Maimonides

Abū ʿImrān Mūsā bin ʿUbaidallāh Maimūn al-Qurṭubī (, 30 Mac 1135 1138–13 Disember 1204) atau nama ringkasnya Musa bin Maimun (,  Rabai Moshe ben Maimon disingkatkan kepada רמב"ם Rambam,  Moses Maimonides) adalah ahli falsafah Yahudi Zaman Pertengahan yang cemerlang dan salah seorang sarjana pentafsir isi kitab Taurat terhebat pada zamannya. Beliau bekerja sebagai seorang rabai, doktor, dan ahli falsafah di Sepanyol, Maghribi dan Mesir. Beliau mengalakkan dan mengembangkan tradisi falfasah Aristoteles bersama Ibnu Rushd yang sezaman lalu kededua mereka mendapat pengaruh hebat yang mengesan di Barat yang telah lama melupakan penulisan dan pemikiran filsuf itu selama berabad-abad. Albert yang Agung dan Thomas Aquinas antara pemikir Barat terkenal yang membaca tulisan beliau.

Salah satu dari ajaran berpusat falsafah Maimonides adalah bahawa ia tidak mungkin untuk kebenaran bertiba oleh daya fikir manusia untuk bercanggah dengan yang telah diwahyukan oleh Tuhan. Maimonides memegang pada teologi apofatik secar terhad di mana hanya kenyataan negatif terhadap penjelasan Tuhan dapat dianggapkan benar. Oleh itu, seorang tidak berkata "Tuhan adalah Satu", tetapi daripada itu, "Tuhan tidak berkali ganda". Walaupun banyak gagasannya bertemu dengan pembangkangan ahli sezamannya, Maimonides telah diterima oleh para pemikir Yahudi kemudian. Mishneh Torah yang berjilid empat belas hari ini mengandungi otoriti berqanun sebagai kodifikasi hukum Talmud.

Walaupun karya salinan pada hukum dan etika Yahudi telah pada mulanya bertemu dengan pembangkangan sewaktu kehidupannya, setelah beliau meninggal dunia beliau dikenali sebagai salah seorang pengantara dan falsafah dalam sejarah Yahudi. Hari ini, karya-karyanya dan pandangannya dianggapkan suatu asas pemikiran dan pengajian Yahudi.

Biografi 

Tahun kelahirannya dipertikaikan, dengan Shlomo Pines menyarankan bahawa beliau dilahirkan pada tahun 1138. Beliau dilahirkan semasa zaman yang dianggap para sarjana sebagai penghujung zaman keemasan tamadun Yahudi di Sepanyol selepas kurun-kurun pertama peemrintahan orang Moor. Pada usia kanak-kanak, beliau mula berminat dengan sains tulen dan falsafah. Di samping pembacaan karya-karya sarjana Islam, beliau juga membaca karya-karya ahli falsafah Yunani yang tercapai menerusi terjemahan dalam bahasa Arab. Maimonides tidak dikenali sebagai penyokong Kabbalah. Beliau menyuarakan tentangan kepada puisi, puisi terbaik pun diisytihar sebagai palsu, memandangkan ia diasaskan atas rekaan semata-mata - dan ini juga di dalam bumi yang telah menghasilkan sebegitu banyak ungkapan-ungkapan indah ilham Ibrani dan Arab. Pendeta ini yang dimuliakan kerana personaliti waraknya dan juga kerana tulisan-tulisannya, menjalani kehidupan yang tidak tenteram, dan menulis banyak karya-karyanya ketika berkelana atau bermukim.  Maimonides mempelajari Torah daripada bapanya Maimon yang pula belajar dari Rabbi Joseph ibn Migash - seorang pelajar Isaac Alfasi.

Dinasti Muwahhid dari Afrika Utara menakluki Cordoba pada tahun 1148, dan mengancam masyarakat Yahudi di Sepanyol dengan pilihan sama ada memeluk Islam, mati atau buang negeri. Keluarga Maimonides beserta kebanyakan orang Yahudi memilih buang negeri. Dalam tempoh 10 tahun mereka berpindah ke selatan Perancis untuk mengelakkan diri daripada al-Muwahhidun, namun akhirnya mereka menetap di Fes di Maghribi. Dalam masa ini, beliau mengarang ulasannya yang disanjung ramai terhadap Mishnah pada tahun-tahun 1166-1168.

