sarnsrun/medquadmini huggingface dataset:
Question:
What is (are) Vesicoureteral Reflux ?

Answer:
The two types of VUR are primary and secondary. Most cases of VUR are primary and typically affect only one ureter and kidney. With primary VUR, a child is born with a ureter that did not grow long enough during the childs development in the womb. The valve formed by the ureter pressing against the bladder wall does not close properly, so urine refluxes from the bladder to the ureter and eventually to the kidney. This type of VUR can get better or disappear as a child gets older. As a child grows, the ureter gets longer and function of the valve improves.
                
Secondary VUR occurs when a blockage in the urinary tract causes an increase in pressure and pushes urine back up into the ureters. Children with secondary VUR often have bilateral reflux. VUR caused by a physical defect typically results from an abnormal fold of tissue in the urethra that keeps urine from flowing freely out of the bladder.
                
VUR is usually classified as grade I through V, with grade I being the least severe and grade V being the most severe.
Question:
What are the symptoms of Vesicoureteral Reflux ?

Answer:
In many cases, a child with VUR has no symptoms. When symptoms are present, the most common is a urinary tract infection (UTI). VUR can lead to infection because urine that remains in the childs urinary tract provides a place for bacteria to grow. Studies estimate that 30 percent of children and up to 70 percent of infants with a UTI have VUR.2
Question:
What are the complications of Vesicoureteral Reflux ?

Answer:
When a child with VUR gets a UTI, bacteria can move into the kidney and lead to scarring. Scarring of the kidney can be associated with high blood pressure and kidney failure. However, most children with VUR who get a UTI recover without long-term complications.
Question:
How to diagnose Vesicoureteral Reflux ?

Answer:
The most common tests used to diagnose VUR include
                
- Voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG). VCUG is an x-ray image of the bladder and urethra taken during urination, also called voiding. The bladder and urethra are filled with a special dye, called contrast medium, to make the urethra clearly visible. The x-ray machine captures a video of the contrast medium when the child urinates. The procedure is performed in a health care providers office, outpatient center, or hospital by an x-ray technician supervised by a radiologista doctor who specializes in medical imagingwho then interprets the images. Anesthesia is not needed, but sedation may be used for some children. This test can show abnormalities of the inside of the urethra and bladder.  - Radionuclide cystogram (RNC). RNC is a type of nuclear scan that involves placing radioactive material into the bladder. A scanner then detects the radioactive material as the child urinates or after the bladder is empty. The procedure is performed in a health care providers office, outpatient center, or hospital by a specially trained technician, and the images are interpreted by a radiologist. Anesthesia is not needed, but sedation may be used for some children. RNC is more sensitive than VCUG but does not provide as much detail of the bladder anatomy.  - Abdominal ultrasound. Ultrasound uses a device, called a transducer, that bounces safe, painless sound waves off organs to create an image of their structure. An abdominal ultrasound can create images of the entire urinary tract, including the kidneys and bladder. The procedure is performed in a health care providers office, outpatient center, or hospital by a specially trained technician, and the images are interpreted by a radiologist; anesthesia is not needed. Ultrasound may be used before VCUG or RNC if the childs family or health care provider wants to avoid exposure to x-ray radiation or radioactive material.
                
Testing is usually done on
                
- infants diagnosed during pregnancy with urine blockage affecting the kidneys  - children younger than 5 years of age with a UTI  - children with a UTI and fever, called febrile UTI, regardless of age  - males with a UTI who are not sexually active, regardless of age or fever  - children with a family history of VUR, including an affected sibling
                
More information about urine blockage in infants is provided in the NIDDK health topic, Urine Blockage in Newborns.
                
VUR is an unlikely cause of UTI in some children, so these tests are not done until other causes of UTI are ruled out for
                
- children 5 years of age and older with a UTI  - children with a UTI but no fever  - sexually active males with a UTI
Question:
How to diagnose Vesicoureteral Reflux ?

Answer:
Following diagnosis, children with VUR should have a general medical evaluation that includes blood pressure measurement, as high blood pressure is an indicator of kidney damage. If both kidneys are affected, a childs blood should be tested for creatininea waste product of normal muscle breakdown. Healthy kidneys remove creatinine from the blood; when the kidneys are damaged, creatinine builds up in the blood. The urine may be tested for the presence of protein and bacteria. Protein in the urine is another indication of damaged kidneys.
                
- having to urinate often or suddenly  - long periods of time between bathroom visits  - daytime wetting  - pain in the penis or perineumthe area between the anus and genitals  - posturing to prevent wetting  - constipationa condition in which a child has fewer than two bowel movements in a week; the bowel movements may be painful  - fecal incontinenceinability to hold stool in the colon and rectum, which are parts of the large intestine
Question:
What are the treatments for Vesicoureteral Reflux ?

