! ! "#$%&'!(()!*#+!, &-./0!1233 The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox Jennifer Nagel University of Toronto 4! 56((! 7899:;8<!=>?8@ <www.philosophersimprint.org/6((66,/> O *'! #A! B0'! /'*B.-$! C%DD$'E! F;! GF9H8IJF<><K! 8J:LH8IF@F?K! GF9G8<9L!HM8!<N@8!F;!L:9?@8OJ<8I:L8!G@FLN<8+!P8<8!:L!HM8!<N@8)! >L!;F<IN@>H8Q!RK!7FM9!P>SHMF<98T U;!F98!V9FSL!W!>9Q!GFIJ8H89H@K!Q8QNG8L!X!;<FI!W)!HM8<8O RK!GFI:9?!HF!R8@:8Y8!X)!SM:@8!<8H>:9:9?!F98ZL!V9FS@8Q?8! HM>H!W)!F98!GFI8L!HF!V9FS!HM>H!X+![566,)!5\] ^M8! L:9?@8OJ<8I:L8! G@FLN<8! J<:9G:J@8! _M89G8;F<HM)! G@FLN<8`! @FFVL! 8aO H<8I8@K! J@>NL:R@8T! GFIJ8H89H! Q8QNGH:F9! ;<FI!SM>H! :L! V9FS9!I:?MH! S8@@!R8!GF9L:Q8<8Q!HM8!J><>Q:?I!F;!>!L8GN<8!S>K!HF!>HH>:9!V9FS@8Q?8+! P>SHMF<98!GF9L:Q8<L! :H! bN9cN8LH:F9>R@K!FQQd!HF!Q89K!HM>H!>!J8<LF9! V9FSL!HM>H!X!SM89!M8!M>L!L>H:Le8Q!HM8!GF9Q:H:F9L!F;!HM8!>9H8G8Q89H! _566,)!f6`!>9Q!L:I:@><!L89H:I89HL!><8!8aJ<8LL8Q!RK!I>9K!FHM8<!8J:LH8O IF@F?:LHL+!g8:HM!h8iFL8!G@>:IL!HM>H!Q89K:9?!G@FLN<8!K:8@QL!b:9HN:H:Y8@K! R:j><<8d!<8LN@HL!_(\\,)!5k`l!mM8<<:@K9!iFNLM!HM:9VL!HM>H!HM8!I>nF<:HK!:L! <:?MH! HF!e9Q! <8n8GH:9?!G@FLN<8! bHFF!M><Q! HF! LS>@@FS! :9HN:H:Y8@K)! 8Y89! ;F<!>!9:G8!>9LS8<!HF!LV8JH:G:LId!_566,)!o(`!>9Q!^:IFHMK!p:@@:>ILF9)! SMF!>GHN>@@K!9>I8L!>!LH<F9?8<!IN@H:OJ<8I:L8!Y8<L:F9!F;!HM8!J<:9G:J@8! b:9HN:H:Y8!G@FLN<8d)!N<?8L!HM>H!S8!LMFN@Q!R8!bY8<K!<8@NGH>9H!HF!<8n8GH!:9O HN:H:Y8!G@FLN<8)!;F<!:H!is!:9HN:H:Y8d!_5666)!((k`+! =FHS:HMLH>9Q:9?! :HL! :9HN:H:Y8! >JJ8>@)! G@FLN<8! I:?MH! L88I! HF! R8! HM<8>H898Q!RK! G8<H>:9! J>HH8<9L! F;! nNQ?I89H! HM>H! >@LF! L88I! :9HN:H:Y8! HF!NL+!q98!LNGM!J>HH8<9!S>L!:Q89H:e8Q!RK!r:@R8<H!P><I>9!:9!HM8!8><@K! (\s6L+!tL!P><I>9!JF:9HL!FNH)!:H!L88IL!9>HN<>@!HF!Q89K!HM>H!>!J8<LF9! G>9!know)!J<:F<!HF!HM8!Q<>S)!HM>H!M:L!H:GV8H!:9!>!;>:<!I:@@:F9OHFOF98!@FHO H8<K!S:@@!9FH!S:9+!PFS8Y8<)!:H!G>9!>@LF!L88I!9>HN<>@!HF!?<>9H!HM>H!>!J8<O LF9!G>9!V9FS!G8<H>:9!J<FJFL:H:F9L!HM>H!M8!SFN@Q!V9FS!HF!89H>:@!HM>H! HM8!H:GV8H!:L!9FH!?F:9?!HF!S:9+!U!I:?MH!V9FS!HM>H!U!>I!I88H:9?!>!;<:89Q! ;F<!@N9GM!HFIF<<FS)!P><I>9!GF9H89QL)!8Y89!:;!U!>@LF!V9FS!HM>H!M:L!R8O :9?!HM8<8!SFN@Q!R8!:9GFIJ>H:R@8!S:HM!M:L!M>Y:9?!SF9!HM8!@FHH8<K!u!L>K)! F9!HM8!>LLNIJH:F9!HM>H!HM8!S:998<!SFN@Q!M>Y8!HF!?F!NJLH>H8!HF!GF@@8GH! HM8!J<:j8!_P><I>9!(\sf)!(\kv`+ U;!P><I>9ZL! J>HH8<9! F;! :9HN:H:F9L! J<8L89HL! >! GM>@@89?8! HF! G@FLN<8)! :H! :L! 9FH! R8G>NL8! HM:L! J>HH8<9! F9! :HL! FS9! GF9LH:HNH8L! >! Y:F@>H:F9! F;! ImprintPhilosophers' ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!5!!z! "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` 8>GM!Q>K!>G<FLL! HM8!GFN9H<K)! :H! :L!M><Q! HF!8Y>@N>H8!M:I!LF!JFL:H:Y8@K+! q98!:L!9>HN<>@@K!:9G@:98Q!HF!L>K!HM>H!mI:HM!QF8L!not!V9FS!HM>H!M:L!G><!:L! 9FH!F98!F;!HM8!F98L!HM>H!M>L!R889!LHF@89!>9Q!Q<:Y89!>S>K)!8Y89!HMFN?M! HM:L!:L!>!J<FJFL:H:F9!SM:GM!:L!89H>:@8Q!RK!HM8!J<FJFL:H:F9!S8!:9:H:>@@K! HFFV!M:I!HF!V9FS)!>9Q!8Y89!HMFN?M!S8!SFN@Q!M>Y8!9F!H<FNR@8!:9!G<8QO :H:9?!mI:HM!S:HM!V9FS@8Q?8!F;!HM:L!89H>:@I89H+! t@HMFN?M!:H!I>K!9FH!R8!:II8Q:>H8@K!8Y:Q89H!SM>H!HM8!@FHH8<K!>9Q! G><!HM8;H!G>L8L!M>Y8!:9!GFIIF9)!M>Y:9?!<8>Q!P><I>9!>9Q!{F?8@ZL!8aO >IJ@8L)! :H! :L!8>LK! HF!?898<>H8!IF<8! :9LH>9G8L!F;! HM:L!J>HH8<9+! F!NL8! >9!8a>IJ@8!F;!U?F<!hFNY89ZL)!U!e9Q!:H!9>HN<>@!HF!L>K!HM>H!U!V9FS!HM>H! U!S:@@!R8!H8>GM:9?!8J:LH8IF@F?K!98aH!;>@@)!RNH!INGM!M><Q8<!HF!L>K!HM>H! U!V9FS!HM>H!U!S:@@!9FH!R8!V:@@8Q!:9!>!H<>|G!>GG:Q89H!FY8<!HM8!LNII8<! _hFNY89!566s`+!}8H!F9!<8~8GH:F9)!:H!:L!G@8><!HF!I8!HM>H!IK!GF9H:9N8Q! LN<Y:Y>@! :L!F98!F;! HM8!I>9K!GF9Q:H:F9L! HM>H!S:@@!988Q! HF!R8!I8H! :;! U! >I!HF! H8>GM!>9KHM:9?!>H!>@@!GFI8!m8JH8IR8<+!r:Y89!IK!R>GV?<FN9Q! R8@:8;L)!:H!SFN@Q!R8!:9GFM8<89H!;F<!I8!HF!>GG8JH!HM>H!U!>I!?F:9?!HF!R8! H8>GM:9?!8J:LH8IF@F?K!:9!HM8!;>@@!SM:@8!<8;NL:9?!HF!>GG8JH!HM>H!U!>I!9FH! ?F:9?!HF!R8!V:@@8Q!:9!>!H<>|G!>GG:Q89H!FY8<!HM8!LNII8<+ ^M8<8!:L!LFI8HM:9?!>@><I:9?!>RFNH!HM8!8>L8!S:HM!SM:GM!S8!G>9!?89O 8<>H8!;N<HM8<!:9LH>9G8L!F;!HM8!J<FR@8I>H:G!J>HH8<9!F;!:9HN:H:F9L+!U;!HM8! GF<<8GH!<8LJF9L8!HF!P><I>9ZL!F<:?:9>@!8a>IJ@8!:L!HF!GFIJ@K!S:HM!HM8! G@FLN<8!J<:9G:J@8!>9Q!Q89K!HM>H!F98!M>L!V9FS@8Q?8!F;!HM8!98aH!Q>KZL! @N9GM!I88H:9?)!HM89!:H!L88IL!HM>H!Y8<K!L:I:@><!GF9L:Q8<>H:F9L!LMFN@Q! JNLM!F98!HF!Q89K!HM>H!>9KF98!M>L!V9FS@8Q?8!F;!>!Y8<K!?<8>H!<>9?8!F;! 8Y8<KQ>K!I>HH8<L!_M<:LH89L89!566ol!P>SHMF<98!566ò+!tH!HM:L!JF:9H! F98!I:?MH!R8!H8IJH8Q!HF!<8GF9L:Q8<!F98ZL!H<NLH!:9!HM8!G@FLN<8!J<:9G:J@8+! h<8HLV8!N<?8L!NL!HF!<8n8GH!:H)!F9!J>:9!F;!LV8JH:G:LIT!bF<!>9KF98!SMF! HM:9VL!HM8K!V9FS!LFI8HM:9?!>RFNH!HM8!I>H8<:>@!SF<@Q)!HM8!GMF:G8!:L! 8>LK+!@FLN<8!INLH!R8!Q89:8Q+d!_566,)!5f` >9K!<8LJF9L8L!M>Y8!R889!F8<8Q!HF!HM8!P><I>9O{F?8@!J><>QFa! :9! <8G89H! K8><L)!IFLH!9FH>R@K! >! L8<:8L!F;! :99FY>H:Y8! <:Y>@!J<FJFL>@L! 5+! ^M:L!J>HH8<9!F;!:9HN:H:F9L!:L!LFI8H:I8L!G>@@8Q!HM8!bFHH8<K!W><>QFad)!>@HMFN?M! >L! U?F<! hFNY89! 9FH8L! _566s`)! G>@@:9?! HM:L! JNjj@8! >RFNH! V9FS@8Q?8! HM8! P><I>9!W><>QFa!M8@JL! Q:LH:9?N:LM! :H! ;<FI! HM8! Q:LH:9GH! J><>QFa! F;! <>H:F9>@! HM8!J<:9G:J@8+!q98! G>9! LM><8!P><I>9ZL! :9:H:>@! :9HN:H:F9L! >RFNH!SM>H! :L!V9FS9!S:HMFNH!;88@:9?!HM>H! :H!SFN@Q!R8!<:?MH!HF!H<K!HF!Q8QNG8!HM8! J<FJFL:H:F9! >RFNH! HM8! H:GV8HZL! 9FH! S:99:9?! ;<FI! J<FJFL:H:F9! >RFNH! HM8!NJGFI:9?! @N9GM)!>9Q! HF!G@>:I!V9FS@8Q?8!F;! HM8! H:GV8HZL! @FLL!F9! HM>H!R>L:L+!pM>H!:L!9FH!:II8Q:>H8@K!G@8><!:L!SMK!HM>H!Q8QNGH:F9!;88@L! S<F9?+!q98!JFLL:R@8!<8>LF9!M>L!R889!M:?M@:?MH8Q!RK!7F9>HM>9!{F?8@! :9!M:L!Q8;89L8!F;!G@FLN<8T!:;!S8!H<K!HF!Q8QNG8!HM>H!HM8!@FHH8<K!H:GV8H!S:@@! 9FH!S:9!;<FI!FN<!8aJ8GH>H:F9!F;!HM8!@N9GM!I88H:9?)!S8!?8H!HM8!;88@:9?! HM>H!S8!9F!@F9?8<!V9FS!HM8!@N9GM!J<FJFL:H:F9)!F<!J8<M>JL!98Y8<!Q:Q! V9FS!:H!_{F?8@!(\\6`+!U;!>HH8IJH:9?!HM8!Q8QNGH:F9!<8LN@HL!:9!>!@FLL!F;! V9FS@8Q?8!F;!F98ZL! :9:H:>@!J<8I:L8)!G@FLN<8! :L!9FH!Y:F@>H8QT!<8H>:9:9?! HM>H!V9FS@8Q?8!HM<FN?MFNH!HM8!Q8QNGH:F9!:L!F98!GF9Q:H:F9!F;!HM8!>9O H8G8Q89H!F;!HM8!J<:9G:J@8+!^M8!J<FR@8I!:L!HM>H!J<8L8<Y>H:F9!F;!G@FLN<8! 9FS!L88IL!GFLH@KT!S8!L88I!HF!M>Y8!@FLH!FN<!<:?MH!HF!GFN9H!FN<L8@Y8L! >L!M>Y:9?!V9FS@8Q?8!F;!G8<H>:9!IN9Q>98!;>GHL!S8!SFN@Q!F9G8!M>Y8! GFN9H8Q!FN<L8@Y8L!>L!V9FS:9?+ FGNL:9?!F9!G8<H>:9!;8>HN<8L!F;!P><I>9ZL!F<:?:9>@!8a>IJ@8)!:H!I>K! L88I! HM>H!F9@K! >! LI>@@! <>9?8!F;! FN<!F<Q:9><K! V9FS@8Q?8! :L! :9!J8<:@+! UH!:L!LFI8H:I8L!LN??8LH8Q!HM>H!P><I>9ZL!J>HH8<9!F;!:9HN:H:F9L!LMFN@Q! ?898<>H8!SF<<:8L!F9@K!>RFNH!FN<!V9FS@8Q?8!F;!;NHN<8!8Y89HL!_h<8HLV8! 566,l! P><I>9! (\kv`)! F<! F;! FNHGFI8L! Q8J89Q89H! F9! J<FJFL:H:F9L! SMFL8! LNJJF<H! :L! JN<8@K! LH>H:LH:G>@! F<! J<FR>R:@:LH:G! :9! GM><>GH8<! _FO M89!(\kkl!=8@V:9!5666`+!9;F<HN9>H8@K)!L:I:@><!J>HH8<9L!F;!:9HN:H:Y8!>LO L8LLI89H!G>9!R8!H<:??8<8Q!S:HM!8a>IJ@8L!GF9G8<9:9?!J<8L89H!8Y89HL! >9Q!S:HMFNH!FY8<H!<8;8<89G8!HF!J<FR>R:@:H:8L!_{F?8@!(\\6`+!F<!8a>IJ@8)! GF9L:Q8<:9?!>9!F<Q:9><K!J8<LF9!SMF!J><V8Q!M:L!G><!>9!MFN<!>?F!F9! tY89N8!t!>9Q!<8I8IR8<L!M>Y:9?!QF98!LF)!{F?8@!9FH8L!S8!SFN@Q!F<O Q:9><:@K!L>K!HM:L!J8<LF9!u!G>@@!M:I!mI:HM!u!V9FSL!M:L!G><!:L!F9!tY89N8! t+!{F?8@!HM89!JF:9HL!FNH!HM>H!SM89!S8!GF9L:Q8<!SM8HM8<!mI:HM!9FS! V9FSL!HM>H!M:L!G><! :L!not!F98!F;!HM8!MN9Q<8QL!F;!G><L!HM>H!><8!LHF@89! (+! {F?8@!:L!F9!LF@:Q!?<FN9Q!:9!G@>:I:9?!HM>H!S8!SFN@Q!NL8!V9FSLZ!M8<8T!V9FSZ! :L!F98!F;!FN<!IFLH!GFIIF9!Y8<RL)!NL8Q!IF<8!F;H89!HM>9!HM:9VLZ!>9Q!R8@:8Y8LZ! JNH!HF?8HM8<!_88GM)!i>KLF9)!!p:@LF9!566(`)!>9Q!HM8<8!:L!8IJ:<:G>@!8Y:Q89G8! HM>H!:H!:L!9F<I>@@K!NL8Q!:9!G>L8L!@:V8!HM:L!F98!_FFHM)!P>@@)!iFR:LF9)!!g:I! (\\sl!<>9V!!P>@@)(\\(`+! ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!f!!z! "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` >JJ8>@! HF! >9! 8<<F<! HM8F<K! HF! 8aJ@>:9! HM8! GF<8! :9HN:H:F9L! F;! HM8!J><>O QFa+!F<!8a>IJ@8)!hFNY89!M>L!>QY>9G8Q!>9!>GGFN9H!:9!SM:GM!>!J8<LF9! SMF!L>KL!LM8!V9FSL!LM8!S:@@!I88H!M8<!;<:89Q!;F<!@N9GM!HM8!98aH!Q>K! QF8L!9FH!@:H8<>@@K!I8>9!HM>H)!RNH!<8>@@K!I8>9L!:9LH8>Q!HM>H!LM8!V9FSL! LM8!S:@@!I88H!M8<!;<:89Q!unless something very unlikely occurs, SM8<8!HM:L! @>LH!J<FY:LF!:L!;F<!J<>?I>H:G!<8>LF9L!HKJ:G>@@K!@8;H!N9LJFV89!_hFNY89! 566s`+!U;!:H!QF8L9ZH!L88I!FRY:FNL!HM>H!S8!HKJ:G>@@K!M>Y8!LNGM!>!J<FY:LF! :9!I:9Q)!Q8;89Q8<L!F;!HM:L!>JJ<F>GM!S:@@!M>Y8!HF!SF<V!M><Q!HF!GF9Y:9G8! NL!FHM8<S:L8+! >G8Q!S:HM!HM8!P><I>9O{F?8@!J><>QFa)!F98!I:?MH!SF9Q8<!SM8HM8<! HM8<8!:L!>9K!S>K!F;!Q8;89Q:9?!>!H<>Q:H:F9>@!Y:8S!F;!V9FS@8Q?8!:9!SM:GM! FN<!GFIIF9!V9FS@8Q?8O>LG<:R:9?!L89H89G8L!@:H8<>@@K!I8>9!SM>H!HM8K! L>K+!K!>:I!:9!SM>H!;F@@FSL!:L!HF!J<FY:Q8!LNGM!>!Q8;89L8+!U9LH8>Q!F;!>HO H8IJH:9?!>9K!J<>?I>H:G)!L8I>9H:G)!F<!I8H>JMKL:G>@!:99FY>H:F9)!U!L88V! HF!8aJ@>:9!HM8!:9HN:H:F9L!R8M:9Q!HM8!J><>QFa!:9!H8<IL!F;!LFI8!Y8<K!R>O L:G!;8>HN<8L!F;!HM8!JLKGMF@F?K!F;!MNI>9!nNQ?I89H+!h<>S:9?!F9!>!RFQK! F;!8IJ:<:G>@!SF<V!V9FS9!>L!bQN>@OJ<FG8LL!HM8F<K)d!U!><?N8!HM>H!HM8!HSF! >JJ><89H@K!GF9~:GH:9?!nNQ?I89HL!:9!HM8!J>HH8<9!><8!9>HN<>@@K!I>Q8!:9! Q:8<89H!IFQ8L!F;!GF?9:H:F9+!^M8!8>LK!G>@@! HM>H!F98!V9FSL!F98!S:@@! R8!H8>GM:9?!HM8!GFN<L8!F<!I88H:9?!LFI8F98!;F<!@N9GM!:L!I>Q8!:9!>9! >NHFI>H:G!F<!M8N<:LH:G!IFQ8!u!V9FS9!>L!bmKLH8I!(d!:9!HM8!JLKGMF@F?:O G>@! @:H8<>HN<8)! >;H8<! _mH>9FY:GM! (\\\`!u!SM:@8! HM8! M><Q8<! >LL8LLI89H! >RFNH!V9FS@8Q?8!F;!@FHH8<K!H:GV8H!@FLL!F<!H<>|G!>GG:Q89H!LN<Y:Y>@!INLH! R8!I>Q8!:9!>!GF9H<F@@8Q!F<!>9>@KH:G!IFQ8!_bmKLH8I!5d`+!^M:L!LS:HGM!:9! IFQ8L!8aJ@>:9L!SMK!S8!;>G8!Q:|GN@H:8L!:9!Q8QNG:9?!HM8!M><Q8<!G@>:I! ;<FI!HM8!8>L:8<!F98)!Q8LJ:H8!FN<!<8GF?9:H:F9!F;!>!<8@8Y>9H!<8@>H:F9!F;! 89H>:@I89H+! aJ@:G:H! Q8QNGH:F9! :L! :9Y><:>R@K! >! GF9H<F@@8Q! _mKLH8I! 5`! J<FG8LL)!>9Q!:9!HM8!GF9H8aH!F;!HM8!P><I>9O{F?8@!J>HH8<9)!LM:;H:9?!:9HF! mKLH8I!5!H89QL!HF!R><!NL!;<FI!I>V:9?!HM8!F<:?:9>@!>NHFI>H:G!mKLH8I! (! nNQ?I89H)! ;F<! <8>LF9L! HF! R8! Q:LGNLL8Q! :9! LFI8! Q8H>:@! :9!SM>H! ;F@O @FSL+!PFS8Y8<)!HM8!;>GH!HM>H!S8!><8!9FH!>@S>KL!>R@8!HF!I>V8!HM8!F<:?:O 9>@!mKLH8I!(!nNQ?I89H!QF8L!9FH!LMFS!HM>H!HM:L!nNQ?I89H!S>L!:9!>9K! S>K!Q8;8GH:Y8!SM89!:9:H:>@@K!I>Q8!:9!HM>H!IFQ8T!U!><?N8!HM>H!>9!>NHFO I>H:G!nNQ?I89H!F;!>!G8<H>:9!J<FJFL:H:F9!I>K!;N@@K!Q8L8<Y8!HF!GFN9H!>L! >RFNH!8:HM8<!HM8!L8I>9H:GL!F;!V9FS@8Q?8O>LG<:R:9?!L89H89G8L)!F<!HM8! I8H>JMKL:G>@! Q8H8<I:9>9HL! F;! V9FS@8Q?8! :HL8@;+! m8I>9H:G! J<FJFL>@L! LNGM!>L!GF9H8aHN>@:LI!_FM89!(\\\l!h8iFL8!566\l!8S:L!(\\v`!>9Q! <8@>H:Y:LI! _>G><@>98! 566,l! i:GM><Q! 566ò! MF@Q! HM>H! HM8! Y8<R! HF! V9FSZ!M>L!LFI8!LN<J<:L:9?!;8>HN<8L+!F9H8aHN>@:LHL!>:I!HF!8aJ@>:9!HM8! LM:;H:9?! :9HN:H:F9L!F;! HM8!J><>QFa!RK!G@>:I:9?!HM>H! V9FSLZ!J:GVL!FNH! Q:8<89H!<8@>H:F9L!:9!Q:8<89H!GF9Y8<L>H:F9>@!GF9H8aHL+!q9G8!SF<<:8L! >RFNH!<8IFH8!JFLL:R:@:H:8L!M>Y8!R889!<>:L8Q)!V9FSLZ!GFI8L!HF!Q89FH8! >!IF<8!Q8I>9Q:9?!<8@>H:F9)!LF!HM>H!>!LNRn8GH!988QL!HF!R8!:9!>!LH<F9?8<! 8J:LH8I:G!JFL:H:F9!HF!GFN9H!>L!V9FS:9?+!i8@>H:Y:LHL!H>V8!HM8!IF<8!<>Q:O G>@!LH8J!F;!L>K:9?!HM>H!HM8!H<NHM!F;!>!V9FS@8Q?8O>LG<:R:9?!L89H89G8!;F<! >9!>LL8LLF<!Q8J89QL!:9!J><H!F9!>!M:QQ89!Y><:>R@8)! HM8!>LL8LLF<ZL!GN<O <89H!8J:LH8I:G!LH>9Q><QL!J><>I8H8<+!8>9SM:@8)!I8H>JMKL:G>@!J<FJFLO >@L!LNGM!>L!:9H8<8LHO<8@>H:Y8!:9Y><:>9H:LI!><?N8!HM>H!HM8!J><>QFa!:L!R8HO H8<!M>9Q@8Q!RK!H>V:9?!V9FS@8Q?8!HF!:9YF@Y8!LFI8!;>GHF<L!FY8<@FFV8Q! :9!H<>Q:H:F9>@!8J:LH8IF@F?K)!;>GHF<L!LNGM!>L!HM8!LNRn8GHZL!J<>GH:G>@!GF9O G8<9L! _>9H@!!Gr<>HM! 566sl!P>SHMF<98! 566ol! mH>9@8K! 566,`+!q9! LNGM!Y:8SL)!SM8HM8<!>!LNRn8GH!V9FSL!>!?:Y89!J<FJFL:H:F9!I>K!Q8J89Q! :9!J><H!F9!SM>H!M8!:L!SF<<:8Q!>RFNH)!F<!SM8HM8<!HM>H!J<FJFL:H:F9!:L!>! M:?MOLH>V8L!I>HH8<! ;F<!M:I+! UH! :L! L>;8! HF!L>K! HM>H!8>GM!F;! HM8L8!9FY8@! L8I>9H:G!>9Q!I8H>JMKL:G>@! HM8F<:8L! :L! HMFN?MH! HF!M>Y8!>!9NIR8<!F;! GFN9H8<O:9HN:H:Y8!GF9L8cN89G8L+! F<! HMFL8!SMF!<8L:LH!LNGM!L8I>9H:G!>9Q!I8H>JMKL:G>@! :99FY>H:F9! >9Q!:9LH8>Q!>QM8<8!HF!>!IF<8!H<>Q:H:F9>@!Y:8S!F;!V9FS@8Q?8)!V9FSLZ! >@S>KL!Q89FH8L!HM8!L>I8!<8@>H:F9)!>9Q!HM8!cN8LH:F9!F;!SM8HM8<!LFI8O F98!V9FSL!:L!89H:<8@K!L8HH@8Q!RK!;>GHF<L!LNGM!>L!HM8!H<NHM!F;!HM8!J<FJFO L:H:F9!R8@:8Y8Q!>9Q!HM8!cN>@:HK!F;!HM8!LNRn8GHZL!HM:9V:9?+! <>Q:H:F9>@!F<! b:9H8@@8GHN>@:LH!:9Y><:>9H:LHd!8J:LH8IF@F?:LHL!L88I!HF!;>G8!>9!8LJ8G:>@@K! N9J@8>L>9H! GM>@@89?8! :9! HM8!P><I>9O{F?8@! J>HH8<9!F;! :9HN:H:F9L+!8O G>NL8!HM8!M><QOHFOV9FS!J<FJFL:H:F9!:L!89H>:@8Q!RK!HM8!F98!HM>H!L88IL! 8>L:8<! HF! V9FS)! >9Q! R8G>NL8! GFIJ8H89H! Q8QNGH:F9! :L! >! HFJOcN>@:HK! GF?9:H:Y8!J<FG8LL)! :H!I>K!L88I! HM>H! :9H8@@8GHN>@:LH! :9Y><:>9H:LHL!INLH! >GG8JH>9G8! :Q89H:e8Q! :9! _gKRN<?! (\v(`+! U! >@LF! HM:9V! HM>H!{F?8@! :L! <:?MH! HM>H! <8;8<89G8!HF!@FHH8<:8L!:L!9FH!8LL89H:>@!HF!HM8!J>HH8<9)!M89G8!HM8!R<F>Q8<!9>I8+ ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!o!!z! "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` HM8!WOL:Q8+! F!Q:LH:9?N:LM! HM8!LNRn8GHZL!GF?9:H:Y8!>GH! ;<FI!HM8!>LG<:RO 8<ZL)! HM8!e<LH!S:@@!R8! @>R8@8Q! HM8! @>a! _F<! LH<:9?89H`! judgment)! >9Q! HM8! L8GF9Q! HM8! @>a! _F<! LH<:9?89H`! ascriptionl! HM8! N9Q8<@K:9?! J<FJFL:H:F9! nNQ?8Q!u!F<!:9!LFI8!G>L8L)!JFH89H:>@@K!nNQ?8Q!u!RK!HM8!LNRn8GH!S:@@!R8! @>R8@8Q!HM8!@>a!_F<!LH<:9?89H`!proposition F9!HM8!R>L:L!F;!:HL!:9:H:>@!JFL:O H:F9!:9!HM8!H>R@8+!t@HMFN?M!HM8!N@H:I>H8!>:I!F;!HM:L!J>J8<!:L!HF!G@><:;K! SM>H!:L!M>JJ89:9?!JLKGMF@F?:G>@@K!>H!HM8!@8Y8@!F;!>LG<:JH:F9)!GF9L:Q8<O >R@8!>HH89H:F9!S:@@!R8!J>:Q!HF!HM8!@8Y8@!F;!nNQ?I89Hl!:9Q88Q)!:H!S:@@!R8! ><?N8Q!HM>H!G8<H>:9!LM:;HL!:9!HM8!JLKGMF@F?K!F;!>LG<:JH:F9!><8!:9M8<:H8Q! ;<FI!LM:;HL!FGGN<<:9?!>H!HM8!@8Y8@!F;!nNQ?I89H+!r:Y89!HM>H!HM8!>LG<:R8<! INLH!8:HM8<!<8H<>G8!F<!<8J<8L89H!HM8!LH8JL!F;!HM8!LNRn8GH!:9!I>V:9?!M8<! >LG<:JH:F9!u!SM8HM8<!HM:L! :L!RK!L:IN@>H:9?!HM8!LNRn8GHZL!GF?9:H:F9)!F<! RK!HM8F<:j:9?!>RFNH!MFS!HM8!LNRn8GH!SFN@Q!HM:9V!u!LFI8!;8>HN<8L!F;! nNQ?I89H!S:@@!G><<K!FY8<!HF!HM8!@8Y8@!F;!>LG<:JH:F9+!U;!>!G8<H>:9!HKJ8!F;! J<FJFL:H:F9!G>9!R8!?<>LJ8Q!F9@K!S:HM!HM8!M8@J!F;!GF9H<F@@8Q!GF?9:H:F9)! ;F<!8a>IJ@8)!HM89!LFI8!Q8?<88!F;!GF9H<F@@8Q!GF?9:H:F9!S:@@!R8!988Q8Q! RFHM!;F<!HM8!nNQ?I89H!>9Q!;F<!HM8!>LG<:JH:F9!F;!HM:L!HKJ8!F;!J<FJFL:H:F9+! ^M8! ;F@@FS:9?! GM><H! @:LHL! >! Y><:8HK! F;! 8a>IJ@8L! F;! HM8! P><I>9O {F?8@! J>HH8<9)! H>V89! ;<FI! HM8!SF<V! F;!P><I>9)! {F?8@)!h<8HLV8! >9Q! P>SHMF<98T! (a) Apparently easy P ("lax") (b) Apparently harder Q ("stringent") :+!:@@!V9FSL!HM>H!M8!:L!I88H:9?!M:L! ;<:89Q!><K!;F<!@N9GM!HFIF<<FS+ :+!:@@!V9FSL!HM>H!><KZL!H:GV8H!:9! HFIF<<FSZL!;>:<!F98O:9O>OI:@@:F9! @FHH8<K!S:@@!9FH!S:9+ f+! F!LH>Y8!F!>!JFLL:R@8!H8<I:9F@F?:G>@!GF9;NL:F9T!@>a!J<FJFL:H:F9L!QF!9FH!always!<8G8:Y8!@>a!8Y>@N>H:F9L+! F!:Q89H:;K!>!J<FJFL:H:F9!@:V8!bU!S:@@!R8!I88H:9?! IK!;<:89Q!;F<!@N9GM!HFIF<<FSd!>L!>!@>a!J<FJFL:H:F9!:L!nNLH!HF!:9Q:G>H8!HM>H!:9! 9F<I>@! G:<GNILH>9G8L! :H! :L! HM8! LF<H!F;! HM:9?! HM>H! GFN@Q! L88I!8>L:@K! V9FS9)! ;F<!<8>LF9L!HF!R8!Q:LGNLL8Q!:9!m8GH:F9!f!R8@FS+!m8GH:F9!f!>@LF!Q:LGNLL8L!HM8! LJ8G:>@!G:<GNILH>9G8L!:9!SM:GM!:H!:L!Q:|GN@H!HF!G@>:I!V9FS@8Q?8!F;!LNGM!@>a! J<FJFL:H:F9L+ V9FS@8Q?8!8Y89! :;! HM8<8!><8! GF9Q:H:F9L!N9Q8<!SM:GM! HM>H!J><H:GN@><! nNQ?I89H!GFN@Q!9FH!R8!J<FQNG8Q!>NHFI>H:G>@@K+! m8GH:F9! (!F;! HM8!J>J8<!Q8LG<:R8L! HM8!P><I>9O{F?8@!J>HH8<9!F;! :9O HN:H:F9L!:9!IF<8!Q8H>:@!>9Q!Q:LGNLL8L!HM8!LM:;HL!:9!HM8!J>HH8<9!HM>H!>JO J8><!N9Q8<!J<8LLN<8)!LNGM!>L!HM8!:9G@:9>H:F9!HF!<8LG:9Q!F98ZL!F<:?:9>@! nNQ?I89H!HM>H!F98!knows!F98!:L!I88H:9?!F98ZL!;<:89Q!;F<!@N9GM!HFIF<O <FS!SM89! :H! :L! JF:9H8Q! FNH! HM>H! Y><:FNL! GF9H:9?89G:8L!I:?MH! R@FGV! HM>H!FNHGFI8+!m8GH:F9!5!F;!HM8!J>J8<!8aJ@>:9L!LFI8!F;!HM8!Q:8<89G8L! R8HS889!HM8!HSF!IFQ8L!F;!GF?9:H:F9!JFL:H8Q!RK!QN>@OJ<FG8LL!HM8F<K)! >9Q!FNH@:98L! LFI8!F;! HM8! ;>GHF<L! HM>H! H<:??8<! LS:HGM8L!R8HS889!F98! IFQ8!>9Q!HM8!FHM8<+!^M8L8!LS:HGM8L!><8!Q8H8<I:98Q!8:HM8<!RK!;8>HN<8L! F;! HM8!LNRn8GH!I>HH8<!R8:9?! nNQ?8Q)!F<!RK!GF9H8aHN>@! ;>GHF<L!<8@>H:9?! HF! HM8!G:<GNILH>9G8L!F;! nNQ?I89HT!m8GH:F9!f!>:IL!HF! :Q89H:;K! HM8!<8@O 8Y>9H!;8>HN<8L!>GH:Y8!:9!HM8!P><I>9O{F?8@!J>HH8<9!>9Q!:HL!Y><:>9HL)!:9O G@NQ:9?! G>L8L! :9YF@Y:9?! GFIJFN9Q! @FHH8<:8L)!SM:GM! L88I! HF! ?:Y8! NL! :9HN:H:F9L!GF9H<><K!HF!HMFL8!F<:?:9>@@K!:Q89H:e8Q!RK!P><I>9+!m8GH:F9!o! ><?N8L!HM>H!HM8!QN>@OJ<FG8LL!>9>@KL:L!>@@FSL!NL!HF!<8H>:9!HM8!J<:9G:J@8! F;!L:9?@8OJ<8I:L8!G@FLN<8!;F<!V9FS@8Q?8!>LG<:JH:F9L+!:9>@@K)!>@HMFN?M! >JJ8>@!HF!IFQ8OLM:;H:9?!I:?MH!LH:@@!L88I!MFLJ:H>R@8!HF!8J:LH8IF@F?:G>@! J<F?<>IL!LNGM!>L!GF9H8aHN>@:LI!F<!:9H8<8LHO<8@>H:Y8!:9Y><:>9H:LI)!m8GO H:F9!,!><?N8L!HM>H!HM8<8!:L!9FHM:9?!:9!HM8!QN>@OJ<FG8LL!>GGFN9H!HF!