Selepas tinggal sementara di Maghribi, beliau dan keluarganya tinggal sebentar di Yerusalem sebelum menetap di Fustat, Mesir sekitar tahun 1168. Tidak lama kemudian, Maimonides membantu dalam usaha menyelamatkan orang-orang Yahudi Bilbays yang terperangkap selepas dikepung Raja Aumary terhadap sebuah bandar Mesir. Beliau mengirim lima pucuk surat kepada masyarakat-masyarakat Yahudi Mesir rendah yang meminta mereka mengumpulkan wang untuk membayar tebusan. Wang-wang itu dikumpulkan dan kemudian diserahkan kepada dua orang hakim yang dihantar ke Palestin untuk berunding dengan Tentera Salib. Tawanan-tawanan itu akhirnya dibebaskan. Berikutan kejayaan ini, keluarga Musa memberi simpanan mereka kepada anak bongsu, Daud, seorang pedagang dengan harapan beliau akan mengembangkan kekayaan mereka. Maimonides mengarahkannya supaya hanya mendapatkan barangan di pelabuhan Sudan, Aydhab, tetapi, setelah perjalanan yang sukar dan panjang melalui gurun, David tidak menyukai barangan yang ditawarkan di bandar pelabuhan itu. Jadi beliau belayar ke India bertentangan dengan kehendak abangnya memandangkan kekayaan besar dapat ditemui di Timur. Malangnya, David lemas di lautan sekitar 1169-1170 sebelum beliau berjaya sampai ke India. Kematian adiknya itu menyebabkan Maimonides jatuh sakit dengan hiba. Di dalam sepucuk surat yang dijumpai di Genizah Kaherah, beliau kemudian menjelaskan:

Selepas sembuh, beliau dilantik menjadi Nagid masyarakat Yahudi Mesir sekitar tahu 1171. Arabis S.D. Goitein percaya bahawa kepemimpinan yang ditunjukkannya semasa menebus tawanan Tentera Salib membawa kepada pelantikannya. Tetapi memandangkan keluarga Maimonides telah melaburkan simapanan mereka dalam usaha niaga David, apabila beliau lemas, kesemua wang itu lenyap. Ini memaksa Maimonides menjadi seorang ahli perubatan. Maimonides pernah menjalani latihan sebagai ahli perubatan di Cordoba dan Fes. Beliau menerima pengiktirafan meluas dan menjadi tabib istana bagi Wazir Agung al-Fadl, kemudian bagi Sultan Salahuddin al-Ayyubi, selepas kematian baginda pun beliau kekal menjadi tabib bagi keluarga diraja itu.. Di dalam penulisannya beliau menggambarkan banyak keadaan penyakit termasuklah asma, diabetes, hepatitis dan pneumonia dan menekankan kesederhanaan dan gaya hidup yang sihat.  Karya-karyanya mempengaruhi banyak generasi ahli perubatan. Beliau berpengetahuan dalam perubatan Yunani dan Parsi, dan mengikuti prinsip-prinsip humorisme dalam tradisi perubatan Galen, tetapi tidak membuta tuli menerima sebaliknya menggunakan pemerhatian dan ujikajinya sendiri. Bagaimana pun, Frank menunjukkan bahawa di dalam penulisan-penulisan perubatannya beliau tidak cuba menerokai idea-idea baru sebaliknya mentafsir karya-karya berotoriti supaya semua karya-karya itu dapat diterima.  Maimonides mempamerkan dalam interaksinya dengan pesakit sifat-sifat yang pada hari ini dapat disebut sebagai kesedaran antara budaya dan hormat terhadap autonomi pesakit. Di dalam sepucuk surat yang terkenal, beliau menggambarkan rutin hariannya: Setelah melawat istana Sultan, beliau tiba di rumah dalam keadaan letih dan lapar, di situ "aku mendapati bilik antara telah dipenuhi dengan orang Yahudi dan bukan Yahudi...aku merawat mereka dan menulis preskripsi bagi penyakit mereka...sehingga ke petang...dan aku menjadi sangat lemah tidak bermaya."

