variable rates. As a result, fluctuations in interest rates affect the Company's financial results. The Company attempts to manage interest rate risk and overall borrowing costs through an appropriate mix of fixed and variable rate debt including the utilization of derivative financial instruments, primarily interest rate swaps.
Borrowings under the Company's term loan credit facilities and revolving credit facility are subject to variable interest rates, unless fixed through interest rate swaps or other agreements.
In May, 2021, to hedge against changes in the fair value portion of the Company's long-term debt, the Company entered into fixed-to-variable interest rate swap agreements for the 2.70% senior notes due 2031 with an aggregate notional value of $500.0 and variable interest rates based on three-month LIBOR plus 1.0706%.

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ITEM 8. FINANCIAL STATEMENTS AND SUPPLEMENTARY DATA
Item 8. FINANCIAL STATEMENTS AND SUPPLEMENTARY DATA
The consolidated financial statements of the Company required in this item are set forth beginning on page of this Annual Report on Form 10-K.

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ITEM 9. CHANGES IN AND DISAGREEMENTS WITH ACCOUNTANTS
Item 9. CHANGES IN AND DISAGREEMENTS WITH ACCOUNTANTS ON ACCOUNTING AND FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE
None.

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ITEM 9A. CONTROLS AND PROCEDURES
Item 9A. CONTROLS AND PROCEDURES
Disclosure Controls and Procedures
As of the end of the period covered by this Annual Report, the Company carried out under the supervision and with the participation of the Company’s management, including the Company’s principal executive officer and principal financial officer, an evaluation of the effectiveness of the Company's disclosure controls and procedures (as defined in Rules 13a-15(e) and 15d-15(e) under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934, as amended). Based upon this evaluation, the Company’s principal executive officer and principal financial officer concluded that the Company’s disclosure controls and procedures were effective as of the end of the period covered by this Annual Report.
Changes in Internal Control over Financial Reporting
There have been no changes in the Company’s internal control over financial reporting (as defined in Exchange Act Rules 13a-15(f) and 15d-15(f)) during the quarter ended December 31, 2021, that have materially affected, or are reasonably likely to materially affect, the Company’s internal control over financial reporting.
Report of Management on Internal Control over Financial Reporting
The Company's management is responsible for establishing and maintaining adequate internal control over financial reporting (as defined in Rules 13a-15(f) and 15d-15(f) under the Securities Exchange Act of 1934).
The internal control over financial reporting at the Company was designed to provide reasonable assurance regarding the reliability of financial reporting and the preparation of financial statements for external purposes in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the U.S. Internal control over financial reporting includes those policies and procedures that:
•pertain to the maintenance of records that, in reasonable detail, accurately and fairly reflect the transactions and dispositions of the assets of the Company;
•provide reasonable assurance that transactions are recorded as necessary to permit preparation of financial statements in accordance with accounting principles generally accepted in the U.S.;
•provide reasonable assurance that receipts and expenditures of the Company are being made only in accordance with authorization of management and directors of the Company; and
•provide reasonable assurance regarding prevention or timely detection of unauthorized acquisition, use or disposition of assets that could have a material effect on the consolidated financial statements.
Because of its inherent limitations, internal control over financial reporting may not prevent or detect misstatements.
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The Company's management assessed the effectiveness of the Company’s internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 2021. Management based this assessment on criteria for effective internal control over financial reporting described in “Internal Control - Integrated Framework 2013” issued by the Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission (COSO). Based on this assessment, the Company's management determined that, as of December 31, 2021, the Company maintained effective internal control over financial reporting. Management reviewed the results of its assessment with the Audit Committee of the Company’s Board.
Deloitte and Touche LLP, an independent registered public accounting firm, who audited and reported on the consolidated financial statements of the Company included in this Annual Report, also audited the effectiveness of the Company’s internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 2021, as stated in its report, which is included herein immediately preceding the Company’s audited financial statements.

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ITEM 9B. OTHER INFORMATION
Item 9B. OTHER INFORMATION
None.

