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Introduction to NFS Performance |Originally published Octomber, 1995| |¿ 1995, 2005 Carlo Kopp| Performance is the most important metric of any file serving protocol, all other things being equal. The NFS protocol, in most of its implementations, employs a number of measures specifically aimed at improving performance. These we will now examine more closely. Server Implementation - the nfsd A central aspect of a typical Unix NFS server implementation is the design of the NFS daemon or nfsd. The NFS daemon is an RPC server process which services NFS requests coming in from clients. In practice, an NFS daemon will listen for incoming NFS protocol requests, which once received, must be serviced by executing the appropriate series of Unix system calls required to fulfill the request. Once the service is complete, the results are returned via the RPC protocol to the requesting client. Achieving good performance in a file serving protocol however requires a little more than simply setting up a single server process. The environment which is typical for a file server will usually see many concurrent requests coming in from a multiplicity of client platforms/processes. The simple-minded solution of a single server process would therefore require the queuing up of incoming requests and then servicing of these, one by one. Subject to the dictates of queuing theory, this strategy would result in abysmal performance, as the queue of waiting requests ultimately has to wait for the server's hosts disks to be serviced. Disks are not fast devices (see OSR July/August 95). It is for this reason that typical NFS daemon implementations are designed to run several copies of the daemon concurrently. This means that each incoming NFS service request can be handed over to an uncommitted daemon which may then immediately attempt its necessary file system operation, such as a read, write or directory operation. This approach very cleverly exploits the fact that filesystem operations vary significantly in duration, as a result of host cache hit-to-miss ratios, and where a miss occurs, as a result of filesystem and disk performance. Daemons which are servicing requests which are short in duration are available to service new requests much more quickly than their peers which are servicing slower operations. The pool of NFS daemons will therefore be split into a group of active daemons, servicing RPC requests, and a pool of idling daemons, waiting for requests. Only should the situation arise, where all daemons are busy, will the incoming requests begin to experience significant queuing delays in the NFS mechanism. Parallel processing is not the only trick exploited in an NFS server. Unix kernels typically employ a number of caching techniques to speed up filesystem performance, and the NFS daemon relies heavily upon these caches to improve its response time. It is worth noting here that the proper sizing of these caches will benefit local filesystem operations equally, and proper tuning of a server should include a review of cache performance. Client Implementation - the biod A typical NFS client implementation is built around the NFS biod daemon. The biod performs a number of important functions within an NFS client, all of which serve to improve client NFS performance. The first function which is performed by the biod is the integration of NFS operations with the client platform's buffer cache. The Unix buffer cache on the client platform will cache blocks read from the filesystem, or written to, thereby significantly improving I/O performance (as above). The biod provides the capability to cache blocks read or written in NFS operations in the host's buffer cache, thereby speeding up performance for those operations which repeatedly access the same blocks. Because an NFS operation is typically much slower than a local disk operation, the relative gain resulting from the use of the buffer cache is significant. The second function performed by the biod is that of parallel operations, much like that of the nfsd in the server. Processes making operations against multiple files in the Unix virtual file system (VFS) will generate multiple NFS requests, which may be immediately handed over to multiple instances of the biod, each of which will then attempt to service the request, either from the buffer cache or the server. Short duration operations will result in those instances of the biod becoming available for further operations much sooner than their peers executing slow operations. A third function performed by the biod is that of multiplexing dirty pages, and occurs where the size of the buffer cache page differs from the 8 kbyte buffer size of NFS. A host with a native page size of 4192 bytes will see two buffer cache pages loaded into a single NFS buffer for transmission to the server, when being flushed. This approach provides some reduction in the overhead of flushing dirty pages on an NFS client to the server, as it incurs only one NFS write operation per several cache pages to be flushed. An NFS client can in theory, function without the biod but in doing so loses its capacity to exploit the client platform's cache. This situation may occur where the client is generating requests at a rate significantly faster than what the pool of biod processes can handle, as a result of which all become active and thus unable to service requests. An additional performance enhancing feature available in many biod implementations is that of read lookahead caching, whereby the biod will not only fetch the requested block from the server, but also the subsequent block. Where a CPU is executing an NFS mounted remote binary, this feature can be very helpful as it effectively pipelines multiple reads. The last important performance enhancing feature of the client side NFS implementation is that of file attribute caching. File attribute manipulations are relatively frequent operations (eg doing an ls -l ) which more than often involve small amounts of data but significant time spent rummaging around in the filesystem. A typical NFS client implementation will therefore cache the attributes of files accessed so that subsequent getattr and setattr operations are never propagated to the server directly. To maintain the consistency of the file attribute cache, it is periodically flushed to the server, or invalidated to force a reread from the server when next accessed. An NFS Operation - Putting It All Together The easiest way of understanding the potential performance bottlenecks in an NFS client server pair is to trace an operation against a file which has not been previously read, as this will cause all block caching mechanisms along the path to miss. Let us consider a read operation against file "blogs", sitting on a fileserver. Our client application will make a read call against the file descriptor associated with blogs. This will fall through to the vnode on the the client, which identifies the file as an NFS filesystem object. The virtual filesystem code will then invoke the NFS read operation against blogs. The biod is then called, and it first checks to see whether the file has been cached. As the file has already been opened, its attributes have been cached, but no pages are present in the buffer cache, so it initiates an NFSPROC_READ against the server. The NFSPROC_READ call results in the sending of an NFS NFSPROC_READ message, encapsulated by the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). The UDP packet is enqueued by the network protocol stack handling code, which in turn encapsulates it in an IP packet and hands it to the network driver. The network driver sends the packet over the network. At the receiving end, the network device driver receives the packet and forwards it to the protocol stack handlers, which identify the protocol type and port, eventually stripping off the headers and passing the NFS NFSPROC_READ message to one of the idling nfsd daemons. The daemon decodes the NFS request and executes a read against the Unix filesystem. During this read, the page is cached in the server's buffer cache, and the DNLC, since overwritten, is updated. The block fetched from the filesystem is then attached to the NFS RPC response, and undergoes the same steps of encapsulation, transmission and decapsulation at the client end. The client biod upon the receiving the block, caches it in the client's buffer cache, and updates its attribute cache appropriately. The data is then read into the I/O buffer associated with the library read operation and the read is essentially completed. This somewhat simplified model illustrates the lengthy path and complexity of operations which must be executed in an NFS read. From a performance perspective, we must consider that the request has had to be initially processed by the biod, then propagated the the client's network protocol stack, transmitted over the network, propagated up through the server's protocol stack and processed by the server's nfsd. The nfsd has then had to call the server's filesystem, which has then called the device driver, which has operated upon the disk to access the block. The block must then be returned via the same path, incurring similar delays in the process of doing so. The performance of the network protocol stacks, network drivers, and server filesystems and storage are important, as is the performance of the client's biod and the server's nfsd. Should any of these entities incur a significant delay, the performance of the operation as a whole will suffer accordingly. Performance Metrics for NFS Client Server Interaction There are two basic ways in which we can quantify the performance of an NFS client-server pair. The first, and simplest method, is to look at throughput in the same fashion as the throughput of a local filesystem. In local filesystem operations, as well as NFS operations, the upper limit of throughput performance is achieved with a 100% hit rate to the client's buffer cache. Under these conditions, all reads and writes will be done against the client's memory and thus the throughput performance will be determined by the memory bandwidth of the client platform. Figures under these conditions vary from Megabytes to tens of Megabytes per second. As we reduce the buffer cache hit rate, the average throughput will diminish, as those operations which resulted in misses will incur the time delays discussed above. At some point the buffer cache hit rate drops to zero and we observe the raw throughput of the "physical" channel, which for a disk is the combination of filesystem/device-driver/disk, and for an NFS server the aforementioned NFS-RPC-network-RPC-NFS channel. Whereas a filesystem/disk can typically sustain several Megabytes per second of throughput, this is not the case with an NFS channel, which is ultimately bottlenecked by the network interface (see diagram 1). Given all of the overheads previously discussed, it is not surprising to find that sustained throughput over the network is limited to about 0.9 Megabytes per second, which in fact corresponds to just over 70% of an Ethernet throughput, which is about 80% of the theoretical limit for an Ethernet. This performance is typically one to one and a half orders of magnitude beneath the performance of a local disk. This is a very good reason for avoiding diskless clients like the plague. At some further point this throughput performance will further diminish, if we compromise the performance of the server by introducing a poor buffer cache hit rte and poor filesystem and disk response time. The second useful method for quantifying performance is by looking at the response time for NFS operations, as a function of increasing load upon the server. This is the approach used by Legato's nhfsstone benchmark, and its successor, the LADDIS benchmark, which is now part of the SPEC SFS benchmark suite. While Legato's benchmark is in the public domain, unlike the SPEC product, it has been written around the BSD kernel and cannot be run on SVR4 as a result (whoever ports nhfsstone to SVR4 will make a lot of friends very quickly). The nhfsstone benchmark measures performance by firing a mixture of NFS requests at server, and measuring the time it takes for each request to be processed. The mix is representative of the typical ratios of operation types seen in operation under typical conditions. The benchmark will measure the time for a given load in operations per second, and then incrementally increase this load by spawning additional processes, each of which concurrently fire requests at the server. In this fashion it is possible to plot the server's (or rather client-server pair's) NFS operation response time as a function of increasing load (see diagram 2). A typical nhfsstone or LADDIS characteristic will display the behaviour of a compound queuing system, followed by a steep drop as the server saturates and performance degrades. Measures for Improving NFS Performance Improving NFS performance is an interesting exercise, and given the complexity of NFS, often useful gains can be made with a very modest effort. Should however exceptional performance be sought, then more expensive means such as accelerator hardware must be employed. The first step in improving NFS performance is to look at the state of the client and the server platforms. Should either be experiencing performance difficulties in handling their computational or local disk I/O load, then these problems must be rectified first. Should there be a shortfall of memory or compute idle time, tinkering with NFS will yield little result. Similarly should the server's disk I/O be saturated, altering NFS setup will be quite useless. Starvation of system resources impacts all activities on the host. Assuming that the client and server are in a healthy condition, we then turn our attention to the client and take a look at its biod processes. Most Unix NFS clients as delivered will be set up with four or eight biod processes which are started at boot time. The use of ps or top will indicate whether these are coming under significant load, or not. If yes, then additional instances of the daemon should be run, and the number should be increased until one or more daemons are always idle at the required load. Where the client buffer cache can be altered in size, this would be another area to examine. Should the buffer cache have a poor hit rate due undersizing, enlarging it should be of some use. Network performance can affect both client and server, and should either suffer from a saturated interface, consideration should be given to fitting the host with multiple interfaces to multiple Ethernets to spread the load. Another option is to look at a faster network, such as 100Base-T or FDDI. Should a faster network be available, then the issue of host interface throughput limits becomes relevant. An issue which has raised some discussion in the context of faster networks is the NFS/biod/nfsd internal buffer size of 8 kbyte, which is seen by some observers as a bottleneck under these conditions. Assuming that client performance has been improved, we can now turn to the server. Again the first step is to look at daemon activity levels, and determine whether more daemons should be running. Again, buffer cache performance should be examined, and if necessary, the number of users and size of the inode table should be increased to an appropriate level. Whether an NFS accelerator is required will depend upon the achieved server performance is acceptable or not, after tuning. A conventional filesystem, or an NFS mounted filesystem, where caching is working properly, tends to have a much higher rate of writes to disk, in comparison with reads. This is in fact the idea behind log structured filesystems. In an NFS environment, a server heavily burdened with write traffic will suffer a loss in overall NFS performance as its NFS daemons will spend most of their time waiting for filesystem/disk writes to complete, compared to read operations which will largely hit the server's buffer cache. NFS accelerator hardware resolves this problem by providing a battery backed cache memory dedicated to caching NFS writes. In a system using an accelerator, the nfsd can complete its NFS write by dumping the block into the NFS write cache, and therefore avoid having to wait for the filesystem and disk I/O subsystem to complete the operation. The battery backed NFS cache is then asynchronously flushed to the disk. Should the power fail, the NFS cache retains the data until the next boot, at which time it is flushed to disk. The usage of an NFS accelerator will decouple NFS performance from filesystem and disk write performance, and under the proper conditions, significant performance gains may be achieved. Given its ubiquity in the marketplace, NFS is a surprisingly complex beast, which requires good insight if high performance is to be achieved. Providing that a systematic approach is followed, most sites can benefit from some measure of NFS tuning. The expense of purchasing substantially larger server platforms should only ever be sought as a last resort, where tuning and the use of an accelerator have failed to yield the desired result. The NFS environment is one situation where a little insight can certainly save a lot of expense. Diagram 1 Text NFS Client Throughput Performance. Produced by the Self Scaling Benchmark (P.M.Chen et al), this plot provides a good indication of file read and write performance with a range of buffer cache hit rates. With a high cache hit rate, average performance is in excess of 1.5 Mbytes/s, but declines rapidly. The plateau between 30 and 80 MB file size is where the buffer cache becomes ineffective, and performance is dominated by the Ethernet channel. Beyond 80 MB aggregate performance diminishes rapidly due filesystem behaviour on the server. The client was an Indigo 2 R4400 with 128 MB memory, the server a 4 CPU Iris 4D/240S with 96 MB memory. The benchmark tests I/O and buffer cache performance by reading and writing files of ever increasing size, once the file size exceeds the buffer cache size, hit rates suffer accordingly (Author). Diagram 2 Text (hard copy in mail, will try to get postscript) NFS client server pair performance benchmarked with nhfsstone shows the performance of a SPARCStation 2 server with 64 MB memory and 24 active nfsd daemons. The client was another SPARCStation 2, with 6 MB memory. Both systems were running SunOS 4.1 (BSD). Note the queuing system behaviour of the unaccelerated server (courtesy Legato). |$Revision: 1.1 $| |Last Updated: Sun Apr 24 11:22:45 GMT 2005| |Artwork and text ¿ 2005 Carlo Kopp|

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1 Answer | Add Yours I have never heard of a technical climax or dramatic climax. Curious, I needed to look it up. While questions similar to this one have been asked on the Internet, the only references to "technical" and "dramatic" climaxes are found in sites where users can post questions (similar to eNotes). In order to understand the term, let us break them down in order to create definitions. Since the term "climax" is found in each, let us begin with that term. Climax refers to the turning point in a text. This point is the most intensive in regards to tension. The characters and action are both at their highest point in conflict. Dramatic Climax- Dramatic refers to two different things (in regards to literature). First, dramatic refers to a drama or performance of a drama. Second, dramatic can mean sudden. Therefore, a dramatic climax can refer to the climax in a drama or a sudden turning point in a piece of literature. Technical climax- Technical, as far as it can be related to literature, refers to something which can be marked by a specific characteristic. In regards to a technical climax, this would refer to a climax which meets all of the characteristics of the definition of a literary climax (as seen in the definition of climax above). We’ve answered 328,245 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question

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The Great Gilly Hopkins, like most of Paterson's novels for young adults, addresses the difficulty of growing up in an unpredictable world where even friendship and family cannot be taken for granted. Eleven-year-old Gilly Hopkins has been left in foster care by her mother, Courtney. At the opening of the book Gilly has no friends, moving as she does from one foster home to another. Since her life seems to be controlled by a series of impersonal adults, she assumes a tough exterior to protect herself against further emotional pain. Her abusive behavior and rejection of friendly overtures keep others at a distance; she avenges her own pain by hurting others. Emotional hardships cause Gilly, like many protagonists in Paterson's books, to gain a new understanding of herself and an appreciation of others. Gilly learns self-discipline, and she also realizes that her dreams are illusory. Even though she must face a tough reality, she finds love where she least expects it. Paterson always establishes hope and optimism even in her most bleakly realistic stories, which dramatize internal and external conflicts. At the conclusion of the novel, Gilly still faces difficult choices, but she knows herself better and is able to judge others more soundly. Paterson's well-drawn characters, who are thrust into emotionally taut situations, create a powerful narrative. (The entire section is 218 words.)

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Healthy bones are key for healthy ageing. The foundations of a healthy skeleton are laid down early in life, but our dietary and lifestyle habits throughout life also play an important role determining bone health later in life. What is bone? Bone is a composite material, consisting of crystals of mineral (calcium, phosphorus, zinc and magnesium) bound to a protein matrix. This provides strength and resilience so that the skeleton can absorb impact without breaking. Altogether, 99% of the body's calcium is found in bone and teeth. An imbalance in the composition of bone can lead to disorders such as rickets (soft and weakened bones in children due to poor mineralisation often leading to bowed legs), osteomalacia (softening of the bones, in adults, resulting in pain, weakness, fragility) or osteoporosis (bones become porous and brittle, increased risk of fracture).1-3 Therefore, composition is an important determinant of bone health and strength. Bone tissue throughout life Bone is a dynamic tissue which undergoes changes throughout life. During childhood and adolescence the size and shape of bones are altered by a process called modelling. Most of the bone mass (~90%) is laid down during the first two decades of life, with peak bone mass being achieved somewhere around 18 to 35 years. Once the bone stops growing, it continues to be remodelled - old bone is removed and replaced by new bone.1-3 The remodelling process repairs damage and prevents accumulation of too much old bone, which can lose its resilience and become brittle.1,2 The extent of peak bone mass acquired during early life has implications for bone health throughout life.2 This makes the first two decades of life crucial for healthy bones.3 Once peak bone mass is achieved, gradual bone loss occurs, at a slow rate that increases with age. In particular menopause is a time when bone-loss accelerates due to hormonal changes.2 For an interval of a few years around menopause, women lose 2% of bone annually. Afterward, bone loss slows to about 1% to 1.5% per year.4 Factors influencing bone health Peak bone mass is influenced by heredity, gender, race, nutrition, hormonal status, exercise, bodyweight and other lifestyle factors including alcohol consumption and smoking. The most important factor is genetic influence, accounting for 70-75% of the difference between people.3,5 However, modifiable factors including nutrition and physical activity play an important role in bone development and reduction of bone loss. Nutrition and bone health Two nutrients key for bone health are calcium and vitamin D. Calcium is the most abundant mineral in bone. During childhood and adolescence, a sufficient supply of calcium is crucial to maximise the amount deposited in the skeleton.5,6 An adequate supply of calcium throughout adulthood is also crucial to reduce bone loss. The European daily nutrient reference value for calcium is 800 mg per day for adults, although national recommendations vary (e.g. 1000 mg in Germany, 800 mg in the United Kingdom).7 Calcium is present in a wide range of foods and the general population is advised to consume regularly foods rich in calcium. Dairy products are plentiful sources of readily absorbed calcium, and 2-3 portions should be included daily. Fish consumed with soft edible bones (such as whitebait, canned sardines or canned salmon) also provide significant amounts of calcium. Pulses, wholegrains, nuts, seeds, dried fruits and some green vegetables (e.g. broccoli, spring greens and kale) contain some calcium, although some of these foods also contain substances that bind to calcium and inhibit its absorption (e.g. phytates in wholegrains and pulses, oxalate in spinach and rhubarb).6 Those with an established bone issue (e.g. low bone density) are often advised by their physician to consume calcium supplements (usually in combination with vitamin D). Vitamin D is also critical for bone development and health, as it is required for calcium absorption and bone formation.3,5 Vitamin D deficiency can lead to rickets in early life, and osteomalacia in children and adults. Low vitamin D status is also associated with the development of osteoporosis and an increased risk of falls in elderly.2 The main source of vitamin D is from exposure of skin to sunlight; around 10-15 minutes of sun exposure on hands, arms and face is sufficient. However, the amount of vitamin D produced through sun exposure depends on many factors, such as time of the day and year, latitude and the colour of the skin. If vitamin D production in the skin is insufficient, we need to rely on dietary sources. The European nutrient reference value for adults is 5 µg vitamin D per day, but an individual’s dietary requirements will vary depending on the various factors influencing vitamin D production.7 Only a few dietary sources are high in vitamin D, in particular oily fish, eggs, liver and fortified foods.8 In many countries, vitamin D supplementation is recommended for vulnerable population groups such as toddlers, elderly, people with dark skin, in particular those living at higher latitudes, or people who cover up their skin. Between 2 and 30% of the European population are estimated to be vitamin D deficient (serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D <25 nmol/L), and it may be as high as 80% of institutionalised elderly.9 Protein is also a major component of bone and dietary protein is crucial for bone development and health, as confirmed by the acceptance of a health claim relating to protein and bone development and maintenance by the European Commission (see Table 1). Traditionally it has been thought that too much protein in the diet may be harmful to bone health, because of increased calcium excretion through the urine. However, more recent evidence suggests in fact, the increase in calcium excretion may be a result of protein increasing calcium absorption from the diet.10,11 Protein seems beneficial for calcium absorption and bone health, especially in the elderly.10 Although protein supply in Europe is generally adequate and there is no benefit of increasing consumption above recommended levels, inadequate intakes are found in some population groups such as elderly people.2 Several other vitamins and minerals are linked to bone health (see Table 1 for permitted health claims linked to bone health), but are generally not considered major limiting nutrients for bone health. Including plenty of fruit and vegetables in the diet also seems to have beneficial effects on bone health.2 Table 1. Permitted health claims in the European Union relating to bone health and development.12 |Health claim ||Nutrients associated with claim | Needed for normal growth and development of bone in children - Vitamin D Needed for/contributes to the maintenance of normal bones - Vitamin D - Vitamin C - Vitamin K Physical activity and bone health Physical activity is crucial for bone development and maintenance because bone adapts to the level of mechanical loading, i.e. bone grows with increased loading.2,6 It is an important modulator of bone mass throughout life, from childhood to late adulthood. Studies show that exercise interventions in children can increase bone density and mass by 1-5%, and also increases bone area, width and circumference, all contributing to greater bone strength.3 On the other hand, mechanical unloading of bone, for example in space or during immobilisation (e.g. bed rest, cast on limb), leads to significant loss of bone mass. Complete immobilisation, for example in bedridden people, may result in a loss of some 40% of bone mass.1 Adequate amounts of physical activity not only directly affect bone health, but is also important for maintaining muscle mass and therefore can reduce risk of falls in older age, and consequently the risk of fracture.2 The bone-forming effects of exercise are specific to the anatomical sites (parts of the body) at which the mechanical load occurs. For example, tennis players have greater bone density in the dominant than in the non-dominant arm.1 Therefore, activities that put force on bones are particularly beneficial, including hopping, running, jumping and skipping, as well as weight training.2,3,6 Activities that put less mechanical load on bones such as swimming or riding a bike, although good for muscles and cardiovascular health, have less effect on bone density and mass. The World Health Organization recommends 60 minutes of moderate physical activity daily for children 5-17 years, including vigorous activities that strengthen muscle and bone (e.g. running, jumping, climbing trees, pulling and pushing activities) at least 3 times a week, and 150 minutes per week for adults and elderly including muscle-strengthening activities twice a week.13 - Pettifor JM, et al. (2011). The Skeletal System (pp. 272-311). In:Lanham-New S et al. (ed.) Nutrition and Metabolism. 2nd edition. Oxford, UK: Nutrition Society. - British Nutrition Foundation (2009). Healthy Ageing: The role of nutrition and lifestyle. Oxford, UK: Wiley Blackwell. - Lanham-New SA, et al. (2007). Importance of vitamin D, calcium and exercise to bone health with specific references to children and adolescents. Nutrition Bulletin 32(4):364-377. - North American Menopause Society (2010). Management of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women: 2010 position statement of The North American Menopause Society. Menopause: The Journal of The North American Menopause Society 17(1):25-54. - Prentice A (2013). Standing on the shoulders of giants: Understanding calcium and vitamin D requirements. Nutrition Bulletin 38:323-331. - Weichselbaum E & Buttriss J (2014). Diet, nutrition and schoolchildren: An update. Nutrition Bulletin 39(1):9-73. - Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 October 2011 on the provision of food information to consumers. - International Osteoporosis Foundation, Vitamin D section - Lips P (2007). Vitamin D status and nutrition in Europe and Asia. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology 103:620-625. - Cao JJ & Nielsen FH (2010). Acid diet (high-meat protein) effects on calcium metabolism and bone health. Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care 13:698-702. - Jesudason D & Clifton P (2011). The interaction between dietary protein and bone health. Journal of Bone and Mineral Metabolism 29:1-14. - European Commission, EU Register of nutrition and health claims made on foods - World Health Organization (2010) Global recommendations on physical activity for health. Geneva, Switzerland.

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borehole is a valid word in this word list. For a definition, see the external dictionary links below. The word "borehole" uses 8 letters: B E E H L O O R. No direct anagrams for borehole found in this word list. Words formed by adding one letter before or after borehole (in bold), or to beehloor in any order: s - boreholes Words within borehole not shown as it has more than seven letters. Try a search for borehole in these online resources (some words may not be found): OneLook Dictionaries - Each search will normally open in a new window. List all words starting with borehole, words containing borehole or words ending with borehole All words formed from borehole by changing one letter Other words with the same letter pairs: bo or re eh ho ol le Browse words starting with borehole by next letter Previous word in list: boreens Next word in list: boreholes Some random words: orle

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NASA Helps Students Train Like Astronauts in Mission X Challenge WASHINGTON -- Fourth-grade students in the College Station Independent School District (CSISD) in Texas have completed six weeks of a NASA health and fitness challenge known as "Mission X: Train Like an Astronaut." The United States, Netherlands, Italy, France, Germany, Austria, Colombia, Spain and United Kingdom hosted teams for the first Mission X challenge. NASA selected CSISD to participate on behalf of the U.S., along with 3,700 other students from more than 25 cities worldwide. The initiative supports the goals of the President’s Council on Physical Fitness, Sports and Nutrition, and First Lady Michelle Obama's "Let’s Move" program announced in February 2010. Both efforts are designed to encourage Americans to adopt a healthy lifestyle that includes regular physical activity and good nutrition. At a final event Thursday at College Station Tiger Stadium in Texas, NASA Associate Administrator for Education and former astronaut Leland Melvin and astronaut Rick Linnehan shared their space travel experience with students. They also discussed the importance of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) studies. "The physical fitness portion of Mission X is vital, because fit kids can make better students," Melvin said. "But, the team-building aspect is essential to what we do at NASA, from constructing the International Space Station to launching complex science missions. Helping students excel in science and engineering and encouraging them to pursue those careers helps NASA develop future explorers, who will reach higher and take us on the next grand exploration challenge." At the finale to Mission X, students also toured the "Driven To Explore" NASA trailer and participated in exploration-inspired activities. Certificates of participation were presented to each of the schools. "Mission X is all about inspiring and educating our youth to live a healthy lifestyle, with a focus on improving their overall daily physical activity," said Dennis Grounds, NASA manager of the Human Research Program at Johnson. "All of the countries involved saw this as a national concern. The program was an outstanding success due to a truly inspired effort by the NASA team, the European Space Agency team and the national space agencies of France and Germany." During the six-week Mission X, participants completed physical activities modeled after the real-life training requirements of humans traveling in space. Students practiced teamwork while participating in training missions targeting strength, endurance, coordination and balance. They also gained an understanding of the science behind nutrition and physical fitness by participating in hands-on activities involving human energy requirements, hydration and bone strength. Mission X enabled several space agencies and various partner institutions to collaborate to address the quality of health and fitness education and challenge students to be more physically active. The program increased awareness of the importance of lifelong fitness and its vital role in human performance for exploration. As a result, students may be motivated to pursue careers in STEM fields. The global challenge is coordinated online, where countries can post updates and submit points. The public is invited to track the progress of the teams. The 18 core activities of the challenge are available for download at the site in seven languages. Visit the site at: In the future, participants hope to expand the pilot program and offer more schools and countries the opportunity to participate. NASA's Human Research Program at the Johnson Space Center in Houston sponsored the U.S. component of the challenge. To follow the progress of Mission X teams, visit: For more information about NASA's Human Research Program, visit: - end - text-only version of this release NASA press releases and other information are available automatically by sending a blank e-mail message to To unsubscribe from this mailing list, send a blank e-mail message to Back to NASA Newsroom | Back to NASA Homepage

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Ph.D., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1963 Theoretical Elementary Astroparticle Physics Supersymmetry provides a pivotal context for new physics beyond the highly successful but conceptually incomplete Standard Model of Weak, Electromagnetic, and Strong Interactions. However, supersymmetry, which enforces a pairing between elementary particles of different intrinsic angular momenta, cannot be an exact symmetry of nature, for such a pairing is not observed at present. In the context of modern elementary particle theory, such a symmetry is “softly broken”, and becomes manifest at extremely short distances or at very high energies or temperatures. In particular, it is thought that supersymmetry was a good symmetry during the very earliest stages of the universe, and only as the universe cooled did its broken phase become dominant. The broken phase is widely thought to originate in the formation of a ‘gaugino condensate’ (like a liquid out of the vapor phase), with the dynamics governing the condensation being controlled by the physics of a hidden sector, perhaps originating in string theory. Professor Goldberg has examined several aspects of this phase transition, and has shown how the underlying theory must be constrained in order that this mechanism succeed. Also in the realm of supersymmetry, Professor Goldberg in collaboration with a graduate student (M. Gómez), has examined the embedding of supersymmetry in an important candidate for a Grand Unified Theory (called SO(10)). In particular, they have studied a very interesting aspect of this embedding — the possibility of observing certain processes in the laboratory which are otherwise predicted to be non-observable. A prime example is the decay of the mu particle into an electron and a gamma ray, and the class of theories studied by Gómez and Goldberg yields a decay probability which should render the process observable during the coming analysis of the new data. An additional puzzle in modern elementary particle theory is an apparently small, but distinct gap between the energy scale at which the weak, electromagnetic and strong forces become of equal strength (the so-called Grand Unified, or GUT scale) and the scale at which gravity also achieves parity of strength with these forces (the Planck, or string scale). Professor Goldberg has recently proposed a new mechanism which can generate this gap. It rests on a shift of the normal ground state (or vacuum) of the theory induced by the multiplicity of states to which certain fields (‘gauge singlets’), ubiquitous in string theories, are coupled. Professor Goldberg is looking to embed this mechanism in the favored Grand Unified Theory, SO(10). 226 Dana Research Center

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Hear Ye, Hear Ye: Read all About It! - Develop an online newspaper depicting events from the Lewis and Clark expedition and publish it on the school Web site; - Practice recording notes from primary and secondary sources. This lesson correlates to the national McREL standards located online at http://www.mcrel.org/. Standard 1: Uses the general skills and strategies of the writing process Standard 2: Uses the stylistic and rhetorical aspects of writing Standard 3: Uses grammatical and mechanical conventions in written compositions Standard 4: Gathers and uses information for research purposes Standard 2: Knows the characteristics and uses of computer software programs. Standard 3: Understands the relationships among science, technology, society, and the individual. - A copy of the program Lewis and Clark: The Journey of the Corps of Discovery (To order, visit ShopPBS) - A television, and a VCR or DVD player - Computers with Internet access - Selected journal entries from the Archive section of this Web site - Lesson 16 Student Activity Sheet Five or six 45-minute class periods or three 90-minute class periods. - Prepare a handout or list on the board the guidelines for completing the newspaper project. Things you will want to include in this handout/list are: - Number of people working on each newspaper (individual, pair, or small group project) - How many stories will each student be responsible for writing? - What type(s) of stories will each student be responsible for writing? - What are the guidelines for using publication software? - What are the expectations for spelling, capitalization, punctuation, grammar, and usage? - What is the timeline for completion of the project? - Who is the audience for the project and how will it be shared? - Create a peer editing evaluation form or set of guidelines for students to use when editing on another’s work. - Create a handout that describes the scoring guide to be used on the project. - Before viewing the film, instruct students to create a note taking sheet that contains the following sections: - Facts/Interesting details about Lewis, Clark, and other Corps Members - Challenges encountered by the Corps of Discovery - Exciting Discoveries - Unusual Encounters and Happenings - Other Newsworthy Information - Explain to students that as they view the film, they should be looking for details to place under each of the five categories they have written on their note taking sheets. Instruct students to take accurate notes that will help them remember key events and ideas so they can include them as stories in their newspaper projects. Remind students that good news stories incorporate who, what, when, where, why, and how. In addition, they need to have a catchy headline, a byline, a strong lead, objective copy (no editorializing), and quoted comments or reactions from "newsmakers" (either pulled from journal entries or inferred). - Distribute copies of the peer editing evaluation forms/guidelines and review with students so they know how their work will be evaluated and what they should look for when editing other students’ work. This is also a good time to distribute and discuss the scoring guide that will be used to evaluate student work. - Have students view the film. Stop periodically to have students discuss key people, events, and ideas from the film. Encourage students to add information to their note taking sheets during discussion. - Once viewing is complete, direct students to this Lewis and Clark Web site, specifically the “Inside the Corps” and “Archive” sections. Here they can find specific details about Corps members and their journal entries. Encourage students to add to their note taking sheets by reviewing the journal entries below. Selected journal entries to review: Lewis: May 26, 1804 Clark: June 28, 1804 Clark: July 14, 1804 Floyd: August 14, 1804 Ordway: September 25, 1804 Lewis: May 14, 1805 Ordway: September 3, 1805 Clark: October 23, 1805 Whitehouse: December 25, 1805 Lewis: March 16, 1806 Gass: April 21, 1806 Ordway: May 23, 1806 - When research is completed, students should write news articles on what they believe to be the most important discoveries and events of the expedition. Students may find it helpful to organize using the graphic organizer found on the Lesson 16 Student Activity Sheet. This will also provide them with an example of an appropriate mast head and its content. - When students are finished writing their articles, they should have them proofread by a peer. Peer editors should provide feedback about the content and construction of the articles. Students should edit their articles as needed. - Students should then incorporate the articles and related artwork (optional) into an online newspaper. If possible, see if your students can have their work posted on your school's Web site. As a safety precaution, it is recommended that students' last names not be posted on the school's Web site. Provide an opportunity for each individual/pair/group to present their newspaper to the rest of the class. - Develop a scoring guide to evaluate each student newspaper or stories written by - Assign participation or completion grades to students for completing peer editing activities and for presenting their newspaper to their classmates. - Students might wish to present their Web site "off line" to younger students. This is a good way to have students articulate what they have learned by sharing and teaching younger students about the Lewis and Clark expedition. - Instead of just a basic online newspaper, look for opportunities to interact with others online. Your students could ask for feedback, build surveys (a great integration with math), and offer collaborative answers (via e-mail) to other people searching for more information regarding Lewis and Clark.

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October 21, 2009 Classifying Molar Pregnancy Researchers from The Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions have used short tandem repeat (STR) genotyping and p57 immunohistochemistry to distinguish hydatidiform moles. The related report by Murphy et al "Molecular Genotyping of Hydatidiform Moles: Analytic Validation of a Multiplex Short Tandem Repeat (STR) Assay," appears in the November 2009 issue of The Journal of Molecular Diagnostics. Molar pregnancy is an abnormal form of pregnancy in which a fertilized but non-viable egg implants in the uterus, resulting in a hydatidiform mole. Hydatidiform moles, which occur in one in every 1000 pregnancies in the United States, increase the risk of persistent gestational trophoblastic disease (GTD) and choriocarcinoma, a malignant, rapidly-growing, and metastatic form of cancer. Molar pregnancies can have either partial or complete hydatidiform moles. Complete hydatidiform moles (CHMs) arise when an empty egg with no nucleus is fertilized by a normal sperm, and partial hydatidiform moles (PHMs) arise from a normal egg fertilized by two sperm.CHMs, PHMs, and non-molar specimens (NMs) have different risks for persistent GTD, and thus differentiation is important for clinical treatment of patients. Morphological diagnosis results in high inter- and intra-observer variability; therefore, Murphy et al explore using genetic features to differentiate CHMs, PHMs, and NMs. They found that STR genotyping and p57 immunohistochemistry, by identifying the parental source of particular alleles, can distinguish CHMs, PHMs, and NMs and have developed an algorithm for the interpretation of STR data. Dr. Murphy and her colleague Dr Brigitte Ronnett "have applied this algorithm in routine practice to ensure accurate diagnosis of hydatidiform moles. In doing so, they have determined that the genetics of molar specimens can be more complicated than traditionally thought." Drs. Murphy and Ronnett are now working to "discover additional risk factors for GTD, in order to identify women who may require chemotherapy." On the Net:

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"Education is a discipline - that is, the discipline of the good habits in which the child is trained." (Vol 2, p. 247). is leading a summer study of Simply Charlotte Mason's Education Is... eBook. This is my second post in this series. Just as Charlotte Mason has identified three components of education - Atmosphere , Discipline and Life, so has she divided the idea of the discipline of habits into four specific areas: moral habits, mental habits, physical habits and spiritual habits. A future discussion is scheduled wherein I anticipate delving deeply into each of these areas. However, today's focus will be on the discipline required to instill any habit, specifically 5 ways from Charlotte Mason to cultivate good habits. I have tried to think these through regarding older children. It is quite easy to read about children throwing toys and the consquence being the loss of that toy but I don't see Marianna pitching her belongings around in a fit much anymore. :) I think if it is a good and true theory it will apply to all ages, even (especially!) adults. 1. Pick One Habit Quality over Quantity. Don't Overwhelm. My impulse is to grab a habit from each area. Let's have one spiritual, one physical, one... this may be an area to SLOW DOWN. I may not be able to plan 10 years of habit training in the remaining 5 school years but I imagine I can touch on some pertinent ones in that time! 2. Be Vigilent and Consistent I truly liked the idea of following through by making certain I have the attention of the child, stating the command once, asking for a narration (repeat back to ascertain comprehension), and then applying the consequences. Why get myself worked up and jump straight to the consequences if I haven't yet caught the child's attention or the comprehension of what I'm asking isn't there? 3. Share Living Examples Concrete rather than Abstract. Bring examples in that the child can relate to. Of course, anytime you hear the word Living in a discussion of C.Mason, think non-twaddle. The classic George Washington = Truthfulness was given as an example but I'd really like to come up with a modern (dare I say, living ?) list of people that exhibit the qualities I'd be talking about, an example might be Olympic skier Rebecca Dussault. 4. Apply Appropriate Consequences The emphasis is on applying Natural Consequences as much as possible as they are a reflection of real life. A wonderful point was made that a consequence that is overused it can lose its effectiveness. To combat this several options were given. - i.e. physically helping the child complete the task. The example given in Education is... was to repetitively and physically walk your child through the task of picking up toys even to the point of guiding her bodily. Obviously this won't work with a teenager quite so well. :) However, to take the idea of physical repetitiveness and apply it to a task a teen might have like sweeping the floor (or scrubbing the deck!) the consequence of neglecting to do so might result in doing the task twice in succession. - Is there something distracting the child from completing the task? For the older child a distraction might be access to books, music, the computer and other technologies (ipod, cell phone, games, etc...) Remove it until the task is complete. - The classic for the older child. If you don't get your dirty clothes in the laundry YOU do the laundry the next day. - Another oldie but goodie. The most pertinent point here, I felt, was the idea that the privilege lost should be connected to the action. The example in Education Is... was having the child stand through a meal or lesson instead of using a chair if that child continually disobeys the directive not to tip the chair back on two legs. Makes sense to me. 5. Encourage, Don't Nag Nagging can be so easy to fall into, but a simple rephrase and control of the voice and expression can lead to an attitude of expectant encouragement rather than nag-nag-nagging. Have you noticed that there is not much talk about the child and their actions but rather much discussion of the parental actions! This idea that 1/3 of Education is a Discipline really plays into the parent's lap. If I can apply these ideas to my own life I feel I'll be well on the way to guiding my daughter in the formation of her life!

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Mrs Dalloway Warfare Quotes How we cite our quotes: (Section.Paragraph) "The War?" the patient asked. The European War – that little shindy of schoolboys with gunpowder? Had he served with distinction? He really forgot. In the War itself he had failed. (4.113) When Septimus thinks back to the war, he no longer considers it a grand and patriotic event. In spite of his bravery, he believes the war was a foolish child’s game. Really it was a miracle thinking of the war, and thousands of poor chaps, with all their lives before them, shovelled together, already half forgotten; it was a miracle. (4.196) The war wasted thousands of lives. The feeling in London is forever changed by the devastation and loss. "Just as we were starting, my husband was called up on the telephone, a very sad case. A young man (that is what Sir William is telling Mr Dalloway) had killed himself. He had been in the army." (6.83) Lady Bradshaw mentions Septimus’ death at Clarissa’s party, an act that outrages Clarissa. He should almost be considered a war fatality, since his suicide is a direct result of combat trauma.

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When it comes to exotic pets, the stunning sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps, pronounced pet-or-us brev-eee-seps) is among the most exotic. These pretty creatures are marked with bold, black stripes on a silver-gray coat. Like flying squirrels, they sport a gliding membrane that extends from the forelimbs to the hindlimbs. At rest this looks like a skin fold, but during gliding it extends as a thin, taut membrane. Sugar gliders are marsupial mammals, which means their young are born live at a very early stage of development, and then continue to develop in the mother’s pouch until ready to emerge. Sugar gliders are native to islands in the South Pacific, particularly in the northeast areas of mainland Australia and Tasmania, and Indonesia. In the wild, these tree-dwelling critters prefer to live in forests and bushlands, feeding on insects, pollen, nectar and the sap of eucalyptus, acacia and gum trees. Although sugar gliders are native to Australia, it is illegal to adopt a sugar glider in that country without a permit. In the United States, laws regarding ownership of sugar gliders vary from state to state. It is important to check both state and local laws to determine whether it is legal to keep pet sugar gliders in your area. Compared with dogs, cats, rabbits and rodents, sugar gliders have been kept as pets only relatively recently. They are not truly domesticated creatures and, therefore, are easily stressed. Sugar gliders that become stressed in captivity may fail to thrive and can eventually die. Ensuring your sugar glider is comfortable, healthy and stress-free is a big responsibility — these are not pets for beginning pet owners. One key factor to a happy sugar glider is a suitable, safe habitat. For the full article, pick up the 2010 issue of Critters USA or click here to buy the issue.

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The Harper government is set to rebrand and refocus the country’s biggest museum into a monument to the history of Canada in the lead-up to celebrations of the 150th anniversary of Confederation in 2017. An announcement is scheduled next week that the Canadian Museum of Civilization will be renamed to focus specifically on Canadian history. The renaming signals a broader mission for the museum beyond its current anthropological focus to one that looks more seriously at Canadian social and political history. Currently, the museum highlights international exhibitions such as “Mystery of the Maya” and an upcoming exhibition on Haitian voodoo. The decision to include displays about the country’s major milestones is part of a continued effort by the Conservative government to reshape the country’s major symbols with a greater emphasis on the monarchy and past military achievements. “It’s all about our shared Canadian history,” a federal source said of the upcoming announcement. Self-described as “Canada’s largest and most popular cultural institution,” the Museum of Civilization is in Gatineau, Que., just across the Ottawa River from Parliament. It is expected to be renamed the Canadian Museum of History or the Museum of Canadian History, federal sources said. The rebranding will be the latest initiative supported by the Harper government to place a greater focus on domestic celebrations. The government this year has marked the Queen’s Diamond Jubilee and the 200th anniversary of the War of 1812. The 100th anniversary of the Grey Cup will be celebrated later this fall. Other events leading to Canada’s 150th anniversary will include a celebration of the Canadian Arctic Expedition of 1913-1918 starting next year, and the 150th anniversary of the Quebec and Charlottetown conferences in 2014, among others. Sources said Ottawa will be looking to enlist museums across Canada as part of its celebration of the country’s history, with details to be announced on Tuesday by Heritage Minister James Moore and other senior federal officials. “Our museums are the showcase of many of the treasures that we have to celebrate in our history, they are a central piece,” a federal source said. The initiative could face resistance, however, as the Harper government has come under fire for its insistence on celebrating the monarchy and the country’s military history. Foreign Affairs Minister John Baird, for example, has been ridiculed for replacing two works by Quebec painter Alfred Pellan with a portrait of the Queen at the entrance of the Lester B. Pearson building in Ottawa. The federal government has also been increasing the visibility of former Conservative leaders John Diefenbaker and Sir John A. Macdonald across the country, naming buildings, an icebreaker and an Ottawa parkway in their honour. In addition, the government announced this week that it is renaming buildings in the honour of veterans of the War of 1812, earning a rebuke from the NDP. Ottawa is also planning to build a monument to the War of 1812 on Parliament Hill, breaking with a tradition of having only statues of individuals on the legislative assembly grounds. The Museum of Civilization is one of the main tourist draws in the capital region, located on Confederation Boulevard, which links the most prominent federal locations in Ottawa and Gatineau. While it has an acclaimed collection of aboriginal artifacts from across Canada, it has also been home to exhibitions from countries such as Mexico and China. The Museum of Civilization moved from Ottawa in 1989 to a new flowing building in Gatineau designed by architect Douglas Cardinal. It was previously called The National Museum of Man.