Maimonides meninggal dunia pada 20 Tevet di Fustat, tempat beliau dipercayai dikebumikan sebentar sebelum dikebumikan semula di Tiberias, sebuah bandar di pantai barat Laut Galilee, Galilee rendah, Palestin. Bagaimana pun, lokasi kubur Maimonides tidak sunyi daripada kontroversi dan di kalangan masyarakat Yahudi Kaherah terdapat tradisi yang mempertahankan bahawa kuburnya masih kekal di Mesir.

Maimonides dan isterinya, anak perempuan Mishael ben Yeshayahu Halevi dikurniakan dengan seorang cahaya mata, Avraham, yang diiktiraf sebagai sarjana ulung dan yang mewarisinya sebagai Nagid dan sebagai tabib istana pada usia 18 tahun. Beliau amat memuliakan kenangan bapanya, dan sepanjang kariernya beliau mempertahankan penulisan bapanya terhadap semua kritikan. Jawatan Nagid dipegang oleh keluarga Maimonides selama empat generasi berturut-turut sehingga akhir kurun ke-14.

Beliau dihormati secara meluas sehingga ke Sepanyol dan sebuah patungnya telah didirikan di Cordoba di hadapan satu-satunya saumaah di bandar yang terlepas dari kemusnahan; meskipun tidak lagi berfungsi sebagai rumah ibadah Yahudi, ia terbuka kepada umum.

Pengaruh 

Maimonides adalah salah seorang tokoh yang paling berpengaruh dalam falsafah Yahudi zaman pertengahan. Satu ungkapan popular zaman pertengahan yang juga menjadi epitafnya menyatakan Daripada Moshe (ibn Imran) kepada Moshe (ibn Maimon) tiada seorang pun yang serupa dengan Moshe.

Sarjana-sarjana Yahudi radikal dalam kurun-kurun berikutnya dapat dicirikan sebagai "pro-Maimonides" atau "anti-Maimonides."  Sarjana-sarjana sederhana mengamalkan eklektisime yang sebahagian besarnya menerima pandangan dunia Aristotelianisme Maimonides, tetapi menolak elemen-elemen yang dianggap mereka bertentangan dengan tradisi agama. Eklektisisme sebegitu mencapai puncaknya pada kurun-kurun ke-14 dan 15.

Kritik yang paling keras di zaman pertengahan adalah Or Adonai oleh Hasdai Crescas. Crescas menentang arah aliran eklektik itu dengan memusnahkan kepastian pandangan dunia Aristotelianisme, bukan sahaja dalam urusan keagamaan, malah dalam bidang-bidang sains paling asas pada zaman pertengahan (seperti fizik dan geometri). Kritik Cescas mendorong sebilangan sarjana kurun ke-15 untuk menulis pembelaan bagi Maimonides. Terjemahan karya Crescas telah dihasilkan oleh Harry Austryn Wolfson dari Harvard University pada tahun 1929.

13 prinsip kepercayaan

Di dalam ulasannya terhadap Mishneh (tractate Sanhedrin, bab 10), Maimonides merumuskan 13 prinsip imannya. Semua itu merumuskan apa yang dipandangnya sebagai kepercayaan agama Yahudi yang dikehendaki berhubung dengan:
 Kewujudan Tuhan
 Keesaan Tuhan
 Kerohanian dan kebatinan Tuhan
 Keabadian Tuhan
 Tuhan satu-satunya objek sembahan
 Wahyu kepada nabi-nabi
 Keunggulan Nabi Musa di kalangan para nabi
 Syariat Tuhan yang diturunkan di Gunung Sinai
 Kelestarian Torah sebagai Syariat Tuhan
 Pengetahuan lebih dahulu Tuhan tentang perbuatan manusia
 Balasan baik dan balasan buruk
 Kedatangan al-Masih
 Kebangkitan semula orang mati

Prinsip-prinsip ini menjadi kontroversi ketika pertama kali diutarakan, lalu mengundang kritikan daripada Rabbi Hasdai Crescas dan Rabbi Joseph Albo, dan sebenarnya tidak dipedulikan oleh ramai masyarakat Yahudi selama beberapa kurun berikutnya. ("Dogma in Medieval Jewish Thought," Menachem Kellner). Bagaimana pun, prinsip-prinsip ini telah diterima secara meluas: hari ini, Yahudi Ortodoks berpendapat bahawa kepercayaan-kepercayaan ini suatu kewajipan. Dua penyataan semula prinsip-prinsip ini dalam bentuk puisi (Ani Ma'amin dan Yigdal) akhirnya dikanunkan di dalam "siddur" (buku doa Yahudi).