<N@8! FNH!H<>Q:H:F9>@!:9H8@@8GHN>@:LH!:9Y><:>9H:LI!>RFNH!V9FS@8Q?8+! 1. Identifying the Harman-Vogel pattern U9!HM8!P><I>9O{F?8@!J>HH8<9!F;!:9HN:H:F9L)!:H! :9:H:>@@K!L88IL!:9HN:H:Y8! HF!L>K!HM>H!>!LNRn8GH!V9FSL!>!G8<H>:9!J<FJFL:H:F9!W)!>9Q!HM>H!>9FHM8<! J<FJFL:H:F9!X! :L! 89H>:@8Q!RK!W)! RNH! GFN9H8<O:9HN:H:Y8! HF! L>K! HM>H! HM8! LNRn8GH!V9FSL!HM>H!X+!mFI8!H8<I:9F@F?K!I>K!R8!NL8;N@!:9!Q:LGNLL:9?! HM:L!J>HH8<9+!^M8!M><QOHFOV9FS!J<FJFL:H:F9!X!M>L!R889!?:Y89!L8Y8<>@! 9>I8L!:9!HM8!@:H8<>HN<8T!h<8HLV8!G>@@L!:H!>!M8>YKS8:?MH!J<FJFL:H:F9)!{FO ?8@!G>@@L!:H!>!@FHH8<K!J<FJFL:H:F9!_9FHS:HMLH>9Q:9?!M:L!FS9!?898<>@:j>O H:F9!F;!HM8!J<FR@8I!HF!G>L8L!9FH!:9YF@Y:9?!@FHH8<:8L`+!U9!SM>H!;F@@FSL! UZ@@!NL8!HM8!@>R8@! LH<:9?89HZ!;F<!HM8!XOL:Q8!F;!HM8!J>HH8<9!>9Q!@>aZ!;F<! ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!,!!z! "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` >9:I>@!HM<FN?M!HM8!;89G8!b>H!LFI8!Q:LH>9G8d!>9Q!S:HMFNH!R:9FGN@><Ll! mI:HM!<8I8IR8<L!J><V:9?!M:L!G><!F9!tY89N8!t!RNH!QF8L!9FH!J<8L89H@K! M>Y8!>!G@8><!Y:8S!F;!M:L!J><V:9?!LJFH)!>9Q!LF!F9+ ^M8<8!:L!LFI8!GF9H<FY8<LK!FY8<!8a>GH@K!SM:GM!J>:<L!F;!nNQ?I89HL! Q8L8<Y8!>!J@>G8! :9!HM8! @:LHT!{F?8@)! ;F<!8a>IJ@8)!><?N8L!HM>H!h<8HLV8ZL! G>L8!_:::`!QF8L9ZH!<8>@@K!R8@F9?)!R8G>NL8!jFF!Y:L:HF<L!@FFV:9?!>H!j8R<>L! QF!M>Y8!R>GV?<FN9Q!:9;F<I>H:F9!F9!HM8!9F<I>@!SF<V:9?L!F;!jFFL!HM>H! SFN@Q!89>R@8!HM8I!HF!V9FS!RFHM!HM8!@>a!J<FJFL:H:F9!>9Q!HM8!LH<:9?89H! F98+!W8<M>JL!HM8!;FGNL!F9!SM>H!<8Q!:L!GN<<89H@K!L88:9?!SF<VL!HF!Q:LO H<>GH!NL!;<FI!HM:L)!R8G>NL8!HM8!R>GV?<FN9Q!;>GHL!>RFNH!jFFL!><8!9FH!Y:O LN>@@K!LNJJ@:8Q!>H!HM8!IFI89H!F;!<8QZL!nNQ?I89H)!RNH!:;!S8!HM:9V!>RFNH! HM8!G>L8!G><8;N@@K)!{F?8@!LN??8LHL)!S8!LMFN@Q!L>K!HM>H!<8Q!<8>@@K!does V9FS!HM>H!HM8!>9:I>@!:L!9FH!>!G@8Y8<@KOQ:L?N:L8Q!IN@8!_{F?8@!(\\6`+ p:HMFNH! H>V:9?! >! JFL:H:F9! F9!SM8HM8<!{F?8@! :L! <:?MH! >RFNH!SM>H! <8Q!>GHN>@@K!V9FSL)!:H!I>K!R8!SF<HM!<8L:LH:9?!M:L!LN??8LH:F9!HM>H!HM:L! 8a>IJ@8!R8! L8H!>L:Q8!>L!S8!L8><GM! ;F<!>9!8aJ@>9>H:F9!GFY8<:9?!GF9O H<>LHL! :9! :9HN:H:F9! @:V8! HM8!F98L!J<FQNG8Q!RK! G>L8L! _:`! >9Q! _:Y`+!qN<! :9:H:>@!:IJ<8LL:F9)!8Y89!F9!{F?8@ZL!H8@@:9?)!S>L!HM>H!<8Q!L88I8Q!9FH! HF!V9FS!HM>H!HM8!>9:I>@!S>L!9FH!>!Q:L?N:L8Q!IN@8l!:;!G><8;N@!<8~8GH:F9! H8@@L!>?>:9LH!HM>H!:9HN:H:F9)!R<:9?:9?!:H!:9HF!@:98!S:HM!HM8!:9:H:>@!@>a!>LO G<:JH:F9)!HM:L!LM:;H!HFS><QL!GFM8<89G8!:L!GF9G8:Y>R@K!>9!:9LH>9G8!F;!HM8! L>I8!JM89FI89F9!S8!L88!SM89!<8~8GH:F9!:L!R<FN?MH!HF!R8><!F9!FHM8<! J>:<L!:9!HM8!@:LH+! F!R8!LN<8)!GFM8<89G8!:L!F;H89!>GM:8Y8Q!RK!>!LM:;H!:9!HM8! b@>ad!<>HM8<!HM>9!HM8!bLH<:9?89Hd!GF@NI9T!F9G8!S8!LH><H!HM:9V:9?!>RFNH! HM8!JFLL:R:@:HK!F;!>!<8G89H!M8><H!>HH>GV)!S8!I>K!LH><H!HF!;88@!:9G@:98Q!HF! Q89K!HM>H!>9K!F<Q:9><K!G:H:j89!V9FSL!SMF!HM8!W<8L:Q89H!:L!>H!HM:L!:9O LH>9H+!@>:IL!HF!V9FS!SM>H!F98!:L!?F:9?!HF!R8!QF:9?!98aH!;>@@)!F<!8Y89! >H!@N9GMH:I8!HFIF<<FS)!G>9!>@LF!R8!HM<FS9!:9HF!cN8LH:F9!F9G8!Y><:FNL! H<:GVK!J<FLJ8GHL! ><8! GF9H8IJ@>H8Q+! U;!S8!89?>?8! :9!Q8@:R8<>H8! <8~8GO H:F9!F9!LNGM!GF9H:9?89G:8L!>L!S8!@FFV!QFS9!HM8!<8LH!F;!HM8!@8;HOM>9Q! GF@NI9)! :H!I>K! L88I!IF<8! :9HN:H:Y8! HF! L>K! HM>H! HM8! LNRn8GH! :9! 8>GM! G>L8!SFN@Q!R8!<:?MH! HF! nNQ?8!HM>H! HM8! @>a!J<FJFL:H:F9! :L!M:?M@K!J<FRO >R@8!?:Y89!M:L!F<!M8<!8Y:Q89G8)!<>HM8<!HM>9!HM>H!:H!:L!V9FS9+!NH!N9@8LL! HM8<8!:L!LFI8!LJ8G:>@!<8>LF9!HF!HM:9V!HM>H!Q:8<89H!;F<G8L!><8!>H!SF<V! ::+!NGK!V9FSL!HM>H!HM8!GN<<89H!m! W<8L:Q89H!:L!><>GV!qR>I>+ ::+!NGK!V9FSL!HM>H!><>GV!qR>I>! M>L!9FH!M>Q!>!;>H>@!M8><H!>HH>GV!:9! HM8!@>LH!eY8!I:9NH8L+ :::+!FFV:9?!>H!HM8!LH<:J8Q!>9:I>@! :9!HM8!jFF)!<8Q!V9FSL!HM>H!:H!:L! !>!j8R<>+ :::+!FFV:9?!>H!HM8!LH<:J8Q!>9:I>@!:9! HM8!jFF)!<8Q!V9FSL!HM>H!:H!:L!9FH!>! G@8Y8<@K!Q:L?N:L8Q!IN@8+ :Y+!mI:HM!V9FSL!HM>H!M:L!G><!:L!F9! tY89N8!t)!SM8<8!M8!J><V8Q!:H!>9! MFN<!>?F+ :Y+!mI:HM!V9FSL!HM>H!M:L!G><!:L!9FH! F98!F;!HM8!MN9Q<8QL!F;!G><L!HM>H! ><8!LHF@89!8Y8<K!Q>K!>G<FLL!HM8! GFN9H<K+ Y+!7F8)!>!J8<LF9!F;!IFQ8LH!I8>9L)! V9FSL!HM>H!M8!S:@@!9FH!M>Y8! 89FN?M!IF98K!HF!?F!F9!>9!t;<:O G>9!L>;><:!HM:L!K8><+ Y+!7F8)!>!J8<LF9!F;!IFQ8LH!I8>9L)! V9FSL!HM>H!M8!S:@@!9FH!S:9!>!I>O nF<!J<:j8!:9!>!@FHH8<K!HM:L!K8><+ F<!8>GM!8a>IJ@8!J>:<!@:LH8Q!M8<8)!HM8!<8>Q8<!988QL!HF!I>V8!L8Y8<>@!>LO LNIJH:F9L!HF!?8H!HM8!LH>9Q><Q!:9:H:>@!:9HN:H:F9L+! F!?898<>H8!>!L89L8!F;! J><>QFa)!:H!:L!:IJF<H>9H!HM<FN?MFNH!HM>H!F98!GF9G8:Y8!F;!HM8!LNRn8GH!:9! HM8!@8;HOM>9Q!GF@NI9!>L!M>Y:9?!HM8!L>I8!:9;F<I>H:F9!>RFNH!HM8!SF<@Q! >L!M:L!F<!M8<!<:?MHOM>9Q!GFN9H8<J><H+!^M8!LNRn8GH!INLH!R8!>LLNI8Q!HF! M>Y8!89FN?M!8Y:Q89G8!RFHM!HF!I>V8!HM8!nNQ?I89H!:9!HM8!b@>ad!GF@NI9! L88I!9>HN<>@)!>9Q!HF!L88!HM>H!HM8!LH<:9?89H!J<FJFL:H:F9!:L!89H>:@8Q!RK! HM8!@>a!F98!_J8<M>JL!S:HM!HM8!M8@J!F;!LFI8!R>GV?<FN9Q!:9;F<I>H:F9! SMFL8!LH>HNL!>L!V9FS@8Q?8!:L!9FH!:9!cN8LH:F9`+!^M8!LNRn8GHZL!8Y:Q89G8! :L!9FH!MFS8Y8<!H>V89!HF!R8!F;!>!LF<H!HM>H!SFN@Q!I>V8!:H!:II8Q:>H8@K! :9HN:H:Y8!HF!>LG<:R8!V9FS@8Q?8!F;!HM8!LH<:9?89H!J<FJFL:H:F9!HF!M:I!F<! M8<+!tL!S>L!G@8><!:9!HM8!F<:?:9>@!GF9H8aH!F;!HM8L8!8a>IJ@8L)!S8!><8!LNJO JFL8Q!HF!~8LM!FNH!HM8L8!LG89><:FL!LF!HM>H)!;F<!8a>IJ@8)!NGK!:L!>9!>YO 8<>?8!G:H:j89!SMF!@>LH!L>S!qR>I>!F9!B"!K8LH8<Q>K)!<>HM8<!HM>9!F98!F;! qR>I>ZL!RFQK?N><QL!GN<<89H@K!F9!QNHKl!<8Q!:L!@FFV:9?!>H!HM8!LH<:J8Q! ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!v!!z! "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` H89Q!HF!R8!Q8<:Y>H:Y8+!p8!LMFN@Q!>@@!>H!@8>LH!>?<88!HM>H!HM8! <8@8Y>9H! GF9H<>LH! :L! >! L>@:89H! ;>GH! >RFNH!MNI>9!JLKGMF@O F?K! >9Q! HM>H! :H! :L! F98!F;! HM8!R>L8L!F;! 8J:LH8I:G!JNjj@8O I89H+![566,)!ff] U9!SM>H!;F@@FSL!U!S:@@!H>V8!L8<:FNL@K!HM8!LN??8LH:F9!HM>H!HM8!GF9H<>LH! M8<8!:L!>!;>GH!>RFNH!MNI>9!JLKGMF@F?K)!>9Q!U!S:@@!>HH8IJH!HF!?:Y8!:H!>! JLKGMF@F?:G>@!8aJ@>9>H:F9+ 2. Two modes of cognition t!9NIR8<!F;!L8J><>H8!<8L8><GM!J<F?<>IL!:9!GF?9:H:Y8!>9Q!LFG:>@!JLKO GMF@F?K!M>Y8! :9!<8G89H!K8><L!GF9Y8<?8Q!F9!F98!I>nF<! :Q8>T! HM8<8! :L! >!Q88J!LJ@:H!R8HS889!HSF!V:9QL!F;!MNI>9!GF?9:H:F9)!>!LJ@:H!SM:GM!:L! V9FS9!HF!<N9!HM<FN?M!LNGM!8J:LH8IF@F?:G>@@K!L:?9:eG>9H!QFI>:9L!>L! J<FR>R:@:HK!>LL8LLI89H)!G>H8?F<:j>H:F9)!>9Q!LFG:>@!nNQ?I89H!_M>:V89! ! <FJ8!(\\\l!Y>9L!566s>l!<>9V:LM!!Y>9L!566\l!r:@R8<H!(\k\l!m>HO JNH8!!:8R8<I>9!566vl!m@FI>9!(\\v`+!W><H@K!R8G>NL8! HM8! <8L8><GM! J<F?<>IL! :Q89H:;K:9?! HM8L8! HSF! HKJ8L! F;! GF?9:H:F9! F<:?:9>@@K! Q8Y8@O FJ8Q!LFI8SM>H!:9Q8J89Q89H@K!F;!F98!>9FHM8<)!HM8K!>QFJH8Q!Q:8<89H! H8<I:9F@F?K!HF!J:GV!FNH!HM8!HSF!L:Q8L!F;!HM8!GF9H<>LHT!>!<8G89H!LN<Y8K! RK!Y>9L!_!566s>`!:Q89H:e8L!;FN<H889!Q:8<89H!J>:<L!F;!@>R8@L!HM>H!M>Y8! R889!NL8Q!M8<8)!;<FI!Y>9LZL!FS9!bM8N<:LH:G!YL+!>9>@KH:Gd!HF!m@FI>9ZL! b>LLFG:>H:Y8! YL+! <N@8OR>L8Qd! _m@FI>9! (\\v`! HF! HM8! b>NHFI>H:G! YL+! GF9O H<F@@8Qd!@>R8@L!;>YF<8Q!:9!_mGM:<:9!!mGM98:Q8<!(\ss`+! ^M8!8a:LH:9?!GM><>GH8<:j>H:F9L!F;!HM8!Q:GMFHFIK!Q:8<!9FH!F9@K!:9! HM8:<!H8<I:9F@F?K!RNH!>@LF!F9!LNRLH>9H:Y8!JF:9HL!F;!Q8H>:@!>9Q!8IJM>O L:L+!F<!HM8!JN<JFL8L!F;!98NH<>@!Q:LGNLL:F9)!MFS8Y8<)!g8:HM!mH>9FY:GM! M>L!J<FJFL8Q!HM8!>QFJH:F9!F;!HM8!?898<:G!@>R8@L!bmKLH8I!(d!>9Q!bmKLO H8I!5d!HF!:Q89H:;K!HM8!N9Q8<@K:9?!;F<IL!F;!GF?9:H:F9!HM>H!HM8!Y><:FNL! ;F<IN@>H:F9L! F;! HM8! GF9H<>LH! M>Y8! R889! >HH8IJH:9?! HF! G>JHN<8! _mH>O 9FY:GM!(\\\`+!U9!SM>H!;F@@FSL)!QN>@OJ<FG8LL!HM8F<K!S:@@!R8!Q:LGNLL8Q! ,+! Y89!HM8L8!?898<:G!@>R8@L!988Q!HF!R8!M>9Q@8Q!S:HM!LFI8!G><8T!mH>9FY:GM!M:IO L8@;! G>NH:F9L! >?>:9LH! HM8! >LLNIJH:F9! HM>H! mKLH8I! (Z! LMFN@Q!R8!N9Q8<LHFFQ! SM89!GFM8<89G8!:L!>GM:8Y8Q!RK!LM:;H:9?!F98!nNQ?I89H!<>HM8<!HM>9!HM8! FHM8<)!:H!:L!SF<HM!>HH8IJH:9?!HM8!IF<8!>IR:H:FNL!J<Fn8GH!F;!Q8Y8@FJO :9?!>!HM8F<K!HM>H!S:@@!8aJ@>:9!RFHM!FN<!:9:H:>@!:IJ<8LL:F9L!>G<FLL!>@@!HM8! 8a>IJ@8L!@:LH8Q)!>9Q!HM8!LM:;HL!HFS><QL!GFM8<89G8!HM>H!I>K!8I8<?8!:9! 8:HM8<!GF@NI9!F9!L8GF9Q!HMFN?MH+! i8GF?9:j:9?! HM>H!F98!I>K!R8GFI8!LH<:9?89H!>RFNH!F98ZL! :9:H:>@@K! @>a! nNQ?I89HL!QF8L!9FH!98G8LL><:@K!Q:LLF@Y8! HM8!Q:8<89G8!R8HS889! HM8L8!G>NH:FNL!L8GF9Q!:IJ<8LL:F9L!>9Q!HM8!nNQ?I89HL!HM>H!S8<8!9>HNO <>@@K!LH<:9?89H!;<FI!HM8!LH><H)!>!JF:9H!P>SHMF<98!I>V8L!:9!>!Q:LGNLL:F9! F;!M8>YKS8:?MH!nNQ?I89HL!LNGM!>L!HM8!nNQ?I89H!HM>H!F98!:L!9FH!J<8LO 89H@K!>!R<>:9!:9!>!Y>H+!P>SHMF<98!S<:H8LT U!M>Y8!>9!:II8Q:>H8!>9Q!LH<F9?!:9G@:9>H:F9!HF!L>K!HM>H!U! QF!9FH!V9FS!LNGM! HM:9?L! :9!>!S>K! HM>H! U!QF!9FH)! ;F<!8aO >IJ@8)!M>Y8!>9K!LNGM!:II8Q:>H8!:9G@:9>H:F9!HF!L>K!HM>H!U! QF!9FH!V9FS!HM>H!U!>I!SF<V:9?!F9!>!GFIJNH8<!<:?MH!9FS+! q;!GFN<L8)!U!I:?MH!Q8<:Y>H:Y8@K!?898<>H8!LFI8!:9G@:9>H:F9! HF!L>K!HM>H!U!QF!9FH!V9FS!HM8!@>HH8<!Y:>!<8~8GH:F9!F9!HM8! ;F<I8<+!NH!:9!HM8!G>L8!F;!HM8!;F<I8<)!QFNRHL!><8!9>HN<>@! >9Q!:II8Q:>H8)!SM8<8>L!:9!HM8!G>L8!F;!HM8!@>HH8<)!QFNRHL! o+! {F?8@ZL!FS9!Q:>?9FL:L!F;!HM8!Q:LH:9GH:Y8!;8>HN<8L!F;!G>L8L!@:V8!_:`!>9Q!_:Y`!:L! HM>H!HM8L8!G>L8L!:9YF@Y8!JFLL:R@8!FNHGFI8L!HM>H!><8!J<8L89H8Q!>L!LH>H:LH:G>@@K! N9@:V8@K!RNH!b9FH!!abnormal)!:9!LFI8!:9HN:H:Y8!L89L8d!_(\\6)!(v`+!{F?8@!LN?O ?8LHL!HM8<8!SFN@Q!R8!LFI8HM:9?!peculiar!>RFNH!e9Q:9?!HM>H!HM8!>9:I>@!:9!HM8! J89!S>L!>!Q:L?N:L8Q!j8R<>l!HF!e9Q!HM>H!F98ZL!@FHH8<K!H:GV8H!M>Q!SF9!I:?MH!R8! 8cN>@@K!LN<J<:L:9?!RNH!SFN@Q!9FH!R8!8cN>@@K!LH<>9?8+!U9Q88Q)!{F?8@!JF:9HL!FNH)! :9!HM8!@FHH8<K!>9Q!G><!HM8;H!G>L8L!S8!M>Y8!LFI8!JFL:H:Y8!LH>H:LH:G>@!8Y:Q89G8! HM>H!?:Y8L!LFI8!L@:?MH!LNJJF<H!HF!HM8!G@>:I!HM>H!F98ZL!H:GV8H!M>L!SF9!F<!F98ZL! G><!M>L!R889!LHF@89T!:9!M:L!8LH:I>H:F9!FN<!R>GV?<FN9Q!V9FS@8Q?8!>RFNH!>NHFO HM8;H!<>H8L!SF<VL!@:V8!FN<!R>GV?<FN9Q!V9FS@8Q?8!>RFNH!HM8!FQQL!F;!S:99:9?! HM8!@FHH8<K+!t@HMFN?M!U!HM:9V!HM8<8!:L!LFI8HM:9?!<:?MH!>RFNH!{F?8@ZL!;FGNL!F9! >R9F<I>@:HK!M8<8)! :H!I>K!9FH!R8! HM8!F9@K! ;>GHF<! >H!SF<V)! >9Q! :9!>9K!8Y89H! SFN@Q!988Q!HF!R8!LJ8@@8Q!FNH!S:HM!IF<8!J<8G:L:F9!HF!8aH89Q!HM8!>GGFN9H!HF! FHM8<!G>L8L+!mMFN@Q!>!Y8<K!<8G89H!M8><H!>HH>GV!R8!GF9L:Q8<8Q!>R9F<I>@)!@:V8! >!Q:L?N:L8Q!j8R<>)!F<!LH>H:LH:G>@@K!L@:?MH@K!@:V8@K)!?:Y89!R>GV?<FN9Q!G><Q:>G!><O <8LH! <>H8L!m8GH:F9!f)!R8@FS)!F8<L!>9!>@H8<9>H:Y8!?898<>@! HM8F<K!F;! HM8! <8>O LF9L!u!:9G@NQ:9?!<8>LF9L!M>Y:9?!HF!QF!S:HM!>R9F<I>@:HK!u!;F<!GF<<8GH:9?! :9! F98!Q:<8GH:F9!<>HM8<!HM>9!HM8!FHM8<+! ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!s!!z! "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` 566,`+!pM89!S8! 988Q! HF! <8>LF9! >RFNH! 9FY8@! F<! GFIJ@8a! J<FR@8IL)! MFS8Y8<)!S8! HKJ:G>@@K! 89?>?8!>!IF<8! GF9H<F@@8Q!IFQ8!F;! GF?9:H:F9+! mKLH8I!5!J<FG8LL:9?!:L!L8<:>@!:9!GM><>GH8<T!HM8!FNHJNH!F;!F98!LH>?8!F;! GF?9:H:F9!G>9!R8!NL8Q!>L!HM8!:9JNH!HF!HM8!98aH)!F;H89!S:HM!GF9LG:FNL! >S><898LL!F;!LNGG8LL:Y8!LH>?8L!F;!<8>LF9:9?+!mKLH8I!5!:L!L@FS8<!>9Q! IF<8!8F<H;N@!HM>9!mKLH8I!()!:9!J><H!R8G>NL8!:H!H>a8L!FN<!@:I:H8Q!LNJJ@K! F;!SF<V:9?!I8IF<K+!UH!:L!G>@@8Q!:9HF!J@>K!HF!M>9Q@8!N9NLN>@)!N9;>I:@:><)! F<!M:?MOLH>V8L!J<FR@8IL)!8aG8JH:F9L)!IFLH!FJ8<>H:F9L!F;!98?>H:F9)!MKO JFHM8H:G>@)!>9Q!GFN9H8<;>GHN>@!<8>LF9:9?!_Y>9L!566s>l!g>M98I>9!! <8Q8<:GV!566,l!m@FI>9!(\\vl!mH<>GV!!h8NHLGM!566ò+! m:IJ@8! ><:HMI8H:G>@! J<FR@8IL! ><8! LFI8H:I8L! NL8Q! HF! :@@NLH<>H8! HM8!Q:8<89G8!R8HS889!HM8!HSF!LKLH8IL+!F<!8a>IJ@8)!g8:HM!<>9V:LM! 9FH8L!HM>H!SM89!>LV8Q!HF!IN@H:J@K!\!RK!(()!IFLH!>QN@HL!e9Q!HM>H!>9!>9O LS8<!GFI8L!HF!I:9Q!:II8Q:>H8@K!>9Q!S:HMFNH!8F<H+!^M8!mKLH8I!(!J<FO G8LL:9?!M8<8!:L!GF9L:Q8<8Q!>NHF9FIFNLT!:H!?898<>H8L!>9!>9LS8<!HF!HM8! J<FR@8I!>H!F9G8)!SM8HM8<!F<!9FH!HM8!LNRn8GH!S>9HL!:H!HF)!F9!HM8!R>L:L! F;!J<:F<!V9FS@8Q?8+!^M8!@8LL!GFIIF9!J<FR@8I!F;!Q:Y:Q:9?!\!RK!(()!F9! HM8!FHM8<!M>9Q)!:L!9FH!>9LS8<8Q!>NHFI>H:G>@@K!RK!HKJ:G>@!>QN@HL+!9@8LL! F98!:L!>!I>HM8I>H:G>@!J<FQ:?K!F<!M>L!nNLH!I8IF<:j8Q!HM8!>9LS8<!HF! HM:L!J><H:GN@><!J<FR@8I)!F98!S:@@!988Q!HF!89?>?8!:9!HM8!L8cN89H:>@!<8>O LF9:9?!F;!mKLH8I!5!HF!e9Q!HM8!LF@NH:F9+!^M:L!HKJ8!F;!<8>LF9:9?!:L!GF9O H<F@@8QT!F98!:L!GF9LG:FNL!F;!>!L8<:8L!F;!LH8JL)!8>GM!H>V:9?!HM8!FNHJNH!F;! 8><@:8<!LH>?8L!>L!:9JNH)!SM8<8!8>GM!F;!HM8L8!LH8JL!:L!:HL8@;!>9!>NHFI>H:G! GFIJNH>H:F9!><:L:9?!;<FI!mKLH8I!(!_<>9V:LM!566\l!m@FI>9!(\\v`+ ^M8!8aJ@:G:H!>JJ@:G>H:F9!F;!@8><98Q!J<FG8QN<8L!:9!@F9?!Q:Y:L:F9!:L!>! ?FFQ!8a>IJ@8!F;!mKLH8I!5!J<FG8LL:9?)!RNH!HM:L!IFQ8!F;!HM:9V:9?!G>9! H>V8!>!?<8>H!Y><:8HK!F;!FHM8<!;F<IL!>L!S8@@+!t9!8a>IJ@8!F;!mH8Y8!m@FO I>9ZL!:@@NLH<>H8L!>!Q:8<89G8!:9!HM8!S>KL!HM8!HSF!LKLH8IL!H89Q!HF!J<8LO 89H!HM8IL8@Y8L!HF!GF9LG:FNL98LLT pM89! >! <8LJF9L8! :L! J<FQNG8Q! LF@8@K! RK! HM8! >LLFG:>H:Y8! LKLH8I)! >! J8<LF9! :L! GF9LG:FNL! F9@K! F;! HM8! <8LN@H! F;! HM8! GFIJNH>H:F9)!9FH!HM8!J<FG8LL+!F9L:Q8<!>9!>9>?<>I!LNGM! >L!involnutray ;F<!SM:GM!HM8!GF<<8GH!>9LS8<!@:V8@K!JFJL!HF! S:HM!HM8!M8@J!F;!HM8L8!?898<:G!@>R8@L)!:9!>!I>998<!HM>H!Q<>SL!F9@K!F9! HM8!GFIIF9!GF<8!F;!?898<>@@K!<8GF?9:j8Q!GM><>GH8<:LH:GL!F;!8>GM!HKJ8! F;!J<FG8LL:9?)!9FH!F9!>9K!GF9H<FY8<L:>@! ;8>HN<8!JFL:H8Q!RK! LFI8!QNO >@OJ<FG8LL! HM8F<:LHL!RNH!9FH!FHM8<L+!t9!8aG8JH:F9! HF! HM:L!98NH<>@!>JO J<F>GM!S:@@!R8!I>Q8!98><!HM8!89Q!F;!L8GH:F9!f)!SM8<8!:H!S:@@!R8!8aJ8Q:O 89H!HF!Q:LGNLL!>!LJ8G:eG!IFQ8@!F;!QN>@OJ<FG8LL!HM8F<K!u!Y>9LZL!bL>H:LO eG:9?d!IFQ8@!u!:9!GF998GH:F9!S:HM!>!J><H:GN@><!J<FR@8I!:9!V9FS@8Q?8! >LG<:JH:F9+ g9FS9!RK!HM8!?898<:G!9>I8!mKLH8I!(Z)!HM8!M8N<:LH:G!F<!>NHFI>H:G! GF?9:H:Y8!IFQ8!FJ8<>H8L!LS:;H@K!>9Q!S:HMFNH!8F<H+!^M:L!IFQ8!F;!J<FO G8LL:9?! :L! HKJ:G>@@K! G>@@8Q! :9HF!J@>K! HF!Q8>@!S:HM! ;>I:@:><)! @FSOLH>V8L)! >9Q! <FNH:98! G>L8L+! mKLH8I! (! 89>R@8L! NL! HF! <8LJF9Q! :II8Q:>H8@K! F9! HM8!R>L:L!F;!J<:F<!V9FS@8Q?8!F<!R8@:8;)!F;H89!F9!HM8!R>L:L!F;!>LLFG:>O H:Y8@K!GFIJNH8Q!L:I:@><:HK!HF!>!I89H>@!IFQ8@!F<!LH8<8FHKJ8+!8G>NL8! F;!:HL!LJ88Q)!>9Q!R8G>NL8!:H!QF8L!9FH!H:8!NJ!SF<V:9?!I8IF<K)!mKLH8I! (! L8<Y8L! >L! HM8! Q8;>N@H! IFQ8! F;! nNQ?I89H! _g>M98I>9!! <8Q8<:GV)! >L!>!L:9?N@><!89H:HK)!>9Q!:9!M:L!FS9!SF<V!F;H89!J<8;8<L!HM8!@>R8@!B-EE!u! M8! tNHF9FIFNL!m8H!F;!mKLH8IL!u!HF!N9Q8<LGF<8! HM8!M8H8<F?898:HK!F;! HM8!>NHFO I>H:G!J<FG8LL8L!:9YF@Y8Q+!U9!<8G89H!SF<V!M8!M>L!>@LF!><?N8Q!;F<!>!LNRQ:Y:L:F9! S:HM:9! mKLH8I!5Z!R8HS889!>9!>@?F<:HMI:G! >9Q!>! <8~8GH:Y8! @8Y8@!F;!J<FG8LLO :9?!_mH>9FY:GM!566\`+!^M8L8!e98<O?<>:98Q!Q:LH:9GH:F9L!S:@@!9FH!R8!G>@@8Q!:9HF! J@>K!:9!SM>H!;F@@FSLl!HM8!><?NI89H!F;!HM8!J<8L89H!J>J8<!Q8J89QL!F9@K!F9!HM8! G<NQ8<!>9Q!>@IFLH!N9:Y8<L>@@K!>GG8JH8Q!mKLH8I!(mKLH8I!5!Q:LH:9GH:F9+ v+! UH!LMFN@Q!R8!>GV9FS@8Q?8Q!HM>H!QN>@OJ<FG8LL!HM8F<:8L!><8!Y8<K!R<F>Q@K!RNH! 9FH!N9:Y8<L>@@K!>GG8JH8Q!>IF9?!JLKGMF@F?:LHLT!HM8<8!><8!L8Y8<>@!9F9LH>9Q><Q! HM8F<:8L)! :9G@NQ:9?!g<N?@>9LV:! >9Q!^MFIJLF9ZL! _(\\\`! bN9:IFQ8@d! >9Q! HM8! QK9>I:G!?<>Q8Q!GF9H:9NNI!IFQ8@!Q8Y8@FJ8Q!RK!@88<8I>9L!>9Q! 7:I98j! :9! HM8:<! _5665`!>9Q!Q8;89Q8Q!>L!>9!>@H8<9>H:Y8! HF!QN>@OJ<FG8LL! HM8F<:8L!RK! qLI>9!:9!M8<!_566ò+!PFS8Y8<)!>L!JF:9H8Q!FNH!RK!tQ>I!t@H8<!>9Q!GF@@8>?N8L)! 8Y89!HM8L8!9F9LH>9Q><Q!HM8F<:8L!9FH!F9@K!J<8Q:GH!H<>9L:H:F9L!;<FI!L:IJ@8<!F<! IF<8!:IJ@:G:H!HF!IF<8!GFIJ@8a!F<!8aJ@:G:H!;F<IL!F;!J<FG8LL:9?)!RNH!QF!LF!:9! HM8!L>I8!QFI>:9L!SM8<8!QN>@OJ<FG8LL!HM8F<:8L!89Y:L>?8!>!LS:HGM!;<FI!mKLO H8I!(!HF!mKLH8I!5!_t@H8<)!qJJ89M8:I8<)!J@8K)!!K<8!566s`+!F9L8cN89H@K)!:H! LMFN@Q!R8!FJ89!HF!>QYFG>H8L!F;!LNGM!HM8F<:8L!HF!>Q>JH!HM8!8aJ@>9>H:F9!F;!HM8! P><I>9O{F?8@!J>HH8<9!?:Y89!M8<8!:9!HM8!H8<IL!F;!HM8!QFI:9>9H!QN>@OJ<FG8LL! HM8F<K+! F!IK! V9FS@8Q?8)! HM8!F9@K! FHM8<! >GH:Y8! <8L8><GM!J<F?<>I!>H! FQQL! S:HM!QN>@OJ<FG8LL! HM8F<K! :L! HM8!>K8L:>9! ;<>I8SF<V!F;!q>VL;F<Q!>9Q!M>HO 8<!_!566s`l!;F<!J<8L89H!JN<JFL8L!U!>I!L8HH:9?!>L:Q8!HM8!cN8LH:F9!F;!MFS!_F<! :9Q88Q!SM8HM8<`!HM8!P><I>9O{F?8@!J>HH8<9!GFN@Q!R8!8aJ@>:98Q!S:HM:9!HM>H! !J><H:GN@><!IFQ8@+ ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!k!!z! "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` F9!H>LVL!<8cN:<:9?!mKLH8I!5!J<FG8LL:9?!S:@@!LN8<!Q:LJ<FJF<H:F9>H8@K! N9Q8<!GF9Q:H:F9L!SM:GM!<8QNG8!>Y>:@>R@8!SF<V:9?!I8IF<K)!GF9Q:H:F9L! LNGM!>L!Q:LH<>GH:F9!RK!FHM8<!H>LVL!_h8!=8KL!566v`+ U9!HM8!><:HMI8H:G>@!>9Q!>9>?<>I!8a>IJ@8L)!HM8!8>LK!J<FR@8I!9>HNO <>@@K!H<:??8<L!mKLH8I!(!>9Q!HM8!M><Q8<!J<FR@8I!H<:??8<L!mKLH8I!5)!RNH! HM8!L8@8GH:F9!F;!>!LKLH8I!:L!9FH!>@S>KL!Q8H8<I:98Q!RK!HM8!GF9H89H!F;! HM8! J<FR@8I!F98! 89GFN9H8<L+! F<! 8a>IJ@8)! <>:L:9?! HM8! LNRn8GHZL! J8<O G8:Y8Q! LH>V8L! H89QL! HF! >GH:Y>H8! mKLH8I! 5)! 8Y89! ;F<! J<FR@8IL!SM:GM! SFN@Q!F<Q:9><:@K!R8!M>9Q@8Q!RK!mKLH8I!(!_8<98<!! 8H@FGV!(\\\`+!q98! I:?MH)!L>K)!<N9!>!LKLH8I>H:G!QFNR@8OGM8GV!F;!F98ZL!>NHFI>H:G!>9LS8<!HF! HM8!e<LH!>9>?<>I!:;!J<FI:L8Q!>!@><?8!J<:j8!;F<!?8HH:9?!:H!<:?MH+!U9Q88Q)! LFI8! F;! HM8!IFLH! <8Y8>@:9?! G>L8L! ;F<! QN>@OJ<FG8LL! HM8F<K! ><8! J<FRO @8IL!;F<!SM:GM!8:HM8<!GF?9:H:Y8!IFQ8!GFN@Q!R8!G>@@8Q!:9HF!J@>K)!