Answer:
The standard treatment for primary VUR has included prompt treatment of UTIs and long-term use of antibiotics to prevent UTIs, also called antimicrobial prophylaxis, until VUR goes away on its own. Antibiotics are bacteria-fighting medications. Surgery has also been used in certain cases.
                
Several studies have raised questions about long-term use of antibiotics for prevention of UTIs. The studies found little or no effect on prevention of kidney damage. Long-term use may also make the child resistant to the antibiotic, meaning the medication does not work as well, and the child may be sicker longer and may need to take medications that are even stronger.
                
- children younger than 1 year of age continuous antibiotics should be used if a child has a history of febrile UTI or VUR grade III through V that was identified through screening  - children older than 1 year of age with BBDcontinuous antibiotics should be used while BBD is being treated  - children older than 1 year of age without BBDcontinuous antibiotics can be used at the discretion of the health care provider but is not automatically recommended; however, UTIs should be promptly treated
                
Deflux, a gellike liquid containing complex sugars, is an alternative to surgery for treatment of VUR. A small amount of Deflux is injected into the bladder wall near the opening of the ureter. This injection creates a bulge in the tissue that makes it harder for urine to flow back up the ureter. The health care provider uses a special tube to see inside the bladder during the procedure. Deflux injection is an outpatient procedure done under general anesthesia, so the child can go home the same day.
Question:
What are the treatments for Vesicoureteral Reflux ?

Answer:
Secondary VUR is treated by removing the blockage causing the reflux. Treatment may involve
                
- surgery  - antibiotics  - intermittent catheterizationdraining the bladder by inserting a thin tube, called a catheter, through the urethra to the bladder
Question:
What to do for Vesicoureteral Reflux ?

Answer:
Eating, diet, and nutrition have not been shown to play a role in causing or preventing VUR.
Question:
What to do for Vesicoureteral Reflux ?

Answer:
- Vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) is the abnormal flow of urine from the bladder to the upper urinary tract.  - VUR is more common in infants and young children, but older children and even adults can be affected. About 10 percent of children have VUR.  - In many cases, a child with VUR has no symptoms. When symptoms are present, the most common is a urinary tract infection (UTI).  - When a child with VUR gets a UTI, bacteria can move into the kidney and lead to scarring. Scarring of the kidney can be associated with high blood pressure and kidney failure.  - Voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG), radionuclide cystogram (RNC), and abdominal ultrasound are used to diagnose VUR.  - Children with VUR should also be assessed for bladder/bowel dysfunction (BBD). Children who have VUR along with any BBD symptoms are at greater risk of kidney damage due to infection.  - The standard treatment for primary VUR has included prompt treatment of UTIs and long-term use of antibiotics to prevent UTIs, also called antimicrobial prophylaxis, until VUR goes away on its own. Surgery has also been used in certain cases.  - Secondary VUR is treated by removing the blockage causing the reflux.
Question:
What is (are) Diabetic Kidney Disease ?

Answer:
Diabetic kidney disease, also called diabetic nephropathy, is kidney disease caused by diabetes. Even when well controlled, diabetes can lead to chronic kidney disease (CKD) and kidney failure, described as end-stage kidney disease or ESRD when treated with a kidney transplant or blood-filtering treatments called dialysis.
                
Diabetes affects 25.8 million people of all ages in the United States.1 As many as 40 percent of people who have diabetes are expected to develop CKD.2 Diabetes, the most common cause of kidney failure in the United States, accounts for nearly 44 percent of new cases of kidney failure, as illustrated in Figure 1.3
Question:
What is (are) Diabetic Kidney Disease ?

Answer:
The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs, each about the size of a fist. They are located just below the rib cage, one on each side of the spine. Every day, the two kidneys filter about 120 to 150 quarts of blood to produce about 1 to 2 quarts of urine, composed of wastes and extra fluid. The urine flows from the kidneys to the bladder through tubes called ureters. The bladder stores urine.
                
When the bladder empties, urine flows out of the body through a tube called the urethra, located at the bottom of the bladder. In men the urethra is long, while in women it is short.
                
Kidneys work at the microscopic level. The kidney is not one large filter. Each kidney is made up of about a million filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron filters a small amount of blood. The nephron includes a filter, called the glomerulus, and a tubule. The nephrons work through a two-step process. The glomerulus lets fluid and waste products pass through it; however, it prevents blood cells and large molecules, mostly proteins, from passing. The filtered fluid then passes through the tubule, which sends needed minerals back to the bloodstream and removes wastes. The final product becomes urine.
Question:
What is (are) Diabetic Kidney Disease ?

Answer:
Diabetes is a complex group of diseases with a variety of causes. People with diabetes have high blood glucose, also called high blood sugar or hyperglycemia.
                
