Hidroterapi

Hidroterapi, dahulunya dikenali sebagai hidropathi, membabitkan penggunaan air untuk melegakan kesakitan dan merawat penyakit. Istilah Hidroterapi itu sendiri adalah sinonim dengan istilah penawar air sebagaimana ia pada asalnya dipasarkan oleh pengamal dan promoter dalam abad ke-19. Hidroterapi pula adalah seseorang yang mengamalkan hidroterapi.

Penawar air kini terdapat dalam dua istilah yang bertentangan, yang boleh menyebabkan kekeliruan.
(A) Rawatan penawar air - rawatan perubatan khusus oleh hidroterapi
(B) Siksaan penawar air - satu bentuk penyeksaan di mana seseorang itu dipaksa untuk minum air dalam kuantiti yang besar. 
</blockquote>  Pengertian yang digunakan dalam rencana ini adalah yang pertama, sinonim dengan istilah hidroterapi, dan yang mendahului penggunaan erti kata yang kedua yang direkodkan. 

Hidroterapi secara umumnya merangkumi pelbagai pendekatan dan istilah mereka. Ini terdiri daripada pendekatan dan takrifan yang sama ada secara semulajadi berbeza, atau dicipta bagi tujuan pemasaran, pendekatan dan takrifan yang bertindan dengan ketara, dan yang boleh menjadi sukar untuk diuraikan.

Satu pertindanan itu berkaitan dengan spa. Menurut Persatuan SPA Antarabangsa (ISPA), hidroterapi telah lama menjadi asas bagi spa di Eropah. Ia merupakan istilah generik bagi rawatan air menggunakan jet, mengurut dalam air dan mandian mineral (contohnya balneoterapi , rawatan Iodin-Grine, rawatan Kneipp , hos/pancuran Scotch, mandi Switzerland, thalassoterapi) dan lain-lain. Ia juga boleh bererti mandi pusaran air, mandian Rom panas, tab panas, jakuzi, terjun sejuk dan mandi mineral. Rawatan ini menggunakan sifat fizikal air, seperti suhu dan tekanan, bagi tujuan terapeutik, untuk merangsang peredaran darah dan merawat gejala penyakit tertentu.

Latar belakang sejarah
Pelbagai bentuk hidroterapi telah dicatatkan semasa tamadun-tamadun Mesir, Yunani dan Rom purba. Kerabat diraja Mesir mandi dengan minyak pati bunga dan, manakala orang-orang Rom mandi beramai-ramai dalam kalangan warga mereka. Hippokrates mencadangkan mandi di mata air untuk merawat penyakit. Budaya lain yang terkenal dengan sejarah yang hidroterapi yang panjang termasuk China dan Jepun,  di Jepun biasanya ini tertumpu terutamanya di sekeliling mata air panas atau "onsen"). Kebanyakannya mendahului sejarah Thermae Rom. 

Selepas kelihatannya terhapus semasa Zaman Pertengahan, hidroterapi telah kembali semula pada abad 18 dan 19 oleh mereka seperti J.S.Hahn, MD, (1696–1773), Philippe Pinel, Vincent Priessnitz (1799–1851), Professor E.F.C. Oertel (1764–1850), and J.H. Rausse (1805–1848).

Semasa abad ke-19, kebangkitan kepopularan semula diikuti penggunaan hidroterapi sekitar 1829 oleh Priessnitz, seorang petani ladang di Gräfenberg yang ketika itu merupakan sebahagian daripada Empayar Austria.  Kebangkitan ini telah diteruskan oleh paderi Bavarian, Sebastian Kneipp (1821-1897), "pengikut yang berkebolehan dan bersemangat" bagi Priessnitz, "yang usahanya telah menyambung di mana ditinggalkan oleh Priessnitz",  selepas dia membaca suatu risalah mengenai penawar air sejuk. Di Wörishofen (selatan Jerman), Kneipp membangunkan penggunaan hidroterapi sistematik dan terkawal sebagai rawatan perubatan sokongan yang diberikan oleh doktor pada masa itu. Buku Kneipp sendiri Penyembuh Air Saya telah diterbitkan pada tahun 1886 dengan banyak edisi berikutnya, dan diterjemahkan ke dalam banyak bahasa.

Satu faktor penting mengenai kebangkitan popular hidroterapi adalah bahawa ia boleh diamalkan dengan agak murah di rumah. Pertumbuhan hidroterapi (atau 'rawatan hidropathi air' bagi nama masa itu), dengan itu terhasil dari dua sfera bertindak balas: "hidro dan rumah".

Penggunaan air sejuk
Krioterapi, rendaman air sejuk atau mandian ais merupakan satu lagi bentuk hidroterapi yang digunakan oleh ahli-ahli terapi fizikal, kemudahan perubatan sukan dan klinik pemulihan. Penyokong mendakwa peningkatan aliran darah yang baik dan hasil sampingan penguraian sel ke sistem limfa dan kitar semula yang lebih cekap.

