Structural shifts are also taking place at the national level in most of the emerging economies. These include the demographic shifts which are transforming the workforce. The demographic structure has an increasing component that comprises a young population and a growing middle income segment. This trend is exemplified by consumers that have become more discerning, with higher expectations. This is also reinforced by increased longevity. The workforce is also progressively affected by the growing urbanisation which is becoming an important feature in most emerging economies. The international, regional and national financial landscape also continues to be significantly transformed. At the international level a growing number of new financial centres will emerge. BIS central bankers’ speeches  1  There will also possibly be new international reserve currencies and a greater network of financial institutions that originate from an increasing number of emerging economies from different parts of the world. This will facilitate greater inter-linkages between financial systems, especially among the emerging economies. These evolving developments will result in an increased interconnectedness of financial markets with the consequence of increased contagion and interdependence. Increasingly financial systems have also become prone to crisis. The recent global financial crisis has prompted the international community to respond with wide-ranging fundamental reforms that is also transforming the international financial system. At the regional level, the Asian region has become more cohesive with regional financial integration intensifying to facilitate a more efficient allocation of financial resources in our region.

When the crisis materialized and firms began to experience material distress or even fail, US law did not have a framework for achieving an orderly resolution of a systemically important institution at the corporate level. It had tools that have proved highly effective in managing corporate restructuring and depository institution receiverships, but none tailored for a major financial group. Instead, when large financial groups began to fail, policymakers relied on ad hoc interventions. Some of the immediate interventions involved use of the Federal Reserve’s “lender of last resort” functions. It was at this point that “Section 13(3)” entered the lexicon of modern central banking. For those few who are unaware, Section 13(3) was added to the Federal Reserve Act during the Great Depression. It gave the Board of Governors broad authority to permit a Reserve Bank to lend in exigent and unusual circumstances provided that the Reserve Bank was secured to its satisfaction. Prior to the crisis, Section 13(3) loans had last been made during the Depression, to such enterprises as a typewriter manufacturer and a vegetable grower. 4 Fed policy makers and their advisors pulled Section 13(3) back off the shelf, perhaps brushing some metaphorical dust off its cover. In 2008, loans made pursuant to Section 13(3) facilitated JPMorgan Chase’s purchase of Bear Stearns. Loans under 13(3) also prevented the potentially catastrophic failure of American International Group (AIG). Innovations under 13(3) also underpinned many of the Fed’s broad-based facilities to provide market liquidity.