>9Q!;F<! SM:GM!HM8!HSF!IFQ8L!S:@@!Q8@:Y8<!Q:8<89H!>9LS8<L+!W<FR@8IL!F;!HM:L! HKJ8!e?N<8Q! :9! HM8!8I8<?89G8!F;!F98!F;! HM8! <8L8><GM!J<F?<>IL! HM>H! 8YF@Y8Q! :9HF!GF9H8IJF<><K!QN>@OJ<FG8LL! HM8F<K!u!HM8!M8N<:LH:GL!>9Q! R:>L8L!J<F?<>I!F;! Ŷ8<LVK!>9Q!g>M98I>9+! ^M8!P><I>9O{F?8@!J>HH8<9!GF9G8<9L!FNHGFI8L!HM>H!L88I!8>L:8<!HF! >GG8JH!HM>9!G8<H>:9!M:?M8<OJ<FR>R:@:HK!FNHGFI8L!HM8K!89H>:@)!8Y89!RK! LNRn8GHL!SMF!><8!G>J>R@8!F;!8aJ@:G:H@K!<8GF?9:j:9?!HM8!89H>:@I89H+!7NLH! HM:L!LF<H!F;!J>HH8<9!S>L!;FN9Q!RK! Ŷ8<LVK!>9Q!g>M98I>9!:9!HM8:<!8aO >I:9>H:F9L!F;!FN<!:9HN:H:Y8!8LH:I>H:F9L!F;!J<FR>R:@:HK+!=FH:9?!HM>H!FN<! :9HN:H:Y8!J<FR>R:@:HK!nNQ?I89HL!QF!9FH!>@S>KL!GFIJ@K!S:HM!HM8!>a:FIL! F;!J<FR>R:@:HK!HM8F<K)!HM8K!J<FJFL8Q!HM>H!F<Q:9><K!:9HN:H:Y8!nNQ?I89HL! ><8!?898<>H8Q!RK!>!M8N<:LH:G!;N9GH:F9!HM>H!<>9VL!FNHGFI8L!>L!IF<8!F<! @8LL!J<FR>R@8!F9!HM8!R>L:L!F;!>NHFI>H:G!>LL8LLI89HL!F;! HM8:<!L:I:@><O :HK! HF! LFI8!I89H>@!IFQ8@! F<! LH8<8FHKJ8+! Ŷ8<LVK! >9Q!g>M98I>9! :9O H<FQNG8Q! HM8!9>I8! <8J<8L89H>H:Y898LLZ! ;F<! HM8!M8N<:LH:G! <8LJF9L:R@8! ;F<!HM:L!:9HN:H:Y8!I8HMFQ!F;!>LL8LL:9?!J<FR>R:@:HK)!LN??8LH:9?!HM>H!b>9! k+! 9Q8<!M:?M!LH>V8L!S8!><8!:9G@:98Q!HF!HM:9V!IF<8!:9!>!IF<8!GF9H<F@@8Q!;>LM:F9! N9@8LL!S8!><8!GFIJ<FI:L8Q!RK!;>GHF<L!LNGM!>L!H:I8!J<8LLN<8!F<!<8LH<:GH:F9L! :9!>Y>:@>R@8!SF<V:9?!I8IF<KT!LNRn8GHL!N9Q8<!:II8Q:>H8!J<8LLN<8!HF!>GH!>9Q! LNRn8GHL!Q:LH<>GH8Q!RK!>9FHM8<!H>LV!I>K!;>:@!HF!LM:;H!NJ!HF!mKLH8I!5!8Y89!SM89! LH>V8L!><8!M:?M!_g<N?@>9LV:!!p8RLH8<!(\\vl!8<98<!! 8H@FGV!(\\\`+!F<!>! Q:LGNLL:F9!F;!HM8!8J:LH8IF@F?:G>@!:IJ>GH!F;!HM:L!88GH)!L88!_=>?8@!566k`+ I:9Q!>LLFG:>H:Y8@K!_:9YF@N9H><K`+!^M8!<8LN@H!:L!>GG8LL:R@8)! RNH! HM8!J<FG8LL! :L!9FH+! U9!GF9H<>LH)!>!J8<LF9! :L!>S><8!F;! RFHM!HM8!<8LN@H!>9Q!HM8!J<FG8LL!:9!>!<N@8OR>L8Q!GFIJNH>O H:F9+!F9L:Q8<!>!M><Q8<!>9>?<>I!LNGM!>L!uersoippv. U;!KFN! e?N<8Q!FNH!HM8!>9LS8<!_JN<JFL:Y8`)!>9Q!8Y89!:;!KFN!Q:Q! 9FH)!KFN!@:V8@K!>JJ@:8Q!Y><:FNL!<N@8L!_@:V8!JNH!Q:8<89H!@8HO H8<L! :9! HM8!e<LH!JFL:H:F9`!SM:GM!S8<8! GF9LG:FNL@K!>GG8LO L:R@8+!U;!KFN!Q:Q!?8H!HM8!>9LS8<)!KFN!S8<8!>S><8!9FH!F9@K! F;!HM8!<8LN@H!RNH!>@LF!F;!HM8!J<FG8LL+!_m@FI>9)!(\\v)!v` t!GF9H<F@@8Q!8F<H! HF!LF@Y8! HM8!M><Q8<!>9>?<>I!QF8L!9FH!M>Y8! HF! :9O YF@Y8!8aJ@:G:H! :9H8<9>@!Y8<R>@! <8>LF9:9?!F;! HM8! HKJ8! :9YF@Y8Q! :9! @F9?! Q:Y:L:F9!RNH!S:@@!LH:@@!<8cN:<8!SF<V:9?!I8IF<K!HF!MF@Q!Y><:FNL!H<>9LJFO L:H:F9L!F;!@8HH8<L!:9!I:9Q)!HF!R8!NL8Q!>L!:9JNH!;F<!;N<HM8<!H<>9L;F<I>H:F9+! t@HMFN?M!S8!><8!GF9LG:FNL!F;!HM8!L8<:8L!F;!LH8JL!:9YF@Y8Q!:9!LF@Y:9?! HM8!M><Q8<!>9>?<>I)!>9Q!LF!:9!HM:L!G>L8!M>Y8!8aG8@@89H!:9H<FLJ8GH:Y8! 8Y:Q89G8! HM>H!FN<!J<FG8LL:9?!M8<8! :L!GF9H<F@@8Q)! :9H<FLJ8GH:F9! :L!9FH! >9!:9;>@@:R@8!?N:Q8!>L!HF!SM:GM!HKJ8!F;!J<FG8LL:9?!:L!89?>?8Q!:9!LF@Y:9?! >9K!?:Y89!J<FR@8I+!^M8<8!:L!8Y:Q89G8!HM>H!S8!G>9!R8!N9>S><8!F;!HM8! ;>GH!HM>H!S8!M>Y8!LM:;H8Q!R8HS889!>NHFI>H:G!>9Q!GF9H<F@@8Q!GF?9:H:F9! _><K!!i8Q8<!5665`+!m8<:>@!J<FG8LL:9?!:L!INGM!L@FS8<!HM>9!>LLFG:>O H:Y8!J<FG8LL:9?!RNH!G>9!LH:@@!R8!<>J:Q!89FN?M!HF!I>V8!G@8><!:9H<FLJ8GO H:Y8!>GG8LL!Q:|GN@H)!>9Q)!>L!9FH8Q!RK!PNI8)!Q8@:R8<>H8!:9H<FLJ8GH:F9! :9HF! HM8! 9>HN<8! F;! F98ZL! GN<<89H! HM:9V:9?!I>K! >@H8<! HM8! GM><>GH8<! F;! SM>H! :H! :9Y8LH:?>H8L! _PNI8!(sf\(\sk)!a:à+!F9L8cN89H@K)!JLKGMF@FO ?:LHL!M>Y8!:9!<8G89H!K8><L!HN<98Q!HF!I>9:JN@>H:F9L!F;!SF<V:9?!I8IF<K! :9!F<Q8<!HF!Q8H8<I:98!SM:GM!HKJ8!F;!J<FG8LL:9?!:L!89?>?8Q!:9!Y><:FNL! H>LVL+!r:Y89!HM>H!:9YF@Y8I89H!F;!SF<V:9?!I8IF<K!:L!H>V89!HF!R8!HM8! G89H<>@!GM><>GH8<:LH:G!F;!mKLH8I!5!J<FG8LL:9?!_Y>9L!566s>`)!>9Q!?:Y89! HM>H!S8!>@@!M>Y8!LM><J!@:I:HL!F9!SF<V:9?!I8IF<K!LJ>G8)!J8<;F<I>9G8! s+! m@FI>9!M:IL8@;! :L! G@8><!F9! HM:L!JF:9HT!M8!9FH8L! HM>H!R8G>NL8!RFHM! LKLH8IL! I>K!R8!FJ8<>H:Y8!L:IN@H>98FNL@K)!>9Q!R8G>NL8!LFI8!GF9H<F@@8Q!J<FG8LL:9?! I>K!9FH!R8!89H:<8@K!>GG8LL:R@8!HF!GF9LG:FNL98LL)!GF9LG:FNL!>GG8LL:R:@:HK!:L!>! LFI8SM>H!<FN?M!?N:Q8!HF!SM:GM!J<FG8LL!:L!FJ8<>H:Y8!_(\\v)!v`+ ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!\!!z! "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` SMF!M>Q!H>V89!>QY>9G8Q!GFN<L8L!:9!LH>H:LH:GL!J8<;F<I8Q!F9@K!I><?:9O >@@K!R8HH8<)!S:HM!k,!LH:@@!Y:F@>H:9?!HM8!GF9nN9GH:F9!<N@8+!pM89!HM8!Q8O GFK!L89H89G8L!S8<8!<8IFY8Q!>9Q!LNRn8GHL!S8<8!L:IJ@K!>LV8Q!HF!<>9V! _>`)! _R`)! >9Q! _G`)! 9>Y8! LHNQ89HL! LMFS8Q! >! L@:?MH! :IJ<FY8I89H)! >9Q! LH>H:LH:G>@@K! LFJM:LH:G>H8Q! LHNQ89HL! LMFS8Q! >!INGM! ?<8>H8<! :IJ<FY8O I89H)!S:HM!vo!9FS!>YF:Q:9?!HM8!;>@@>GK+!U9H8<Y:8SL!;F@@FS:9?!HM8!8aO J8<:I89HL!GF9e<I8Q!HM>H!8Y89!9>Y8!J><H:G:J>9HL!GFN@Q!<8GF?9:j8!HM8! @8?:H:I>GK!F;! HM8! GF9nN9GH:F9! <N@8!SM89! HM:L! <N@8!S>L!J<8L89H8Q!8aO J@:G:H@Kl!HM8K!L:IJ@K!;>:@8Q!HF!>JJ@K!:H!:9!J<>GH:G8!SM89!J<8L89H8Q!S:HM! HM8!GF9G<8H8!:9Q>!J<FR@8I+!FLH!LFJM:LH:G>H8Q!LNRn8GHL!R<FN?MH!HM8:<! nNQ?I89HL! :9HF! GFIJ@:>9G8!S:HM! HM8! GF9nN9GH:F9! <N@8! 8Y89!S:HMFNH! M>Y:9?!HM8!<N@8!LH>H8Q!HF!HM8I!8aJ@:G:H@K)!RNH!F9@K!SM89!HM8:<!>HH89H:F9! S>L!Q<>S9!HF!HM8!>JJ@:G>R:@:HK!F;! HM8!<N@8!RK!HM8!H<>9LJ><89H!_Q8GFKO ;<88`!Y8<L:F9!F;!HM8!J<FR@8I+ ! F!L8GN<8!:9Q8J89Q89H!8Y:Q89G8!HM>H!LNRn8GHL!SMF!<8>GM!HM8!<:?MH! >9LS8<!HF!HM8!J<FR@8I!><8!8IJ@FK:9?!>!Q:8<89H!IFQ8!F;!J<FG8LL:9?)! <8L8><GM8<L!M>Y8!8a>I:98Q!Q:8<89G8L!R8HS889! HM8!J8<;F<I>9G8!F;! LNRn8GHL!SMF!QF!>9Q!QF!9FH!GFIJ@K!S:HM!HM8!GF9nN9GH:F9!<N@8+!F<!8aO >IJ@8)!p:I!h8!=8KL!M>L!;FN9Q!HM>H!LNRn8GHL!SMF!?:Y8!HM8!GF<<8GH!>9O LS8<!><8!:9!;>GH!LNRLH>9H:>@@K!L@FS8<!:9!<8LJF9Q:9?!HM>9!LNRn8GHL!SMF! nNQ?8!HM>H!:H!:L!IF<8!@:V8@K!HM>H!:9Q>!:L!>!;8I:9:LH!R>9V!H8@@8<!HM>9!HM>H! LM8!:L!>!R>9V!H8@@8<+!U9!>QQ:H:F9)!HM8!J8<G89H>?8!F;!J8FJ@8!>9LS8<:9?! GF<<8GH@K!Q<FJL!Q<>LH:G>@@K!:9!JFF@L!F;!LNRn8GHL!SMF!><8!RN<Q898Q!S:HM! >!L8GF9Q><K!H>LV!Q8I>9Q:9?!SF<V:9?!I8IF<K!_h8!=8KL!566v`+! t@HMFN?M!HM8<8!:L!LFI8!Q:LJNH8!FY8<!MFS!8a>GH@K!HF!GM><>GH8<:j8!HM8! M8N<:LH:G!J<FG8LL:9?!HM>H!@8>QL!NL!:9HF!Y:F@>H:F9!F;!HM8!GF9nN9GH:F9!<N@8! F9!J<FR@8IL!@:V8!HM8!:9Q>!J<FR@8I)!HM8!GF9L89LNL!:L!HM>H!HM8!9>HN<>@! (6+! F<!8a>IJ@8)!{:9G89jF!<NJ:)!<>9Q89!:H8@LF9)!>9Q!g>HK>! 89HF<:!M>Y8!><O ?N8Q!HM>H!SM>H!HM8!I:LH>V89!LNRn8GHL!><8!QF:9?!:L!<8>@@K!LNRLH:HNH:9?!Q8?<88! F;!GF9e<I>H:F9! ;F<!FRn8GH:Y8! @:V8@:MFFQT!R8G>NL8! HM8!:9Q>!LG89><:F!K:8@QL! IF<8! GF9e<I>H:F9! HF! MKJFHM8L:L! _G`! HM>9! HF! MKJFHM8L:L! _R`)! HM8! ;F<I8<! L88IL!IF<8!@:V8@K!_<NJ:)!:H8@LF9)!! 89HF<:!566k`+!<NJ:!8H!>@+!><8!S:@@:9?! HF!?<>9H!HM>H!HM8:<!J<FJFL>@!I:?MH!>GHN>@@K!R8!L889!>L!>!LM><J89:9?!F;! Ŷ8<LVK! >9Q!g>M98I>9ZL!@FFL8@KOSF<Q8Q!M8N<:LH:G)!<>HM8<!HM>9!>L!>!<:Y>@!HF!:H!_566k)! (\ò+! U9! >9K! 8Y89H)! HM:L! J<FJFL>@! eHL!S:HM! HM8! R<F>Q8<! QN>@OJ<FG8LL! ;<>I8O SF<VT! :9! LNRn8GHL!SMF!?8H! HM8!J<FR@8I!S<F9?)!>!IF<8!>GG8LL:R@8!>HH<:RNH8! FNHGFI8!:L!<8J<8L89H>H:Y8!F;!>!IFQ8@!:;!HM8!L>@:89H!;8>HN<8L!I>HGM!F<! :;! HM8!IFQ8@! M>L! >! J<FJ89L:HK! HF! J<FQNG8! HM8! FNHGFI8d! _(\kf)! 5\v`+! 8G>NL8! L:I:@><:HK! HF! >! LH8<8FHKJ8! G>9! R8! 89M>9G8Q! RK! >QQ:9?! Q8O H>:@L! HF!>!Q8LG<:JH:F9!F;!>9!FNHGFI8)!>QQ:9?!Q8H>:@! HF!>!LG89><:F!G>9! :9G<8>L8! :HL! >JJ><89H! J<FR>R:@:HK!SM89!S8! ><8! nNQ?:9?!F9! HM8!R>L:L! F;! <8J<8L89H>H:Y898LL)! 8Y89! >L! HM8! >QQ8Q!Q8H>:@L!I>V8! HM8!FNHGFI8! !FRn8GH:Y8@K!@8LL!J<FR>R@8+! U9!F98!S8@@OV9FS9!LHNQK)!LNRn8GHL!<8>Q!>!Q8LG<:JH:F9!F;!>!SFI>9! SMF! :L!>!LH<F9?!I>HGM! ;F<! HM8!G>H8?F<K! b>GH:Y8! :9! HM8! ;8I:9:LH!IFY8O I89Hd+!^M8!GM><>GH8<)! b:9Q>d)!S>L!Q8LG<:R8Q!>L!>! bL:9?@8)!FNHLJFV89)! >9Q!Y8<K!R<:?MHd! f(OK8><OF@Q!SMF!M>Q!R889! bQ88J@K! GF9G8<98Q!S:HM! :LLN8L!F;!Q:LG<:I:9>H:F9!>9Q!LFG:>@!nNLH:G8d!>L!>!LHNQ89H)!>9Q!:9YF@Y8Q! :9!>9H:O9NG@8><!Q8IF9LH<>H:F9L!_ Ŷ8<LVK!!g>M98I>9!(\kf`+!mNRn8GHL! S8<8!HM89!J<8L89H8Q!S:HM!HM8!HM<88!LH>H8I89HL!_>`!:9Q>!:L!>GH:Y8!:9! HM8!;8I:9:LH!IFY8I89H)!_R`!:9Q>!:L!>!R>9V!H8@@8<)!>9Q!_G`!:9Q>!:L!>! R>9V! H8@@8<!>9Q! :L!>GH:Y8! :9! HM8! ;8I:9:LH!IFY8I89H+!^M8L8!V8K!LH>H8O I89HL!S8<8!I:a8Q!:9!S:HM!eY8!Q8GFK!L89H89G8L!>RFNH!FHM8<!FGGNJ>O H:F9L!_JLKGM:>H<:G!LFG:>@!SF<V8<)!8@8I89H><K!LGMFF@!H8>GM8<`!>9Q!>GH:Y:O H:8L!_KF?>!G@>LL8L`!HM>H!:9Q>!I:?MH!R8!JN<LN:9?+!mNRn8GHL!S8<8!>LV8Q! HF!<>9V!>@@!8:?MH!LH>H8I89HL!:9!HM8!@:LH!;<FI!HM8!IFLH!HF!@8>LH!J<FR>R@8+! t@IFLH!\6!F;!HM8I!<>9V8Q!_G`!IF<8!J<FR>R@8!HM>9!_R`)!Y:F@>H:9?!HM8! GF9nN9GH:F9!<N@8)!>GGF<Q:9?!HF!SM:GM!>!GF9nN9GH:F9!G>9!98Y8<!R8!IF<8! J<FR>R@8!HM>9!F98!F;!:HL!GF9nN9GHL+!r<>QN>H8!LHNQ89HL!:9!JLKGMF@F?K)! I8Q:G:98!>9Q!8QNG>H:F9!Q:Q!9FH! ;><8!R8HH8<! HM>9!9>Y8!e<LHOK8><!N9O Q8<?<>QN>H8L!:9!HM:L!H>LV)!>9Q!8Y89!WMh!LHNQ89HL!:9!Q8G:L:F9!LG:89G8! \+! pF<<:8L! >RFNH! GF9Y8<L>H:F9>@! :IJ@:G>HN<8! ><8! F;H89! <>:L8Q! :9! <8LJF9L8! HF! HM8L8! e9Q:9?L+! Ŷ8<LVK! >9Q! g>M98I>9! HM8IL8@Y8L!S8<8! GF9G8<98Q! >RFNH! HM:L! :LLN8T!J8<M>JL!LNRn8GHL!SFN@Q!<8>Q!_R`! :9!GF9H<>LH!S:HM!_G`!>9Q!H>V8! :H! HF!Q8LG<:R8!>9!FNHGFI8!:9!SM:GM!:9Q>!:L!>!R>9V!H8@@8<!SMF!:L!not!>GH:Y8!:9! HM8!;8I:9:LH!IFY8I89H+!^M8K!HM8IL8@Y8L!H8LH8Q!>!Y8<L:F9!F;!HM8!J<FR@8I!:9! SM:GM!>9K!JFH89H:>@!GF9Y8<L>H:F9>@!:IJ@:G>HN<8!S>L!8aJ@:G:H@K!G>9G8@@8Q!_(\kf)! 5\\`)!>9Q!;FN9Q!HM>H!LNRn8GHL!GF9H:9N8Q!HF!Y:F@>H8!HM8!GF9nN9GH:F9!J<:9G:J@8+! F<8!<8G89H@K)!mH>9FY:GM!>9Q!p8LH!M>Y8!;FN9Q!:9!>!R8HS889OLNRn8GHL!Q8L:?9! HM>H!?<FNJL!F;!LNRn8GHL!SMF!><8!>LV8Q!HF!8Y>@N>H8!F9@K!_R`!<8@>H:Y8!HF!LFI8! Q8GFKL!LH:@@!?:Y8!:H!>!@FS8<!@:V8@:MFFQ!<>H:9?)!F9!>Y8<>?8)!HM>9!HM8!<>H:9?!?:Y89! HF!_G`!RK!GFIJ><>R@8!LNRn8GHL!>LV8Q!HF!8Y>@N>H8!F9@K!_G`!<8@>H:Y8!HF!HM8!L>I8! Q8GFKL!_mH>9FY:GM!!p8LH!566k`+ ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!(6!!z "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` b(6vvd!SM89!>LV8Q!HM8!Q>H8!F;!HM8!>HH@8!F;!P>LH:9?L)!F98!G>9!>@LF!><O <:Y8!>H!HM:L!L>I8!<8LJF9L8!>;H8<!LFI8!I8HMFQ:G>@!8a>I:9>H:F9!F;!HM8! <8@8Y>9H!M:LHF<:G>@!<8L8><GM+! =FH!8Y8<K!J<FR@8I!:L!FJ89!HF!M>9Q@:9?!RK!8:HM8<!LKLH8I)!MFS8Y8<T! LFI8!J<FR@8IL!M>Y8!;8>HN<8L!mKLH8I!(!:L!N9>R@8!HF!J<FG8LL+!U9!J><H:GNO @><)!mKLH8I!5!:L!988Q8Q!;F<!>9K!J<FR@8I!SM:GM!<8cN:<8L!NL!HF!<8J<8L89H! >!MKJFHM8H:G>@!JFLL:R:@:HK!>9Q! HM89!98?>H8! :H)!>9!FJ8<>H:F9!<8cN:<:9?! HM8!:9H8<Y89H:F9!F;!SF<V:9?!I8IF<K+!U9!HM8!H8<I:9F@F?K!F;!mH<>GV!>9Q! h8NHLGM)!SMF!NL8!HM8!@>R8@!<8~8GH:Y8!LKLH8IZ!;F<!mKLH8I!5)!bHM8!GF?9:O H:Y8!J<FG8QN<8!F;!98?>H:9?!G>9!F9@K!R8!8a8GNH8Q!:9!HM8!<8~8GH:Y8!LKLO H8Id!_mH<>GV!!h8NHLGM!566o)!55s`+!^M8!;>GH!HM>H!98?>H:F9!Q8I>9QL! mKLH8I!5!:9YF@Y8I89H!S:@@!J@>K!>!L:?9:eG>9H!<F@8!:9!HM8!98aH!L8GH:F9)! SM:GM!Q:LGNLL8L!HM8!<F@8!F;!Y><:FNL!mKLH8I!5!H<:??8<L!:9!J<FQNG:9?!HM8! P><I>9O{F?8@!J>HH8<9!F;!:9HN:H:F9L+ 3. Dual-process theory and the Harman-Vogel paradox hN>@OJ<FG8LL! HM8F<K! :L! >! ?898<>@! HM8F<K! F;! nNQ?I89Hl! HM8! P><I>9O {F?8@!J><>QFa!GF9G8<9L!>!J><H:GN@><!G@>LL!F;!nNQ?I89HL!M>Y:9?!HF!QF! S:HM!HM8!>HH<:RNH:F9!F;!V9FS@8Q?8+!hN>@OJ<FG8LL!HM8F<K!GFN@Q!R8!S8@@! JFL:H:F98Q! HF!8aJ@>:9! HM8!>LG<:R8<ZL!LM:;H:9?! :9HN:H:F9L! :;! HM8!>LG<:R8<! 9>HN<>@@K!LS:HGM8L!;<FI!mKLH8I!(!HF!mKLH8I!5!GF?9:H:F9!>L!M8!IFY8L! ;<FI!HM8!@>a!HF!HM8!LH<:9?89H!L:Q8!F;!HM8!J><>QFa+!t@HMFN?M!HM8!J><>QFa! Q:<8GH@K!GF9G8<9L!HM8!GF?9:H:F9!F;!HM8!>LG<:R8<!<>HM8<!HM>9!HM8!LNRn8GH! R8:9?!nNQ?8Q)!:H!LMFN@Q!R8!9FH8Q!;<FI!HM8!FNHL8H!HM>H!G8<H>:9!;8>HN<8L! F;!HM8!LNRn8GHZL!GF?9:H:F9!S:@@!?898<>H8!9>HN<>@!GFN9H8<J><HL!;F<!HM8!>LO G<:R8<)!:9LF;><!>L!HM8!>LG<:R8<!INLH!L:IN@>H8!F<!<8J<8L89H!HM8!LNRn8GHZL! GF?9:H:F9!:9!HM8!GFN<L8!F;!8Y>@N>H:9?!:H+!F<!8a>IJ@8)!:;!>!LNRn8GH!INLH! NL8!mKLH8I!5!:9!F<Q8<!HF!<8J<8L89H!>!MKJFHM8H:G>@!JFLL:R:@:HK!>9Q!HM89! 98?>H8!:H)!HM89!M8<!>LG<:R8<!INLH!>@LF!LS:HGM!HF!mKLH8I!5!>L!M8!<8H<>G8L! HM8!LNRn8GHZL!GF?9:H:Y8!LH8JL+!^M:L!L8GH:F9!LH><HL!RK!8a>I:9:9?!LKLH8I! LM:;HL!:9!HM8!GF?9:H:F9!F;!HM8!nNQ?:9?!LNRn8GH)!>9Q!HM89!>LG89QL!HF!GF9O L:Q8<!HM8!<8@>H8Q!J<8Q:G>I89H!F;!HM8!>LG<:R8<)!e<LH!F9!HM8!LH<:9?89H!L:Q8! F;!HM8!J>HH8<9)!>9Q!HM89!F9!HM8!@>a!L:Q8+ J<8Y>@89G8!F;!HM8!<N@8!Y:F@>H:F9!:L!8Y:Q89G8!HM>H!S8!QF!9FH!F<Q:9><:@K! GFIJNH8!HM8!J<FR>R:@:HK!F;!>!GFIJ@8a!FNHGFI8!RK!GFIJFN9Q:9?!HM8! Y><:FNL!8@8I89H><K!J<FR>R:@:H:8L!NJF9!SM:GM!:H!Q8J89QL!_SM:GM!SFN@Q! R8!Y8<K!H>a:9?)!HF!L>K!HM8!@8>LH`+!^M8<8!:L!8Y:Q89G8!HM>H!8Y89!HM8!LNRO n8GHL!SMF!?:Y8!HM8!GF<<8GH!>9LS8<!S:@@!:9:H:>@@K!M>Y8!HM8!GFIIF9!>NHFO I>H:G!<8LJF9L8!RNH!<8GF?9:j8!HM8!988Q!HF!FY8<<:Q8!HM:L!<8LJF9L8!SM89! HM8K!><8!<8I:9Q8Q!RK!HM8!GF9nN9GH:F9!J>HH8<9!u!>!J>HH8<9!I>Q8!INGM! IF<8!9FH:G8>R@8!SM89!Q8GFKL!><8!LH<:JJ8Q!>S>K!u!HM>H!HM8!>NHFI>H:G! <8LJF9L8!J>HH8<9!GF9~:GHL!S:HM!>!@8><98Q!<N@8+!P:?M8<Ox!:9Q:Y:QN>@L! ><8!IF<8!@:V8@K!HM>9!@FS8<Ox!:9Q:Y:QN>@L!HF!FY8<<:Q8!HM8:<!>NHFI>H:G! <8LJF9L8L!SM89!GN8Q!HF!QF!LF!_mH>9FY:GM!(\\\`!RNH!><8!9FH!:9!?898<>@! IF<8!@:V8@K!HF!89?>?8!:9!LKLH8I>H:G!<>HM8<!HM>9!>NHFI>H:G!GF?9:H:F9!:9! HM8!>RL89G8!F;!LNGM!GN8L!_mH>9FY:GM!!p8LH!566k`+ W<FR@8IL! ;F<! SM:GM! mKLH8I! (! >9Q! mKLH8I! 5! Q8@:Y8<! Q:8<89H! >9O LS8<L!M>Y8!M>Q!J><H:GN@><!Y>@N8! :9!HM8!Q8Y8@FJI89H!F;!QN>@OJ<FG8LL! HM8F<:8L!F;! <8>LF9:9?)!RNH! :H! LMFN@Q!R8!8IJM>L:j8Q! HM>H! HM8<8! :L!9F! ?898<>@! FJJFL:H:F9! R8HS889! >NHFI>H:G! >9Q! LKLH8I>H:G! GF?9:H:F9T! :9! I>9K!G>L8L!HM8!L>I8!>9LS8<!S:@@!R8!89QF<L8Q!RK!RFHM!LKLH8IL+!XN:GV! <8G>@@!>9Q!I8HMFQ:G>@!8a>I:9>H:F9!>?<88!>RFNH! HM8!L:IJ@8!>9>?<>I! >9Q! ><:HMI8H:G>@! J<FR@8ILl! 8cN>@@K)! :;! F98! >NHFI>H:G>@@K! <8LJF9QL! _GF9e<I>H:F9`!:L!LNRLH:HNH8Q!;F<!>9!>HH<:RNH8!HM>H!:L!INGM!M><Q8<!HF!GFIJNH8! _J<FR>R:@:HK`+! ((+! F<!:9LH>9G8)!8Y89!LNRn8GHL!SMF!?8H!:H!<:?MH!<8JF<H!HM8!@:9?8<:9?!:9~N89G8!F;! HM8!>NHFI>H:G!:IJ<8LL:F9+!mH8JM89!7>K!rFN@Q!<8JF<HL!HM>H!Q8LJ:H8!M:L!V9FS@O 8Q?8!F;! HM8!<:?MH!>9LS8<! HF! HM8!:9Q>!J<FR@8I)! b>! @:HH@8!MFIN9GN@NL! :9!IK! M8>Q!GF9H:9N8L!HF!nNIJ!NJ!>9Q!QFS9)!LMFNH:9?!>H!I8!zRNH!LM8!G>9ZH!nNLH!R8! >!R>9V!H8@@8<l!<8>Q!HM8!Q8LG<:JH:F9Zd!_rFN@Q!(\\5)!ov\`+ (5+! U9!F98!F;!HM8!8aJ8<:I89HL!mH>9FY:GM!>9Q!p8LH!Q8Y:L8Q!HF!LMFS!HM:L)!HM8!H8aH! ;<FI!HM8!F<:?:9>@!:9Q>!J<FR@8I!S>L!NL8Q!:9!>!R8HS889OLNRn8GHL!Q8L:?9!S:HM! FY8<!o66!LNRn8GHL+!WFF@L!F;!M:?M8<O!>9Q!@FS8<Ox!LNRn8GHL!S8<8!>LV8Q!HF!<>H8! HM8! @:V8@:MFFQ! F;! :9Q>ZL! R8:9?! >! R>9V! H8@@8<! _R`)! nNLH! :9! GF9H<>LH! HF! Q8GFK! LH>H8I89HL!>RFNH!FHM8<!JN<LN:HL!@:V8!8@8I89H><K!LGMFF@!H8>GM:9?)!SM:@8!FHM8<! JFF@L!F;!M:?M8<O!>9Q!@FS8<Ox!LNRn8GHL!S8<8!>LV8Q!HF!<>H8!HM8!@:V8@:MFFQ!F;! :9Q>ZL!R8:9?!>!;8I:9:LH!R>9V!H8@@8<!_G`)!:9!GF9H<>LH!HF!HM8!L>I8!Q8GFKL+!^M8! >Y8<>?8!<>H:9?!;F<!_G`!S>L!L:?9:eG>9H@K!M:?M8<!HM>9!HM>H!;F<!_R`!:9!RFHM!>RFY8O! >9Q!R8@FSOI8Q:>9!x!?<FNJLl!:9Q88Q)!HM8!R8HS889O?<FNJ!H89Q89GK!HF!<>H8!_G`! M:?M8<! HM>9!_R`!S>L!8Y89!IF<8!J<F9FN9G8Q!R8HS889!HM8!>RFY8OI8Q:>9!x ?<FNJL!_mH>9FY:GM!!p8LH!566k`+ ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!((!!z "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` ^M8!98?>H:F9!:L!HKJ:G>@@K!FY8<H)!>L!SM89!{F?8@!>LVL!:9!M:L!(\\6!J>J8<)! bhF!KFN!V9FS!HM>H!r8F<?8!NLM!M>L9ZH!M>Q!>!;>H>@!M8><H!>HH>GV!:9!HM8! @>LH!eY8!I:9NH8Ld! _(\\6)!56`+! U9!>! LI>@@!I:9F<:HK! _(6`!F;! G>L8L! :9O YF@Y:9?!98?>H:F9)!HM8!J<8L89H>H:F9!F;!HM8!8a>IJ@8!QF8L!9FH!:HL8@;!NL8! L89H89H:>@!98?>H:F9)!RNH!Q<:Y8L!NL!HF!<8GF?9:j8!HM8!988Q!HF!8IR<>G8!>! 98?>H8Q!J<FJFL:H:F9!:9!F<Q8<!HF!LNLH>:9!HM8!@>a!nNQ?I89H!nNLH!I>Q8+!U9! P>SHMF<98ZL!Y8<L:F9!F;!HM8!GN<<89H!W<8L:Q89H!G>L8)!;F<!8a>IJ@8)!>;H8<! H8LH:9?!FN<!@>a!:9HN:H:F9L!F9!HM8!:Q89H:HK!F;!HM8!W<8L:Q89H!S8!><8!L:IO J@K!:9Y:H8Q!HF!GF9L:Q8<!HM8!JFLL:R:@:HK!HM>H!bJ8<M>JL!M8!Q:8Q!:9!HM8!@>LH! eY8!I:9NH8Ld!_566o)!ò+!mKLH8I>H:G!GF?9:H:F9!SFN@Q!>@<8>QK!R8!988Q8Q! HF!<8J<8L89H!HM8!MKJFHM8H:G>@!LG89><:F!F;!<8G89H!Q8>HM)!>9Q!F9G8!HM:L! LG89><:F!:L!<8J<8L89H8Q)!S8!G>9!:II8Q:>H8@K!L88!:HL!:9GF9L:LH89GK!S:HM! HM8!@>a!nNQ?I89H!nNLH!I>Q8+!U9!HM8!LH<N??@8!HF!<89Q8<!FN<!nNQ?I89HL! GF9L:LH89H)!S8!e9Q!HM>H!SM>H!S8!988Q!HF!V9FS!:L!HM>H!:H!:L!9FH!HM8!G>L8! HM>H!HM8!W<8L:Q89H!M>L!Q:8Q!:9!HM8!@>LH!eY8!I:9NH8L+!^M:L!:L!HM8!L>I8! LF<H!F;!98?>H8Q!J<FJFL:H:F9!>L!S>L!J<8L89H8Q!8aJ@:G:H@K!:9!{F?8@ZL!Y8<O L:F9!F;!HM8!G>L8+!^M>H!P>SHMF<98!@8>Y8L!HM8!SF<V!F;!GF9LH<NGH:9?!HM8! 98?>H:F9!HF!HM8!<8>Q8<!QF8L!9FH!Q:I:9:LM!HM8!GF?9:H:Y8!Q8I>9QL!HM:L! nNQ?I89H!:IJFL8L+! F<!I>9K!F;!HM8!LH<:9?89H!J<FJFL:H:F9L!:9YF@Y:9?!HM8!98?>H:F9!F;!>! MKJFHM8H:G>@!JFLL:R:@:HK)!mKLH8I!5!J<FG8LL:9?!:L!988Q8Q!9FH!F9@K!HF!J<FO G8LL!HM8!98?>H:F9!RNH!>@LF!HF!M>9Q@8!;N<HM8<!;8>HN<8L!F;!HM8!J<FJFL:H:F9+! F<! 8a>IJ@8)! N9NLN>@! F<! 8aG8JH:F9>@! L:HN>H:F9L! @:V8! HMFL8! :9YF@Y:9?! G@8Y8<@K!Q:L?N:L8Q!IN@8L!>9Q!J>J:8<OIGM!;>V8L!><8!<8L:LH>9H!HF!>NHFO I>H:G!J<FG8LL:9?)