Hidroterapi selaman
Hidroterapi yang membabitkan menenggelamkan sebahagian atau keseluruhan bahagian tubuh dalam air boleh membabitkan beberapa jenis peralatan:
 Tangki penengelaman badan sepenuhnya ("tangki Hubbard" bersaiz besar)
 Arm, hip, and leg whirlpool

Pergerakan pusaran air, dihasilkan oleh pam mekanikal, telah digunakan dalam tangki air sejak seawal 1940-an.  Teknologi serupa telah digunakan bagi tujuan riadah di bawah istilah "tub air panas" atau "spa".

Pusat Hidropathik 
Pusat Hidropathik merupakan tempat orang menerima rawatan hidropathik. Ia biasanya di bina di bandar spa, di mana air yang kaya dengan galian atau mata air panas wujud secara semula jadi.

Beberapa Pusat Hidropathik mengubah operasi mereka dari tujuan therapeutik kepada menjadi hotel pelancong sepenuhnya pada akhir abad ke-20 sementara masih mengekalkan nama 'Hidro'. Terdapat beberapa contoh terkemuka di Scotland di Crieff, Peebles dan Seamill antara lainnya.

Contoh kemudahan 

Note: For European and U.K. establishments, where there is no citation alongside an establishment, it is safe to assume that reference to it was found in one of the citations placed atop the list for efficiency. Additional citations are added where there is also another source of interest.

Europe
List as at 1840 by Claridge, with additional citations. Geographical names per that era.
Austria, Silesia
Graefenberg (Priessnitz's establishment), Graefenberg, Silesia (c.1829~?).
Dr Joseph Weiss' hydro, Freiwaldau, Silesia (1831~1841).
Karlsbrunn (between Freiwaldau, Jagerndorf & Feidenthal). Dr Malik
Weidenau, on the slopes of the Sudates. Dr Frolich.
Schroth's establishment, Lindeweise, Silesia.
Archduchy of Austria
Dr Wilhelm Winternitz's establishment, Kaltenleutgeben, Austria (June 1865-?).
Laale, near Kaltenleutgeben. Dr. Granichstadten, author of Hydriasiologia.
Dr Johan Emmel's Priesnitz Establishment, Kaltenleutgeben, Wienerwald, Austria (1835-?).
Bohemia
Elisenbad, Near Chrudin. Dr. Weidenhoffer.
Dobrawitz, near Jungbunzlau. Dr. Schmidt.
Leitmeritz. Dr. Lauda.
Kuechelbad, near Prague. Dr. Kanzler.
Moravia
Czenrahora, around Olmutz.
Sulowitz, near Brunn.
Hoznau, near Prerau
Budischan, near Iglau
Gross Ullersdorf, near Olmutz. Dr. Gross
Hungary and Transylvania
Peterwardein (director unknown to Claridge)
Oedenburg (director unknown to Claridge)
Hermanstadt (director unknown to Claridge)
Muhlan, near Inspruck, in the Tyrol. Dr. Fritz
Prussia
Oberrigk, near Trebnitz & Breslau. Dr. Lehman
Alt Scheitnig, near Breslau. Dr. Burkner.
Berlin. Directed by Major Plehwe, partner Dr. Beck.
Marienbad.
Bendler Strosse, No. 8, Berlin. Dr. Moser. Plus 3rd Berlin establishment
Koethen, near Berlin. Mr Falkenstein, author of The wonderful cures of Graefenberg.
Gorhrishowo, near Bromberg, in Grand Duchy of Posen. Dr. Barschewitz.
Kunzendorf, near Neurode, in province of Glatz. Mr Niederfuhr.
Marienberg, near Boppard around Coblentz. Dr. Schmitz, editor of the Journal on Hydropathy.
Bavaria
Alexandersbad Hydropathic Establishment, near Wunsiedel. Dr. Fickentscher/Fikenher. (pre-1840-1860s+).
Streitberg, between Erlangen and Baireuth
Schafllarn, near Munich. Dr. Horner
Munich, Nymphenburg Strasse, No.86
Lake Starnberg. Dr. Schnitzlein, also author of a work on Hydropathy.
Schallersdorf, near Erlangen. Professor Dr. Fleischmann.
Dr. Oertel, Anspach.
Württemberg
Dr. Bentsch, near Ulm.
Saxony
Dr. Muller, in Swiss Saxony, near Pirna in Bila valley.
Kreischa, near Dresden. Dr. Stecher.
Muldenthal, near Frieberg. Mr. Munde, author of a hydropathic work.
Saxe Gotha
Elgersburg. Dr. Piutti, appointed by Duke of Saxe Coburg Gotha in 1838
Saxe Weimar
Ilmenau hydropathic establishment (Drs Schwabe, Fitzler, Baumbach, Preller) (c.1841-1865+). (Claridge says "Dr Sitzler")
Brunswick
Kaulnitz. Director not named.
Poland
Warsaw. Dr. Sauvan
Russia
St. Petersburg. Dr. Harnish.
Belgium
Ghent. Practitioner unknown.
Another near Brussels. Practitioner unknown.
France
Dr. Bigel, Strasburg.
Dr. Baldau, Paris.
Dr Beni-Barden's establishment, Auteuil, near Paris.
Dr Fleury's hydropathic establishment, Bellevne, France (c.1860-?).
Others
Tiefenau, near Elgg, Canton of Zurich, Switzerland, hydropathic establishment (Dr. Winkler) (c.1860s-?).
Dr J.H. Rausse's establishment, Mecklenburg, Germany (c.1837-?).

