11  Page 12 sur 12  * I thank Romain Svartzman for his assistance in preparing these remarks i  Dasgupta, P. (2021). The Economics of Biodiversity : The Dasgupta Review. Steffen, W., Grinevald, J., Crutzen, P., and Mcneill, J. (2011). “The Anthropocene: Conceptual and Historical Perspectives.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 369 (1938): 842–67. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2010.0327. iii Ceballos, G., Ehrlich, P. R., & Raven, P. H. (2020). “Vertebrates on the brink as indicators of biological annihilation and the sixth mass extinction”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(24), 13596-13602. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1922686117 iv WWW (2022). Living Planet Report 2022. v Rockström, J., Steffen, W., Noone, K., Persson, Å., Chapin, F.S., Lambin, E.F., Lenton, T.M., et al. (2009). “A Safe Operating Space for Humanity.” Nature 461 (7263): 472–75. https://doi.org/10.1038/461472a. ; vi IPBES (2020). Workshop Report on Biodiversity and Pandemics. vii WHO (2021). Statement – A bold new strategy for health and sustainable development in the light of pandemics. viii IPBES & IPCC (2021). IPBES-IPCC Sponsored Workshop: Biodiversity and climate change. Scientific outcome. https://ipbes.net/sites/default/files/2021-06/20210609_scientific_outcome.pdf ix I should also mention that others have questioned the term Anthropocene, either from a geological perspective or from a socioeconomic perspective because they think it wrongly places the burden of our ecological predicament on humans at large, without acknowledging that different social groups contributed much more than others (e.g. rich men in Western world have clearly contributed more to our ecological crisis more than indigenous women in the global South).

Firstly, as Professor Dasgupta made clear in his Review, nature and many of the ecosystem services it provides are often “mobile, silent and invisible”, and therefore incredibly complex to fully appreciate. We may understand the price of wood and some of the services provided by forests (such as climate regulation or flood prevention) but we will never understand all the interactions that exist within nature. Secondly, different social groups and individuals relate differently to nature, as the IPBES made clear in its recent report on the diverse ways of valuing nature.xxv For instance, a poor fisherman or an indigenous person may not be able to put a high price tag on the fish he catches or the forest she lives in, yet their entire livelihoods directly depend on the existence of specific ecosystems. In other words, nature does not have a fundamental value but rather means 6  Page 7 sur 12 different things to different people. Recognizing this diversity of values, at the global level, is key to enable its protection. We cannot say how much a seaside or a bird song represents. Thirdly, even if we could perfectly account for the points above (complexity and multiplicity of values), nature remains only very partially substitutable. This means that we risk underestimating the costs of losing ecosystem services. For instance, Professor Dasgupta provocatively but insightfully reminds us that if we only look at how much pollination contributes to agricultural outputs in highincome countries, we may end up with a very small percentage of GDP.