!?:Y89!HM>H!mKLH8I!(!<8@:8L!F9!>LLFG:>H:F9!HF!;>I:@:><! J>LH!:9LH>9G8L)!>9Q!mKLH8I!5!:L!H<:??8<8Q!RK!9FY8@!F<!>R9F<I>@!G>L8L+! Y89!:9!HM8!>RL89G8!F;!98?>H:F9)!J<8L89H>H:F9!F;!HM8!9NI8<:G>@!FQQL!F;! HM8!@FHH8<K!SFN@Q!R8!8aJ8GH8Q!HF!H<:??8<!GF9H<F@@8Q!J<FG8LL:9?!_p:9QO LGM:H@!!p8@@L!(\\v`+!t@HMFN?M!P><I>9ZL!F<:?:9>@!@FHH8<K!LG89><:F!S>L! HKJ:G>@@K!:9H<FQNG8Q!S:HM!L89H89H:>@!98?>H:F9!u!HM8!LH<:9?89H!J<FJFL:O H:F9!LJFV8!F;!>!H:GV8HZL!not S:99:9?!u!98?>H:F9!SFN@Q!9FH!R8!98G8LL><K! HF!89?>?8!mKLH8I!5!F9G8!HM8!FQQL!F;!HM8!@FHH8<K!M>Y8!R889!I89H:F98Q+! mF)!:9!M:L!:9:H:>@!J<8L89H>H:F9!F;!HM8!@FHH8<K!G>L8)!h8iFL8!SF<VL!S:HMFNH! FFV:9?!>?>:9!>H!HM8!8><@:8<!H>R@8!F;!8a>IJ@8L!F;!HM8!P><I>9O{F?8@! J>HH8<9)!F98!I:?MH!LH><H!RK!9FH:9?!HM>H!>@@!F;!HM8!LH<:9?89H!nNQ?I89HL! GF9L:LH!:9!HM8!98?>H:F9!F;!>!MKJFHM8H:G>@!JFLL:R:@:HK)!>!;N9GH:F9!>?<88Q! RK!>@@!QN>@OJ<FG8LL!HM8F<:LHL!HF!:9YF@Y8!mKLH8I!5!GF?9:H:F9+! F!nNQ?8! HM>H!:H!:L!9FH!HM8!G>L8!HM>H!><>GV!qR>I>!M>L!M>Q!>!;>H>@!M8><H!>HH>GV! :9!HM8!@>LH!eY8!I:9NH8L)!S8!INLH!e<LH!<8J<8L89H!HM8!JFLL:R:@:HK!F;!HM8! M8><H!>HH>GV!:9!HM8!>|<I>H:Y8!>9Q!HM89!98?>H8!:H!_r:@R8<H!(\\(l!P>LLF9! !r@NGVLR8<?!566v`)!>!H>LV!<8cN:<:9?!HM8!L8<:>@!J<FG8LL:9?!GM><>GH8<O :LH:G!F;!mKLH8I!5+!m:I:@><!FJ8<>H:F9L!><8!<8cN:<8Q!:9!8Y8<K!F98!F;!HM8! nNQ?I89HL!:9!HM8!LH<:9?89H!GF@NI9!F;!HM8!H>R@8+! t!R<F>Q8<!LHNQK!F;!HM8!@:H8<>HN<8!GF9e<IL!HM8!MKJFHM8L:L!HM>H!mKLO H8I!5! J<FG8LL:9?! F;! F98! V:9Q!F<! >9FHM8<! :L! >@S>KL! <8cN:<8Q! ;F<! HM8! LH<:9?89H!G@>:IL!:9!HM8!P><I>9O{F?8@!J>HH8<9!F;!:9HN:H:F9L+!FLH!F;O H89)! L89H89H:>@! 98?>H:F9! :L! :9YF@Y8Q! :9! HM8! LM:;H! NJ! HF! mKLH8I!5)! RNH! HM8<8!><8!G>L8L! HM>H! :9YF@Y8!FHM8<!mKLH8I!5! H<:??8<L+!mN<Y8K:9?!9:98! GF<8!RFFVL!>9Q!><H:G@8L!F9!HM8!J<FR@8I!_h8iFL8!(\\vl!hFNY89!566sl! h<8HLV8!566,l!P><I>9! (\sf)! (\kvl!P><I>9!!mM8<I>9!566ol!P>SO HMF<98!566ol!P>SHMF<98!566,l!{F?8@!(\\6`)!U!:Q89H:e8Q!oo!8a>IJ@8L! F;!HM8!<8@8Y>9H!J>HH8<9!F;!:9HN:H:F9L+!U9!o6!FNH!F;!HM8L8!oo!8a>IJ@8L! _\(`)!HM8!LH<:9?89H!G@>:I!:9!HM8!J>HH8<9!:9YF@Y8L!L89H89H:>@!98?>H:F9+! (f+! F!L>K!HM>H!>!LS:HGM!HF!mKLH8I!5!J<FG8LL:9?!:L!:9YF@Y8Q!:9!?898<>H:9?!>!LH<:9O ?89H! V9FS@8Q?8! >LL8LLI89H! :L!9FH! HF! L>K! HM>H! LNGM! >! LS:HGM! :L! !"#$%&'(! HF! ?898<>H8!>!LH<:9?89H!V9FS@8Q?8!>LL8LLI89Hl!:H!S:@@!R8!><?N8Q!:9!HM8!98aH!L8GO H:F9!HM>H!LFI8!;N<HM8<!;8>HN<8L!F;!HM8!LH<:9?89H!J<FJFL:H:F9L!GFIR:98!S:HM!HM8! LM:;H!HF!mKLH8I!5!HF!8aJ@>:9!FN<!<8@NGH>9G8!HF!>LG<:R8!V9FS@8Q?8+!qHM8<!HKJ8L! F;! mKLH8I!5! nNQ?I89H! G>9!e?N<8!N9J<FR@8I>H:G>@@K! :9!JFL:H:Y8! V9FS@8Q?8! >LG<:JH:F9L+ (o+! pM8<8!>!L:9?@8!8a>IJ@8!S>L!J<8L89H8Q!IN@H:J@8!H:I8L!RK!>9!>NHMF<!S:HM:9!>! RFFV!F<!><H:G@8)!F9@K!HM8!e<LH!:9LH>9G8!S>L!GFN9H8Q!>9Q!>9>@Kj8Q+!PFS8Y8<)! SM89!>9!8a>IJ@8!?898<>H8Q!RK!F98!>NHMF<!S>L!H>V89!NJ)!J8<M>JL!S:HM!LFI8! Y><:>H:F9)! RK! >9FHM8<)! :H!S>L! <8GFN9H8Q! F9! :HL! e<LH! J<8L89H>H:F9! :9! HM8! L8GO F9Q!>NHMF<ZL!SF<V)!J><H@K!R8G>NL8! :H! :L!Q:|GN@H! HF!Q:LH:9?N:LM!Y><:>H:F9L!F9! F@Q8<!8a>IJ@8L!;<FI!98S!8a>IJ@8L)!>9Q!J><H@K!R8G>NL8!U!HM:9V!HM>H!8a>IJ@8L! F;!HM8!J>HH8<9!HM>H!L88I!HF!<8LF9>H8!S:HM!I>9K!>NHMF<L!LMFN@Q!R8!GFN9H8Q! IF<8!M8>Y:@K+!^M8!;>GH!HM>H!>9!8a>IJ@8!:L!<8J8>H8Q!:L!LFI8!8Y:Q89G8!HM>H!:H! QF8L!>!J><H:GN@><@K!?FFQ!nFR!F;!?898<>H:9?!HM8!Q8L:<8Q!J><>QFa:G>@!J>HH8<9!F;! :9HN:H:F9L+ ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!(5!!z "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` F98ZL!R@N8O?<889!GF@F<!Q:LG<:I:9>H:F9!_HM8!FHM8<L!><8!:98<H`+!U;!HM:L!LNRO n8GH!;F<IL!HM8!R8@:8;!HM>H!M8!:L!@FFV:9?!>H!>!R@N8!J>HGM!SM89!HM:L!:L!LF)! P>SHMF<98!LN??8LHL)!bS8!I>K!S8@@!R8!:9G@:98Q!HF!GFN9H!M:I!>L!V9FSO :9?!HM>H!M8!:L!L88:9?!>!R@N8!J>HGMd+!PFS8Y8<)!P>SHMF<98!LN??8LHL)!S8! S:@@!<8L:LH!HM8!LN??8LH:F9!HM>H!bM8!G>9!Q8QNG8!>9Q!GFI8!HF!V9FS!HM>H! HM8!J:@@!M8!HFFV!S>L!:98<Hd_566o)!ò+!q98!I:?MH!GF9G8:Y>R@K!<8>Q!HM:L! G>L8! >L! :9YF@Y:9?! LFI8! ;F<I!F;! 98?>H:F9)! H<:??8<8Q!RK! HM8!98?>H:Y8! J<8eaT!V9FS:9?!HM>H!HM8!J:@@!:L!:98<H!:L!H>9H>IFN9H!HF!V9FS:9?!HM>H!:H! :L!9FH!HM8!>GH:Y8!F98)!<8J<8L89H:9?!>9Q!HM89!98?>H:9?!HM>H!LJ8G:>@!G>L8+! NH!:9!>9K!8Y89H!:H!:L!>!<FNH:98!I>HH8<!HF!<8GF?9:j8!R@N8!HM:9?L!>L!R@N8l! Q:LH:9?N:LM:9?!:9>GH:Y8!;<FI!>GH:Y8!J:@@L!>H!>!<>H:F!F;!\)\\\T(!L88IL!HF! <8cN:<8!GF9L:Q8<>H:F9!F;!9NI8<:G>@!FQQL!>9Q!LJ8G:>@!G>L8L)!>9Q!GF9L8O cN89H@K!LKLH8I>H:G!<>HM8<!HM>9!>NHFI>H:G!GF?9:H:F9+ ^M8!e9>@!J<FR@8I>H:G!LH<:9?89H!J<FJFL:H:F9! :L! ;<FI!h<8HLV8)!SMF! JF:9HL!FNH! HM>H! :H! :L!INGM!8>L:8<! HF! >GG8JH! HM>H! HM8<8! ><8! GFFV:8L! :9! HM8!n><!HM>9!HM>H!HM8<8!><8!I:9QO:9Q8J89Q89H!FRn8GHL!HM8<8!_566,)!(ò+! mFI8!;F<I!F;!98?>H:F9!GFN@Q!GF9G8:Y>R@K!R8!:9!J@>K!M8<8)!>?>:9!:9!HM8! 98?>H:Y8!J<8eaT!J8<M>JL!GF9G8:Y:9?!F;!FRn8GHL!>L!bI:9QO:9Q8J89Q89Hd! <8cN:<8L! GF9H8IJ@>H:F9! >9Q! 98?>H:F9! F;! LFI8! ;F<I! F;!I:9QOQ8J89O Q89GK)!F<!L8cN89H:>@@K!:I>?:9:9?!HM8!FRn8GH!:9!F98ZL!J<8L89G8!>9Q!>RO L89G8+!NH!SM8HM8<!F<!9FH!HM:L!G>L8!Q8I>9QL!98?>H:F9!F<!MKJFHM8H:O G>@!<8>LF9:9?)!HM8!HM8F<8H:G>@!GM><>GH8<!F;!bI:9QO:9Q8J89Q89G8d!I>K! >@<8>QK!LN|G8!HF!H<:??8<!mKLH8I!5T!:H!:L!HMFN?MH!HM>H!8aJ@:G:H!<8J<8L89O H>H:F9!F;!HM:L!LF<H!F;!>RLH<>GH!GF9G8JH!:L!9FH!M>9Q@8Q!>NHFI>H:G>@@K!_m>HO JNH8!!:8R8<I>9!566v`+! ^M8! @>a!J<FJFL:H:F9L!J<8L89H!>! LH<:V:9?@K!Q:8<89H!J<Fe@8+!pM8<8! L89H89H:>@!98?>H:F9!S>L!J<8L89H!:9!\(!F;!HM8!LH<:9?89H!J<FJFL:H:F9L)! :H!:L!absent!:9!>@@!RNH!HSF!F;!HM8!@>a!J<FJFL:H:F9L!LN<Y8K8Q!_\,`+!_^M8! 8aG8JH:F9L)!SM:GM!S:@@! <8G8:Y8! LJ8G:>@! Q:LGNLL:F9! :9!QN8! GFN<L8)! ><8! >9!8a>IJ@8!F;!h8iFL8ZL! >RFNH! >!J8<LF9ZL! :9>R:@:HK! HF!J>K!F!>! @F>9)! >9Q!P>SHMF<98ZL! L:I:@><! L>;><:O>F<Q>R:@:HK! G>L8! _Y`! :9! HM8! H>R@8! F;! 8a>IJ@8L! >RFY8+`! U9! GF9H<>LH! HF! HM8! LH<:9?89H! J<FJFL:H:F9L)! HM8! @>a! (v+! ^M>9VL!HF!7F9>HM>9!p8:LR8<?!;F<!HM:L!FRL8<Y>H:F9+ 98?>H:F9!RNH!:9!>!I>998<!HM>H!LH:@@!89?>?8L!LKLH8I>H:G!GF?9:H:F9+!^M8! LH<:9?89H!RNH!>H! @8>LH! LNJ8<eG:>@@K!>|<I>H:Y8!J<FJFL:H:F9! bHM>H!KFN<! H:GV8H!:L!>!@FL8<d!:L!:9H<FQNG8Q!>;H8<!S8!M>Y8!R889!<8I:9Q8Q!HM>H!HM:L! H:GV8H!:L!bF98!F;!56!I:@@:F9!H:GV8HL)!F9@K!F98!F;!SM:GM!:L!>!S:998<d!_h8iO FL8!(\\v)!,vk`+! tIF9?!HM8!oo!G>L8L!F;!HM8!P><I>9O{F?8@!J>HH8<9!LN<Y8K8Q)!o6!GF9O H>:98Q!LH<:9?89H!J<FJFL:H:F9L!:9YF@Y:9?!L89H89H:>@!98?>H:F9l!h8iFL8ZL! b@FL8<d!Y8<L:F9!F;!HM8!@FHH8<K!G>L8!:L!F98!F;!HM8!;FN<!LN<Y8K8Q!G>L8L!HM>H! Q:Q!9FH+!:V8!HM8!h8iFL8!G>L8)!MFS8Y8<)!>@@!F;!HM8!>|<I>H:Y8!LH<:9?89H! J<FJFL:H:F9L! M>Y8! LJ8G:>@! ;8>HN<8L! HM>H! <8cN:<8! LKLH8I>H:G! J<FG8LLO :9?l!U!S:@@!Q:LGNLL!HM8!HM<88!<8I>:9:9?!G>L8L!:9Q:Y:QN>@@K!R8;F<8!HN<9O :9?!HF!HM8!cN8LH:F9!F;!MFS!S8!nNQ?8!HM8!J<FJFL:H:F9L!F9!HM8!@>a!L:Q8! !F;!HM8!J>HH8<9+! ^M8!e<LH!F;!HM8!HM<88!<8I>:9:9?!>|<I>H:Y8!LH<:9?89H!J<FJFL:H:F9L! :9YF@Y8L!8aJ@:G:H!Q:LnN9GH:Y8!<8>LF9:9?)!HM8!GF9H8IJ@>H:F9!F;!>!L8<:8L! F;!MKJFHM8H:G>@!>@H8<9>H:Y8L+!P>SHMF<98!:9Y:H8L!NL!HF!GF9L:Q8<!>!G>L8! :9!SM:GM! :H! :L! LNJJFL8Q! HM>H! F98! H<NLHL! HM8!Guardian >9Q! HM8!Times 8cN>@@K)!>9Q!F98!<8>QL!:9!HM8!Times!HM>H!>9GM8LH8<!9:H8Q!M>L!SF9!>! I>HGM+!t@HMFN?M!F98!I:?MH!<8>Q:@K!H>V8!F98L8@;!HF!V9FS!HM>H!9:H8Q! SF9)!>9Q!HM>H!HM8!Times L>KL!LF)!P>SHMF<98!JF:9HL!FNH!HM>H!:H!:L!M><QO 8<!HF!>GG8JH!HM>H!F98!V9FSL!HM8!;F@@FS:9?T!b8:HM8<!The Times!>9Q!The Guardian! GF<<8GH@K! <8JF<H8Q!>!>9GM8LH8<!9:H8Q!Y:GHF<K!F<!8@L8!The Guardian!I>Q8!>!I:LH>V8!>RFNH!HM8!>9GM8LH8<!9:H8Q!<8LN@Hd!_566o)! s(`+!F9H8IJ@>H:F9!F;!HM8L8!Q:LH:9GH!MKJFHM8H:G>@!LG89><:FL!Q8I>9QL! L8cN89H:>@!<8>LF9:9?)!LF!HM:L!J<FJFL:H:F9!INLH!R8!8Y>@N>H8Q!:9!mKLH8I! 5!_Y>9L!566sR`+ P>SHMF<98!>@LF!J<8L89HL!>!G>L8! HM>H!M8!Q8LG<:R8L!>L!>!Y><:>9H!F;! F98!J<8L89H8Q!RK!{F?8@!_(\\f`+!U9!HM:L!G>L8!>!J8<LF9!M>L!GF9LNI8Q!>! J:@@!;<FI!>!RNGV8H!F;!(6)666!J:@@L)!F98!F;!SM:GM!:9QNG8L!:9Y8<L:F9!F;! (,+! h8iFL8ZL!Y8<L:F9!:L!>9!8aG8JH:F9!HF!>!?898<>@!J>HH8<9T!:9!8Y8<K!FHM8<!>NHMF<ZL! J<8L89H>H:F9!F;!P><I>9ZL!F<:?:9>@!@FHH8<K!LG89><:F)!:9!HM8!e<LH!J<8L89H>H:F9!F;! HM8!LG89><:F!HM8!LH<:9?89H!J<FJFL:H:F9!LJFV8!F;!not winning HM8!@FHH8<K!<>HM8<! HM>9!@FL:9?!:H+!F<!L8Y8<>@!>NHMF<L)!@>H8<!<8J8H:H:F9L!F;!HM8!8a>IJ@8!LFI8H:I8L! LJFV8! Q:<8GH@K! F;! @FLL)! RNH! F9@K! HM8! e<LH! J<8L89H>H:F9! F;! >9K! 8a>IJ@8!S>L! GFN9H8Q!:9!HM8!LH>H:LH:GL+! ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!(f!!z "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` 8a8<H!8a8GNH:Y8!GF9H<F@!HF!J8<;F<I!GFIJFN9Q8Q!I89H>@!>LG<:JH:F9L!F<! >LG<:JH:F9L!:9YF@Y:9?!IN@H:J@8!LNRn8GHL!u!HF!?<>LJ!HM>H!m><>M!R8@:8Y8L! HM>H!:@@!V98S!HM>H!mNL>9!S>9H8Q! HF! @8>Y8)! ;F<!8a>IJ@8! _g:9Q8<I>9)! hN9R><)!!89H>@@!(\\k`+!p8!I>K!M>Y8!HF!89?>?8!:9!LFI8!Q8?<88!F;! GF9H<F@@8Q!GF?9:H:F9!HF!<8J<8L89H!HM8!R8@:8;L!F;!>!LNRn8GH!SM89!HM8L8! R8@:8;L!GF9~:GH!S:HM!FN<!FS9!_tJJ8<@K)!>GV)!m>ILF9)!!<>9G8!566kl! J@8K)!g8KL><)!{>9!FY89)!!r:@FY:GM!566ò+!=8:HM8<!F;!HM8L8!GF9Q:O H:F9L!J<8L89HL!>9!FRLH>G@8!:9!HM8!P><I>9O{F?8@!J>HH8<9)!SM8<8!HM8!<8@O 8Y>9H!>LG<:JH:F9!:L!L:IJ@8!>9Q!<8LH<:GH8Q!HF!>!L:9?@8!LNRn8GH)!>9Q!SM8<8! :H!:L!N9Q8<LHFFQ!HM>H!S8!><8!8Y>@N>H:9?!HM8!LNRn8GH!F9!HM8!>LLNIJH:F9! HM>H!HM8!>9:I>@!:L!:9!;>GH!>!j8R<>)!F<!HM>H!HM8!W<8L:Q89H!:L!LH:@@!>@:Y8)!>9Q! LF!F9+!pM89!>!HM:<Q!J><HK!R8@:8Y8L!>!J<FJFL:H:F9!F98!H>V8L!HF!R8!H<N8)! HM8!H>LV!F;!<8J<8L89H:9?!:H!>L!>!R8@:8;!M8@Q!RK!>9FHM8<!L88IL!HF!>QQ!9F! LJ8G:>@! RN<Q89!F;! GF9H<F@@8Q! GF?9:H:F9!R8KF9Q!SM>H8Y8<!S>L!98G8LO L><K!HF!<8J<8L89H!HM8!J<FJFL:H:F9!:HL8@;!_m>a8!8H!>@+!566v`+! UH!:L!9FS!JFLL:R@8!HF!@>K!FNH!>!<8@>H:Y8@K!L:IJ@8!IFQ8@!F;!HM8!@>a!>LO G<:JH:F9L!:9!HM8!J>HH8<9+!U9!>!GF9H8aH!SM8<8!:H!:L!>LLNI8Q!HM>H!qR>I>! :L!LH:@@!>@:Y8!>9Q!HM>H!NGK!:L!>!HKJ:G>@!GFIJ>H<:FH!F;!M:L)!SM89!S8!8Y>@NO >H8!HM8!G@>:I!HM>H!NGK!V9FSL!HM>H!HM8!GN<<89H!m!W<8L:Q89H!:L!><>GV! qR>I>)!S8!SFN@Q!QF!LF!M8N<:LH:G>@@K)!F9!HM8!R>L:L!F;!FN<!FS9!J<:F<! V9FS@8Q?8+!F<!8a>IJ@8)!S8!I:?MH!>NHFI>H:G>@@K!GM8GV!HM8!H<NHM!F;!HM8! J<FJFL:H:F9!R8@:8Y8Q!RK!NGK!>?>:9LH!FN<!FS9!R>GV?<FN9Q!Y:8S!>9Q! >LLFG:>H:Y8@K! GFIJNH8! HM8!>GG8JH>R:@:HK!F;! HM:L!J<8Q:G>H:F9!F;!V9FS@O 8Q?8!F9!HM8!R>L:L!F;!:HL!L:I:@><:HK!HF!LFI8!J<FHFHKJ:G>@!<8J<8L89H>H:F9! (k+! ^M8<8!:L!LFI8!GF9H<FY8<LK!FY8<!HM8!Q8?<88!F;!>NHFI>H:G:HK!>9Q!LJF9H>98:HK!F;! ;>@L8!R8@:8;!>LG<:JH:F9!N9Q8<!Y><:FNL!GF9Q:H:F9L+!F<!8a>IJ@8)!SM8<8!U>9!tJO J8<@K!M>L!>:I8Q!HF!LMFS!HM>H!HM8<8!><8!L:?9:eG>9H!GF?9:H:Y8!GFLHL!:9YF@Y8Q!:9! HM8!>LG<:JH:F9!F;!;>@L8!R8@:8;!_tJJ8<@K)!i:??L)!m:IJLF9)!M:>Y><:9F)!!m>ILF9! 566v`)!tQ>I!FM89! >9Q! >IL:9!r8<I>9! M>Y8! ><?N8Q! HM>H!SM>H! :L! GF?9:O H:Y8@K!GFLH@K!:L!HM8!J<8L8<Y>H:F9!F;!>!<8J<8L89H>H:F9!F;!;>@L8!R8@:8;!<>HM8<!HM>9! :HL!:9:H:>@!?898<>H:F9!_FM89!!r8<I>9!566\`+!FM89!>9Q!r8<I>9!e9Q!8Y:O Q89G8!HM>H!;>@L8OR8@:8;!>LG<:JH:F9!G>9!R8!>NHFI>H:G!>9Q!LJF9H>98FNL+!8>9O SM:@8)!><VNL!t:GMMF<9!>9Q! GF@@8>?N8L! ;FN9Q!8Y:Q89G8!F;! ;N@@K! >NHFI>H:G! R8@:8;!>LG<:JH:F9!N9Q8<!GF9Q:H:F9L!:9!SM:GM!J><H:G:J>9HL!8aJ8GH8Q!HF!8Y>@N>H8! >!Y><:8HK!F;!H<N8!>9Q!;>@L8!R8@:8;L!_t:GMMF<9!8H!>@+!566\`l!HM8K!GF9n8GHN<8!HM>H! ;>@L8OR8@:8;!>LG<:JH:F9!I>K!R8!IF<8!F<! @8LL!>NHFI>H:G!Q8J89Q:9?!F9!HM8!8aO J8GH>H:F9L!>9Q!I:9QL8H!F;!HM8!>LG<:R8<+ J<FJFL:H:F9L!><8!<FNH:98!:9!GM><>GH8<T!HM:9V:9?!>RFNH!<FNH:98!I>HH8<L! LNGM!>L!HFIF<<FSZL! @N9GM)!>!LJF<HL!M8>Q@:98)!F<!J:GV:9?!NJ!F98ZL!G><)! F98! S:@@! F<Q:9><:@K! <8@K! F9! >NHFI>H:G! nNQ?I89H+! 8IF<K! >NHFI>H:O G>@@K!LNJJ@:8L!>9!>9LS8<!HF!cN8LH:F9L!>RFNH!HM8!:Q89H:HK!F;!HM8!GN<<89H! W<8L:Q89H)!HM8!LJFH!SM8<8!F98!M>L!J><V8Q)!>9Q!<FNH:98!8Y89HL!:9!F98ZL! NJGFI:9?!LGM8QN@8+!^M:L!:9:H:>@!:9HN:H:Y8!>9LS8<!I>K!R8!FY8<<:QQ89!:;! LH>V8L!R8GFI8!M:?M)!F<!S8!><8!I>Q8!HF!;88@!J><H:GN@><@K!L8@;OGF9LG:FNL! >RFNH!FN<!<8LJF9L8L)!F<!?:Y89!HM8!8aJ8GH>H:F9!HM>H!S8!S:@@!M>Y8!HF!nNLO H:;K!HM8I!:9!;<F9H!F;!FHM8<L!_8<98<!! 8H@FGV!(\\\l!m:IF9LF9!!=K8! (\\5`+! mNRL8cN89H! LKLH8I>H:G! >9>@KL:L!F;! HM8!cN8LH:F9!I>K! <8LN@H! :9! FN<!<8>|<I:9?!FN<!F<:?:9>@!>NHFI>H:G!>9LS8<)!F<!:9!FN<!cN>@:;K:9?!:H! :9!LFI8!S>K)!;F<!8a>IJ@8)!RK!GF9Y8<H:9?!:H!;<FI!>!G>H8?F<:G>@!G@>:I!HF! >!G@>:I!>RFNH!SM>H!:L!M:?M@K!J<FR>R@8+! mF!;><)!HM8!>:I!M>L!R889!HF!8aJ@>:9!SMK!:H!:L!:9:H:>@@K!JLKGMF@F?:G>@@K! 8>L:8<!;F<!>!J8<LF9!HF!nNQ?8!HM>H)!L>K)!><>GV!qR>I>!:L!9FS!W<8L:Q89H! HM>9!HM>H!:H!:L!9FH!HM8!G>L8!HM>H!M8!M>L!Y8<K!<8G89H@K!Q:8Q+!8;F<8!?:YO :9?!>9!8aJ@>9>H:F9!F;!HM8!<><8!@>a!J<FJFL:H:F9L!:9YF@Y:9?!98?>H:F9)!:H! S:@@!R8!M8@J;N@!HF!LMFS!SMK!:H!:L!?898<>@@K!8>LK!;F<!>!J8<LF9!HF!>LG<:R8! V9FS@8Q?8!F;!HM8!@>a!J<FJFL:H:F9!HF!FHM8<L)!>9Q!<8@>H:Y8@K!M><Q!HF!>LO G<:R8!V9FS@8Q?8!F;!HM8!LH<:9?89H!F98+! q98!I:?MH!8aJ8GH!HM>H!>LL8LLI89HL!F;!HM8!I89H>@!LH>H8L!F;!FHM8<L! SFN@Q! :9Y><:>R@K! Q8I>9Q! M:?M8<O@8Y8@! GF9H<F@@8Q! J<FG8LL:9?+! PFSO 8Y8<)!HM8<8!:L!8Y:Q89G8!HM>H!<FNH:98!>LL8LLI89HL!F;!HM8!V9FS@8Q?8!F<! R8@:8;!F;!FHM8<L!:L!9FH!:9M8<89H@K!H>a:9?!RNH!<>HM8<!IFQN@><!>9Q!>NHFO I>H:G! :9! GM><>GH8<! _8L@:8)! <:8QI>9)!!r8<I>9! 566ol! m>a8!!g>9O S:LM8<!566fl!m>a8)!mGMN@j)!!7:>9?!566v`+!UH!L88IL!HM>H!S8!QF!M>Y8!HF! (s+! q98!I:?MH!SF9Q8<!SM8HM8<!8IJ:<:G>@!SF<V!F9!HM8!IFQN@><:HK!F;!R8@:8;!>LG<:JO H:F9!:L!:9Y8LH:?>H:9?!HM8!L>I8!J<FG8LL8L!HM>H!N9Q8<J:9!<8LJF9L8L!HF!S<:HH89! LHF<:8LT!J8<M>JL!SM>H!SF<VL!:9!;>G8OHFO;>G8!>LL8LLI89HL!Q:8<L!:9H8<8LH:9?@K! ;<FI!SM>H!SF<VL!SM89!S8! <8>Q! HM8! HKJ8!F;!eGH:F9>@!9><<>H:Y8L! HM>H!e?N<8! :9!8J:LH8IF@F?K!J>J8<L+!PFS8Y8<)!:H!L88IL!HM>H!Q8Y8@FJI89H>@!GM>9?8L!>9Q! ;N9GH:F9>@!Q8eG:HL!>8GH!9F9OY8<R>@!>9Q!LHF<KOGFIJ<8M89L:F9!R8@:8;!>HH<:RNO H:F9!H>LVL!>H!HM8!L>I8!J>G8!>9Q!:9!HM8!L>I8!S>K)!LH<F9?@K!LN??8LH:9?!>!GFIO IF9!N9Q8<@K:9?!J<FG8LL!:L!:9YF@Y8Q!:9!HM8L8!H>LVL+!F<!>!Q8H>:@8Q!8IJ:<:G>@! Q8;89L8!F;!HM8!@8?:H:I>GK!F;!NL:9?!S<:HH89!9><<>H:Y8!LG89><:FL!HF!J<FR8!MNI>9! R8@:8;!>9Q!V9FS@8Q?8!>LG<:JH:F9!G>J>G:H:8L!:9!?898<>@)!L88!_m>a8!566v`+ ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!(o!!z "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` GF9G@NL:F9!:9!>9!N9R:>L8Q!I>998<+!8G>NL8!LM8!:L!HM:9V:9?!:9!mKLH8I! 5)!NGK!S:@@!R8!>S><8!F;!HM8!J<FG8LL!F;!IFY:9?!;<FI!8Y:Q89G8!HF!nNQ?O I89H)!>9Q!M8<!<8LN@H:9?!GF9eQ89G8!@8Y8@!S:@@!Q8J89Q!F9!HM8!GM><>GH8<! F;!HM:L!J<FG8LL+!pM>H!;F@@FSL!:L!F98!JFLL:R@8!IFQ8@!F;!HM8!;8>HN<8L!F;! GF9H<F@@8Q!GF?9:H:F9!HM>H!SFN@Q!9>HN<>@@K!@8>Q!HF!>!98?>H:Y8!>9LS8<!HF! HM8!cN8LH:F9!F;!SM8HM8<!LM8!V9FSL!HM8!LH<:9?89H!J<FJFL:H:F9+ tL!:9!HM8!>NHFI>H:G!G>L8)!S8!G>9!L88!M8<!>L!<8H<:8Y:9?!>!<8J<8L89O H>H:F9! F;! qR>I>! >L! W<8L:Q89H! ;<FI!I8IF<K+! U9! HM8! >NHFI>H:G! G>L8)! HM8!nNQ?I89H!HM>H!qR>I>!:L!W<8L:Q89H!SFN@Q!R8!I>Q8!>NHFI>H:G>@@K! SM89!HM:L!<8J<8L89H>H:F9!GFI8L!HF!I:9Q)!F9!HM8!LH<89?HM!F;!JM89FIO 89>@!;8>HN<8L!F;!HM8!<8J<8L89H>H:F9!_7FM9LF9)!P>LMH<FNQ:)!!:9QL>K! (\\f`!>9Q!I8H>GF?9:H:Y8!IF9:HF<:9?!F;!I8IF<K!J8<;F<I>9G8+!r:Y89! HM8!J<8LNI8Q!8aH89H!F;!NGKZL!<8@>H:Y8@K!<8G89H!8Y:Q89G8)!LM8!SFN@Q! 8aJ8<:89G8!?<8>H!~N89GK!F;!<8H<:8Y>@)!SM:GM!S:@@!:9!F<Q:9><K!@FSOLH>V8L! GF9H8aHL! LN|G8! HF! ?898<>H8! M:?M! GF9eQ89G8! _g8@@8K! (\\fl! mGMS><j! (\\k`+!U9!HM8!LKLH8I>H:G!G>L8)!HM8!LNRn8GH!S:@@!8aJ8<:89G8!?<8>H8<!L8@;O GF9LG:FNL98LL!>RFNH! HM8!F<:?:9!F;!M8<! nNQ?I89Hl!SM89!NGK! :L!SF9O Q8<:9?!_F<)!HF!L:IN@>H8)!SM89!S8!><8!SF9Q8<:9?`!SM8HM8<!:H!:L!9FH!HM8! G>L8! HM>H!qR>I>!M>L!Y8<K!<8G89H@K!Q:8Q)!8Y89!>!GF9Y:9G:9?@K!<8G89H! I8IF<K!F;!M:I!:9!HM>H!<F@8!S:@@!9FH!J<FQNG8!HM8!L>I8!GF9eQ89G8!:9! M:L!GF9H:9N8Q!8a:LH89G8+!pM89!S8!><8!HM:9V:9?!LKLH8I>H:G>@@K)!S8!><8! >S><8!9FH!F9@K!F;!HM8!J<FQNGH!F;!FN<!nNQ?I89H!_K8L)!qR>I>!:L!W<8L:O Q89H`!RNH!>@LF!F;! HM8!J<FG8LL)!SM8<8! HM8! <8@8Y>9H!J<FG8LL! :L! :9H8<8LHO :9?@K! Q:8<89H! ;<FI! HM8! J<FG8LL! N9Q8<J:99:9?! >NHFI>H:G! nNQ?I89H+! 5(+! ^M8! IFQ8@! J<8L89H8Q! M8<8! <8@:8L! F9! ><G:>! 7FM9LF9ZL! mFN<G8! F9:HF<:9?! <>I8SF<V)!F98!I>:9LH<8>I!>GGFN9H!F;!nNQ?I89Hl!FHM8<)!LFI8SM>H!L:I:@><! 8aJ@>9>H:F9L! F;! HM8! 9>HN<>@! LM:;H! :9! :9HN:H:F9L!I>K! R8! GF9LH<NGH8Q! :9! >! Y>O <:8HK!F;!FHM8<!JLKGMF@F?:G>@!IFQ8@L!F;! nNQ?I89H+! UH! :L!9FH!S:HM:9!HM8!LGFJ8! F;!HM8!J<8L89H!J:8G8!HF!Q8;89Q!7FM9LF9ZL!;<>I8SF<V!FY8<!:HL!<:Y>@L+!UH!LMFN@Q! >@LF!R8! LH<8LL8Q! HM>H! :9! >QQ:H:F9! HF! FN<!9>HN<>@! H89Q89GK! HF! R8GFI8!IF<8! L8@;OGF9LG:FNL!>RFNH!LFN<G8L!F;!:9;F<I>H:F9!SM89!S8!><8!HM:9V:9?!:9!>!GF9O H<F@@8Q!;>LM:F9)!GF9H<F@@8Q!GF?9:H:F9!I>K!R8!LNRn8GH!HF!;N<HM8<!J<8LLN<8L+!F<! 8a>IJ@8)!F98!I:?MH!GF9QNGH!>!GF9H<F@@8Q!>LL8LLI89H!F;!NGKZL!J<8Q:G>I89H! RK!Q8@:R8<>H8@K!GF9LN@H:9?!F98ZL!;>YF<8Q!8J:LH8IF@F?:G>@!HM8F<K+!NH!LNGM!>9! >LL8LLI89H)!SM8HM8<!98?