Karya legal 

Dengan Mishneh Torah, Maimonides mengarang satu kod syariat Yahudi dengan skop dan kedalaman yang seluas mungkin. Karya itu mengumpulkan semua aturan syariat dari Talmud, dan memasukkan kedudukan Geonim.

Sementara Mishneh Torah sekarang dianggap sebagai pelopor Arbaah Turim dan Shulchan Aruch (dua kod terkemudian), ia pada mulanya tidak terlepas dari tentangan. Terdapat dua sebab tentangan ini. Pertama, Maimonides enggan menambah rujukan kepada karyanya untuk keringkasan; kedua, di dalam pendahuluan, beliau memberi tanggapan mahu "menggunting" pengajian Talmud, sehingga sampai ke satu kesimpulan dalam syariat Yahudi, meskipun Maimonides sendiri kemudiannya menulis bahawa ini bukan niatnya. Penentang paling kuat adalah para rabbi di Provence (selatan Perancis), dan kritikan bertalu-talu dari Rabbi Abraham ben David (Raavad III) dicetak di dalam semua edisi Mishneh. Bagaimana pun, ia diiktiraf sebagai sumbangan agung kepada penulisan Halakha yang sistematik.  Selama beberapa kurun, ia dipelajari dengan meluas dan keputusan-keputusan halakhanya dipandang berat dalam penghakiman-penghakiman terkemudian.

Di dalam jawapan kepada mereka yang cuba memaksa para pengikut Maimonides dan Mishneh Torahnya untuk mematuhi penghakiman dalam Shulchan Aruchnya sendiri atau kepada karya-karya lain, Rabbi Yosef Karo menulis: "Siapa yang berani memaksa umat yang mengikuti Rambam untuk mengikuti sebarang pemutus yang lain, terdahulu atau terkemudian?...Rambam adalah pemutus teragung, dan semua umat di Tanah Israel dan Arabistan dan Maghreb beramal menurut kata-katanya, dan menerimanya sebagai rabbi mereka."

Satu pepatah legal yang kerap dipetik daripada karyanya ialah: "Lebih baik dan lebih memuaskan untuk membebaskan seribu orang pesalah daripada menghukum mati seorang yang tidak bersalah." Beliau berhujah bahawa menghukum defendan berdasar sesuatu yang kurang kepastian mutlak akan membawa kepada cerun licin beban bukti yang mengurang, sehingga kita menyabitkan kesalahan itu hanya semata-mata berdasarkan ragam tak menentu hakim.

Falsafah 

Menerusi Guide for the Perplexed dan pengenalan falsafah kepada bahagian-bahagian ulasannya terhadap Mishna, Maimonides mengenakan pengaruh penting kepada ahli falsafah skolastisisme terutamanya Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas dan Duns Scotus. Beliau sendiri seorang penganut aliran skolastisisme Yahudi. Lebih terdidik dengan pembacaan karya-karya ahli falsafah Muslim Arab berbanding dengan hubungan peribadi dengan guru-guru Arab, beliau memperoleh pengetahuan mendalam bukan sahaja dalam falsafah Muslim Arab tetapi juga dalam doktrin-doktrin Aristotle. Maimonides berusaha menyelaraskan falsafah aliran Aristotle dan sains dengan ajaran Torah.

Teologi negatif 
Prinsip ini yang mengilhami aktiviti falsafahnya, serupa dengan rukun asas Skolastisisme: tiada pertentangan antara kebenaran yang diwahyukan Tuhan dan pencarian minda manusia dalam sains dan falsafah. Maimonides terutama sekali bergantung pada sains Aristotle dan ajaran Talmud, umumnya menemui asas dalam yang terdahulu bagi yang terkemudian. Bagaimana pun, dalam beberapa titik penting, beliau menyimpang dari ajaran Aristotle; sebagai contoh, beliau menolak doktrin Aristotelianisme yang menyatakan bahawa jagaan hemat Tuhan hanya mencakupi kemanusiaan sahaja, bukan perseorangan.