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About one out of 10 kids will develop eczema, which is a skin condition related to allergies and inflammation. In eczema, skin can form small fluid-filled blisters that burst and ooze, causing the skin to become cracked, red, flaky, and itchy. Corticosteroids can help keep eczema at bay, but parents are often afraid to employ them based on reports that long-term treatment may scar the skin, causing it to become thin, fragile, and more prone to stretch marks. The study researchers, who were from Australia, say those reports were based on certain application methods of the medications, such as covering the treated area with plastic, that likely resulted in high doses being delivered to the skin. “There are studies that go back 20 or 30 years that basically show that topical steroids, if they’re used properly, are not a problem, so what they show is not a surprise to me,” says Bernard Cohen, MD, director of pediatric dermatology at the Johns Hopkins Children’s Center in Baltimore. “Probably we need more literature like it because there are parents who are steroid phobic, there are physicians who are steroid phobic,” Cohen says, who was not involved in the study. “It interferes with treating kids appropriately,” he says. “You’re sort of on a tightrope. If you undertreat kids, they’re miserable. They don’t sleep at night. It disrupts the family dynamic. The kid’s unhappy in school. It’s just a disaster.” “With proper guidelines these kids can be treated very safely and effectively,” Cohen says. The study is published in Pediatric Dermatology. Looking for Skin Damage For the study, researchers followed 70 children with eczema or eczema with psoriasis who had used topical corticosteroid medications for at least three months to control their skin conditions. The researchers compared them to 22 children with other kinds of skin conditions who had never used corticosteroids. The average age of children in the study was 3.

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Discover the cosmos! Each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer. July 21, 1999 Explanation: About 8000 years ago, a star in our Galaxy exploded. Ancient humans might have noticed the supernova as a temporary star, but modern humans can see the expanding shell of gas even today. In the above false-color infrared image of supernova remnant IC 443, blue denotes expanding gas where emission is dominated by excited iron atoms. Of particular interest, though, are the wisps of IC 443 colored red, as they are impacting an otherwise normal molecular cloud. Here emission from shock-excited molecular hydrogen is allowing astronomers to study how fast moving supernova gas affects star formation in the cloud. Additionally, astronomers theorize that the impact accelerates some particles to velocities near the speed of light. The horizontal line across the image is not part of the nebula. Authors & editors: Jerry Bonnell (USRA) NASA Technical Rep.: Jay Norris. Specific rights apply. A service of: LHEA at NASA/ GSFC & Michigan Tech. U.

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I have a friend who suffers from SAD -- seasonal affective disorder. The long periods of clouds and rain depress her so much that she feels she can no longer live in the northwest. She and her husband are actively looking to work and live in a sunny climate. My friend is not alone in her depression. The Center for Disease control estimates that 1 in 10 adults in the U.S. suffer from depression. Moments of temporarily feeling blue are not uncommon for most people at some point in their life. Chronic depression, however, goes far beyond temporary bouts to a persistent state of sadness without a cause or as a response to an event beyond what would be considered normal. But feelings of sadness aren’t all that’s at stake. The CDC also reports that “Depression is a mental illness that can be costly and debilitating to sufferers. Depression can adversely affect the course and outcome of common chronic conditions, such as arthritis, asthma, cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and obesity. Depression also can result in increased work absenteeism, short-term disability, and decreased productivity.” Left untreated this relationship between depression and other chronic illnesses can have serious consequences. Even though a common treatment is to prescribe antidepressant medications, what’s interesting is that research is showing that except for the most severe cases, the active ingredients in the pills isn’t what makes the patient feel better. Rather, it’s the placebo effect, a belief that the treatment will help, which improves their outlook. Researchers such as Irving Kirsch, Associate Director of the Placebo Studies Program at the Harvard Medical School, are finding that a key reason placebos work is that the recipient’s relationship with the person caring for them, or administering the drug, is therapeutic in and of itself. It doesn’t matter which drug they are given, whether a placebo or a bona fide antidepressant. Randomized clinical trials studying placebos are showing this to be true. If antidepressants work through the placebo effect, and therapeutic relationships are a key factor in the effectiveness of placebos, then perhaps there are other relationships that can effectively treat depression without the ritual of pill-taking. Carmen is a nurse practitioner who found herself in a deep depressive mental state after her son enlisted in the Army and was deployed to Iraq. She describes her journey on her website Naturally-Holistic.net. She eventually worked her way out of the depression, and without apology she claims that: “No matter how you look at it, there is a relationship between depression and spirituality.” She makes four important points about how she emerged from her depression that have a direct connection to my practice of spirituality. Two of them are making the choice to be happy, and finding gratitude in every situation. The other two points, however, center on relationships. She tells us to nurture important relationships, especially with God and to find “...something to love about every situation-even when it was really hard. Choose Love EVERY time.” Not surprisingly, Carmen’s experience is backed up by research. “Studies have shown that religious people are less likely to become depressed and anxious than their nonreligious counterparts. Frequent churchgoing was shown to be associated with lower levels of anxiety and depression Whether people are religious in the sense of being church-goers or simply individuals who embrace a spiritual relationship with a higher power, this premise seems to hold up. For example: “...people who practiced prayer or meditation to reduce moderate to severe anxiety showed marked improvement after three months” Research is important in learning what’s effective in treating depression. But personal experience is just as important in understanding these dynamics as I found with Carmen’s story. I have a daily practice of reading the Bible. It helps me to maintain a spiritually-based “therapeutic relationship” with a higher Being, or God, that keeps me grounded on a meaningful purpose in life. One passage in the New Testament that I’ve found helpful says: “... I am convinced that nothing can ever separate us from God’s love. Neither death nor life, neither angels nor demons, neither our fears for today nor our worries about tomorrow—not even the powers of hell can separate us from God’s love.” Depression is very real and serious for those who suffer from this condition. It’s encouraging to know that there are options that don’t carry negative side effects, and which aren’t based on the trickery behind placebos. Perhaps nurturing a relationship, spiritually, with a higher Being is the therapy that will lift the fog and let the light shine. John Clague is a retired sheriff's office captain, father of two grown sons, and husband. He now works with the media to ensure accurate representation of Christian Science.

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We received our F/W 2012 stock of Bills Khakis‘ popular Bullard Field Pant just as we were reading the history of the safari jacket. The story was in “Mogambo,” book 9 of the uman essay series, and was written by Nick Foulkes in collaboration with Umberto Angeloni. The whole essay was a fascinating read, but here’s the part that’s relevant for today: “The man responsible for introducing the now ubiquitous [khaki] colour to the British military was Lieutenant-General Sir Harry Burnett Lumsden [pictured left]. A true old India hand, Lumsden was born aboard an East India vessel in the Bay of Bengal and, becoming a soldier in his teens, he was involved in opening the Khyber Pass in 1842 and raised a special forces unit called the Corps of Guides five years later. Intended for work on reconnaissance and intelligence missions, the unit was characterized by an unorthodox approach to uniforms. Lumsden eschewed the traditional red coats of the British military, feeling better able to fight in the pyjama-style local dress that had been dyed the colour of mud, using a dye that came from a plant called Mazari.” Bullard Twill. 10.2 ounce cotton. A cool-weather khaki so sturdy you can’t help but stand at attention. (Note: We will cut the unfinished hems to your specifications in-house at no additional charge.)

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Poached eggs are delicious – at least I think so. I suspect that a number of other people do, as well, yet they remain relatively unpopular when compared to other methods of egg preparation. This may be because oftentimes the result of boiling an egg without its shell resembles Egg-drop soup more than Eggs Benedict. Science to the rescue! Actually, poaching an egg is not that difficult, especially if you think a little bit about what’s going on inside your pot. With a little bit of know-how behind you, preparing perfect poached eggs, without space-hogging and expensive unitaskers, is no problem. What’s going on when you cook an egg? The answer is all about proteins. Egg whites are made of proteins and water. Proteins themselves are large (macro) molecules that consist of long chains of smaller molecules called amino acids folded up into complex structures. When proteins are subjected to heat, they denature, that is, the chains unfold and lose their structure. This often causes the proteins to lose solubility (they can no longer be dissolved in liquid). In the case of ovalbumin, the main protein component of egg whites, this causes the egg white to solidify and look white and cooked. The key to perfect poached eggs is to have this happen as fast as possible when cooking the egg, before the egg white has a chance dissipate into the water in the pot. How to do this? Well, it has been shown that ovalbumin is more easily denatured at acidic pH1. This is the science behind why vinegar is often added to egg poaching water. This recipe outlines the basic approach I take. A simple experiment shows that adding 1 tsp. (4.9 mL) of white vinegar (5% acetic acid v/v) in 2 quarts of NYC tap water (1.9L) changes the pH from 6.75 to 3.43 at room temperature (25C) (Remember that pH 7 is neutral, lower pH is acidic, and higher pH is basic or alkaline). At a simmer (95C), the pH of tap water is changed from 6.84 to 3.87. This more acidic pH, combined with the heat of simmering water, rapidly denatures the ovalbumin in the egg whites, creating a coating of cooked egg that the interior of the egg is trapped in while cooking. This prevents the egg from falling apart and the result is a perfectly poached egg. Poached Egg Protocol: Materials: 1-4 fresh eggs (egg white proteins break down over time, resulting in a runnier white that spreads out more in the pot), 2qt or larger pot, small bowl, white vinegar, slotted spoon, paper towel - Bring ~2qt. water to a low simmer (NOT a vigorous boil) and add 1 tsp. white vinegar. - Crack one egg into a small bowl before sliding it into the simmering water so as not to break up the egg on it’s way into the water. - Repeat for subsequent eggs, spacing eggs out from each other so that they heat quickly and evenly and don’t stick together. - Cook eggs 2-3 minutes (or until desired done-ness level). Eggs will continue to cook as long as they are hot, so expect them to cook a little more after they have been removed from the pot. - Evacuate eggs to a paper towel on a plate using a slotted spoon. - Bon Appetit! 1Koseki et al. Conformational Changes in Ovalbumin at Acid pH. J Biochem.1988; 103: 425-430

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Using Technology to Enhance Engaged Learning for At-Risk Students (NCREL) Library Home || Full Table of Contents || Suggest a Link || Library Help |Barbara Means; Pathways to School Improvement| |A "critical issue": An increasing number of educators are calling for high standards and challenging learning activities for at-risk students. New technologies can provide meaningful learning experiences for all children, especially those at risk of educational failure. Schools that capitalize on the relationship between technology and education reform will help students to develop higher order skills and to function effectively in the world beyond the classroom. Achieving such fundamental change, however, requires a transformation of not only the underlying pedagogy (basic assumptions about the teaching and learning process) but also the kinds of technology applications typically used in classrooms serving at-risk students. From the North Central Regional Educational Laboratory (NCREL).| |Levels:||Elementary, Middle School (6-8), High School (9-12)| |Math Ed Topics:||Grouping/Cooperative Learning, Technology in Math Ed, Math Ed Research/Reform, Minorities| © 1994- The Math Forum at NCTM. All rights reserved.

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The United Nations' Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf has approved the addition of about 310,000 square kilometers to Japan's continental shelf, according to the government. The term "continental shelf" describes a nation's oceanic territory including seabeds and everything lying below the water's surface, and generally extends out to the geolographical continental shelf or 200 nautical miles (about 370 kilometers) from shore, whichever is greater. Continental shelves are significant, as a nation has the right to exploit natural resources, such as petroleum, found in its waters. In 2008 the government submitted a request to the U.N. commission requesting about 740,000 square kilometers in the Pacific be declared part of Japan's continental shelf. The approved addition of 310,000 square kilometers is spread over four areas, including one around Okinotorishima island, the nation's southernmost point of land, which is administratively part of Tokyo. The U.N. commission postponed a conclusion on the Southern Kyushu-Palau Ridge Region, which is about 250,000 square kilometers south of Okinotorishima island, because China and South Korea have insisted that Okinotorishima is not an island but a mere rock and thus the region should not be recognized as part of the continental shelf. The newly recognized limits of the continental shelf include most of the Shikoku Basin Region and the Ogasawara Plateau Region, and part of the Minami-Iwoto Region and the Southern Oki-Daito Ridge Region. The total size of the four areas is comparable to about 80 per cent of Japan's land area, which is around 380,000 square kilometers. The government will soon revise documentation to stipulate the areas are included in Japan's continental shelf. It is possible that natural resources within the newly claimed oceanic territory include rare metals and manganese. The government plans to conduct research to this end and explore the areas' seabeds. The Minami-Torishima Region and the Mogi Seamount Region were not recognized within the nation's continental shelf because the U.N. commission judged the areas are not contiguous to Japanese territory and do not meet the requirements for an "extended continental shelf." If a nation can provide proof of meeting the established U.N. requirements for an extended continental shelf, an area beyond the 200-nautical-mile border can further be declared part of the nation's continental shelf.

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This view shows several groups of similar-sized craters arranged roughly in lines. Crater chains are sometimes formed by volcanic eruptions, but the craters here were made by secondary impacts. The excavation of a large crater or basin can throw out blocks of material along radial trajectories. The blocks then sometimes strike the surface nearly in the same location, producing secondary crater chains. Finer ejecta may form the bright ribbons known as crater rays. This image was acquired as part of MDIS's high-resolution surface morphology base map. The surface morphology base map covers more than 90% of Mercury's surface with an average resolution of 250 meters/pixel (0.16 miles/pixel or 820 feet/pixel). Images acquired for the surface morphology base map typically have off-vertical Sun angles (i.e., high incidence angles) and visible shadows so as to reveal clearly the topographic form of geologic features. The MESSENGER spacecraft is the first ever to orbit the planet Mercury, and the spacecraft's seven scientific instruments and radio science investigation are unraveling the history and evolution of the Solar System's innermost planet. Visit the Why Mercury? section of this website to learn more about the key science questions that the MESSENGER mission is addressing. During the one-year primary mission, MDIS is scheduled to acquire more than 75,000 images in support of MESSENGER's science goals. Date acquired: June 07, 2011 Image Mission Elapsed Time (MET): 215937760 Image ID: 349758 Instrument: Wide Angle Camera (WAC) of the Mercury Dual Imaging System (MDIS) WAC filter: 7 (748 nanometers) Center Latitude: 35.48° Center Longitude: 123.4° E Resolution: 236 meters/pixel Scale: The edges of the image are about 120 km (75 mi.) long. Incidence Angle: 63.0° Emission Angle: 11.7° Phase Angle: 51.3° These images are from MESSENGER, a NASA Discovery mission to conduct the first orbital study of the innermost planet, Mercury. For information regarding the use of images, see the MESSENGER image use policy.

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By C. Kenneth Dodd, Jr. U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1258 This report is available in pdf format below. Amphibian species have inexplicably declined or disappeared in many regions of the world, and in some instances, serious malformations have been observed. In the United States, amphibian declines frequently have occurred even in protected areas. Causes for the declines and malformations probably are varied and may not even be related. The seemingly sudden declines in widely separated areas, however, suggests a need to monitor amphibian populations as well as identify the causes when declines or malformations are discovered. In 2000, the President of the United States and Congress directed Department of the Interior (DOI) agencies to develop a plan to monitor the trends in amphibian populations on DOI lands and to conduct causes of declines. The DOI has stewardship responsibilities over vast land holdings in the United States, much of it occupied by, or potential habitat for, amphibians. The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) was given lead responsibility for planning and organizing this program, named the Amphibian Research and Monitoring Initiative (ARMI). Authorization carried the mandate to set up a national amphibian monitoring program on Federal lands, to develop the sampling techniques and biometrical analyses necessary to determine status and trends, and to identify possible causes of amphibian declines and malformations. The biological importance of Great Smoky Mountains National Park has been recognized by its designation as an International Biosphere Reserve. As such, it is clearly the leading region of significance for amphibian research. Although no other region shares the wealth of amphibians as found in the Great Smokies (31 species of salamanders, and 13 of frogs), the entire southern and mid-section of the Appalachian Mountain chain is characterized by a high diversity of amphibians, and inventories and monitoring protocols developed in the Smokies likely will be applicable to other Appalachian National Park Service properties. From 1998 to 2001, USGS biologists carried out a pilot inventory and monitoring research project in Great Smoky Mountains National Park. A variety of inventory, sampling, and monitoring techniques were employed and tested. These included wide-scale visual encounter surveys of amphibians at terrestrial and aquatic sites, intensive monitoring of selected plots, randomly placed small-grid plot sampling, litterbag sampling in streams, monitoring nesting females of selected species, call surveys, and monitoring specialized habitats, such as caves. Coupled with information derived from amphibian surveys on Federal lands using various other techniques (automated frog call data loggers, PVC pipes, drift fences, terrestrial and aquatic traps), an amphibian monitoring program was designed to best meet the needs of biologists and natural resource managers after taking into consideration the logistics, terrain, and life histories of the species found within Great Smoky Mountains National Park. This report provides an overview of the Park’s amphibians, the factors affecting their distribution, a review of important areas of biodiversity, and a summary of amphibian life history in the Southern Appalachians. In addition, survey techniques are described as well as examples of how the techniques are set up, a critique of what the results tell the observer, and a discussion of the limitations of the techniques and the data. The report reviews considerations for site selection, outlines steps for biosecurity and for processing diseased or dying animals, and provides resource managers with a decision tree on how to monitor the Park’s amphibians based on different levels of available resources. It concludes with an extensive list of references for inventorying and monitoring amphibians. USGS and Great Smoky Mountains National Park biologists need to establish cooperative efforts and training to ensure that congressionally mandated amphibian surveys are performed in a statistically rigorous and biologically meaningful manner, and that amphibian populations on Federal lands are monitored to ensure their long-term survival. The research detailed in this report will aid these cooperative efforts. How to Use this Guide Amphibians of the Great Smoky Mountains Habitats and Distribution Grassy Ditches, Pools, and Rivulets Streams and Rivers Other Breeding Sites Areas of Particular Amphibian Why Monitor Amphibians? Things to Consider During Planning Species and Locations to Monitor Choosing Sampling Sites Sampling Techniques and Protocols Easy Passive Sampling Intensive Passive Sampling Spreadsheets and Databases Analysis and Software Equipment and Training Biosecurity and Disease Live and Sick Amphibians Quarantine of Amphibians References on Inventorying and Monitoring Amphibians For additional information write to: C. Kenneth Dodd Florida Integrated Science Center U.S. Geological Survey 7920 N.W. 71st Street Gainesville, Florida 32653 World Wide Web:http://www.fcsc.usgs.gov/ Copies of this report can be purchased from: U.S. Geological Survey Denver, CO 80225–0046 World Wide Web: http://www.usgs.gov/ This report is available online in Portable Document Format (PDF). If you do not have the Adobe Acrobat PDF Reader, it is available for free download from Adobe Systems Incorporated. Download the report (PDF, 21 MB) For faster downloaded the above pdf has been split up as follows: Cover and Contents 6MB Pages 1-33 3.6MB Pages 34-62 3.7MB Pages 63-79 393KB Plate: Amphibians 849KB Plate: Habitats 592KB Plate: Larvae-Tadpoles 3.2MB Document Accessibility: Adobe Systems Incorporated has information about PDFs and the visually impaired. This information provides tools to help make PDF files accessible. These tools convert Adobe PDF documents into HTML or ASCII text, which then can be read by a number of common screen-reading programs that synthesize text as audible speech. In addition, an accessible version of Acrobat Reader 5.0 for Windows (English only), which contains support for screen readers, is available. These tools and the accessible reader may be obtained free from Adobe at Adobe Access. |AccessibilityFOIAPrivacyPolicies and Notices| |U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey Persistent URL: http://pubs.water.usgs.gov/cir1258 Page Contact Information: Contact USGS Last modified: Friday, January 11 2013, 12:39:58 PM

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|Fry and eggs ready for their temporary new home| Navigating around staff who were having their lunch and looking on very bemused, we filled the tank and checked the chiller, flow and filter were all working correctly. We then introduced the fish eggs and fry which by this point, in an office of Wildlife Trust staff, had became quite a talking point. |Filling the tank| So, it all started off well but when I arrived the next morning I discovered a few fatalities. In the natural world this is inevitable, in fact 95% of trout don't make it passed the age of 1 in the wild but this was an artificial environment designed to facilitate the development of the eggs in the most productive way. A quick check of the cooler system told me why. With the cupboard doors below the tank closed there wasn't enough airflow and the chiller wasn't working effectively. This rise in temperature, in addition to the change of water and transportation of the fish was too much. Note to self, make some alterations to the chiller cabinet to allow better airflow. All is not lost, we live and learn and we are still having a better survival rate than in the wild. |In they go!| This is a fantastic opportunity to provide real, memorable learning experiences to support teaching across the KS2 curriculum, whilst allowing schools to participate in a local, conservation project. During the project pupils will visit a local water course to learn about the ecology of rivers. This will provide a connection with their local natural environment, making the project more relevant to their own lives and neighbourhood, whilst providing hands-on learning experiences. At the end of the project pupils will be invited on a field trip where they will be able to release their young trout, visit the hatchery at Blagdon and explore the associated wildlife around the lake. Before it gets to the schools though I will be trialing the project myself, so follow my progress on this blog and see how I get on.

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Longhouses were a style of residential dwelling built by Native American tribes and First Nation band governments in various parts of North America. Sometimes Native American longhouses were large homes designed for multiple families. They were especially popular among the tribes who lived in the northern United ... Visit this site for facts and info on the Longhouse. Native American Indian houses and homes including the Longhouse. The Longhouse, a Native American ... Longhouses were built by the Eastern Woodland Indians. Many families lived together in one longhouse. Each was assigned their own section. Fireplaces and Oct 2, 2013 ... A longhouse or long house is a type of long, narrow, single-room ... Longhouses are large structures, built with the materials available in the ... Pictures and descriptions of different types of Native American Indian homes including wigwams, longhouses, tipis, and adobe houses. Kids learn about Native American Indian teepee, longhouse, and pueblo homes and dwellings in the United States. www.ask.com/youtube?q=What Are Longhouses&v=yIs3aiFrTQc Oct 14, 2010 ... A Documentary Short on the Iroquois Indian's lifestyle inside a longhouse created by Westbrook Shortell, Daniel Jackson, Dan Scharfenberger ... Sep 30, 2011 ... The Iroquois were an agricultural people who lived in permanent villages. They used the symbol of their house-the hodensote or longhouse-as ... Although not all longhouses are made of the same material, most of them have a framework built of wooden posts and poles. These structures are then covered ...

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Voxel-based morphometry is an advanced computer-based method that analyzes an MR brain image and constructs a mathematical model, allowing the researchers to assess the relationship between an active lifestyle and gray-matter volume. "Gray matter is important because it houses neurons, which shrink or die when you have a neurodegenerative disease such as Alzheimer's," lead study author Dr. Cyrus Raji, PhD, a radiology resident at the University of California, Los Angeles, told AuntMinnie.com. "If we can stop those processes or slow them down, then that can be reflected in preserved [gray-matter] volume." For this study, Raji and colleagues recruited adults from the Cardiovascular Health Study (CHS), a four-site, population-based study of coronary heart disease and stroke. CHS contains some 20 years of clinical data on this patient population, including body mass index and lifestyle habits. They selected a total of 876 adults with an average age of 78 years and used a standardized questionnaire on 15 physical activities they participated over the course of two weeks. The activities were swimming, hiking, aerobics, jogging, tennis, racquetball, walking, gardening, mowing, raking, golfing, bicycling, dancing, calisthenics, and riding an exercise cycle. The researchers reviewed those activities and calculated energy output to determine kilocalories burned per week. In doing so, they found that the more kilocalories burned, the larger the gray-matter volume in the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes, including the hippocampus, posterior cingulate, and cerebellum, in all 876 individuals. "The relationship between an active lifestyle as measured by kilocalories and gray-matter volume was a powerful one," Raji said. "Even when accounting for factors such as age, gender, body mass index, study site, and head size, it did not change the results." The relationship between calories burned and gray-matter volume in both sides of the brain is shown in green, yellow, and red. The colors show areas that are larger in volume with increased calories burned. Video courtesy of Dr. Cyrus Raji, PhD. Raji and colleagues also conducted a separate analysis of individuals with Alzheimer's and mild cognitive impairment and found that those individuals also benefited from physical activity. "While physical activity cannot cure Alzheimer's, our study participants with Alzheimer's who were very active had reduced brain atrophy," Raji said. "All of the brain areas in our study positively affected by an active lifestyle are involved with cognition, such as the temporal lobes. That makes sense, because [these brain regions] use the most energy and require the most oxygen and glucose." Neurons require oxygen and glucose to function and need constant blood flow for a consistent supply because they cannot make or store them. Physical activity can maintain an optimal supply of oxygen and glucose by increasing blood flow to the brain. One other key aspect of the study was its focus on a variety of physical activities. Raji and colleagues noted that it is not one but a combination of lifestyle choices and activities that benefit the brain. "What struck me the most about these results is that we have in one of the largest multisite, voxel-based brain imaging studies ever done a finding of how an active lifestyle can benefit the brain in normal aging and Alzheimer's," Raji said. "That's important evidence for using this as a prevention strategy for Alzheimer's because different types of physical activity can benefit the brain -- not just one." The researchers plan to build upon their findings by studying the underlying genetics of obesity and Alzheimer's disease.

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Persons using assistive technology might not be able to fully access information in this file. For assistance, please send e-mail to: firstname.lastname@example.org. Type 508 Accommodation and the title of the report in the subject line of e-mail. Update: Neurologic Illness Associated with Eating Florida Pufferfish, 2002 As of May 15, 2002, a total of 13 presumptive cases of saxitoxin poisoning were reported in Florida residents who ate pufferfish caught in waters near Titusville, Florida. Five cases were reported in April (1), and eight cases were identified through increased surveillance by Florida poison control centers, hospital emergency departments (EDs), and county health departments. This report updates the investigation of these cases. All 13 cases occurred during January 1--April 25, 2002. Nine were identified through Florida poison control centers; four were identified by active surveillance of hospital EDs and health department foodborne illness complaint logs. Investigators defined a case as tingling or numbness in the mouth and/or lips in a person who had eaten Florida pufferfish. All ill persons reported at least one of the following symptoms after a meal that included pufferfish: tingling or numbness in the mouth or lips (13 persons), face (eight), arms (10), legs (seven), and fingertips (one). In initial reports, two patients reported ataxia, and one reported muscle weakness. Some ill persons experienced nausea (six) and vomiting (four) before presenting to a hospital ED. Symptom onset occurred 30 minutes to approximately 8 hours after ingestion of fish (median: 2 hours). Duration of illness ranged from 10 hours to 45 days (mean: 6.6 days; median 24 hours). Eleven persons were treated in an ED, and five were admitted to the hospital. Some patients received intravenous fluids. All cases resolved. Severity of illness was not associated with amount of pufferfish eaten, and nine meal partners who also ate the pufferfish did not become ill. Testing of approximately 25 pufferfish collected from Florida waters by the Food and Drug Administration's (FDA) Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN), in collaboration with the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (FWC), and additional testing by FDA's Northeast Regional Laboratory indicated that pufferfish containing potentially toxic concentrations of saxitoxins (2--53 µg saxitoxin equivalent toxicity/g) are present in the Indian River in the area of the Titusville Pier. Lower concentrations of saxitoxin have been found in pufferfish from the South Banana River. All pufferfish related to these cases were caught in the Indian River Lagoon; 11 patients caught pufferfish off the Titusville Pier. The FWC banned retaining pufferfish caught from Volusia, Brevard, Indian River, and St. Lucie counties on April 25; the ban will remain in effect until mid-July. Information about this ban was provided at the Titusville Pier on April 30, 2002. No filets associated with the Florida illnesses were available for testing to confirm the presence of saxitoxin. However, ongoing statewide sampling of pufferfish in Florida has indicated that pufferfish containing saxitoxins are limited to the Indian and South Banana rivers. Because saxitoxin poisoning is usually associated with mollusks, CFSAN and the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services sampled approximately 100 hard-shell clams from aquaculture lease sites at five locations along the Indian River Lagoon, including the Titusville area in Florida. Clams from two additional locations were chosen as control samples and were collected from the west coast of Florida in the Gulf of Mexico. All samples tested negative for saxitoxin. Reported by: R Hammond, PhD, D Bodager, MPA, Florida Dept of Health; G Jackow, MA, Brevard County Health Dept, Merritt Island; P Minshew, Volusia County Health Dept, Daytona Beach; C Siegenthaler, Lake County Health Dept, Eustis; J Landsberg, PhD, Florida Marine Research Institute, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission; D Heil, Florida Dept of Agriculture and Consumer Svcs. M Quilliam, PhD, D Wechsler, Institute for Marine Biosciences, National Research Council of Canada, Halifax. S Hall, PhD, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition; T Hawryluk, MS, M Wekell, PhD, Food and Drug Administration, Jamaica, New York. S Marcus, MD, MY Wong, B Ruck, PharmD, New Jersey Poison Information and Education System, Univ of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey/New Jersey Medical School, Newark. H Rogers, PhD, M McGeehin, PhD, Div of Environmental Hazards and Health Effects, National Center for Environmental Health, CDC. The initial report described 10 illnesses that were associated with pufferfish ingestion in three states (New Jersey, Virginia, and Florida) and were consistent with exposure to saxitoxins (1). One case (New Jersey) was associated with commercially purchased pufferfish from Titusville, and all other cases resulted from recreationally caught pufferfish in the Titusville area. Laboratory analysis by the Canadian Institute for Marine Biosciences of partially eaten pufferfish from the New Jersey incidents confirmed the presence of saxitoxin and two analogs (2). These results were confirmed with additional analysis by FDA's Northeast Regional Laboratory (3). Some previous intoxications by pufferfish in Florida were attributed to tetrodotoxin (4). Seven cases of pufferfish poisoning were reported in Florida during 1951--1974, including three fatalities (5,6). These case reports were associated with ingestion of locally caught species of pufferfish Sphoeroides. A 1963 study of pufferfish from the east coast of Florida (from the Indian and Banana Rivers, including the Titusville area) demonstrated that pufferfish were toxic to mice (4). Although the species tested in this study was listed as Sphoeroides maculatus (northern pufferfish), there was confusion over the identification of this species with S. nephelus (southern pufferfish) (Figure 1). Northern pufferfish extend only as far south as Jacksonville, Florida (7), and are not known to exist in the Indian and Banana rivers. The illnesses described in this report occurred after ingestion of pufferfish but are consistent with the presence of saxitoxin, a paralytic shellfish toxin usually associated with ingestion of filter-feeding shellfish. Concentration of saxitoxin in the pufferfish tested from the Titusville area varies. Saxitoxin has been reported in pufferfish from the Far East (8) and the Philippines (9). Shellfish containing 2--10 µg saxitoxin/g previously have caused illness (10), but saxitoxin has not previously been reported in Florida. The severity of illnesses in persons described in this report varied probably because of the concentration of saxitoxin in a particular pufferfish and/or the amount of pufferfish eaten. Approximately 100 species of pufferfish are known worldwide, and nine species are present in Florida. Southern pufferfish populations have been increasing in the Northern Indian River during the previous 5 years (FWC, unpublished data, 2002). The southern pufferfish that have been caught recently near Titusville are normally present in this area of Florida, but they have not been implicated previously in fish poisoning events. Sportfishers in Florida need to be educated that potentially toxic pufferfish might be in the Titusville area. Warnings about the presence of certain species of potentially toxic pufferfish should be posted in commonly fished areas. Because many sportfishers vacation in Florida and transport fish home to other states, health-care providers should be aware that rapid onset of neurologic symptoms after a meal of pufferfish could be caused by saxitoxin. Ingestion of paralytic shellfish toxins produces neurologic symptoms that are sensory, cerebellar, and motor. The most common symptoms are tingling and burning of the mouth and tongue, numbness, drowsiness, and incoherent speech. These symptoms usually occur 30 minutes to 2 hours after ingestion of the fish, depending on the amount of toxin ingested. In severe cases, ataxia, muscle weakness, respiratory paralysis, and death can occur (10). Ill persons should contact their local poison control center and proceed to a hospital ED. Hospital EDs and poison control centers should contact the local health department if persons report neurologic symptoms after eating pufferfish. This report is based on data contributed by R Weisman, Pharm D, JL Schauben, PharmD, V Speranza, PharmD, Florida Poison Information Center; D Johnson, MD, Bur of Environmental Epidemiology, Florida Dept of Health. T Litovitz, MD, American Association of Poison Control Centers, Washington, DC. Office of Regulatory Affairs and Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Food and Drug Administration. Return to top. Disclaimer All MMWR HTML versions of articles are electronic conversions from ASCII text into HTML. This conversion may have resulted in character translation or format errors in the HTML version. Users should not rely on this HTML document, but are referred to the electronic PDF version and/or the original MMWR paper copy for the official text, figures, and tables. An original paper copy of this issue can be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office (GPO), Washington, DC 20402-9371; telephone: (202) 512-1800. Contact GPO for current prices.**Questions or messages regarding errors in formatting should be addressed to email@example.com. Page converted: 5/16/2002 This page last reviewed 5/16/2002

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A 100-W lightbulb radiates visible light at a rate of about 10 W; the rest of the EM radiation is mostly infrared. Assume that the lightbulb radiates uniformly in all directions. Under ideal conditions, the eye can see the lightbulb if at least 20 visible photons per second enter a dark-adapted eye with a pupil diameter of 7 mm. (a) Estimate how far from the source the lightbulb can be seen under these rather extreme conditions. Assume an average wavelength of 600 nm. (b) Why do we not normally see lightbulbs at anywhere near this distance?

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Details about Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe: Alexander Grab explores the impact of Napoleon's domination throughout his empire and the response of the Europeans to his rule. This important book focuses on the developments and the events in the ten states that comprised the Grand Empire: France itself, Belgium, Germany, The Illyrian Provinces, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Spain and Switzerland. Grab discusses Napoleon's exploitation of occupied Europe and particularly his reform policies, and assesses their success in transforming Europe. Back to top Rent Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe 1st edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by Alexander I. Grab. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Palgrave Macmillan. Need help ASAP? We have you covered with 24/7 instant online tutoring. Connect with one of our tutors now.

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No visit to the Crowsnest Pass can be complete without a visit to the Frank Slide Interpretive Centre. Open year round, it’s many interactive exhibits showcase the great slide of 1903, its impact on the town of Frank and the surrounding area, and the current monitoring of Turtle Mountain. The Frank Slide was designated a Provincial Historical Resource in 1977. In 1985 the provincial government opened the Frank Slide Interpretive Centre, which underwent a major exhibit upgrading in 2008. Hours of operation, admission fees, special events and much more can be found on the Centre’s own website (external site). The Frank Slide. At 4:10am on April 29, 1903, 74 million tonnes (30 million cubic metres) of limestone fell from the east face of Turtle Mountain and covered approximately three square kilometres of the valley floor. The slide dammed the Crowsnest River and formed a small lake, covered 2km of the Canadian Pacific Railway, destroyed most of the coal mine’s surface infrastructure, and buried seven houses on the outskirts of the sleeping town of Frank, as well as several rural buildings. Most of the estimated 100 individuals in the path of the slide were killed, with some surprising exceptions, including three young girls. Fernie Watkins was found unhurt amongst the debris; Marion Leitch, 15 months old, was thrown from her house to safety on a pile of hay; Gladys Ennis, 27 months old, was found choking in a pile of mud by her mother (Gladys died in 1995 at age 94, the last survivor of the slide). Warnings were telegraphed westward to Cranbrook, but the eastern lines had been severed so two railway brakemen set out across the rockslide to flag down the Spokane Flyer. Only Sid Choquette made it across, but he was in time to flag down the train. Seventeen men trapped in the Frank mine escaped by tunneling through virgin coal to the surface, which was easier than trying to clear the debris at the entrance. It took them 14 hours to dig through 6 metres (20 ft) of coal and 2.7 metres (9 ft) of limestone boulders. A mine horse named Charlie survived alone in the mine for a month, but succumbed shortly after being found by investigating miners without ever seeing daylight. The town was evacuated, but people were soon allowed to return and both the mine and the railway were back in operation within a month. Only twelve bodies were recovered from the debris at the time of the slide. In 1922, a road construction crew uncovered the remains of seven more people. Today, visitors from all over the world marvel at the impressive Frank Slide. Highway 3 runs right through it, and pulloffs with interpretive panels provide information to the casual visitor. The Frank Slide Interpretive Centre sits atop a bluff with commanding views of the slide, and is a must-visit venue. A short easy trail through the slide itself starts and ends at the Centre. A more adventurous and demanding trail takes you to the summit of Turtle Mountain for exceptional views of the Frank Slide and the surrounding valley.