>H:Y8!F<!JFL:H:Y8)!SFN@Q!9FH!F8<!:9Q8J89Q89H!GF9O e<I>H:F9!F;!HM>H!HM8F<K!F;!HM8!HKJ8!HKJ:G>@@K!LFN?MH!RK!HMFL8!SMFL8!8J:LH8IFO @F?:G>@!HM8F<:8L!><8!LF@Q!F9!HM8:<!G>J>G:HK!HF!LKLH8I>H:j8!:9HN:H:F9L+ F;!V9FS:9?!_G;+!rF@QI>9)!(\\f`+!r:Y89!HM>H!I8IF<K!;F<!GFIIF9J@>G8! JNR@:GOQFI>:9!;>GHL!:L!HKJ:G>@@K!H>V89!;F<!?<>9H8Q)!>9Q!?:Y89!FN<!FS9! >?<88I89H!S:HM! HM8! J<FJFL:H:F9! >RFNH! HM8! :Q89H:HK! F;! HM8! W<8L:Q89H)! HM8!M8N<:LH:G!8Y>@N>H:F9!F;!NGKZL!8J:LH8I:G!JFL:H:F9!S:@@!R8!JFL:H:Y8+ mFI8HM:9?!GM>9?8L!SM89!S8!>LV!FN<L8@Y8L!SM8HM8<!NGK!V9FSL! HM>H! :H! :L!9FH! HM8! G>L8! HM>H!qR>I>!M>L!Q:8Q! :9! HM8! @>LH!eY8!I:9NH8L+! U9!8Y>@N>H:9?!NGKZL!QFa>LH:G!>HH:HNQ8!HF!HM:L!98?>H8Q!J<FJFL:H:F9)!S8! 988Q!HF!<8J<8L89H!M8<!GF?9:H:F9!>L!GF9H<F@@8Q)!SM8HM8<!S8!QF!LF!RK! L:IN@>H:9?!M8<!HMFN?MH!>RFNH!HM>H!J<FJFL:H:F9!F<!RK!HM8F<:j:9?!>RFNH! MFS!LM8!SFN@Q!HM:9V!:;!LM8!S8<8!HF!>HH8IJH!HF!nNQ?8!HM>H!:H!:L!9FH!HM8! G>L8! HM>H!qR>I>!M>L!Q:8Q! :9! HM8! @>LH!eY8!I:9NH8L+! U;!S8!><8! L:INO @>H:9?)! HM8! LKLH8I>H:G! GM><>GH8<! F;! FN<! FS9! GF?9:H:F9!S:@@! 9>HN<>@@K! R8!J<Fn8GH8Q!F9HF!NGK! _rF@QI>9!566v`l! :;!S8!><8! HM8F<:j:9?)! HM89! :9! <8J<8L89H:9?!M8<! >L! >HH8IJH:9?! HF! <8>GM! HM8! HKJ8!F;! nNQ?I89H!F<O Q:9><:@K!LNJJF<H8Q!F9@K!RK!GF9H<F@@8Q!<8>LF9:9?)!S8!SFN@Q!9>HN<>@@K! >9Q!GM><:H>R@K!<8J<8L89H!M8<!<8>LF9:9?!>L!GF9H<F@@8Q!_rFJ9:V!!p8@@O I>9!(\\ò+! U9!8:HM8<!G>L8)!S8!988Q!HF!?898<>H8!LFI8!<8J<8L89H>H:F9! F;!NGKZL!8Y:Q89H:>@!JFL:H:F9!:9!F<Q8<!HF!L88!SM8HM8<!GF9H<F@@8Q!HM:9VO :9?!GFN@Q!>@@FS!M8<! HF!>QY>9G8! ;<FI!M8<!8Y:Q89G8! HF! HM:L!J><H:GN@><! (\+! U9! M:L! _566ò)! {F?8@! GF9n8GHN<8L! HM>H! HM8! J><>QFa:G>@! J>HH8<9! F;! :9HN:H:F9L! GFN@Q! R8! ?898<>H8Q! RK! >! LM:;H! :9! <8;8<89G8! G@>LL8L! R8HS889! HM8! 8Y>@N>H:F9! F;!HM8!@:V8@:MFFQ!F;!HM8!@>a!>9Q!HM8!LH<:9?89H!J<FJFL:H:F9+!U9!>!;FFH9FH8)!M8! I89H:F9L!HM8!JFLL:R:@:HK!HM>H!<8@>H:Y8!;<8cN89GK!I:?MH!R8!GFIJNH8Q!F9@K!;F<! HM8!LH<:9?89H!J<FJFL:H:F9L)!SM8<8!HM8!@>a!J<FJFL:H:F9L!><8!8Y>@N>H8Q!:9!LFI8! FHM8<!I>998<)!G:H:9?!r:?8<89j8<ZL!SF<V!F9!HM8!Q:8<89G8L!R8HS889!J<FR>R:O @:LH:G!>9Q!@FG>@!I89H>@!IFQ8@L+!U!HM:9V!HM:L!?898<>@!:Q8>!:L!F9!HM8!<:?MH!H<>GV)! >@HMFN?M! HM8! :9H89Q8Q!QFI>:9!F;! @FG>@!I89H>@!IFQ8@L! :L!9FH!S:Q8!89FN?M! HF!>GGFN9H!;F<!HM8!<>9?8!F;!nNQ?I89HL!:9!HM8!J><>QFa:G>@!J>HH8<9!F;!:9H8<8LH+! r:?8<89j8<!M:IL8@;!L88L!@FG>@!I89H>@!IFQ8@L!>L!M>Y:9?!F9@K!b@:I:H8Q!LNGG8LL! :9!?898<>@OV9FS@8Q?8!H>LVL!>9Q!:9!IFLH!9>HN<>@!89Y:<F9I89HLd!_r:?8<89j8<)! PF<>?8)!!g@8:9R@H:9?!(\\()!,6s`+ 56+!^M8<8!:L!>!@:Y8@K!GN<<89H!Q8R>H8!FY8<!SM8HM8<!FN<!9>HN<>@!bI:9Q<8>Q:9?d!>R:@:O H:8L!><8!R8HH8<!N9Q8<LHFFQ!:9!H8<IL!F;!L:IN@>H:F9!F<!HM8F<:j:9?)!>@HMFN?M!:H!:L! ;>:<!HF!L>K!HM>H!HM8<8!:L!>@LF!LFI8!<8G89H!GF9Y8<?89G8!R8HS889!HM8!HSF!L:Q8L)! S:HM!8@8I89HL!F;!L:IN@>H:F9!9FS!e?N<:9?!:9!JFL:H:F9L!F9!HM8!bHM8F<KOHM8F<Kd! L:Q8)!>9Q!Y:G8!Y8<L>+!F<!>!J<8L89H>H:F9!F;!HM8!I>nF<!JFL:H:F9L!:9!HM8!Q8R>H8)! >9Q!LFI8!8Y:Q89G8!F;!HM8!H<89Q!HFS><QL!GFIIF9!?<FN9Q)!L88!;F<!8a>IJ@8! _rF@QI>9!566v`+!F<!HM8!JN<JFL8L!F;!HM8!J<8L89H!J>J8<!U!S:@@!>HH8IJH!HF!LH>K! 98NH<>@!F9!HM8L8!J><H:GN@><!:LLN8L+ ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!(,!!z "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` nNQ?I89H!F;!8:HM8<!HKJ8!GFN9HL!>L!V9FS@8Q?8l!HM>H!:LLN8!<8I>:9L!>9! FJ89!cN8LH:F9!M8<8+ 8G>NL8!NGK!:9!M8<!GF9H<F@@8Q!IFQ8!F;!GF?9:H:F9!:L!J<8L89H8Q!>L! I>V:9?! M8<! nNQ?I89H! F9! HM8! R>L:L! F;! 8Y:Q89G8! HM>H! F9@K! <89Q8<L! :H! Y8<K!J<FR>R@8!HM>H!qR>I>!M>L!9FH!nNLH!Q:8Q!u!LM8!QF8L!9FH!M>Y8!FN<! rFQZLO8K8!J8<LJ8GH:Y8!F9!HM8!G>L8)! :9!SM:GM!M:L!GF9H:9N8Q!8a:LH89G8! :L!LH:JN@>H8Q)!F<!N9Q8<LHFFQ!HF!R8!LH:JN@>H8Q!u!LM8!:L!IFLH!GM><:H>R@K! <8J<8L89H8Q!>L!:9G@:98Q!HF!I>V8!HM8!?N><Q8Q!nNQ?I89H!HM>H!:H!:L!Y8<K! J<FR>R@8!HM>H!M8!:L!9FH!Q8>Q!<>HM8<!HM>9!HM8!G>H8?F<:G>@!nNQ?I89H!HM>H! M8!:L!9FH!Q8>Q+!UH!:L!JFLL:R@8!;F<!NL!HF!<8J<8L89H!M8<!I>V:9?!HM8!G>H8?F<O :G>@!nNQ?I89H!HM>H!qR>I>!:L!LH:@@!>@:Y8!8Y89!>L!LM8!<8~8GHL!F9!HM8!Q>H8Q! GM><>GH8<!F;!M8<!8Y:Q89G8!:9!HM8!GF9H<F@@8Q!IFQ8!F;!HMFN?MH+!PFS8Y8<)! :9!F<Q8<!HF!QF!LF!S8!SFN@Q!M>Y8!HF!L88!M8<!>L!89?>?:9?!:9!LFI8!;F<I! F;!R:>L8Q!GF?9:H:F9)!LNGM!>L!S:LM;N@! HM:9V:9?!_gN9Q>!(\\6`)!>!IFY8! HM>H!SFN@Q!L8<Y8!8cN>@@K!S8@@!HF!R@FGV!>!JFL:H:Y8!8Y>@N>H:F9!F;!NGKZL! nNQ?I89H!>L!I>9:;8LH:9?!V9FS@8Q?8!F;!HM:L!J<FJFL:H:F9+! 55+! U9Q88Q)! >L! <8>Q8<L! F;! HM8! G>L8)! F9G8! S8! <8GF?9:j8! HM8! LH:JN@>H:F9! >RFNH! qR>I>ZL!GF9H:9N8Q!8a:LH89G8!;F<!SM>H!:H!:L!u!>!LH:JN@>H:F9!>JJ@:G>R@8!HF!HM8! eGH:F9>@! LG89><:F!S8! ><8! >LL8LL:9?)! >9Q!9FH! >! ?N><>9H88! F;! <8>@OSF<@Q! FNHO GFI8!u!S8!I>K! FN<L8@Y8L! e9Q! :H! Q:|GN@H! L:IJ@K! HF! >GG8JH! HM8! G>H8?F<:G>@! J<FJFL:H:F9! >RFNH! qR>I>ZL! 9FH! M>Y:9?! Q:8Q)! >L! FJJFL8Q! HF! HM8! cN>@:e8Q! J<FJFL:H:F9!>RFNH!SM>H!:L!Y8<K!M:?M@K!J<FR>R@8+!gKRN<?ZL!F<:?:9>@!Y8<L:F9!F;! HM8! @FHH8<K! J><>QFa! GF9G8<98Q! <>H:F9>@! >GG8JH>9G8! <>HM8<! HM>9! V9FS@8Q?8T! HF!M>9Q@8!HM>H!Y8<L:F9!F;!HM8!J><>QFa!:H!M8@JL!HF!N9Q8<LH>9Q!SMK!:H!G>9!R8! Q:|GN@H!HF!>GM:8Y8!G>H8?F<:G>@!R8@:8;!:9!>!Y8<K!M:?MOJ<FR>R:@:HK!J<FJFL:H:F9!:9! >!GF9H<F@@8Q!IFQ8!F;!GF?9:H:F9+!^M>H!HM8<8!LMFN@Q!R8!LFI8!<F@8!;F<!>!JLKGMFO @F?:G>@!>GGFN9H!M8<8!:L!J8<M>JL!HF!R8!8aJ8GH8Q!?:Y89!HM>H!:H!M>L!R889!8LH>RO @:LM8Q!HM>H!HM8!J><>QFa!G>99FH!R8!LF@Y8Q!RK!>JJ8>@!HF!>9K!JN<8@K!@F?:G>@!F<! J<FR>R:@:LH:G!GM><>GH8<:LH:GL!F;!HM8!J<FJFL:H:F9L!:9YF@Y8Q!_hFNY89!!p:@@:>IO LF9! 566v`+! aH89Q:9?! HM8! QN>@OJ<FG8LL! LH<>H8?K! HF! HM8! <>H:F9>@! >GG8JH>9G8! Y8<L:F9!F;!HM8!J><>QFa!:L!MFS8Y8<!>!J<Fn8GH!;F<!>9FHM8<!FGG>L:F9+! 5f+!q98! F;! HM8! I>:9! HM8I8L! F;! _P>SHMF<98! 566ò! :L! HM>H! HM8! P><I>9O{F?8@! J><>QFa! :L! >9! 8IR><<>LLI89H! ;F<! <8@:>R:@:LI)! R8G>NL8! S8! ><8! <8@NGH>9H! HF! ?<>9H! V9FS@8Q?8!F;! LH<:9?89H!J<FJFL:H:F9L! 8Y89!SM89!>! nNQ?I89H!F;! LNGM! >!J<FJFL:H:F9!:L!Y8<K!@:V8@K!HF!R8!<:?MH+!U;!F98!:L!IF<8!@:V8@K!HF!R8!<:?MH!>RFNH! @FHH8<K!H:GV8H!@FLL!HM>9!>RFNH!LFI8!IN9Q>98!I>HH8<!nNQ?8Q!F9!HM8!R>L:L!F;! L89L8! J8<G8JH:F9)!P>SHMF<98! ><?N8L)! HM8! <8@:>R:@:LH!S:@@! 9FH! R8! >R@8! HF! 8aO J@>:9!SMK!nNQ?I89HL!F;!HM8!@>HH8<!HKJ8!G>9!GFI8!>G<FLL!>L!I>9:;8LH>H:F9L!F;! V9FS@8Q?8!SM89!nNQ?I89HL!F;!HM8!;F<I8<!HKJ8!QF!9FH+!PFS8Y8<)!HM:L!@:98!F;! G<:H:G:LI!>?>:9LH!<8@:>R:@:LI!:L!R@FGV8Q!:;!>9!>GGN<>GKOGFIJ<FI:L:9?!J<FG8LL! 9Q8<!LKLH8I>H:G!GF?9:H:F9)!I8IF<KOR>L8Q!nNQ?I89HL!><8!<8GF?9:j8Q! >L! R>L8Q!F9!J>LH! @8><9:9?)! >9Q!SM>H! :L! <8G>@@8Q! :L! Q>H8Q!S:HM!IF<8! J<8G:L:F9)!S:HM! HM8!>:Q!F;!GF9H<F@@8Q!J<FG8LL8L!LNGM!>L!Q8@:R8<>H8! <8O GF9LH<NGH:F9!F;!HM8!H8IJF<>@!GF9H8aH!F;!SM>H!:L!<8G>@@8Q!_bpM89!Q:Q!U! L88!M:I!@>LHd`!_7FM9LF9!(\\sl!7FM9LF9)!i>K8)!mGM>GH8<)!!mG><<K!5666l! 7FM9LF9!8H!>@+!(\\f`+!q9G8!R<FN?MH!:9HF!;FGNL!:9!HM:L!;>LM:F9)!HM8!J>LHO H89L8!GM><>GH8<!F;!SM>H!:L!<8G>@@8Q!:L!8Y:Q89H@K!J<FR@8I>H:G!>L!>!R>L:L! ;F<!<8LJF9Q:9?!HF!cN8LH:F9L!>RFNH!SM>H!M>L!M>JJ898Q!Y8<K!<8G89H@K+! ^M8!GF9LJ:GNFNL@K!J>LHOH89L8!GM><>GH8<!F;!GF9H<F@@8Q!I8IF<K!e?N<8L! :9!I>9K!:9LH>9G8L!F;!HM8!P><I>9O{F?8@!J>HH8<9!F;!:9HN:H:F9Ll!:9!FHM8<! :9LH>9G8L)! GFIJ><>R@8! ;8>HN<8L! F;! FHM8<! :9;F<I>H:F9! LFN<G8L! J@>K! >! J><>@@8@!<F@8+!F<!8a>IJ@8)!:9!h<8HLV8ZL!G>L8!F;!GFFV:8L!YL+!J>J:8<!IO GM!GFFV:8O<8J@:G>L)!SM>H!S8!>NHFI>H:G>@@K!nNQ?8!HF!R8!>!GFFV:8!F9!HM8! R>L:L!F;!Y:L:F9!G>99FH!R8!LF!nNQ?8Q!SM89!S8!LM:;H!:9HF!mKLH8I!5!>9Q! R8GFI8!GF9G8<98Q!S:HM!<N@:9?!FNH! HM8!JFLL:R:@:HK!F;!>!Y:LN>@@K! :9Q:LO H:9?N:LM>R@8!<8J@:G>+!pM>H!>NHFI>H:G!nNQ?I89H!GFN@Q!>GG8JH!N9GF9Q:O H:F9>@@K)!GF9H<F@@8Q!nNQ?I89H!G>9!>GG8JH!F9@K!LNRn8GH!HF!cN>@:eG>H:F9)! GF9LG:FNL!F;! G8<H>:9! @:I:H>H:F9L!F;! :HL! 8Y:Q89G8)!SM8<8! HM8! 8Y:Q89G8! >Y>:@>R@8! HF! GF9H<F@@8Q! nNQ?I89H! :L! 9FH! 98G8LL><:@K! HM8! L>I8! >L! HM8! 8Y:Q89G8!>Y>:@>R@8!HF!>NHFI>H:G!nNQ?I89H!_mGMS><j!(\\kl!566ò+! ^M:L!:L!9FH!HF!LN??8LH!HM>H!HM8!@8LL!?N><Q8Q)!>NHFI>H:G!nNQ?I89H!:L! 98G8LL><:@K!:9;8<:F<!HF!HM8!IF<8!<8L8<Y8Q)!GF9H<F@@8Q!nNQ?I89H+!U;!FN<! mKLH8I!(!nNQ?I89HL!?898<>@@K!M:H!HM8!I><V)!HM8K!I>K!S8@@!M>Y8!>!G@>:I! HF!GFN9H!>L!I>9:;8LH:9?!V9FS@8Q?8)!8Y89!HMFN?M!LFI8!F;!HM8!V8K!8J:LO H8I:G!Y:<HN8L!F;!HM8L8!nNQ?I89HL!u!;F<!8a>IJ@8)!HM8:<!8GF@F?:G>@!Y>@:QO :HK!F<!<8@:>R:@:HK!u!><8!9FH!?N><>9H88Q!HF!R8!e<LHOJ8<LF9!>GG8LL:R@8!HF! HM8!nNQ?:9?!LNRn8GH)!8:HM8<!>H!HM8!IFI89H!F;!M8N<:LH:G!nNQ?I89H!F<!>H!>! @>H8<!IFI89H!SM89!LM8!:L!<8~8GH:9?!F9!M8<!J>LH!nNQ?I89HL!>9Q!SF9O Q8<:9?!>RFNH!HM8:<!8J:LH8I:G!I8<:HL+!^M8!;>GH!HM>H!GF9H<F@@8Q!GF?9:H:F9! JNHL!>!J<8I:NI!F9!GF9L:Q8<>H:F9L!HM>H!GFN@Q!R8!8aJ@:G:H@K!G:H8Q!>L!<8>O LF9L!RK!HM8!nNQ?:9?!LNRn8GH!QF8L!9FH!98G8LL><:@K!?:Y8!:HL!Q8@:Y8<>9G8L!>! R8HH8<!G@>:I!HF!HM8!LH>HNL!F;!V9FS@8Q?8+!U9Q88Q)!HM8!;>GH!HM>H!>NHFI>H:G! >9Q! GF9H<F@@8Q! nNQ?I89H! FJ8<>H8! <>HM8<! Q:8<89H@K! QF8L! 9FH! 89H>:@! HM>H!HM8<8!:L!>9K!Q:8<89G8!:9!HM8!L8H!F;!;8>HN<8L!:9!Y:<HN8!F;!SM:GM!>! ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!(v!!z "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` NL!F9!HM8!cN8LH:F9!F;!H<:GV8<K+!^M8!;>GH!HM>H!HM8!8aF98<>H:9?!8Y:Q89G8! H>V8L!H:I8!HF!<8H<:8Y8!>9Q!J<FG8LL!:9!HM:L!G>L8!SFN@Q!8aJ@>:9!SMK!FN<! :9:H:>@!:IJ<8LL:F9!S>L!98?>H:Y8!>9Q!K8H!FN<!GF9L:Q8<8Q!nNQ?I89H!S>L! JFL:H:Y8)!>LLNI:9?!S8!><8!L>H:Le8Q!S:HM!{F?8@ZL!<8>LF9:9?!>RFNH!HM8! R>GV?<FN9Q!;>GHL+!^M8<8!><8!F;!GFN<L8!I>9K!FHM8<!S>KL!F;!NL:9?!GF9O H<F@@8Q! GF?9:H:F9! HF! FY8<<:Q8! :9:H:>@! 8J:LH8I:G! 8Y>@N>H:F9L)! :9G@NQ:9?! HM8!Q8@:R8<>H8!>JJ@:G>H:F9!F;!>9!8J:LH8IF@F?:G>@!HM8F<K+ p8!><8!9FS!:9!>!JFL:H:F9!HF!Q:LGNLL!HM8!HSF!@>a!J<FJFL:H:F9L!SM:GM! :9G@NQ8!>!98?>H:F9)!RFHM!F;!SM:GM!8I8<?8!>L!Y><:>H:F9L!F9!P><I>9ZL! F<:?:9>@!@FHH8<K!G>L8+!U9!h8iFL8ZL!Y8<L:F9!F;!HM8!@FHH8<K!G>L8)!KFN!e9Q! :H!M><Q!HF!L>K!HM>H!KFN!V9FS!HM>H!KFN<!F98O:9O56OI:@@:F9!H:GV8H!M>L!@FLH)! >9Q!K8H!8>LK!HF!L>K!HM>H!KFN!V9FS!KFN!S:@@!9FH!R8!>R@8!HF!J>K!R>GV!>! G8<H>:9! @F>9!RK!HM8!89Q!F;! HM8!K8><!_h8iFL8!(\\v`+!P>SHMF<98ZL!Y8<O L:F9!F;!HM8!G>L8!:L!L:I:@><!:9!LJ:<:H)!RNH!M:L!J<8L89H>H:F9!:L!IF<8!Q8H>:@8Q! >9Q!S:@@!HM8<8;F<8!L8<Y8!>L!>9!:9:H:>@!;FGNL!;F<!Q:LGNLL:F9T mNJJFL8!LFI8F98!F;!IFQ8LH!I8>9L!>99FN9G8L! HM>H!M8! V9FSL!M8!S:@@!9FH!M>Y8!89FN?M!IF98K!HF!?F!F9!>9!t;<:O G>9!L>;><:!HM:L!K8><+!p8!><8!:9G@:98Q!HF!H<8>H!LNGM!>!nNQ?O I89H! >L! H<N8)! 9FHS:HMLH>9Q:9?! Y><:FNL! ;><! ;8HGM8Q! JFLO L:R:@:H:8L!:9!SM:GM!HM>H!J8<LF9!LNQQ89@K!>GcN:<8L!>!?<8>H! Q8>@!F;!IF98K+!p8!><8!>H!LFI8!@8Y8@!>S><8!HM>H!J8FJ@8!F;! IFQ8LH!I8>9L!RNK!@FHH8<K!H:GV8HL!;<FI!H:I8!HF!H:I8)!>9Q! Y8<K!FGG>L:F9>@@K!S:9+!NH!Q8LJ:H8!>@@!HM:L)!I>9K!9F<I>@! J8FJ@8! F;!IFQ8LH!I8>9L!S:@@! R8!S:@@:9?)! N9Q8<! 9F<I>@! 5,+! t9!8J:LH8IF@F?:LH!S8@@! <8M8><L8Q! :9!>! G8<H>:9! HKJ8!F;! >9H:OLV8JH:G>@! HM8F<K! I>K!8Y89!<8>GM!>!JF:9H!>H!SM:GM!JFL:H:Y8!>LL8LLI89H!F;!G8<H>:9! ;<8cN89H@K! 89GFN9H8<8Q! LH<:9?89H!J<FJFL:H:F9L!R8GFI8L!>NHFI>H:GT! >H! LFI8!JF:9H! HM8! SF<QL!G@8Y8<@K!Q:L?N:L8Q!IN@8Z!I>K!>NHFI>H:G>@@K!?898<>H8!>!JFL:H:Y8!<>HM8<! HM>9!>!98?>H:Y8!<8LJF9L8!:9!>!LN:H>R@K!M>R:HN>H8Q!8J:LH8IF@F?:LH+!{><:>H:F9!F;! 8a>IJ@8L!:L!NL8;N@!:9!J><H!;F<!HM:L!<8>LF9+ 5v+!N<HM8<!G>L8L!><8!9FH!M><Q!HF!?898<>H8T!HF!H>V8!>9!8a>IJ@8!LN??8LH8Q!RK! >IO ><!r89Q@8<)!:H!L88IL!8>LK!HF!G<8Q:H!NGK!S:HM!HM8!V9FS@8Q?8!HM>H!:Q89!:L!9FH! HM8!W<8L:Q89H!_>L! @F9?!>L!SF<<:8L!>RFNH!<8G89H!M8><H!>HH>GVL!M>Y8!9FH!R889! <>:L8Q`+!^M>H!8a>IJ@8!SFN@Q!R8!M>9Q@8Q!:9!HM8!L>I8!I>998<!>L!P>SHMF<98ZL! L>;><:!G>L8!Q:LGNLL8Q!R8@FS+ ^M8!J><H:GN@><! HKJ8!F;! 8Y:Q89H:>@!JFL:H:F9! HM>H!NGK!89H8<L!N9Q8<! GF9H<F@@8Q! GF?9:H:F9! :L! :IJF<H>9H! :9! ?898<>H:9?! FN<! 98?>H:Y8! >LL8LLO I89HT!S8!M>Y8!9F!H<FNR@8!>JJ<8G:>H:9?!HM>H!>9!F<Q:9><K!LNRn8GH!SMF! 89?>?8L!:9!LFI8!G>@GN@>H:F9!G>9!V9FS!HM>H!of,!I:9NL!5ks!:L!(ok)!F<! HM>H!:H!:L!9FH!(f,+!p8!M>Y8!HF!HM:9V!LKLH8I>H:G>@@K!:9!HM8!GFN<L8!F;!LNGM! >9!8Y>@N>H:F9)!L>K)!RK!<N99:9?!HM<FN?M!HM8!GFIJNH>H:F9!FN<L8@Y8L!HF! GM8GV!HM8!H<NHM!F;!HM8!J<FJFL:H:F9!R8@:8Y8Q+!NH!M>Y:9?!QF98!LF)!S8!QF! 9FH!F<Q:9><:@K!M8L:H>H8!HF!>LG<:R8!V9FS@8Q?8!<>HM8<!HM>9!I8<8!R8@:8;! M8<8)!R8G>NL8!S8!G>9!<8J<8L89H!>9K!F<Q:9><K!>QN@H!>L!M>Y:9?!GFIJ>O <>R@8! LKLH8I>H:G!I8>9L! >H! M8<! Q:LJFL>@+! cN>@@K)!SM89!S8! H<K! HF! >LO L8LL!SM8HM8<!NGK!V9FSL!HM>H!:H!:L!9FH!HM8!G>L8!HM>H!qR>I>!:L!9FH!HM8! W<8L:Q89H!_SM8<8!:H!:L!LH:JN@>H8Q!HM>H!NGK!:L!>Q8JH!>H!@F?:G`)!mKLH8I!5! HMFN?MH! :L!G8<H>:9@K! <8cN:<8Q! HF!GFIJ<8M89Q! HM8!J<FR@8I)!RNH! :;!S8! J<FG88Q!RK!:I>?:9:9?!NGK!>L!e<LH!G>9G8@@:9?!HM8!QFNR@8!98?>H:F9)!S8! G>9! GF9Y8<H! HM:L!u!F<)! 8cN>@@K!S8@@)! L88!M8<! >L! GF9Y8<H:9?! :H!u!:9HF! >! mKLH8I!(!J<FR@8I+!p8!<8GF?9:j8!HM>H!NGK!GFN@Q!L88!HM:L!>L!8cN:Y>O @89H! HF!>LV:9?!SM8HM8<! HM8!W<8L:Q89H! :L!qR>I>)!>9Q! HM89! <8@>a! :9HF! mKLH8I!(!HF!>9LS8<!HM>H!8>L:8<!cN8LH:F9!>NHFI>H:G>@@K)!F9!HM8!R>L:L!F;! J<:F<!V9FS@8Q?8+!p8!QF!M>Y8!>!S8@@!QFGNI89H8Q! H89Q89GK! HF! <8@>a! :9HF!mKLH8I!(!SM898Y8<!JFLL:R@8!u!>!H89Q89GK!mH>9FY:GM!QNRL!biN@8! (!F;!HM8!F?9:H:Y8!:L8<d!u!>G<FLL!>!Y8<K!S:Q8!<>9?8!F;!Q:8<89H!GF9O H8aHL!_Y>9L!566vl!mH>9FY:GM!566\l! Ŷ8<LVK!!g>M98I>9!(\sò+! tH!@8>LH!:9!LFI8!G>L8L)!:H!:L!JFLL:R@8!;F<!NL!HF!<8Y8<L8!>9!F<:?:9>@@K! 98?>H:Y8! 8J:LH8I:G! 8Y>@N>H:F9! RK! HM:9V:9?! M><Q8<! >RFNH! ;N<HM8<! 8Y:O Q89G8!>Y>:@>R@8!HF!HM8!LNRn8GH!>9Q!<8>LF9:9?!HM<FN?M!HF!HM8!GF9G@NL:F9! HM>H!HM8!LNRn8GH!F;!HM8!G>L8!>GHN>@@K!SFN@Q!M>Y8!>Q8cN>H8!8Y:Q89G8!;F<! M:L!nNQ?I89H)!8Y89!:9!>!GF9H<F@@8Q!IFQ8!F;!GF?9:H:F9+!^M:L!@FFVL!@:V8! SM>H!M>JJ89L!:;!S8!;F@@FS!{F?8@ZL!<8>LF9:9?!F9!HM8!j8R<>!G>L8)!SM8<8! HM8!:II8Q:>H8@K!M:?M@:?MH8Q!Y:LN>@!:9;F<I>H:F9!S>L!:9LN|G:89H!HF!Q:LO G<:I:9>H8!>!j8R<>!;<FI!>!G@8Y8<@K!Q:L?N:L8Q!IN@8!RNH!;N<HM8<!:9;F<I>O H:F9!>RFNH!HM8!R>GV?<FN9Q!;>GHL!>RFNH!jFFL!S>L!LNJJFL8Q!HF!<8>LLN<8! :L!<8cN:<8Q!HF!8@8GH!HM8!G>H8?F<:G>@!nNQ?I89H!HM>H!HM8!H:GV8H!M>L!@FLH!FY8<!HM8! ?<>Q8Q!nNQ?I89H!HM>H!HM8!H:GV8H!S>L!M:?M@K!@:V8@K!HF!M>Y8!@FLH+! 5o+! ^M>9VL!HF!iFK!mF<89L89!M8<8+ ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!(s!!z "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` F<! >9>@KH:G+! 8G>NL8! Q:8<89H! Y8<L:F9L! F;! QN>@OJ<FG8LL! HM8F<K! M>Y8! LFI8SM>H!Q:8<89H!>GGFN9HL!F;!HM8!:9H8?<>H:F9!F;!HM8!HSF!LKLH8IL)!:H! SFN@Q!R8!Y8<K!Q:|GN@H!HF!LNJJ@K!>!?898<:G!QN>@OJ<FG8LL!LHF<K!>H!HM:L! JF:9H+!t!9NIR8<!F;!Q:8<89H!>GGFN9HL!I:?MH!R8!GF9LN@H8Q)!RNH!;F<!FN<! J<8L89H!JN<JFL8L!HM8!bL>H:LeG:9?d!IFQ8@!Q8Y8@FJ8Q!RK!7F9>HM>9!Y>9L! :L!J><H:GN@><@K!8>LK!>9Q!88GH:Y8+! tGGF<Q:9?!HF!Y>9L)!HM8!M8N<:LH:G!LKLH8I!RK!Q8;>N@H!?898<>H8L!>!L:9O ?@8!IFQ8@!F;!HM8!bIFLH!J<FR>R@8!F<!R8@:8Y>R@8!LH>H8!F;!>>:<Ld)!SMFL8! >9>@KH:G!8Y>@N>H:F9!:L!GF9LH<>:98Q!RK!>!L>H:LeG:9?!J<:9G:J@8)!b>!;N9Q>O I89H>@!R:>L!:9!HM8!>9>@KH:G!LKLH8I!HF!SF<V!S:HM!HM8!<8J<8L89H>H:F9!:H! M>L!N9@8LL!HM8<8!:L!?FFQ!<8>LF9!HF!?:Y8!:H!NJd!_Y>9L!566v)!fs\`+!q98! JFLL:R@8!IFH:Y>H:F9!HF!?:Y8!NJ!HM8!M8N<:LH:G>@@K!?898<>H8Q!<8J<8L89H>O H:F9!F;!SM>H!LFI8F98!S:HM!IFQ8LH!I8>9L!G>9!>F<Q!SFN@Q!R8!HM8!<8GO F?9:H:F9!HM>H!FN<!>9LS8<!HF!HM8!L>;><:O>F<Q>R:@:HK!cN8LH:F9!:L!:9GF9O L:LH89H!S:HM!FN<!>9LS8<!HF!HM8!;>:<O@FHH8<KO@FLL!cN8LH:F9+!9H:@!S8!M:H! LNGM!>!J<FR@8I)!MFS8Y8<)!:H!S:@@!R8!9>HN<>@!;F<!NL!HF!I>V8!nNQ?I89HL! F9!HM8!R>L:L!F;!FN<!L:IJ@:e8Q!I89H>@!IFQ8@+ Y89!:;!S8!><8)!>H!LFI8!@8Y8@)!>S><8!HM>H!>!9F<I>@!J8<LF9ZL!>R:@:HK! HF!>F<Q!LFI8HM:9?!:9!HM8!98aH!K8><!:L!>!;N9GH:F9!F;!I>9K!;>GHF<L)!HM8! >Y>:@>R:@:HK!F;!>!LH8<8FHKJ8!F;!SM>H!HM8!bJ8<LF9!F;!IFQ8LH!I8>9Ld!G>9! IFLH! @:V8@K! >F<Q! @8HL! NL! <8>GM! >9! :9HN:H:Y8@K! GFIJ8@@:9?! >9LS8<! HF! HM8!cN8LH:F9!F;!SM>H!LNGM!>!J8<LF9!G>9!>F<Q)!S:HMFNH!?F:9?!HM<FN?M! HM8!RN<Q89LFI8!8a8<G:L8!F;!e?N<:9?!FNH!SM>H!>@@!HMFL8!;>GHF<L!><8!>9Q! GFIJFN9Q:9?! HM8:<! J<FR>R:@:H:8L! >9Q! J>KFL+! r:Y89! >JJ<FJ<:>H8! :9O ;F<I>H:F9! >9Q! >Q8cN>H8! :9G89H:Y8L!S8!I:?MH! GF9LH<NGH! >!IF<8!e98O ?<>:98Q!IFQ8@!F<!L8H!F;!IFQ8@L!F;!SM>H! HM8!LNRn8GH!GFN@Q!>F<Q!N9O Q8<!Y><:FNL!G:<GNILH>9G8Ll!?:Y89!Q:8<89H!IFH:Y>H:F9L!u!;F<!8a>IJ@8)! J<8LLN<8!HFS><QL!:II8Q:>H8!>GH:F9!u!S8!SFN@Q!R8!INGM!@8LL!@:V8@K! 5k+!Y>9LZL!>9>@KL:L!>JJ@:8L!8cN>@@K! HF!h8iFL8ZL!98?>H8Q! @>a!J<FJFL:H:F9T! :;!S8! M>Y8! >! M8N<:LH:G>@@K! ?898<>H8Q! <8J<8L89H>H:F9! F;! FN<! >9H:G:J>H8Q! LJ89Q:9?! JFS8<!;F<!HM8!K8><)!S8!G>9!H>V8!:H!>L!>9!N9cN8LH:F98Q!:9JNH!HF!FN<!IF<8!LKLO H8I>H:G!G>@GN@>H:F9L!GF9G8<9:9?!FN<!G>J>G:HK!HF!<8J>K!HM8!@F>9)!>H!@8>LH!N9H:@! IFH:Y>H8Q!HF!<8GF9L:Q8<+ 5\+!F9H<F@@8Q! J<FG8LL:9?! H>V8L! H:I8l! SM89! F98! ;>G8L! :II8Q:>H8! J<8LLN<8! HF! >GH)!HM8<8!:L!>!?<8>H8<!H89Q89GK!HF!nNQ?8!F9!HM8!R>L:L!F;!M8N<:LH:G!:IJ<8LL:F9L+! G:<GNILH>9G8L)!HF!nNQ?8!HM>H!HM8K!V9FS!HM>H!HM8K!S:@@!9FH! M>Y8!89FN?M!IF98K!HF!?F!F9!