Maimonides was led by his admiration for the neo-Platonic commentators to maintain many doctrines which the Scholastics could not accept. For instance, Maimonides was an adherent of "negative theology" (also known as "Apophatic theology".) In this theology, one attempts to describe God through negative attributes. For instance, one should not say that God exists in the usual sense of the term; all we can safely say is that God is not non-existent. We should not say that "God is wise"; but we can say that "God is not ignorant," i.e. in some way, God has some properties of knowledge. We should not say that "God is One," but we can state that "there is no multiplicity in God's being." In brief, the attempt is to gain and express knowledge of God by describing what God is not; rather than by describing what God "is."

The Scholastics agreed with him that no predicate is adequate to express the nature of God; but they did not go so far as to say that no term can be applied to God in the affirmative sense. They admitted that while "eternal," "omnipotent," etc., as we apply them to God, are inadequate, at the same time we may say "God is eternal" etc., and need not stop, as Moses did, with the negative "God is not not-eternal," etc.  In essence what Maimonides wanted to express is that when people give God anthropomorphic qualities they do not explain anything more of what God is, because we cannot know anything of the essence of God.

Maimonides' use of apophatic theology is not unique to this time period or to Judaism. For example, Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite and Maximus the Confessor, Eastern Christian theologians, developed apophatic theology for Christianity nearly 900 years earlier. See Negative theology for uses in other religions.

Ramalan 
He agrees with "the philosophers" in teaching that, man's intelligence being one in the series of intelligences emanating from God, the prophet must, by study and meditation, lift himself up to the degree of perfection required in the prophetic state. But here, he invokes the authority of "the Law," which teaches that, after that perfection is reached, there is required the "free acts of God," before the man actually becomes a prophet.

Masalah kejahatan 
Maimonides wrote on theodicy (the philosophical attempt to reconcile the existence of a God with the existence of evil in the world). He took the premise that an omnipotent and good God exists. He adopts the Aristotelian view that defines evil as the lack of, or the reduced presence of a God, as exhibited by those who exercise the free choice of rejecting belief.

Astrologi 
Maimonides answered an inquiry concerning astrology, addressed to him from Marseille. He responded that man should believe only what can be supported either by rational proof, by the evidence of the senses, or by trustworthy authority. He affirms that he had studied astrology, and that it does not deserve to be described as a science. The supposition that the fate of a man could be dependent upon the constellations is ridiculed by him; he argues that such a theory would rob life of purpose, and would make man a slave of destiny. (See also fatalism, predestination.)

Kepercayaan benar lawan kepercayaan perlu 
In "Guide for the Perplexed" Book III, Chapter 28, Maimonides explicitly draws a distinction between "true beliefs," which were beliefs about God that produced intellectual perfection, and "necessary beliefs," which were conducive to improving social order. Maimonides places anthropomorphic personification statements about God in the latter class.  He uses as an example the notion that God becomes "angry" with people who do wrong.  In the view of Maimonides (taken from Avicenna) God does not actually become angry with people, as God has no human passions; but it is important for them to believe God does, so that they desist from sinning.

Kebangkitan, keabadian diperolehi, dan hidup selepas mati 
Maimonides distinguishes two kinds of intelligence in man, the one material in the sense of being dependent on, and influenced by, the body, and the other immaterial, that is, independent of the bodily organism. The latter is a direct emanation from the universal active intellect; this is his interpretation of the noûs poietikós of Aristotelian philosophy. It is acquired as the result of the efforts of the soul to attain a correct knowledge of the absolute, pure intelligence of God.

The knowledge of God is a form of knowledge, which develops in us the immaterial intelligence, and thus confers on man an immaterial, spiritual nature. This confers on the soul that perfection in which human happiness consists, and endows the soul with immortality. One who has attained a correct knowledge of God has reached a condition of existence, which renders him immune from all the accidents of fortune, from all the allurements of sin, and even from death itself. Man, therefore is in a position not only to work out his own salvation and immortality.

The resemblance between this doctrine and Spinoza's doctrine of immortality is so striking as to warrant the hypothesis that there is a causal dependence of the latter on the earlier doctrine. The differences between the two Jewish thinkers are, however, as remarkable as the resemblance. While Spinoza teaches that the way to attain the knowledge which confers immortality is the progress from sense-knowledge through scientific knowledge to philosophical intuition of all things sub specie æternitatis, Maimonides holds that the road to perfection and immortality is the path of duty as described in the Torah and the rabbinic understanding of the oral law.