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Seismic source zones for Thailand was first introduced by Nutalaya et al. (1985), based upon both seismological and geological evidences. Subsequently, Shrestha (1990) identified 9 active faults in the country on the basis of only seismological data analysis. Recently Department of Mineral Resources put an enormous effort to produce the active fault map of Thailand (Fig. 1) with the co-operative research studies of Chulalongkorn University (Thailand) and Akita University (Japan) on the bases of all the relevant geotectonic, digitally - enhanced satellite-borne image, geochronological, historical and seismological data along with the earlier published works (e.g., Hinthong, 1995; Nutalaya et al., 1985). Apart from the above - mentioned information applied, the other significant data are from the results of morphotectonic trench log and geophysical investigations. This commences with remote sensing interpretation to determine significant lineaments, follows with Quaternary field mapping of landforms, and then identifying morphotectonic features and styles – including primary, as fault scarp degradation and secondary, such as offset and beheaded streams, sag ponds, shutter and pressure ridges. Then ground geophysic (resistivity and GPR) surveys are carried out to confirm the existence of the interpreted faults. Detailed geodetic survey has been performed in detail to locate the appropriate site for exploratory trenching. Detailed stratigraphic logging has been done prior to sampling for Quaternary dating have been made. Based upon these consecutive sequences of work, we can delineate the Fault Zone (FZ), which is herein defined as linear or elongate zone of seismicity commonly classified by neotectonic movement and coincident with major tectonic structures. As displayed in Fig. 1., Thailand consists of 15 active FZ. Followings are a summary of the faults that have been studied. 1) The 155 km-long, E-trending Mae Chan FZ indicates the latest movement of ca. 1.5 ka, based on TL and C-14 dating data (Kosuwan et al., 1999). Offset stream of about 600 m has been observed and this indicates a left-lateral movement of the fault. Recent activity is also marked by the presence of a few hot springs located along fault lineaments. In this region, earthquake events with intensity of VII or greater are reported for year 460, 534, and 1715 A.D (Nutalaya et al., 1985). It is quite likely that these historical earthquake events were reported to be responsible for inundation of the ancient town of Wiang Yonok situated on the easternmost part of this fault. The recorded largest tremor of a body-wave magnitude (Mb) 4.0 took place on 1 September, 1978. Seismological data indicate that earthquakes of lower magnitudes also occurred along this fault. About 10 earth tremor of magnitude greater than Mb 3.0 were recorded since 1978, and three of these are over Mb 4.5. 2) The Mae Tha FZ forms a curiously arcuate trace appoximately 140 km-long, roughly NW-trending to the east of the Chiang Mai basin. The fault plane has a moderate dipping angle to west and northwest. Along the northern part of its fault trace it sharply truncates the Mae Kuang River, with the offset of about 4.5 km in the right lateral slip. Small earthquakes with mostly less than Mb 3.0 and shallow depth occurred abundantly in the northwestern part of the fault. However, our geomorphologic investigations show poorly-defined morphotectonic features during Quaternary. Hot spring locations are mainly in the southern part of the fault. No dating data have been done along this fault yet. 3) The arcuate, NE-trending Thoen FZ is approximately 140 km-long. Quartz concentrates from fault - related colluvium yielded displacement ages of ca. 4.0, 3.0, and 2.0 ka using TL dating approach and from charcoal samples using C-14 method also. During the past two decades, more than two dozen of earthquakes with the magnitudes of Mb 3.0 to 5.0 were detected nearby this fault to some extent. The fault is situated more or less in the Phrae and Long basins. The latest maximum tremors at the eastern side of the Phrae Basin and Thoen fault were recorded on 22 and 23 December 1980 with the magnitudes of Mb 4.0 and 3.7, respectively. Our recent morphotectonic and remote-sensing investigations reveal that the former is considered to be relatively older than the western side of the Phrae basis where the Phrae fault (Fenton et al., 1997) is situated. Afterwards until 1983, a few quakes with magnitudes ranging from Mb 2.5 to 4.0 were instrumentally recorded. Most hot springs are discovered in the southern part of the Thoen Fault. Our geomorphological evidence advocates the left lateral movement. 4) The approximately 115 km-long, NE-trending Uttaradit FZ shows rather distinct and straight scarps along the Nam Nan River near Nam Pat District. Satellite image and field data indicate that the fault is likely to extend to northern Lao PDR, where few earthquakes with magnitude about Mw 3.0 were recorded. The fault forms a prominent northwest-facing escarpment, the base of which is marked by a very sharp bedrock-alluvium contact, and crossing young alluvial deposit. No dating data is confirmed for the Quaternary movement, however Fenton et al. (1997) estimate the maximum earthquake of about Mw 7.0 using surface rupture length method (Well and Coppersmith, 1994). 5) The approximately 85 km-long, N-trending Pua FZ is a west-dipping normal fault. The northern segment of the fault is marked by a very prominent linear escarpment. The middle part of the fault is characterized by a well developed wine-glass canyon at Nam Khun valley, Ban Santisuk village. Landsat TM imagery shows the fault continuing as a very prominent lineament crossing recent alluvial deposits. Earthquakes with the magnitude of Mb 7.0 occurred very close to the fault during 1934 and 1935 in northern Lao PDR and Thailand, respectively (Bott et al., 1997). The short-term and long-term slip rates are estimated ca. 0.6 and 0.06 mm/yr, respectively, and the maximum earthquake is about Mw 7.25 (Fenton et al., 1997). Our preliminary TL dating data confirm the movement age of the Pua FZ in the Quaternary period. 6) The 45 km-long, NNW-trending Phayao FZ exhibits a sharp scarp clearly observed from the Landsat image suggesting Quaternary movement with eastward down-thrown side to the Payao Basin, possibly related to the so-called Kwan Phayao Lake. This lake is interpreted representing the large sag pond – an internal fault wedge basin which forms branches in the bifurcating dextral fault as a result of slip movement. The 1994 Pan earthquake with the magnitude about Mb 6.0 at the northern extension of the fault provides the good evidence on a fault – generating earthquake. Based on focal mechanism, Bott et al. (1997) considered that the similarly oriented fault is located possibly within the Payao basin. 7) The Mae Yom FZ has been mapped as a steeply dipping NE-striking fault that extends for a distance of approximately 25 km. The fault indicates the latest movement of ca. 5.0 ka, based on preliminary TL and C-14 dating data. Offset of stream about 70 m of tributary of Mae Yom river indicats that left-lateral strike-slip fault movement with the paleoearthquake magnitude of about 6.5 in the Ritcher scale. 8) The 65 km-long, NE-trending Mae Ing FZ clearly indicated by gological and Landsat image investigations. The fault plane dips toward NW. Afterwards until 1983, many time quakes with magnitudes ranging from ML 2.8 to 4.0 were instrumentally recorded. Two tremors occurred on 23 August 1999 and 7 July 1990 with ML 4.0 and 3.8, respectively. 9) The almost 215 km-long, straight and N-trending Mae Hong Son FZ clearly indicated by gological and Landsat image investigations. The fault is a sharp lineament with normal movements. Although no large earthquakes are recorded in Thailand, further to the north in Myanmar, there have been several small to large frequent earthquakes including that of the Mw 5.1 on 1 March 1989. However, at present no dating data have been done for the paloeseismic investigation. 10) The discontinuous, 250 km-long, NW-trending Moei (or Mae Ping ) FZ has its several spray fault segments, which are clearly observed from both Landsat and NOAA satellite images. This FZ which passes the Upper Chao Phraya Basin is very likely to extend to Cambodia and may have caused the development of the Ton le Sab Lake, the other fault-wedge basin formed by the bifurcating dextral movement. The major, W-WNW branch is observed cross-cutting Holocene sediments in Tak (Bhongaraya and Thiramongkol, 1998). Shrestha (1987) noted that an earthquake on 23 September 1933, with no record of intensity and magnitude, was felt along this fault for duration of about 1 minute. An earthquake of Mb 5.6 occurred nearby the fault on 17 February 1975. A fault plane solution indicates a principal component of right-lateral movement (Le Dain et al., 1984). Our recent preliminary results on morphotectonic, geophysical and TL dating investigations of this fault in east-central part of Thailand (Nakhon Nayok) reveal several movements along this fault in the Late Quaternary period. 11) The 215 km-long, arcuate NW-trending Sri Sawat FZ hosts several spray faults. Though several hundred shallow-depth quakes were reported along this FZ, and ground cracks and landslides were encountered in a NW-SE direction within the epicentral area, the Si Sawat FZ is regarded as the source of these reservoir-induced earthquakes (RIS) by Klaipongpan et al. (1991) and Chung and Liu (1992). Two large shallow-depth tremors took place on 15 and 22 April 1983, with the Mb 5.3 and 5.9, respectively, and were followed by at least 140 aftershocks throughout that year. Shrestha (1987) notes that the Sri Sawat FZ exhibits a dextral movement in Quaternary period. But Klaipongpan et al. (1991) emphasized, based on the long-term seismicity study as well as the focal mechanism for the 1983 RIS, that the east-trending reverse fault at the southern end of the fault is considered to account for the surface ruptures where few hot springs are closely located. Our results on geophysical and TL dating data of the fault-related sediments and fault gouge material strongly confirm the latest movement in the early Holocene epoch. 12) The NW-trending Three Pagoda FZ joins the Sagiang FZ of Myanmar. Its length in Thai portion is about 200 km. It occupies the Quae Noi and Mae Klong River channel. The moderate earthquake of Mb 5.8 was reported close to this FZ during 11 January 1960. Two other tremors occurred on 22 January and 11 July 1985 with Mb 4.5 and 3.9, respectively. However, these quakes are regarded to have occurred as a result of RIS (Hetrakul et al., 1991). Later minor quakes, as evidenced by the swarm-type spatial and temporal distributions, show mostly the dextral motion along the NE-trending conjugate fault set. TL-, ESR, and C-14 dating data of samples collected from fault – related colluviums nearby this FZ, yield the movement age of 2.0 ka. 13) The Tha Khaek FZ lies in the channel of Mae Khong River, which has been mapped as a steeply dipping NW-striking fault that extends for a distance of about 140 km. This FZ is clearly indicated by Landsat image investigations. Satellite image indicate that the fault is extend to central Lao PDR, where two earthquakes were recorded on 22 January 1997 with ML 4.2 and on 11 June 1988 with ML 4.1. 14) The Ranong FZ is one of the northeast- to north-northeast-trending faults that traverse the Peninsular Thailand. The Ranong FZ extends from near Prachup Khirikhan on The Gulf of Thailand coast southwest towards Ranong on the Andaman Sea. The total fault length is approxmately 220 km. The FZ, which follows the channel of the Kraburi River, has its subsidiary faults cutting Late Cretaceous granites (Charusiri, 1989) and Cenozoic sediments. However, a few hot springs was found near and along the southern end of the fault, implying that the fault significantly provides conduits for the geothermal field. The hotsprings in Myanmar and Vietnam are always spatially associated with several active faults. Landsat information indicates that the Ranong Bay is largely controlled by the fault movement. In addition, data from seismic stratigraphy in Andaman Sea indicate a well – defined Ranong FZ cross-cutting Cenozoic sediments almost to the top horizons. Sinistral movement along this FZ is reported by Garson et al. (1975) as having a total horizontal slip of 20 km. Shrestha (1990) noted that an earthquake of Mb 5.6 happened along this fault during 30 September 1978. Our recent TL dating data confirm the movement along the Ranong FZ occurring in Late Quaternary time. 15) The 130 km-long, Klong Marui FZ which cuts across the Phang Nga Bay and Ban Don Bay, follows the Klong Marui channel and mainly pass Tertiary granites (Charusiri, 1989) and Cenozoic sediments. The FZ may have occurred in Middle Tertiary (Charusiri, 1989) with at least 150 km-long total sinistral displacement (Garson et al., 1975). Hot springs are mostly concentrated at the southern portion of the fault. Recent studies indicate that the northern part of Khlong Marui fault is probably related to opening of the Gulf of Thailand and is therefore a basin-bounding normal fault rather than a major strike-slip fault. At present there is no geochronological information to confirm the young movement in Late Quaternary period. A few minor earthquakes were recorded in Phang Nga and south of Phuket provinces. Bhongaraya, S., Thiramongkol, N., 1998. Geomorphology of the Ping and Wang River Basin, Amphoe Sam Ngao and Ban Tak area, Tak. In Proceedings of the Ninth regional Congress on Geology, Mineral and Energy Resourses of Southeast Asia (GEOSEA’98), Kualua Lumpur, Malaysia, p 13 (Abstract with program). Bott, J., Wong, I., Prachaub, S., Wechbunthung, B., Hinthong, C, Sarapirome, S., 1997. Contemporary seismicity in northern Thailand and its tectonic implication. In: Dheeradilok, P. (Ed. in chief), Proceedings of the International Conference on Stratigraphy and Tectonic Evolution of Southeast Asia and the South Pacific, Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok, 19-24 August 1997, pp. 453-464. Chung, W.Y., Liu, C., 1992. The reservoir- associated earthquakes of April 1983 in western Thailand: Source modeling and implications for induced seismicity. Journal of Pure and Applied Geophysics 138, 17-41. Charusiri, P., 1989. Lithophile Metallogenic Epochs of Thailand: A Geological and Geochronological Investigation. An unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, 819 p. Fenton, C., Charusiri, P., Hinthong, C., Lumjuan, A., Mangkornkarn, B., 1997. Late Quaternary faulting in northern Thailand. In: Dheeradilok, P. (Ed. in chief), Proceedings of the International Conference on Stratigraphy and Tectonic Evolution of Southeast Asia and the South Pacific, Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok, 19-24 August 1997, pp. 436-452. Garson, A. J. W., Young, B., Mitchell, A. H. G., Tait, B. A. R., 1975. The Geology of Tin Belts in Peninsular Thailand around Phuket, Phang Naga, and Takua Pa. Overseas Memoir No. 1, Institute of Geological Survey, London, 112 p. Hetrakul, N., Tanittiraporn, B., Sittipod, R., Vivattananon, P., 1991. Post evaluation on reservoir triggered seismicity of Khao Laem. In: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics, March, 11-15, 1991, St. Louis, Missouri, Paper no. 9.20, pp. 1347-1355. Hinthong, C., 1995. The study of active faults in Thailand. In: Proceedings of the Annual Technical 1995 Conference on the Progression and Vision of Mineral Resources Development, Klaipongphan, S., Chakramanont, V., Pinrode, J., Chittrakarn, P., 1991. Geological and seismicity evaluation. In: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Recent Advances in Geotechnical Earthquake Engineering and Soil Dynamics, March, 11-15, 1991. St. Louis, Missouri, Paper no. 9.21, pp. 1,357-1,363. Kosuwan, S., Saithong, P., Lumchuan, A., Takashima, I., Charusiri, P., 1999. Preliminary result of paleoseismic studies on the Mae Ai segment of the Mae Chan fault zone, Chiang Mai, northern Thailand. A paper presented at the CCOP Conference on Geo-hazard in East and Southeast Asia, 14-16 July 1999, Pattaya, Chonburi (9 p. and 2 figs.). Le Van De, 1997. Outline of plate-tectonic evolution of continental crust of Vietnam. In: Dheeradilok. P. (Ed. in chief), Proceedings of the International Conference on Stratigraphy and Tectonic Evolution of Southeast Asia and South Pacific, Department of Mineral Resources, Bangkok, 19-24 August 1997, pp. 465-475. Nutalaya, P., Sodsri, S., Arnold, E.P., 1985. Series on Seismology Vol. II – Thailand, Southeast Asia Association of Seismology and Earthquake Engineering, Bangkok, 403 p. Shrestha, P.M., 1987. Investigation of Active Faults in Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand. An unpublished M. Sc. Thesis, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, 106p.

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Steps to Writing Well, 11 edition 2010 | 656 Pages | ISBN: 1439083959 | PDF | 12 MB Reliable and straightforward, this text has helped thousands of students learn to write well. Jean Wyrick's rhetorically organized STEPS TO WRITING WELL, Eleventh Edition, is known for its student-friendly tone and the clear way it presents the basics of essay writing in an easy-to-follow progression of useful lessons and activities. Latin Grammar You Really Need to Know: Teach Yourself Grammar Smart, 3rd Edition English Modality: Core, Periphery and Evidentiality Oxford Discover: 3: Writing and Spelling (SB with Answer Key) 1,296 ACT Practice Questions, 3rd Edition An Introduction to English Morphology The Evolution of Language What A World 1. Amazing Stories from Around the Globe Kongo Language Course: Maloongi Makikoongo Elizabeth Couper-Kuhlen, Margret Selting - Prosody in Conversation: Interactional Studies This site does not store any files on its server. We only index and link to content provided by other sites. Please contact the content providers to delete copyright contents if any and email us, we'll remove relevant links or contents immediately.

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Price Elasticity: From Tires to Toothpicks Glossary terms from: A trade name used to identify a product produced by a particular company, distinguishing it from similar products produced by competitors. A spending-and-savings plan, based on estimated income and expenses for an individual or an organization, covering a specific time period. People who use goods and services to satisfy their personal needs and not for resale or in the production of other goods and services. Spending by households on goods and services. The process of buying and using goods and services. A conclusion reached after considering alternatives and their results. The quantity of a good or service that buyers are willing and able to buy at all possible prices during a period of time. Elasticity of Demand Price elasticity of demand is the percentage change in quantity demanded as a result of the percentage change in demand price. Generally, a relative response of a change in quantity demanded to a relative change in price. Tangible objects that satisfy economic wants. Law of Demand As the price of a good or service rises (or falls), the quantity of that good or service that people are willing and able to buy during a certain period of time falls (or rises). A period of time long enough for firms to change the quantities of all the resources they use; the exact amount of time varies depending on the industry. The amount of money that people pay when they buy a good or service; the amount they receive when they sell a good or service. Price Elasticity of Demand The responsiveness of the quantity demanded of a good or service to changes in its price. The price elasticity of demand is the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in price. People and firms that use resources to make goods and services. A good or service that can be used to satisfy a want. The amount of a good or service people will buy at a given price in a given period of time. Activities performed by people, firms or government agencies to satisfy economic wants. A period of time long enough for existing firms to change some--but not all--of the resources they use. A good or service that may be used in place of another good or service; examples include tap water for bottled water (or vice versa) and movies for concerts (or vice versa). Desires that can be satisfied by consuming or using a good or service. Economists do not differentiate between wants and needs.

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Here's a fun and magical art activity, where kids paint an invisible picture that can only be revealed when painted over with watercolors! Help your kindergartener add some flair to the family garden with pencil pinwheels! Looking for a teacher gift? Here's a way for your preschooler to show off her growing writing skills and create a cute picture frame to show her thanks, too! What IS That Thing? is a game for kids of all ages that uses scrap paper and junk from around the house! A great way to recycle, reduce, and reuse. Teach your child about the art of ancient Australia by creating your own handprint art just like Aboriginal artists did thousands of years ago. In this unique 5th grade arts and crafts project, your budding artist can imitate ancient rock art by creating his own petroglyphs on sandpaper with crayons. Here's a fun art activity that combines measurement and design with drawing and painting. Kids tell their own special story as they create a story quilt. Using butcher paper, ink and charcoal, your child will explore ancient motifs such as buffalo, bison and hunters by creating her very own cave painting. Commemorate the 100th Day of School with some jewelry that includes 100 buttons. Make this paper chain calendar and give your child a visual reminder of the passing of time. This engaging, fun, pattern resist painting is inspired by your little one's love of shapes. In this fun activity, kids practice measurement and boost fine motor skills as they learn all about how fossils form and even make a few of their own! Recycle your child's beloved old t-shirt by sewing it into a pillow! The results of activity are unique, decorative, creative, and never wasteful. Here's a first grade arts and crafts activity: make pop-up puppets using a plastic cup, wooden dowel, and fabric. Put on a show once you're done! Make some fairy tale felt board stories with your child the next time you're looking for a fun activity for a lazy afternoon. This homemade parachute toy is incredibly easy to build. Plus, it gives kids an excuse to investigate and experiment...the backbone of kindergarten science. Puppets can help preschoolers practice communication and conflict resolution. Make a colorful rock mosaic that will help your child practice her patterns, shapes, and colors while making a beautiful work of art! Transform a single sheet of card stock into a double-sided painting of opposites: on one side, a bright daytime landscape, on the other, a dusky evening scene. Kids get creative as they experiment with fabrics and textures to create their very own collagraphs. Make a seashell wind chime for your back porch. Perfect for younger kids to build motor skills on. Introduce your preschooler to patterns in this arts and craft activity that uses household materials to create and paint scratch prints. Encourage your preschooler's creativity with this exciting art project! Every "scratch art" drawing is unique and colorful! Looking for a noisemaker that's more musical than your kid's typical banging and clanging? Make a paper plate tambourine! This fun watermelon art project will help your preschooler develop his fine motor skills, number sense and shape recognition. Develop your kindergartener's fine motor skills while tracing shadows on a sunny day with this fun kindergarten activity. This flannel board will give your child hands-on practice with math, but in a fun format, full of ladybugs. Melted crayon art is all the rage right now. It's simple, inexpensive, and there's no wrong way to do it! Want a fun craft project that will get your preschooler using his senses? Create a colorful, abstract piece of fabric art with your child! Take advantage of the spring and summer sun in this arts and crafts activity that has your second grader creating pretty flower prints. There's no need to hunt down a cactus for this rainstick craft. In fact, you can recycle items you probably already have on hand. Let your child experience the fun of collage art while jumping into a little bee science with this bee-utiful busy bee craft. This fun art project is a great way to introduce your child to some basic geometry. Featuring plenty of good old fashioned squishy, gooey fun without the mess, this compromise of an art project is sure to please little ones and grown-ups alike. Teaching kids that stories have an order is important, despite how fun it is to listen to the tale of the tomato that put on his pajamas and went for a swim. Your preschooler will strengthen his fine motor skills by cutting, painting, and drawing as he creates a crafty caterpillar out of an egg carton. Wishing for snow? If the weather refuses to cooperate, take charge and make your own snow in this fun painting activity! This school bus is easy to make, and all you need are some common household items. Strengthen your child's number recognition skills with this fun game using an old, empty egg carton! After a storm, have a discussion with your preschooler about how rainbows are made. Then, create a rainbow mosaic from ordinary paint samples! Have your child try her hand at creating a colorful, beaded necklace that's not only stylish, but also tells a story. Help your child to make a beautiful Africa mask to help her reinforce important spatial and compositional skills. Celebrate Black History Month by having your child make her own version of a kente cloth after learning what the different colors on a kente cloth symbolize. If your kid likes to color, you probably know all too well that crayons go quickly. Put those crayon stubs to use by creating colorful ironed wax paper art! Add some fun to arts and crafts by having your child make a self portrait using nature as her palette. Let your preschooler create an abstract masterpiece by turning simple watercolors into a rain splattered painting filled with vibrant colors! This crafty activity provides a hands-on way for your child to illustrate how the trees look during each season of the year. Make a family tree with your child to teach him about his personal history. Make a family tree with this tutorial, and teach your kid about his family history. Have your child make a special mobile inspired by the weather outside. Learn about seasons, the environment, and art in 3-D. In this fun preschool arts and crafts activity, your child will create a cute and colorful caterpillar using pom poms, googly eyes, and a clothespin. Celebrate African heritage by making an African flag banner. This fun, culturally-inspired art project is perfect for Black History Month. Stringing beads helps develop the hand-eye coordination kids need to write, and noodles are sized just right for junior jewelry-makers. Here's a fun activity that will help your child learn to cut on a line, practice fine motor control, and create a beautiful garland, too. Make a vintage-style cardboard treasure box using leathery boiled paper colored with fabric dye. Let your kid have fun painting by blowing the paint around on the paper rather than using a paintbrush. The result will be a fabulously abstract piece of art! Do this exciting project that lets your child use her own breath to create a funky painting that will add colorful flair to any home! Explore African culture by helping your child make his very own djembe drum! Help your child explore music and rhythm as he celebrates Black History Month. Forget markers or crayons. For a really unusual art project, close the art supply cabinet, and crack open the pantry! Use rice to make pictures.

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Division of Mathematics University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas 78249. Mathematics teachers are bemoaning the fact that there is less and less interest in mathematics, which has resulted in a declining mathematical capacity among students. This stands in sharp contrast -- indeed a contradiction -- with the increasing technological advances we are witnessing in our times. Here, an environmental factor is proposed that might contribute to the overall decline of mathematics in our society. It arose from the author's interest in the theoretical basis behind architectural styles from different periods and regions. It has recently been shown how traditional architectures obey rules that are intrinsically mathematical [1,2]. Those rules lead to buildings that, whatever their form, encapsulate to a greater or lesser extent multiple mathematical qualities and information. The architecture of the twentieth century has achieved novelty, and a break with the past, precisely by eliminating those qualities. In this paper, the word "pattern" denotes a regularity in some dimension. The simplest examples are repeated visual units ordered with translational (linear) or rotational symmetry. Patterns also exist in a scaling dimension, where similar forms occur at different magnification. When geometric self-similarity is defined on a hierarchy of scales, a self-similar fractal is created. The concept of a pattern also extends to solution space, in that solutions to similar problems are themselves related and define a single template that repeats -- with some variation -- every time such a problem is solved. The underlying idea is to reuse information; whether in repeating a unit to generate a two-dimensional tiling design, or in reusing the general solution to a class of differential equations. Environmental psychologists know that our surroundings influence not only the way we think, but also our intellectual development. Ordered mathematical information in the environment generates positive emotional responses. If we are raised in an environment that is implicitly anti-mathematical, that adversely affects our interest in mathematics; possibly even our ability to grasp mathematical concepts. Does spending one's whole life in a pattern-less world weaken or even lose the crucial capacity to form patterns? Even though the definitive answer to this question is not known, its implications are alarming. While there is very strong criticism of contemporary architecture for its lack of human qualities [3,4], the present criticism goes far deeper. This is not an argument about design preferences or styles; it concerns the trained functionality of the human mind. A SCIENCE OF PATTERNS Patterns in time are also essential to human intellectual development. Daily activity is organized around natural rhythms. Annual events become a society's fixed points. Moreover, these often link society to an emerging scientific understanding of periodic natural phenomena such as seasons and their effects. Mathematics itself arose out of the need to chronicle observed patterns in space and time. On smaller scales, repeating gestures become theater and dance, and are incorporated into myth, ritual, and religion. The development of voice and music responds to the need to encapsulate rhythmic patterns and messages. All of these activities occur as patterns on the human range of time scales. Complex physical and chemical systems are known to generate patterns in space or time, as a result of self-organization. The system's organized complexity is manifested on a macroscopic scale as perceivable patterns. This is not only true for the innumerable static patterns found in nature; patterns also represent collective motions or other forms of organized, dissipative behavior. The observation of steady-state patterns in dynamic systems is often indicative of the system assuming an optimal state for energy transfer (examples include convection cells, ocean currents, and whirlpools in rivers). By contrast, there is very little going on in a homogeneous state. Before the era of mass education, and for a great many people still today, architectural patterns represent one of the few primary contacts with mathematics. Tilings and visual patterns are a "visible tip" of mathematics, which otherwise requires learning a special language to understand and appreciate. Patterns manifest the innate creative ability and talent that all human beings have for mathematics. The necessity for patterns in the visual environment of a developing child is acknowledged by child psychologists as being highly instrumental. One specific instance of traditional material culture, oriental carpets, represent a several-millennia-old discipline of creating and reproducing visual patterns. A close link exists between carpet designs and mathematical rules for organizing complexity [6,7]. A second example, floor pavements in Western architecture, is now appreciated as being a repository -- hence, a type of textbook for its time -- of mathematical information . ALEXANDRINE PATTERNS AS INHERITED ARCHITECTURAL Alexandrine patterns represent solutions repeated in time and space, and are thus akin to visual patterns transposed into other dimensions. Every serious discipline collects discovered regularities into a corpus of solutions that forms its foundation. Science (and as a result, mankind) has advanced by cataloging regularities observed in natural processes, to create different subjects of ordered knowledge. The elimination of visual patterns as discussed later creates a mind set that values only unique, irreproducible cases; that has the consequence of eliminating all patterns, visual ones as well as those occurring in solution space. Fortunately, the structural solutions that architects depend upon remain part of engineering, which preserves its accumulated knowledge for reuse. Basic laws for generating coherent buildings follow Alexander's more recent work . Successful buildings obey the same system laws as a complex organism and an efficient computer program. This author's theoretical results [1,2], which support the efforts of Alexander, may eventually become part of a core body of architectural knowledge. The design of common buildings is already being taken over by the users themselves in the case of residential buildings, or by the contractors of commercial buildings. Builders have developed their own repertoire of (usually very poor) architectural patterns, motivated by the desire to minimize cost and standardize components rather than to optimize usability. Architects increasingly design only "showcase" buildings, which are featured in the architectural magazines, but represent a vanishing percentage of what is actually built today. Architectural education tends to focus on trying to develop "creativity". A student is urged to invent new designs -- with the severe constraint not to be influenced by anything from the past -- but is not taught how to verify if they are solutions. This approach ignores and suppresses patterns in solution space. Contemporary architectural theory can only validate designs by how closely they conform to some arbitrary stylistic dictate. The only way to avoid coming back to traditional architectural patterns -- which work so well -- is to block the deductive process that relates an effect with its cause. By deliberately ignoring the consequences of design decisions, architectural and urban mistakes are repeated over and over again, with the same disastrous consequences each time. MATHEMATICS AND ARCHITECTURE Medieval masons had a strong grasp of geometry, which enabled them to construct the great cathedrals according to mathematical principles. It is not entirely fair to dismiss the middle ages as being without mathematics: their mathematics is built into structures instead of being written down. The regrettable loss of literacy during those centuries was most emphatically not accompanied by a commensurate loss of visual or architectural patterns, because patterns (as opposed to the abstract representations of a written script) reflect processes that are inherent in the human mind. We are interested here in what happened in the twentieth century. The Austrian architect Adolf Loos banned ornament from architecture in 1908 with these preposterous, unsupported statements: This hostile, racist sentiment was shared by the Swiss architect Le Corbusier: Thus they condemned the material culture of mankind from all around the globe, accumulated over millennia. While these condemnations may seem actions of merely stylistic interest, in fact they had indirect but serious consequences. The elimination of ornament removes all ordered structural differentiations from the range of scales 5mm to 2m or thereabouts. That corresponds to the human scale of structures, i.e., the sizes of the eye, finger, hand, arm, body, etc. In the Modernist design canon, patterns cannot be defined on those scales. Therefore, modernism removes mathematical information from the built environment. Looking around at twentieth century buildings, one is hard-pressed to discover visual patterns. Indeed, their architects go to great lengths to disguise patterns on human scales that are inevitable because of the activities in a building; they arise in the materials, and as a consequence of structural stability and weathering. It is useful to distinguish between abstract patterns on a plan, and perceivable patterns on building façades, walls, and pavements. Only the latter influence human beings directly, because they are seen and experienced instantaneously. Symmetries on a building's plan are not always observable, even if the structure is actually an open plaza, because of the perspective, position, and size of a human being. In a normal walled building, the pattern of its plan is largely hidden from view by the built structure. A user has to reconstruct a building's plan in the mind; i.e., it is perceivable intellectually, and only after much effort. Visual patterns have the strongest emotional and cognitive impact when they are immediately accessible. Proportional ratios may be included with architectural qualities that are perceived only indirectly. The presence of the Golden Mean (f = 1.618), the ratios 5:3, 8:5, and square root of two proportion are found throughout all of architecture, and this topic provides a rich field of study. Nevertheless, no specific mathematical information is communicated to users of a room or façade having the requisite overall proportions, and the effect remains an aesthetic one. What actually occurs is that the use of proportional ratios often also subdivides forms so as to define coincident scales, and this has a strongly positive effect. Much is made of Le Corbusier's modulor system of scales as being a link between Modernist architecture and mathematics. This is a dimensional rule that uses multiples of the Golden Mean, f = 1.618, anchored on the height of the "standard man" at 6ft (183cm) . A careful reading of this design system reveals that it is not, and was never intended to be, a method for generating patterns. Le Corbusier himself did not apply it for surface design, preferring empty surfaces of raw, "brutalist", concrete. When he did use it (with his assistant, the Greek composer Iannis Xenakis) on the Monastery of Sainte-Marie de la Tourette (Fig. 1), it produced a random, purely ornamental façade, and not a pattern. What about city planning? Didn't Modernism straighten out curved streets, and order unevenly-distributed buildings into neat rows of repeated identical forms? Yes, but by imposing a simplistic geometry on city form, post-war planning drastically reduces the rich mathematical complexity of the urban environment [16,17]. That is perhaps analogous to reducing the Spinor group in n dimensions into the trivial Abelian group Z2. With hierarchy reversal, the monotonous patterns defined by modernist buildings and streets are visible only from an airplane. Urbanists of the early twentieth century didn't understand complex systems, so they were eager to simplify human interactions as much as possible. They removed the essential patterns (not only the spatial ones, but more importantly, the dynamical ones) present in the great historical cities, to create empty suburbia and monstrous office buildings. Architects complain that new buildings are bad because they are cheap and tacky; implying that they could be improved by a more generous budget. One hears that: "the reason beautiful buildings cannot be built today is because of the high cost of materials and workmanship". This statement is belied by the wonderful variety of folk architecture built the world over using inexpensive local materials. Architecture is about creating patterns and spaces; a preoccupation with materials only obscures more important issues. It is perfectly possible to build mathematically-rich structures on any budget, by applying the timeless rules derived by Alexander and elaborated by this author. New buildings are usually bad -- in particular, those with a big budget --because they are generated by a negative set of mathematical rules [1,10]. Natural materials embody organized complexity in the scales below 5mm, and thereby provide mathematical information to a viewer through their microscopic surface structure. Modernist architects have abused this property. Emotionally uncomfortable buildings, starting with the Austrian architect Joseph Hoffmann's Stoclet house in Brussels (1906-1911), camouflage a mathematically deficient design through the use of expensive materials. Attention is drawn to the richness of detail in the materials, and away from the deliberate breakup of spatial coherence. This was a favorite method used by the German architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe to spice up his transparent, minimalist boxes. The extreme example was his German Pavilion at the Barcelona Exposition of 1929 (Fig. 2), where giant slabs of colored and travertine marble hid the removal of all other mathematical information. CLASSICAL AND MODERN MATHEMATICS: IS THERE AN ARCHITECTURAL ANALOGY? Classical and neoclassical architecture, which tries to imitate the spirit and style of the Greco-Roman tradition, is ordered in a simple, rectangular geometry (which originally included sophisticated Non-euclidean corrections due to "entasis", the subtle curvature on Greek temples ). Vernacular (folk) architecture, which represents traditional cultural styles around the world, tends to be either more or less curved, and is sometimes profusely decorated. There have been periods when official architectural movements incorporate curvature and decoration into the prevailing style; for example, Asian and Far-eastern architecture, 16th Century Manueline Portuguese architecture, Baroque architecture, and Art Nouveau architecture . Modernist architects took the rectangular geometry of classical architecture, but eliminated subdivisions and subsymmetries (i.e., columns, cornices, fluting, and sculptural friezes). By explicit stylistic dictate, modernist architecture has no fractal properties, and that is one reason why it appears unnatural . Traditional architecture, on the other hand, including that in a Classical style, tends to be explicitly fractal. Fractal subdivisions and scaling can be found in buildings of all periods and styles, and that crucial characteristic divides contemporary architecture from much of what has been built before. The exceptions are those older buildings wishing to disconnect from the pedestrian, usually in order to express power and to intimidate. The latter include monumental Fascist architecture, and its precursors in deliberately imposing, grandiose temples, palaces, and defensive military buildings of the past. An analogy was recently proposed between Modernist architecture and Newtonian mathematics , which, however, is based upon a misunderstanding. The simplistic vocabulary of rectangular Modernist forms has very little mathematical content. Although some modernists did build curves and arches, those are exceptions. Modernist architecture does not represent Newtonian mathematics; it stops long before ancient Egyptian mathematics, at simple squares and rectangles. (The best these can do is to obey some proportional ratio such as the Golden Mean). Where do periodic and differentiable functions, derivatives, curvature, and Taylor series fit into empty rectangles? They don't. The only clear mathematical analogy between architectural styles is the presence or absence of patterns. THE ANTI-FRACTAL MOVEMENT Recently, fractal dimensions have been calculated for Frank Lloyd Wright's and Le Corbusier's buildings, using the method of increasingly smaller rectangular grids . The results show that (at least some of) Frank Lloyd Wright's buildings display a self-similar characteristic over a wide range of scales, from a distant view to finger-tip size detail, so those buildings are intrinsically fractal . In this, Wright was following the brilliant example of his teacher, Louis Sullivan. By contrast, Le Corbusier's architecture displays a self-similar characteristic over only two or three of the largest scales; namely, those corresponding to a distant view. Up close, Le Corbusier's architecture is flat and straight, and therefore has no fractal qualities. A fractal dimension between one and two characterizes a design that has an infinite number of self-similar levels of scale, whereas the fractal dimension of Le Corbusier's buildings immediately drops to one. POST-MODERNIST AND DECONSTRUCTIVIST STYLES Some people relate the latest deconstructivist architectural styles, characterized by unbalanced, chaotic forms, to more modern mathematics such as chaos and fractals [21,22]. Whereas self-similarity in pure fractals tends to be exact, natural (and architectural) self-similarity is often statistical: the degree of complexity, though not the same pattern, repeats at different scales. Deconstructivist buildings can indeed approach a stochastic fractal, but they have no patterns, either on a single scale, or across different levels of scale. Innovative architects may wish to generate fractal rhythms in order to explore complexity at the interface between organization and chaos, and to link it to musical rhythms . The complexity of such patterns will necessarily depart from simple repetition. In this author's opinion, patterns are essential to architectural form. Mathematical chaos is the study of hidden patterns in systems that are only apparently chaotic. There is no change in the fundamental aim of mathematics -- which is to discover patterns -- in going from Newtonian to chaotic models. Despite the enormous possibilities of applying fractals to built forms in an innovative manner, deconstructivist buildings have only led to randomness. Built examples jump from one extreme to another: from the empty modernist model straight into random forms. Any decoration appearing on contemporary buildings is either so minimal as to be hardly visible, or it is intentionally disarrayed and broken so that it is incoherent. So far, deconstructivist architects bypass and avoid organized complexity, which is what most of mathematics is all about. A MATHEMATICAL TEMPLATE FOR OUR ENVIRONMENT Most of us regret the loss of organic forms such as trees from our surroundings, yet the assault is actually far broader: it is against essential mathematical qualities. Our civilization has turned against those structures, animate as well as inanimate, that possess organized complexity. We are taught by our schools and media to eliminate mathematical information from our environment. We have reversed our mathematical values on the misguided impression that that is necessary for technological advancement. That is both false and dangerous. Emptiness has no content, and chaos is profoundly disturbing; human beings evolved by organizing biochemical complexity, and that is what should be valued above all else. As soon as our priority is on objects with organized complexity, we will again appreciate nature and mankind's greatest achievements. INFORMATION AND COMPLEXITY At the empty (modernist) extreme, monotonous repetition provides little information, although if it does contain any, it is well organized. Repetition (translational or other symmetry) does not necessarily create patterns with any content; one needs contrast as well . Monotonous repetition without subsymmetries represents a minimal pattern on a single level of scale. It differs from more complex patterns whose information is contained in their different scales, and also in the interconnections between those scales [24,25]. Modernism uses very repetitive designs as a way of eliminating complexity and information, thereby simplifying the built environment. Moreover, repetition is always applied to the large scales, and avoided in the small (i.e., human) range of scales, which further diminishes its impact as an observable pattern. Architectural history says that the modernists valued honest structures and rejected "gingerbread"; but they clearly went too far. Symmetric floor tilings were eliminated as not being closely related to the use of the architectural structure. Nevertheless, the opponents of ornament misunderstood the function of a patterned floor tiling. By connecting to the pedestrian through information, the space is made more immediate -- hence, more useful -- and at the same time it supports any ancillary functions of the whole building. Incredibly, Le Corbusier totally missed the fundamental role of information in architecture and equated two instances, one with organized complexity index close to 100, with another close to zero: "The uniformity of the innumerable windows in this vast wall on the Piazza San Marco gives the same play as would the smooth side of a room". ABOUT THE AUTHOR Copyright ©2001 Kim Williams

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Diadema antillarum is a regular (round) urchin, and displays the pentamerism of echinoderms. Mature individuals of D. antillarum can reach up to 500 mm in diameter. Diadema antillarum has thin spines that range from 300-400 mm in length and can be up to four times the diameter of the test (skeleton formed inside the body). The spines are thin, hollow, and break easily. The test is rigid and there is a reduced amount of soft tissue in the body wall as compared to other species in the family Diadematidae. The test and spines of a mature adult are typically black, but lighter colored spines may be intermixed, and in rare cases the urchin will be almost entirely white. The spines of juveniles are always banded with black and white. When the urchin dies, the spines falls off and the test remains. At the base of the urchin are branched tentacles called tube feet, which help in gathering food, respiration, locomotion, and mucous production. Other Physical Features: ectothermic ; heterothermic ; radial symmetry

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Effect of Plant Community Composition on Plant Response to Fire and Herbicide Treatments. Iglay, R. B., Leopold, B. D., Miller, D. A., & Burger, L. W. (2010). Effect of Plant Community Composition on Plant Response to Fire and Herbicide Treatments. Forest Ecology and Management. Elsevier International: Elsevier. 260, 543-548. Vegetation management, using prescribed fire and herbicides, is used in forestry applications to reduce competition with desired species, improve wildlife habitat, and meet other silvicultural objectives. Although plant communities resulting from such treatments are generally known, it is unclear how pre-treatment plant community structure may influence specific plant community responses. Therefore, to examine how species dominance may impact response of plant communities to vegetation management, we compared the top contributors to plant biomass (kg ha−1) among prescribed fire and herbicide (imazapyr) treatments within intensively managed pine stands in east-central Mississippi, USA. Ninety-two species of 390 collected comprised 95% of plant biomass and six species comprised 55% of total biomass. Dominant species may have restricted plant diversity. Prescribed fire with and without imazapyr improved species richness but did not control some highly competitive species. None of the treatments tested is necessarily an optimal solution to control well-established understory plant species. Although management prescriptions consider exotic and invasive plant species, control of well-established native species should also be considered to tailor vegetation management to meet forestry and wildlife habitat objectives. More research is needed concerning plant response to multiple herbicide tank mixtures with and without prescribed fire to optimize future vegetation management for multiple objectives.

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pantanal (pəntənälˈ) [key], lowland region of SW Mato Grosso state, Brazil, bordering the Paraguay River and extending to the the western edge of the Brazilian Plateau. Parts of the pantanal extend into Bolivia and Paraguay. It is the world's largest wetland area, c.77,000 sq mi (200,000 sq km). Although subject to annual flooding, it is not a marshland; the water is not stagnant, and there is no malaria. The pantanal completely dries out at the end of the six-month rainy season, leaving lush grasslands that are used for cattle grazing. Millions of migratory birds visit the area every year and over 100 species of mammals and reptiles live there. However, the pristine nature of the pantanal is threatened by encroaching ranching and agriculture, poaching, and coal mining.

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Riots occur when tension is created between communities, when people are hungry and when people seek a change of rulers. Most riots happen when a large group of people are unhappy with a certain event or a certain person or group of people. Riots often times begin as peaceful displays, but overtime, as unrest grows and the police force is called in for action, rioters will become violent and the police will react. This often leads to largescale deaths. Below are ten of the deadliest riots that have occurred in world history: 10. 1977 Egyptian Bread Riots – 800 dead From January 18-19 of 1977, Egyptian Bread Riots took over most of the largest cities in Egypt. There wasn't much evidence that would have lead anyone to believe that the lower class people were planning to riot. Of course, not all riots can be spotted before they really form, and this is just one example. However, it was pretty obvious that the economic reforms Anwar El Sadat was making weren't going to make those in the lower class pleased. In 1974, president of Egypt, Anwar El Sadat, moved his focus towards economic change in the country. He wanted to adopt an open-door policy, otherwise known as Infitah, which would help to greatly encourage domestic as well as foreign investment. However, this was a huge change for Egypt, as the previous president, Gamal Abdel Nasser, had a completely opposite goal, which ultimately led the economy in route to no private investment and nationalizations. With a new president in place, Sadat was really looking to become closer with the U.S. and completely rid of positive neutralism so that the country's economy would attract more foreign investors. The conflict began when Sadat took loans from the World Bank to provide subsidies, including food. In 1977 it was announced that the government planned to cancel $30 million in subsidies, especially on food. Bonuses and pay rises were also cancelled. Because of these cancellations, people throughout Egypt were mad. Many who worked in factories or for the country's state government walked out of work and rushed into the cities to participate in demonstrations. People from all over, including Cairo and Alexandria joined the fight to get rid of these new laws and cancellations. The riots were ended after the army was deployed to control the crowd and restore peace and order. However, the government decided to cancel the new policies that were in place. This pleased the crowd and the rioting did eventually stop. From Our Network - China's most powerful new generation space rocket launches successfully - Beijing sinking by up to 11cm annually, warns a satellite study - Kejriwal has no IIT rank, he got in through 'other' methods: Subramanian Swamy - Supreme Court to hear plea on banning WhatsApp for security reasons - Hot climate is responsible for higher rates of aggression and violence, shows study

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A stinging ant from Asia is giving alien Argentine ants, long considered to be the most aggressive in the United States, some competition as it rises to dominance. New research by North Carolina State University indicates that the Asian needle ant is rising in numbers throughout the country. It has already been found in in several areas including Alabama, New York, and Oregon. While their presence is expected to have environmental consequences, the needle ants’ interaction with humans is also raising concerns. Alien Argentine ants may cause damage but their competition can pose a health threat. NBC News writes that the aggressors come equipped with a venomous sting which causes an allergic reaction in some humans. People on the receiving end of an Asian needle ant bite will experience small welts surrounded by rash. Pain and itching are also associated with the stings. In a press release by North Carolina State University, co-author and entomologist Spicer Rice described how the species might spread: “The Asian needle ant is moving into forests and urban environments at the same time. And because it is active at cooler temperatures, it could move into a very broad range of territory.” Dr. Jules Silverman, a professor of entomology and co-author of the paper, said the following: “If the Asian needle ant is effective at displacing a dominant species – and it is – then it could be the next major invasive ant species.” Study details of the rise in dominance of Asian needle ants over alien Argentine ants was published February 8 in the journal PLOS ONE.

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Jaundice is the most common of all liver disorders. It is a condition in which yellow discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes occur due to an increase in the bile pigments, namely, bilirubin, in the blood. Causes and Symptoms The symptoms of jaundice are extreme weakness, headache, fever, loss of appetite, severe constipation, nausea, and yellow discoloration of the eyes, tongue, skin, and urine. The patient may also feel a dull pain in the liver region. Obstructive jaundice may be associated with intense itching. Jaundice may be caused by an obstruction of the bile ducts which normally discharge bile salts and pigment into the intestine. The bile gets mixed with blood and this gives a yellow pigmentation to the skin. The obstruction of the bile ducts could be due to gallstones or inflammation of the liver, which is known as hepatitis, and is caused by a virus. Other causes of jaundice are haemolytic anaemia and certain diseases affecting the liver such as typhoid, malaria, yellow fever, and tuberculosis. Bitter Luffa: The juice of bitter luffa is regarded as an effective remedy for jaundice. It is obtained by pounding and squeezing the bitter luffa through cloth. The juice should be placed on the palm of the hand and drawn up through the nostrils. This will cause a profuse outflow of a yellow-coloured fluid through the nostrils. The toxic matter having been evacuated in a considerable quantity, the patient will feel relieved. This is, however, a strong medicine and may cause side-effects like giddiness, migraine, and, at times, high fever for a short duration in patients with a delicate nature. Its use should, therefore, be avoided by such patients. If the juice of green bitter luffa is not available, it can be substituted by two to three drops of the fluid obtained by soaking its dry crusts overnight in water. This will produce an identical effect Seeds of bitter luffa which are easily available can also be used for the same purpose after rubbing in water. Radish Leaves: The green leaves of radish are another valuable remedy for jaundice. The leaves should be pounded and their juice extracted through cloth. Half a litre of this juice should be taken daily by an adult patient It induces a healthy appetite and proper evacuation of bowels, and this results in gradual decrease of the trouble. In most cases, complete cure can be ensured within eight or ten days. Tomato: Tomatoes are valuable in jaundice. A glass of fresh tomato juice, mixed with a pinch of salt and pepper, taken early in the morning, is considered an effective remedy for this disease. Snake Gourd Leaves: The leaves of snake gourd have also been found useful in jaundice. An infusion of the leaves should be prepared by mixing 15 gm of dry leaves in 250 ml of boiling water. Next, a decoction of coriander seeds can be prepared by boiling one tablespoon of coriander seeds in 500 ml of water till it is reduced by one-third. The infusion should be given in doses of 30 to 60 ml, mixed with the decoction of coriander seeds, thrice daily. Pigeon Pea Leaves: The green leaves of pigeon pea, a leguminous plant – the beans of which are used for dais – are considered useful in jaundice. The juice extracted from these leaves should be taken in doses of 60 ml daily. Marked improvement will follow its use. Almonds, Dried Dates and Cardamoms: A mixture of almonds, dried dates, and cardamoms is regarded as an effective remedy for jaundice. Eight kernels of almonds, two dried dates, and five small cardamoms should be soaked overnight in water. The outer coating of the almond kernels and the inner seeds of dried dates should be removed the next morning and the whole material should be rubbed into a fine paste. Then, fifty grams of sugar and an equal amount of butter should be mixed in it and the patient should lick this mixture. Sugarcane Juice: One glass of sugarcane juice, mixed with the juice of half a lime, and taken twice daily, can hasten recovery from jaundice. It is, however, very essential that the juice must be clean and preferably prepared at home. Resistance is low in jaundice and any infected beverage could make matters worse. Lemon: Lemon is also beneficial in the treatment of jaundice. The patient should be given 20 ml of lemon juice mixed with water several times a day. This will protect the damaged liver cells. Barley Water: Barley water drunk several times during the day is another good remedy for this disease. One cup of barley should be boiled in three litres of water and simmered for three hours. Jaundice Berry: The herb jaundice berry, botanically known as Berberis vultaris is very useful in jaundice. The pulverized bark should be given several times a day in doses of one-fourth of a teaspoon in the treatment of this disease, or the fluid extract should be given in 2-4 ml doses. A mild form of viral jaundice can be cured rapidly by diet therapy and physical rest. Recovery is however, slow in jaundice caused by obstruction in the bile ducts, depending upon the cause and removal of the cause. The patient should be put on a juice fast for a week, and he should rest until the acute symptoms of the disease subside. After the juice fast, he may adopt an all-fruit diet for a further three to five days, taking three meals a day of fresh juicy fruits at five-hourly intervals. Thereafter, a simple light carbohydrate diet with exclusion of fats, best obtained from vegetables and fruits, may be resumed. Digestive disturbances must be avoided. No food with a tendency to ferment or putrefy in the lower intestines like pulses and legumes should be included in the diet. The patient should undertake only moderate exercise, fresh air baths, and adequate rest.