>9!t;<:G>9!L>;><:!:9!HM8!98><! ;NHN<8+![P>SHMF<98!566o)!(z5]! q98!I:?MH!>HH8IJH!HF!GFI8!NJ!S:HM!>!IFQ8@!F;!nNQ?I89H!:9!SM:GM!9F! GF9H<F@@8Q!J<FG8LL:9?!:L!<8cN:<8Q!HF!>GG8JH!HM>H!HM:L!9>I8@8LL!bLFI8O F98!F;!IFQ8LH!I8>9Ld!S:@@!9FH!M>Y8!89FN?M!IF98K!HF!?F!F9!>9!t;<:O G>9!L>;><:!HM:L!K8><+!tL!>!LH><H:9?!JF:9H)!F98!GFN@Q!9FH8!HM>H!HM8!GF9G8JH! IFQ8LH!I8>9LZ!:9G@NQ8L!>9!NJJ8<!RFN9QT!J><H!F;!SM>H!:H!:L!HF!R8!>!I>9! F;!IFQ8LH!I8>9L! :L! HF!R8!N9>R@8! HF! >F<Q! LNGM! @NaN<:8L! >L! 8aH<>Y>O ?>9H!H<:JL+!U;!HM8!>LG<:JH:F9!:L!I>Q8!L:IJ@K!RK!>GH:Y>H:9?!HM8!bIFQ8LH! I8>9Ld!LH8<8FHKJ8!F<!GF9G8JH!_SM:GM!:9G@NQ8L!JFL:H:Y8!>9Q!98?>H:Y8! 8@8I89HL`!>9Q!>LL8LL:9?!:HL!eH!S:HM!HM8!98?>H:Y8!J<8Q:G>H8Q!G>H8?F<K! _N9>R@8!HF!>F<Q!>9!t;<:G>9!L>;><:!:9!HM8!98><!;NHN<8Z`)!HM89!F98!I:?MH! HM:9V! :H! :L!JFLL:R@8! HF!8a8GNH8! HM:L!>LG<:JH:F9! ;N@@K!>NHFI>H:G>@@K+!F<! 8a>IJ@8)!h8NHLGM)!r>S<F9LV:!>9Q!mH<>GV!M>Y8!><?N8Q!HM>H!>@HMFN?M! J<FJFL:H:F9>@!98?>H:F9!F<Q:9><:@K!<8cN:<8L!SF<V:9?!I8IF<K)!:9!G>L8L! SM8<8! 98?>H:F9! :L! >@<8>QK! :9G@NQ8Q! :9! HM8! >LLFG:>H:Y8! R>??>?8! F;! >! H8<I)! b8Y>@N>H:9?!98?>H8Q! 8aJ<8LL:F9L! G>9!R8!Q<:Y89!RK!I8IF<K! <8O H<:8Y>@!:9LH8>Q!F;!HM8!>JJ@:G>H:F9!F;!HM8!J<FG8QN<8!HF!98?>H8d!_h8NHLGM)! r>S<F9LV:)!!mH<>GV!566v)!f\f`+ t!IF<8!GFIJ@8a)!>@HMFN?M!J<FR>R@K!8IJ:<:G>@@K!R8HH8<!?<FN9Q8Q) 8aJ@>9>H:F9!F;! HM8! @>a:HK!F;! HM8! L>;><:! >LG<:JH:F9!SFN@Q! GM><>GH8<:j8! FN<!HM:9V:9?!>RFNH!LNGM!I>HH8<L!>L!F<Q:9><:@K!:9YF@Y:9?!>!I:aHN<8!F;! mKLH8I!(!>9Q!mKLH8I!5!GF?9:H:F9+!F<!8a>IJ@8)!S8!GFN@Q!M8N<:LH:G>@@K! ?898<>H8! >! <8J<8L89H>H:F9! F;!SM>H! >! LH8<8FHKJ:G>@! J8<LF9! F;!IFQ8LH! I8>9L!G>9!F<Q:9><:@K!>F<Q)!>9Q! HM89! nNQ?8! HM>H! HM8!L>;><:!Y>G>H:F9! S:@@!8aG88Q!HM>H!<>9?8)!SM8<8!F9@K!HM:L!L8GF9Q!FJ8<>H:F9!:L!GF9H<F@@8Q! 5s+! t@HMFN?M!:H!SFN@Q!K:8@Q!>!S>K!F;!GM><>GH8<:j:9?!HM:L!@>a!nNQ?I89H!>L!JN<8@K! M8N<:LH:G)!:H!I>K!R8!>!LH<8HGM!HF!>JJ@K!HM8!h8NHLGM!HM8F<K!F;!>NHFI>H8Q!98?>O H:F9!:9!HM:L!G>L8+!h8NHLGMZL!SF<V!;FGNL8Q!F9!;F<IN@>:G!8aJ<8LL:F9L! @:V8! 9F! S>KZ)!>9Q!HM8!J<FR@8I>H:G!J<FJFL:H:F9!:9!P>SHMF<98ZL!8a>IJ@8!:9YF@Y8L!G@8><! L89H89H:>@! 98?>H:F9+! UH! <8I>:9L! >9! :9H8<8LH:9?! 8IJ:<:G>@! cN8LH:F9! MFS! ;><! h8NHLGMZL!HM8F<K!G>9!R8!8aH89Q8Q)!>9Q!SM8HM8<!:H!I:?MH!GFY8<!G>L8L!LNGM!>L! HM:L!F98+ ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!(k!!z "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` <FS!M>L!>!G8<H>:9!9>HN<>@!LH<89?HMl!MFS8Y8<)!S:HM!LN|G:89H!GF?9:H:Y8! 8F<H!:H!:L!JFLL:R@8!HF!<8>LF9!HM<FN?M!HF!HM8!GF9H<><K!LKLH8I>H:G!nNQ?O I89H!HM>H!:H!:L!nNLH!Y8<K!M:?M@K!N9@:V8@K!HM>H!F98!S:@@!89nFK!f6!GF9L8GNO H:Y8!@FHH8<K!S:9L+! 4: The implications for closure q98!R898eH!F;!HM8!QN>@OJ<FG8LL!>9>@KL:L!:L!HM>H!:H!G>9!8aJ@>:9!SMK!HM8! P><I>9O{F?8@!J>HH8<9!F;!:9HN:H:F9L!QF8L!9FH!<8>@@K!JFL8!>!HM<8>H!HF!HM8! J<:9G:J@8!F;!G@FLN<8+!tLLNI:9?!HM>H! HM8!>NHFI>H:G! nNQ?I89H!F;!>! @>a! J<FJFL:H:F9! :L! LN|G:89H! ;F<! V9FS@8Q?8! _HM8!JFLL:R:@:HK! HM>H! :H! :L!9FH! S:@@!R8!Q:LGNLL8Q!:9!HM8!98aH!L8GH:F9`)!F98!I:?MH!SF9Q8<!SMK!>!?:Y89! LNRn8GH!G>99FH!L:IJ@K!Q8QNG8!HM8!LH<:9?89H!J<FJFL:H:F9!;<FI!HM8!@>a! F98!F9! HM8! LH<89?HM!F;! HM8! <8GF?9:j8Q! <8@>H:F9!F;! 89H>:@I89H+!pM>H! M>JJ89L!:L!HM>H!HF!>HH8IJH!HF!8a8GNH8!HM8!Q8QNGH:F9!u!>!J><>Q:?I>H:G! GF9H<F@@8Q!J<FG8LL!u!S8!INLH!LS:HGM!:9HF!mKLH8I!5)!SM8<8!S8!Q:LGFY8<! FRLH>G@8L! HF!8IR<>G:9?! HM8! LH<:9?89H! nNQ?I89H+!^M89)! :9LF;><!>L!S8! GF9H:9N8!HF!<8GF?9:j8!HM8!<8@>H:F9!F;!89H>:@I89H!R8HS889!HM8!@>a!>9Q! HM8!LH<:9?89H!J<FJFL:H:F9)!>9Q!GF9H:9N8!:9!>!GF9H<F@@8Q!IFQ8!F;!GF?O 9:H:F9)!S8!S:@@! >@LF!R8!N9>R@8! HF!I>V8! HM>H!J><H:GN@><! @>a! nNQ?I89H+! pM:@8! U! >I!QS8@@:9?!F9!IK! :9>R:@:HK! HF! <N@8!FNH! HM8!JFLL:R:@:HK! HM>H! IK!G><!M>L!R889!LHF@89)!>9Q!89?>?:9?!:9!GF9H<F@@8Q!GF?9:H:F9!F9!HM8! cN8LH:F9!F;!:HL!SM8<8>RFNHL)!U!G>9!9F!@F9?8<!>NHFI>H:G>@@K!nNQ?8!:H!HF! R8!J><V8Q!F9!tY89N8!t!:9!HM8!I>998<!HM>H!I:?MH!8><@:8<!M>Y8!I>9:O ;8LH8Q!V9FS@8Q?8+!cN>@@K)!:;!HM:9V:9?!>RFNH!@FHH8<K!S:9L!M>L!JNLM8Q! I8!HF!GF9LH<NGH!>!IF<8!Q8H>:@8Q!L8H!F;!IFQ8@L!HF!GFY8<!SM>H!>!J8<LF9! F;!IFQ8LH!I8>9L! G>9! >F<Q)! HM89! U! G>9!9F! @F9?8<!I>V8!IK! L:IJ@8)! L:9?@8OIFQ8@!nNQ?I89H!HM>H!HM:L!J8<LF9!S:@@!R8!N9>R@8!HF!>F<Q!>!L>O ;><:!H<:J+ UH!:L!H<N8!HM>H)!M>Y:9?!LM:;H8Q!:9HF!HM8!GF9H<F@@8Q!IFQ8!F;!GF?9:H:F9)! U!I>K!R8!>R@8!HF!<8G>@@!HM8!;>GH!HM>H!U!:9:H:>@@K!nNQ?8Q!HM>H!IK!G><!S>L! F9!tY89N8!t!R8;F<8! U! LH><H8Q! HF!SF<<K!>RFNH! HM8!JFLL:R:@:HK!F;!>NHF! HM8;H+!UH!SFN@Q!R8!N9J<FR@8I>H:G!;F<!I8!HF!NL8!HM:L!J<:F<!nNQ?I89H!>L! HM8!LH><H:9?!JF:9H!F;!IK!Q8QNGH:F9!:;!U!GFN@Q!V9FS!9FS!HM>H!IK!8><@:8<! HF! FY8<HN<9! FN<! :9:H:>@! M8N<:LH:G! :IJ<8LL:F9! _g<N?@>9LV:! !p8RLH8<! (\\v`+! ^M8! L>H:LeG:9?! IFQ8@! F;! GF?9:H:F9! S:@@! 9FH! 89>R@8! GFIJ><>R@8! LMF<HGNHL!F9!HM8!J<FR@8I!F;!@FLL!:9!>!;>:<!@FHH8<K)!N9@8LL!HM>H!J<FLJ8GH!:L! <8J<8L89H8Q!:9!>!S>K!SM:GM!FJ89L!HM8!QFF<!HF!M8N<:LH:G!GF?9:H:F9+!q9! HM>H!;<F9H:8<)!P>SHMF<98!9FH8L!HM8!;F@@FS:9?T UH!:L!<8@>H:Y8@K!8>LK!HF!?8H!FN<L8@Y8L!:9!HM8!;<>I8!F;!I:9Q! SM8<8!S8!<8GVF9!FN<L8@Y8L!HF!V9FS!HM>H!S8!S:@@!9FH!S:9! HM8!=8S!}F<V!mH>H8! @FHH8<K!8>GM!F;! HM8!98aH! HM:<HK!K8><L! _8Y89! :;! S8! 8aJ8GH! HF! RNK! >! H:GV8H! 8>GM! K8><`+! 7NLH! >LV! J8FJ@8+!^M8K!S:@@!M>JJ:@K!G@>:I!HF!V9FS!HM>H!that S:@@!9FH! M>JJ89+![566o)!56] 8>9SM:@8)!P>SHMF<98!FRL8<Y8L)!:;!RK!bNL:9?!9F<I>@!LH>H:LH:G>@!I8HMO FQLd!S8!GFIJNH8!HM8!FQQL!F;!S:99:9?!HM:<HK!LNGM!@FHH8<:8L!HF!R8!(9)! b[S]8!I:?MH!JF:9H!FNH!HF!LFI8F98!HM>H!:;!M8!M>Q!>!H:GV8H!:9!F98!?<8>H! R:?!@FHH8<K!S:HM!n!H:GV8HL)!M8!SFN@Q!9FH!<8GVF9!M:IL8@;!>R@8!HF!V9FS! HM>H!M8!SFN@Q!@FL8!:9!that G>L8+!U9HN:H:F9L!SFN@Q!HM89!LS:HGMd!_ibid.`+! ^M8!LS:HGM!:9!:9HN:H:F9L!M8<8!LN??8LHL!HM>H!FN<!F<Q:9><K!>LL8LLI89HL! F;!GFIJFN9Q!FNHGFI8L!QF!9FH!>@S>KL!<8~8GH!b9F<I>@!LH>H:LH:G>@!I8HMO FQLdT!:9!GF9H8IJ@>H:9?!HM8!QK9>I:G!LG89><:F!F;!GF9L:LH89H@K!S:99:9?! F98! <>9QFI! @FHH8<K! >;H8<! >9FHM8<)! S8! G:<GNIY89H! HM8!I>HM8I>H:G>@! SF<V! F;! <8J<8L89H:9?! HM8! GFIJFN9Q8Q! J<FR>R:@:H:8L! >9Q! nNQ?8! HM8! J<FR@8I!:9!LFI8!FHM8<!;>LM:F9+!q98!<8@8Y>9H!M8N<:LH:G!J<FG8LL!SFN@Q! :9YF@Y8!J<FR>R:@:LH:G>@@K!:9>GGN<>H8!RNH!JLKGMF@F?:G>@@K!8>LK!M8N<:LH:G! IFQ8@L!F;!<>9QFI98LL)!SM:GM!8aG@NQ8!FRY:FNL!<8?N@><:H:8L)!I>V:9?!:H! L88I)!;F<!8a>IJ@8)!HM>H!HM8!GF:9!HFLL!L8cN89G8!0000BBBB!:L!INGM!@8LL! J<FR>R@8!HM>9!B000B0BB!_g>M98I>9!! Y8<LVK!(\s5`+! M>9VL!HF!HM8L8! IFQ8@L)!HM8!nNQ?I89H!HM>H!F98!L:IJ@K!G>99FH!S:9!f6!;>:<!@FHH8<:8L!:9!>! t<?N>R@K)! HM8! GF998GH:F9! R8HS889! >GH:F9! >9Q! M8N<:LH:G! HMFN?MH! 8aJ@>:9L! LFI8! F;! HM8! GF<<8@>H:F9L! R8HS889! J<>GH:G>@! G:<GNILH>9G8L! >9Q! V9FS@8Q?8! >LG<:JH:F9!9FH8Q!RK!P>SHMF<98!:9!M:L!_566ò+!F<!Q8H>:@8Q!G<:H:G:LI!F;!LNGM! G@>:IL!F9!HM8!<8@>H:F9!R8HS889!V9FS@8Q?8!>9Q!>GH:F9!L88!_hFNY89!566k`+ ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!(\!!z "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` V9FS@8Q?8!F;!>!J<FJFL:H:F9!:9!F<Q8<!HF!8a8GNH8!>!GFIJ8H89H!Q8QNGH:F9! :9!SM:GM!:H!e?N<8L!>L!>!J<8I:L8T!R8G>NL8!>!Q8QNGH:F9!:9YF@Y8L!>!L8<:8L! F;!8aJ@:G:H!nNQ?I89HL)!F98!988QL!HF!R8!>R@8!HF!nNQ?8!HM>H!W!:9!F<Q8<!HF! NL8!W!>L!>!J<8I:L8!:9!>!Q8QNGH:F9+ p8!><8! ;>I:@:><!S:HM! HM8! :Q8>! HM>H! HM8! <>9?8!F;!J<FJFL:H:F9L!F98! G>9!<>H:F9>@@K!8IR<>G8!G>9!LM:;H!>L!F98!GFI8L!HF!@8><9!98S!;>GHL!>RFNH! HM8!SF<@Q+!pM>H! HM8!QN>@OJ<FG8LL! >GGFN9H! >QQL! :L! HM>H! HM8! <>9?8!F;! J<FJFL:H:F9L!F98!G>9!<>H:F9>@@K!8IR<>G8!:9!8aJ@:G:H!nNQ?I89H!G>9!>@LF! LM:;H!>L!S8!IFY8! ;<FI!F98!GF?9:H:Y8!IFQ8!HF!>9FHM8<)! ;<FI!mKLH8I! (! HF! mKLH8I!5+! mFI8!J<FJFL:H:F9L!u!;F<! 8a>IJ@8)! HM>H! \a((\\!u!G>9! R8!I>Q8! :9! 8:HM8<! GF?9:H:Y8!IFQ8l! FHM8<L! G>9! R8! L>;8@K!I>Q8! F9@K! :9!F98!IFQ8!F<!HM8!FHM8<+!^M8!cN8LH:F9!F;!SM8HM8<!NGKZL!nNQ?I89H! HM>H!qR>I>!:L!W<8L:Q89H!I>9:;8LHL!V9FS@8Q?8!S:@@!Q8J89Q!:9!J><H!F9! SM8HM8<!LM8! :L!J<8L89H@K! HM:9V:9?!>RFNH! HM>H!J<FJFL:H:F9! :9!>9!>NHFO I>H:G!F<!GF9H<F@@8Q!I>998<+!^M>H!LM8!GFN@Q!>H!LFI8!JF:9H!I>V8!HM8! >NHFI>H:G!nNQ?I89H!L>;8@K!>9Q!S:HMFNH!R:>L!QF8L!9FH!89H>:@!HM>H!LM8! GFN@Q!I>V8!HM8!GF9H<F@@8Q!nNQ?I89H!N9J<FR@8I>H:G>@@KT!F9G8!LM8!M>L! <8LJF9Q8Q!HF!SF<<:8L!>RFNH!<8G89H!G><Q:>G!><<8LH!RK!;FGNL:9?!F9!HM8! H8IJF<>@! ;8>HN<8L! F;! M8<!I8IF<:>@! 8Y:Q89G8)! LM8! G>9!F9@K! 8@8GH! HM8! G>H8?F<:G>@!nNQ?I89H!FY8<!HM8!?<>Q8Q!F98!RK!;F<G8!F;!S:LM;N@!HM:9V:9?! F<!LFI8!GFIJ><>R@K!R:>L8Q!J<FG8LL+!cN>@@K)!>L!@F9?!>L!U!>I!HM:9V:9?! >RFNH!@FHH8<K!S:9L!F<!H<>|G!>GG:Q89HL)!G8<H>:9!8aJ@:G:H!nNQ?I89HL!S:@@! R8!FNH!F;!<8>GM!;F<!I8T!?:Y89!IK!8Y:Q89G8!:9!HM8!GF9H<F@@8Q!IFQ8!F;! GF?9:H:F9)!U!LMFN@Q!>H!IFLH!nNQ?8!:H!HF!R8!Y8<K!J<FR>R@8!HM>H!U!>I!I88HO :9?!IK!;<:89Q!;F<!@N9GM!HFIF<<FS!F<!H8>GM:9?!8J:LH8IF@F?K!:9!HM8!;>@@+ ^M:L!9FH:F9!HM>H!>!L:9?@8!J<FJFL:H:F9!I:?MH!I>9:;8LH!V9FS@8Q?8!:;! nNQ?8Q!:9!F98!I>998<!RNH!9FH!:9!>9FHM8<!Q>H8L!R>GV!>H!@8>LH!HF!:<HMZL! Q:LH:9GH:F9! R8HS889! J<FJFL:H:F9>@! >9Q! QFa>LH:G! nNLH:eG>H:F9! _:<HM! (\sk`+!J:LH8IF@F?:LHL!N9>GGNLHFI8Q!HF!HM:9V:9?!:9!H8<IL!F;!QN>@OJ<FO G8LL!HM8F<K!I>K!S>9H!HF!GF9L:Q8<!G>L8L!:9YF@Y:9?!FHM8<!LF<HL!F;!GM>9?O 8L!:9!GF?9:H:F9+!F9L:Q8<!>!nN<K!I8IR8<!SMF!:L!:9>JJ<FJ<:>H8@K!8>?8<! HF!YFH8!;F<!GF9Y:GH:F9)!:9!>!G>L8!:9!SM:GM!HM8!J<FL8GNH:F9!M>L!J<8L89HO 8Q!8aG8@@89H!JMKL:G>@!8Y:Q89G8!>9Q!<>HM8<!S8>V!H8LH:IF9:>@!8Y:Q89G8! F;!HM8!Q8;89Q>9HZL!?N:@H+!U;!HM:L!nN<F<!GMFFL8L!HF!<8~8GH!F9!HM8!JMKL:G>@! nNQ?I89H!GF9LH:HNH8Q!V9FS@8Q?8l!MFS8Y8<)!V9FS:9?!HM>H!W!QF8L!9FH! :9!?898<>@!?N><>9H88!HM>H!F98!:L!JFL:H:F98Q!HF!V9FS!HM>H!F98!V9FSL! HM>H!W!_p:@@:>ILF9!5666`+!U9!J><H:GN@><)!HM8!<8>LF9L!SMK!HM8!>NHFI>H:G! nNQ?I89HL!:9!HM8!J>HH8<9!I>9:;8LH!V9FS@8Q?8!SFN@Q!9FH!R8!J<8Q:GH8Q! HF!R8!>GG8LL:R@8!HF!HM8!LNRn8GH!SMF!:L!89?>?8Q!:9!GF9H<F@@8Q!GF?9:H:F9! >RFNH!HM8!J<FJFL:H:F9L!F9!HM8!LH<:9?89H!L:Q8!F;!HM8!J>HH8<9)!;F<!<8>LF9L! Q:LGNLL8Q!:9!HM8!@>LH!L8GH:F9+!8>9SM:@8)! HM8!LM:;H! ;<FI!nNQ?:9?!HM>H! W!HF!e9Q:9?!F98L8@;!N9>R@8!HF!nNQ?8!HM>H!W!GFN@Q!9>HN<>@@K!R8!;8@H!>L!>! @FLL!F;!V9FS@8Q?8)!J8<M>JL!:9!J><H!R8G>NL8!S8!G>9!R8!N9>S><8!HM>H!S8! M>Y8!LM:;H8Q!;<FI!F98!GF?9:H:Y8!IFQ8!HF!>9FHM8<!_><K!!i8Q8<!5665`+! U;!S8!><8!>GGNLHFI8Q!HF!LS:HGM:9?!;<FI!>GG8JH:9?!HF!S:HMMF@Q:9?!F9! >! J<FJFL:H:F9! F9@K!SM89!S8! 89GFN9H8<! 98S! :9;F<I>H:F9! >RFNH! HM8! SF<@Q)! HM8! ;>GH! HM>H!S8!e9Q!FN<L8@Y8L!I>V:9?!LNGM!>!LS:HGM!HF!S:HMO MF@Q:9?! NJF9! 89GFN9H8<:9?! HM8! LH<:9?89H! J<FJFL:H:F9! GFN@Q! <8>Q:@K! ?:Y8!NL!HM8!L89L8!HM>H!S8!M>Y8!GFI8!HF!V9FS!@8LL+ FL:9?!F98ZL! G>J>G:HK! HF! nNQ?8! HM>H!W!QF8L!9FH!98G8LL><:@K! 89H>:@! @FL:9?!F98ZL!V9FS@8Q?8!HM>H!WT!:H!I:?MH!LH:@@!R8!H<N8!F;!I8!HM>H!U!V9FS! HM>H!IK!G><!:L!F9!tY89N8!t!8Y89!:;!U!>I!J<8L89H@K!N9>R@8!HF!GF9Y8<H! HM:L!V9FS@8Q?8!:9HF!8aJ@:G:H!nNQ?I89H+!NH!:H!:L!9FH!89FN?M!HF!M>Y8! f6+!^M>9VL! HF! 7F9>HM>9!p8:LR8<?! ;F<!Q:LGNLL:F9!F;! HM:L!JF:9H+!=FH8! HM>H! HM:L! :L! >!<8LH<:GH8Q!8<<F<!HM8F<K)!>JJ@K:9?!F9@K!HF!HM8!L89L8!F;!V9FS@8Q?8!@FLL!HM>H! I>K!>JJ8><!SM89!S8!>HH8IJH!HF!Q8QNG8!HM8!LH<:9?89H!J<FJFL:H:F9!;<FI!HM8! @>a!F98+!q9!HM8!QN>@!J<FG8LL!>GGFN9H)!HM8<8!:L!9F!I:LH>V8!:9!HM8!:9:H:>@!GF<8! :9HN:H:F9L!F;!HM8!J><>QFa!u!HM>H!F98!V9FSL!HM8!@>a!J<FJFL:H:F9!>9Q!QF8L!9FH! V9FS!HM8!LH<:9?89H!F98+ f(+! F<!HM:L!FRL8<Y>H:F9)!>9Q!;F<!HM8!?898<>@!Q:<8GH:F9!F;!HM:L!L8GH:F9!F;!HM8!J>J8<)! U!>I!:9Q8RH8Q!HF!^:I!p:@@:>ILF9+!t@H8<9>H:Y8@K)!F98!I:?MH!>HH8IJH!HF!><?N8! HM>H!HM8!LM:;H!:9HF!mKLH8I!5!does!Q8LH<FK!F98ZL!V9FS@8Q?8!F;!HM8!@>a!J<FJFL:O H:F9)!:;!F9@K!H8IJF<><:@K+!q9!LNGM!>!Y:8S)!G@FLN<8!:L!LH:@@!J<8L8<Y8Q)!>@HMFN?M!:H! I>K!R8GFI8!>9!>SVS><Q!I>HH8<!HF!L>K!SM8HM8<!LFI8F98!V9FSL!>!J<FJFL:O H:F9!HM>H!LM8!:L!9FH!FGGN<<89H@K!nNQ?:9?!:9!8:HM8<!GF?9:H:Y8!IFQ8+! >V:9?!LNGM! >!Y:8S!I:?MH!FR@:?8!F98!HF!8IR<>G8!>!HM8F<K!F;!V9FS@8Q?8!F<!R8@:8;!LNGM!>L! =F<R8<H!mGMS><jZL!GF9LH<N>@! HM8F<K)!F9!SM:GM!FGGN<<89H! nNQ?I89H!F<!I>9:O ;8LH!V9FS@8Q?8!:L!JLKGMF@F?:G>@@K!<8>@!>9Q!Q:LJFL:H:F9>@!R8@:8;!F<!V9FS@8Q?8! :L!>!Q8<:Y>H:Y8!GF9LH<NGH!_mGMS><j!566s`+!q98!G>9!<8I>:9!98NH<>@!F9!HM8!H<NHM! F;!GF9LH<N>@!HM8F<K!RK!8IJM>L:j:9?!:9LH8>Q!HM>H!SM>H!:L!@FLH!:L!F98ZL!G>J>G:HK! HF!I>V8!HM8!8aJ@:G:H!nNQ?I89H!HM>H!SFN@Q!R8!988Q8Q!;F<!HM8!Q8QNGH:F9!:9!HM8! >9H8G8Q89H!F;!HM8!G@FLN<8!J<:9G:J@8+ ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!56!!z "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` HM>H!M8!:L!9FS!W<8L:Q89H)!SM8<8!HM:L!8aJ@:G:H! nNQ?I89H!u!:;!SM>H!M>L! R889!L>:Q!:9!m8GH:F9!f!:L!GF<<8GH!u!S:@@!9FH!:HL8@;!I>9:;8LH!V9FS@8Q?8+ W8<M>JL!HM8!GF9LH<NGH:F9!F;!LNGM!>!@8LLOHM>9OV9FS@8Q?8>R@8!nNQ?I89H! RK!:HL8@;!LN|G8L!HF!cN>LM!NGKZL!G@>:I!HF!M>Y8!<8H>:98Q!V9FS@8Q?8!F;! HM8!F<:?:9>@!J<8I:L8l! :;!LF)!HM8!>9H8G8Q89H!F;!HM8!G@FLN<8!J<:9G:J@8!:L! 9FH!<8>@:j8Q+!NH!:;!:H!QF8L!9FH!u!:;!:H!:L!JFLL:R@8!HF!I>V8!>!JFF<@K!;FN9QO 8Q!nNQ?I89H!F;!>!J<FJFL:H:F9!F98!V9FSL)!S:HMFNH!@FL:9?!V9FS@8Q?8! F;! HM>H!J<FJFL:H:F9!u!HM89!NGK!G>9! L>H:L;K! HM8!>9H8G8Q89H!F;!P>SO HMF<98ZL! G@FLN<8! J<:9G:J@8! RK! GFIJ8H89H@K! Q8QNG:9?! HM8! GF9G@NL:F9! HM>H!HM8!W<8L:Q89H!M>L!9FH!M>Q!>!;>H>@!M8><H!>HH>GV!;<FI!HM8!J<8I:L8!HM>H! M8!:L!HM8!GN<<89H!W<8L:Q89H+!PFS8Y8<)!S8!M>Y8!G@8><!<8>LF9!HF!QFNRH! HM>H!M8<!GF9G@NL:F9!Q8L8<Y8L!HM8!LH>HNL!F;!V9FS@8Q?8!M8<8)!?:Y89!HM>H! LM8!S>L!>R@8!HF!<8>GM!:H!F9@K!RK!Y:F@>H:9?!8J:LH8I:G!9F<IL!HF!?8H!HM8! 988Q8Q!J<8I:L8+!^M:L!S8>V898Q!<8>Q:9?!F;!HM8!G@FLN<8!J<:9G:J@8!:L!N9O >JJ8>@:9?l! HM8!J<:9G:J@8! LMFN@Q!R8!>I89Q8Q! HF! <N@8!FNH!Q8QNGH:F9L! LH><H:9?!;<FI!nNQ?I89HL!HM>H!;>:@!HF!I>9:;8LH!V9FS@8Q?8!F;!HM8!nNQ?8Q! J<FJFL:H:F9L)!:;!LNGM!nNQ?I89HL!><8!:9!;>GH!JFLL:R@8!SM:@8!V9FS@8Q?8! :L!<8H>:98Q+ 5. Epistemological consequences mF!;><)!HM:L!J>J8<!M>L!M>Q!HM8!J<:I><K!>:I!F;!8aJ@>:9:9?!SMK!G8<H>:9! nNQ?I89HL!;88@!9>HN<>@!HF!NL+!UH!:L!>9FHM8<!I>HH8<!SM:GM!F;!HM8L8!nNQ?O I89HL!><8! <:?MH+! UH! L88IL! HM8<8!><8!Y><:FNL!JFLL:R@8!8J:LH8IF@F?:G>@! :9H8<J<8H>H:F9L!F;!QN>@OJ<FG8LL!H<8>HI89H!F;!HM8!P><I>9O{F?8@!J>HH8<9! F;!:9HN:H:F9L+!^M8<8!><8!>LJ8GHL!F;!HM8!QN>@OJ<FG8LL!>GGFN9H!HM>H!I>K! f5+!pM>H!?<FN9QL!HM:L!GF9H<F@@8Q!nNQ?I89H!G>99FH!R8!M8<!98S@K!L8@;OGF9LG:FNL! <8@:>9G8! F9!I8IF<Kl! :H! GFN@Q! R8! LFI8HM:9?! @:V8T! bqR>I>! L:IJ@K!INLH! R8! >@:Y8l!HM8!GFN9H<K!988QL!M:I!9FS+d! ff+! ^M8!JM89FI89F9!F;!nNQ?I89H!HM>H!;>:@L!HF!I>9:;8LH!V9FS@8Q?8!:L!HM8!GFN9O H8<J><H!;F<!HM8F<8H:G>@!<8>LF9!F;!HM8!JM89FI89F9!F;!akrasia!F<!S8>V98LL!F;! HM8!S:@@!;F<!J<>GH:G>@!<8>LF9+!q9!HM8!JFLL:R:@:HK!F;!HM8F<8H:G>@!akrasia)!L88!_ 8O 989R>NI!(\\\`+!UH!:L!9FH8SF<HMK!HM>H!F98!F;! 8989R>NIZL!8a>IJ@8L!GF9G8<9L! >!G@>LM!R8HS889!HM8!M8N<:LH:G!<8>LF9:9?!HM>H!I>V8L!HM8!?>IR@8<ZL!;>@@>GK!>JO J8><!J@>NL:R@8!>9Q!HM8!LFI8H:I8L!JLKGMF@F?:G>@@K!@8LL!GFIJ8@@:9?!GF9H<F@@8Q! <8>LF9:9?!HM>H!J<FY8L!FHM8<S:L8+ 8Y:Q89G8!u!HM8!*-!<8LN@HL)!HM8!e9?8<J<:9HL)!>9Q!LF!F9!u!M:L!nNQ?I89H! HM>H!HM8!Q8;89Q>9H!:L!?N:@HK!GFN@Q!GFN9H!>L!I>9:;8LH:9?!V9FS@8Q?8+!P:L! nNQ?I89H!F;!HM8!L>I8!J<FJFL:H:F9!I:?MH!;>:@!HF!GFN9H!>L!V9FS@8Q?8!:;! M8!GMFFL8L!HF!I>V8!:H!SM:@8!HM:9V:9?!F9@K!>RFNH!HM8!H8LH:IF9:>@!8Y:O Q89G8! J<8L89H8Q)! Q8@:R8<>H8@K! R<NLM:9?! >L:Q8! HM8! ?>JL! >9Q! ;>N@HL! :9! SM>H!M8!M8><Q+! F!>LL8LL!SM8HM8<!M:L!?N:@HK!Y8<Q:GH!I>9:;8LHL!V9FS@O 8Q?8)!F98!988QL!HF!GF9L:Q8<!9FH!F9@K!HM8!:9;F<I>H:F9!>Y>:@>R@8!HF!HM8! LNRn8GH)!RNH!>@LF!HF!HM:9V!>RFNH!HM8!I>998<!:9!SM:GM!HM:L!:9;F<I>H:F9! S>L!M>9Q@8Q)!HM8!>GHN>@!R>L:9?!F;!HM8!LNRn8GHZL!R8@:8;+! FGNL:9?!F9!HM8!Q:LH:9GH:F9!R8HS889!V9FS@8Q?8!>9Q!8aJ@:G:H!nNQ?O I89H)!S8!G>9!L88!HM>H!HM8<8!:L!LFI8HM:9?!I:LL:9?!:9!P>SHMF<98ZL!;F<O IN@>H:F9!F;!HM8!<N@8!F;!L:9?@8!J<8I:L8!G@FLN<8T U;!F98!V9FSL!W!>9Q!GFIJ8H89H@K!Q8QNG8L!X!;<FI!W)!HM8<8O RK!GFI:9?!HF!R8@:8Y8!X)!SM:@8!<8H>:9:9?!F98ZL!V9FS@8Q?8! HM>H!W)!F98!GFI8L!HF!V9FS!HM>H!X+![566,)!5\] ^M8!GFIJ8H89HOQ8QNGH:F9!G@>NL8!LH>H8L!HM>H!F98!:L!HF!Q8QNG8!X!;<FI!Wl! :H!QF8L!9FH!L>K!SM8HM8<!F98ZL!LH><H:9?!JF:9H!INLH!R8!F98ZL!V9FS@8Q?8! HM>H!W!F<!GFN@Q!R8!>!I8<8!nNQ?I89H!HM>H!W+!i8>Q:9?!HM8!J<:9G:J@8!HM8! e<LH!S>K)! HM8!J8GN@:><:HK!F;! HM8!P><I>9O{F?8@!J>HH8<9! :L! HM>H! HM8!<8@O 8Y>9H!V9FS@8Q?8!S:@@!R8!:9>GG8LL:R@8!HF!8aJ@:G:H!nNQ?I89H!:9!HM8!GF9O H<F@@8Q!IFQ8!F;!GF?9:H:F9l!LF!8Y89!:;!HM8!V9FS@8Q?8!HM>H!W!:L!9FH!@FLH)! 9F!GFIJ8H89H!Q8QNGH:F9!G>9!LH><H!;<FI!>!nNQ?I89H!HM>H!W!SM:GM!:HL8@;! I>9:;8LHL!HM:L!V9FS@8Q?8+!q9!HM:L!<8>Q:9?)!:H!S:@@!9FH!R8!JLKGMF@F?:O G>@@K!JFLL:R@8!;F<!NL!HF!<8>@:j8!HM8!>9H8G8Q89H!F;!HM8!G@FLN<8!J<:9G:J@8! ;F<!nNQ?I89HL!:9!HM8!P><I>9O{F?8@!J>HH8<9)!>9Q!LF!HM8!J>HH8<9!J<8LO 89HL!9F!HM<8>H!HF!G@FLN<8+!i8>Q:9?!HM8!J<:9G:J@8!HM8!L8GF9Q!