Religious Jews not only believed in immortality in some spiritual sense, but most believed that there would at some point in the future be a messianic era, and a resurrection of the dead. This is the subject of Jewish eschatology. Maimonides wrote much on this topic, but in most cases he wrote about the immortality of the soul for people of perfected intellect; his writings were usually not about the resurrection of dead bodies.  This prompted hostile criticism from the rabbis of his day, and sparked a controversy over his true views.

Rabbinic works usually refer to this afterlife as "Olam Haba" (the World to Come).  Some rabbinic works use this phrase to refer to a messianic era, an era of history right here on Earth; in other rabbinic works this phrase refers to a purely spiritual realm.  It was during Maimonides's lifetime that this lack of agreement flared into a full-blown controversy, with Maimonides charged as a heretic by some Jewish leaders.

Some Jews at this time taught that Judaism did not require a belief in the physical resurrection of the dead, as the afterlife would be a purely spiritual realm.  They used Maimonides's works on this subject to back up their position.  In return, their opponents claimed that this was outright heresy;  for them the afterlife was right here on Earth, where God would raise dead bodies from the grave so that the resurrected could live eternally. Maimonides was brought into this dispute by both sides, as the first group stated that his writings agreed with them, and the second group portrayed him as a heretic for writing that the afterlife is for the immaterial spirit alone. Eventually, Maimonides felt pressured to write a treatise on the subject, the "Ma'amar Tehiyyat Hametim" "The Treatise on Resurrection."

Chapter two of the treatise on resurrection refers to those who believe that the world to come involves physically resurrected bodies. Maimonides refers to one with such beliefs, as being an "utter fool" whose belief is "folly".

If one of the multitude refuses to believe [that angels are incorporeal] and prefers to believe that angels have bodies and even that they eat, since it is written (Genesis 18:8) 'they ate', or that those who exist in the World to Come will also have bodies—we won't hold it against him or consider him a heretic, and we will not distance ourselves from him.  May there not be many who profess this folly, and let us hope that he will go no farther than this in his folly and believe that the Creator is corporeal.

However, Maimonides also writes that those who claimed that he altogether believed the verses of the Hebrew Bible referring to the resurrection were only allegorical were spreading falsehoods and "revolting" statements.  Maimonides asserts that belief in resurrection is a fundamental truth of Judaism about which there is no disagreement, and that it is not permissible for a Jew to support anyone who believes differently. He cites Daniel 12:2 and 12:13 as definitive proofs of physical resurrection of the dead when they state "many of them that sleep in the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life and some to reproaches and everlasting abhorrence" and "But you, go your way till the end; for you shall rest, and will arise to your inheritance at the end of the days."

While these two positions may be seen as in contradiction (non-corporeal eternal life, versus a bodily resurrection), Maimonides resolves them with a then unique solution: Maimonides believed that the resurrection was not permanent or general. In his view, God never violates the laws of nature. Rather, divine interaction is by way of angels, whom Maimonides often regards to be metaphors for the laws of nature, the principles by which the physical universe operates, or Platonic eternal forms. [This is not always the case. In Hilchot Yesodei HaTorah Chaps. 2-4, Maimonides describes angels that are actually created beings.] Thus, if a unique event actually occurs, even if it is perceived as a miracle, it is not a violation of the world's order.

In this view, any dead who are resurrected must eventually die again. In his discussion of the 13 principles of faith, the first five deal with knowledge of God, the next four deal with prophecy and the Torah, while the last four deal with reward, punishment and the ultimate redemption. In this discussion Maimonides says nothing of a universal resurrection. All he says it is that whatever resurrection does take place, it will occur at an indeterminate time before the world to come, which he repeatedly states will be purely spiritual.

He writes "It appears to us on the basis of these verses (Daniel 12:2,13) that those people who will return to those bodies will eat, drink, copulate, beget, and die after a very long life, like the lives of those who will live in the Days of the Messiah." Maimonides thus disassociated the resurrection of the dead from both the World to Come and the Messianic era.