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Nanotechnologies—materials and devices that engineers custom-design at the nanometer (one billionth of a meter) scale—give us high-performance products and methods to measure, control and manipulate matter at the molecular level. By doing so, engineers can create materials with exceptional purity and efficient structure, as well as design devices with fundamentally new properties and functions. The systematic control of matter at the nanoscale may yield revolutionary technologies for nearly every field of human endeavor, from electronics, medicine and aeronautics to the environment, manufacturing and security. NSF plays a critical role in our nation's efforts to advance nanoscale science and engineering. NSF launched the National Nanotechnology Initiative and provides the largest contribution to this interagency effort, with primary responsibility for investments in fundamental research, education and research infrastructure. Return to Overview

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Learn something new every day More Info... by email Recreational therapy activities are generally enjoyable activities or games that help patients improve some aspect of their physical or mental well-being. These activities may include modified versions of familiar sports and games that have been specifically developed for physical therapy. Most involve physical effort of some kind, but some may be geared more toward mental healing and development. A recreational therapist is usually in charge of choosing the proper activities for each patient and for giving the patient resources to perform and excel at them. Some of the most common recreational therapy activities are sports, like volleyball, basketball, and soccer. These are often modified in some way to make it easier for convalescents and handicapped individuals to play them. For instance, a modified version of volleyball may feature a large, air-filled ball and a lower net. Therapeutic versions of basketball may also feature lower nets, and modified soccer may allow players in wheelchairs to touch the ball with their hands. The goal of these modified sports is usually to improve patients’ endurance, strength, and, often, their moods. Game systems that require the player to move as they play may also be used as recreational therapy activities. Playing tennis or bowling on a game system doesn’t usually require as much effort as the real version, but still helps the patient stretch and develop endurance. This may be particularly helpful to those trying to strengthen injured limbs and joints. For example, a recovering patient may not be able to pick up a bowling ball, but can handle a lightweight game controller easily. Often, the therapist overseeing these activities shows the patient how to move and bend without injuring themselves. The therapist may also challenge the patient to stretch higher, run faster, or make broader movements as they heal. This kind of therapy often keeps the players motivated because they’re having fun. Many kinds of recreational therapy activities are designed only for therapeutic use. These kinds of activities usually fall into two categories: physical and mental. Physical activities may include games that challenge the patient to walk a certain distance or throw a soft foam ball at a certain target. These games are often modified to become more challenging as the patient becomes stronger. For instance, he may have to run instead of walk or throw the ball further. Patients often have the chance to earn rewards during these games, which motivates them to try harder. Mental recreational therapy activities may be as simple identifying objects of the same shape or color, or as complicated as putting together puzzles with many pieces. These activities are designed to strengthen a certain part of each patient’s mind. Those working on memory may be have to flip over cards to match images, while those working on motor skills may be asked to build towers. The most important part these activities is generally making them fun so the patient looks forward to therapy and can focus on getting well. One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK!

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Popular Science Monthly/Volume 4/January 1874/The Primary Concepts of Modern Physical Science IV By J. B. Stallo. IV. Inertia and Force. IF we look for the speculative background of modern physical theories, we find something like this: Originally there was created, or somehow came to be, an indefinite number of absolutely hard and unchangeable particles of matter. There was also created, or somehow came to be, a number of forces, equally unchangeable—the force of attraction, the force of cohesion, heat, electric and magnetic forces, and boon. The forces began to act and continue to act upon the particles of matter, producing inorganic as well as organic forms. These particles and forces are ultimate facts of experience as well as of thought; and the action of the forces upon the material particles is likewise an ultimate empirical datum, and therefore inexplicable. Force and matter, though presupposing each other in action, are fundamentally disparate; they are essentially distinct, and mutually irreducible entities. Matter, as such, is passive, dead; all motion or life is caused by force; and the only possible solution of the problems of physiology, no less than of physics and chemistry, consists in the enumeration of the forces acting upon the material particles, and in the exact quantitative determination of the effects produced by their action. This statement of the tenets of the prevailing physical philosophy, to be exact, requires at most two qualifications. In the first place, the recent doctrine of the correlation and mutual convertibility of the physical forces, as a part of the theory of the conservation of energy, has shaken, if not destroyed, the conception of a multiplicity of independent original forces. And, in the second place, physiologists, like Du Bois-Reymond, recognize force as the invariable concomitant, if not the essential attribute of matter, and assume that to every constant primordial mass belongs a constant primordial quantity of force, so that the problem of physics, chemistry, and physiology, resolves itself into the quantitative determination of the mechanical interactions of material constants primarily endowed with forces acting equally in all directions, or, as they express it, constant central forces. I have endeavored, thus far, to show that there are no absolute constants of mass; that both the hypothesis of corpuscular "atoms" and that of "centres of force" are growths of a confusion of the intellect which mistakes conceptual elements of matter for real elements; that these elements—force and mass, or force and inertia—are not only inseparable, as is conceded by the more thoughtful among modern physicists (or, as they usually, but inaccurately express it, that there is no force without matter, and no matter without force), but that neither of these elements has any reality as such, each of them being simply the conceptual correlate of the other, and thus the condition both of its realization in thought and of its objectivation to sense. The tendency to deal with these elements as separate and separately real entities is so irrepressible, however, that it is necessary to subject them to still further discussion, in order to clear up the prevalent confusion in regard to them. Newton's original definition of inertia was in terms of force. According to him ("Principia," Definitio III.), "there is inherent in matter a force, a power of resistance, in virtue of which every body, as far as in it lies, perseveres in a state of rest, or of uniform rectilinear motion." In the definitions since Newton's time, the term "force" has usually been avoided. Thus Young ("Mechanics," p. 117) defines inertia as "the incapability of matter of altering the state into which it is put by any external cause, whether that state be rest or motion;" and similarly Whewell ("Mechanics," p. 245), as "the quantity of matter considered as resisting the communication of motion." As is readily seen, all these definitions imply, nevertheless, that matter can be moved or changed only from without, by forces external to matter itself. Newton expressly ("Principia," Definitio IV.) speaks of force as "impressed upon a body, and as exerted upon it to change its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line." There is little difficulty in understanding how this language, in connection with the etymological import of the word "inertia," led to the assumption that matter is essentially passive, or, as it is commonly expressed, dead. There are other reasons for this assumption, connected with the evolution, not only of scientific concepts, properly so called, but of cosmological ideas, to which I shall have occasion, perhaps, to recur in the sequel; indeed, Newton's definitions which I have just cited are simply instances of the intellectual postulates of his time. And the mathematical treatment of mechanical problems, from the nature of its methods, necessitates the fiction that force and mass are separate and distinct terms. In general, it may be said that the assumption of the absolute passivity of matter is one of those errors which are inevitable in the progress of knowledge—one of the "clay moulds in which the bells of scientific truth are cast." But the perpetuation of this error is one of the most fatal impediments to real scientific progress in our day, and is fruitful of vagaries which are wholly incommensurable with the real state of modern scientific knowledge. Thus, Prof. Philip Spiller, the author of a very serviceable manual of physics, and a prolific writer on scientific subjects, has recently published a cosmological treatise, whose theorems are founded upon the express proposition (op. cit., p. 4) that "no material constituent of a body, no atom, is in itself originally endowed with force, but that every such atom is absolutely dead, and without any inherent power to act at a distance." It appears from the further contents of Spiller's treatise, that he not only denies force to the atoms taken singly, but that he also denies the possibility of their mutual action. He is driven, therefore, to the assertion of the independent substantiality of force; and, accordingly, he assumes force to be an all-pervading quasi-material presence—as he terms it, an "incorporeal matter" (unkoerperlicher Stoff). In utter disregard of the fundamental correlation of force and mass, Spiller identifies his force-substance with the ordinary luminiferous ether, so that this phantom, which, in the view of other physicists, is not only imponderable, but destitute of cohesive, chemical, thermal, electric, and magnetic forces (which, indeed, must be destitute of them if it is to serve as the mere substratum of these various modes of motion)—which therefore is, if possible, still more "dead" than ordinary ponderable matter—now suddenly, without changing its name, and without ceasing to be the substratum of luminar and other undulations, comes to be the very quintessence of all possible energy. It may be said here, parenthetically, that all these recent attempts (to one of which, by Prof. Challis, I had occasion to refer in my second paper) to construe the apparent attractions of bodies as cases of ethereal pressure and propulsion are simply returns to the state of scientific anarchy which prevailed in celestial mechanics before Newton's time. Prof. Spiller is evidently unaware that his theory—according to which, force is an "incorporeal matter"—is nothing but a reproduction of Kepler's speculations (not to speak of the Cartesian and Leibnitian theories to which I have already alluded), in which the vortices supposed to carry the planets along with them were asserted to be an "immaterial species," capable of overcoming the inertia of bodies. It is plain that this "immaterial species" is the same wooden iron which Spiller exhibits under the name of "incorporeal matter," the only difference being that the absurdity of Kepler's chimera was less glaring in the hazy dawn of the mechanical notions of his time, than the extravagance of Spiller's conceit in the light of the scientific atmosphere of our day. It is almost superfluous to say to the intelligent reader of these papers that Spiller's "dead matter" is a nonentity, inasmuch as we know nothing of material reality except through its action. And it is hardly worth while to point out in detail that the hypothesis of dead atoms is not only inadmissible, but wholly useless. Unchangeable particles destitute of gravity and all other force, even if the action of force upon them were conceivable, must be equally acted upon from all sides by the omnipresent ether, and could, therefore, in no wise help to establish differences of density, or other differences not contained in or evolvable from the ether itself. They could not even add to the extension of a body, much less to its hardness, being wholly without the power of resistance; but, waiving this, and granting for a moment that extension without resistance is possible, they would simply be bubbles of void space encysted in the universal ether, and to the differentiation of this ether alone all the phenomena of the material world would be due. The truth is, that absolutely passive, dead matter is as unknown in experience as it is inconceivable in thought. Every particle of matter of which we have any knowledge attracts every other particle in conformity to the law of gravitation; and every material element exerts chemical, electrical, magnetic, thermic, and similar forces upon other elements which in respect to these forces are its correlates. The whole presence of matter to the senses consists in the manifestation of power, in the exhibition of force. All this has been very clearly seen and very explicitly stated by numerous physicists; but, unfortunately, by most of them it has been speedily lost sight of in their ulterior speculations. In what sense, then, can inertia be truly predicated of matter? The answer to this question will suggest itself at once to those who have properly apprehended the principle of the essential relativity of all material existence. A material object is, in every one of its aspects, but one term of a relation; its whole being is a presupposition of correlates without; all things are, figuratively speaking (if I may resort to such a figure without incurring the charge of illustrating obscurum per obscurius) shadows of each other. Every change of a body, therefore, presupposes a corresponding change in its correlates. If the state of any material object could be changed without a corresponding change of state in other objects without, this object would, to that extent, become absolute. But this is utterly unthinkable, and therefore utterly impossible, as we have already seen. At the same time it is also evident that, while every change of a body is thus conditioned by changes without, these latter changes are equally conditioned by it; that all material action, therefore, is mutual; that reaction is invariably equal to action. A corollary from, or rather an application of this is the well-known theorem that the forces within a body or conservative system can alter only the positions of its constituent parts, but cannot change the position of the body as a whole; and that, whenever such an internal change takes place, the momentum accruing in one direction has its counterpart in an equal momentum accruing in the opposite direction. If we apply this theorem to the universe as a whole, i. e., as a single dynamical system, and if we bear in mind that, mechanically speaking, all force properly so called, i. e., all potential energy, is energy of position, we see at once that whatever energy is spent in actual motion is gained in position—that the system, therefore, is absolutely conservative; and we are thus led, by a very simple approach, to the principle of the conservation of energy. After this summary discussion of the first conceptual element of matter, inertia, I proceed to the consideration of the other element, force. In the canonical text-books on physics, force is defined as the cause of motion. "Any cause," says Whewell ("Mechanics," p. 1), "which moves or tends to move a body, or which changes or tends to change its motion, is called force." Similarly Clerk Maxwell ("Theory of Heat," p. 83): "Force is whatever changes or tends to change the motion of a body by altering either its direction or its magnitude." Taking either of these definitions as correctly representing the received theories of physical science respecting the nature of force, it is manifest, irrespective of the considerations which I have presented in this and the preceding essays, that force is not an individual thing or distinct entity which presents itself directly either to observation or to thought, but that, so far as it is taken as a definite and unital term in the operations of thought, it is purely a fiction of the intellect. The cause of motion, or change of motion, in a body is simply the condition or group of conditions upon which this motion depends; and this condition, or group of conditions, as we have already seen, is always a corresponding motion, or change of motion, in the bodies, outside of the moving body, which are its correlates. Otherwise expressed, force is a mere inference from the motion itself under the universal conditions of reality, and its measure, therefore, is simply the effect for which it is postulated as a cause; it has no other existence. The only reality of force and of its action is the correspondence between physical phenomena in conformity to the principle of the essential relativity of all material existence. That force has no independent reality is so plain and obvious that it has been proposed by some thinkers to abolish the term force, like the term cause, altogether. However desirable this might be in some respects, it is impossible, for the reason that the concept "force," when properly interpreted in terms of experience, is valid, and, if its name were abolished, it would instantly reappear under another name. There is hardly any concept which has not, in science as well as in metaphysics, given rise to the same confusion which prevails in regard to "force" and "cause;" and the blow leveled at these would demolish all concepts whatever. Nevertheless, it is of the greatest moment, in all speculations concerning the interdependence of physical phenomena, never to lose sight of the fact that the reality of force is purely conceptual, and that it is not a distinct and individual tangible or intangible entity. How imperfectly all this is understood by the physicists of our time appears at once upon an examination of elementary treatises as well as original disquisitions on physical science. Thus the relation of force to mechanical motion is constantly spoken of as a "fact" ascertained by experience and verified experimentally beyond the possibility of question. In a learned article by J. Croll, published in the July number, 1872, of the Philosophical Magazine ("What determines Molecular Motion," etc., Phil. Mag., fourth series, vol. xl., p. 37), it is said: "In regard to the first question (what produces motion) there is no diversity of opinion. All agree that what produces change or causes motion is force." The obvious meaning of this is that it might possibly admit of question whether material change or motion is produced by force or something else, and that physicists, on the whole, have come to the conclusion that it is produced by force. Such a question ought, indeed, to be solemnly pondered by grave philosophers! It is like the question which Simon Sachs, in his despair, propounded to the gods: 'Who will assure us that the star, which the astronomers regard as Uranus, is Uranus in fact?'" Physicists generally, however, are in still greater confusion as to the nature of force in another respect. Bodies are said to be endowed with a definite quantity of force, if not with a given number of forces; it is assumed that to every particular body or particle belongs, or in such body or particle in and by itself is inherent, an invariable measure of energy. This statement, besides involving the confusion just noted as to the reality of force, implies the assumption that force can be an attribute or concomitant of a single body or particle as such. This assumption ignores the fact, which is otherwise well known to physicists, that the very conception of force depends upon the relation between two terms at least. "Every force," says Clerk Maxwell ("Theory of Heat," p. 94), "acts between two bodies or parts of bodies." A "constant central force," therefore, as belonging to an individual atom in and by itself, is an impossibility. We have now arrived at a point where it will be profitable to recur for a moment to the proposition of Du Bois-Reymond referred to at the beginning of my first paper, that the whole problem of physical science consists in "the resolution of all changes in the material world into motions of atoms caused by their constant central forces." The entire passage in Du Bois-Reymond's text, from which I extracted two sentences, reads as follows: "Natural science—more accurately expressed, scientific cognition of Nature, or cognition of the material world by the aid and in the sense of theoretical physical science—is a reduction of the changes in the material world to motions of atoms caused by central forces independent of time, or a resolution of the phenomena of Nature into atomic mechanics. It is a fact of psychological experience that, whenever such a reduction is successfully effected, our craving for causality is, for the nonce, wholly satisfied. The propositions of mechanics are mathematically representable, and carry in themselves the same apodictic certainty which belongs to the propositions of mathematics. When the changes in the material world have been reduced to a constant sum of potential and kinetic energy, inhering in a constant mass of matter, there is nothing left in these changes for explanation. "The assertion of Kant in the preface to the 'Metaphysical Rudiments of Natural Science,' that 'in every department of physical science there is only so much science, properly so called, as there is mathematics,' is to be sharpened by substituting 'mechanics of atoms' for 'mathematics.' This was evidently his own meaning when he denied the name 'science' to chemistry. It is not a little remarkable that in our time chemistry, since it has been constrained, by the discovery of substitution, to abandon the old electro-chemical dualism, has seemingly taken a retrograde step in its advance toward science in this sense. The resolution of all changes in the material world into motions of atoms caused by their constant central forces would be the completion of natural science." How do these sentences of one of the foremost physicists of the day now present themselves to our view in the light of the preceding discussion? Atoms are absolute physical constants, or constants of mass; and I have shown that there are, and can be, no absolute constants of mass. And it is evident now, I trust, that there are similarly no constant central forces belonging to, or inherent in, constants of mass as such. Both the constants of mass and the constant forces assumed to belong to them are simply parts of the scaffolding of the intellect, when it seeks to subject the phenomena of the material world to exact mathematical determination. They are, as I have already intimated, instrumental fictions which are, for the moment, indispensable by reason of the inability of the intellect to deal with phenomena otherwise than singly and under a definite aspect. In order to effect a quantitative determination of material action, the mathematician is constrained to insulate the conceptual elements of matter and to treat them as separate and distinct terms. He is constrained to represent as discrete what is continuous, and as absolute what is relative. In this, as he knows, or ought to know, very well, he is doing violence to the fact. But this violence is harmless, provided he does not forget that what appears in abstract insulation in his formulæ exists in concrete and indissoluble union in Nature, and what he exhibits as unconditioned in thought is essentially conditioned in objective reality. The steps to all scientific knowledge consist in a series of representative fictions. When the old Greek sought to determine the properties of the circle, he began by constructing a polygon whose sides he subdivided until they were supposed to become infinitely small; and in his view every line of definite extent and form, i. e., every line which could become the subject of mathematical investigation, was composed of an infinite number of infinitely small straight lines. But he speedily found that, while this fiction enabled him to deduce a rule for calculating the area of the circle and otherwise to determine a number of its properties, nevertheless the circle and its rectilinear diameter were fundamentally incommensurable, and the quadrature of the circle was impossible. The modern analyst similarly determines the "locus" of a curve by the relation of small increments of coordinates arbitrarily established; but he is well aware that the curve itself has nothing to do with this arbitrary representation, and he very emphatically asserts the continuity of the curve by differentiating, or passing to the "limit" of, his increments—at the same time transforming his coördinates by changing their origin or their inclination, or even their system, from bilinears to polars, whenever he finds it convenient, without ever dreaming that thereby he is in the least affecting the nature of the curve whose properties are under discussion. The astronomer, in calculating the attraction of a sphere upon a "material point," begins by assuming the atomic or molecular constitution of the attracting sphere, establishing a series of finite differences as one of the terms of his equation; but thereupon he takes the series to be infinite and the differences to be infinitely small, and very effectually dismantles the molecular scaffolding by integrating instead of effecting a summation of a series of finite differences. Observe: the astronomer begins with two fictions—the fiction of the "material point" (which is, in truth, a contradiction in terms), so as to insulate the attractive force and treat it as proceeding from the sphere alone, and the fiction of the finite differences representing the molecular constitution of the sphere; but the validity of his result depends upon the eventual rescission of these fictions and the rehabilitation of the fact. In like manner, the chemist represents the proportions of weight in which substances combine, as atoms of definite weight and figure, and the resulting compounds as definite groups of such atoms; and this mythical coinage has, no doubt, been serviceable in some ways. But, apart from the circumstance, avowed by thoughtful chemists themselves, that the symbols have become wholly inadequate to the proper representation of the facts, and that new representative fictions will have to be resorted to, it is important to bear in mind always that the symbol is not the fact, and that the fiction is very different from the reality. Newton derived many of the leading optical laws from his corpuscular theory of light and from the hypothesis of "fits of easy transmission and reflection." His theory for a time served a good purpose; but it proved, after all, to be but a convenient mode of symbolizing the phenomena with which he was familiar, and had to be discarded when the phenomenon of interference was observed. In 1824 Sady Carnot deduced the law of thermic action, which still bears his name, from an hypothesis respecting the nature of heat (supposed by him, as by nearly all the physicists of his time, to be imponderable matter), which is now known, or universally believed to be, erroneous. Since his time, Clausius, Rankine, Thomson, and Clerk Maxwell, have shown that thermic phenomena find a very convenient representation in the hypothesis that gaseous molecules are in a state of incessant motion; and Maxwell has even succeeded in predicting the phenomenon of the gradual cessation of the oscillatory movement of a disk, suspended between two other disks, in consequence of the friction of a gaseous medium, whatever be the degree of its tenuity, and this prediction has since been verified by experiment, just as Hamilton's prediction of conical refraction was verified by the experiments of Lloyd; but, of course, neither Clausius's and Rankine's formulæ, nor Maxwell's experiments, are conclusive as to the real nature of a gas. In all such cases science erects a scaffolding which is invariably kicked down as soon as its work has been accomplished. And, if the scientific architects are so captivated with the scaffolding that they insist upon maintaining it intact, its eventual demolition is none the less sure in the progress of observation and experiment. Facts supply the ictus calcis which the theorist refuses to administer. Du Bois-Reymond's proposition is nothing less than this, that natural science is constrained, by the law of all its methods, to exhibit the arbitrary scaffolding of the intellect as the real nature of the universe. He not only confounds the scaffolding of his intellect with its own structure, but he confounds this scaffolding with the structure of Nature. He mistakes the beams of his temporary platform for the rafters of the permanent edifice; the arbitrary masses of his mathematical calculations (the "atoms") for bricks of Nature's building; and the ropes of his scientific tackling (the "forces") for the ingenerate energy of the Universe. There are, it is true, passages in Du Bois-Reymond's lecture which may be construed as a virtual disclaimer of this, but his assumption that the limits of mathematical reasoning about atoms and their constant central forces are the irremovable bounds of all possible knowledge respecting physical phenomena, and the emphatic "Ignoramus—Ignorabimus" with which he concludes his lecture, utterly invalidate the disclaimer. He forgets that the framework on which he and his compeers have thus far been stationed is by no means the only scaffolding that can be devised. The spectroscope has convinced the chemist that a chemical analysis can be effected otherwise than by mixing substances in a testing-tube, and that he can react upon the gas of a distant comet as well as upon the hydrogen in the water which flows from a stop-cock in his laboratory. Modern analysis has shown that the limits of mathematical insight, which the synthetical geometrician supposed to be absolute, may be transcended indefinitely; and Gauss's and Hamilton's new conception which is now expanding into the calculus of operations, or calculus of quaternions, is opening theoretical vistas which, even to the analyst of modern times, seem next to illimitable. It is true that no mathematical wings will ever carry us into the regions of the "Absolute," and no spectroscopic vision will discern the indelible spectral bands of the "thing per se;" but, before we indulge in any lamentations over this fact, it may be well to examine the livery of the messenger who brings us the wonderful intelligence of the existence of these entities without all possible relation to the intellect, and to inquire of him how he became possessed of his message. I must not be understood as asserting or intimating that our knowledge can ever be other than asymptotic to the endless and boundless fact of the universe. But there is a dogmatism of ignorance which is no less audacious than the dogmatism of sciolistic knowledge. The "Ignoramus—Ignorabimus" at the close of Du Bois-Reymond's lecture is at least as presumptuous as the pretended omniscience of a giddy metaphysician. One of the urgent needs of modern physical science is a thorough investigation of the nature, methods, and aids of scientific cognition, and thus of the nature of its real limits, chiefly in the light of the teachings of comparative philology and comparative psychology. Max Müller has happily designated the tendency to "reify" intellectual concepts (or, as Mill expresses it in nominalist phrase, to mistake names for things), as "modern mythology." But this mythology is not at all confined to ordinary language; it extends to all the formularies, including those employed in scientific research, which serve as the intellectual net-work for the delineation of physical phenomena and for the exact mathematical determination of the laws of their interdependence. The most pressing need of modern physical science, however, is the disengagement of the facts of observation and induction from their present theoretical complications. Most of the scientific theories of our day have their root in the metaphysics of three centuries ago, and some of the materialistic speculations based upon them are redolent of the ancient culture of the Middle Kingdom. Both in physics and in chemistry (not to speak of the biological sciences), the facts have long since transcended the narrow bounds of the prevailing scientific hypotheses, and have thus been either ignored or misinterpreted. On the remaining pages of this paper I desire to direct attention to some of the facts connected with the main subject of my present inquiry—the concept force. Physical forces are distributed by modern science into two classes, molecular and molar forces. Molecular forces are those which determine the internal changes of a body, while molar forces cause the motion of the entire mass. Molecular forces, therefore, are the agencies which determine the particular state of the body in its physical relations, considering it as an independent whole—or, as it is termed in modern mechanics, as an independent conservative system—while the molar forces determine the physical relations of the body to other bodies which, together with it, are integrant parts of a greater whole, i. e., of a more comprehensive conservative system. Modern science teaches that all physical forces, molar as well as molecular, are mutually convertible. This fact is discussed and illustrated in scientific treatises without number, and its importance is duly appreciated. But there is another fact connected with it, equally well known, the significance of which is not, I think, at all realized: all force in its physical origin is molecular. The power which grinds the wheat in the mill on the stream, or which drives the steam-engines in a factory; the force which propels the cannon-ball on its path of destruction, or the vital juices in a vegetable or animal organism in their course of vital regeneration; the energy which causes the muscles of a man's arm or the vessels of his circulatory system to expand and contract—all are alike of helio-planetary origin, and are ultimately traceable to the "molecular" movements of the conservative system of which our planet is a part. It would be a work of supererogation to attempt to prove this, or to illustrate it in detail; it is sufficient to refer the reader to the eloquent exposition in Tyndall's "Heat as a Mode of Motion," p. 447, et seq. (Appletons' edition). I need not say that I use the term "molecular force" simply because it is a generally-received term, and because I am constrained to use it in order to be intelligible, but that I do not intend to commit myself by this use to the theory of the constitution of matter which it implies. In like manner I use the term "force" with the reservation that it rightfully denotes, not a substantive entity distinct from matter, but the relation of at least two particular states of matter at a given moment. The molecular character of molar motion is evinced in numerous ways, which are almost wholly neglected and ignored by the modern physicist. To take the simplest instance: when two solids impinge, so that an exchange or distribution of their motions takes place, they contract and immediately expand again, according to the degree of their elasticity. It is unnecessary to inquire whether or not a communication of motion between two absolutely rigid bodies is possible; all bodies, of which we know any thing, are more or less elastic, and therefore contract and expand at the instant of impact. And their contraction is accompanied by the evolution of heat, by the conversion of molar into molecular motion, while in the expansion we have a reconversion of molecular into molar motion. No transfer of molar motion ever takes place without this momentary transition through the molecular phase. Since the establishment of the doctrine of the conservation of energy and the correlation and mutual convertibility of forces, physicists have repeatedly called attention to the fact that the old interpretation of the phenomenon of an apparent destruction of force is inaccurate, and that the true interpretation of this phenomenon consists in the tracing of the evanescent molar motion into resulting molecular motion. But they fail to observe that the old notions respecting the transfer of molar motion, when there is no loss, are in similar need of rectification. Now, what is this molecular motion, in the light of the insight which, as I hope, has been gained in the foregoing discussion? Simply an exhibition of the struggle involved in the formation or constitution of a body as a distinct conservative system. All molecular energy is in its nature constitutive, formative, or structural. All kinetic energy, or actual motion, represents the progress of morphological action in periodical alternations of advancing and retrograde metamorphosis. And the main problem of physical science is, not to calculate the play of atomic motions, under the sway of their constant central forces, but to trace the differentiation and transformation of material forms as determined by the differentiation and transformation of the formative energy of the universe. In this connection, observation and experiment have brought to light a number of the most significant facts, to one of which I may be permitted to draw attention before the conclusion of this paper. Force, or, more correctly speaking, energy, is not only indestructible, like mass; it not only passes through a cycle of transformations corresponding to the metamorphic round of physical forms; it is not only specialized at even pace with the specialization of its corresponding material structures; but, just as the progressive specialization of these material structures is, on the whole, an advance in the direction of greater definiteness and more perfect concretion (in the case of inorganic bodies, generally accompanied by greater condensation): so, also, the specialization of formative energy is, on the whole, characterized by an ever-increasing intensification. Generally speaking, the more advanced the stage of material concretion, the greater the intensity of its constitutive force. Faraday has somewhere observed that the chemical force contained in a drop of water, if transformed into heat and light, would be sufficient to illuminate the heavens. Of course, this intensification of force, in proportion to the condensation, concretion, and differentiation of the forms produced by it, is not a thickening of a substantive entity, but is simply an increasing complication in the relations in the establishment of which all realization consists. The energy which forms and maintains the higher and more definite forms of material existence has to overcome and to hold its own against not only the inherent energy of the primary physical form, but against the specialized energy of the intermediate forms as well. I ought, perhaps, to observe here that, whenever energy is seemingly destructive, if is in reality reconstitutive of a conservative system of a lower grade. But I must not be led into discussions which belong to special science, and are in strictness foreign to my theme; and, so far as I am at liberty to enter upon these discussions, especially in the field of chemical science, they must be reserved for another article.

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On this date in... ...1798, a small force of colonists, marines, armed slaves, armed commercial boats, and Royal Naval vessels thwarted the Spanish Empire's attempt to invade Belize at the Battle of St. George's Caye. ...1813, Oliver Hazard Perry shot up the British fleet on Lake Erie, capturing everything that didn't burn or drown. ...1939, the Royal Navy suffered its first loss of the Second World War when, only a couple days into the conflict, the skipper of HMS Triton got trigger happy off the coast of Norway and mistook her sister, HMS Oxley, for the boche. He put a few fish into her midships and she promptly sank. ...1945, an unnamed barnyard fowl was magically transformed into Mike the Headless Chicken, using only an ordinary hatchet.

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Chapter 9: Self-Concept and Identity Formation The Self, Self-Concept, Self-esteem and Identity FormationSelf-concept are constructs that psychologists find useful in understanding peopleís development and behavior. The self-concept is the picture one has of himself/herself. Self-esteem is the valuation of particular elements of the self. Identity is the unique combination of personality characteristics and social styles that defines oneself and is recognized by others. The Self in Adolescence Self-esteem in Adolescence - William James argued that people can have multiple selves, just as they play multiple roles. Sociological theories claim that the self is formed as appraisals from others that are internalized. Cognitive psychologists argue that people create a theory of self and actively search for information about themselves. Humanistic psychologists argue that the self is partially formed through the individualís understanding of his/her - Young children often define themselves in terms of possessions and activities. Elementary school children look at their characteristics and compare themselves with others, but adolescents define themselves in more abstract terms. Their descriptions are more complex and some of the traits are in conflict with each other. - Early adolescents are not aware of these contradictions. During the middle years of adolescence, these contradictions bother teenagers and they are aware of acting phony or false. These contradictions are integrated during the late adolescent years. Discrepancies between the real self and the ideal self are troublesome, especially in middle adolescence. - High self-esteem is related to many positive outcomes, while low self-esteem is related to a number of poorer outcomes. The relationship between high self-esteem and positive outcomes is relatively low, though. - A person may have high self-esteem in one area and low in another. High global self- esteem would be found if an individual evaluates himself/herself highly in domains of importance. - Although self-esteem is relatively stable, if social support or positive evaluations of the self in areas of importance improve, self-esteem may increase as well. Self- esteem begins to decline in middle childhood as children become more sensitive to the evaluations of others and evaluate their own successes and failures. This reduction in self-esteem may represent a more realistic picture of themselves and evaluation of their abilities. Self-esteem continues to decline in early adolescence, but increases in middle and late adolescence. Generally, males have higher self-esteem than females. African Americans have self-esteem that is at least equal to that of white teenagers. - Although high self-esteem is preferable to low self-esteem, people with an inflated self- esteem are characterized by defensiveness, anger, hostility and even aggression. They are seen as shallow and self-serving. People with high self-esteem that is unstable or who show narcissistic tendencies may also be defensive and hostile. - The self-concept, self-esteem and identity formation in adolescence are influenced by cognitive development. The development of formal operational abilities, such as the ability to use abstractions, to separate the real from the possible, and to use hypothetical-deductive logic enable adolescents to develop a personal philosophy of life, a more abstract self-concept and a greater awareness of their self. Male and Female - Erikson argued that the positive outcome of the psychosocial crisis of adolescence is a solid sense of ego identity while the negative outcome is a sense of role confusion. While some psychologists consider identity as a coherent whole, others speak about identity in terms of different parts, such as a occupational identity or a religious identity. - Erikson argued that identity formation entailed exploration (called crisis originally) and commitment. - James Marcia suggested four identity statuses. Adolescents who are in the identity foreclosed status (identity foreclosure) have made commitments but have not experienced a crisis. Those in the identity diffused status (identity diffusion) have not meaningfully explored their alternatives, and avoid commitments. Those in the moratorium status (identity moratorium) are presently experiencing a crisis, but have not yet made commitments. Those in the identity achievement status have explored the issues and made commitments.† - Although exploration is central to identity formation for both males and females, some psychologists argue that females base their identity on interpersonal factors and males on intrapersonal factors. Most recent studies emphasize the integration of interpersonal and intrapersonal factors for women.† - Sex typing involves learning the behaviors and attitudes that are considered appropriate for oneís gender in a particular culture. Gender roles involve the expectations for the behaviors within a society for males and females. People still hold gender stereotypes, seeing men as agentic and women as more communal. - Elementary children become somewhat more flexible regarding gender stereotyped behavior, but early adolescents become less flexible. In later adolescence, more flexibility is found. Females are more flexible than males. - Learning gender roles is a complicated affair and many agents of socialization participate including parents, peers and the media. The learning processes of reinforcement and imitation are important. At the same time, people are active in forming a gender schema, a body of knowledge of how males and females behave. This gender schema guides behavior and influences how information Placing The Self-Concept And Identity Into Perspective - Many minority group youth may not have the same opportunities for exploration as majority group youth, due to poverty, differing cultural expectations and discrimination. Minority group members also develop a racial/ethnic identity. - Minority group members who develop a bicultural identity, who see themselves as actively involved in both cultural environments, have the most flexible and adaptable identity. - The meaning of the self and identity differ according to cultural expectations. Western societies see the self and identity in terms of becoming an independent individual and separating from others. Non-western societies often see the self and identity in terms of fitting into the group and define themselves in terms of group membership. - Parents may help adolescents find who they are by encouraging the adolescent to look at alternatives, showing them ways of overcoming barriers, accepting the fact that teens are not going to be carbon copies of the adults around them, encouraging communication, helping teens understand that a certain amount of confusion is typical, and showing possible consequences to their decisions.

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This comes a bit late for some students’ mid-semester exams, but Sue Shellenbarger’s Wall Street Journal article offers a number of tips on the best way to study. I’ve summarized eight of them and then added two of my own (# 9 & 10). 1. Testing yourself repeatedly before an exam teaches the brain to retrieve and apply knowledge from memory. The method is more effective than re-reading a textbook. 2. Review the toughest material right before going to bed the night before the test. That approach makes it easier to recall the material later. 3. Don’t wake up earlier than usual to study; this could interfere with the rapid-eye-movement sleep that aids memory. (All-nighters impair memory and reasoning for up to 4 days). 4. Eat breakfast the day of a big test. High-carb, high-fiber, slow-digesting foods like oatmeal are best. 5. What you eat a week in advance matters, too. Students who ate a regular balanced diet that included fruit and veg did better than those who ate a high-fat, low-carb diet that was heavy on meat, eggs, cheese, and cream. The brain requires a constant supply of energy and “has only a limited backup battery.” 6. While many teens insist they study better while listening to music or texting their friends, research shows the opposite: Information reviewed amid distractions is less likely to be recalled later. 7. Reducing “novelty and stress on the day of the exam” can prevent choking under pressure. If you are taking the exam in an unfamiliar place, visit the room in advance. 8. If you’re still feeling anxious about an exam, set aside 10 minutes beforehand to write down your worries. Expressing one’s worries in writing, unburdens the brain. Here’s 9 & 10 from me. 9. Short and frequent is better than long and rare. It is better to study your four or five subjects every day for shorter times than to study one subject each day for the full day. By the time you go back to what you studied four or five days previously, most of what you learned will have gone. 10. Repeat, repeat, repeat. I know it’s really boring but it’s also really effective. When I ask struggling Hebrew students about their study habits, they will usually say, “Well, I study 2-3 hours every day. The first thing I tell them to do is to shorten their study time. Once they’ve started breathing again, I explain the strategy using the following diagram: (I can’t remember where I picked this up, but it works for all subjects, and especially for language study). 8am: Study the subject first thing in the morning for 45-60 minutes maximum. As soon as you end that period, your mind immediately starts losing data at a frighteningly rapid rate. Imagine where this graph ends up by the end of the day (feel familiar?) 11am: Re-study the same material again, although this time it should only take you 20-30 minutes. Notice that the knowledge level is higher than the the first period (and reached faster), and that the data loss rate has a shallower gradient (it takes longer to forget what you’ve learned). 4pm: Re-study same material again, this time for 10-15 minutes. Knowledge peak is even higher and gradient of loss even shallower. (In between these study times, you can be studying other subjects using the same method.) 9pm: Just before bed, review the material one more time for about 5-10 mins. Note peak and gradient (appealing, isn’t it!). Compare where you are now with where you would be if you only studied the subject for one long period. Where would that red line be? Preachers, imagine what this could do for your eye-contact! And if you want to seal it for good, do a quick 5-minute review first thing the next morning before studying new material. That will really set the mental concrete.

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About Niagara Falls Did you know? Niagara Falls is known as one of the seven natural wonders of the world. The original name of Onguiaahara given by the Native Americans was later changed to Ongiara. The Falls are estimated to be over 12,000 years old. How high are the falls? At 56 meters (180 ft) high, the American Falls is slightly higher than its Canadian counterpart. (Horseshoe Falls). Its crestline is 328 meters (1,075 ft) wide. It is estimated that 75,000 gallons of water flow over the American Falls each second, amounting to only 10% of Niagara's total waterflow. For more history on Niagara Falls, please click on the History of the Falls link. What is the Maid of the Mist? The Maid of the Mist is one of the oldest tourist attractions in North America. Click here to visit the Maid of Mist Official Website. Celebrating over 90 years of service! Welcome to the Niagara Falls Chapter of the National Society Daughters of the American Revolution. Our chapter is located in Niagara County, New York, and recognizes the historical significance of the natural wonder of Niagara Falls. Niagara Falls Chapter, DAR, was organized by Mrs. Frank A. Dudley on April 4, 1922. Monthly meetings take place at various locations in Niagara County including the cities and towns of Lockport, Wilson, Youngstown, Sanborn, North Tonawanda, and Niagara Falls. By promoting historic preservation, education, and patriotism, our meetings reflect the work of the National Society. We currently have 81 members who enjoy sharing the benefits of DAR membership, recognizing that we have a responsibility to ensure that the freedoms won by our ancestors are appreciated by Americans of today and tomorrow. Niagara Falls Chapter supports the men and women in the United States Military through projects such as DAR Project Patriot. More... Niagara Falls Chapter supports a variety of DAR educational programs, contests, and awards. More... What kind of commitment is involved? Niagara Falls Chapter, DAR, meets on the Saturday of each month except January, July, August, and September. Many members attend virtually every meeting while others find that work and family committments take precedence. Many members give countless hours of volunteer time to various causes. If you have an interest to serve on a particular committee, that support it welcome. If you prefer to become active at a later time, that is completely accepable, too. Niagara Falls Chapter has been in service, in Niagara County, for over 90 years. We offer somthing for everyone! Genealogy, American history, patriotism, friendship, and much more! Visit our membership page for further information. At the Historical Building behind the Ransomville Library, in Ransomville, NY.

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Mark Wilson February 12th, 2016 We return to Cyprus for this week’s fossil. This is a broken shell of the predatory muricid Bolinus brandaris (Linnaeus, 1758) found at the Coral Reef exposure of the Nicosia Formation (Pliocene) on the Mesaoria Plain of central Cyprus by Steve Dornbos (’97) and myself in 1996. It has had some significant battering, probably by a crab peeling away the shell to get to the goodies. The ribs are prominent on the whorls, representing previous strengthened apertures. The base was a long, narrow siphonal canal now broken off. You can see the complete shell shape in modern examples. On the other side of the same specimen we see that the last whorl has been opened, showing the spiral columella at the axis of coiling. The arrow points to a puncture hole in an upper whorl. This appears to be the result of a “ballistic” impact on the shell by some predatory organism. Pether (1995) gave the name Belichnus to this trace fossil, attributing it to stomatopod crustaceans and their wicked-fast and powerful claws. Cadée and de Wolf (2013) expanded the possible tracemakers of Belichnus to seagulls. Bolinus brandaris is well known today throughout the Mediterranean as the Purple Dye Murex. It has been used since ancient times as the source of a deep, permanent fabric dye called Tyrian Purple. It was highly prized by royalty and the wealthy elite for millennia. Linnaeus originally placed this species in the genus Murex, but in 1837 Georg Gottlieb Pusch described a new but similar genus Bolinus, to which the species now belongs. Pusch, who also had the Polish name Jerzy Bogumił Koreński, was a very interesting fellow in the early days of paleontology and geology. He was born in Kohren, Saxony, in 1790 (or 1791, depending on which calendar you use). He was very early interested in what would become geology, so in 1806 he enrolled in the Mining Academy in Freiberg. In his first year he was recognized as an outstanding student by the famous Abraham Gottlob Werner. In 1811 he also studied law in Leipzig. After graduating he explored the geology of Saxony, and in 1813 participated in battles against Napoleon. Then in 1816, Pusch moved to Poland, which at that time was partitioned by foreign powers. He became professor of Chemistry and Metallurgy at the Kielce Academy and later head of the Mining and Mineralogy Department in Warsaw. His most important geological work was to explore and describe the geology of the Carpathians. He died in 1846. To his misfortune, a portrait of Georg Gottlieb Pusch was used on the above 1944 German Occupation of Poland postage stamp, probably for the simple reason that he was a German who had done well in the Polish territories. I like to think Pusch would have been appalled to have been used in this way. He was a hero of geology. Cadée, G. C. and de Wolf, P. 2013. Belichnus traces produced on shells of the bivalve Lutraria lutraria by gulls. Ichnos 20: 15-18. Cowper Reed, F.R. 1935. Notes on the Neogene faunas of Cyprus, III: the Pliocene faunas. Annual Magazine of Natural History 10 (95): 489-524. Cowper Reed, F.R. 1940. Some additional Pliocene fossils from Cyprus. Annual Magazine of Natural History 11 (6): 293-297. Dornbos, S.Q. and Wilson, M.A. 1999. Paleoecology of a Pliocene coral reef in Cyprus: Recovery of a marine community from the Messinian Salinity Crisis. Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie, Abhandlungen 213: 103-118. Pether, J. 1995. Belichnus new ichnogenus, a ballistic trace on mollusc shells from the Holocene of the Benguela region, South Africa. Journal of Paleontology 69: 171-181. Radwin, G.E. and D’Attilio, A. 1986. Murex shells of the world. An illustrated guide to the Muricidae. Stanford University Press, Stanford, 284 pages.