Diabetes is a disorder of metabolism the way the body uses digested food for energy. The digestive tract breaks down carbohydratessugars and starches found in many foodsinto glucose, a form of sugar that enters the bloodstream. With the help of the hormone insulin, cells throughout the body absorb glucose and use it for energy.
                
Insulin is made in the pancreas, an organ located behind the stomach and below the liver. As blood glucose levels rise after a meal, the pancreas is triggered to release insulin. The pancreas contains clusters of cells called pancreatic islets. Beta cells within the pancreatic islets make insulin and release it into the blood.
                
Diabetes develops when the body doesnt make enough insulin, is not able to use insulin effectively, or both. As a result, glucose builds up in the blood instead of being absorbed by cells in the body. The bodys cells are then starved of energy despite high blood glucose levels.
Question:
What are the symptoms of Diabetic Kidney Disease ?

Answer:
People with diabetic kidney disease do not have symptoms in the early stages. As kidney disease progresses, a person can develop edema, or swelling. Edema happens when the kidneys cannot get rid of the extra fluid and salt in the body. Edema can occur in the legs, feet, or ankles and less often in the hands or face. Once kidney function decreases further, symptoms may include
                
- appetite loss  - nausea  - vomiting  - drowsiness, or feeling tired  - trouble concentrating  - sleep problems  - increased or decreased urination  - generalized itching or numbness  - dry skin  - headaches  - weight loss  - darkened skin  - muscle cramps  - shortness of breath  - chest pain
Question:
How to diagnose Diabetic Kidney Disease ?

Answer:
A health care provider diagnoses diabetic kidney disease based on
                
- a medical and family history  - a physical exam  - urine tests  - a blood test
                
Medical and Family History
                
Taking a medical and family history is one of the first things a health care provider may do to help diagnose diabetic kidney disease. He or she will ask about the symptoms and the patients diabetes history.
                
Physical Exam
                
After taking a medical and family history, a health care provider will perform a physical exam. During a physical exam, a health care provider usually
                
- examines the patients body to check for changes in skin color  - taps on specific areas of the patients body, checking for swelling of the feet, ankles, or lower legs
                
Urine Tests
                
Dipstick test for albumin. A dipstick test performed on a urine sample can detect the presence of albumin in the urine. A patient collects the urine sample in a special container in a health care providers office or a commercial facility. The office or facility tests the sample onsite or sends it to a lab for analysis. For the test, a nurse or technician places a strip of chemically treated paper, called a dipstick, into the urine. Patches on the dipstick change color when blood or protein is present in urine.
                
Urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio. A health care provider uses this measurement to estimate the amount of albumin passed into the urine over a 24-hour period. The patient collects a urine sample during an appointment with the health care provider. Creatinine is a waste product that is filtered in the kidneys and passed into the urine. A high urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio indicates that the kidneys are leaking large amounts of albumin into the urine. A urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio above 30 mg/g may be a sign of kidney disease.
                
Blood Test
                
A blood test involves having blood drawn at a health care providers office or a commercial facility and sending the sample to a lab for analysis. A health care provider may order a blood test to estimate how much blood the kidneys filter each minute, called the estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). The results of the test indicate the following:
                
- eGFR of 60 or above is in the normal range  - eGFR below 60 may indicate kidney damage  - eGFR of 15 or below may indicate kidney failure
Question:
How to diagnose Diabetic Kidney Disease ?

Answer:
People with diabetes should get regular screenings for kidney disease. The National Kidney Disease Education Program recommends the following:
                
- urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio measured at least once a year in all people with type 2 diabetes and people who have had type 1 diabetes for 5 years or more  - eGFR calculated at least once a year in all people with type 1 or type 2 diabetes
Question:
What are the treatments for Diabetic Kidney Disease ?

Answer:
A health care provider may treat kidney failure due to diabetic kidney disease with dialysis or a kidney transplant. In some cases, people with diabetic kidney disease receive kidney and pancreas transplants.
                
In most cases, people with diabetic kidney disease start dialysis earlier than people with kidney failure who do not have diabetes. People with diabetic end-stage kidney disease who receive a kidney transplant have a much better survival rate than those people on dialysis, although survival rates for those on dialysis have increasingly improved over time. However, people who receive a kidney transplant and do not have diabetes have a higher survival rate than people with diabetic kidney disease who receive a transplant.5
                
More information about treatment options for kidney failure is provided in the NIDDK health topics:
                
- Treatment Methods for Kidney Failure: Hemodialysis  - Treatment Methods for Kidney Failure: Peritoneal Dialysis  - Treatment Methods for Kidney Failure: Transplantation
Question:
What are the treatments for Diabetic Kidney Disease ?

