areas, at a distance from many people seeking jobs. moreover, many of the jobs in growth sectors, such as health care and technology, tend to have varying shifts, which makes using public transportation difficult. the richmond bank co - hosted an event, cars and working families, to build support for the concept that car ownership has become a necessity rather than a privilege for working people. the event highlighted some of the barriers to auto ownership among lower - income workers, including the cost of insurance, mandatory driving classes that are primarily taught in english, and significant license fees. since then, the richmond bank has undertaken an initiative to focus community organizations, community development foundations, and the financial industry on the importance of car ownership to a person ’ s ability to hold a job that pays a living wage. as you can see, the federal reserve is not only working to improve the national economic outlook, but it is also engaged in some very local initiatives designed to identify and address barriers to employment for those most impacted by recent job losses. we are committed to continue lending our research and outreach resources to assist in these and other promising community economic development initiatives. see natalia kolesnikova, federal reserve bank of st. louis ( 2009 ), “ community colleges : a route of upward mobility ”. conclusion in conclusion, i commend the work that you do in communities across the country. having been involved in several economic development initiatives as a community banker, i know how complicated it is to build vision and consensus among local stakeholders. while current economic circumstances are challenging, the work you do has never been more important to the communities you serve. i hope that the federal reserve ’ s activities in the areas of small business, commercial real estate, and workforce development that i described have given you an insight into how we are trying to mitigate the economic downturn ’ s impact on communities. we look forward to continued dialogue and partnership with you as we seek to find ways to hasten recovery and rebuild communities.

and ensure that workers are available to fill them. yet, even in this economy, some jobs go unfilled because individuals lack the necessary skills. skill gaps could constrain long - term employment growth. indeed, some 88 million americans have at least one educational barrier, such as no high school degree, no postsecondary training, or deficient english language skills. and, as i noted, longer average duration of unemployment may be eroding the skills of the jobless. 5 while broad investments in human capital and workforce development are clearly needed, it is not easy to determine how to ensure that those investments are effective and costefficient. the federal reserve system is engaged in ongoing research to identify best practices and establish methods for measuring the success of workforce development programs. for example, the system ’ s community affairs function studied various workforce development needs and responses as part of its examination of the impact of concentrated poverty on lower - income individuals. in its report, the enduring challenge of concentrated poverty in america, published in 2008, findings from 16 case studies confirmed that a skilled labor force is a key attraction for other drivers of community success, including lower crime rates, outside investment, and access to employment. as a result, many of the case study communities actively promote strategies that address barriers to work and connect adults to employment opportunities. 6 among the successful strategies identified in the concentrated poverty case studies, the report noted that community colleges have effectively filled educational gaps in communities where limited educational attainment among residents and insufficient job readiness were particularly pronounced. in cleveland, for example, residents who once worked in manufacturing lacked the necessary skills to obtain other available jobs, particularly in the growing health care sector. to address this problem, the cuyahoga county community college designed an innovative program to help individuals with limited formal education enter health care through a nursing assistant training program. the program offers both immediate employment opportunities and the potential for additional credentials necessary to advance to other jobs along the occupational ladder. in el paso, texas, the community developed project arriba, a labor market intermediary that provides clients with training through el paso community college. the training focuses on the skills necessary for local job demands in fields such as health care, education, and information technology. more recently, economists at the federal reserve bank of st. louis conducted a study of the effectiveness of community colleges in advancing the economic well - being of students and see beth siegel and karl seidman ( 2009 ), “ the economic