However, the adverse effects have spread to many other economies through global value chains. The euro area, in particular, has slowed significantly since early 2018. This is mainly due to the strong easing in its exports. As a result, average GDP last year grew by 1.8%, 0.7 pp down on 2017, and year-on-year growth in late 2018 and early 2019 fell to around 1%. The euro area’s high degree of openness (its trade flows with third countries account for 50% of the area’s GDP, compared with 38% for China and 28% for the United States) means it is particularly sensitive to external shocks and to the slowdown in world trade. Moreover, the above-mentioned uncertainty over Brexit has prompted a contraction in exports to the UK economy in recent years. Also contributing to the slowdown in growth in the euro area have been specific circumstances in certain sectors and countries. I refer in particular to the difficulties the automobile industry is undergoing in adapting to the new environmental regulations, to new production technologies and to protectionist threats. 2  For a summary of this literature, see, for example, A. Estrada, J. Martínez-Martín and F. Viani (2018), “Una revisión de la literatura económica sobre los efectos de la globalización en el crecimiento y la distribución de la renta”, Notas Económicas, Boletín Económico, 2/2018, Banco de España.

BIS central bankers’ speeches  7  References Broadbent, Ben (2012), “Productivity and the allocation of resources”, speech given at Durham Business School, available at: http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/publications/Pages/speeches/2012/599.aspx Cairncross, Sir Alexander and Cairncross, Frances (1992): “The Legacy of the golden age: the 1960s and their economic consequences” (Routledge) Chancellor of the Exchequer (2012): Letter to the Governor of the Bank of England, reaffirming the remit of the MPC, available at: http://www.hmtreasury.gov.uk/d/open_letter_from_chx_to_boe_22032011.pdf Furceri, D and Mouragane, A (2009), “The effect of financial crises on potential output: new empirical evidence from OECD countries”. OECD Economics Department Working Papers no. 699. George, Lord Edward (1999): “Annual Cornwall Lecture”, available at: www.bankofengland.co.uk/publications/Pages/.../1999/speech62.aspx King, Sir Mervyn (1997), “Inflation targeting 5 years on”, speech given at the London School of Economics, available at: www.bankofengland.co.uk/publications/speeches/1997/speech09.pdf King, Sir Mervyn (1997), “Changes in UK monetary policy: Rules and discretion in practice”, Journal of Monetary Economics, Volume 39, Issue 1 (p81–97) King, Sir Mervyn (2004), “The institutions of monetary policy: the Ely Lecture 2004”, available at: http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/publications/Pages/speeches/2004/208.aspx King, Sir Mervyn (2012), remarks given at the Panel discussion on “Challenges for the Future”, Federal Reserve Board Conference “Central Banking: Before, During and After the Crisis”, available at: http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/publications/Documents/speeches/2012/speech556.pdf International Monetary Fund (2009), “What is the damage? Medium term output dynamics after financial crises”, World Economic Outlook, October, chapter 4, pages 121–151.