Answer:
People with diabetes should work with their health care team to prevent or manage CKD through the following steps:
                
- measure A1C levelsa blood test that provides information about a persons average blood glucose levels for the previous 3 months at least twice a year and keep A1C levels below 7 percent  - learn about insulin injections, diabetes medications, meal planning, physical activity, and blood glucose monitoring  - find out whether protein, salt, or liquid should be limited in the diet  - see a registered dietitian to help with meal planning  - check blood pressure every visit with a health care provider or at least two to four times a year  - learn about possible benefits from taking an ACE inhibitor or an ARB if a person has high blood pressure  - measure eGFR at least once a year to check kidney function  - get the amount of protein in the urine tested at least once a year to check for kidney damage
Question:
What to do for Diabetic Kidney Disease ?

Answer:
- Diabetic kidney disease, also called diabetic nephropathy, is kidney disease caused by diabetes.  - People with diabetes have high blood glucose, also called high blood sugar or hyperglycemia.  - At the onset of diabetes, blood flow into the kidneys increases, which may strain the glomeruli and lessen their ability to filter blood.  - Higher levels of blood glucose lead to the buildup of extra material in the glomeruli, which increases the force of the blood moving through the kidneys and creates stress in the glomeruli.  - Many people with diabetes can develop high blood pressure, another factor in the development of kidney disease. High blood pressure, also called hypertension, is an increase in the amount of force that blood places on blood vessels as it moves through the entire body.  - Diabetic kidney disease takes many years to develop.  - People with diabetic kidney disease do not have any symptoms in the early stages. As kidney disease progresses, a person can develop edema, or swelling. Edema happens when the kidneys cannot get rid of the extra fluid and salt in the body. Edema can occur in the legs, feet, or ankles and less often in the hands or face.  - Once kidney function decreases further, symptoms may include      - appetite loss    - nausea    - vomiting    - drowsiness, or feeling tired    - trouble concentrating    - sleep problems    - increased or decreased urination    - generalized itching or numbness    - dry skin    - headaches    - weight loss    - darkened skin    - muscle cramps    - shortness of breath    - chest pain    - People can prevent or slow the progression of diabetic kidney disease by      - taking medication to control high blood pressure    - managing blood glucose levels    - making changes in their eating, diet, and nutrition    - losing weight if they are overweight or obese    - getting regular physical activity
Question:
What is (are) Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome in Children ?

Answer:
Hemolytic uremic syndrome, or HUS, is a kidney condition that happens when red blood cells are destroyed and block the kidneys' filtering system. Red blood cells contain hemoglobinan iron-rich protein that gives blood its red color and carries oxygen from the lungs to all parts of the body.
                
When the kidneys and glomerulithe tiny units within the kidneys where blood is filteredbecome clogged with the damaged red blood cells, they are unable to do their jobs. If the kidneys stop functioning, a child can develop acute kidney injurythe sudden and temporary loss of kidney function. Hemolytic uremic syndrome is the most common cause of acute kidney injury in children.
Question:
What is (are) Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome in Children ?

Answer:
The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs, each about the size of a fist. They are located just below the rib cage, one on each side of the spine. Every day, the two kidneys filter about 120 to 150 quarts of blood to produce about 1 to 2 quarts of urine, composed of wastes and extra fluid. Children produce less urine than adults and the amount produced depends on their age. The urine flows from the kidneys to the bladder through tubes called ureters. The bladder stores urine. When the bladder empties, urine flows out of the body through a tube called the urethra, located at the bottom of the bladder.
Question:
What causes Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome in Children ?

Answer:
The most common cause of hemolytic uremic syndrome in children is an Escherichia coli (E. coli) infection of the digestive system. The digestive system is made up of the gastrointestinal, or GI, tracta series of hollow organs joined in a long, twisting tube from the mouth to the anusand other organs that help the body break down and absorb food.
                
Normally, harmless strains, or types, of E. coli are found in the intestines and are an important part of digestion. However, if a child becomes infected with the O157:H7 strain of E. coli, the bacteria will lodge in the digestive tract and produce toxins that can enter the bloodstream. The toxins travel through the bloodstream and can destroy the red blood cells. E.coli O157:H7 can be found in
                
- undercooked meat, most often ground beef  - unpasteurized, or raw, milk  - unwashed, contaminated raw fruits and vegetables  - contaminated juice  - contaminated swimming pools or lakes
                
Less common causes, sometimes called atypical hemolytic uremic syndrome, can include
                
- taking certain medications, such as chemotherapy  - having other viral or bacterial infections  - inheriting a certain type of hemolytic uremicsyndrome that runs in families
                
More information about foodborne illnesses and the digestive system is provided in the NIDDK health topic, foodborne illnesses.