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ITEM 10. DIRECTORS, EXECUTIVE OFFICERS AND CORPORATE GOVERNANCE
Item 10. DIRECTORS, EXECUTIVE OFFICERS AND CORPORATE GOVERNANCE
The information required by the item regarding directors is incorporated by reference to the Company’s Definitive Proxy Statement to be filed with the Securities and Exchange Commission in connection with the Annual Meeting of Stockholders to be held in 2022 (the 2022 Proxy Statement) under the caption Election of Directors. Information regarding executive officers is incorporated by reference to the Company’s 2022 Proxy Statement under the caption Executive Officers. Information concerning the Company’s Audit Committee, including the designation of audit committee financial experts and information regarding compliance with Section 16(a) of the Exchange Act responsive to this item is incorporated by reference to the Company’s 2022 Proxy Statement under the captions Corporate Governance and Delinquent Section 16(a) Reports, respectively. Information concerning the Company's code of ethics is incorporated by reference to the Company's 2022 Proxy Statement under the caption Corporate Governance Policies and Procedures.

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ITEM 11. EXECUTIVE COMPENSATION
Item 11. EXECUTIVE COMPENSATION
The information required by this item is incorporated by reference to information in the 2022 Proxy Statement under the captions “Executive Compensation” and “Director Compensation.”

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ITEM 12. SECURITY OWNERSHIP OF CERTAIN BENEFICIAL OWNERS
Item 12. SECURITY OWNERSHIP OF CERTAIN BENEFICIAL OWNERS AND MANAGEMENT AND RELATED STOCKHOLDER MATTERS
See Note 13 Stock Compensation Plans to the Consolidated Financial Statements for a discussion of the Company’s Stock Compensation Plans. Except for the above referenced footnote, the information called for by this item is incorporated by reference to information in the 2022 Proxy Statement under the captions “Security Ownership of Certain Beneficial Holders and Management,” “Compensation Discussion & Analysis” and “Executive Compensation.”

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ITEM 13. CERTAIN RELATIONSHIPS AND RELATED TRANSACTIONS
Item 13. CERTAIN RELATIONSHIPS AND RELATED TRANSACTIONS, AND DIRECTOR INDEPENDENCE
The information required by this item is incorporated by reference to information in the 2022 Proxy Statement under the captions “Board Independence” and “Related Party Transactions.”

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ITEM 14. PRINCIPAL ACCOUNTING FEES AND SERVICES
Item 14. PRINCIPAL ACCOUNTANT FEES AND SERVICES
The information required by this item is incorporated by reference to information in the 2022 Proxy Statement under the caption “Fees to Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm.”
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PART IV