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Following is a list of Italian painters (in alphabetical order) who are notable for their art. Contents. [hide]. 1 A–C; 2 D–L; 3 M–R; 4 S–Z; 5 See also; 6 References Famous Italian Painters. art. A List of the Top 10 Italian Painters. Leonardo Da Vinci (1452–1519); Michelangelo (1475–1564); Raphael (1483-1520) ... Artists' Signatures offers FREE access to over 100000+ artist directory listings in our database. Every visitor can ... Artists' Signatures ... Italian Artists By Name. Historically, artists become famous either for their unique style or the character they exude ... Also known as Michelangelo, he was an Italian Renaissance artist. Italian artists and painters, from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance, and up to contemporary times, have made substantial contributions to the world's artistic ... Paintings from Italian artists,view and print the most famous works of Italian Art. Nov 17, 2015 ... (And before you ask: yes, the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles were named after the most famous Italian artists from the Renaissance.) ... Dec 21, 2015 ... The Most Iconic Artists of the Italian Renaissance, from Masaccio to ... Indeed, this is the period when the most famous images shifted from ... Verrocchio was one of the most renowned artists of his day and other painters ... Two of Leonard da Vinci's most famous works were commissioned in Milan, The Feb 23, 2015 ... The secret names of Italian Renaissance artists ... father, who was famous for creating the metallic garland-like headdresses worn by Florentine ...

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Bowel (colon and rectum) cancer If you or someone you know has been diagnosed with bowel cancer, we can provide the information you need, whether you're making a decision about treatment, looking for support, or just need to understand the basics. Bowel cancer, also known as colon, rectal and colorectal cancer, affects your digestive system. If you're worried about bowel cancer, it's best to first understand the facts. Knowing the symptoms of bowel cancer is important. We'll help you understand what's happening to your body and explain how bowel cancer is diagnosed. The main treatments for bowel cancer are surgery, chemotherapy, biological therapy and radiotherapy. Find out what these treatments are and how they work. The exact cause of bowel cancer is unknown, but there are risk factors that can increase your chance of developing the disease. Learn about changes you can make to your lifestyle to reduce your risk of bowel cancer. Download our booklets and factsheets, including information about cancer types, treatments, side-effects, emotional effects, financial information and more.

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Communities Succeed at Creating Healthier Environments CDC's Healthy Communities Program has a successful history of investing in communities' health and quality of life by supporting evidence - and practice-based interventions that reduce the burden of chronic disease. Through the Healthy Communities Program, coalitions collaborate with partners to educate local leaders on the importance of creating healthy places for people to live, learn, work, and play. These successes illustrate the exemplary work communities undertake. - Visitors to any of the 556 parks located in Chicago, Illinois, have access to vending machines that contain 100% healthy food items. - Prekindergarten students in Eastern Highlands, Connecticut, are provided with healthy snacks every day. - Nine community and school gardens and five farmers' markets were established in the Grand Rapids, Michigan, low-income areas to increase access to fruits and vegetables. - Lockland School District and Princeton City Schools located in Hamilton County, Ohio, implemented Competitive Foods Guidelines, which provides healthier foods in the a la carte line and vending machines to more than 6,100 students. - Faith-based organizations in the African American community of Hillsborough County, Florida, worked together to increase breastfeeding by developing private rooms for nursing or pumping in addition to initiating a wellness policy with breastfeeding education and congregational support. - Residents in rural Montgomery County, Alabama, have increased their access to fruits and vegetables through nine community gardens located in parks and schools. - Healthy snacks, such as granola bars, fruits, vegetables, and water are served at all city agencies' meetings and events in Miami, Florida. - Approximately 19,000 children in the O'Fallon, Missouri, schools are offered healthy choices in vending machines and lunches with fruits and vegetables available every day. - More than 7,200 children in the Enlarged City School District of Middletown located in Orange County, New York, have increased access to fruits and vegetables through a farm-to-school program. - YMCA after-school programs in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, improved access to fresh fruits and vegetables to under-resourced communities. - More than 6,300 people working or visiting facilities in Salinas-Monterey County, California, have healthy food options in the vending machines. - Approximately 1.8 million residents in Santa Clara County, California, were the first in the country to visit restaurants that stopped using toys and other incentives for kids' meals that are high in fat, sugar, and calories. - Persons with developmental disabilities in Schenectady County, New York, have improved access and consumption of fresh produce by constructing wheelchair accessible raised-planting beds and creating a garden-based nutrition curriculum. - More than 136,000 residents in in Tacoma-Pierce County, Washington, have access to fruits and vegetables through community gardens in MetroParks. - Children and adults living in a 111 unit public housing complex in Alexandria, Virginia, are provided with access to healthy foods and opportunities for physical activity by weeding, watering, and picking produce from a garden. - Approximately 99,685 community members in Davenport, Iowa, have increased access to physical activity by repaving and widening a 9-mile bike trail and adding mileage signs. - Through a statewide Complete Streets strategy, 86,265 Duluth, Minnesota, residents benefit from the increase in the usability of all streets for all modes of travel, for all ages and abilities. - Every day more than 150 residents in Harris County, Texas, use the ACHIEVE Fitness Zone—outdoor fitness equipment located in a park. - Improvements to the citywide trail systems and bike paths in Itasca County, Minnesota, increased access to physical activity for 45,058 residents through a statewide Complete Streets strategy. - Using a Complete Streets strategy to decrease obesity, 61,697 residents in Kershaw, South Carolina, have increased access to walking and bicycling with the enhanced usability of all streets in their community. - Approximately 47,000 students in Portland, Oregon, are required to engage in 60 minutes of daily physical activity and have unlimited access to fruits and vegetables during lunch. - Approximately 136,726 employees in Stark County, Ohio, have access to inside and outside mapped walking routes at more than 70 workplaces to encourage physical activity. - Five walking paths were created to provide 13, 763 citizens in Sumter County, Alabama, rural areas with access to safe places to exercise. - Two walking and biking paths were connected with downtown and northeast Wichita and 130 new bike racks were added throughout the city, including the city buses for 382,368 residents in Wichita, Kansas. - City of Tahlequah's 15,753 residents in Cherokee Nation, Oklahoma, are protected from secondhand smoke in outdoor areas. - Families in the City of Selma (20,756 residents) located within Dallas County, Alabama, can now spend time together outdoors and not be exposed to secondhand smoke. - Approximately 36,648 residents in Longview, Washington, are protected from secondhand smoke in 11 of the city's 17 parks, with the other 6 having designated tobacco-use areas. - More than 28,000 residents in Middleton, New York, families can enjoy the playgrounds and pools without being exposed to secondhand smoke, and repeat offenders have penalties including fines and jail terms. - Approximately 5,815 residents in Salamanca, New York, are protected from secondhand smoke in city parks. - Designated tribal housing residents in Sault Sainte Marie Tribe of Chippewa Indians, Michigan, are protected from secondhand smoke as the tribe became the first in Michigan to develop and adopt a smoke-free policy. - More than 136,000 residents in Savannah, Georgia, will benefit from a smoke-free environment in bars, private clubs, and public buildings. Success Story Resources - CDC's Healthy Communities At A Glance profiles the successful activities of several communities funded by CDC's Healthy Communities Program. - The Steps Program in Action: Success Stories on Community Initiatives to Prevent Chronic Diseases[PDF–917K] illustrates community interventions in schools, work sites, communities, and health care settings that promote healthier lifestyles and assist people in making sustainable changes to reduce their risks for chronic diseases. - Building Healthy Communities: Lessons Learned from CDC's Steps Program highlights community interventions in schools, work sites, communities, and health care settings that promote healthier lifestyles and assist people in making sustainable changes to reduce their risks for chronic diseases. - Pioneering Healthier Communities: Lessons and Leading Practices[PDF–1.97M] details the seven leading practices that community leadership teams say are main contributors to their success. - Page last reviewed: January 7, 2016 - Page last updated: January 7, 2016 - Content source:

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Although summary information is valuable for finding conflict free or coordinated plans at abstract levels, this information can also be valuable in directing the search to avoid branches in the search space that lead to inconsistent or suboptimal coordinated plans. A coordinator can prune away inconsistent coordinated plans at the abstract level by doing a quick check to see if is false. For example, if the search somehow reached the state shown in Figure 8b, the coordinator could backtrack before expanding the hierarchies further and avoid reasoning about details of the plans where they must fail. Another strategy is to first expand plans involved in the most threats. For the sake of completeness, the order of plan expansions does not matter as long as they are all expanded at some point when the search trail cannot be pruned. But, employing this ``expand on most threats first'' (EMTF) heuristic aims at driving the search down through the hierarchy to find the subplan(s) causing conflicts with others so that they can be resolved more quickly. This is similar to a most-constrained variable heuristic often employed in constraint satisfaction problems. For example, if the facilities and inventory managers wished to execute their plans concurrently as shown in Figure 17a, at the most abstract level, the coordinator would find that there are conflicts over the use of transports for moving parts. Instead of decomposing and reasoning about plan details where there are no conflicts, the EMTF heuristic would choose to decompose either or which have the most conflicts. By decomposing the agents can resolve the remaining conflicts and still execute concurrently. Another heuristic that a coordinator can use in parallel with EMTF is ``choose fewest threats first'' (CFTF). Here the search orders states in the search queue by ascending numbers of threats left to resolve. In effect, this is a least-constraining value heuristic used in constraint satisfaction approaches. As mentioned in Section 4.1, threats are identified by the algorithm. By trying to resolve the threats of coordinated plan search states with fewer conflicts, it is hoped that solutions can be found more quickly. So, EMTF is a heuristic for ordering subplans to expand, and CFTF, in effect, orders subplan choices. For example, if the production manager chooses to use machine M1 instead of M2 to produce G, the coordinator is likely closer to a solution because there are fewer conflicts to resolve. This heuristic can be applied not only to selecting subplan choices but also to choosing temporal constraints and variable bindings or any search operator from the entire set of operators. In addition, in trying to find optimal solutions in the style of a branch-and-bound search, the coordinator can use the cost of abstract solutions to prune away branches of the search space whose minimum cost is greater than the maximum cost of the current best solution. This is the role of the Dominates function in the description of the coordination algorithm in Section 5.1. This usually assumes that cost/utility information is decomposable over the hierarchy of actions, or the cost of any abstract action is a function of its decompositions.

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Think of a song that gives you trouble when it comes to managing the long phrases. It can be a hymn or familiar tune in which you just can’t quite conquer the phrases. Some familiar tunes with long phrases are Danny Boy; Come Unto Him from The Messiah; and Over the Rainbow. Sing through the song to refresh your memory of the words and the tune. When you’re ready, sing through the song at a slow pace. You want to sing more slowly so you extend your exhalation. By singing more slowly, you have to figure out how to extend your breath over a longer period of time. Singing faster songs with short phrases doesn’t require a long exhalation, and it doesn’t require that you control your exhalation over long phrases. Practice the exercise that follows to move on to the next level of breath control so that you can manage your breath easily during longer phrases. Sing the song slowly. If you’ve chosen a long song, sing through part of it. If you’ve chosen a shorter song, sing it all the way through. Sing through each phrase with a consistent exhalation for a smooth, connected line. Make sure that you inhale slowly before the beginning of each phrase. Sing through the song again slowly, but inhale quickly, while taking in the same amount of air that you did when you were inhaling slowly. Be careful not to gasp when you’re singing through this exercise; open your throat and allow the air to come in. Gasping prevents you from getting the air in quick enough. In exhaling, your ribs and abs must be moving in. Then try letting the abs move while the ribs stay open. Gaining weight or losing weight quickly can totally confuse your body. If your body is used to moving a certain amount of weight around, it affects your breathing. You have to slowly get used to your body being a different size after the weight change, especially if you’ve gained weight. Take your time when you lose weight to allow your body to slowly adjust.

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Et Ceterata: Silhouettes Silhouette artistry goes back to classical antiquity but really began to flourish at the end of the 17th century as an art form in Europe. It was to reach prominence in the 18th century and the early years of the 19th century. Before the invention of photography in 1826 silhouettes became the cheapest, quickest, and most accurate method of preserving one's likeness. Silhouettes became popular with members of royal families, famous leaders, and common people. The Ransom Center has in its holdings 18 silhouettes from the Willoughby-Blake Collection. Originally called "profile shades" or "shadow portrait," "silhouette" was coined by the French as a derogatory reference to Louis XV's Minister of Finance, Etienne de Silhouette, who had crippled the French people with his tax policies. Oblivious to the plight of the people of France, Etienne was much more interested in his hobby of cutting paper profiles. He was so despised by the people that in protest, the peasants wore only black to mimic his black paper cutouts. Out of both his parsimony and his hobby came the term "silhouette," which is still in use today. Early silhouettes were profiles of heads or busts and were all black, taking their form from the solid back shadows of the individual. These were usually cut from black paper (paper that had been darkened with soot or charcoal) with scissors, or black silk was placed behind the silhouette to reveal the profile. As the demand for silhouettes grew, artists began working in a variety of other mediums. Silhouettes painted on plaster, sometimes known as composition, were made of fine white chalk pressed flat under glass to create an even and smooth surface. Plaster was preferred to paper because it did not discolor or fade with sunlight. A pigment of pine soot and beer was used because neither watercolor nor India ink was appropriate for the porous surface. Silhouettes painted on glass were painted on the reverse side of the glass, which was most often convex. When mounted with a flat paper surface behind, the painted silhouette threw a shadow onto the paper, creating a double-silhouette effect. Soot was sometimes applied with a thumb, and a needle was often used to scratch out pigment to delineate detail. Ivory was a favored medium used in jewelry settings. From simple black shapes, painted or pasted on paper, silhouettes became beautiful black, bronzed, or colored masterpieces, painted with infinite care and detail onto ivory, plaster, card, and glass. The art of silhouette cutting reached its golden age in the early 1800s, especially in America. Many European silhouette artists immigrated and became rich and famous, catering to American politicians and the wealthy. Other artists traveled to county fairs and small towns, capturing the profiles of countless ordinary people. Silhouette artists have left a visual history of portraiture, and without them the facial likeness of many men and women who were important to American history would be unknown. Silhouettes remain popular today and have become one of the most popular art forms to collect. There are a few artists still cutting silhouettes today, but we of the computer age may be seeing the last generation of silhouette artists.

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View Full Version : Sightreading Notated chords 07-20-2004, 05:55 PM I got this book, "Reading studies for guitar', from Berklee Press. It';s a good book, but there's no commentary, just studies. I can sight read the melody lines ok, even in some of the harder keys, but they throw 6-note chords at you pretty quickly. So I was wondering if anyone had some tips of how to sight read notated chords. I can never seem to get them perfect and one time. Should I look for traids and then build the extensions or should I read top to bottom or bottom to top or what? 07-20-2004, 05:59 PM Well im no expert on chords(you know that from the last thread lol) but I would say that if you figure out what triad the bottom three notes are it should be fairly easy to figure out what the top triad would be or vice versa. If not then sorry i couldnt help but i tried :p . 07-20-2004, 07:26 PM I know that book.. I practice from that too and it's a real beneficial book. for chord reading, try them at half-time first. That way you will be relaxed. If you remember; the book says "the speed isn't neccessery" at the beginning. When you are reading notated chords usually it's the highest note that is most important (Just ask Tommy Tedesco, the king :P). The reason being that often a composer/arranger will put the melody note as the top voice of the chord. So Tommy's advice (in his book which has been out of print for a few years) is to start from the top note and read down. 07-20-2004, 09:59 PM hey one question ... i still am at the beginning of the book ... i can't help much with chords but maybe someone can help me with this ... I'm in the key of E MAJOR (4 sharps - F#, C#, G# and D#) and i meet a B# what do i play? do i play a B# (C) or a B## (C#) ... hope you don't mind i post here but problem is from the same book 07-20-2004, 11:52 PM Play a C, because C is sharped. 07-21-2004, 06:32 AM Powered by vBulletin® Version 4.2.1 Copyright © 2016 vBulletin Solutions, Inc. All rights reserved.

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History of Lampedusa See Lampedusa guide for highlights and historic monuments Ancient authors tell us that Lampedusa was inhabited at various times by Greek, Roman, Phoenician and Arab colonies. The presence of amphorae, oil lamps, burial crypts, caves, small dwellings, cisterns, wells, remains of buildings with mosaics and coins of various origins also show the antiquity of the site: "We have found traces of a Neolithic settlement with embossed ceramic similar to the “Stentinello style” [from the name of a village near Siracusa].” Also, near the port some Roman catacombs were found. Early history of Lampedusa It’s likely that Lampedusa, because of its position, had a particular importance in Roman times and also during the following periods. Recent studies have also revealed remains of the Byzantine period: "[…] We would like to bring to the attention of an unexpected monument of early Christian and Byzantine times (...) on the island of Lampedusa, or a large underground catacomb carved into the soft rock on the south coast (...), which probably dates back to the Byzantine age (6th-7th century AD) (...) It seems to be a cemetery of a Christian community that was hidden on the island in the 5th century AD, and from Africa rather than from Sicily, which was along the route that connected in late antiquity the East with the central-western Mediterranean […]" . However, Lampedusa was always inhabited by rather poor people, as were all the Pelagian Islands. The settlement of the island was certainly difficult because of the presence of Saracen pirates that dominated the Mediterranean. F. Maurici writes that: "[...] the almost total abandonment and sporadic attendance by sailors and pirates characterize the medieval history of Ustica, Lampedusa and Linosa, three small islands, totally isolated and resource-poor (...) Linosa and Lampedusa seem entirely uninhabited between the 12th and 13th century and they will remain so until the mid-19th century [...]" . Lampedusa in the 18th century We have reliable information on the population of the island only from the mid-18th century onwards, when Ferdinand IV (1751-1825) attempted to colonize it. Those early settlers seem to have been decimated by the plague a few years later. S. Gatt, a few years later again, founded an agricultural holding and A. Fernandez took three or four hundred people to the island. In 1810 construction of the current castle started, in the place where there were four ancient towers in poor condition. But this attempt at colonization, like the others before it, also failed, and when Captain Smith visited Lampedusa in the 1820s he found only some Maltese farmers around the island, who lived within the caves. 19th century attempts at colonisation The colonization of Lampedusa by the Bourbon Government dates back to 1843, when Captain Sanvisente, in the name of the King of the Two Sicilies and with the consent of the Princes of Lampedusa, took possession of it. Sanvisente wrote a work about Lampedusa, which shows that in 1847 the island had 700 residents, all natives of different parts of Sicily and adjacent islands, especially of Pantelleria. Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) in 1860 conquered the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and also the Pelagian Islands were united to enter the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. In 1872 the Italian Government here created a colony of people sentenced to house arrest, which was abolished in 1940. According to the census of 1881 the population of the town of Lampedusa was 1180 inhabitants. Etymology of Lampedusa The Pelagian Islands , as the term suggests, derives from the Greek "Pelaghiai" means "sea", or "the farthest part from the mainland" . Therefore, the meaning of the "Pelagian Islands" could be translated as "the islands of the high sea." The “pelagic” term also indicates the fauna and flora that live in the open sea. Pliny (23-79 AD), speaking about the shells off shore, explained that “The ‘Purpurae’ are also known by another name 'Pelagiae'. They are usually different, depending on the variety of the terrain where they live and the food they eat" . Lampedusa, called "Lapadoùssa" by Strabo and Ptolemy, and "Lopadusa" by Pliny, is the largest of the three Pelagian Islands. With regard to its name, it must be noted that it was known over the centuries with many variations, such as Lopadosa, Lapadusa, Lapedosa, Lipidusa, Lipadusa, lampedosa, Lampidusa, Lanbedusa, Leopadusa, Lepadosa, Lampedola, Lepadula, Lampido, Lampas, and Lampadous !! The etymological proposals were equally varied, and someone said that the name derived from the frequency of lightnings, others by "Lepas" (rock) or "lepaios" (rocky). Other scholars believed that the names of Lampedusa and Lampione derived from "lampas" (“torch”), because lights were placed on the islands as a signal for sailors. Kiepert conjectured a Phoenician word meaning "burn", a source which he justifies by saying that Lampedusa is essentially volcanic. But the hypothesis does not seem very correct because there is no trace in Lampedusa of volcanoes,and because, while Linosa is of volcanic origin, Lampedusa and Lampione have limy soils of sedimentary origin. Instead, the assumptions put forward by V. Amico are interesting: "[...] The opinions about the etymology of the name are different; some believe that it comes from the Greek word "rock", "cape", as Lampedusa has plenty of rocks and cliffs, others from a kind of Oyster called 'patella' [...] . In fact, the Greeks called the patellas (a small shellfish which abounded among the rocks of Lampedusa) “Lepas-lepados”; thus it is very likely that the Greek name of "Lopadoùssa" derives precisely from the presence of many "lepadoi", with the meaning of "oyster bed." Historical confusion about the pelagian islands and Lampedusa Ptolemy (100-175 AD) spoke of the islands: “[...]The African islands called 'Pelaghiai' are these"[...]. But in respect of the Pelagian Islands, however, some confusion arose from the ancient times. For example, Ptolemy stated that “Pelaghiai” are “Cossyra” (Pantelleria), “Gaulus” (Gozo) and "Melite" (Malta), and he combined "Lopadusa" (Lampedusa) and “Aethusa” (Linosa) with Africa. Strabo , on the contrary, called the “Pelagian Islands” only Lampedusa (“Lampedusa, the island of the Pelaghiai"). In maps dating back to the 15th century Lampedusa, Linosa and Lampione are never joined together to form the collective Italian name "Pelagie", although the three islands were joined together by the great Sicilian historian T. Fazello (16th century). However, even after Fazello, other historians and geographers continued to divide the three islands. For example, Abraham Ortelius stated that there were five Pelagian Islands; also M.A. Baudrand and F. Ferrari continued to repeat that the Pelagian Islands were five. Thus, among the ancient and modern geographers there was a great confusion, until they fully recognized the correctness of Fazello’s suggestions, who wrote: "In the midst of the sea between Sicily and Kerkena there are three uninhabited islands called ‘Pelagiae’: Lampedusa, Linosa and Lampione (...) The greatest among these is Lampedusa"] . See also our Lampedusa travel guide and information. 1. See G. Radi, “Tracce di un insediamento neolitico nell'isola di Lampedusa”, in “Atti della società Toscana di scienze naturali” [“Traces of a Neolithic settlement on the island of Lampedusa”, in "Proceedings of the Tuscan Natural Science Society"], 1972, Vol. 79: 197-205 2. See “Kokalos”, 2002: 14-15 3. See F. Maurici, “Per la storia delle isole minori della Sicilia” ["On the history of the minor islands of Sicily"] in "Acta Historica et Archeologica Medievalia", Barcelona, 2002; 193 4. See “Poetae Latini minores”, edidit N.E. Lemaire, Parisiis, 1825: 424 note 164 5. See C. Plini Secundi “Historiae Mundi”, Venezia, Antonelli, 1844, Vol. I, Lib. IX: 889 6. “Geographia”, IV, Chapter I, 13 7. “Geographia”, 18, III 8. See A. E. Nordenskjöld, "Periplus", Stockholm, 1897 9. “Thesaurus Geographicus”, Antwerp, ex officina Plantiniana, 1596 10. “Geographia”, ordine litterarum disposita, Parisiis, 1682 11. “Novum Lexicon geographicum, in quo universi orbis, urbis, regiones, provinciae, regna, maria”, apud Homobonum Bettaninum, 1738, 2 Vol. 12. See E. Thomae Fazelli Siculi or.[dine] Praedicatorum, “De rebus Siculis decades duae”, Panormi [Palermo], 1558 13. See V. Amico, “Topographical Dictionary of Sicily”, 1858: 581

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The World Memory Project, which is set to build the world’s largest online database of information on victims of the Holocaust, has been launched. The joint venture by the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum and ancestry.com announced May 3 is recruiting the public to provide information on Jewish victims of the Holocaust and millions of non-Jews who were targeted for persecution by Nazi Germany and its collaborators. The World Memory Project will greatly expand the accessibility of the museum’s archival collection, which contains information on well over 17 million people targeted by Nazi racial and political policies, and will enable millions to conduct online searches, project organizers said in a statement. Ancestry.com, which hosts its own online archival project, will provide proprietary software and manage the digitizing of the documents. On May 2, the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee (JDC) made available online a collection of its records and photographs from the Holocaust period. The JDC project, which is not part of the World Memory Project, will feature a database of more than 500,000 names and photos from 14 countries where the JDC operated during and after World War II. Users can search the names database compiled from historic documents and JDC client lists from operations in Barcelona, Shanghai, Kobe, Vilna, Australia, South America, and the JDC Emigration Service in Vienna and Munich. Photo galleries are available from Austria, Belgium, China, Cyprus, Czechoslovakia, the Dominican Republic, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Morocco, Lithuania, Portugal and Spain. The JDC is inviting the public to tag photos and share their JDC stories from the Holocaust era.

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This website is best viewed in a browser that supports web standards. Skip to content or, if you would rather, Skip to navigation. Dec. 21, 2011MARYVILLE, MO | By: Wayman An independent panel says the US Army Corps of Engineers did what it could to prevent this year's record flooding along the Missouri River. But it says changes will be needed to manage increasingly frequent extreme weather events. Hydrologist Bill Lawrence of the National Weather Service participated in the panel review. Lawrence says Montana's record-breaking rainfall in May contributed to the unprecedented runoff downstream. But he says severe wet spells, and droughts, are becoming more frequent.Lawrence says the master manual which guides water management on the Missouri River needs to be revised to allow the Corps to better respond to changing weather patterns.

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The poetry of Robinson Jeffers is distractingly memorable, not only for its strong music, but also for the hard edge of its wisdom. His verse, especially the wild, expansive narratives that made him famous in the 1920s, does not fit into the conventional definitions of modern American poetry. Scarcely stirring from Carmel, California, Jeffers wrote about ideas: big, naked, howling ideas that no reader can miss. The directness and clarity of Jeffers’s style reflects the priority he put on communicating his worldview. He challenged scientists on their own territory. Unlike most writers, he had studied science seriously in college and graduate school. He accepted the destruction of anthropocentric values explicit in current biology, geology, and physics. Jeffers concentrated on articulating the moral, philosophical, and imaginative implications of those discoveries. He struggled to answer the questions that science had been able only to ask: What are man’s responsibilities in a world not made solely for him? How does humankind lead a good and meaningful life without a Providential God? Standing apart from the world, he passed dispassionate judgment on his race and civilization, and he found them wanting. Pointing out some grievous contradictions at the core of Western industrial society earned Jeffers a reputation as a bitter misanthrope (he sometimes was) but this verdict hardly invalidates the essential accuracy of his message. He saw the pollution of the environment, the destruction of other species, the squandering of natural resources, the recurrent urge to war, and the violent squalor of cities as the inevitable result of a species out of harmony with its own world. What saves Jeffers’s poetry from unrelieved bitterness and nihilism is its joyful awe and indeed religious devotion to the natural world. Living on the edge of the Pacific, he found wisdom, strength, and perspective from observing the forces of nature around him. Magnificent, troubling, idiosyncratic, and uneven, Jeffers remains the great prophetic voice of American modernism.

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A group of researchers from the CDC sampled water from 161 public and private pools and water parks in Atlanta and found that half of them were contaminated with e. coli, which comes from -you guessed it- poop. The study, published in the latest Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, specifically looked at pools in Atlanta, but the researchers say such contamination is likely a widespread problem in U.S. pools, thanks to swimmers not washing themselves off before taking a dip. According to the scientists, each of us carries about 0.14 grams of fecal material into the pool — and that doesn’t include accidents or cases of diarrhea. Among municipal pools, the genetic testing for pathogens detected E. coli in 70% of the filters, while 66% of the water parks contained the bacteria and 49% of pools in private clubs showed evidence of the contamination. “These findings indicate the need for swimmers to help prevent introduction of pathogens, e.g., taking a pre-swim shower and not swimming when ill with diarrhea, [for] aquatics staff to maintain disinfectant level and pH according to public health standards to inactivate pathogens, and state and local environmental health specialists to enforce such standards,” the authors write in their report. Because of the way they did the tests, the researchers did not determine whether the bacteria was alive. If pools are properly chlorinated, they should be dead. Atlanta had no reported pool-borne illnesses last summer, when the samples were taken. But just to be sure, try not to swallow pool water. Link -via Digg (Image credit: Flickr user Vegas ER)

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Researching a cemetery can be lots of work but very informative and entertaining. The shape and material of the stone, its design, and the inscription are all clues to history. Use this outline as a guide. Clues from the cemetery: How old is the cemetery? What is the oldest recorded tombstone? What type of cemetery is it? What people are buried at this location? Talk to the caretaker about the records that they keep. Clues from tombstones: - Log shaped - Member of Woodmen of the World - Badge on it - Civil War Veteran - Religious markings may indicate religious preference or church membership - Markings may indicate person's occupation, interest or hobby - Inscriptions - dates, names, sex, marriage status Reading the Hard-to-Read tombstone - Just putting water on a tombstone will often make it more readable. - Cleaning the tombstone to bring out words or images with shaving cream is preferable to many other cleaning agents. However, even shaving cream can be acidic and detrimental to the stone. - Making a rubbing of the tomb is an excellent way to study inscriptions, however even chalk may be damaging to a stone. Taking a photograph of the tomb may suffice. Photographs will be better on overcast days. Tip: a friend can hold a mirror to light up the stone. The added light may make your picture come out better. Different types of cemeteries - The church cemetery - Often located near the church and is private church property. - The public cemetery - Owned by a town, city or county and open to the public. - The private cemetery - Owners and/or caretakers are usually listed at the cemetery entrance. This restrictive cemetery could be owned and operated by a lodge, a community organization, the military, or a specific family. - The ethnic cemetery - Could be private or public and overlap one of the other types but owned and operated to support one religion. - The mass grave - A common grave for a group of people, often victims of a disaster. - Commercial cemetery - These are for profit and are nondenominational. - Family Bibles are considered a primary source. - Cemetery Deeds are given to the purchasers of the plot. - Church Burial Records must keep a recording of burials. - Cemetery information is considered a secondary source because the information has been drawn from another source. The records where this information originated are the primary sources. Most cemeteries create at least three basic records: a chronological record of burials, a ledger that shows the identity and date of the plots, and a deed to the lot. Funeral homes may have helpful documents. - Check Historical Society - Visit computer Web sites like Find-A-Grave (http://www.findagrave.com) - Interview senior members of the community - Visit land offices Locating a grave Late 19th century or later - Locate the cemetery using a county map with cemetery locations. - Uncover oral history through relatives or friends - Use death certificates and obituaries - Check for funeral Home records - Visit a local or state historical society - Check with local genealogical organizations - Visit a local public library Early 19th Century or before - Find out where they died - Do an online search at Family Search (www.familysearch.org) After locating the cemetery - Copy the dates of the marker - What is the location of the grave from the entrance? - Is there any artwork? - Be aware of any mistakes that may exist on the marker - Note the placement of graves in relation to each other Organize your documents or records - Treat the headstone with respect - Don't do anything to the stone (some compounds may be harmful) - Take photographs to study later - Take notes - sketch the location - Stones may not be present before the mid 1800s; inscribed stones were initially limited to affluent families - Late 1850s cemeteries used deeds, records, and agreements - Look for multiple graves with the same surname indicative of family members - Make note of any symbols, images, inscriptions or epitaphs Taking a field trip to a cemetery (visit the classroom lesson Taking a Field Trip for more information. - Always check with a cemetery's caretaker to make sure that it is permissible for the entire class to visit. Inquire about the possibility of your class doing rubbings of the stones, if you are planning for your class to participate in this activity. - Proper Conduct for cemeteries - Be generally respectful and unobtrusive - Avoid loud talk and behavior that might be disturbing to those in mourning - Notice there are different rituals for different cultures, but be sure students don't interrupt any ceremonies - Follow posted rules - Never enter a closed cemetery - Don't bring pets into the cemeteries - Don't walk directly on the graves. Many traditions interpret this as disrespectful - Never disturb the soil - Don't run in the cemetery and watch where you are going - Watch and listen (wildlife, snakes, and insects may be problems) - Don't eat or drink in the cemetery. You want to leave it as you found it *A note to students: Do not investigate a cemetery or any other private setting alone. Remember that there is safety in numbers. Go to PBS Teachers for more than 3000+ lesson plans and activities.

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How people get local news and information in different communities Depending on the topic, urban residents are more likely to use mobile and online sources; suburbanites are most heavily into social media; and rural residents are more inclined to word of mouth sources 72% of Americans follow local news closely These local news enthusiasts follow a diverse set of topics but rely heavily on local newspapers to keep them informed Where people get information about restaurants and other local businesses The internet is the source that people most rely on for material about the local business scene and search engines are particularly valued. Newspapers and word of mouth also rank high as sources. How people learn about their local community Citizens’ media habits are surprisingly varied as newspapers, TV, the internet, newsletters, and old-fashioned word-of-mouth compete for attention. Different platforms serve different audience needs. How mobile devices are changing community information environments 47% of American adults use their cellphones and tablet computers to get local news and information Understanding the Participatory News Consumer How internet and cell phone users have turned news into a social experience.

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New Hampshire religion has long been dominated by Congregationalism. Virtually every New Hampshire town contained at least one Congregational parish. Also present, but fewer in number, were the Quakers, Anglicans, and Presbyterians. After the Revolution the dominance of Congregationalism was challenged. Meetings in the hill country soon produced new sects. These grew in numbers and threatened the position The Freewill Baptists were organized by Randel at New Durham in 1780; Universalism ; Christian Connection , in 1803 Elias Smith formed the first congregation of the at Portsmouth. The Shakers, gathered substantial numbers of converts to their charismatic way of thinking. Methodism did not arrive in New Hampshire until 1790, and grew steadily in the state thereafter. The largest non-conforming group was The Separate-Baptists , started in New Hampshire during the Revolution by Chaplain Hezekiah Smith of Haverhill. By 1800 the Separate-Baptists had organized several churches in New Hampshire and approached parity with the Congregationalists in the hill country. The availability of church records will differ from town to town, but some general 1.Considering the Congregationalists were so amassed in numbers the first records to seek are those. These will likely be the most extensive records available in the community. Congregationalist records typically contain several documents: 2.Convenants of the church which will state the beliefs and practices of the parish. These will usually be signed by all members in full standing. 3.The vital statistics were kept by the pastor. These records were kept on the citizens who maintained membership in 4.A membership list. Congregationalist lists often distinguished between two levels of membership: "full covenant" and "halfway." The "halfway" were members who had made a public testimony of their religious experience and were admitted by vote of the other full convenant members to partake in communion; the "full" were those who agreed only to abide by the doctrinal teachings and moral authority of the church, but made no personal admission of faith. 5.Pew rentals were also an important consideration as lists of these arrangements provide a picture of economic and social status in the town: the wealthiest families usually rented the most prominent and expensive pews. This was of great consequence as parishes built a new meetinghouse or repaired an old one, funds were raised either by assessment or by rental of 6.Church records books contain votes of the parish on significant matters ranging from salary and support arrangements with ministers. To how the community would chastise members of a 7.Records of the other denominations will also contain the same kinds of information, but with much less extensiveness. However, one should try to obtain at least some documentation from these dissenting communions to realize a sense of religious division at the local level and its impact the community and decisions that were made. The particular form of records is less important than the kind of information one can find in them; but in any case you may have to clarify the language of the records in order to use them fully. 8. Each denomination had its own form of record-keeping. The Presbyterians were governed by a board of Elders, the Quakers held monthly meetings. However all basically faced the same sort of decisions as the Congregationalists did, noting however that the Baptists and Quakers did not pay their 9. Finding these church records is usually a matter of good detective work, especially if the church is no longer in existence. First be sure your check the local and county histories to establish the religious history of the community. It was quite common for the churches to deposit their early records with the local or state historical societies. Sometimes these records are mixed in with the town records and will be found on the microfilms that are available from the State Libraries or State Archives. In searching for religious documentations one must resort to outside sources like denominational libraries, which is considered a standard procedure. Assume information exists and consult as many sources

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16 November 1999 What Causes Rain? by Kate Melville Until recently meteorologists were unable to explain why clouds contain disproportionately large quantities of large and small water droplets. Now Dutch researchers claim that areas of air turbulence that forms very small spiral patterns and that this then causes clouds to produce rain. The research was carried out by Delft University of Technology and used the computational facilities at the Academic Computation Centre in Amsterdam. Researchers used a Cray C90 super computer to calculate how hundreds of thousands of water droplets contained in one litre of cloud move and grow. During this process small tubular-shaped vortices are formed and that these force droplets outwards by centrifugal force, so that they congregate at the edge. For rain to happen one in every million droplets needs grow to a diameter greater them 20 micrometers and this happens as droplets collide - this then sets off a chain reaction within the cloud. This new data turns on its head old meteorological calculations that did not include the effect of small-scale areas of turbulence. The process should take more than three hours before clouds become dense enough to release rain, but in actual fact this process only takes about thirty minutes. What has also been shown is that there are very few droplets in the center of each area of turbulence and that as a consequence the air there remains supersaturated. Until recently meteorologists had considered this to be impossible, but the results also indicated that air more than one hundred meters above the base of a cloud becomes so supersaturated with water vapour that droplets are created. Water vapour then condenses on particles (like dust), with a radius of less than a micrometer. Just how many small droplets develop depends on the level of supersaturation of the air. Meteorologists may now have to revise many of their long-held assumptions about clouds and rain. This may not sound like a major scientific feat, but it's right up there for many dry continents like Africa and Australia where water may be one of the key regional security issues in the 21st century.

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February 19, 2001 Addressing the difficulties in obtaining a wrinkle-free stamped part requires a good understanding of metal flow and how it is affected by draw beads Obtaining a wrinkle-free part and the desired percentage of stretch in a deep drawn part sometimes can be very frustrating and time-consuming. Wrinkles, fractures, loose metal, buckles, and oil canning are everyday problems in the die build and stamping industry. Addressing these difficulties requires a good understanding of metal flow and how it is affected by draw beads, step beads, and draw bars, as well as the effects of part geometry. This article focuses on the principles of specifying, designing, and troubleshooting these four basic elements. Draw beads are rib-like projections mounted on either the binder or the draw ring surface that restrict and control metal flow into the die cavity and over the punch of a draw die. Simply put, draw beads act as speed bumps for material traveling into the die cavity. Imagine yourself in your car traveling at 55 miles per hour. Ahead, you see a speed bump with a gradual, gently flowing radius. Unless you are a stunt driver, chances are that you would decelerate before contacting the bump to allow yourself to pass over it smoothly. If instead of a speed bump in the road you saw a large cement curb ahead, you most likely would brake hard so that you could drive very slowly over the obstacle. If the curb were too high, you might elect not to go over it at all. Your decision on how fast to travel over either obstacle is based, in part, on the obstruction's geometry. Draw beads use the same basic principle to control material that is pulled into a die cavity by the vertical action of a stamping press. Draw beads force material to bend and unbend before entering a die cavity. This action creates a restraining force on the sheet metal, which causes the material to enter the die cavity at a reduced rate and at a reduced volume. The height, shape, and size of a draw bead and bead cavity govern the amount of restrictive force generated. A sharp draw bead and cavity radius decrease metal flow, while a large draw bead and cavity radius allow material to flow more freely (see Figure 1). A step bead is very similar in function to a conventional half-round draw bead, except that it has a different shape. Step beads typically are located on the outside perimeter of the binder punch opening. This location allows for optimal metal flow control close to the draw punch and affords an opportunity for material savings. Step beads can be set with less force than can conventional half-round draw beads, and often they reduce the amount of strain hardening that occurs during the bending and unbending process. Strain hardening is reduced primarily because material is subjected to less bending and unbending when step beads are used (see Figure 2). Draw beads can be machined, welded, or inserted on top of or into the draw ring or binder surface of a draw die. Because draw and step beads usually are subjected to a great deal of abrasive and adhesive wear, they must be made from very wear-resistant tool steel. In addition, they must blend gradually into the surface on which they are located. This blended transition gradually changes the restrictive force, reducing the possible shearing or tearing action of the "rind" or addendum areas of the drawn shell. Determining the best location for a draw bead is a judgment call based primarily on part geometry. Deeper areas of a drawn shell require more material flow; shallow areas of the shell consume less material. Material consumption between the two surfaces can be estimated using length-of-line analysis. To keep excess material from flowing into the shallow areas of a part, draw or step beads must be designed in the feeding areas of the binder surface. Experimenting with sandpaper or grit cloth between the binder and draw ring surface can help determine the best location for a draw bead. Because of their abrasive natures, the materials act as grippers to help hold material and prevent it from going into the die cavity, thus mimicking draw beads. Another experimental process to help determine the best location for a draw bead involves increasing the blank size in the proposed area. The additional material between the binder and the draw ring increases the blank restraint force and indicates where a draw bead can be substituted. Draw bars are bumps or semirounded "miniposts" that are used extensively in Class A surface stampings, for which stretch and dent resistance are critical for achieving an acceptable appearance. They differ from draw beads in that they are part of a draw punch rather than the die. Draw bars must be placed outside the final part geometry and typically are in the more shallow sections of a drawn part (see Figure 3). They have two main functions: The shape of the draw punch often dictates the amount of stretch that can be achieved during the drawing action. Simply put, wherever there is a large male radius on the punch or die cavity, the metal will stretch and flow. Small radii tend to lock off or limit stretching and flowing of material. When parts are designed properly, extensive flow and stretch can occur in both the product and from the binder area. The draw punch in Figure 4 has a small radius on the punch. This small radius forces material to be pulled primarily from the binder area. If the draw ratio is extreme, the part most likely will split in the vertical wall of the drawn shell. Because the small radius on the punch does not promote material flow, little or no stretch will occur in the center product area of the part. The draw punch in Figure 5 has a large radius on the punch. This larger radius pulls and stretches material from both the binder and the product areas. This punch shape is most desirable when trying to achieve overall maximum stretch in the entire product area. In another possible arrangement, the draw punch has a large radius on the perimeter of the shell and a small radius on the inside profile of the punch cavity. In addition, the die cavity post has a large radius. This product shape allows material to be pulled from both flat areas of the part and from the binder area. Finally, the draw punch could have large radii on the outer profile of the punch and the inner profile of the punch cavity. The cavity has a small radius. This product design tends to pull and stretch material from the outer flat portion of the product area, as well as from the binder area. Understanding the basic principles of obtaining stretch and eliminating wrinkles can prove to be most valuable when troubleshooting drawn parts. All too often, draw beads are used in an attempt to obtain stretch and reduce wrinkling when the basic part shape is not conducive to stretch and could be altered without affecting fit or function. Successful stretch can be obtained through the use of draw beads, draw bars, and changes in part and addendum geometry. STAMPING Journal® is the only industrial publication dedicated solely to serving the needs of the metal stamping market. In 1987 the American Metal Stamping Association broadened its horizons and renamed itself and its publication, known then as Metal Stamping. Print subscriptions are free to qualified stamping professionals in North America.