United Kingdom

England
Stand Steadbury, Hertfordshire (founded by Weiss) (1841-?).
Grafenberg House, Malvern, (founder Dr James Wilson) (June 1842-c1867 - death of Wilson).
Tudor House, Malvern founder Dr James Manby Gully (October 1842-c1872 - retirement of Gully).
Sudbrook Park, Richmond, Surrey (founder, Weiss) (1844-?).
Ben Rhydding Hydro, Ilkley, Yorkshire. (1844–1939)
Metcalfe's London Hydro (1898–1919).
Smedley's Hydro, Matlock, Derbyshire  (1860s-1950s)
West of England Hydro, Limpley Stoke (1862~1899).
Scotland, 19th centuryAngusfield, Aberdeen (1850 - )
Athole,  Pithlocry (1880 - )
Bridge of Allan (1855~1886+)
Callander (1882 - )
Cluny Hill, at Forres (1864~1874+)
Crieff, at Crieff (1868-current)
Craiglockhart Hydropathic, Edinburgh (1880~1915)
Deeside, near Cults [1874 (Heathcote) and 1899 (Murtle)]
Dunblane (Philps?), at Dunblane (1870~1936?)
Edinburgh, now part of St. Dunstans
Gilmour Hill, Glasgow (c.1857 - )
Glenburn, Rothesay, Bute (1843 - )
Kilmacolm (1880–1882)
Kim Pier, Dunoon (1846-)
Kyles of Bute, Port Bannantyne, Bute (1877 - )
Lochhead: Aberdeen (1851~1868).
Peebles, at Peebles (1881-current)
Pitlochry, at Pithlochry (1879 - )
Seamill, near West Kilbride (1880 - )
Shandon, near Helensburgh (~1877~1919).
Skelmorlie, Wemyss Bay (1880~1984)
St Helens and Waverly: Melrose (1869  )
Scotland, 1920s
Ard-Gairney Private Hydropathic, Kinross
Atholl Hotel Hydro, St. Andrews
Garrison Hydro, Millport
Grampian Hills Hydro, Crieff.
Taymouth Castle Hydro, Taymouth
Ireland
Dr Curtin's Hydropathic Establishment, Glenbrook, County Cork (1858~1870s).
St Ann's Hydropathic Establishment, Blarney, Co.Cork. (Founder Dr Richard Barter 

WalesLlandudno Hydropathic Establishment (c.1872~1905).
Unclear
The Rick James Institute.

United States of America
First known establishment at No. 63 Barclay St., New York. (1844-?). Proprietor David Campbell Physician Joel Shew.
New Lebanon Springs Water-Cure, Albany (2nd Dr Shew establishment), (May 1845-).
Brattleborough Hydropathic Establishment, aka Dr. Robert Wesselhoeft's water cure house (c.1844-1871). 3rd in U.S.A.
David Ruggles' water cure house, Florence, Massachusetts (c.1844-1849).
Oyster Bay water cure, Long Island (3rd Dr Shew estab.), (1847-).
Dr. E.E. Denniston's Round Hill Water-Cure, Northhampton, Massachusetts (1847-1860+).
Cleveland Water Cure Establishment, Cleveland, Ohio (1848–1868).
Dr Munde's Florence Water Cure (c.1850 - ?).
Oswego Water Cure, Oswego, New York (c.1850s).
Dr. Henry Foster's Clifton Springs Sanitarium (c.mid-to-late 19th century).
Battle Creek Sanitarium (1866-World War II).
Pennoyer's Kenosha Water Cure, Wisconsin (C.1870-1890).
Pennoyer Sanitarium (followed on from Kenosha Water Cure after fire: 1890-?).

Nota
a.  While the second sense, of water as a form of torture is documented back to at least the 15th century, the first use of the term Water cure as a torture is indirectly dated to around 1898, by U.S. soldiers in the Spanish-American war,  after the term had been introduced to America in the mid-19th century in the therapeutic sense, which was in widespread use. Indeed, while the torture sense of water cure was by 1900-1902 established in the American army, with a conscious sense of irony, this sense was not in widespread use. Webster's 1913 dictionary cited only the therapeutic sense, water cure being synonymous with hydropathy, the term by which hydrotherapy was known in the 19th century and early 20th century.

The late 19th century expropriation of the term water cure, already in use in the therapeutic sense, to denote the polar opposite of therapy, namely torture, has the hallmark of arising in the sense of irony. This would be in keeping with some of the reactions to water cure therapy and its promotion, which included not only criticism, but also parody and satire.

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