They may develop aberrant norms that can undermine standard oversight and controls. Compliance can and should leverage its independence to spot silos—or any form of “groupthink”—before undue risks mature. Third, compliance can increase its influence through careful stewardship of its people. This means attracting and retaining talented compliance professionals, and, whenever possible, insisting on getting to know the business area. The role of a compliance officer should include building relationships and becoming a trusted resource. Such relationships can yield a deeper understanding of, among other things, the motivations and pressures that are affecting the business. These insights can inform and help improve policies, procedures, testing and monitoring. As I mentioned earlier, compliance can become more effective if it calibrates processes to actual circumstances and behaviors. Finding and retaining talented people for compliance roles is a major challenge facing firms across the industry right now. After all, compliance can be a nearly impossible job. And welltrained, experienced compliance personnel are scarce. Those are but two of the many challenges that compliance functions in financial institutions face. I certainly do not have solutions to every compliance challenge. But, having to manage the attraction, retention, and development of the New York Fed’s compliance staff, I am sympathetic. I am optimistic, too. As I mentioned earlier, I think the broad trends in compliance are heading in the right direction. Compliance functions are gaining influence. Greater clarity about roles can help. Compliance will always be a difficult job, but does not have to be a seemingly impossible one.

Another cause for optimism is the attention compliance now receives in law schools and other graduate programs. Two examples are NYU Law School’s Program on Corporate Compliance and Enforcement, and Fordham Law School’s LLM program in Corporate Compliance. These programs engage key leaders in the field in important public discussions, and train students who, in terms of their understanding of corporate governance, are well ahead of where many of us were when we began our careers. These programs will contribute to a bright future for the compliance profession. Compliance, enforcement, and accountability I also want to say a few words about enforcement and accountability. I believe, of course, that past misconduct should be punished. I also believe that we who play a role in bringing wrongdoers to account should also require forward-looking reforms under the mantra of “Never again.” For those forward-looking reforms to be successful, firms and enforcement attorneys need to pay attention to root causes of misconduct. There is a vigorous and important debate in academic and regulatory circles about the prosecution of individuals in cases of corporate misconduct. Virtually everyone agrees that individual prosecutions can have deterrent effect on future misconduct if people believe they will get caught. I follow the debate with great interest. Suffice it to say, I agree that individuals must be held accountable for misconduct. If the misconduct is criminal, criminal prosecution is warranted.