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ITEM 15. EXHIBITS, FINANCIAL STATEMENT SCHEDULES
Item 15. EXHIBITS AND FINANCIAL STATEMENT SCHEDULES
(a) List of documents filed as part of this Annual Report:
(1) Consolidated Financial Statements and Report of Independent Registered Public Accounting Firm included herein:
See Index on page
(2) Financial Statement Schedules:
All schedules are omitted as they are inapplicable or the required information is furnished in the Consolidated Financial Statements or notes thereto.
(3) Index to and List of Exhibits
3.1 Amended and Restated Certificate of Incorporation of the Company dated May 24, 2001 (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 3.1 to the Company’s Registration Statement on Form S-3, filed with the Commission on October 19, 2001, File No. 333-71896).
3.2 Amended and Restated By-Laws of the Company, adopted and effective July 7, 2020 (incorporated by reference herein to Exhibit 3.1 to the Company’s Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q for the period ended June 30, 2020. and Restated By-Laws of the Company.
4.1 Specimen of the Company’s Common Stock Certificate (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 4.1 to the Company’s Annual Report on Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2001).
4.2 Indenture, dated as of November 19, 2010, between the Company and U.S. Bank National Association, as trustee (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 4.1 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed on November 19, 2010).
4.3 Second Supplemental Indenture, dated as of November 19, 2010, between the Company and U.S. Bank National Association, as trustee, including the form of the 2020 Notes (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 4.3 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed on November 19, 2010).
4.4 Third Supplemental Indenture, dated as of August 23, 2012, between the Company and U.S. Bank National Association, as trustee, including the form of the 2017 Notes (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 4.2 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed on August 23, 2012).
4.5 Fourth Supplemental Indenture, dated as of August 23, 2012, between the Company and U.S. Bank National Association, as trustee, including the form of the 2022 Notes (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 4.3 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed on August 23, 2012).
4.6 Fifth Supplemental Indenture, dated as of November 1, 2013, between the Company and U.S. Bank National Association, as trustee, including the form of the 2018 Notes (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 4.2 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed on November 1, 2013).
4.7 Sixth Supplemental Indenture, dated as of November 1, 2013, between the Company and U.S. Bank National Association, as trustee, including the form of the 2023 Notes (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 4.3 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed on November 1, 2013).
4.8 Seventh Supplemental Indenture, dated as of January 30, 2015, between the Company and U.S. Bank National Association, as trustee, including the form of the 2020 Notes (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 4.2 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed on January 30, 2015).
4.9 Eighth Supplemental Indenture, dated as of January 30, 2015, between the Company and U.S. Bank National Association, as trustee, including the form of the 2022 Notes (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 4.3 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed on January 30, 2015).
4.10 Ninth Supplemental Indenture, dated as of January 30, 2015, between the Company and U.S. Bank National Association, as trustee, including the form of the 2025 Notes (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 4.4 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed on January 30, 2015).
4.11 Tenth Supplemental Indenture, dated as of January 30, 2015, between the Company and U.S. Bank National Association, as trustee, including the form of the 2045 Notes (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 4.5 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed on January 30, 2015).
4.12 Eleventh Supplemental Indenture, dated as of August 22, 2017, between the Company and U.S. Bank National Association, as trustee, including the form of the 2024 Notes (incorporated by reference to Exhibit 4.2 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed on August 22, 2017).
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4.13 Twelfth Supplemental Indenture, dated as of August 22, 2017, between the Company and U.S. Bank National Association, as trustee, including the form of the 2027 Notes (incorporated by reference to Exhibit 4.3 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed on August 22, 2017).
4.14 Thirteenth Supplemental Indenture, dated as of November 25, 2019, between the Company and U.S. Bank National Association, as trustee, including the form of the 2024 Notes (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 4.2 to the Company's Current Report on Form 8-K filed on November 25, 2019).
4.15 Fourteenth Supplemental Indenture, dated as of November 25, 2019, between the Company and U.S. Bank National Association, as trustee, including the form of the 2029 Notes (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 4.3 to the Company's Current Report on Form 8-K filed on November 25, 2019).
4.16 Fifteenth Supplemental Indenture, dated as of May 26, 2021, between the Company and U.S. Bank National Association, as trustee, including the form of the 2026 Notes (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 4.2 to the Company's Current Report on Form 8-K filed on May 26, 2021).
4.17 Sixteenth Supplemental Indenture, dated as of May 26, 2021, between the Company and U.S. Bank National Association, as trustee, including the form of the 2031 Notes (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 4.3 to the Company's Current Report on Form 8-K filed on May 26, 2021).
4.18* Description of the Registrant's securities registered pursuant to Section 12 of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934.
10.1+
National Health Laboratories Incorporated Pension Equalization Plan (incorporated herein by reference to the Company’s Annual Report on Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 1992).
10.2+
Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings Amended and Restated New Pension Equalization Plan (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 10.1 to the Company's Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q for the period ended September 30, 2004).
10.3+
First Amendment to the Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings Amended and Restated New Pension Equalization Plan (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 10.2 to the Company’s Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q for the period ended September 30, 2004).
10.4+
Second Amendment to the Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings Amended and Restated New Pension Equalization Plan (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 10.4 to the Company’s Annual Report on Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2004).
10.5+
Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings Deferred Compensation Plan (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 10.22 the Company’s Annual Report on Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2004).