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Tell El-Amarna was formally known as Akhetaten. The new name came from a local village called El- Till. The word Amarna came from the Bedouin tribe that settled in this village. The word Tell, in Arabic, means a mound or a small hill. But interestingly enough, Tel El-Amarna is a flat piece of land beside the Nile Valley. The ancient name, Akhetaten, means the horizon of the solar disk. It is very similar to the meaning of Amun Dwelt at Thebes, Ptah at Memphis and other gods at their favored places. King Akhenaten offered this place to be the home for his god Aton. The area is a plain field, separated from the Nile Valley by a strip of palm trees. It stretches 12 kilometers from north to south. The area is covered mostly with sand and outlined with ruins of temples, palaces and houses that archeologists discovered or are trying to find. Some tourists considered it one of the most romantic places they have ever seen because of the silence and the peaceful beauty that the area gained through the centuries. There are more than twenty five tombs facing the base of the cliff front. Six tombs are located at the north side near Darb El-Malik. Nineteen of them are located at the south side. If you are going to navigate through the tombs, we do recommend a tour guide to be with you for safety reasons. These tombs were built highly complicated to protect them from the thieves, therefore a visitor could get lost. Most of the tombs start with an open court that leads to three chambers. Some of the tombs are decorated with papyrus columns that meet at a recess in the rear end which have a statue of the deceased looking toward the entrance. The famous lyrics of the Hymn to the Sun, which was composed by Akhenaten, is always found in the decorations of each tomb. The following section describes the famous tombs located in Tel El-Amarna. This is considered to be the finest tomb remaining in the necropolis. The drawings show Ay and his wife receiving gold collars from Akhenaten and Nefertiti while the surrounding crowd seems cheerful by this honor. There are some descriptive scenes for the streets of ancient Akhetaten which are closely observed and described. Other drawings describe a few intimate moments in the palace of Ay; a woman of the harem having her hair done, other girls are playing the harp and dancing, while others clean the house and prepare the food. In the same temple, the most complete and correct version of the Hymn to the Sun is decorating the right hand side of the doorway. Huya, or Yuya, was the steward of Queen Tiyi, the queen mother and wife of Amenhotep III. A Royal banquet is located to the left and right of the main hall. The banquet contains drawings for the king, queen and their children. One of the walls has a drawing for the king accompanying his Queen Tiyi to the Sunshade temple that was erected for her. Meri-re II was the superintendent of the palace of Queen Nefertiti. A unique drawing on the right wall features a celebration to honor leaders from other countries that brought some exotic gifts to the Queen. The visitors are shown in their native dresses. Other drawings show the celebration and the Pharaoh's hospitality. He was a high rank priest of Aton. A table full of offerings including a beautiful representation of a colorful rainbow is drawn on the left hand wall of the main chamber below the Aton disk. On the right hand wall, a scene of the Aton Temple which shows a depiction of the Akhetaten harbor, the palaces and the gardens of the ancient city. He was the chief servitor of the Aton in Akhetaten. The facade that decorated the outside of his tomb is still preserved. A group of Aton worshippers are featured on the top of the outer lintel of the entrance. The group of the featured Aton Disk worshipers include the king's sister and two of her servants. In the corridor walls of the tomb, the deceased is featured as an elderly man sitting beside his daughter. Who are we? Tour Egypt aims to offer the ultimate Egyptian adventure and intimate knowledge about the country. We offer this unique experience in two ways, the first one is by organizing a tour and coming to Egypt for a visit, whether alone or in a group, and living it firsthand. The second way to experience Egypt is from the comfort of your own home: online.

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en

The development of a pattern of differentiated cell types from a group of equivalent cells is a fundamental paradigm in biology. The hallmark of differentiation is the creation of self-sustaining patterns of gene regulation and protein activity. Anabaena sp. strain PCC 7120 is a filamentous cyanobacterium that can be induced to differentiate a periodic pattern of nitrogen-fixing heterocysts from a chain of undifferentiated vegetative cells. Heterocysts occur, on average, at 10 cell intervals, are terminally differentiated, and differ from vegetative cells morphologically, metabolically, and genetically. They allow the spatial separation of the two incompatible processes of photosynthesis and nitrogen fixation. As an example of division of labor between cells type, heterocysts provide vegetative cells with fixed nitrogen and receive fixed carbon from vegetative cells. Patterning of differentiation appears to be dependent on the interactions between several proteins, some of which are indicated above in a schematic of the stages of differentiation. The first, HetR, is part of a regulatory circuit that shares the properties of biological switches, which turn graded input signals into a binary output: when the switch is “off”, the cell remains undifferentiated, but when the switch is “turned on”, the differentiation process begins and eventually becomes irreversible and self-sustaining. HetR acts to promote differentiation and is both necessary and sufficient to induce differentiation. PatS is a protein that prevents differentiation, and is responsible for determining the de novo patterning of heterocysts on a filament. HetN produces a signal involved in stabilization and maintenance of the pattern once it has formed. The relative positions of cells is conveyed by concentration gradients of PatS and/or HetN extending from source cells. PatS and HetN prevent the activity of HetR and cause its decay as can be seen in the micrograph above where fluorescence from HetR-GFP is reduced next to heterocysts, which are sources of HetN and PatS. The phenomenon of “lateral inhibition” of differentiation has been proposed to govern patterning in many developmental systems. Lateral inhibition in Anabaena is most easily conceptualized when considering the placement of a new heterocyst between two existing heterocysts after the vegetative cells between them have divided.

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I opened up my Boston Sunday Globe to the Metro Section and immediately noticed a story on the origins of public education in Massachusetts. The story begins: "Boston is the birthplace of education in America -- or so the history books say. But the letterhead on Dedham's public schools begs to differ. Those are fighting words to Boston Latin School, which ferociously defends its distinction as the nation's oldest public school, founded in 1635." I immediately said to myself, "Dedham? Rehoboth?" and started searching for Dorchester in the article. It was nowhere to be found. Apparently Rehoboth (in 1643) and Dedham (in 1644) voted to have a tax to support public schools, which is the basis of their claims for being the birthplace of public education. But what about Dorchester? Dorchester established the first free tax supported public school in the Commonwealth in 1639. The Dorchester town records state the following for 20 May 1639: "It is ordered that the 20th of May 1639, that there shalbe a rent paid of 20ls yeerely foreur imposed upon Tomsons Iland to bee payd p euy p'son that hat p'prtie in the said Iland according to the p'portion that any such p'son shall fro tyme to tyem injoy and posesse there, and this towards the mayntenance of a schoole in Dorchestr this rent of 20ls yeerlyl to bee payd to such a schoolemaster as shall undertake to teach english latin and other tongues and also writing...." I suppose one could argue that the Dorchester school wasn't supported by "general taxation" because the town records say the "rents" from Thompsons Island paid for the school. By my reading of the town records, the "rent" was actually a proportional property tax. By 1641 the town recognized that collecting the 20 pounds rent from the approximately "six score" people who held title to land on Thompsons Island was a difficult task. On 7 December 1641 many of those land owners gave the land back to the town of Dorchester and agreed "that from henceforth the said Iland in the same shallbe wholy and foruer bequeathed and given away from themselues and the heires vnto the Town of Dorchester aforesayd for and Towards the maintenance of a free schoole in Dorchester..." The Town then voted that no more than ten renters should be allowed on Thompson's Island in order to faciliate the collecting of the rent, which would support the school. Furthermore, in 1645 the town reaffirmed its committment to public education by declaring that the schoolmaster "shall equally and impartially receive, and instruct such as shall be sent and Committed to him for that end whither their parents be poor or rich not refusing any who have Right and Interest in the School." [ed. note: language in the preceding quote was modernized] Out of this guiding principle evolved the idea of free public education for all. The Mather School currently on Meetinghouse Hill in Dorchester honors Richard Mather, the Minister of First Parish in Dorchester. Mather provided the impetus for the creation of the free school in 1639. Boston Latin was not a free public school when it began, so while Boston Latin may lay claim to being the oldest school in the state, it is not the oldest free public school. I'm not certain how "public" Boston Latin was in any case, while the above quote from the 1645 Dorchester town meeting could still be put over the door of every school in Boston. And Roxbury Latin--as soon as I go through the Dorchester town records to prove there has been a school in continuous existence in Dorchester since 1639 I'm coming after your "oldest continuous school" claim. It looks as if Rehoboth will have to change its sign promoting itself as the birthplace of public education and Dedham will have to change the letterhead for the school district. And just think, I cleared up this issue before having my second cup of coffee.

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en

Pronunciation: (fôr'wurd), [key] 1. toward or at a place, point, or time in advance; onward; ahead: to move forward; from this day forward; to look forward. 2. toward the front: Let's move forward so we can hear better. 3. into view or consideration; out; forth: He brought forward several good suggestions. 4. toward the bow or front of a vessel or aircraft. 5. ahead (defs. 4, 5). 1. directed toward a point in advance; moving ahead; onward: a forward motion. 2. being in a condition of advancement; well-advanced: It was quite forward in the season when we finished our planting. 3. ready, prompt, or eager. 4. presumptuous, impertinent, or bold: a rude, forward child. 5. situated in the front or forepart: the forward part of the ship. 6. of or pertaining to the future; for the future or forward delivery: forward buying; a forward price. 7. lying ahead or to the front: Take the forward path. 8. radical or extreme, as persons or opinions: the forward trend in certain liberal thought. a. a player stationed in advance of others on a team. b. Football.a lineman. c. Basketball.either of two players stationed in the forecourt. 2. Finance.something bought, as a security, for future delivery. 1. to send forward; transmit, esp. to a new address: to forward a letter. 2. to advance or help onward; promote: The training will help to forward your career. to advance or play a mechanism, recording tape, cassette, etc., in the forward direction: to find a musical selection without forwarding through the whole cassette. Random House Unabridged Dictionary, Copyright © 1997, by Random House, Inc., on Infoplease.

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A light meter is a device used to measure the amount of light. In photography, a light meter is often used to determine the proper exposure for a photograph. Now why do you think that managing exposure is not needed in Digital Cinematography ? Photography or Cinematography, Analog or Digital, it's all about managing the exposure. In plainest terms, Exposure just means how much light is exposed to the picture and most pictures are either under exposed of over exposed. Under exposed means having a dark picture and over exposed means having more light than required. Good photography or cinematography is all about having just the right amount of light in your picture. Most of the techniques in photography/cinematography deal with this very thing. Lens Filters do this very job of managing the exposure and this is applicable to both Digital and analog techniques. Check any photography tutorial (analog/digital), they will tell you about how to manage the exposure. when something is captured by a camera it goes to the sensor and that's where it is determined how the picture is going to be, depending on its exposure. It's a different story that whether The image or video goes to a film or an SD card. Summing that up, what I want to say is Digital or Analog they all need to handle exposure. This is irrespective of whether the final output is going to a film or a digital media. And Light meter only tells the current amount of exposure, hence helping the folks to determine how much more they need to tweak the exposure. P.S there are several techniques to tweak the exposure which are bith pre and post capture. A few links : Exposure : Please go through the manual exposure part. It tells about light meter. they could judge how much light is needed without exactly measuring the amount of light on screen (by looking at the scene once lit or watching the camera's output monitor). That's really not so easy. You can't estimate the right amount of light just by looking at the output monitor. A huge amount of precision is required to determine the right exposure and we definitely need an instrument to help us determine that.

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en

The low-lying parts of the Pacific islands have been vulnerable to storm damage The Samoan islands that have been struck by tsunamis are divided between independent Samoa and the US territory of American Samoa. The overall population of the islands, which lie in the central South Pacific, is about 250,000. Samoa, which changed its name from Western Samoa in 1997, has deep ties to New Zealand and is known by many for its rugby team. American Samoa, where residents are US nationals but not citizens, has strong economic links to the US. The territories share Samoan language and customs, are overwhelmingly Christian, and their economies revolve around fishing and agriculture - vulnerable in the past to natural disasters. In both, the same extended family networks headed by an elected chief have survived. However, the islands have been split since the colonial period, when the trade in coconut oil and the opportunity to secure a naval base in the area made them a target as Western imperial powers and Japan vied for influence in the Pacific and China. In 1899, a treaty divided the archipelago between Germany and the US. Independent Samoa comprises the much larger, western islands. The territory was ruled by New Zealand after World War I, before voting to become the first Polynesian island to obtain independence in 1962. Of a population of some 190,000, 99% live on the largest of nine volcanic islands Savai'i and Upolu, and more than 100,000 Samoans live in New Zealand. 1899: Archipelago split between US and Germany 1914: New Zealand occupies Western Samoa 1951: US navy's direct control of American Samoa ends 1962: Western Samoa gains independence 1997: Western Samoa changes name to Samoa It has been a member of the Commonwealth in 1970. Recently, Samoa was in the news for becoming the first country since the 1970s to change the side of the road on which cars are driven. It switched from right to left, partly to end dependence on costly, left-hand drive imports from the US. The economy centres on agriculture and fishing, though there has been some successful diversification into tourism - which accounts for about 25% of gross domestic product - as well as offshore banking and light manufacturing. Foreign aid and family remittances have also been important. Politically Samoa is a parliamentary democracy, though socially it remains conservative and devoutly Christian. In the past, many young Samoans have migrated to New Zealand, American Samoa and the US. The decision to change the country's name from Western Samoa to Samoa stirred protests in the American part of the archipelago. The eastern islands were first occupied by the US in 1898, and US influence was consolidated by a large marine presence in World War II. The islands are now the country's furthest flung territory. Residents are US nationals rather than citizens, meaning they cannot vote in national elections or be drafted, though they do have free entry to the US. Tens of thousands live in the states of California and Washington, and an estimated 20,000 in Hawaii, 2,300 miles north-east. There is a local government organised on the federal model, and one non-voting member is sent to the US House of Representatives. Some 95% of the territory's population of more than 60,000 lives on the largest island, Tutuila. Tuna fishing accounts for much of American Samoa's economy, and more than 90% of exports are in canned tuna.

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Wikepedia On Azerbaijan (Wikepedia tries to create confusion, claiming even Swedes and Russians as the origin of Azeri Turcs) Much has been debated about the racial, cultural and linguistic origin of the Azerbaijani people. It is difficult to disentangle national pride and ambition, imperial or political propaganda and good science. Having said this, a fair number of historians consider the nation of Azerbaijani Turks the inheritants of ancient Iranian Medes. Others believe they are the descendants of various bodies of Turks, Scythians (Ishkuz), Cimmerians, Huns, Gokturks, Khazars, Barsils, Kurtugurs, Saragurs, Kipchaks and others. The most commonly accepted view is that the Azerbaijani's are the result of a mixture of Iranian, Caucasian and Turkish waves of immigration. This is supported by the analysis of sources which shows that many different people and ethnic groups have settled in the region and have left their influences. Are the Azeries turks are descendens of the Medes like the kurds? "The Medes were an Iranian people of Indo-Iranian origin who lived in the western and north-western portion of present-day Iran. By the 6th century BC (prior to the Persian invasion) the Medes were able to establish an empire that stretched from Aran (the modern-day Republic of Azerbaijan) to Central Asia and Afghanistan. Today's population of the western part of the Iranian Plateau (including many Persian-speakers, Kurds and Azeris) consider themselves to be descended from the ancient Medes." Note: Azeris speak "Persian" and Azeri consider themselves to be descended from the Ancient Medes (Medes are Kurds). Azeris also consider themselves to originate from Scythians. All this is false information provided by Wikepedia. Azeris are in reality descedant of those turkish tribes marked in brown above. Azeri Turks claim that they have "intermarried" Iranians and therefore they are of "Iranian race". Firstly there is no Iranian race and there is no ethnic group in Iran called "Iranian". Nationals of Iran are called Iranian. Secondly Azeri Turks do not explain who were the "Iranians" that they "intermarried" with. Sometimes Azeris have "intermarried" Kurds, and other times they have intermarried Armenians more recently. Other times Azeris have intermarried Albanians who were original natives of Caucasus. Also apparently "intermarriage" has not helped them very much as they look like as before classed as Armenoid types. "Intermarriage" is a fairly tale explanation from today's New York projected into the past. The Reality is intermarriage breaks the structure of the tribe and destroys the tribe which conflicts with the living style in ancient times. Natives of Azerbaijan were either murdered or forced to move away from the region or as Kurds were sent in exile in millions to north eastern Iran. Also Azeri Turks claim that they have "Iranian culture". Culture is specific. There is no "Iranian culture" in general. Azeri Turks do not have Persian or Kurdish culture as they claim. Their claim is based on being a nationals of Iran. Kurds have lived in Turkey for thousands of years and they are still Kurds. Same with Azeri Turks. Azeri Turks have the same Azeri Turk culture as before. Azeri Turks have been mainly in Iran since 15 century AD. As Azeri Turks fail to prove that they are not turks, they are using now a different scheme. Hazaras who are afghan refugees and are of Mongolian origin have been moved to Khorasan and Azeri Turks are calling Persians who are the natives of Khorasan for Turks!!!!! This is based on the existence of Hazaras in Khorasan and also the strange way that Azeri Turks define a Turk. According to Azeri Turks a turk should look like a Mongol. In reality Mongols are not turks at all. Mongols are Mongols. The real turks are Azeri Turks. So Azeri Turks claim that Hazaras are "Persians" and secondly call them for Turks!!!!! This only shows that Azeri Turks lack any kind of intellectual honesty. Seljuk Turks were the real origin of Azeris: Wikepedia is telling the truth here The Seljuk Turks were a major branch of the Oghuz Turks and a dynasty that occupied parts of Central Asia and the Middle East from the 11th to 14th centuries. The Seljuks migrated from the north into Persia, fighting and conquering various tribes on their Transoxiana. The Seljuk Turks are regarded as the ancestors of the Western Turks, the present-day inhabitants of Turkey, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Azerbaijan. Some people in Hollywood claim Azeris are blonds to mix up all ethnic groups and create confusion. These people have made a film to prove Azeri "blondism". Recently they have produced a film in a remote village in the middle of Azerbaijan surrounded by a mountain where people have blond hair and blue eyes and white skin. And they speak Azeri. Now these people are totally different in their physicall appearance from Azeris province. They look exactly like Persians. Because they are in a remote location, they have not mixed with the Azeri population. The simple explanation is that these people have replaced their persian language with Azeri language because they have ended up in the middle of Azerbaijan when Seljuk turks immigrated to this area. The producers of film do not mention in the film why if these are blond azeris, what is the reason that the rest of Azerbaijan do not look like this. And why they look like Persians? That was Azeri blondism.

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en

Pre-menopausal African American women more likely to have certain type of breast cancerPre-menopausal African American women have a higher prevalence of basal-like breast tumors than post-menopausal African American and non-African American women, which could contribute to their poorer prognosis, according to a study in the June 7 issue of JAMA. Breast cancer is composed of an increasing number of recognized biological subtypes. The prognostic importance of this is complicated by many factors, including the observation that differences in clinical outcomes often correlate with race, according to background information in the article. Although breast cancer is less common among African American women, among those who develop it the prognosis is worse. The age-adjusted death rate in the United States from breast cancer in white women is 28.3 deaths per 100,000 compared with 36.4 deaths per 100,000 in African American women. This disparity is particularly pronounced among women younger than 50 years, in whom the death rate is 77 percent higher among African American women compared with white women. Biological differences among breast cancers may reflect genetic influences, differences in lifestyle, or nutritional or environmental exposures. Lisa A. Carey, M.D., of the University of North Carolina-Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Chapel Hill, N.C., and colleagues conducted a study of environmental and molecular determinants of breast cancer risk to identify breast tumor subtypes and determine associations between tumor subtypes and race, menopausal status, tumor characteristics, and survival. The Carolina Breast Cancer Study, a population-based study, included 496 incident cases of invasive breast cancer. The researchers found that one of the more aggressive subtypes, the basal-like breast cancer subtype, was more prevalent among pre-menopausal African American women (39 percent) compared with post-menopausal African American women (14 percent) and non–African American women (16 percent) of any age, whereas the luminal A subtype was less prevalent (36 percent vs. 59 percent-54 percent, respectively). The HER2+/ER- subtype did not vary with race or menopausal status (6 percent-9 percent). In this cohort of patients diagnosed between 1993-96, breast cancer–specific survival differed by subtype, with shortest survival among HER2+/ER- and basal-like subtypes. The basal-like subtype is sensitive to chemotherapy, however unlike the other subtypes there are currently no targeted treatment options for this subtype. "The high prevalence of basal-like tumors in younger African American women could contribute to their higher breast cancer mortality. Additional studies of long-term survival among patients with specific breast cancer subtypes are needed. Clinical trials aimed at identifying therapeutic approaches to the management of basal-like breast cancer are also needed, especially for young African American women," the authors conclude. (JAMA. 2006;295:2492-2502. Available pre-embargo to the media at www.jamamedia.org) Editor's Note: For funding/support information, please see the JAMA article. Last reviewed: By John M. Grohol, Psy.D. on 30 Apr 2016 Published on PsychCentral.com. All rights reserved.

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en

|Home | About | Journals | Submit | Contact Us | Français| The objective of this study was to scrutinize number line estimation behaviors displayed by children in mathematics classrooms during the first three years of schooling. We extend existing research by not only mapping potential logarithmic-linear shifts but also provide a new perspective by studying in detail the estimation strategies of individual target digits within a number range familiar to children. Typically developing children (n = 67) from Years 1-3 completed a number-to-position numerical estimation task (0-20 number line). Estimation behaviors were first analyzed via logarithmic and linear regression modeling. Subsequently, using an analysis of variance we compared the estimation accuracy of each digit, thus identifying target digits that were estimated with the assistance of arithmetic strategy. Our results further confirm a developmental logarithmic-linear shift when utilizing regression modeling; however, uniquely we have identified that children employ variable strategies when completing numerical estimation, with levels of strategy advancing with development. In terms of the existing cognitive research, this strategy factor highlights the limitations of any regression modeling approach, or alternatively, it could underpin the developmental time course of the logarithmic-linear shift. Future studies need to systematically investigate this relationship and also consider the implications for educational practice. Estimation is a required skill for everyday life. Numerical estimation skills are an example of what Piaget described as logico-mathematical knowledge. While Piaget did not carry out numerical estimation tasks specifically he considered logic-mathematical knowledge to be the mental relationships between and among objects/representations. Understanding the development of numerical estimation is particularly important to psychologists and educators, as several studies indicate the benefits of advanced estimation skills. For example, many studies (e.g. [2-5]) have determined a strong, positive correlation between the accuracy of numerical estimation and standardized tests of mathematics achievement. Furthermore, LeFevre, Greenham and Waheed propose the tendency of skilful estimators to have a better conceptual understanding of mathematics, as well as better counting and arithmetic skills. Here we provide an investigation of numerical estimation skills at the beginning of primary school. We used a number range familiar to the children and analyzed dependent variables for each target digit in depth. This approach goes beyond studying a potential logarithmic-linear representational shift in estimation and allows further insight into the development of children's estimation strategies. Several studies (e.g. [2,5,7-11]) have investigated developmental changes in numerical estimation in school-aged children. Estimation requires the translation between alternative quantitative representations. For example presenting a child with a number and asking them to position it on a number line can be described as a translation from a numerical to spatial representation . Much of the research into numerical estimation (hereafter: estimation) has focused on how magnitudes might be mentally represented and how this representation changes with maturity. It is assumed that estimation is based on internal models of magnitudes. Two models attempt to describe the internal representation of number, namely the accumulator (linear) model and the logarithmic model . The accumulator model suggests that magnitudes are represented linearly and that the accuracy of this mental representation decreases with increasing magnitude . The variability of estimations in relation to the magnitudes estimated remains in a constant ratio; this is termed 'scalar variability' . Dehaene argued that quantities are represented in a logarithmic fashion. This mental representation results in an exaggeration of the distance between small number magnitudes in comparison to distances between large number magnitudes. In relation to the core systems of number; namely the small number system for small number enumeration and the approximate number system (ANS) for larger numerosities , it is the approximate number system that would encode the numerosities in an estimation task. Specifically, Halberda and Feigenson found that ANS acuity was still developing in children aged 3-6 years and speculated that sharpening of the ANS was not complete until late in adolescence. Furthermore, Berteletti et al. argues for an approximate number system that is a logarithmic representation first, with numerate children and adults acquiring greater precision, and thus a linear representation. This shift to a linear representation is evident first with familiar number contexts and then subsequently with less familiar number ranges . Many of the developmental studies have used pure numerical estimation with large number scales (e.g. 0-100 and 0-1000: [2,5,10]). On a 0-100 number line, this research ([2,5,10]) purports that both representations are evident and pinpoints a logarithmic-linear shift at around Grade 2 (7-8 years). Booth and Siegler declare a linear best fit for 74% of Grade 2 children in their study; with the remainder of participant behaviors being best represented by a logarithmic model or in a minority of cases, an exponential model. With younger participants the logarithmic-linear distinction is less clear; for example in Siegler and Booth , 5% of kindergarteners produced a series of estimates better characterized by the linear than the logarithmic model and 45% were best modeled by a logarithmic representation. It could also be argued that these results, particularly those of children in kindergarten, could be influenced by the unfamiliarity of the number ranges. Verifying this proposition Ebersbach et al. , in a similar 0-100 task, found that only 17% of kindergarteners and 38% of Grade 1 children who participated in the study could count to 100. While this might question the validity of the logarithmic-linear claim, Berteletti et al. utilized 1-10, 1-20 and 0-100 number lines in an estimation task and found evidence for the logarithmic to linear representational shift. Of the preschool aged children (3.5-6.5 years) who participated in the 0-100 task all groups displayed a logarithmic dominant representation. For the 1-10 task the youngest group (approximately 4 years) was best fit by both models, the middle and older groups (approximately 5 and 6 years respectively) were now demonstrating a linear preference for this reduced number scale. In the 1-20 estimation task the youngest group was best fit by a logarithmic model, whereas the middle and oldest groups were equally well represented by logarithmic and linear models. These findings [2,5,7,10] reinforce the belief that child estimation behaviors demonstrates a logarithmic phase prior to linearity and that this transition is evident first with familiar and then unfamiliar number contexts. Berteletti et al. acknowledges that the exact path that leads from logarithmic to linear representations is still unclear. Siegler, Thompson and Opfer argue it to be a process important to education. Thompson and Siegler interpret the flexibility/variability of behaviors within Siegler's overlapping waves theory; whereby representations and strategies are used selectively when most effective and that individual choice of learned (external) mechanisms contribute to numerical representations. In various adult studies of numerical processing (e.g. [20-23]), it has been determined that many different strategies can be used to solve a single problem, whether that be estimation, multiplication or equation solving. Dowker in her study of expert mathematicians found that individual strategy selection for the same problem can vary between trials. Smith , in a study with school aged children and adolescents, investigated reasoning with rational numbers (expressed as fractions) and found that higher level competence required rich and diverse knowledge, numerically specific and invented strategies, as well as those general strategies learned through educational instruction. Huntley-Fenner attributes the variability children demonstrate in estimation tasks as being the result of reduced knowledge of estimation strategies. While the influence of individual strategies was mentioned in the numerical estimation child studies of Siegler and Booth and Siegler and Opfer , Barth and Paladino and Ebersbach et al. discussed the use of estimation strategies and proposed the need for an alternative modeling approach in order to capture child behaviors. The alternative models were found to factor in the use of a half-way reference point and number familiarity . Ebersbach et al. posited a model composed of two linear segments, with the change point an indicator of number familiarity. Thompson and Opfer found that the segmented model change point varied depending on number scale and questioned the claims of Ebersbach et al. . Importantly, Opfer, Siegler and Young still maintain the validity of the transition from logarithmic to linear representations, and caution that the fit of power models, as used by Barth and Paladino , could be influenced by the noise created during averaging procedures. Using an eye-tracking methodology, along with gaze pattern and fixation analysis Schneider et al. found that children in the first years of school do spontaneously use orientation points (external markers) to support spatial-numerical processes such as numerical estimation. In light of these studies ([17,27,28]) we chose to focus on the established logarithmic and linear (not segmented) models and have only included the power model at the coefficient of determination analysis, with subsequent analyses focusing on individual target digits which were likely to have been positioned with the aid of an external factor or strategy. A common strategy would be to utilize the number line itself, providing two external anchor points that could improve estimation accuracy of numbers located within close proximity to the end numbers (e.g. 97 is 3 units back from 100). The youngest participants may be limited to a counting strategy and may not factor in the spatial representation, as is their level of conceptual understanding. A more advanced possibility, as posited by both Barth and Paladino and Ebersbach et al. , could be the application of mental anchor points, however, such a strategy would require understanding of the part-whole (proportion) relation. For example on a scale of 0-100, 50 could be a mental anchor point that arises from the participant dividing the number scale into two equal parts and matching this spatial division with the knowledge that 50 is half of 100. As with external anchor points, estimations that occur near these mental partitions are likely to have increased accuracy in comparison to those numbers located a greater distance away from a reference point; as suggested earlier, further individual variation is likely to be associated with number knowledge. Studies ([29,30]) have given corrective feedback for target digits near a particular landmark (150 on a 0-1000 number line) and found that estimates were less accurate when the target numbers were more distant from the landmark. This evidence from feedback studies (e.g. [29,30]) indicates that children can utilize both external and mental anchor points. In the Barth and Paladino study the midpoint was highlighted to participants prior to commencing the task, but this prompt was not an inclusion within the present investigation. This study further examines the putative logarithmic-linear shift of mental representations for the familiar number range (0-20) with children in Years 1, 2 and 3; with a focus on determining if external factors (i.e. strategy) may be at play during the estimation of specific target digits. Using the most established logarithmic and linear regression analysis of Berteletti et al. , Booth and Siegler ; Siegler and Booth and Siegler and Opfer as a foundation, this research extends the analysis systematically to investigate estimation behaviors of individual target numbers. First, a logarithmic or linear best fit model will be determined for individual data and used as a reference point to the Berteletti et al. study that also utilized a number line with a maximum of 20. Second, the residuals to each target digit from both the logarithmic and linear models will be investigated to identify how well the two models represent the estimates of specific numeric values. Third and finally, the accuracy of estimation for individual target digits will be scrutinized, without any regression modeling. It is proposed that employing a familiar number range will increase the likelihood of strategy application and the novel analysis will indicate individual digits which might be the target of selective strategy use as suggested by Ebersbach et al. and Thompson and Siegler . It is hypothesized that the developmental shift from logarithmic to linear mental representation, after approximately two years of school ([2,5,10]), will also be the transition period where strategy use becomes evident. Based on existing speculation (e.g. [8,26]), this is likely to be located in close proximity to external anchor points or, in an advanced circumstance, mental anchor points which require the division of the number line into equal portions. For this reason, the present study is interested in main effects, but also the interaction between the variables, with a particular focus on separate year group behaviors. For example, it may be for particular target digits that the linear and logarithmic models demonstrate the greatest disparity, and that this varies developmentally. It is intended that this information will inform subsequent investigations that will seek to determine the various components (e.g. cognitive mechanisms, learned strategies) that contribute to the developmental path from logarithmic to linear representations and/or to the development of strategy use in numerical estimation, and any relationship between mental representations and strategy use. Participants were 67 British children from Years 1, 2 and 3 (Year 1: n = 20, mean age 6.4 ± 0.24 years, 11 females. Year 2: n = 24, mean age 7.3 ± 0.33 years, 13 females. Year 3: n = 23, mean age 8.5 ± 0.36 years, 10 females). All participants performed within one and a half standard deviations of the mean on a brief version of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 3rd edition (WISC-III: Vocabulary, Blocks and Digit Span); with no significant difference between the year groups for the WISC-III triad (F (2, 64) = 1.592, p = 0.211). Written informed consent was obtained from the parents/guardians of the children in this study. The study obtained ethical approval from the Cambridge Psychology Research Ethics Committee. The assessment instrument was a number-to-position (NP) pencil and paper task, where participants were given a number and had to mark its position on a 160 mm number line. The number line had the range of 0-20 and the target digits were evenly distributed across the scale with 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 16 and 17. Two examples (3 and 9) on a 0-10 scale were completed together by the participant and researcher prior to commencement; this was discussion based to ensure understanding of the task and did not propose any strategies. During the testing trials (0-20) no corrective feedback was provided, just encouragement to continue onto the next item. The NP task was assessed in the following way: The distance from the left end point (zero on the number scale), to the participant marking was measured in millimeters. The distances to the line markings were converted to numerical estimates for each target number. Mirroring the method employed by Siegler and colleagues [2,5,10], the following equation was used to determine the target number estimates: An example of this calculation if a mark was placed 25 mm from the left end point of a 0-20 number line would be 25 ÷ 160 × 20; which means the target number estimate equates to 3.125. The target number estimates were used in two main analyses; regression modeling and estimation accuracy for individual target digits. The regression modeling built on the method initially utilized by Siegler and Opfer and two derived measures were used: the Coefficient of Determination values for individual participants, as well as Model Residuals for group level models. The unique component of the analysis was that of Estimation Accuracy. Taking the foundation from Siegler and Booth , this research gained a more detailed perspective into the numerical values that are likely to be estimated more accurately due to the contribution of external factors, such as learned strategy. This analysis began with fitting linear and logarithmic models to the target number estimates, for each participant. Then for individual models (linear and logarithmic) a coefficient of determination (R2) was calculated. Comparing the linear coefficient (RLin2) and logarithmic coefficient (RLn2), for each child, it could be determined which model best represented each child's mental representation. The coefficient of determination values were entered in a 3 × 2 ANOVA. Factors were: Year (Year 1, 2 or 3) × Model (Linear or Logarithmic). In addition to this analysis, we explored the proportion judgment power model adopted by Barth and Paladino . On an individual basis, for both 1-cycle and 2-cycle models, values of R2 were determined, along with the parameter β (the exponent determining the shape of the power function relating psychological to physical magnitude). We selected the β with the highest R2 and subsequently compared the best R2 for the 1-cycle and 2 cycle models (Figure (Figure11). These findings were interpreted in relation to the logarithmic-linear shift, with β = 1 corresponding to a linear model and then the further the value from 1, the closer to a logarithmic model. This additional model was then entered into a separate 3 × 3 ANOVA. Factors were: Year (Year 1, 2 or 3) × Model (Linear, Logarithmic or Power). Following the approach of Siegler and Opfer the target number estimates were tabulated and analyzed at a group level. The median score for each year group was used to generate a graph of estimates versus actual target numbers. The median was selected because it is less affected by outliers, which could occur in this type of task. Each year group graph was then used to calculate both a linear and logarithmic regression model. The Siegler and Opfer method calculated residuals to the group level median values and entered this into a paired-samples t-test. This would only determine if there significant difference between the residuals of the two models overall, omitting the variation of model residuals that could occur for individual target numbers. Extending the approach of Siegler and Opfer , the present study calculated residuals to individual target number estimates of each participant. This allowed the residuals to be entered into a more powerful 3 × 8 × 2 repeated measures ANOVA. Factors were: Year group (Year 1, 2 or 3) × Target Number (2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 16 or 17) × Model (Linear or Logarithmic). This analysis allowed for a more detailed examination of how the model residuals varied for each target number and whether this interacted with year group. To add further descriptive detail we followed the approach of Geary, Hoard, Byrd-Craven, Nugent and Numtee and used the absolute residuals (from the group level models) to classify all trials as linear or logarithmic based on whether the child's estimate was closer to the predicted value of the linear of logarithmic model (i.e. which model produced the smaller residual). When the residuals of the linear and logarithmic models had a difference less than ± 0.4 units these trials were classified as ambiguous; this value was determined based on the distribution of the individual residuals. The absolute percent error for each target number was calculated according to the equation: If the estimate was determined to be 3.125 and the target number 2, the equation would be |(3.125-2) ÷ 20| × 100 to obtain the error of 5.625%. In an attempt to reveal information about estimation accuracy of individual target numbers, and thus the potential application of external and mental anchor point strategies this study extends the method to reveal accuracy details about individual target numbers. This more detailed information was maintained and the percent absolute error values were entered into a 3 × 8 ANOVA, with factors: Year group (Year 1, 2 or 3) × Target Number (2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, 16 or 17). The Greenhouse-Geisser epsilon (ε) correction for sphericity was used in all ANOVAs whenever necessary. Reporting indicates the original degrees of freedom, the epsilon value, followed by the corrected (more conservative) significance level. All post hoc analyses were Tukey HSD tests. In the results section values represent mean ± standard deviation, unless otherwise stated. To further investigate the potential for external and mental anchor points, we sought to explore the standard deviation of estimates as a function of target number, used by Cohen and Blanc-Goldhammer . This was conducted on a year group basis in conjunction with the percent absolute error; lower standard deviations could pinpoint the location of an external or mental anchor point that was consistently applied by members of a year group. 50% of Year 1, 75% of Year 2 and 74% of Year 3 children had higher coefficients of determination for the linear rather than the logarithmic models. The analysis of the coefficient of determination values revealed that the main effect of Model was significant (F (1, 64) = 9.96, p = 0.002, η2 = 0.129). That is, the linear model (R2Lin = 0.87 ± 0.20) explained a greater degree of variance than did the logarithmic model (R2Ln = 0.84 ± 0.18). There was a main effect of Year (F (2, 64) = 10.63, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.249) because the amount of variance explained by either model was significantly lower for Year 1, than Year 2 (p < 0.001) and Year 3 (p < 0.001); there was no significant difference between Years 2 and 3. There was no Model × Year interaction. As the power model is sensitive to noise , some participants were discarded from the analysis leaving 51 in total. In terms of 1- or 2-cycle models majority of the participants were best represented by a 1-cycle model, with β values often very close to 1 (Table (Table1).1). Table Table11 presents the individual power model results in comparison to the coefficient of determination values (R2) of the best fit logarithmic and linear models reported in the previous paragraph. The separate 3 × 3 ANOVA returned similar results. There was a main effect of model and a main effect of year (Model: F (2, 96) = 11.92, ε = 0.83, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.196; Year: F (2, 96) = 5.19, p = 0.009, η2 = 0.177). Overall, the linear model (R2Lin = 0.90 ± 0.13) explained more variance than both the power (R2Pwr = 0.86 ± 0.15, p < 0.001) and logarithmic models (R2Ln = 0.88 ± 0.11, p = 0.007). The main effect of year also indicated that the variance explained by any of the three models was significantly lower for Year 1, than Year 2 (p = 0.01) and Year 3 (p = 0.02); there was no significant difference between Years 2 and 3. There was no Model × Year interaction. Using individual data and individual regression models, these results indicate that in Years 2 and 3 the majority of participants had higher R2 values derived from a linear model, indicating a linear best fit model. This was not the case with Year 1 as the variance explained, by any model, was significantly lower. This information supports our hypothesis that Year 2 indicates the onset of the dominance of the linear mental representation. Importantly, these findings do not clearly argue for a logarithmic to linear shift, as that would require the Year 1 participants to have the highest variance explained for a logarithmic model; what these findings argue for the dominance of a linear representation in Years 2 and 3 only. This approach utilized individual residuals for each target number, calculated from group level median models (Figure (Figure2).2). The linear model had a significantly smaller mean residual than did the logarithmic model (F (1, 51) = 36.71, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.388. Linear vs. Logarithmic: 1.72 ± 1.96 and 2.01 ± 1.78 units, respectively). The Model × Year interaction was significant (F (2, 51) = 3.43, p = 0.040, η2 = 0.073). Linear model residuals were smaller than logarithmic model residuals for Years 2 and 3, but not Year 1. For Year 1 participants, the mean linear residual (2.45 ± 2.33 units) was found to be not significantly smaller than the mean logarithmic residual (2.56 ± 2.18 units). The main effect of Year was marginal (F (2, 51) = 3.00, p = 0.058, η2 = 0.105). Overall the interaction of Target Number × Model was significant (F (7, 357) = 8.77, ε = 0.55, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.143). Post hoc comparisons indicated that linear residuals were significantly smaller than logarithmic for target numbers 2 (p < 0.001) with a residual difference of 1.1 units, and 17 (p < 0.001) with a 0.7 unit difference in residuals. This difference was not significant for any other target numbers. These numbers were the focus of separate year group analyses (Table (Table2),2), with significant effects in Years 2 and 3 only. Using the approach of Geary at al. we further explored how model residuals would be distributed if we included an ambiguous category in addition to linear and logarithmic. As described in the methods, an ambiguous trial would occur when the residuals of the linear and logarithmic models had a difference less than ± 0.4 units. The overall percentages of trials classified as linear, logarithmic or ambiguous are provided in Table Table3,3, including a breakdown by individual target digits in Table Table4.4. These classifications support the residual Model × Year analysis, with Years 2 and 3 demonstrating a higher percentage of trials classified as linear in contrast to logarithmic, and the linear dominance less clear in Year 1. Overall, this analysis of model residuals has further explored the linear and logarithmic mental representations and the transition at Year 2, but this time highlighting specific target digits in relation to a group level model. There was a main effect of Target Number (F (7, 357) = 6.61, ε = 0.46, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.109). Tukey post hoc comparisons indicated that the significant differences were in reference to the target numbers 2 and 4, which produced the lowest absolute errors. Error for target number 2 was significantly lower than for numbers 7, 8 and 13 (p < 0.01), and errors for target number 4 were significantly lower than for digits 7 and 13 (ps < 0.05). The mean estimation error rates decreased as years of education increased (Year 1: 12.40 ± 7.51%, Year 2: 8.39 ± 6.55%, Year 3: 6.47 ± 3.91%), but the main effect of Year did not reach significance (F (2, 51) = 2.66, p = 0.079, η2 = 0.095). Figure Figure33 shows the marginally significant Target Number × Year interaction (F (14, 357) = 1.56, p = 0.087, η2 = 0.051). To increase the confidence of this marginal finding and protect against a potential type 2 error, univariate analyses were completed and indicated that there were significant differences between the year groups for target digits 11 and 13 (F (2, 53) = 3.38, p = 0.042, η2 = 0.117 and F (2, 53) = 6.10, p = 0.004, η2 = 0.193, respectively). Closer scrutiny demonstrated that for target digit 11 the Year 1 mean error was higher and marginally significant in comparison to Year 2 (p = 0.09) and significantly higher when compared to Year 3 (p = 0.01). A similar pattern was evident with target digit 13; Year 1 children had a mean error which was significantly higher than both Years 2 and 3 (p < 0.01). Years 2 and 3 produced no significant differences for target digits 11 and 13. Separate Year group ANOVAs indicated a main effect of target number for Year 1 children (F (7, 91) = 4.33, p = 0.006, η2 = 0.250). Post hoc analysis of Year 1 data again pointed towards target digits 11 and 13 and this is evident in Figure Figure3.3. The accuracy of estimating 13 was significantly poorer than the estimation accuracy of numbers 2, 4 and 17 (ps < 0.05). This significant accuracy difference was also evident with positioning target numbers 11 and 2 (p < 0.001). In contrast to the Year 1 children, there was no effect of target number in Years 2 and 3. Overall, this analysis has examined number line estimation, without regression modeling, in order to pinpoint individual digits that might be the target of selective strategy use. The year group comparisons indicated that digits 11 and 13 were poorly estimated by the Year 1 participants, thus separating them from Years 2 and 3. This was further confirmed through the comparison of the standard deviation of estimates for each target digit, with 11 and 13 with the highest standard deviation in Year 1 (Figure (Figure44). The aim of this investigation was to explore the developmental transitions of the mental representations associated with numerical estimation (logarithmic-linear shift). This was achieved by focusing on the estimation behaviors of individual target digits within a familiar number range (0-20), adapting and extending the methods of Siegler and colleagues [2,5,10] and building on the ideas of Barth and Paladino , Berteletti et al. , Ebersbach et al. and Thompson and Siegler . The statistical analysis of individual numbers inferred that there is merit in future in depth analyses of strategies application in conjunction with regression modeling. On a developmental front, Year 1 children did not demonstrate a dominance of any representation in either the individual regression models or group level residuals. In fact, looking at the individual regression models alone, the variance explained by any model (linear, logarithmic or power), was significantly lower in Year 1 than in Years 2 and 3. When examining the group level model, children in Years 2 and 3 demonstrated the lowest residuals from a linear model, in comparison to a logarithmic model. The complexity of this transition to a linear mental representation is indicated by the categorization of residuals into linear, logarithmic and ambiguous (Table (Table4).4). For selected target digits, there were a high percentage of Year 1 participants who demonstrated linear-like behaviors however this was not always the case (e.g. target digits 7 and 8, Table Table4).4). In contrast, Years 2 and 3 demonstrated a consistently high percentage of participants with trials that were best represented by a linear model. This matches the trend observed across the three groups of preschool children in the Berteletti et al. study . In the familiar number scale tasks used in that study (1-10 and 1-20) the youngest group (mean age 4 years) did not demonstrate a bias towards either representation, meanwhile the middle and oldest groups (4.5-6.5 years) indicated a significantly lower linear residual. Furthermore, the present findings are in line with the 0-100 number line developmental findings of Siegler and colleagues [2,5,10] except in Year 1 with no significant bias. Extending the analysis to include 1- and 2-cycle power functions , in this case, did not create any further clarity in terms of R2 values. Perhaps it was the reduced number range (0-20) and minor differences in task instructions that limited the potential for power models to represent the data, as Barth and Paladino focused on a 0-100 number line and indicated 50 as being 'halfway' at the beginning of the experiment. The individual data in the present study was typically best fit by a 1-cycle model (Table (Table1),1), which aligns with the fact that participants were not directed towards the 'halfway' point when task instructions were given. Further exploration into the use of proportional power models is required, particularly in relation to the appropriateness of using such an approach, as highlighted by Opfer et al. . Extending the work of Siegler and Opfer the results from the individual target digits are a unique contribution to the body of literature, as this begins to explore the possibility that the development of mental representations could be marked by the use of the external 'anchor points' as described by Ebersbach et al. . In the case of this research application of external anchor points should be observed for target digits 2 and 17. According to existing research [2,5,7,8,10], a low linear residual would indicate a more accurate mental representation. The number scale 0-20 is familiar to students in Years 1-3, however, the strategies involved in positioning numbers accurately on an externally represented number line may not be fully established. For Year 1 the linear and logarithmic residuals for both of these numbers were similar (Table (Table2).2). Year 2, showed a significantly lower linear residual for target number 2, and perhaps as a function of the magnitude effect or incomplete transition, only a marginal preference for a linear model for target number 17 (Table (Table2).2). Finally then, for Year 3, the difference between linear and logarithmic residuals for target numbers 2 and 17 was significant with a linear model providing the lowest residual (Table (Table2).2). This indicates a developmental transition, but also highlights that the greatest disparity between the logarithmic and linear models is likely to occur in close proximity to external anchor points. It is this external anchor point reasoning that we use to speculate that both target digits 2 and 17 have lower linear residuals in comparison the logarithmic model residuals. Parallels can be drawn between the observations of the present study and the developmental progression seen with arithmetic strategies in the classroom. Existing research (e.g. [34-36]) purports the importance of sequences and counting in the early stages of development, but also identifies that the application of the base-ten structure in constructing novel relationships among numbers up until approximately 9 years of age. As a further example, Dutch mathematics education programs teach mental arithmetic strategies that employs decomposition as the basis of instruction. From Grade 2, Dutch children are encouraged to use mental jumps and decomposition, often beginning on a number line, in order to encourage flexible mental strategies . Given this information and linking back to the present data, it is proposed that the Year 1 children did not demonstrate any clear anchor point application because they were limited to counting strategies and were unable to link the numerical value to the spatial cues provided by the number line. Subsequently, in Years 2 and 3 we do see evidence of the continued development of more flexible strategies, and use of anchor points, that utilize decomposition and part-whole relations. A question that comes out of this discussion is, given the flexibility of strategy application, is it in fact meaningful to try and model the mental representation of numbers using a fixed linear/logarithmic model? What the previous paragraph has posited is that specific numbers could exhibit unique behaviors as a function of the familiarity with the number range, proximity to either external or mental anchor points, as well as knowledge of arithmetic strategy. While Ebersbach et al. focused on the role of external anchor points, the mental anchor points in particular would relate to more advanced strategy application, such as knowledge of proportions (e.g. half, quarter etc.) and ability to mentally partition the external number. This potential for individual difference represents a limitation of the linear/logarithmic modeling approach. In the followings we discuss what a more detailed approach could add to the current knowledge base. Siegler and Booth , in their first experiment with 0-100 scale, had error rates of 27% for Kindergartners, 18% for Grade 1 and 15% for Grade 2. The later Booth and Siegler study demonstrated a more obvious plateau with Kindergartners: 24%, Grade 1: 12%, Grade 2: 10%, and Grade 3: 9%. This could be a function of the 0-100 number scale being in the unfamiliar range. In these two studies [2,5], the youngest groups were always significantly different to the subsequent year levels; however, this was not the case in the present research, as average percent absolute error was lower and there was no significant group difference. Overall, the results from the percent absolute error data indicated that the most accurately estimated numbers on the 0-20 number line were digits 2 and 4. This could be for two reasons; first, referencing the lower values (2 and 4) to the external lower anchor point of zero or their knowledge of one. Second, it could be that number magnitudes up to 4 have a stronger representation, because these quantities are understood from infancy [38-40] in what Feigenson et al. describes as the small number system. This could also be linked to how frequently these numbers are encountered in a young child's everyday language (e.g. [13,25]). This also fits with theories of enumeration and subitizing abilities being present prior to verbal counting (e.g. [41-43]). The fact that these enumeration and subitizing abilities are limited to numerosities of four (e.g. [44,45]), and that they are present from infancy, could explain the strength of the representation of digits 2 and 4, and thus producing more accurate estimations. This is further evidenced in the categorization of trials (Table (Table4),4), where all year groups demonstrated a high percentage of linear classifications of digits 2 and 4. Then for the subsequent numbers 7 and 8, Year 1 stood out with a high percentage of logarithmic classifications, which were not evident in Years 2 and 3 (Table (Table4).4). It is our interpretation that for Year 1 digits 7 and 8 are likely to be less frequently encountered and could contribute to the variation. On the developmental front, the Year 1 children again showed separation from the older year groups in the estimation accuracy of individual target digits. For the positioning of numbers 11 and 13, Year 1 children produced estimates that were significantly less accurate than Years 2 and 3 (Figure (Figure3).3). This gained further support when investigating the standard deviations for each target digit, with the greatest variation evident for digits 11 and 13 for Year 1 participants (Figure (Figure4).4). The idea of applying external anchor points to aid in the estimation of numbers has been purported, although only briefly in existing studies [5,8]. However, it could be argued that a further number estimation strategy could be to apply mental anchor points and divide/partition the external number line into segments which would increase the accuracy of positioning. The Year 2 and 3 children of this study were probably exhibiting these behaviors. A potential mental partition would be that of halfway, and number 11 was the closest target digit to the mental anchor point of 10. It is proposed that, in Year 1, as both a result of both mental representation (no clear logarithmic-linear preference) and educational experience, children lacked the requisite representations/skills to apply mental anchor point strategies and accurately estimate these central numbers (i.e. 11 and 13). The core learning concepts for Year 1, as prescribed by the National Framework in England focus on counting and skills related to addition and subtraction, not division or the part-whole relation. The early understanding of division principles often stems from the relationships between doubling and halving, which is promoted in Year 2. This knowledge of 'half' is required for the application of mental anchor point strategies, which as a function of educational experience the Year 1 children do not typically possess. The fact that the formal teaching of this concept in Year 2, coincides with increased accuracy of estimation for central digits (Figure (Figure3),3), lends further support to this argument. Further detailed analyses would be required to strengthen these proposals and will be the focus of subsequent studies. Examining percent absolute error for specific target numbers allowed the discussion to go beyond the limitations of structured modeling to further explore the potential of strategy application. The merits of both external and mental anchor points, as estimation strategies were supported. In line with the initial hypothesis, Year 2 appeared to represent a transitional phase, with the apparent onset of part-whole strategies to aid the creation of mental anchor points. It was hypothesized that the developmental shift from logarithmic to linear mental representation would likely coincide with evidence of strategy use; the present study supports this. The development of the anchor point strategy application could be described as follows; the first would be to utilize the external anchor points to assist positioning of the numbers. Children in the first year of school may only use the left most point, rather than having the strategic knowledge to employ both extremes. The developmental progression, along with the logarithmic-linear shift, extends to include the use of both anchor points after Year 1. This is followed by some level of mental partitioning, which again advances in complexity and is the result of educational experience, which became evident in Year 2 (Figure (Figure3).3). It would be an interesting investigation to more closely map the development of these individual strategies and educational experience with the logarithmic and linear modeling scenarios. This extension would ideally include saturation of all target digits within the prescribed number range and a direct means of determining the strategy used to solve the problem, whether requesting verbal reports from participants or applying the use of eye-tracking technology as introduced by Schneider et al. . Furthermore, it would be worthwhile to investigate whether the type and flexibility of strategies used during these first years of school could predict later mathematical achievement. It is the combination of these proposals that could facilitate the most meaningful insights for informing education. To summarize, prior cognitive research into children's numerical estimation behaviors has argued for both logarithmic and linear models being able to describe the mental representation; with different models having dominance depending on development and familiarity of the number range. To convert this understanding to being more applicable for educational practice and understand the path from logarithmic to linear dominance the present study took this theoretical basis and conducted a number-to-position number line estimation task with children from Years 1-3. The use of a familiar (0-20) number line meant that our analysis could extend beyond the more abstract linear and logarithmic modeling interpretations and examine the variable strategic behaviors associated with individual target numbers. This analysis provided the most meaningful link to strategy application and identifies a future direction of research. Results indicated that when operating within a familiar number range, a linear representation dominates from Year 2, but also there was indication that beginning in Year 2 children start to apply estimation strategies, which become more advanced in Year 3. These most advanced children provided evidence of applying external anchor point strategies for lower and upper bound target digits, as well as the possibility of mental anchor points. For Year 1 children, positioning central numbers such as 11 and 13 seemed to produce the highest errors, whereas children in Years 2 and 3 were more accurate and were thought to be applying a 'halfway' mental anchor point that improved the placement of central numbers. This study concludes that further scrutiny of estimation strategies, when combined with modeling techniques, could greatly increase the understanding of developing mental representations. The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Both SW and DS took part in planning and designing the experiment. SW completed the data collection and analyses and drafted the manuscript. DS assisted in preparing the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. We would like to thank the participating schools, children and their families for their involvement in this study. We would also like to thank the reviewers for their constructive comments. This research was conducted as part of the PhD project completed by Sonia White at the University of Cambridge, who was supported by the Cambridge Commonwealth Trust. This research was also partly funded by the Medical Research Council, Ref. G90951.