In his time, many Jews believed that the physical resurrection was identical to the world to come; thus denial of a permanent and universal resurrection was considered tantamount to denying the words of the Talmudic sages. However, instead of denying the resurrection, or maintaining the current dogma, Maimonides posited a third way: That resurrection had nothing to do with the messianic era (here in this world) or with Olam Haba (עולם הבא) (the purely spiritual afterlife). Rather, he considered resurrection to be a miracle that the book of Daniel predicted; thus at some point in time we could expect some instances of resurrection to occur temporarily, which would have no place in the final eternal life of the righteous.

The Oath of Maimonides 
The Oath of Maimonides is a document about the medical calling and recited as a substitute for the Oath of Hippocrates. The Oath is not to be confused with a more lengthy Prayer of Maimonides. These documents may not have been written by Maimonides, but later. The Prayer appeared first in print in 1793 and has been attributed to Marcus Herz, a German physician, pupil of Immanual Kant.

Maimonides dan ahli Pemoden 
Maimonides remains the most widely debated Jewish thinker among modern scholars.  He has been adopted as a symbol and an intellectual hero by almost all major movements in modern Judaism, and has proven immensely important to philosophers such as Leo Strauss; and his views on the importance of humility have been taken up by modern humanist philosophers, like Peter Singer and Iain King.  In academia, particularly within  the area of Jewish Studies, the teaching of Maimonides has been dominated by traditional, generally Orthodox scholars, who place a very strong emphasis on Maimonides as a rationalist. The result of this is many sides of Maimonides's thought, for example his opposition to anthropocentrism, have been obviated. There is some movement in postmodern circles, e.g. within the discourse of ecotheology, to claim Maimonides for other purposes. Maimonides's reconciliation of the philosophical and the traditional has given his legacy an extremely diverse and dynamic quality.

Penghormatan dan peringatan 

Maimonides has been memorialized in numerous ways. For example, one of the Learning Communities at the Tufts University School of Medicine bears his name. There is also Maimonides School in Brookline, Massachusetts, the Brauser Maimonides Academy in Hollywood, Florida, and Maimonides Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York. In 2004, conferences were held at Yale, Florida International University, Penn State, and the Rambam hospital in Haifa. To commemorate the 800th anniversary of his death, Harvard University issued a memorial volume.  In 1953, the Israel Postal Authority issued a postage stamp of Maimonides, pictured. In March 2008, during the Euromed Conference of Ministers of Tourism, The Tourism Ministries of Israel, Morocco and Spain agreed to work together on a joint project that will trace the footsteps of the Rambam and thus boost religious tourism in the cities of Córdoba, Fez and Tiberias  . Rambam Hospital in Haifa, Israel, is named for him.

Karya dan bibliografi

Karya falsafah dan Keyahudian 
Maimonides composed works of Jewish scholarship, rabbinic law, philosophy, and medical texts. Most of Maimonides's works were written in Judeo-Arabic. However, the Mishneh Torah was written in Hebrew. His Judaism texts were:
 Commentary on the Mishna (Hebrew Pirush Hamishnayot),  written in Judeo-Arabic. This text was one of the first commentaries of its kind; its introductory sections are widely quoted.
 Sefer Hamitzvot (trans. The Book of Commandments).
 Sefer Ha'shamad (letter of Martydom)
 Mishneh Torah, also known as Sefer Yad ha-Chazaka, a comprehensive code of Jewish law;
 Guide for the Perplexed, a philosophical work harmonising and differentiating Aristotle's philosophy and Jewish theology. Written in Judeo-Arabic. The first translation of this work into Hebrew was done by Samuel ibn Tibbon
 Teshuvot, collected correspondence and responsa, including a number of public letters (on resurrection and the afterlife, on conversion to other faiths, and Iggereth Teiman - addressed to the oppressed Jewry of Yemen).
 Treatise on Logic  (Arabic: Makala Fi-Sinat Al-Mantik) has been printed 17 times, including editions in Latin (1527), German (1805, 1822, 1833, 1828), French (1935), and English (1938), and in an abridged Hebrew form.

Karya perubatan 
Maimonides wrote ten known medical works in Arabic that  have been translated by the  Jewish medical ethicist Fred Rosner into contemporary English.