10.6+
First Amendment to the Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings Deferred Compensation Plan (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 10.23 to the Company’s Annual Report on Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2004).
10.7+
Second Amendment to the Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings Deferred Compensation Plan (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 10.8 to the Company’s Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q for the period ended June 30, 2005).
10.8+
Third Amendment to the Laboratory Corporation of America Amended and Restated New Pension Equalization Plan (incorporated herein by reference Exhibit 10.6 to the Company’s Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q for the period ended June 30, 2005).
10.9+
Third Amendment to the Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings Deferred Compensation Plan (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 10.28 to the Company’s Annual Report on Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2006).
10.10+
Fourth Amendment to the Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings Deferred Compensation Plan (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 10.34 to the Company’s Annual Report on Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended December 31, 2007).
10.11+
Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings 2008 Stock Incentive Plan (incorporated herein by reference to Annex III to the Company’s Definitive Proxy Statement on Schedule 14A filed on March 25, 2008).
10.12+
Amendment to Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings 2008 Stock Incentive Plan (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 10.2 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed on May 7, 2008).
10.13+
Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings 2012 Omnibus Incentive Plan (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 10.1 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed on May 2, 2012).
Index
10.14 Second Amended and Restated Credit Agreement, dated as of September 15, 2017, (originally dated as of December 21, 2011), among the Company, Bank of America, N.A. as Administrative Agent, Swing Line Lender and L/C Issuer, Wells Fargo Bank, National Association as Syndication Agent and L/C Issuer, Credit Suisse AG, Cayman Islands Branch as Documentation Agent and L/C Issuer, the Bank of Tokyo-Mitsubishi UFJ, LTD., Barclays Bank PLC, Credit Suisse AG, Cayman Islands Branch, KeyBank National Association, PNC Bank, National Association, TD Bank, N.A., and U.S. Bank National Association, as Documentation Agents, Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith Incorporated, Wells Fargo Securities, LLC and Credit Suisse Securities (USA) LL as Joint Lead Arrangers and Joint Book Managers, and the lenders named therein (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 10.3 to the Company’s Annual Report on Form 10-Q filed on November 2, 2017).
10.15 Amendment No. 1, dated as of May 7, 2020, to the Second Amended and Restated Credit Agreement, dated September 15, 2017 (originally dated as of December 21, 2011), among the Company, Bank of America, N.A. as administrative agent, and the lenders party thereto (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 10.2 to the Company’s Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q filed on May 8, 2020).
10.16 Third Amended and Restated Credit Agreement, dated as of April 30, 2021, among the Company, Bank of America N.A., as administrative agent, and the lenders party thereto (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 10.1 to the Company's Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q filed on May 4, 2021).
10.17+
Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings 2016 Omnibus Incentive Plan (incorporated by reference herein to Exhibit 10.1 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed on May 16, 2016).
10.18+
Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings 2016 Employee Stock Purchase Plan (incorporated by reference herein to Exhibit 10.2 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed on May 16, 2016).
10.19 Term Loan Credit Agreement, dated June 3, 2019, by and among Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings, Bank of America, N.A., as administrative agent, and the lenders party thereto (incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.1 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed on June 3, 2019).
10.20 Amendment No. 1, dated as of May 7, 2020, to the Term Loan Credit Agreement, dated June 3, 2019, among the Company, Bank of America, N.A. as administrative agent, and the lenders party thereto. (incorporated herein by reference to Exhibit 10.1 to the Company’s Quarterly Report on Form 10-Q filed on May 8, 2020).
10.21+
Executive Employment Agreement, dated June 4, 2019, by and between Laboratory Corporation of America Holdings and Adam H. Schechter (incorporated by reference to Exhibit 10.1 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed on June 5, 2019).
10.22*+
Amended and Restated Master Senior Executive Severance Plan.
16.1 Letter of PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP, dated November 5, 2020 (incorporated by reference to Exhibit 16.1 to the Company’s Current Report on Form 8-K filed on November 5, 2020).
16.2 Letter of PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP, dated March 3, 2021 (incorporated by reference to Exhibit 16.1 to the Company's Current Report on Form 8-K/A filed on March 3, 2021).
Index
21* List of Subsidiaries of the Company
23.1* Consent of Deloitte & Touche LLP, an independent registered public accounting firm
23.2* Consent of PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP, an independent registered public accounting firm
24.1* Power of Attorney of Kerrii B. Anderson
24.2* Power of Attorney of Jean-Luc Bélingard
24.3* Power of Attorney of Jeffrey A. Davis
24.4* Power of Attorney of D. Gary Gilliland, M.D., Ph.D.
24.5* Power of Attorney of Garheng Kong, M.D., Ph.D.
24.6* Power of Attorney of Peter M. Neupert
24.7* Power of Attorney of Richelle P. Parham
24.8* Power of Attorney of Kathryn E. Wengel
24.9* Power of Attorney of R. Sanders Williams, M.D.
31.1* Certification by the Chief Executive Officer pursuant to Rule 13a-14(a) or Rule 15d-14(a)
31.2* Certification by the Chief Financial Officer pursuant to Rule 13a-14(a) or Rule 15d-14(a)
32* Written Statement of Chief Executive Officer and Chief Financial Officer pursuant to Section 906 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 (18 U.S.C. Section 1350)
101.INS* Inline XBRL Instance Document - The instance document does not appear in the Interactive Data File because its XBRL tags are embedded within the Inline XBRL document.
101.SCH* Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Schema
101.CAL* Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Calculation Linkbase
101.DEF* Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Definition Linkbase
101.LAB* Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Label Linkbase
101.PRE* Inline XBRL Taxonomy Extension Presentation Linkbase
104* Cover Page Interactive Data File (embedded within the Inline XBRL document)
* Filed or furnished herewith, as required
+ Management contracts or compensatory plans or arrangements
Index