>9Q!S8>V8<! S>K)! HM8!Q8QNGH:F9!INLH!R8?:9! ;<FI!>!I8<8! nNQ?I89H! HM>H!W)!SM:GM! :HL8@;! 988Q!9FH! GFN9H! >L! V9FS@8Q?8+! F<! 8a>IJ@8)!S8! :I>?:98!NGK! >L!:9:H:>@@K!V9FS:9?!HM>H!qR>I>!:L!W<8L:Q89H!>9Q!R8:9?!>R@8!HF!nNQ?8! >NHFI>H:G>@@K!HM>H!M8!:L+!^M89!:9!HM8!GFN<L8!F;!SF9Q8<:9?!SM8HM8<!M8! M>L!M>Q!>! ;>H>@!M8><H!>HH>GV! :9! HM8! @>LH!eY8!I:9NH8L)! LM8!>HH8IJHL! HF! GF9LH<NGH!>!Q8QNGH:F9!F;! HM:L!J<FJFL:H:F9! ;<FI!>9!8aJ@:G:H! nNQ?I89H! ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!5(!!z "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` 8Y:Q89G8)! HM89!LF!INGM!HM8!SF<L8! ;F<! HM8!G@>:I!HM>H!LM8!M>L!V9FS@O 8Q?8!F;!>9K!LNGM!G>H8?F<:G>@!J<FJFL:H:F9+!q9G8!S8!<8GF?9:j8!HM>H!LM8! SFN@Q!9FH!<>H:F9>@@K!I>V8!HM8!G>H8?F<:G>@!G@>:I!:;!LM8!S8<8!HM:9V:9?! >RFNH!M8<!8Y:Q89G8!:9!>!GF9H<F@@8Q!I>998<!SM:@8!GF9H8IJ@>H:9?!HM8! <8>@!JFLL:R:@:HK!F;!qR>I>ZL!<8G89H!Q8I:L8)!HM8!LV8JH:G!S:@@!N<?8!NL!HF! ;>N@H!M8<!;F<!I>V:9?!HM8!G>H8?F<:G>@!G@>:I!:9!>9K!G:<GNILH>9G8LT!LN<8@K! HM8! nNQ?I89HL!F;! HMFL8!SMF!><8! HM:9V:9?! >RFNH! HM8:<! 8Y:Q89G8! :9! >! GF9H<F@@8Q!I>998<!><8!HF!R8!J<8;8<<8Q!HF!HM8!nNQ?I89HL!F;!HMFL8!SMF! ><8!<8@>H:Y8@K!FR@:Y:FNL+!N<HM8<IF<8)!?:Y89!HM>H!>NHFI>H:G!GF?9:H:F9! @8>QL!NL!:9HF!LNGM!H<>JL!>L!Y:F@>H:F9L!F;!HM8!>a:FIL!F;!J<FR>R:@:HK)!SM>H! <8>LF9!QF!S8!M>Y8!HF!H<NLH!:HL!Q8@:Y8<>9G8L!>RFNH!V9FS@8Q?8! U9!<8LJF9L8!HF!HM8!LV8JH:G)!F98!I:?MH!GM>@@89?8!HM8!LN??8LH:F9!HM>H! GF9H<F@@8Q! GF?9:H:F9! :L! :9Y><:>R@K! J<8;8<>R@8! HF! >NHFI>H:G! GF?9:H:F9+! q9!HM8!:9Q>!J<FR@8I!HM8<8!:L!9F!cN8LH:F9!HM>H!HMFL8!SMF!GFIJ@:8Q! S:HM!HM8!GF9nN9GH:F9!<N@8!?898<>H8Q!>!R8HH8<!<>9V:9?!F;!@:V8@:MFFQ)!RNH! :9! LFI8!L:HN>H:F9L! :H! L88IL!mKLH8I!(! G>9!FNHJ8<;F<I!mKLH8I!5! _e. g+)! t@R<8GMHL89)! 8:LL98<)! ! mNL>! 566\l! r:?8<89j8<! 566kl! p:@LF9! ! mGMFF@8<!(\\(`+!Y89!:9!QFI>:9L!LNGM!>L!J<FR>R:@:HK!nNQ?I89H)!SM8<8! GF9H<F@@8Q!GF?9:H:F9!:L!?898<>@@K!>9!:IJ<FY8I89H!F9!>NHFI>H:G!GF?9:O H:F9)!S8!9>HN<>@@K!GF9H:9N8!HF!LN8<!G8<H>:9!Q8eG:HL!8Y89!>;H8<!LS:HGMO :9?! HF! HM8! LKLH8I>H:G! IFQ8! F;! GF?9:H:F9+! U9Q88Q)! S:HM! LFI8! J<FRO @8IL!u!;F<!8a>IJ@8)!9F9G>NL>@!R>L8O<>H8!J<FR@8IL!u!J8<;F<I>9G8!>GO HN>@@K!SF<L89L!:9!:9Q:Y:QN>@L!HM:9V:9?!IF<8!LKLH8I>H:G>@@K!_mH>9FY:GM! !p8LH! (\\k`+! F<! LNGM!J<FR@8IL)!F<Q:9><K! :9Q:Y:QN>@L!988Q! ;F<I>@! H<>:9:9?!:9!HM8!>QFJH:F9!F;!HM8!GF<<8GH!LKLH8I>H:G!<N@8Ll!S:HMFNH!LNGM! H<>:9:9?)!IF<8!LKLH8I>H:G!GF?9:H:F9!F9@K!@8>QL!NL!;N<HM8<!>LH<>K+!8>9O SM:@8)!<8~8GH:9?!F9!HM8!GM><>GH8<!F;!F98ZL!HM:9V:9?!F9!>!?:Y89!J<FR@8I! 8aJFL8L! F98! HF! HM8! 8J:LH8I:G! M>j><QL! F;! :9H<FLJ8GH:F9!S:HMFNH! 98GO 8LL><:@K!:IJ<FY:9?!F98ZL!:9L:?MH!:9HF!HM8!F<:?:9>@!J<FR@8I!_gF<9R@:HM! 566,l!gF<9R@:HM!56(6`+!LH>R@:LM:9?!HM>H!>!G8<H>:9!HKJ8!F;!nNQ?I89H!:L! J<FQNG8Q!RK!LKLH8I>H:G!GF?9:H:F9!QF8L!9FH!F9!:HL!FS9!L8HH@8!HM8!cN8LO H:F9!F;!SM8HM8<!:H!:L!HM8!<:?MH!>9LS8<!HF!HM8!J<FR@8I)!F<!8Y89!SM8HM8<! :H!:L!>9!:IJ<FY8I89H!FY8<!HM8!GF<<8LJF9Q:9?!M8N<:LH:G!nNQ?I89H+ 8>9SM:@8)!HM8!LV8JH:G!LMFN@Q!>@LF!SF<<K!HM>H!8Y89!:;!HM8!Q8;>N@H! >JJ8>@!HF!LV8JH:GLT!SM89!LH<:9?89H!L8GF9Q!HMFN?MHL!H89Q!HF!FY8<<:Q8! @>a!e<LH!:IJ<8LL:F9L!:9!>LL8LLI89HL!F;!J<FR>R:@:HK)!S8!QF!9FH!M8L:H>H8! HF!89QF<L8!HM8!IF<8!LH<:9?89H!nNQ?I89HL+!U;!LFI8HM:9?!GFIJ><>R@8!:L! M>JJ89:9?!:9!8J:LH8I:G!>LL8LLI89H)!HM89!HM:L!GFN@Q!R8!L889!>L!;N<HM8<! 8Y:Q89G8!F;! HM8! :9>Q8cN>GK!F;!FN<! @>a!JFL:H:Y8! :IJ<8LL:F9L+!q9! HM8! FHM8<!M>9Q)!GF9H8aHN>@:LHL!I:?MH!MFJ8!HM>H!QN>@OJ<FG8LL!HM8F<K!GFN@Q! LNJJF<H! HM8! GF9H89H:F9! HM>H! HM8<8! ><8!Q:8<89H! LH>9Q><QL! ;F<! HM8! >LO L8LLI89H!F;!V9FS@8Q?8)!NL8!F;!SM:GM!Y><:8L!LKLH8I>H:G>@@K!>G<FLL!Q:;O ;8<89H!G:<GNILH>9G8L+!U9!SM>H!;F@@FSL!U!Q:LGNLL!JFLL:R@8!LV8JH:G>@!>9Q! GF9H8aHN>@:LH! :9H8<J<8H>H:F9L!F;! HM8!QN>@OJ<FG8LL!>GGFN9H)!9FH8!LFI8! <8L8<Y>H:F9L!F98!I:?MH!M>Y8!>RFNH!8>GM)!>9Q!Q:LGNLL!LFI8!>@H8<9>H:Y8L+ mV8JH:G:LI!:L!LFI8H:I8L!LF@Q!>L!>9!8aJ@>9>H:F9!F;!HM8!P><I>9O{FO ?8@!J>HH8<9!F;!:9HN:H:F9L+!q98!<8>LF9!SMK!HM:L!J>HH8<9!F;!:9HN:H:F9L!M>L! R889!H>V89!RK!LV8JH:GL!HF!LNJJF<H!HM8:<!LH>9G8!:L!HM>H)!>L!{F?8@!JF:9H8Q! FNH)! ;F<! >@IFLH! >9K! 8IJ:<:G>@! J<FJFL:H:F9!F98!I:?MH! G@>:I! HF! V9FS)! LFI8!LH<:9?89H!J<FJFL:H:F9!G>9!R8!?898<>H8Q!HF!N9Q8<GNH!F98ZL!G>J>GO :HK!HF!I>V8!LNGM!>!G@>:I+!P>Y:9?!9FH8Q!HM:L)!HM8!LV8JH:G!GFN@Q!:9L:LH! HM>H!G@>LM8L!R8HS889!HM8!IF<8!JFL:H:Y8! nNQ?I89HL!J<FQNG8Q!RK!mKLO H8I!(!>9Q!HM8!IF<8!G>NH:FNL!nNQ?I89HL!F;!mKLH8I!5!><8!>JJ<FJ<:>H8@K! L8HH@8Q!:9!;>YF<!F;!HM8!@>HH8<+!U;!NGKZL!G>H8?F<:G>@!nNQ?I89H!HM>H!qR>I>! :L! W<8L:Q89H! Q8J89QL! F9! M8<! 9FH! M>Y:9?! LG<NH:9:j8Q! M8<! I8IF<:>@! fo+! UH!I:?MH!:9:H:>@@K!L88I!HM>H!HM8!LF<H!F;!N9Q8<GNHH:9?!JFL:H8Q!RK!HM8!QN>@OJ<FO G8LL! >GGFN9H! :L!9FH! LH<F9?!89FN?M! ;F<! HM8! LV8JH:GT! HM8! LV8JH:G!S>9HL!NL! HF! LNLJ89Q!R8@:8;!F9!HM8!cN8LH:F9!F;!SM8HM8<!qR>I>!:L!W<8L:Q89H)!<>HM8<!HM>9! H>V:9?!HM8!I:@Q8<!LH8J!F;!nNQ?:9?!HM>H!:H!:L!F9@K!M:?M@K!@:V8@K!HM>H!qR>I>!:L! W<8L:Q89H+!NH!HM8!L>I8!R>L:G!LH<>H8?K!8IJ@FK8Q!HF!LM:;H!;<FI!HM8!G>H8?F<:G>@! nNQ?I89H!HF!HM8!?<>Q8Q!F98!G>9!R8!>JJ@:8Q!>?>:9!HF!Q:I:9:LM!GF9eQ89G8!:9! HM8!?<>Q8Q!J<FJFL:H:F9+!^M8!LV8JH:G!SMF!Q:LJNH8L!HM8!G<8Q89H:>@L!F;!mKLH8I! (!GF?9:H:F9!S:@@!R8!J@8>L8Q!HF!9FH8!HM>H!mKLH8I!5!HKJ:G>@@K!H>V8L!HM8!J<FQNGHL! F;!mKLH8I!(!>L!:9JNH+!U;!F98ZL!GF9H<F@@8Q!>LL8LLI89H!HM>H!:H!:L!M:?M@K!@:V8@K!HM>H! qR>I>!:L!W<8L:Q89H!:HL8@;!Q8J89QL!F9!>!<>9?8!F;!>NHFI>H:G!nNQ?I89HL!_>RFNH! HM8!<8@:>R:@:HK!F;!B"!98SL!<8JF<HL)!>9Q!LF!F9`)!HM89!>!?898<>@!LNLJ89L:F9!F;! H<NLH!:9!>NHFI>H:G!nNQ?I89H!S:@@!@8>Q!:9!LMF<H!F<Q8<!HF!Y8<K!S:Q8LJ<8>Q!LNLO J89L:F9!F;!R8@:8;+!q<)!IF<8!Q:<8GH@K)! :9LH8>Q!F;!<>:L:9?!>!L8<:8L!F;!IN9Q>98! SF<<:8L!>RFNH!IF<H>@:HK)!>9Q!HM89!>RFNH!HM8!<8@:>R:@:HK!F;!B"!98SL)!HM8!LV8JH:G! G>9!<>:L8!IF<8!<>Q:G>@!SF<<:8L!>RFNH!R<>:9L!:9!Y>HL!>9Q!HM8!@:V8+! ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!55!!z "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` S>K!F;!N9Q8<LH>9Q:9?!HM:L!Y><:>H:F9T!J8<M>JL!HM8!>NHFI>H:G!>9Q!GF9O H<F@@8Q!IFQ8L!F;!8J:LH8I:G!>LL8LLI89H!SFN@Q!9>HN<>@@K!J:GV!FNH!Q:8<O 89H!<8@>H:F9L+!q;!GFN<L8)!GF9H8aHN>@:LH!HM8F<:8L!GFIIF9@K!M>Y8!IF<8! HM>9!HSF!L8HH:9?L!;F<!V9FS@8Q?8!>LG<:JH:F9L)!RNH!>!IF<8!e98O?<>:98Q! >GGFN9H!GFN@Q!<8@K!F9!>!IF<8!LNRH@8!QN>@OJ<FG8LL!HM8F<K!@:V8!Y>9LZL! L>H:LeG:9?!HM8F<K)!:9!SM:GM!nNQ?I89HL!><8!I>Q8!F9!HM8!R>L:L!F;!M8NO <:LH:G>@@K!?898<>H8Q!IFQ8@L!HM>H!><8!HM8IL8@Y8L!nNQ?8Q!RK!>9>@KH:G!G<:O H8<:>!F;!Y><K:9?!LH<:9?89GK+!q9!>9!>GGFN9H!F;!HM:L!LF<H)!HM8!J8<G8:Y8Q! >Q8cN>GK!F;!>!I89H>@!IFQ8@!SFN@Q!9>HN<>@@K!Q8J89Q!F9!LNGM!;>I:@:><! GF9H8aHN>@:LH!GF9Q:H:F9L!>L!HM8!<>9?8!F;!>@H8<9>H:Y8L!<>:L8Q!HF!L>@:89GK! :9!GF9Y8<L>H:F9+ mFI8!G>NH:F9!:L!988Q8Q!:9!L8HH:9?!NJ!HM8!LF<H!F;!G>L8!HM>H!SFN@Q! R8LH! ;>YF<!>!GF9H8aHN>@:LH!>JJ<FJ<:>H:F9!F;! HM8!QN>@OJ<FG8LL!>GGFN9H+! U9!J><H:GN@><)!:H!SFN@Q!9FH!M8@J!HF!GF9L:Q8<!>!G>L8!:9!SM:GM!>!LNRn8GH! SMF!:L!I>V:9?!>!mKLH8I!5!nNQ?I89H!:L!R8:9?!8Y>@N>H8Q!Q:8<89H@K!RK! HSF!>LG<:R8<L)!F98!F;!SMFI!:L!I>V:9?!>!JFL:H:Y8!mKLH8I!(!8Y>@N>H:F9! >9Q!HM8!FHM8<!>!98?>H:Y8!mKLH8I!5!8Y>@N>H:F9+!8G>NL8!HM8!LNRn8GH!:L! HM:9V:9?!:9!>!GF9H<F@@8Q!;>LM:F9)!GF9H<F@@8Q!GF?9:H:F9!:L!<8cN:<8Q!8Y89! HF!<8J<8L89H!M:L!HM:9V:9?!>GGN<>H8@KT!Q:LG<8J>9GK!R8HS889!HM8!>LG<:RO 8<L!:9!LNGM!>!G>L8!SFN@Q!R8!IFLH!9>HN<>@@K!N9Q8<LHFFQ!>L!HM8!J<FQNGH! F;!>!;>:@N<8!F9!HM8!J><H!F;!HM8!@>a!>LG<:R8<!HF!>JJ<8G:>H8!HM8!LNRn8GHZL! <8>@!L:HN>H:F9+!^M8!GF9H8aHN>@:LH!SFN@Q!R8!R8HH8<!F!;FGNL:9?!F9!G>L8L! :9!SM:GM!>!LNRn8GH!SMF!:L!I>V:9?!>!mKLH8I!(!nNQ?I89H!u!L>K)!mI:HM!>NO HFI>H:G>@@K!_>9Q!GF<<8GH@K`!nNQ?:9?!HM>H!M:L!G><!:L!F9!tY89N8!t)!SM8<8! M8!<8I8IR8<L!J><V:9?!:H!>9!MFN<!>?F!u!:L!8Y>@N>H8Q!>L!V9FS:9?!RK!>9! >LG<:R8<!SMF!:L! nNQ?:9?!M:I!M8N<:LH:G>@@K!>9Q!8Y>@N>H8Q!>L!;>:@:9?!HF! V9FS!RK!>9!>LG<:R8<!SMF!:L!nNQ?:9?!M:I!:9!>!GF9H<F@@8Q!;>LM:F9+!^M8! GF9H8aHN>@:LH!S:@@!GF9H89Q!HM>H!:9G<8>L8L!:9!LH<:9?89GK!><8!9>HN<>@!;F<! >LG<:R8<L!SMF!R8?:9!HF!HM:9V!:9!>!GF9H<F@@8Q!;>LM:F9!>RFNH!HM8!GF?9:O H:F9!F;!FHM8<L+!q9G8!U)!>L!>9!>LG<:R8<)!LH><H!HF!SF<<K!>RFNH!G><!HM8;H)!:H! :L!9>HN<>@!;F<!I8!HF!Q89K!HM>H!mI:HMZL!>NHFI>H:G!nNQ?I89H!>RFNH!HM8! @FG>H:F9!F;!M:L!G><!<8>@@K!GF9LH:HNH8L!V9FS@8Q?8+! P8<8!>9!:9Y><:>9H:LH!I:?MH!FRn8GH!HM>H!8Y89!:;!:H!:L!9>HN<>@!;F<!SF<O <:8Q!>LG<:R8<L!HF!R8GFI8!IF<8!LH<:9?89H)!HM:L!:L!9FH!98G8LL><:@K!>!?FFQ! <N@8L!9>HN<>@@K!8IJ@FK8Q!:9!FN<!LKLH8I>H:G!8J:LH8I:G!>LL8LLI89HL!F;O H89!Q8@:Y8<!LV8JH:G>@!<8LN@HL)!:HZL!9FH!FRY:FNL!HM>H!HM8!right!<N@8L!S:@@!QF! LF+!_t;H8<!>@@)!HM8!Q8;>N@H!<N@8L!8IJ@FK8Q!:9!LKLH8I>H:G!>LL8LLI89HL!F;! J<FR>R:@:HK!89QF<L8!:?9F<>9G8!F;!9F9G>NL>@!R>L8!<>H8L+`!U;!HM8!V:9Q!F;! HM:9V:9?!S8!89?>?8!:9!SM89!GF9H8IJ@>H:9?!GFIJ@8a!>9Q!>HKJ:G>@!LG8O 9><:FL!<8>@@K!:L!GF9H<F@@8Q!GF?9:H:F9)!HM89!:H!LMFN@Q!R8!L89L:H:Y8!HF!HM8! Q8@:R8<>H8!>QFJH:F9!F;!8J:LH8IF@F?:G>@!HM8F<:8L+!7NLH!>L!LKLH8I>H:G!LH>O H:LH:G>@!nNQ?I89HL!><8!L89L:H:Y8!HF!H<>:9:9?)!8J:LH8IF@F?:G>@!nNQ?I89H! I>K!R8GFI8!IF<8!<8L:LH>9H!HF!LV8JH:G>@!J<8LLN<8)!;F<!HMFL8!J<>GH:G8Q! :9! >JJ@K:9?! >9! 8aJ@:G:H! 9F9OLV8JH:G>@! 8J:LH8IF@F?:G>@! HM8F<K+! ^M8! LV8JH:G!G>99FH!>LLNI8!HM>H!Q8@:R8<>H8@K!>QFJH8Q!HM8F<:8L!LMFN@Q!N@H:O I>H8@K!M>Y8!HF!R8!LV8JH:G>@!:9!GM><>GH8<l!:9Q88Q)!:H!:L!9FH!FRY:FNL!HM>H! I8>9:9?;N@!<N@8L!;F<!8J:LH8I:G!>LL8LLI89HL!G>9!R8!GF9LH<NGH8Q!>H!>@@! S:HMFNH!LFI8!?N:Q>9G8!;<FI!FN<!:9:H:>@!M8N<:LH:G!>LL8LLI89HL)!>LL8LLO I89HL!SM:GM!QF9ZH!@FFV!LV8JH:G>@!>H!>@@+!U9!LNII><K)!:;!HM8!QN>@OJ<FG8LL! >GGFN9H!F;!HM8!P><I>9O{F?8@!J>HH8<9!F;!:9HN:H:F9L!:L!GF<<8GH)!HM89!HM8! LV8JH:G!G>99FH!G@>:I!LNJJF<H! ;<FI!HM:L!J>HH8<9!F;! :9HN:H:F9L!S:HMFNH! >9!:9Q8J89Q89H!><?NI89H!HF!8LH>R@:LM!HM>H!LV8JH:G>@!GF9H<F@@8Q!nNQ?O I89HL! ><8! 8J:LH8I:G>@@K! LNJ8<:F<! HF! 9F9OLV8JH:G>@! GF9H<F@@8Q! nNQ?O I89HL!>9Q!HF!>NHFI>H:G!nNQ?I89HL+!9@8LL!F98!:L!>@<8>QK!GF9Y:9G8Q!F;! HM8!I8<:HL!F;!LV8JH:G:LI)!HM8<8!:L!9F!<8>LF9!HF!>GG8JH!>!LV8JH:G>@!LHF<K! >RFNH!HM:L!J>HH8<9!F;!:9HN:H:F9L)!>9Q!HF!HM8!8aH89H!HM>H!LV8JH:G:LI!M>L! R889!IFH:Y>H8Q!RK!:HL!J<FI:L8!HF!8aJ@>:9!HM:L!J>HH8<9!F;!:9HN:H:F9L)!HM8! IFH:Y>H:F9! ;F<!LV8JH:G:LI! :L!N9Q8<GNH!RK! HM8!>Y>:@>R:@:HK!F;! HM8!QN>@O J<FG8LL!>GGFN9H+ q98!I:?MH!8aJ8GH!HM8!GF9H8aHN>@:LH!HF!R8!:9!>!R8HH8<!JFL:H:F9!M8<8T! SM8<8! HM8! LV8JH:G!QFS9J@>KL! HM8!JFL:H:Y8!>LL8LLI89HL!I>Q8! :9!mKLO H8I! ()! HM8! GF9H8aHN>@:LH! 988Q! 9FH! ;>YF<! F98! LKLH8I! >H! HM8! 8aJ89L8! F;! HM8!FHM8<+! ^M8!Q:LH:9GH:Y8! G@>:I!F;! GF9H8aHN>@:LI! :L! HM>H! HM8! Y8<K! L>I8!LNRn8GH!G>9!<:?MH@K!R8!L889!>L!V9FS:9?!HM>H!W!RK!F98!>LG<:R8<! >9Q!>L! ;>:@:9?!HF!V9FS!HM>H!W!RK!>9FHM8<+! U;!S8!<8GF?9:j8!RFHM!>NHFO I>H:G! >9Q! GF9H<F@@8Q! 8J:LH8I:G! >LG<:JH:F9L! >L! @8?:H:I>H8)!S8!M>Y8! >! f,+! q9!HM8!I>@@8>R:@:HK!F;!8J:LH8I:G!<N@8L!>9Q!HM8!GF<<8LJF9Q:9?!:9HN:H:F9L!HM8K! J<FQNG8)!L88!_r89Q@8<!!P>SHMF<98!566,`+! ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!5f!!z "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` :9H8@@8GHN>@:LH!:9Y><:>9H:LH)!SMF!><?N8L!HM>H!F9@K!HM8!LNRn8GHZL!LH>H8!F;! R8@:8;! >9Q! HM8! H<NHMO<8@8Y>9H! ;8>HN<8L!F;!M:L! nNQ?I89H!I>V8!>!Q:8<O 89G8!HF!SM8HM8<!>9K!LNRn8GH!V9FSL!F<!;>:@L!HF!V9FS!>!?:Y89!J<FJFL:O H:F9+!U;!GF9H<F@@8Q!GF?9:H:F9!:9!G:<GNILH>9G8L!@:V8!mI:HMZL!SFN@Q!@8>Q! >!<>H:F9>@!HM:9V8<!HF!HM8!?<>Q8Q!nNQ?I89H!HM>H!:H!:L!Y8<K!@:V8@K!HM>H!M:L! G><! :L!F9!tY89N8!t)! HM89!mI:HMZL! G>H8?F<:G>@! nNQ?I89H! _5`!R8GFI8L! JFLL:R@8!F9@K!:;!M8!:L!HM:9V:9?!:9!>!@8LLOHM>9O<>H:F9>@!I>998<)!J8<M>JL! LN8<:9?!;<FI!M>LH8)!Q:LH<>GH:F9)!F<!S:LM;N@!HM:9V:9?!_bK!G><!L:IJ@K! INLH R8!HM8<8!u!U!988Q!HF!?8H!MFI8!cN:GV@Kd`+!NH!R8G>NL8!LNGM!GF9Q:O H:F9L! @FS8<! HM8! >GGN<>GK! F;! FN<! nNQ?I89H)! HM8! H<>Q:H:F9>@! :9H8@@8GHNO >@:LH! :9Y><:>9H:LH!M>L!9F!Q:|GN@HK!8aJ@>:9:9?!MFS!_(`!GFN@Q!I>9:;8LH! V9FS@8Q?8!SM:@8!_5`!;>:@L!HF!QF!LF+!q9!HM8!QN>@OJ<FG8LL!>GGFN9H)!HM8<8! :L!9F!988Q!HF!JFL:H!LH>V8L!>L!>9!:9Q8J89Q89H!;>GHF<!:9!V9FS@8Q?8T!R8O G>NL8!GM>9?8L!:9!LH>V8L!>8GH!HM8!>GGN<>GK!F;!GF?9:H:F9)!FN<!HM8F<K!F;! V9FS@8Q?8!G>9!8aJ@>:9!LM:;HL!HM>H!GF<<8@>H8!S:HM!LH>V8!GM>9?8L!L:IJ@K! :9!H8<IL!F;!HM8!H<>Q:H:F9>@!:9H8@@8GHN>@!;>GHF<!F;!>GGN<>GK+ U;!HM8!QN>@OJ<FG8LL!>GGFN9H!F;!HM8!P><I>9O{F?8@!J><>QFa!:L!GF<<8GH)! HM8!8aJ@>9>H:F9!F;!SMK!S8!I>V8!Q:8<89H!nNQ?I89HL!>L!FN<!LH>V8L!F<! GF9G8<9L!GM>9?8!QF8L!9FH!@:8!:9!>9K!LN<J<:L:9?!@:9?N:LH:G!F<!I8H>JMKL:O G>@!;8>HN<8L!F;!V9FSLZ!RNH!:9!LFI8!R>L:G!;8>HN<8L!F;!MNI>9!nNQ?I89H+! UH!<8I>:9L!>9!FJ89!cN8LH:F9!8a>GH@K!MFS!HM8!HSF!HKJ8L!F;!nNQ?I89H! :Q89H:e8Q! RK! QN>@OJ<FG8LL! HM8F<K! Q8L8<Y8! HF! GFN9H! >L! I>9:;8LH:9?! V9FS@8Q?8)!>9Q!IF<8!LJ8G:eG>@@K)!SM8HM8<!:H!:L!HM8!L>I8!L8H!F;!Y:<HN8L! HM>H!I>V8!>!nNQ?I89H!F;!8:HM8<!HM8!>NHFI>H:G!F<!HM8!GF9H<F@@8Q!Y><:8HK! GFN9H!>L!>!I>9:;8LH>H:F9!F;!V9FS@8Q?8+!t!;N@@!Q8;89L8!F;!H<>Q:H:F9>@!:9O H8@@8GHN>@:LH!:9Y><:>9H:LI!SFN@Q!<8cN:<8!INGM!IF<8!Q8H>:@8Q!H<8>HI89H! F;!:LLN8L!LNGM!>L!HM8L8+!NH!8Y89!:;!:H!<8I>:9L!N9G@8><!nNLH!MFS!;><!S8! LMFN@Q!H<NLH!FN<!>NHFI>H:G!8J:LH8I:G!>LL8LLI89HL)!F<!MFS!S8!LMFN@Q! GF9H<F@!FN<!GF9H<F@@8Q!8J:LH8I:G!>LL8LLI89HL)!S8!M>Y8!?>:98Q!LFI8! fs+! ^M8!8aJ<8LL:F9!bH<NHMO<8@8Y>9Hd!:L!g8:HM!h8iFL8ZL)!>9Q!:L!I8>9H!HF!89GFIJ>LL! >@@! ;>GHF<L!HM>H!b>8GH!MFS!@:V8@K! :H! :L! HM>H!HM8!R8@:8;! :L! H<N8)!8:HM8<!;<FI!HM8! JF:9H!F;!Y:8S!F;!HM8!LNRn8GH!F<!;<FI!>!IF<8!FRn8GH:Y8!Y>9H>?8!JF:9Hd!_h8iFL8! 566\)!5ò+ fk+!t9! :9H8@@8GHN>@:LH! :9Y><:>9H:LH! >GGFN9H! F;! HM8! <8@>H:F9LM:J! R8HS889! LH>V8L)! GF9eQ89G8)!>9Q!>GGN<>GK!:L!Q8;89Q8Q!:9!IF<8!Q8H>:@!:9!_=>?8@!566k`+ HM:9?+!p8!I>K!?<>9H!HM8!@8?:H:I>GK!F;!>NHFI>H:G!>9Q!GF9H<F@@8Q!8J:LO H8I:G!>LL8LLI89HL!S:HMFNH!>GG8JH:9?!HM8!GF<<8GH98LL!F;!HM8!J><H:GN@><! GF9H<F@@8Q!>LL8LLI89HL!HM>H!L88I!HF!LNJJF<H!GF9H8aHN>@:LIl!J8<M>JL! :9! HM8L8!G>L8L!FN<!9>HN<>@! H89Q89GK! HFS><QL! :9G<8>L8Q! LH<:9?89GK! :L! :9>JJ<FJ<:>H8)!>9Q!>!R8HH8<!8a8<G:L8!F;!FN<!GF9H<F@@8Q!GF?9:H:F9!SFN@Q! <8LN@H!:9!FN<!89QF<L:9?!mI:HMZL!>NHFI>H:G!nNQ?I89H!>L!;N@@K!>GG8JH>R@8+! U9!>9K!8Y89H)!HM8!QN>@OJ<FG8LL!8aJ@>9>H:F9!F;!HM8!P><I>9O{F?8@!J>HO H8<9!F;! :9HN:H:F9L!:9G<8>L8L!HM8!RN<Q89!F;!><?NI89H!F9!HM8!GF9H8aHNO >@:LH+!U;!GF9H8aHN>@:LI!:L!I><V8H8Q!GM:8~K!>L!>!S>K!F;!8aJ@>:9:9?!HM:L! J>HH8<9!F;!:9HN:H:F9L)!HM8!>Y>:@>R:@:HK!F;!>9!:9Y><:>9H:LH!Y8<L:F9!F;!HM8! QN>@OJ<FG8LL!>GGFN9H!SFN@Q!JFL8!>!?89N:98!HM<8>H!HF!GF9H8aHN>@:LI+ q98!I:?MH! HM:9V! HM>H! :9H8<8LHO<8@>H:Y8! F<! LNRn8GHOL89L:H:Y8! :9Y><:O >9H:LI!_M89G8;F<HM!EEx`!SFN@Q!R8!R8HH8<!JFL:H:F98Q!HF!I>V8!NL8!F;!HM8! QN>@OJ<FG8LL!>GGFN9H)!R8G>NL8!F;!:HL!;FGNL!F9!HM8!nNQ?:9?!LNRn8GH+!^M8! >QYFG>H8!F;! EEx! GF9H89QL! HM>H! V9FSLZ! >@S>KL!Q89FH8L! HM8! L>I8! <8@>O H:F9)!RNH!HM>H!:H!:L!>!<8@>H:F9!:9!SM:GM!HM8!:9H8<8LHL!>9Q!GF9G8<9L!F;!HM8! LNRn8GH!J@>K!>!<F@8!N9<8GF?9:j8Q!:9!H<>Q:H:F9>@!8J:LH8IF@F?K+!tGGF<QO :9?!HF!HM8!QN>@OJ<FG8LL!>GGFN9H!F;!<8>LF9:9?)!F98ZL!GN<<89H!GF?9:H:Y8! IFQ8!G>9!I>V8!>!Q:8<89G8!HF!SM:GM!J<FJFL:H:F9L!F98!I>K!<>H:F9>@@K! 8IR<>G8+!F<!8a>IJ@8)! :H!I:?MH!R8!>GG8JH>R@8! ;F<!mI:HM!HF!_(`! nNQ?8! >NHFI>H:G>@@K!HM>H!M:L!G><! :L!F9!tY89N8!t)!RNH!N9>GG8JH>R@8!;F<!M:I! HF!_5`!I>V8!>!GF9H<F@@8Q!nNQ?I89H!HM>H!M:L!G><!:L!F9!tY89N8!t!SM89! M8!:L!HM:9V:9?!>RFNH!HM8!JFLL:R:@:HK!F;!HM8;H+!^M8!GM>@@89?8!;F<!HM8!>QO YFG>H8!F;!EEx!SFN@Q!R8!HF!8LH>R@:LM!HM>H!HM8!Q:8<89G8!R8HS889!_(`!>9Q! _5`!M8<8!:L!9FH!:HL8@;!R8LH!G>JHN<8Q!:9!H8<IL!;>YF<>R@8!HF!HM8!H<>Q:H:F9>@! fv+!F<!8a>IJ@8)!P>SHMF<98!>9Q!p:@@:>ILF9!M>Y8!><?N8Q!HM>H!S8!M>Y8!>!9>HN<>@! JLKGMF@F?:G>@!H89Q89GK!HF!FY8<8LH:I>H8!HM8!@:V8@:MFFQ!F;!JFLL:R:@:H:8L!F;!8<<F<! SM89!HM8L8!><8!I>Q8!L>@:89H!_P>SHMF<98!566ol!p:@@:>ILF9!566,`+!UH!M>L!>@LF! R889!><?N8Q!HM>H!FN<!9>HN<>@!H89Q89GK!HFS><QL!:9G<8>L8Q!LH<:9?89GK!:L!R8HH8<! 8aJ@>:98Q!RK!HM8!R:>L!F;!8J:LH8I:G!8?FG89H<:LI)!>!H89Q89GK!HF!8Y>@N>H8!FHMO 8<L!>L!HMFN?M!HM8K!LM><8Q!FN<!J<:Y:@8?8Q!GF9G8<9L!_=>?8@!56(6`+!J:LH8I:G! 8?FG89H<:LI! :L! HMFN?MH! HF! R8! HM8!I>:9! R:>L! F;! MNI>9!I89H>@! LH>H8! >LG<:JO H:F9!_:<GM!566ol!:<GM!!@FFI!566sl!J@8K!8H!>@+!566ol!g8KL><)!:9)!!><<! 566fl!=:GV8<LF9!(\\\`+!pM89!S8!><8! HM:9V:9?! :9!>!GF9H<F@@8Q! ;>LM:F9)! HM:L! R:>L!SFN@Q!?N:Q8!NL!HF!8Y>@N>H8!FHM8<L!>L!HMFN?M!HM8K!S8<8!>@LF!89?>?:9?!:9! GF9H<F@@8Q!GF?9:H:F9)!8Y89!SM89!S8!><8!8aJ@:G:H@K!>S><8!HM>H!HM8K!><8!nNQ?:9?! >NHFI>H:G>@@K+ ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!5o!!z "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` ?<FN9Q!:9!<8GF?9:j:9?!HM8!8a:LH89G8!F;!>!Q:LH:9GH:F9!R8HS889!HM8!S>KL! :9!SM:GM!HM8L8!