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Commercial Orbital Transportation Services program Commercial Orbital Transportation Services program or COTS is a NASA program to coordinate the delivery of cew and cargo to the International Space Station though private companies. COTS is primarily related to the development of vehicles which would be able to engage in Commercial Resupply Services missions, mainly though non-binding contracts as well as Space Act Agreements. These are often based around NASA providing milestone-based payments to companies participating in the program. The program consists of four "parts", or capabilities that are sought to be developed: - Capability level A: External unpressurized cargo delivery and disposal - Capability level B: Internal pressurized cargo delivery and disposal - Capability level C: Internal pressurized cargo delivery, return and recovery - Capability level D: Crew Transportation. In participating for the money for the program, NASA initially selected six semifinalists in Phase I of the COTS program in May 2006. These companies included Andrews Space, Rocketplane Kistler, SpaceDev, Space Exploration Technologies, SpaceHab, and Transformational Space Corporation. Later in 2006, NASA narrowed down the field to SpaceX and Rocketplane Kistler. By the end of 2007, NASA had terminated Rocketplane Kistler's COTS agreement due to the company failing to raise sufficient private funding. This resulted in a second round of funding, resulting in Orbital Sciences Corporation being selected for the remaining funding. As of the beginning of 2011, the COTS-D option has yet to be funded, with companies such as SpaceX making public announcements and requests for the option to be funded.

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From Kansas Policy Institute. Proponents of high taxes are again quoting a study from the Institute for Taxation and Economic policy (ITEP). The study argues high-income tax states perform as well or better than states without an income tax. The result runs contrary to findings by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), a Paris-based organization comprised of 34 developed countries, including the United States. The OECD study concluded: Growth-oriented tax reform measures include tax base broadening and a reduction in the top marginal personal income tax rates. ITEP comes to their counter-intuitive conclusion by carefully choosing three measures: Per Capita Real Gross State Product (GSP) Growth, Real Median Household Growth and Average Annual Unemployment rate. One needs only a simple drawing to see why these variables are inappropriate measures. In the first scenario our state has nine individuals; seven earning an income and two unemployed. GSP per capita is $3, Real Median Household Income is also $3, the Unemployment Rate is 22 percent and lastly our overall wealth is $28. Now suppose the four low-income-individuals decide to seek opportunities in another state. Now our state looks like this: Our GSP per capita and Real Household Median Income rose to $5, the Unemployment Rate decreased to 0, and our overall wealth declined to $25. The out migration of the low income earners caused our GSP per capita and Real Household income to grow 66 percent and our Unemployment rate to drop 100 percent. Although, not one person’s wealth increased and in fact our state is worse off, we have fewer jobs and less wealth. This is precisely what the IRS’ Adjusted Gross Income (AGI) data suggests is happening. From 2000 to 2009 the average AGI for each tax return leaving the nine states with the highest-income taxes was $59,502 (2010 dollars), which is $5,000 lower than the average AGI for all tax returns in those nine states, over the same period. Now we see why ITEP carefully chose those measures. Thanks to this map, put together by the Tax Foundation, we can see that the nine states without-an-income tax gained a $117.6 billion from interstate migration whilst the nine high-income tax states lost $105.8 billion between 1999 and 2009. Data from the Census Bureau shows that during this time nearly 4 million fled the high-income tax states, while nearly 3 million found a new home in the states without-an-income tax. Just as the pictures above illustrate; ITEP’s chosen measures can go up, even as wealth leaves.

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An Excellent Source of High Quality Protein Like all Canadian aquaculture products, farmed shellfish are an excellent source of high quality protein. They also have more Omega-3 fatty acids than chicken, pork or beef. While salmon and other fatty fish are the richest sources of Omega-3’s, eating shellfish can help make sure you get your recommended daily intake of these important fats. A Natural Source of Other Beneficial Nutrients Shellfish are a rich source of iron – which is essential for proper functioning of red blood cells. For example: in 100 grams of clams, there’s enough iron to meet the recommended daily intake for men and women. Shellfish – especially oysters – are also an excellent source of zinc. Zinc is a proven immunity booster and may therefore help prevent colds and flu. Optimal zinc intake also promotes growth, mental alertness and aids in proper brain function. According to the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, most people only get about one half of the recommended daily intake for zinc (15 mg. for adults). And just ONE oyster provides close to your entire daily requirement! Besides being a great source of dietary minerals, shellfish are also a rich source of Vitamin B12 – which is essential for maintaining nerve fibers and making red blood cells. A 100 gram serving of clams, oysters or mussels provides more than the recommended daily intake of B12. Low in Cholesterol In the past, shellfish were excluded from low-cholesterol diets because they were believed to be high in cholesterol. New measuring techniques indicate that cholesterol levels of many shellfish are much lower than was previously thought. In fact molluscs — such as clams, oysters, scallops and mussels — were found to have a large amount of sterols, which have similar chemical structure to cholesterol. These sterols appear to have a beneficial effect because they inhibit the absorption of cholesterol eaten at the same meal.

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- About Us - Local Savings - Green Editions - Legal Notices - Weekly Ads Connect with Us Arlington library teaches kids to build video games ARLINGTON — Jocelyn Redel is the first to admit that she’s no expert video game programmer. So when the teen librarian for the Arlington Library shared with a room full of about 15 students a basic video game she created using a Microsoft program called Kodu, she got a lot of laughs and giggles. “In my game, when these trees see something, they throw apples,” Redel told the group of students. “Unfortunately I put the trees too close together and they are constantly throwing apples.” Redel gave students a quick lesson in video game creation and let the teens make their own on March 11 at the library. In addition to providing Arlington residents with a place to check out books, get on the Internet or research a school project, the library also offers a number of after-school programs and events for children, teens and even adults. Because March is teen technology month at the library, Redel decided to offer a class that would give students a chance to use their creativity and work together on something most teenagers love — video games. For an hour and a half, Redel demonstrated on her Xbox 360 the game creation program which is designed to be used by children and adults. Using a game controller, users of Kodu can create colorful worlds, zany characters and strange sets of rules that govern how their video games work. “It basically allows you to create a world,” Redel said. Redel admitted that her knowledge of how a video game works is limited and encouraged teens to laugh at her homemade game. After giving the students a crash course in how the program works, she one-by-one let them take control. Post Middle School sixth-grader Jordy Goodridge, sporting a Super Mario Bros. T-shirt, created a green, hilly land mass using the Xbox controller. He then added water around the base of the mountains and a main character — a giant turtle. Goodridge got advice from fellow Post student David Lawrence, Haller seventh-grader Gavin Britton and home-schooler Connor Tilley. About 45 minutes later, the teenagers had a working video game in which the turtle traversed the game environment and shot white dots at its adversaries. After testing out the software, 16-year-old Melissa Drgemeier said Kodu took some getting used to. “It takes a long time to figure out how it works,” Drgemeier said. “I have ‘Spore’ on my computer at home, but I’ve never really thought about how it works.” In ‘Spore,’ game players take control of a species from the beginning of its life cycle into a creature. Redel said overall she was pleased with how the short class went. “By the end, everybody was getting a turn and they were suggesting different things to make the game go forward and programming better so it actually made sense,” Redel said. “Which was good, because there were some weird things in our game.” For a list of other events and programs being held at the Arlington Library, visit www.sno-isle.org or call 360-435-3033.

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English to English 1. a customary way of operation or behavior it is their practice to give annual raises|they changed their dietary pattern 2. systematic training by multiple repetitions practice makes perfect 3. translating an idea into action a hard theory to put into practice|differences between theory and praxis of communism 4. the exercise of a profession the practice of the law|I took over his practice when he retired 5. knowledge of how something is usually done it is not the local practice to wear shorts to dinner 6. Frequently repeated or customary action; habitual performance; a succession of acts of a similar kind; usage; habit; custom; as, the practice of rising early; the practice of making regular entries of accounts; the practice of daily exercise. 7. carry out or practice; as of jobs and professions 8. learn by repetition We drilled French verbs every day|Pianists practice scales 9. engage in a rehearsal (of) 10. avail oneself to apply a principle|practice a religion|use care when going down the stairs|use your common sense|practice non-violent resistance 11. engage in or perform practice safe sex|commit a random act of kindness 12. To do or perform frequently, customarily, or habitually; to make a practice of; as, to practice gaming. 13. To perform certain acts frequently or customarily, either for instruction, profit, or amusement; as, to practice with the broadsword or with the rifle; to practice on the piano.

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|Jump to Full Text| |PMID: 22670149 Owner: NLM Status: PubMed-not-MEDLINE| |Food allergy is an important public health problem affecting 5% of infants and children in Korea. Food allergy is defined as an immune response triggered by food proteins. Food allergy is highly associated with atopic dermatitis and is one of the most common triggers of potentially fatal anaphylaxis in the community. Sensitization to food allergens can occur in the gastrointestinal tract (class 1 food allergy) or as a consequence of cross reactivity to structurally homologous inhalant allergens (class 2 food allergy). Allergenicity of food is largely determined by structural aspects, including cross-reactivity and reduced or enhanced allergenicity with cooking that convey allergenic characteristics to food. Management of food allergy currently focuses on dietary avoidance of the offending foods, prompt recognition and treatment of allergic reactions, and nutritional support. This review includes definitions and examines the prevalence and management of food allergies and the characteristics of food allergens.| |Youngshin Han; Jihyun Kim; Kangmo Ahn| Related Documents : |16902829 - Volatile foraging kairomones in the littoral zone: attraction of an herbivorous freshwa... 20739429 - The influence of adh function on ethanol preference and tolerance in adult drosophila m... 9250119 - Taste responses to naringin, a flavonoid, and the acceptance of grapefruit juice are re... 20004219 - The orbitofrontal cortex is not necessary for acquisition or remote recall of socially ... 1150949 - Some observations on the preference deficits produced by lateral preoptic lesions in th... 8183719 - Prevention of food aversions in cancer patients during treatment. 11935499 - Immunological and biological activity of different commercial preparations of human cho... 17263579 - Kinetic selectivity in the n-alkylation of 2-pyridyl porphyrins: a facile approach to t... 8886139 - Nutritional implications of dietary phytochemicals. |Type: Journal Article Date: 2012-05-21| |Title: Korean journal of pediatrics Volume: 55 ISSN: 2092-7258 ISO Abbreviation: Korean J Pediatr Publication Date: 2012 May| |Created Date: 2012-06-06 Completed Date: 2012-10-02 Revised Date: 2013-05-30| Medline Journal Info: |Nlm Unique ID: 101215374 Medline TA: Korean J Pediatr Country: Korea (South)| |Languages: eng Pagination: 153-8 Citation Subset: -| |Department of Pediatrics, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea.| |APA/MLA Format Download EndNote Download BibTex| Journal ID (nlm-ta): Korean J Pediatr Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Korean J Pediatr Journal ID (publisher-id): KJP Publisher: The Korean Pediatric Society Copyright © 2012 by The Korean Pediatric Society Received Day: 16 Month: 3 Year: 2012 Accepted Day: 27 Month: 3 Year: 2012 Print publication date: Month: 5 Year: 2012 Electronic publication date: Day: 21 Month: 5 Year: 2012 Volume: 55 Issue: 5 First Page: 153 Last Page: 158 PubMed Id: 22670149 |Youngshin Han, PhD12| |Jihyun Kim, MD, PhD12| |Kangmo Ahn, MD, PhD12| 1Department of Pediatrics, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea. 2Environmental Health Center for Atopic Diseases, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, Korea. |Correspondence: Corresponding author: Youngshin Han, PhD. Department of Pediatrics, Environmental Health Center for Atopic Diseases, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, 81 Irwon-ro, Gangnam-gu, Seoul 135-710, Korea. Tel: +82-2-3410-3619, Fax: +82-2-3410-0805, email@example.com Food allergy (FA) is an important public health problem that affects children and adults worldwide. However, awareness of FA among health care professionals in Korea has been lacking. FA carries the risk of severe allergic reactions and even death, but there are no curative treatments and no effective prevention methods for FA yet. FA can only be managed by avoidance of the allergen or by treatment of symptoms as they arise. The National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) in the United States (US) has recently published FA guidelines, including a consensus definition for FA, a discussion of comorbid conditions often associated with FA, and information on the epidemiology, natural history, diagnosis, and management of FA, including recommendations for treatment of severe symptoms and anaphylaxis1). The European Academy of Allergy and Clinical Immunology has created a task force to develop guidelines for the diagnosis and management of FA, and Japan has published a Japanese guideline for FA2). Food-induced anaphylaxis and accidental exposure to food allergens in day care centers are primary reasons for hospital emergency department visits by children in Korea3,4). In addition, nutritional problems caused by dietary avoidance of allergens have become an important public health issue5). Therefore, it is necessary to develop guideline for FA in Korea. The following definitions comply with the guidelines of the NIAID in the US1). FA is an adverse health effect arising from a specific immune response that occurs reproducibly on exposure to a given food. Food intolerance is a non-immunologic adverse reaction to toxic contaminants or pharmacologic properties of the food; it may be due to characteristics of the host, including metabolic disorders (i.e., lactase deficiency) or idiosyncratic responses. Food is defined as any substance-whether processed, semi-processed, or raw-that is intended for human consumption, and includes drinks, chewing gum, food additives, and dietary supplements. Food allergens are defined as those specific components of food or ingredients within food (typically proteins, but sometimes also chemical haptens) that are recognized by allergen-specific immune cells and elicit specific immunologic reactions, resulting in characteristic symptoms. Cross-reactivity is the reaction between an antibody and an antigen that differs from the immunogen. Cross-reactivity may occur when an antibody reacts not only with the original allergen, but also with a similar allergen. In FA, cross-reactivity occurs when a food allergen shares structural or sequence similarity with a different food allergen or an aeroallergen, which may then trigger an adverse reaction similar to that triggered by the original food allergen. Allergic sensitization is the presence of allergen-specific immunoglobulin E (sIgE) to allergen. Because individuals can develop allergic sensitization to food allergens without having clinical symptoms on exposure to those foods, a sIgE mediated FA requires both the presence of sensitization and the development of specific signs and symptoms on exposure to the food. Sensitization alone is not sufficient to define FA. Food allergic disorders can be broadly divided into those that are mediated by IgE antibodies and those that are not (Table 1). Disorders with acute onset of symptoms after food ingestion are usually mediated by IgE. FA may coexist with asthma, atopic dermatitis, eosinophilic esophagitis, and exercise-induced anaphylaxis (Table 2). Atopic dermatitis is highly associated with FA. Children with moderate to severe persistent atopic dermatitis have a higher prevalence of IgE-mediated FA, estimated at about 35%6,7). In Korea, the prevalence of FA is 5.3% in infants, and the mean lifetime prevalence of FA is 4.7% for children aged 6 to 12 and 5.1% for those aged 12 to 158,9). These rates are similar to those of westernized countries10,11). The reported prevalence of FA differs from the true prevalence. The true prevalence of FA is difficult to establish for several reasons. One of the reasons is that studies of FA incidence and prevalence are difficult to compare due to inconsistencies in study design and variations in the definition of FA. Furthermore, there are more people who believe they have FA that those who actually do, so that prevalence of self-reported FA is overestimated. A recently published meta-analysis regarding prevalence of FA included data from 51 publications and provided separate analyses of the prevalence of FA for 5 foods: milk, egg, peanut, fish, and crustacean shellfish12). The investigators reported an overall prevalence of self-reported FA of 12% for children and 13% for adults, while overall prevalence of self-reported symptoms plus sensitization by double blind placebo-controlled food challenge for any of these 5 foods was 3% for adults and children. Over 90% of FA results from exposure to egg, milk, peanut, tree nut, fish, shellfish, soy, and wheat13). The prevalence of FA is influenced by age, culture, and dietary habits. Age is one of the most important factors determining the type of FA. The most common offending foods are egg, milk, soy, and peanut in children, and wheat, and shellfish, tree nuts, and peanuts in adults. The order of importance of specific allergens varies by country, reflecting the interaction of culture and dietary habits. Peanut, buckwheat, mustard, and sesame are good examples of this. Despite similar levels of peanut consumption, there is a difference in the prevalence of peanut allergy between the US and China, and it is generally agreed that this discrepancy stems from the effects of different cooking methods on the allergenicity of peanuts; i.e., roasting using higher temperatures apparently increases the allergenic properties of peanut proteins14). Buckwheat is an important food causing anaphylaxis in Korea and Japan, but this is very rare in other countries15). Sesame seed allergy is more commonly observed in Israel than elsewhere, and mustard allergy is mainly observed in France16,17). The prevalence of shellfish allergy is 0.5% in Canada, but 4% in Singapore and the Philippines18). Patients with FA developed during infancy tend to become tolerant and able to eat causative foods with ageing, so children with FA should have periodic evaluation for remission. Remission rates vary according the offending foods, although the reason for this is still unknown. High remission rates are observed for eggs and cow's milk, while low remission rates are reported for peanut and tree nut. In a retrospective study from Korea including 106 children with atopic dermatitis and egg allergy diagnosed before 2 years of age, 60% became tolerant to egg by age 5, and the age at the diagnosis of the egg allergy was the significant prognostic factor for tolerance19). A study from Spain reported that 66% of children with early FA became tolerant by age 520). In a retrospective study from the US, the rate of egg allergy remission was 26% by age 6, and risk factors for persistence of egg allergy included a high initial level of egg sIgE, the presence of other atopic disease, and the presence of an allergy to other foods21). A study at a US university referral hospital reported that 80% of all infants who developed milk allergy in the first year of life became tolerant by their fifth birthday13), while a more recent US study has reported a much lower rate (5% at age 4 and 21% at age 8) of FA remission22). Bock and Atkins23) reported that most patients with peanut allergy did not develop tolerance. Until recently, peanut allergy was considered life-long, but a small percentage of children tolerated peanut several years after their initial diagnosis24,25). Traditional or class 1 food allergens, such as egg, are heat-, enzyme-, and low pH-resistant water-soluble glycoproteins ranging in size from 10 to 70 kD. Class 1 food allergens induce allergic sensitization via the gastrointestinal tract and are responsible for systemic reactions (traditional or class 1 FA)13). Class 2 food allergens, such as apple and celery, are heat-labile, susceptible to digestion, and highly homologous with proteins in pollens. Class 2 FA (oral allergy syndrome, OAS) is typically the result of sensitization to labile proteins, such as pollens, encountered through the respiratory route. IgE antibodies to pollens recognize homologous epitopes on food proteins of plant origin26). Cross-reactivity is largely determined by structure: 2 proteins are cross-reactive if they share structural features. Phylogenetically related mammals express similar milk proteins with significant amino acid sequence homology, resulting in clinical cross-reactivity among cow, sheep, and goat milk27,28). Clinical cross-reactivity between peanut and other legumes is extremely rare, despite the high degree of cross-sensitization based on IgE binding and results of skin prick tests29). OAS is a form of contact allergy to raw fruits and vegetables (Table 3). OAS affects approximately 50% of pollen allergic adults and represents the most common adult FA. It results from the cross-reactivity between the allergenic proteins in pollens and plant foods26,30). Thermal processes can reduce or increase the allergenicity of certain food proteins. Thermal denaturation of globular proteins disrupts the tertiary structure, leading to random-coiled aggregation and insolubility. In one study, heating for 15 minutes at 95℃ reduced IgE binding with ovalbumin and ovomucoid, and egg white proteins boiled for 5 or 60 minutes showed greatly decreased allergenicity, especially after prolonged boiling for 60 minutes31,32). Lemon-Mule et al.33) reported that 64 of 117 subjects tolerated egg baked in muffins (176℃ for 30 minutes) and waffles (260℃ for 30 minutes), but only 23 tolerated regular scrambled egg or French toast. However, other studies have shown that the IgE binding capacity of soy 2S-globulin is strengthened by heating, and, as noted above, roasting using higher temperatures apparently increases the allergenic properties of peanut proteins14). Chemical processing can also change allergenicity. The allergenicity of the major peanut allergens Ara h 1, Ara h 2, and Ara h 3 was decreased by vinegar treatment, suggesting that the extent of allergenicity varies with pH34). Currently, the only way to manage FA is avoidance of the allergen and prompt treatment of symptoms when they arise. Accidental exposure to food allergens is inevitable and patient and family education regarding cross-contamination, label reading, and prompt recognition and treatment of food allergic reactions is a cornerstone of FA management. Because avoidance of specific allergens can limit the availability of nutritious food choices, nutritional counseling and regular growth monitoring are recommended for all children with FA, especially during infancy. Elimination of causative foods should be minimized to prevent nutritional disorders and improve the quality of dietary life. Even if a food is positive for sIgE antibodies and skin prick test, it should not be eliminated if an oral challenge test is negative. Tolerance to foods, especially egg and milk, should be checked periodically, because children tend to outgrow the allergies. Strict avoidance of offending allergen-containing food products has been the standard of care for children with FA. However, as noted, Lemon-Mule et al.33) have recently demonstrated that ingestion of extensively heated egg products was well-tolerated and safe for some patients with egg allergy, and they have suggested that strict dietary avoidance of heated egg might not be necessary for all patients with egg allergy. Because even trace amounts of food allergens may trigger severe reactions in highly sensitive food-allergic individuals, strict avoidance is very important in these individuals. It is essential to educate patients and families regarding cross-contamination and label reading, because many patients and their caregivers do not recognize the risk of exposure to trace amounts of food allergen. In Korea, food labeling regulations announced by the Korean Food & Drug Administration (effective June 17, 2006) require food manufacturers to indicate if a product contains any of 12 food allergens: milk, eggs, peanuts, soy, wheat, buckwheat, shrimp, crab, mackerel, pork, tomato, and peach. However, this regulation is not sufficient to prevent FA accident because it excludes tree nut and fish, which are also important allergens that can cause anaphylaxis. Therefore, food labeling regulations need to be revised. Another danger faced by food-allergic patients is occult contamination with trace amounts of food from shared of equipment. All equipment and utensils used to prepare allergenic food should be cleaned with hot soapy water before being used to prepare allergen-free food. The US NIAID guidelines recommend nutritional counseling and regular growth monitoring for all children with FA. Children with FA may be at risk for inadequate nutritional intake or poor growth without apparent nutritional problems35-37). Flammarion et al.37) assessed food intake and nutritional status of children (mean age, 4.7±2.5 years) with FA following an elimination diet and reported that children with food allergies were smaller for their age than controls, even when they received similar nutrients. Young children who are sensitive to multiple major food allergens are at risk for protein and calorie deficiency and may require a hypoallergenic formula to meet their needs. Hypoallergenic formulas available in Korea are based on extensively hydrolyzed casein derived from cow's milk (i.e., Babywell HA, Pregestimil, Neutramigen, Alimentum) or on a mixture of single amino acids (Neocate). Soy protein formula is not an appropriate substitute for patients with cow milk allergy because soy allergy is highly prevalent in patients with cow milk allergy38,39). Sheep and goat milk-based formulas are also discouraged because of cross-reactivity with cow milk28). Children may be at risk for accidental exposure to food allergens and FA reactions, including anaphylaxis, in schools and daycares, where they spend many of their days. In Korea, 99.6% of all schools provide school lunches, and 8 million students, representing approximately 20% of the Korean population, are offered school lunches during school days40). Presently, most students with FA must rely solely on self-care, because no emergent measures for FA provided by the schools are in place. Other developed countries, including the US and Japan, have introduced school-wide or government-supported plans for management FA in schools41,42). Government-supported management and treatment action plans for FA at schools should also be established in Korea. For families of patients in the US with FA who need practical information and a comprehensive curriculum regarding FA management, www.foodallergy.org provides advice on dietary avoidance, along with survival strategies for schools, restaurants, and camps, manufacturers' updates, and special support programs for teenagers and FA experts43). In Korea, www.foodallergy.or.kr supplies food allergic families and supervisors with similar information. In summary, FA is an emerging worldwide health problem requiring increased attention from primary care clinicians in Korea. Although FA has a relatively low mortality and an almost continual absence of physical symptoms, patients with FA face the possibility of potentially severe, and even fatal, reactions and must maintain dietary vigilance. It is essential to offer information and support to children with FA and their families. General practitioners should tailor this information to the specific needs of each FA patient and parents and pediatricians should be aware of psychosocial problems in children with allergic diseases. |1.||NIAID-Sponsored Expert PanelBoyce JA,Assa'ad A,Burks AW,Jones SM,Sampson HA,et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of food allergy in the United States: report of the NIAID-sponsored expert panelJ Allergy Clin ImmunolYear: 20101266 SupplS1S5821134576| |2.||Urisu A,Ebisawa M,Mukoyama T,Morikawa A,Kondo N. Japanese Society of AllergologyJapanese guideline for food allergyAllergol IntYear: 20116022123621636968| |3.||Lim DH. Epidemiology of anaphylaxis in Korean childrenKorean J PediatrYear: 200851351354| |4.||Seo WH,Jang EY,Han YS,Ahn KM,Jung JT. Management of food allergies in young children at a child care center and hospital in KoreanPediatr Allergy Respir DisYear: 2011213238| |5.||Chung SJ,Han YS,Chung SW,Ahn KM,Park HY,Lee SI,et al. Marasmus and Kwashiorkor by nutritional ignorance related to vegetarian diet and infants with atopic dermatitis in South KoreaKorean J NutrYear: 200437540549| |6.||Eigenmann PA,Sicherer SH,Borkowski TA,Cohen BA,Sampson HA. Prevalence of IgE-mediated food allergy among children with atopic dermatitisPediatricsYear: 1998101E89481027| |7.||Burks AW,Mallory SB,Williams LW,Shirrell MA. Atopic dermatitis: clinical relevance of food hypersensitivity reactionsJ PediatrYear: 19881134474513411388| |8.||Oh JW,Pyun BY,Choung JT,Ahn KM,Kim CH,Song SW,et al. Epidemiological change of atopic dermatitis and food allergy in school-aged children in Korea between 1995 and 2000J Korean Med SciYear: 20041971672315483350| |9.||Kim J,Chang E,Han Y,Ahn K,Lee SI. The incidence and risk factors of immediate type food allergy during the first year of life in Korean infants: a birth cohort studyPediatr Allergy ImmunolYear: 20112271571921539613| |10.||Sicherer SH,Sampson HA. Food allergy: recent advances in pathophysiology and treatmentAnnu Rev MedYear: 20096026127718729729| |11.||Sampson HA. Update on food allergyJ Allergy Clin ImmunolYear: 200411380581915131561| |12.||Rona RJ,Keil T,Summers C,Gislason D,Zuidmeer L,Sodergren E,et al. The prevalence of food allergy: a meta-analysisJ Allergy Clin ImmunolYear: 200712063864617628647| |13.||Sampson HA. Food allergy. Part 1: immunopathogenesis and clinical disordersJ Allergy Clin ImmunolYear: 19991035 Pt 171772810329801| |14.||Beyer K,Morrow E,Li XM,Bardina L,Bannon GA,Burks AW,et al. Effects of cooking methods on peanut allergenicityJ Allergy Clin ImmunolYear: 20011071077108111398088| |15.||Wieslander G,Norback D. Buckwheat allergyAllergyYear: 20015670370411488663| |16.||Dalal I,Binson I,Reifen R,Amitai Z,Shohat T,Rahmani S,et al. Food allergy is a matter of geography after all: sesame as a major cause of severe IgE-mediated food allergic reactions among infants and young children in IsraelAllergyYear: 20025736236511906370| |17.||Rance F. Mustard allergy as a new food allergyAllergyYear: 20035828728812708974| |18.||Shek LP,Cabrera-Morales EA,Soh SE,Gerez I,Ng PZ,Yi FC,et al. A population-based questionnaire survey on the prevalence of peanut, tree nut, and shellfish allergy in 2 Asian populationsJ Allergy Clin ImmunolYear: 2010126324331331.e1331.e720624649| |19.||Kim J,Chung Y,Han Y,Ahn K,Lee SI. The natural history and prognostic factors of egg allergy in Korean infants with atopic dermatitisAsian Pac J Allergy ImmunolYear: 20092710711419839496| |20.||Boyano-Martinez T,Garcia-Ara C,Diaz-Pena JM,Martin-Esteban M. Prediction of tolerance on the basis of quantification of egg white-specific IgE antibodies in children with egg allergyJ Allergy Clin ImmunolYear: 200211030430912170273| |21.||Savage JH,Matsui EC,Skripak JM,Wood RA. The natural history of egg allergyJ Allergy Clin ImmunolYear: 20071201413141718073126| |22.||Skripak JM,Matsui EC,Mudd K,Wood RA. The natural history of IgE-mediated cow's milk allergyJ Allergy Clin ImmunolYear: 20071201172117717935766| |23.||Bock SA,Atkins FM. The natural history of peanut allergyJ Allergy Clin ImmunolYear: 1989839009042715549| |24.||Skolnick HS,Conover-Walker MK,Koerner CB,Sampson HA,Burks W,Wood RA. The natural history of peanut allergyJ Allergy Clin ImmunolYear: 200110736737411174206| |25.||Spergel JM,Beausoleil JL,Pawlowski NA. Resolution of childhood peanut allergyAnn Allergy Asthma ImmunolYear: 2000856 Pt 147347611152168| |26.||Egger M,Mutschlechner S,Wopfner N,Gadermaier G,Briza P,Ferreira F. Pollen-food syndromes associated with weed pollinosis: an update from the molecular point of viewAllergyYear: 20066146147616512809| |27.||D'Auria E,Agostoni C,Giovannini M,Riva E,Zetterstrom R,Fortin R,et al. Proteomic evaluation of milk from different mammalian species as a substitute for breast milkActa PaediatrYear: 2005941708171316421029| |28.||Jarvinen KM,Chatchatee P. Mammalian milk allergy: clinical suspicion, cross-reactivities and diagnosisCurr Opin Allergy Clin ImmunolYear: 2009925125819412090| |29.||Sicherer SH. Clinical implications of cross-reactive food allergensJ Allergy Clin ImmunolYear: 200110888189011742262| |30.||Valenta R,Kraft D. Type 1 allergic reactions to plant-derived food: a consequence of primary sensitization to pollen allergensJ Allergy Clin ImmunolYear: 1996978938958655883| |31.||Mine Y,Zhang JW. Comparative studies on antigenicity and allergenicity of native and denatured egg white proteinsJ Agric Food ChemYear: 2002502679268311958641| |32.||Peng HJ,Chang ZN,Tsai LC,Su SN,Shen HD,Chang CH. Heat denaturation of egg-white proteins abrogates the induction of oral tolerance of specific Th2 immune responses in miceScand J ImmunolYear: 1998484914969822257| |33.||Lemon-Mule H,Sampson HA,Sicherer SH,Shreffler WG,Noone S,Nowak-Wegrzyn A. Immunologic changes in children with egg allergy ingesting extensively heated eggJ Allergy Clin ImmunolYear: 2008122977983.e118851876| |34.||Kim J,Lee J,Seo WH,Han Y,Ahn K,Lee SI. Changes in major peanut allergens under different pH conditionsAllergy Asthma Immunol ResYear: 2012415716022548209| |35.||Christie L,Hine RJ,Parker JG,Burks W. Food allergies in children affect nutrient intake and growthJ Am Diet AssocYear: 20021021648165112449289| |36.||Tiainen JM,Nuutinen OM,Kalavainen MP. Diet and nutritional status in children with cow's milk allergyEur J Clin NutrYear: 1995496056127588511| |37.||Flammarion S,Santos C,Guimber D,Jouannic L,Thumerelle C,Gottrand F,et al. Diet and nutritional status of children with food allergiesPediatr Allergy ImmunolYear: 20112216116520561235| |38.||Muraro MA,Giampietro PG,Galli E. Soy formulas and nonbovine milkAnn Allergy Asthma ImmunolYear: 2002896 Suppl 19710112487214| |39.||Ahn KM,Han YS,Nam SY,Park HY,Shin MY,Lee SI. Prevalence of soy protein hypersensitivity in cow's milk protein-sensitive children in KoreaJ Korean Med SciYear: 20031847347712923320| |40.||The Ministry of Education, Science and TechnologyThe 2010 status of school foodserviceYear: 2011SeoulThe Ministry of Education, Science and Technology| |41.||Accommodating children with special dietary needs in the school meal programs-guidance for school food service staffUnited States Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service [Internet]Year: 2001cited Feb 29 2012WashingtonUnited States Department of Agriculture Available from: http://www.fns.usda.gov/cnd/guidance/special_dietary_ needs.pdf.| |42.||Takanori I. National survey of food allergy symptoms by the school lunchJ Jpn Pediatr SocYear: 200611015451549| |43.||Vargas PA,Sicherer SH,Christie L,Keaveny M,Noone S,Watkins D,et al. Developing a food allergy curriculum for parentsPediatr Allergy ImmunolYear: 20112257558221332804| Keywords: Food allergy, Allergens, Cross reactions, Disease management. Previous Document: Mutations and binding sites of human transcription factors. Next Document: Cognitive function of idiopathic childhood epilepsy.

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Feeling the Heat: The human cost of poor preparation for climate-related disasters - Arts Main Lecture Theatre - Alumni, Arts and Law, Research, Students, Teaching As world leaders debate the effects of climate change at the UN Climate Change Conference in Doha, join Dr Benedetta Rossi and Islamic Relief as they talk about how investment in climate-change adaption programmes and resilience could save thousands of lives in natural disasters. Recent catastrophes in Pakistan, Haiti and the Philippines, as well as prolonged drought across Africa, provide the backdrop to this timely and engaging panel discussion. In 2010/11, three major natural disasters took place that affected more than 25 million people. As a result, there are currently more than 29 million people suffering from chronic malnourishment. Islamic Relief feel that it is time for a change in global strategy – shifting away from reactive aid to equipping people and communities with the skills and tools they need to prepare for and protect themselves against disaster. Join Elias Fon and Martin Cottingham from Islamic Relief, Deborah Doane, Director of the World Development Movement, and Dr Rossi, of the Department of African Studies and Anthropology, to discover the importance of disaster preparedness, the cost-benefits and the likely impact on the number of lives and livelihoods saved.

