1 ). most of this expansion was cross - border, and a significant part of it was actually off - border, having very little to do with iceland, as both financing and investment took place abroad. around two - thirds of the balance sheet of the three cross - border banks was denominated in foreign currency. as is typical for banks, the fx part of the balance sheet had a significant maturity mismatch. however, there was no safety - net of the type that we have at the national level to back it up. this turned out to be the fatal flaw in the whole setup. why were these big risks allowed to build up? i do not think we yet have the research and the consensus to provide a reasonably undisputed list of the main causal factors in this process ; however, i think four factors will rank highly on that list. the first of them is iceland ’ s membership in the european economic area ( eea ) beginning in 1994, which made it possible for the banks to operate more or less freely throughout the area on the basis of home licencing but with national supervision, safety net, and crisis management and resolution. the other three causes are the privatisation of the icelandic banking system in the early 2000s in a manner that placed the major banks in the hands of risk - loving investment bankers, the global conditions of ample and cheap credit that prevailed in the years prior to the international financial crisis, and the tendency in iceland both to adopt international and eu regulations without critical analysis of iceland - specific risks and to base supervision to a significant degree on mechanical checks of adherence to those regulations. in the panic that gripped global financial markets after the collapse of lehman brothers, these banks were faced with a wholesale run on their foreign currency liabilities and were therefore heading towards a default on those liabilities in the absence of lolr assistance in foreign currency. however, given the size of the banks, it was impossible for the icelandic authorities to provide such assistance on their own. there was actually a plan to nationalise one of the banks in late september 2008. fortunately it failed, as nationalising the bank would have turned a private bank ’ s foreign currency refinancing problem into a sovereign problem, with the serious risk that the sovereign might have defaulted on such foreign currency payments, thus initiating a full - scale sovereign debt crisis. figure 2 gives a sense of the potential scale involved in the case of the three banks, by comparing the foreign currency liabilities of the

banks and the central bank ’ s fx liquidity at the time. figure 2 bis central bankers ’ speeches based on published financial accounts and the analysis of the supervisor, the icelandic authorities assumed that the banks were solvent. on that premise, the authorities tried to build defences against potential foreign currency liquidity problems at the banks by negotiating swap lines and tapping foreign capital markets, in both cases with limited success. now, however, we know that there were hidden vulnerabilities in the banks ’ capital positions. however, given the lack of international cooperation, the icelandic authorities were forced to consider radical solutions. although they were not necessarily articulated fully at the time, these solutions entailed several goals : preserving a functioning domestic payment system, ring - fencing the sovereign in the case of bank failures, limiting the socialisation of private sector losses, and creating the conditions for rebuilding a domestic banking system. in essence, the adopted solution saved the domestic operations of the banking system and let the international part to go into a resolution process. the new banks were created by carving the domestic assets and liabilities out of the old failing banks. the idea was then that the government would recapitalise the banks and place compensation bonds in the estates of the failed banks. however, valuing the assets and liabilities proved a complicated process in the middle of an economic and financial crisis, and a solution emerged where the estates of the failed banks became majority owners of two of the banks and kept a small equity stake in the third, which was otherwise recapitalised by the government. the new banking system amounted to 1. 7 times gdp. in order to stop an incipient run on domestic deposits, all deposits in iceland were declared safe and all deposits in icelandic - headquartered banks were given priority over other unsecured claims, including the deposits of the icelandic banks in branches abroad. as a result of these measures, the domestic payment system functioned more or less seamlessly throughout, and there was uninterrupted access to deposits in iceland. the run on the domestic banks stopped, but at its peak, demand for cash tripled and the central bank almost ran out of banknotes. international payment flows were seriously affected, however, not least because of the freezing order imposed by the british authorities on icelandic banks, but also because of a general distrust among foreign counterparties. why did the government give a verbal blanket guarantee for domestic deposits only and not for deposits in the banks ’ foreign branches? after all,