>LL8LLI89HL!><8!9>HN<>@@K!GF9QNGH8QT!S8!><8!9FS!R8HH8<! JFL:H:F98Q!HF!N9Q8<LH>9Q!HM8!R8><:9?!F;!9>HN<>@!8J:LH8I:G!:9HN:H:F9L! F9!8J:LH8IF@F?:G>@! HM8F<K+!pM8HM8<!F<!9FH!L8@;OGF9LG:FNL98LL!?898<O >@@K! :IJ<FY8L!FN<! nNQ?I89H)! L8@;OGF9LG:FNL98LL!>RFNH! HM8!F<:?:9L!F;! FN<!8J:LH8I:G!:9HN:H:F9L!G>9!QFNRH@8LL!:IJ<FY8!FN<!8J:LH8IF@F?K+ f\+!F<!Q:LGNLL:F9!>9Q!GFII89HL)!U!>I!?<>H8;N@!HF!g8:HM!<>9V:LM)!:VV8@!r8<V89)! >I><!r89Q@8<)! t@Y:9!rF@QI>9)!h:>9>!i>I>9)!t9Q<8S!h+! iFLL)! iFK! mFO <89L89)! 7>LF9! mH>9@8K)! g8:HM! mH>9FY:GM)! m8<?:F! 8989R>NI)! 7F9>HM>9!p8:LO R8<?)!^:I!p:@@:>ILF9)!>9Q!>9!>9F9KIFNL!<8;8<88!;F<!HM:L!nFN<9>@+!><@:8<!Y8<O L:F9L!F;!JF<H:F9L!F;! HM:L!I>H8<:>@!S8<8!J<8L89H8Q! HF!>NQ:89G8L!>H! HM8!tJ<:@! 566\!8HMFQF@F?K!F9;8<89G8!>H! HM8!t<GM!89H<8!F;! HM8!9:Y8<L:HK!F;!mH+! t9Q<8SL)!HM8!566\!>9>Q:>9!WM:@FLFJM:G>@!tLLFG:>H:F9!F9?<8LL!:9!qHH>S>)! >9Q!HM8!566\!^MFN?MH!aJ8<:I89HL!pF<VLMFJ!:9! F<F9HF+!^M>9VL!HF!J><H:G:O J>9HL!>H!>@@! HM<88!J@>G8L!;F<!M8@J;N@!;88QR>GV+!^M>9VL!>@LF!HF!HM8!mFG:>@!mG:O 89G8L!>9Q!PNI>9:H:8L!i8L8><GM!FN9G:@!F;!>9>Q>!;F<!;N9Q:9?!HM:L!<8L8><GM+ ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!5,!!z "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` @88<8I>9L! _QL+`)! Implicit learning and consciousness! _JJ+! (zo6`+! PFY8)!gT!WLKGMF@F?K!W<8LL+ FM89)!t+)!!r8<I>9)! +!_566\`+!9GFQ:9?!F;!FHM8<LZ!R8@:8;L!S:HMFNH! FY8<H!:9LH<NGH:F9+!)*+'%(%*',-..._f`)!f,vzfvf+ FM89)! m+! _(\kk`+! PFS! HF! R8! >! >@@:R:@:LH+! Philosophical Perspectives, \(z(5f+ FM89)!m+!_(\\\`+!F9H8aHN>@:LI)!mV8JH:G:LI)!>9Q!HM8!mH<NGHN<8!F;!i8>O LF9L!_{F@NI8!(fT!J:LH8IF@F?K`+!/0%1*!*20%$31-/&4!2&$(%5&!,-.6)!,szk\+ <NJ:)!{+)!:H8@LF9)!+)!! 89HF<:)!g+!_566k`+!W<FR>R:@:HK)!GF9e<I>H:F9)! >9Q!HM8!GF9nN9GH:F9!;>@@>GK+!70%'8%'+-9-:&3!*'%'+,-.;_5`)!(k5z(\\+ h8! =8KL)! p+! _566v`+! tNHFI>H:GzM8N<:LH:G! >9Q! 8a8GNH:Y8z>9>@KH:G! J<FG8LL:9?! QN<:9?! <8>LF9:9?T! M<F9FI8H<:G! >9Q! QN>@OH>LV! GF9O L:Q8<>H:F9L+! 70&-<"34(&41=- >*"4'31- *?- @A2&4%B&'(31- /!=$0*1*+=,CD_v`)! (6s6z((66+ h8iFL8)!g+!_(\\,`+!mF@Y:9?!HM8!mV8JH:G>@!W<FR@8I+!Philosophical Review, .E;_(`)!(z,5+ h8iFL8)!g+! _(\\v`+!g9FS@8Q?8)!tLL8<H:F9!>9Q!FHH8<:8L+!Australasian >*"4'31-*?-/0%1*!*20=,-F;_ò)!,vkz,s\+ h8iFL8)! g+! _566\`+! The Case for Contextualism: Knowledge, Skepticism, 3'G-)*'(&A(,-H*1"B&-.+!=8S!}F<VT!qa;F<Q!9:Y8<L:HK!W<8LL+ h8NHLGM)!i+)!r>S<F9LV:)!+)!!mH<>GV)!+!_566v`+!tH!HM8!RFN9Q><:8L!F;! >NHFI>H:G:HKT!=8?>H:F9!>L!<8~8GH:Y8!FJ8<>H:F9+!Journal of Personality 3'G-I*$%31-/!=$0*1*+=,-D._f`)!fk,+ hFNY89)!U+!_566s`+!t!W<>?I>H:G!h:LLF@NH:F9!F;!P><I>9ZL!W><>QFa+!Phi1*!*20=-3'G-/0&'*B&'*1*+%$31-:&!&34$0,-F;_5`)!f5vzfo,+ hFNY89)! U+! _566k`+! g9FS@8Q?8! >9Q! W<>GH:G>@! i8>LF9:9?+! Dialectica, JK_(`)!(6(z((k+ hFNY89)!U+)!!p:@@:>ILF9)! +!_566v`+!r898<>@:j:9?!HM8!@FHH8<K!J><>QFa+! 70&-L4%(%!0->*"4'31-?*4-(0&-/0%1*!*20=-*?-I$%&'$&,-CF_ò)!s,,Oss\+ h<8HLV8)! +! _566,`+! ^M8! G>L8! >?>:9LH! G@FLN<8+! U9!+! mH8NJ!!+! mFL>! _QL+`)!Contemporary Debates in Epistemology+!>@Q89)!tT!@>GVS8@@+ J@8K)!=+)!g8KL><)!+)!{>9!FY89)!+)!!r:@FY:GM)! +!_566ò+!W8<LJ8GH:Y8! H>V:9?!>L!8?FG89H<:G!>9GMF<:9?!>9Q!>QnNLHI89H+!Journal of Personal- %(=-3'G-I*$%31-/!=$0*1*+=,-MF)!f5szff\+ References t:GMMF<9)!+)!W8<98<)!7+)!p8:LL)!+)!g<F9R:GM@8<)!+)!mH>89)!p+)!!>O QN<98<)!r+!_566\`+! 8IJF<FOJ><:8H>@!nN9GH:F9!>GH:Y:HK!:9!HM8F<KOF;O I:9Q!H>LVLT!>@L898LL)!R8@:8;L)!F<!>HH89H:F9+!Journal of Cognitive Neu4*!$%&'$&,-K._v`)!((s\z((\5+ t@R<8GMHL89)!7+)!8:LL98<)!+)!!mNL>)!g+!_566\`+!>9!:9HN:H:F9!:IJ<FY8! Q8G8JH:F9!Q8H8GH:F9!J8<;F<I>9G8!Journal of Experimental Social Psy- $0*1*+=,-;C_ò)!(6,5z(6,,+ t@H8<)! t+)! qJJ89M8:I8<)! h+)! J@8K)! =+)! ! K<8)! i+! _566s`+! qY8<GFIO :9?!:9HN:H:F9T!8H>GF?9:H:Y8!Q:|GN@HK!>GH:Y>H8L!>9>@KH:G!<8>LF9:9?+! >*"4'31-*?-@A2&4%B&'(31-/!=$0*1*+=NO&'&431,-.6J_ò)!,v\z,sv+ tJJ8<@K)!U+)!>GV)!+)!m>ILF9)!h+)!!<>9G8)!+!_566k`+!^M8!GFLH!F;!HM:9VO :9?! >RFNH! ;>@L8! R8@:8;LT! Y:Q89G8! ;<FI! >QN@HLZ! J8<;F<I>9G8! F9! >! 9F9O:9;8<89H:>@!HM8F<K!F;!I:9Q!H>LV+!)*+'%(%*',-.EJ_f`)!(6\fz((6k+ tJJ8<@K)!U+)!i:??L)!g+)!m:IJLF9)!t+)!M:>Y><:9F)!+)!!m>ILF9)!h+!_566v`+! UL!R8@:8;!<8>LF9:9?!>NHFI>H:G!/!=$0*1*+%$31-I$%&'$&,-.F_(6`)!ko(+ :<GM+!_566ò+!9Q8<LH>9Q:9?!GM:@Q<89ZL!>9Q!>QN@HLZ!@:I:H>H:F9L!:9!I89O H>@!LH>H8!<8>LF9:9?)!Trends in Cognitive Sciences!_{F@+!k)!JJ+!5,,`+ :<GM)! m+)!!@FFI)!W+! _566s`+!^M8! GN<L8!F;! V9FS@8Q?8! :9! <8>LF9:9?! >RFNH!;>@L8!R8@:8;L+!/!=$0*1*+%$31-I$%&'$&,-.M_,`)!fk5+ FFHM)! 7+)!P>@@)!p+)!iFR:LF9)!r+)!!g:I)!m+! _(\\s`+!tGcN:L:H:F9!F;! HM8! I89H>@!LH>H8!Y8<R!bV9FSd!RK!5OHF!,OK8><OF@Q!GM:@Q<89+!Journal of Psy- $0*1%'+"%!(%$-:&!&34$0,-KJ_v`)!,k(zv6f+ ><K)!+)!!i8Q8<)!+!_5665`+!8H>GF?9:H:F9!:9!LH<>H8?K!L8@8GH:F9T!r:YO :9?!GF9LG:FNL98LL!HFF!INGM!G<8Q:H+!U9!W+!M>IR<8L!!+!Uj>NH8!! W+O7+!><8LG>Na! _QL+`)!Metacognition: Process, function, and use! _JJ+! vfzsk`+!=8S!}F<VT!g@NS8<+ M>:V89)!m+)!! <FJ8)!}+!_(\\\`+!Dual-Process Theories in Social Psychology+!=8S!}F<VT!rN:@;F<Q!W<8LL+ M<:LH89L89)!h+!_566ò+!Putting Logic in its Place: Formal Constraints on Rational Belief+!=8S!}F<VT!qa;F<Q!9:Y8<L:HK!W<8LL+ @88<8I>9L)! t+)! ! 7:I98j)! +! _5665`+! UIJ@:G:H! @8><9:9?! >9Q! GF9O LG:FNL98LLT!t!?<>Q8Q)!QK9>I:G!J8<LJ8GH:Y8+! U9!i+!+!<89GM!!t+! ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!5v!!z "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` rF@QI>9)!t+! _(\\f`+!J:LH8I:G! ;F@VS>KL!>9Q! LG:89H:eG!8J:LH8IF@F?K+! Philosophical Issues)!5s(z5k,+ rF@QI>9)!t+!_566v`+!Simulating minds: The philosophy, psychology, and neuroscience of mindreading+!=8S!}F<VT!qa;F<Q!9:Y8<L:HK!W<8LL+ rFJ9:V)! t+)! ! p8@@I>9)! P+! _(\\ò+! ^M8! HM8F<K! HM8F<K+! U9! +!t+! P:<LGMe8@Q!!m+!t+!r8@I>9!_QL+`)!Mapping the mind: Domain speciP$%(=- %'-$*+'%(%*'-3'G-$"1("4&! _JJ+!5,sz5\f`+!=8S!}F<VT!>IR<:Q?8! 9:Y8<L:HK!W<8LL+ rFN@Q)!m+!_(\\5`+!L"11=-?*4-Q4*'(*!3"4"!R-:&S&$(%*'!-%'-'3("431-0%!(*4=T!pp! =F<HF9!!FIJ>9K+ P><I>9)!r+!_(\sf`+!ThoughtT!W<:9G8HF9!9:Y8<L:HK!W<8LL!W<:9G8HF9)!=7+ P><I>9)!r+!_(\kv`+!Change in View: Principles of ReasoningT!Û!W<8LL+ P><I>9)!r+)!!mM8<I>9)!+!_566ò+!g9FS@8Q?8)!>LLNIJH:F9L)!@FHH8<:8L+! /0%1*!*20%$31-T!!"&!,-.;_(`)!o\5z,66+ P>LLF9)!+)!!r@NGVLR8<?)! m+! _566v`+!hF8L!N9Q8<LH>9Q:9?!98?>H:F9! 89H>:@!>|<I>H:F9!t9!8a>I:9>H:F9!F;!98?>H8Q!I8H>JMF<L+!Journal *?-/43+B3(%$!,-6M_s`)!(6(,z(6f5+ P>SHMF<98)!7+!_566ò+!Knowledge and Lotteries+!=8S!}F<VT!qa;F<Q!9:O Y8<L:HK!W<8LL+ P>SHMF<98)! 7+! _566,`+! ^M8! G>L8! ;F<! G@FLN<8+! U9!+! mH8NJ!! +! mFL>! _QL+`)!Contemporary Debates in Epistemology! _JJ+! 5vzof`+!>@Q89)! tT!@>GVS8@@+ PNI8)!h+! _(sf\(\sk`+!A Treatise of Human Nature, W+P.!=:QQ:HGM)! 8Q+! =8S!}F<VT!qa;F<Q!9:Y8<L:HK!W<8LL+ 7FM9LF9)!+! _(\\s`+! UQ89H:;K:9?! HM8!F<:?:9!F;!I89H>@!8aJ8<:89G8+!The Mythomanias: The Nature of Deception and Self–Deception! _(ffz(k6`+! >MS>M)!=7T!<@R>NI+ 7FM9LF9)!+)!i>K8)!+)!mGM>GH8<)!h+)!!mG><<K)!+!_5666`+!F?9:H:Y8!>9Q! <>:9!8GM>9:LIL!F;!>@L8!8IF<:8L!>9Q!8@:8;L+!U9!h+!mGM>GMH8<)! >9Q! +! mG><<K! _QL+`)! Memory, brain and belief! _JJ+! f,zkv`+! >IO R<:Q?8T!P><Y><Q!9:Y8<L:HK!W<8LL+ 7FM9LF9)!+!g+)!P>LMH<FNQ:)!m+)!!:9QL>K)!h+!m+! _(\\f`+!mFN<G8!IF9:O HF<:9?+!/!=$0*1*+%$31-L"11&(%',-..;_(`)!fz5k+ g>M98I>9)!h+)!!<8Q8<:GV)!m+!_566,`+!t!IFQ8@!F;!M8N<:LH:G!nNQ?I89H+! Y>9L)!7+!_566v`+!^M8!M8N<:LH:GO>9>@KH:G!HM8F<K!F;!<8>LF9:9?T!aH89L:F9! >9Q!8Y>@N>H:F9+!/!=$0*'*B%$-L"11&(%'-9-:&5%&U,-.6_f`)!fskzf\,+ Y>9L)! 7+! _566s>`+!hN>@OJ<FG8LL:9?! >GGFN9HL! F;! <8>LF9:9?)! nNQ?I89H)! >9Q!LFG:>@!GF?9:H:F9+!V''"31-:&5%&U-*?-/!=$0*1*+=,-CD)!5,,z5sk+ Y>9L)!7+!_566sR`+!Hypothetical Thinking: Dual Processes in Reasoning and Judgment+!=8S!}F<VT!WLKGMF@F?K!W<8LL+ >9H@)!7+)!!Gr<>HM)!+!_566s`+!q9!W<>?I>H:G!9G<F>GMI89H!:9!J:LH8O IF@F?K+!/0%1*!*20=-3'G-/0&'*B&'*1*+%$31-:&!&34$0,-FC_f`)!,,k+ :<HM)!i+!_(\sk`+!t<8!J:LH8I:G!GF9G8JHL!<8QNG:R@8!HF!8HM:G>@!GF9G8JHL! U9!t+!rF@QI>9!! 7+! g:I! _QL+`)!Values and Morals! _JJ+! 5(,z55\`+! hF<Q<8GMHT!h+!i8:Q8@+ <>9V)!i+)!!P>@@)!p+!_(\\(`+!WF@KL8IK!>9Q!HM8!>GcN:L:H:F9!F;!HM8!GF?9:O H:Y8!:9H8<9>@!LH>H8!@8a:GF9+!>*"4'31-*?-/!=$0*1%'+"%!(%$-:&!&34$0,-KE_ò)! 5kfzf6o+ <>9V:LM)!g+!_566\`+!mKLH8IL!>9Q!@8Y8@LT!QN>@OLKLH8I!HM8F<:8L!>9Q!HM8! J8<LF9>@OLNRJ8<LF9>@!Q:LH:9GH:F9+!U9!7+!Y>9L!!g+!<>9V:LM!_QL+`)! In Two Minds: Dual Processes and Beyond! _JJ+! k\z(6s`+!=8S!}F<VT! qa;F<Q+ <>9V:LM)!g+)!!Y>9L)!7+!_566\`+!^M8!QN>@:HK!F;!I:9QT!>9!M:LHF<:G>@!J8<O LJ8GH:Y8+!U9!g+!<>9V:LM!!7+!Y>9L!_QL+`)!In Two Minds: Dual Process Theory and Beyond!_JJ+!(z5\`+!qa;F<QT!qa;F<Q!9:Y8<L:HK!W<8LL+ r89Q@8<)! +)!!P>SHMF<98)!7+!_566,`+!^M8!i8>@!rN:Q8!HF!>V8!><9LT!t! >H>@F?N8!F;!r:;HL!;F<!}FN<!J:LH8I:G!98I:8L+!Philosophical Studies, .K;_f`)!ff(zf,5+ r:?8<89j8<)!r+!_566k`+!pMK!M8N<:LH:GL!SF<V+!Perspectives on Psychologi- $31-I$%&'$&,-6_(`)!56+ r:@R8<H)!h+!_(\\(`+!PFS!I89H>@!LKLH8IL!R8@:8Y8+!The American Psycholo- +%!(,-;J_5`)!(6sz((\+ r:@R8<H)!h+! _(\k\`+! ^M:9V:9?! @:?MH@K! >RFNH! FHM8<LT!tNHFI>H:G! GFIJFO 989HL!F;!HM8!LFG:>@!:9;8<89G8!J<FG8LL+!U9!7+!m+!@8I>9!!7+!t+!><?M! _QL+`)!Unintended Thought!_JJ+!(k\z5((`+!=8S!}F<VT!rN:@Q;F<Q!W<8LL+ r:?8<89j8<)!r+)!PF<>?8)!+!>9Q!g@8:9R@H:9?)!P+!_(\\(`+!W<FR>R:@:LH:G! 89H>@!FQ8@LT!t!<N9LS:V:>9!^M8F<K!F;!F9eQ89G8)!WLKGMF@F?:O G>@!i8Y:8S)!\k!_ò)!,6vz,5k+ ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!5s!!z "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` =>?8@)!7+!_566k`+!g9FS@8Q?8!>LG<:JH:F9L!>9Q!HM8!JLKGMF@F?:G>@!GF9L8O cN89G8L!F;!GM>9?:9?!LH>V8L+!V"!(4313!%3'->*"4'31-*?-/0%1*!*20=,-MJ_5`)! 5s\z5\o+ =>?8@)! 7+! _56(6`+! g9FS@8Q?8! >LG<:JH:F9L! >9Q! HM8! JLKGMF@F?:G>@! GF9O L8cN89G8L!F;!HM:9V:9?!>RFNH!8<<F<+!/0%1*!*20%$31-<"34(&41=,-JE_5f\`)! 5kvzf6v+ =8@V:9)!h+!_5666`+! M8!@FHH8<K!J><>QFa)!V9FS@8Q?8)!>9Q!<>H:F9>@:HK+!The /0%1*!*20%$31-:&5%&U,-.ED_f`)!fsfzo6\+ =:GV8<LF9)! i+!m+! _(\\\`+! PFS! S8! V9FS!u!>9Q! LFI8H:I8L! I:LO nNQ?8!u!SM>H!FHM8<L!V9FST!UIJNH:9?!F98ZL!FS9!V9FS@8Q?8!HF!FHMO 8<L+!/!=$0*1*+%$31-L"11&(%',-.KC_v`)!sfszs,\+ q>VL;F<Q)!+)!!M>H8<)!=+!_566s`+!Bayesian Rationality: The Probabilistic Approach to Human Reasoning+!=8S!}F<VT!qa;F<Q!9:Y8<L:HK!W<8LL+ qLI>9)!+!_566ò+!t9!8Y>@N>H:F9!F;!QN>@OJ<FG8LL!HM8F<:8L!F;!<8>LF9O :9?+!/!=$0*'*B%$-L"11&(%'-9-:&5%&U,-.._v`)!\kk+ i:GM><Q)!+!_566ò+!F9H8aHN>@:LI!>9Q!<8@>H:Y:LI+!Philosophical Studies, ..D)!5(,z5o5+ iFNLM)!m+!_566,`+!Tracking Truth+!=8S!}F<VT!qa;F<Q!9:Y8<L:HK!W<8LL+ m>HJNH8)!t+)!!:8R8<I>9)!+!_566v`+!U9H8?<>H:9?!>NHFI>H:G!>9Q!GF9O H<F@@8Q! J<FG8LL8L! :9HF! 98N<FGF?9:H:Y8!IFQ8@L! F;! LFG:>@! GF?9:H:F9+! L43%'-:&!&34$0,-.EFD_(`)!kvz\s+ m>a8)!i+! _566v`+!pMK!>9Q!MFS! HF! LHNQK!^M8F<K!F;!:9Q!S:HM! ;iU+! L43%'-:&!&34$0,-.EFD_(`)!,szv,+ m>a8)!i+)!!g>9S:LM8<)!=+!_566f`+!W8FJ@8!HM:9V:9?!>RFNH!HM:9V:9?!J8FO J@8!^M8!<F@8!F;! HM8!H8IJF<FOJ><:8H>@! nN9GH:F9!:9!bHM8F<K!F;!I:9Qd+! W&"4*%B3+&,-.D_ò)!(kf,z(ko5+ m>a8)!i+)!mGMN@j)!+)!!7:>9?)!}+!_566v`+!i8>Q:9?!I:9QL!Y8<LNL!;F@@FSO :9?!<N@8LT!h:LLFG:>H:9?!HM8F<K!F;!I:9Q!>9Q!8a8GNH:Y8!GF9H<F@!:9!HM8! R<>:9+!I*$%31-W&"4*!$%&'$&,-._f`)!5koz5\k+ mGM:<:9)!i+)!!mGM98:Q8<)!p+!_(\ss`+!F9H<F@@8Q!>9Q!>NHFI>H:G!MNI>9! :9;F<I>H:F9!J<FG8LL:9?T! U!h8H8GH:F9)!L8><GM!>9Q!>HH89H:F9+!Psycho1*+%$31-:&5%&U,-M;)!(zvv+ mGMS><j)!=+!_(\\k`+!tGG8LL:R@8!GF9H89H!>9Q!>GG8LL:R:@:HK!8aJ8<:89G8LT! U9!g+!7+!PF@KF>V!!i+!r+!F<<:LF9!_QL+`)!The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning! _JJ+! 5vsz5\f`+!=8S!}F<VT!>IR<:Q?8!9:O Y8<L:HK!W<8LL+ g>M98I>9)!h+)!! Ŷ8<LVK)!t+! _(\s5`+! mNRn8GH:Y8! J<FR>R:@:HKT!t! nNQ?O I89H!F;!<8J<8L89H>H:Y898LL+!)*+'%(%5&-/!=$0*1*+=,-6_f`)!of6zo,o+ g8@@8K)!+!_(\\f`+!i8I8IR8<:9?!I:LH>V89!;F<!V9FS:9?T!>L8!F;!<8H<:8YO >@!>L!>!R>L:L!;F<!GF9eQ89G8!:9!>9LS8<L!HF!?898<>@!V9FS@8Q?8!cN8LO H:F9L)!Journal of Memory and Language!_{F@+!f5)!JJ+!(`+ g8KL><)!+)!:9)!m+)!!><<)!h+!_566f`+!:I:HL!F9!HM8F<K!F;!I:9Q!NL8!:9! >QN@HL+!)*+'%(%*',-MD_(`)!5,zo(+ g:9Q8<I>9)! W+)! hN9R><)! i+)! ! 89H>@@)! i+! _(\\k`+! ^M8F<KOF;OI:9Q! Q8eG:HL! >9Q! G>NL>@! >HH<:RNH:F9L+!L4%(%!0- >*"4'31- *?-/!=$0*1*+=,-MD_5`)! (\(z56o+ gF<9R@:HM)!P+!_566,`+!Knowledge and its Place in Nature+!=8S!}F<VT!qaO ;F<Q!9:Y8<L:HK!W<8LL+ gF<9R@:HM)!P+!_56(6`+!pM>H!<8~8GH:Y8!89QF<L8I89H!G>99FH!QF+!Philoso20=-3'G-/0&'*B&'*1*+%$31-:&!&34$0,-ME_(`)!(z(\+ g<N?@>9LV:)!t+!p+)!!p8RLH8<)!h+!+!_(\\v`+!FH:Y>H8Q!G@FL:9?!F;! HM8! I:9QT!Zm8:j:9?ZZ!>9Q!Z<88j:9?ZZ+!/!=$0*1*+%$31-4&5%&U,-.E6_5`)!5vfz5kf+ gN9Q>)!+!_(\\6`+!^M8!G>L8!;F<!IFH:Y>H8Q!<8>LF9:9?+!Psychological Bul1&(%',-.EM_f`)!ok6zo\k+ gKRN<?)! P+! _(\v(`+! Probability and the Logic of Rational Belief+! :QQ@8O HFS9)! T!p8L@8K>9!9:Y8<L:HK!W<8LL+ 88GM)! r+)! i>KLF9)! W+)! !p:@LF9)! t+! _566(`+!Word frequencies in written and spoken English: based on the British National Corpus+!F9QF9T! F9?I>9+ 8<98<)! 7+!m+)!! 8H@FGV)!W+!+! _(\\\`+!tGGFN9H:9?! ;F<! HM8!8GHL!F;!tGO GFN9H>R:@:HK+!/!=$0*1*+%$31-L"11&(%',-.KC_5`)!5,,z5s,+ 8L@:8)!t+)!<:8QI>9)!q+)!!r8<I>9)! +! _566ò+!F<8!I8GM>9:LIL! :9! HM8F<K!F;!I:9Q+!74&'G!-%'-)*+'%(%5&-I$%&'$&!,-M_(5`)!,5kz,ff+ 8S:L)!h+!_(\\v`+!@NL:Y8!g9FS@8Q?8+!Australasian Journal of Philosophy, F;_ò)!,o\z,vs+ >G><@>98)!7+!_566,`+!^M8!>LL8LLI89H!L89L:H:Y:HK!F;!V9FS@8Q?8!>HH<:O RNH:F9L+!Oxford Studies in Epistemology)!(\sz5ff+ ! w'**xA'.!*-y'$ The Psychological Basis of the Harman-Vogel Paradox C0x$#E#C0'.EZ!x&C.x*B! z!!5k!!z "#$+!(6)!*#+!(,!_&-./0!1233` {F?8@)! 7+!_(\\6`+!t<8!HM8<8!GFN9H8<8a>IJ@8L!HF!HM8!G@FLN<8!J<:9G:J@8! U9!+!iFHM!!r+!iFLL!_QL+`)!Doubting: Contemporary Perspectives on Skepticism!_JJ+!(fz5,`+!hF<Q<8GMHT!g@NS8<+ {F?8@)!7+!_(\\f`+!h:LI:LL:9?!LV8JH:G>@!JFLL:R:@:H:8L+!Philosophical Studies, FE_f`)!5f,z5,6+ {F?8@)! 7+! _566ò+! mJ8>V:9?! F;! V9FS@8Q?8+! WM:@FLFJM:G>@! ULLN8L! (o)! ,6(O,6\+ p:@@:>ILF9)! +!_5666`+!Knowledge and its Limits+!=8S!}F<VT!qa;F<Q!9:O Y8<L:HK!W<8LL+ p:@@:>ILF9)! +! _566,`+! F9H8aHN>@:LI)! mNRn8GHOm89L:H:Y8! U9Y><:>9O H:LI!>9Q!g9FS@8Q?8!F;!g9FS@8Q?8+!70&-/0%1*!*20%$31-<"34(&41=,-CC, 5(fz5f,+ p:@LF9)! +)!!mGMFF@8<)!7+!_(\\(`+!^M:9V:9?!HFF!INGMT!U9H<FLJ8GH:F9!G>9! <8QNG8!HM8!cN>@:HK!F;!J<8;8<89G8L!>9Q!Q8G:L:F9L+!Jornal of Personality 3'G-I*$%31-/!=$0*1*+=,-JE_5`)!(k(z(\5+ p:9QLGM:H@)!W+)!!p8@@L)!r+!_(\\v`+!8>LN<:9?!JLKGMF@F?:G>@!N9G8<H>:9O HKT!Y8<R>@!Y8<LNL!9NI8<:G!I8HMFQL+!Journal of Experimental Psychol- *+=-V221%&G,-K)!fofzfvo+  ^M8! :9H8<J@>K!F;!Q8G@><>H:Y8!>9Q!8aJ8<:89H:>@! :9;F<I>H:F9! :9! nNQ?O I89H+!/&4!*'31%(=-3'G-I*$%31-/!=$0*1*+=-:&5%&U,-K_5`)!ks+ mGMS><j)!=+!_566ò+!8H>GF?9:H:Y8!8aJ8<:89G8L!:9!GF9LNI8<!nNQ?I89H! >9Q!Q8G:L:F9!I>V:9?+!>*"4'31-*?-)*'!"B&4-/!=$0*1*+=,-.;_ò)!ff5zfok+ mGMS><j)!=+! _566s`+!tHH:HNQ8!GF9LH<NGH:F9T!Y>@N>H:F9! :9!GF9H8aH+!So- $%31-)*+'%(%*',-KC_,`)!vfkzv,v+ m:IF9LF9)!U+)!!=K8)!W+!_(\\5`+!^M8!88GH!F;!>GGFN9H>R:@:HK!F9!LNLG8JH:O R:@:HK!HF!Q8G:L:F9!8<<F<L+!Organizational Behavior and Human Decision /4*$&!!&!,-C._f`)!o(vzoov+ m@FI>9)!m+!_(\\v`+!^M8!IJ:<:G>@!>L8!;F<!^SF!mKLH8IL!F;!i8>LF9:9?+! /!=$0*1*+%$31-L"11&(%',-..D)!fz55+ mH>9@8K)!7+!_566,`+!Knowledge and Practical Interests+!=8S!}F<VT!qa;F<Q! 9:Y8<L:HK!W<8LL+ mH>9FY:GM)!g+!_(\\\`+!X0*-%!-:3(%*'31YR-I("G%&!-%'-T'G%5%G"31-Z%[&4&'$&!-%'Reasoning+!>MS>M)!=7T!>S<89G8!<@R>NI+ mH>9FY:GM)!g+! _566\`+!h:LH:9?N:LM:9?! HM8! <8~8GH:Y8)! >@?F<:HMI:G)! >9Q! >NHF9FIFNL!I:9QLT!UL!:H!H:I8!;F<!>!H<:OJ<FG8LL!HM8F<K!U9!g+!<>9VO :LM!!7+!m+!+! +!Y>9L!_QL+`)!In Two Minds: Dual Process and Beyond _JJ+!,,zkk`+!=8S!}F<VT!qa;F<Q!9:Y8<L:HK!W<8LL+ mH>9FY:GM)! g+)! !p8LH)! i+! _(\\k`+! U9Q:Y:QN>@! Q:8<89G8L! :9! <>H:F9>@! HMFN?MH+!>*"4'31-*?-@A2&4%B&'(31-/!=$0*1*+=R-O&'&431,-.KF)!(v(z(kk+ mH>9FY:GM)! g+)!!p8LH)! i+! _566k`+! q9! HM8! <8@>H:Y8! :9Q8J89Q89G8! F;! HM:9V:9?!R:>L8L!>9Q!GF?9:H:Y8!>R:@:HK+!Journal of Personality and Social /!=$0*1*+=,-D;_ò)!vs5+ mH<>GV)! +)! ! h8NHLGM)! i+! _566ò+! i8~8GH:Y8! >9Q! :IJN@L:Y8! Q8H8<I:O 9>9HL!F;!LFG:>@!R8M>Y:F<+!/&4!*'31%(=-3'G-I*$%31-/!=$0*1*+=-:&5%&U,-M, 556z5os+ 8989R>NI)! m+! _(\\\`+! ^M8! nNQ?I89H! F;! >!S8>V!S:@@+!Philosophy and /0&'*B&'*1*+%$31-:&!&34$0,-CD_ò)!ks,z\((+ Ŷ8<LVK)! t+)! ! g>M98I>9)! h+! _(\sò+! 7NQ?I89H! N9Q8<! N9G8<H>:9HKT! P8N<:LH:GL!>9Q!R:>L8L+!I$%&'$&,-.MC_o(,s`)!((5oz((f(+ Ŷ8<LVK)!t+)!!g>M98I>9)!h+!_(\kf`+!aH89L:F9>@!Y8<LNL!U9HN:H:Y8!i8>O LF9:9?T!^M8!F9nN9GH:F9!>@@>GK! :9!W<FR>R:@:HK! 7NQ?I89H+!Psycho1*+%$31-:&5%&U,-DE_ò)!5\fzf(,+