 Extracts from Galen, or The Art of Cure, is essentially an extract of Galen's extensive writings.
 Commentary on the Aphorisms of Hippocrates is interspersed with his own views.
 Medical Aphorisms of Moses titled Fusul Musa in Arabic ("Chapters of Moses," Pirkei Moshe in Hebrew) contains 1500 aphorisms and  many medical conditions are described.
 Treatise on Hemorrhoids discusses also digestion and food.
 Treatise on Cohabitation contains recipes as aphrodisiacs and anti-aphrodisiacs.
 Treatise on Asthma discusses climates and diets and their effect on asthma and emphasizes the need for clean air.
 Treatise on Poisons and Their Antidotes is an early toxicology textbook that remained popular for centuries.
 Regimen of Health is a discourse on healthy living and the mind-body connection.
 Discourse on the Explanation of Fits advocates healthy living and the avoidance of overabundance.
 Glossary of Drug Names represents a pharmacopeia with 405 paragraphs with the names of drugs in Arabic, Greek, Syrian, Persian, Berber, and Spanish.

Lihat juga 
 Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain
 Thomas Aquinas
 Averroes
 Mishne Torah

Rujukan

Bacaan lanjut 
 Abraham Joshua Heschel, Maimonides (suatu biografi)
 Marvin Fox Interpreting Maimonides, Univ. of Chicago Press 1990.
 Julius Guttman, Philosophies of Judaism Translated by David Silverman, JPS, 1964
 Maimonides' Principles: The Fundamentals of Jewish Faith, in "The Aryeh Kaplan Anthology, Volume I," Mesorah Publications 1994
 Dogma in Medieval Jewish Thought, Menachem Kellner, Oxford University press, 1986
 Maimonides Thirteen Principles: The Last Word in Jewish Theology? Marc. B. Shapiro, The Torah U-Maddah Journal, Vol. 4, 1993, Yeshiva University
 A History of Jewish Philosophy Isaac Husik, Dover Publications, Inc., 2002. Originally published in 1941 by the Jewish Publication of America, Philadelphia, pp. 236–311
 Persecution and the Art of Writing, Leo Strauss, University of Chicago Press, 1988 reprint
 "How to Begin to Study the Guide," Leo Strauss, from The Guide of the Perplexed, Vol. 1, Maimonides, translated from the Arabic by Shlomo Pines, University of Chicago Press, 1974
 Rabbi Yaakov Feldman, Shemonah Perakim: The Eight Chapters of the Rambam, Targum Press, 2008.
 Joel L. Kraemer, "Maimonides: The Life and World of One of Civilization's Greatest Minds", Doubleday, 2008.
 Marc B. Shapiro, Studies in Maimonides and His Interpreters (Scranton (PA), University of Scranton Press, 2008), 200 pp.

Pautan luar 

Mengenai Maimonides

 Maimonides entry in Jewish Encyclopedia
 Maimonides entry in the Encyclopaebeliau Judaica, 2nd edition 
 Maimonides as a Philosopher
 The Influence of Islamic Thought on Maimonides
 "The Moses of Cairo,"  Article from Policy Review
 Maimonides as a proto-ecological thinker – reprint on neohasid.org from the Encyclopebeliau of Religion and Ecology
 Anti-Maimonidean Demons by Jose Faur, describing the controversy surrounding Maimonides's works

Karya Maimonides
 Oral Readings of Mishne Torah  Free listening and Download, site also had classes in Maimonides's Iggereth Teiman
 Maimonides 13 Principles

Teks oleh Maimonides
 Siddur Mesorath Moshe , a prayerbook based on the early Jewish liturgy as found in Maimonides's Mishne Tora
 Rambam's introduction to the Mishneh Torah (English translation)
 Rambam's introduction to the Commentary on the Mishnah (Hebrew Fulltext)
 The Guide For the Perplexed by Moses Maimonides translated into English by Michael Friedländer
 Writings of Maimonides; manuscripts and early print editions. Jewish National and University Library 
 Facsimile edition of Moreh Nevukhim/The Guide for the Perplexed (illuminated Hebrew manuscript, Barcelona, 1347-48). The Royal Library, Copenhagen
 University of Cambridge Library collection  of Judeo-Arabic letters and manuscripts written by or to Maimonides. It includes the last letter his brother David sent him before drowning at sea.

Kelahiran 1135
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Orang dari Córdoba, Sepanyol
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