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1. What is the narrator doing as the story opens? 2. What vehicle does the narrator own when the story opens? 3. What color is the narrator's vehicle mentioned at the start of the story? 4. Who used to own the car that belongs to the narrator at the start of the story? 5. After taking care of his car, what does the narrator do at the start of the story? 6. How is Mr. Salgado associated with the narrator? This section contains 5,787 words (approx. 20 pages at 300 words per page)

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'The commerce between the two countries is carried on with English capital, on English ships, but English companies...The profits...the interest on the capital...the payments for insurance, the commissions and dividends from the business, everything goes into the pockets of Englishmen.' Brazilian minister in London, 1854 'And where we see the access to the Continent of Europe so hermetically sealed up, we ought to be peculiarly grateful to Providence for casting open the doors of the West, and for disclosing to us the avenues of the New World; for giving us an influence in South America, which will invigorate our commerce, and ultimately take as much of our manufactures, or more, as are now denied to the oppressed nations which were once wont to purchase them of us.' Captain Thomas Ashe, 1812 In 1876, on the centenary of Adam Smith's study The Wealth of Nations, the Economist noted that in Britain: 'The fetters in which pre-existing laws bound our commerce, have been removed, and the result is that we possess the greatest, the most stable, and the most lucrative commerce which the world has ever seen.' This shift from mercantilist imperialism to free trade began in earnest with the administration of Robert Peel (1841-1846). A general reduction of import duties was introduced, and tariffs for cotton and wool abolished. This process resulted in the preference for subsidised imperial trade declining in favour of foreign markets. Thus companies like Maxwell and Wellwood Hyslop moved from the 'old' imperial markets of Jamaica to the free markets of Latin America after the period of independence. Yet as the Economist went on to note, not all countries altered their laws 'in the way that Adam Smith would have suggested' and while the 'English race has gone into many countries' they 'have not been able to take their Free trade principles with them.' Consequently the British employed subtle seduction and the blatant bullying of foreign rulers to open markets to free trade and secure strategic highways. Whether this amounted to 'informal empire' is central to this discussion, as is the issue of defining what 'informal empire' means. Semantics also confounds the term 'free trade', which meant different things at different points across the globe. That a great maritime trading empire such as Great Britain should have gained from a loosening of trade barriers and an opening of markets is obvious, yet free trade by no means conferred equality between nations in the market. Following the flow of free trade also presents problems. By its very nature free trade puts the impetus on the individual, confounding overarching theories or grand narratives of empire. Looking beyond the frontiers of formal empire and the 'colonies coloured red on the map' is also necessary and British influence did not exist in a vacuum. Two specific examples, Argentina and Egypt, should prove useful and generalisations will be avoided. It becomes evident that the experiences of different states – even different regions of states – varied widely. Thus South America, and more specifically Argentina, fell after the era of independence in the 1820s under British market influence. Here, more than anywhere, a strong case can be made for a British 'informal empire' based on loans, investments and trade. Egypt had a very different experience however. A passage to India and the British stake in the Suez Canal were both financially and strategically important. French incursions in North Africa also added another dimension not evident in Argentina. As a result informal influence in Egypt was bound as closely to strategic 'formal' aims as much as it was with private 'informal' ones. Consequently Egypt highlights that any attempt at looking into an 'informal empire' of free trade necessitates considerations of non-financial matters and that free trade depended as much on military and political leverage as it did on monetary. In 1902 Hobson noted that: The sliding scale of political terminology along which no-man's land, or hinterland, passes into some kind of definite protectorate is often applied so as to conceal the process. Although primarily concerned with the 'New Imperialism' of the late 19th century, Hobson had perceived acute problem of defining informal rule. The point at which influence became control is not clear cut, and a sliding scale is a useful analogy. Initially we should avoid the idea of an informal imperialism governed through private investments. Private British ownership of land, plantations, mines or mills does not equate to 'informal empire'. If this were the case Britain in 1880 could claim, on the basis of having invested 80% of foreign capital, to own a sizeable chunk of its former colony, the United States of America. Many 'British' investors, such as the Rothschilds, were not British at all and multinational in their interests. While often aiding the British government, the Rothschilds personal interests were not superseded by it. That the Rothschilds accounted for around one quarter of all foreign government bonds issued in London from 1865 to 1914 should also highlight this. In short, like many investors, the Rothschilds were just as tied to foreign governments as they were to the British Empire, and business interests did not always correspond to imperial ones. It is also important to note that free trade often only meant 'freedom to trade' and not necessarily the 'low or non-existent tariffs' that Adam Smith had advocated. As a result free trade did not give the British unrestricted access to new markets; it merely opened them to speculation. This aside, the sheer dominance of British industry and finance meant that commercial treaties favouring no single country, such as the opening of Brazilian trade in 1827, did in fact disproportionately benefit Britain. Cobden noted that, 'no country, can carry on great financial transactions except through the medium of England.' As a result the British vested interest in free competition misguides scholars such as Platt when he argues that Britain was looking for 'fair and equal treatment, not favoured treatment' in Latin America. Rather, Britain automatically assumed a dominant status as a result of 'free trade and equal treatment' and it had no need for other methods of control. Robinson and Gallagher have gone beyond this assertion and claimed that a deliberate and proactive policy of 'informal empire' was pursued from the 1840s – 1880s. When the polities of new regions (such as Argentina) failed to provide the right conditions for British trade or 'strategic integration' then British power was 'used imperialistically to adjust those conditions.' These 'informal means' rested on Britain's financial and industrial dominance, but also on governmental pressure and potential use of force. In other words the imperialism of the eighteenth century – all flags, fifes and naval fleets – was replaced with 'Imperialism light', where political pressure, threat of force and economic levers were operated behind a facade of a nominally independent state. As a result formal political control took back seat to the 'economic dependence and mutual good-feeling' of free trade. Yet this informal dominance through free trade has often been exaggerated. Platt has highlighted how towns such as Diarbekr, in eastern Turkey, with 30,000 inhabitants could wield considerable economic influence. Indeed Platt has argued that a large chunk of British exports to far flung corners of the globe were in fact supplying 'what was really a piece of England in the New World or the Antipodes...' While Platt avoids any price comparisons between domestic and imported prices, any sense of informal rule as a result of Diarbekr being open for business with Britain seems unlikely. Robinson and Gallagher also highlight that in the mid-Victorian period of supposed period of imperial nonchalance, India, far from being ignored, was subjected to intense economic control 'along the best mercantilist lines.' As a result free trade was used by the British for practical and not ideological reasons; if mercantilist trade barriers worked in India and free trade asserted British supremacy in Argentina there was no contradiction. Consequently free trade did not always mean low tariffs, and was applied practically and not ideologically by the British. As Platt has noted there is also a danger that we exaggerate the indirect consequences of the policy. After the period of South American independence in the 1820s Britain quickly spotted the trading potential of the new region. As Strachey later noted, 'Neither Egyptian chaos nor Boer intransigence menaced the interests of the (predominantly) British bondholders and entrepreneurs in South America.' Initially however, due to governments defaulting on interest payments for issued bonds, the continent did not fare well financially, and we should not exaggerate the economic significance of political events. Development was not helped by a muddled and inconsistent British foreign policy towards the opening of the River Plate to trade either. It is from failed 'formal' attempts like these that we can understand Gladstone's later aversion to Egyptian intervention and fondness of Laissez-faire diplomacy. When recovery came in the 1840s, it was in large part down to British capital. From 1865 to 1913 Britain's trade with Latin America tripled, and between 1850 and 1913 it received 10% of all British exports. Latin America also attracted increasing amounts of British publicly issued capital. In 1865 it stood at #81m and by 1913 it had mushroomed to #1,180m. As a result of this huge financial interest in Latin America a decline in commodity exports to Brazil and Argentina is understandable, however the financial backing continued. This was massively geared towards the governments of the area. As a result Latin American governmental interests were firmly linked to the City of London. Free trade also allowed individuals like Charles Morrison, a City financer, to become extremely wealthy through Latin American acquisitions. Becoming interested in Argentina in the 1860s, Morrison acquired the Mercantile Bank of the River Plate in 1881 and was investing directly in utilities by the 1890s. By 1900 he alone controlled nearly 10% of all British invested capital in Argentina. These 'personal informal empires' often had a wide range of investment interests, being interested in regional investment, development (and necessarily) governmental stability, rather than specific sectors, such as railways. This level of regional integration prompted the United States consul in Buenos Aires to claim: 'it almost seems that the English have the preference in everything pertaining to the business and business interests of the country...They are "in" everything, except politics, as intimately as though it were a British colony.' Yet who 'they' are is not always clear, and Platt has argued that British interference was mainly business and not government orientated. He has noted that there are 'absurdities' in attributing a colonial relationship between 'subordinate primary producers' and 'developed industrial powers' when 'primary products were not in demand' exports of British products to the entire continent between 1841 – 50, averaged a mere #5.7 million per annum. However this account only considers 'produce and manufactures' and not private finance, and Platt's limited timeframe also distorts his assertion and trade became much more significant by the end of the nineteenth century. Informal governmental influence becomes much clearer when crises occurred, as in the 1870s when the risk prone banks of the Banco National and Provincial Bank of Santa Fe experienced runs on their holdings. As investors flocked to the more stable London and River Plate Bank, local government attempted to stop the process, forbidding the London and River Plate Bank from issuing notes and taxing its operations. Buenos Aires eventually acted, although this was as much because of the decline in provincial revenue as it was from British naval threats. Argentina saw that there was a danger not so much from British naval threats, but rather from the risk of Argentinean government bonds loosing value in the City. During the 1890s there was also a panic from declining revenues in exports and rising foreign debts. Initially the Argentinean government allowed the peso to depreciate in value (thus impeding British imports) and began printing inconvertible paper currency. Given that most of Argentina's debts owed were payable mainly in gold or by gold backed currency this policy, if pursued would have led to a default. The British bank Barings was caught out, finding itself landed with large quantities of Argentine government bonds which no one wanted. They subsequently went bankrupt. It was at this point that 'informal empire' became formal intervention, and the British government forced Argentina to continue to pay its debts to keep Barings afloat. As a result the British government often exerted pressure on the Argentinean government, although close connections to the City and British creditors often meant that little more than pressure was needed. When Salisbury was encouraged by the City financers to intervene more directly he responded: We have no intention of constituting ourselves a Providence in any South American quarrel. We have been pressed, earnestly pressed, to undertake the part of arbitrator, of compulsory arbitrator in quarrels in the west of South America...We have been earnestly pressed, also...to undertake the regeneration of Argentine finance. On neither of these subjects are Her Majesty's Government in the least degree disposed to encroach on the function of Providence.' It would thus be crass to term the bail out of Barings and the pressure put on the Argentinean government as 'informal empire' and the process was as much connected to preventing a wider recession as it was projecting British influence abroad. Salisbury must have also recognised how much the City's interest in Latin American governments depended on confidence – something which 'formal' intervention would severely rock. Yet the more British capital that was invested the more undeniable British influence was. Consequently interest turned to intervention in the 1830s in an effort to get trade moving into Argentina along its river ways, and the opening of markets was made smoother through the building of rail networks. In 1868 the Uruguayan government actually requested assistance from H.M.S Narcissus to protect the Customs House at Montevideo. Major Munro who led the expedition was warned by Lord Stanley, that although it was difficult to lay down general rules for such situations, these dealings 'should only be resorted to under circumstances of the greatest urgency.' Admiral Ramsay on the River Plate also informed his officers to 'on no account...interfere in the disputes of the contending parties.' If this was Imperialism then, it was not in the form that South America had experienced before. Rather than treasure draining from the Continent to fund European wars as it was in the preceding centuries, it was shipped in, often through British bond holders seeing an independent and stable regime developing. It stands to reason that investors look for stability, and as a result it should come as no surprise that a certain degree of British governmental interference was necessary. Yet the irony is that more the more British interference which occurred, the less confidence Argentinean's placed in their own government. Platt has also noted the limited influence of British free trade in Argentina, and even by the mid-1890s between 70 and 80% of government revenue continued to come from tariffs. We should also not forget that on balance shipping troops to relatively poor countries, such as Peru, made little sense when more valuable prizes, such as India, were under increased threat. Like South America British informal influence in Egypt and the Levant was evident in its domination of finance and trade. The fact that by 1880 Egyptian debt had climbed to #100 million (when exports were gathering a mere #13 million) highlights the bind the country was in by 1882. That 80% of the exports were shipped to Britain, and 44% of all Egyptian imports were British shows the extent of Britain's interests in Egypt. British shipping also dominated the Suez Canal, with 2,250 ships out of 2,727 vessels using the canal in 1881 being British. More generally the Ottoman Empire had colossal debts which had risen from #9m in 1855 to #251m in 1875, and by the latter date around half of all revenue was paying of interest on debts alone. Egypt was in a similar situation and its public debt of #76m in 1876 was roughly ten times its total tax revenue. While the root of increased British interest is unclear, it is undeniable, that there was a massive increase in Egypt's main export, cotton, during the American Civil War. Consequently Hobson advanced the view that financial 'parasites' with 'sectional interests' usurped public interest for private gain. Moneyed interests, he argued, had created a form of informal dominance. Indeed this view was confirmed by certain legal ambiguities in Egypt at the time. As the Economist noted in 1876 constitutional problems within Egypt meant courts were legally entitled to sue the Egyptian government for not meeting debt repayments. These courts were 'created by treaty with foreign Powers, and which therefore claim to have an authority against, and a title superior to that of the Egyptian Government.' Whether the riot in Alexandria in June of 1882 actually presented any serious risk to Britain's financial interests (and thus, in Hobson's, view merited intervention) is debatable. The fact that 50 foreigners were singled out and killed should also be noted, and the Economist predicted on 17 June that 'very great losses must be incurred and great disturbances to business must arise if no effort was made to contain the disorder.' Yet informal influence in Egypt was as much about strategic securities as it was about financial ones. Mclean has perceptively argued that although informal economic pressure carried some weight, the idea of foreign policy and threat of 'hard power' spreading informal rule has a much 'greater bearing.' Indeed confidence in government (and thus financial mechanisms) was intrinsically linked to military effectiveness. Thus the difference in policy between the Levant and Latin America is most clearly displayed in the British reluctance to intervene during the Latin American 'anarchy' of the 1820s, while subsequent arguments for intervention in Egypt were based on a need to restore order and suppress 'anarchy'. Imperial rivalry was also evident, and Ferguson has noted that 'until the end of the 1860s, France and Britain were more or less neck and neck as foreign lenders.' 1881 saw the French occupy Tunis, and far from Disraeli winning a majority stake in Suez (as Punch would have had it) they were in fact catching up on the French share. As a result Britain was much more willing to use the possibility of military intervention in Egypt than in Latin America due to wider European rivalries, and concerns regarding Russian ambitions. It should come as no surprise that a country that provided two fifth of all the world's exported capital between 1870 and 1914 should have had a certain amount of unofficial and non-governmental influence. That no more than one quarter of this was ever invested in Empire, also highlights the extent to which the wealth flowed beyond the red areas of the map. In this respect Robinson and Gallagher do not present as earth shattering an argument as many have assumed. Free trade was bound to be of a disproportionate value to a country as dominant in finance and trade, and the rise in free trade led to a decrease in the government influence in investments and the Stock Market. It thus becomes harder as the century goes on to make a case for an Imperial financial plan based on investments. Consequently this cannot confer 'informal empire' although a certain amount of informal influence is undeniable. Hobson's recognition of a sliding scale remains useful in this respect. Even the very nature of the word 'informal empire' is oxymoronic; empire implying a certain amount of formal control. Regional variations are also crucial to understanding the effects of free trade policy, and as the two examples highlight, experiences were divergent in different geographical areas. In Egypt a wider official imperial strategy is evident, as is informal British governmental interference. Here an attempt to prop up a government was initially made after free trade had led to uncontrollable debt. Through this intervention free trade was then re-imposed and as a result there is no simple free trade to 'informal empire' process. It is also crucial to see a separation between business interests and informal governmental interest. Argentina, and more broadly Latin America highlight, that influence was just as easily spread through private initiative and 'self help' as it was through governmental power. As Platt has also noted there continued to be considerable tariffs in Argentina until the mid 1890s. As a result we can recognise informal influence and pressure was often employed by the British government, although this was often poorly carried out, frequently resulting in botched and clumsy attempts to impose authority. There does not, in Egypt or Argentina however, appear to have been any systematic policy of informal rule. Free trade rather created a framework in which self help and private initiative could flourish, as it did with Charles Morrison, although it was less effective in spreading British governmental interests and it did not confer 'informal empire'. Economist, June 1876. Platt, D.C.M., Latin America and British Trade 1806 – 1914, (London, 1972), p.26. Economist, June 1876. Gallagher, J. and Robinson, R., 'The Imperialism of Free Trade', Economic History Review, Volume 6, (1953), p.1. Hobson, J.A, Imperialism: A Study, (London, 1961), p.21. Davis, L.E. and Huttenback, R. A., Mammon and the Pursuit of Empire: The Political Economy of British Imperialism, 1860 – 1912 (Cambridge, 1986), p. 38. Richard Graham in Roger Louis, W.M., (ed.), The Robinson and Gallagher Controversy, (London, 1976), p.220. Ferguson, N., The Cash Nexus: Money and Power in the Modern World, 1700 – 2000, (New York, 2000), p.266. The Rothschilds, as a financial house with bases in London, Frankfurt, Paris and Amsterdam, also indulged in arbitrage. This meant when gold prices were high in Paris the Rothschilds would sell their gold for bills of exchange, and with these buy a larger quantity of gold in London. This process also highlights the hardnosed and individualist side of many financiers not tied to any national ideology or imperial project. Ferguson, N., The Ascent of Money: A Financial History of the World, Allen Lane, (London 2008), pp.82 – 83. Miller, R., Britain and Latin America in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries, (London, 1993), p.72. Consequently, as Platt is keen to highlight, Argentina maintained tariffs throughout the 1820s and 1830s despite the 'opening' of new markets. In 1835, the adoption of the Rosas tariff was 'totally protective.' Platt, D.C.M., Latin America and British Trade 1806 – 1914, (London, 1972), p.76. Semmel, B., The Rise of Free Trade Imperialism: Classical Political Economy the Empire of Free Trade and Imperialism , (Cambridge, 1970) Platt, D.C.M., Finance, Trade and Politics in British Foreign Policy: 1815 – 1914, (Oxford, 1968), pp.315 – 316. Gallagher, J. and Robinson, R., 'The Imperialism of Free Trade', EHR, (1953), p.5. Ibid, p.4. Platt, D. C. M., 'Further Objections to an "Imperialism of Free Trade", 1830 – 60, EHR, Volume 26, (1973), p. 82. Platt notes that in 1863 some 1,400 looms were working and 2,710 in the region of Diarbekr Sanjak. There were also 2,041 shops and workshops; 7 ironsmiths; 47 tinmen and coppersmiths; 35 sail needle, nail and sword makers; 27 carpenters; 42 silversmiths; 6 watchmakers; 8 pot and jar makers; 10 pipe makers; 13 brassfounders; 25 pack saddle and haircloth makers; 27 farriers; 22 saddlers; 95 shoe makers; 14 rope makers; 10 candlemakers; 25 tanners and 3 gunsmiths. In short, Platt highlights that we should not underestimate the economic power of small localities in being able to supply themselves. Ibid, p. 81. Gallagher, J. and Robinson, R., 'The Imperialism of Free Trade', EHR, (1953), p.4. Ibid, p.5. Platt, D.C.M., Finance, Trade and Politics in British Foreign Policy: 1815 – 1914, (Oxford, 1968), p. 309. Platt, D.C.M., Latin America and British Trade 1806 – 1914, (London, 1972), p. 4. Miller, R., Britain and Latin America, (London, 1993), p.52. Gladstone had noted in an Economist article of 1853: 'It is good that England should give a full assurance to the world, by her Peace Conferences and the declarations of her Ministers, that she abhors war. Her best interests – perhaps her safety – are indissolubly bound up with peace...' Economist, October 15, 1853. Cain, P.J and Hopkins, A.G., British Imperialism: Innovation and Expansion 1688 – 1914, (London, 1993), p.283. Ibid, pp.286-287. Ibid, pp.289 – 290. Miller, R., Britain and Latin America, (London, 1993), p.5. Similar influence can be seen in Peru in 1834, when the government was granted a #7,400 loan by British merchants, on the condition it would abolish existing commercial codes. Mathew, W. M., 'The Imperialism of Free Trade: Peru 1820 – 70', EHR, Volume 21, (1961), p.566. Platt, D.C.M. (ed.), Business Imperialism 1840 – 1930: An Inquiry Based on British Experience in Latin America, (Oxford, 1977) Platt, D. C. M., 'Further Objections to an "Imperialism of Free Trade", 1830 – 60', EHR, Volume 26, (1973), p.84. Cain, P.J and Hopkins, A.G., British Imperialism, (London, 1993), p.292. Ibid, pp. 293 – 294. Platt, D. C. M., 'The Imperialism of Free Trade: Some Reservations', EHR, Volume 21 (1968), p.301. This level is well illustrated in the Dominican Republic in 1904, when the government of Dr Morales was threatened by a revolt in the area of Puerto Plata. The danger to foreign residence meant the USS Detroit and H.M.S Pallas were forced to land troops and literally create a cordon around the city ordering no fighting to take place within it. Platt, D.C.M., Finance, Trade and Politics in British Foreign Policy: 1815 – 1914, (Oxford, 1968), p.321. Gallagher, J. and Robinson, R., 'The Imperialism of Free Trade', EHR, (1953), p.9. Platt, D.C.M., Finance, Trade and Politics in British Foreign Policy: 1815 – 1914, (Oxford, 1968), p. 319. Platt, D.C.M., Latin America and British Trade 1806 – 1914, (London, 1972), pp. 78 – 79. Mathew, W. M., 'The Imperialism of Free Trade', EHR, (1961), pp.567 – 568. James, L., The Rise and Fall of the British Empire, (London, 2001), p.269. Even Gladstone had a personal stake in the country, with 37% of his portfolio bound up in the country. Cain, P.J and Hopkins, A.G., British Imperialism, (London, 1993), pp.364 – 365. Ferguson, N., The Cash Nexus, (New York, 2000), p.280. Hobson, J.A, Imperialism, (London, 1961) , p.46. Economist, July 1876. Mclean, D., 'Finance and "Informal Empire" before the First World War', EHR, Volume 29, (1976), pp. 292. According to Milner, 'the flame of anarchy spread too fast for the slow movements of diplomacy.' As a result the stoic British were dragged into the Egyptian 'imbroglio' as the French 'shirked at the last moment and left us to settle the whole matter alone.' Milner in Hopkins, A.G., 'The Victorians and Africa: A Reconsideration of the Occupation of Egypt, 1882', Journal of African History, Volume 27, (1986), p.367. James, L., The Rise and Fall of the British Empire, (London, 2001), p.271. Cain, P.J and Hopkins, A.G., British Imperialism, Second Edition, (London, 2001) Cain in Porter, A. (ed.), Oxford History of the British Empire, Volume II: The Nineteenth Century, (Oxford, 1999), p.43.

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Caribbean Islands > Bahamas The Bahamas encompass about 700 coral-based islands and 2,000 cays (pronounced "keys"). These islands and cays attract tourists for a variety of reasons, including beaches, diving, and snorkeling as well as fishing, golf, and shopping. The Bahamas lie only fifty miles off Florida's coast, making them a popular destination for many Americans. The Bahamas are the largest tropical archipelago nation in the Atlantic Ocean, covering more than 100,000 square miles and containing 900 square miles of coral reefs. These islands are often considered Caribbean islands because their southern extremities adjoin the Caribbean Sea. The islands' major cities are Nassau, on New Providence island, and Freeport, on Grand Bahama island. The Bahamas were inhabited by perhaps 40,000 Lucayan Indians when Christopher Columbus visited them in 1492. However, the islands were quickly depopulated by slave traders and were uninhabited when English settlers arrived in 1647. For many years, the islands of the Bahamas sheltered pirates, privateers, and other lawless elements. It was only about 50 years ago, when tourists began to arrive, that the Bahamas began to really prosper. New Providence Island is the most populous island, and the historic core, of The Bahamas. The island is fairly flat and has pine barren forests and caves. Nassau, the capital city of The Bahamas, is located on this island and is the commercial hub of The Bahamas. Nassau has also expanded from New Providence Island to include Paradise Island, the hub for many Bahamas vacations. A concrete bridge across the harbor connects the two islands. Paradise Island is covered with hotels. Recreational activities on both islands include snorkeling, diving, and swimming with dolphins or stingrays, as well as deep-sea fishing and sampling Bahamian cooking. Nassau has several historical landmarks, including the Victoria Staircase, Fort Charlotte, and Fort Montagu. Grand Bahama is the second most popular destination for tourists in The Bahamas. It is the most northerly of this island chain. Shipwrecks were numerous near this island, as the water near the Little Bahama Bank was relatively shallow. The Spanish called this area gran bajamar (the vast underwater, or the great shallows). Grand Bahama features resorts, shopping districts, casinos, and several golf courses. The city of Freeport, with its many luxury hotels and white-sand beaches, is located on this island. Port Lucaya offers duty-free shopping. Other areas of the island offer quieter and more private areas than Freeport. Caverns and wetlands attract kayakers, hikers, and bird watchers, while scuba divers thrive at sites like Ben's Cavern, Snapper Alley, and Theo's Shipwreck. The Lucayan National Park has underwater caves that are accessible by land and by sea. The most remote islands in The Bahamas are the Out Islands, also called the "family islands." The Out Islands consist of a dozen major islands and island groups, as well as many other cays, some of them uninhabited. The Andros Islands, Berry Islands, Bimini, and the Exumas are located in the central Bahamas, while The Abacos, Cat Island, Crooked Island, Eleuthera, Long Island, Mayaguana, and San Salvador directly face the Atlantic Ocean to the east. The Inaguas are located at the extreme southeastern corner of The Bahamas. The quiet Out Islands, called "home" by most Bahamians, offer pristine beaches and unspoiled nature. Although there are luxury hotels and resorts on some of these islands, they are largely untainted by tourism. Boating, diving, and snorkeling are at their best here. Fishing and bird watching are popular activities. Some of the Out Islands were settled during the American Revolutionary War by British Loyalists who brought their slaves to work on cotton plantations. As a result, there is a rich West African heritage among the descendants of these slaves. These Bahamians and their culture are called the "real Bahamas." Bahamas Travel Information Copyright © 2005-2015 CaribbeanIslands.us. All rights reserved.

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Certain cancer cells actually feed on the common food sweetener, fructose, according to a new study from the University of California Los Angeles. The research team grew pancreatic cancer cells in a lab dish and then fed them fructose and other sugars. The fructose caused the cancer cells to multiply. "These findings show that cancer cells can readily metabolize fructose to increase proliferation," Dr. Anthony Heaney of UCLA's Jonsson Cancer Center and colleagues wrote. "They have major significance for cancer patients given dietary refined fructose consumption and indicate that efforts to reduce refined fructose intake or inhibit fructose-mediated actions may disrupt cancer growth," he added. The findings are significant for establishing a diet for cancer patients. Fructose is often mixed with glucose and listed in foods as high fructose corn syrup and it's found in items like soft drinks and bread.

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If you are considering solar energy for your home, then you’re not alone. Many people are fed up with the high costs of energy and the detrimental effect that burning fossil fuels is having on our environment. The truth is that solar energy can help you to reduce your carbon imprint, and that putting solar capabilities into your housing plans can really help you to lead a more sustainable existence (and a cheaper one). True, the cost of installing solar panels can be a bit high. But you can always think of solar as an investment in your future, and your children’s future! Besides, solar panels will eventually pay for themselves by way of the energy that you save by going solar. And it goes without saying that if you are using solar power, you can really make a go of it when it comes to off-the-grid living. You don’t need to live next to or in the service area of a power plant, either. But living “off grid” doesn’t mean that you don’t have to pay taxes. Thankfully, if you connect to solar power by instaling solar panels, you can qualify for energy credits. Uncle Sam has a number of incentives right now for those who install solar panels. See your tax professional for details. Remember, although it may cost a bit of cash to get started with solar panels, the energy that you get from them is totally free! And since solar panels do not having any moving parts, they are virtually free of any maintenance. Just install them and enjoy the free solar power that they generate.

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The most authoritative and captivating account ever written of legendary British naval commander Horatio Nelson's early career and rise to prominence Among military and naval commanders, Horatio Nelson stands as one of the finest examples of inspirational leadership. The historian John Sugden charts the period of Nelson's career neglected by earlier writers-from childhood to his breathtaking victory against the Spanish fleet at Cape St. Vincent when he became an admiral, lost an arm, and won international fame. Like Alexander of Macedon, Nelson led from the front (not always a sensible custom). But he was a natural leader and a genuine hero, and his actions invariably raised his stock with his men, who trusted him as a commander willing to share their dangers. Nelson combines groundbreaking scholarship with a vivid and compelling narrative style. Detailing every facet of Nelson's crowded life, the author offers the only full account of Nelson's early voyages and the first complete analysis of the formative incidents in his career. Throughout there are revealing and startling discoveries about Nelson's relationships with family, patrons, officers, and men-and with his women. Previous biographies have failed to penetrate the mythology encrusting one of the world's greatest naval heroes, and none has been based on a thorough examination of original sources. Nelson will immediately become the benchmark against which all subsequent books about Nelson will be judged. It is a biography of the best sort: compelling, authoritative, and thrillingly alive. Back to top Rent Nelson 1st edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by John Peter Sugden. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by Henry Holt and Co.. Need help ASAP? We have you covered with 24/7 instant online tutoring. Connect with one of our tutors now.

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Insulin Reaction Definition An insulin reaction occurs when a person with diabetes becomes confused or even unconscious because of hypoglycemia (hypo=low + glycol = sugar + emia = in the blood) caused by insulin or oral diabetic medications. (Please note that for this article blood sugar and blood glucose mean the same thing and the terms may be used interchangeably.) In normal physiology, the body is able to balance the glucose (sugar levels) in the bloodstream. When a person eats, and glucose levels start to rise, the body signals the pancreas to secrete insulin. Insulin "unlocks the door" to cells in the body so that the glucose can be used for energy. When blood sugar levels drop, insulin production decreases and the liver begins producing glucose. In people with diabetes, the pancreas is unable to produce enough insulin to meet the body's demand. Treatment may include medications taken by mouth (oral hypoglycemics), insulin, or both. The balance of food intake and medication is not automatic, and a person with diabetes needs to be aware that too much medication or too little food may cause blood sugar levels to drop. Interestingly, brain cells do not need insulin to access the glucose in the blood stream. Brain cells also cannot store excess glucose, so when blood sugar levels drop, brain function is one of the first parts of the body to become affected. In an insulin reaction, the blood sugar levels are usually below 50 mg/dL (or 2.78 mmol/L in SI units). Medically Reviewed by a Doctor on 5/10/2016 YOU MAY ALSO LIKE Must Read Articles Related to Insulin Reaction Patient Comments & Reviews The eMedicineHealth doctors ask about Insulin Reaction: Insulin Reaction - Patient Experience Did you have an adverse action to insulin? Please tell us about your experience.

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It is not a question of if, but rather a question of when the next large asteroid will strike Earth. The readily apparent cratering record of the Moon and the increasingly revealed cratering record of Earth attest to a long history of cosmic collisions. That history continues today, as dramatically shown by the splash of comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 into Jupiter in 1994. The resulting Earth-sized blemishes on the tops of Jupiters clouds attest to the wallop packed even by relatively small impacting bodies. Small impacts on our planet, such as the one that occurred over Tunguska, Siberia, in 1908, may happen on average once per thousand years. A larger impact, one capable of severely affecting the climate with potentially devastating effects for civilization, may occur on average every million years or so. Much more rare, perhaps an average of every 100 million years, are impacts posing the threat of mass extinctions. There is both good news and bad news in the fact that geologic time scales describe the frequency of major impacts. The good news is that no contemporary Geotimes readers are likely to witness or suffer from a devastating cosmic impact during their lifetimes. Thus we scientists and our current political leaders can be happily complacent about asteroid impacts and very likely get away with it! The bad news is that there are no guarantees. Just because an event is unlikely doesnt mean it wont happen today, next week, next year, or any time in this century. If we choose to ignore the asteroid issue, we are living dangerously and passing the problem down to future generations. Thus from a standpoint of prudence or inevitability, there are asteroids in our future. Current technology now has the capability to transform the uncertainties and probabilities of the asteroid problem into deterministic answers. We can discover and track the largest asteroids near the Earth and determine whether any are on a collision course in the coming centuries. Thanks largely to the pioneering push by geologist Gene Shoemaker, NASA adopted the current Spaceguard Goal to discover 90 percent of the near-Earth asteroids larger than 1 kilometer by the year 2008. (One kilometer is the estimated size capable of causing major climatic effects.) So far, about one-half of the estimated 1,100 of these objects have been discovered, occasionally creating sensational headlines when preliminary orbits show small (but still existing) probabilities for a collision during a future pass by Earth. Fortunately, further measurements allowing refined orbits have, to date, removed all substantial threats from all known objects. With each discovery and orbit determination ruling out any foreseeable hazard, we are gaining assurance that the odds remain in our favor for not suffering a global impact catastrophe in our lifetimes. While the risk of a global- or civilization-threatening impact is now being retired, the risk remains for the more frequent smaller-scale impacts capable of causing local or regional damage. A cost/benefit analysis recently completed by a NASA-appointed team recommends pushing the survey limits well below 1 kilometer, down to a size of 140 meters. This study team finds that dropping the discovery goals down to this size reduces the total asteroid risk (over all sizes) by 90 percent. Achieving this goal is cost effective when considering the potential worldwide casualties from both land impacts and tsunami-generating ocean impacts. One or more dedicated large telescopes (with apertures of 4 meters or more) operating for several decades could complete the job. Completing the census substantially faster could require performing the survey from space. Fortunately, the most likely outcome of current and expanded surveys is that no sizeable object will be found to be on a collision course with Earth over the next century. In essence, we are buying cosmic insurance in the form of knowledge that our near-term future is safe. Unfortunately we can be certain that surveys will yield false positives, with asteroids impacting the media but not the actual Earth. Two types of false positives will occur: Type I is already a familiar scenario, in which a preliminary orbit shows a future close encounter with Earth, where the normal measurement uncertainties initially do not rule out a collision; Type II is where an object is discovered to be on a definitive collision course, but the size of the object is too small to penetrate the atmosphere intact and cause any substantive harm. A key step astronomers must take to minimize media frenzy over false positives is to organize a central information source, similar to the National Hurricane Center. The role of this center will be to convey with a single authoritative voice the consensus findings of international experts regarding whether any asteroid close encounter merits public or governmental concern. Continuing with the present situation of multiple information sources, where even just a subtle difference becomes polarized by the media, serves only to erode the credibility of professional astronomers. If we allow ourselves to think the unthinkable, where a sizable object is discovered to be on a definitive collision course, for example 30 years from now, what would we do? In spite of its lack of Hollywood appeal, deflection rather than destruction is the best approach. But pushing on an asteroid may be extraordinarily tricky, depending on whether the body is intact or severely fractured. Some models for asteroid interiors even suggest they may be rubble piles, reassembled blocks having no coherency between them, held together only by their mutual gravity. Slow and gentle propulsion, such as that provided by an ion drive or harnessed from solar radiation pressure, holds the best promise. Yet for these slow and gentle schemes to work, time must be on our side. The only way to put time on our side is for the surveys to move forward now. Our next step, in concert with surveys, is to understand what these objects are: Know thy enemy. Here is where scientists, especially geologists and geophysicists, have their role. The questions we as scientists ask seeking to understand the compositions and internal structures of these space mountains are the same questions that must be answered in order to achieve effective mitigation. While we might relish the idea of geology field trips to these worlds, neither the science alone nor the combination with the impact hazard concern justifies the cost of sending humans (rather than robotic spacecraft) to do the job. My view only changes if asteroids become a human destination as part of a stepping stone strategy for operationally testing people and equipment with the ultimate goal of missions to Mars. Many near-Earth asteroids provide destinations for six-month to one-year missions in interplanetary space, shorter than the risk of multi-year missions to Mars. Resource utilization may be another driver for going to the asteroids, where low launch costs and economic viability are essential for this future path. Completed surveys will reveal accessible and promising destinations, making our asteroid future more likely filled with friends than foes.

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|PORIFERA : CLATHRINIDA : Clathrinidae||SPONGES| Description: This sponge is usually white but can also be grey, pale rose, orange or sulphur yellow in colour. Several new species have recently been described from the NE Atlantic and it is likely that different forms currently identified as Clathrina coriacea are in fact distinct species. Young colonies are often thinly encrusting but more mature ones form a soft, compact network of anastomosing thin walled tubes. Habitat: This sponge is usually found on clean rock surfaces in the shallow sublittoral and also under overhangs and boulders on the shore. It is often found associated with the ascidian Dendrodoa grossularia in surge gullies but also in sheltered caves. Distribution: A common species complex that occurs on all coasts of the British Isles. Similar Species: This species may be confused with Leucosolenia botryoides and other Leucosolenia species which are also comprised of thin walled tubes, however in C. coriacea there are no erect free branches. Key Identification Features: Distribution Map from NBN: Grid map (fast) : Interactive map (slower, requires login to view records) : National Biodiversity Network mapping facility, data for UK. |Picton, B.E. & Morrow, C.C. (2016). Clathrina coriacea (Montagu, 1818). [In] Encyclopedia of Marine Life of Britain and Ireland. | http://www.habitas.org.uk/marinelife/species.asp?item=C80 Accessed on 2016-07-02 |Copyright © National Museums of Northern Ireland, 2002-2015|

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Acupuncture and Chinese Herbal Medicine have been an integral part of East Asian Medicine (EAM) for more than 3,000 years. Diagnosis in EAM is based on the movement of Qi, the life force or energy, of the individual. Qi travels throughout the body along pathways, called meridians, that generally correspond to our internal organ systems. EAM works with the Qi of one's body to remove blockages and replenish deficiencies that create pain and other physiological dysfunctions or disorders. While the Western medical community has not yet identified how EAM works from a biomedical perspective, both the World Health Organization (WHO) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) support its efficacy. East Asian Medicine can treat a wide range of disorders effectively, including: A detailed health history questionnaire and intake interview. diagnosis and treatment. 1.5 - 2 hours for the initial treatment; additional treatments 1 - 1.5 Discussion of your treatment plan with the practitioner after your Questions About Acupuncture 1) How does it Acupuncture works with the Qi (life force or energy) of one's body to remove blockages and replenish deficiencies that create pain and other physiological dysfunctions or disorders. Qi travels throughout the body along pathways, called meridians, that generally correspond to our internal While the Western medical community has not yet identified how East Asian Medicine works from a biomedical perspective, both the World Health Organization (WHO) and the National Institutes of Health (NIH) support its efficacy. 2) Are the needles Yes, all of the needles are disposable, stainless steel needles that are used once and then discarded. 3) What are the side effects of acupuncture? Acupuncture is one of the least invasive therapies available to return your body to a state of health, therefore, there are little to no side effects. The most common reported side effect after a treatment is relaxation. 4) How long does a The initial treatment can take as long as 2 hours. However, the average initial treatment time is 1.5 hours. Follow-up treatments last 1 to 1.5 hours. Oriental medicine is a comprehensive health care system encompassing a variety of traditional health care therapies that have been used for more than 3,000 years to diagnose and treat illness, prevent disease and improve well Acupuncture is one of the essential elements of Oriental medicine. Other elements include Chinese herbology, bodywork (e.g. Tuina, acupressure, Shiatsu), diet and exercise (e.g. Tai Chi, Qigong) based on traditional All Oriental medicine modalities are intended to improve the flow of qi (pronounced "chee"). Qi regulates the body's spiritual, emotional, mental, and physical balance and is influenced by the opposing forces of yin (negative energy) and yang (positive energy). According to traditional Chinese medicine, when yin and yang are balanced, they work together with the natural flow of qi to help the body achieve and According to a National Institutes of Health (NIH) consensus panel of scientists, researchers, and practitioners who convened in November 1997, clinical studies have shown that acupuncture is an effective treatment for nausea caused by surgical anesthesia and cancer-related treatments, as well as for dental pain experienced after surgery. The panel also found that acupuncture is useful by itself or combined with conventional therapies to treat addiction, headaches, menstrual cramps, tennis elbow, fibromyalgia, myofascial pain, osteoarthritis, lower back pain, carpal tunnel syndrome, asthma, and to assist in stroke rehabilitation. The NIH concluded "Further research is likely to uncover additional areas where acupuncture interventions will be useful." Outside the United States, the World Health Organization (WHO), the health branch of the United Nations, lists more than 40 conditions for which acupuncture can be a useful World Health Organization United Nations In response to the public's increased use of Complementary and Alternative Medicine such as Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine, an Office of Alternative Medicine was established at the National Institutes of Health in 1992. The Center became the National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine in 1998 and now has an annual budget of more than $100,000,000 dedicated to CAM research.

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Emergency Water Supply Health department and public water safety officials use many safeguards to protect the sanitary quality of your daily drinking water. However, this protection may break down during emergencies caused by natural disasters. During times of serious emergency, the normal water supply to your home may be cut off or become so polluted that it is undrinkable. A supply of stored water could be your most precious survival item! You and your family may then be on your own to provide a safe and adequate water supply. Remember that typhoid fever, Dysentery, and infectious hepatitis are diseases often associated with unsafe water. Don't take a chance! Generally, under serious disaster conditions, no water can be presumed safe--all drinking and cooking water should be purified. A minimum of two quarts and up to one gallon of water is needed per day, depending on the size of the person, the amount of exertion, weather, and perspiration loss. A minimum of seven gallons pure water per person would be needed for a two-week survival supply. With careful rationing, this amount would be sufficient for drinking, food preparation, brushing teeth, etc. Fourteen gallons per person will allow for hygiene care. Keep an emergency supply of drinking water in plastic containers. Commercially bottled drinking water is available. It stays pure for months and has the expiration date clearly marked on it. There are several other sources of water if your water supply is turned off--water drained from the hot water tank (usually contains 30 to 60 gallons of usable water), clear water from the toilet flush-tank, if kept constantly clean ( not the bowl !), melted ice cubes, canned fruits and vegetable juices, and liquid from other canned goods. Mix thoroughly by stirring or shaking the water in its container. Let it stand for 30 Minutes. A slight chlorine odor should be detectable in the water; if not, repeat the dosage and let the water stand for and additional 15 minutes before using. Use an eye dropper to add the chlorine or the iodine to the water. Use it only for this purpose. Keep the drinking water safe from contamination by carefully storing in clean non-corrosive, tightly-covered containers. Use one-gallon containers, preferably made of heavy opaque plastic with screw-on caps. Plastic milk bottles are not recommended. Sterilize the bottles. A high quality filter system should possess the following characteristics: light-weight; have fewer parts (less to go wrong); a fine pre-filter; a replaceable or clearable filter; tight, well-made pump; high volume output; quick filtration; should screen out organisms over 0.5 microns (0.2 microns is best). A system with all of these features may not be inexpensive, however. The cost will usually reflect reliability as well as technology of design. Always use a filter properly. Use clearest water available, allowing suspended matter to settle out. Use pre-filter if your system has one. Do not let outlet end of filter come in contact with contaminated water. Be sure vessel you're pumping into is clean.

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The historic mineral sector of Swaziland has essentially collapsed. The kingdom contained the world's oldest known mine site, the Lion Cavern, at the Ngwenya iron mine, on Bomvu Ridge, northwest of Mbabane. Carbon-14 dating estimated that mining—of hematite (libomvu) and specularite ochres, for cosmetic and ritual uses—took place at the site from 43,000– 41,000 BC until at least 23,000 BC ; the mine was closed in 1977. Mining's role in Swaziland's economy has been declining in recent years, and mining and quarrying accounted for 1.4% of GDP in FY 2000/01. A methane gas explosion caused Swaziland's only coal producer to close in 2001, asbestos mining ceased in 2000, diamond mining ceased in 1996, and mining of the once-major export iron ore stopped in the late 1970s (it reached 2.24 million tons in 1975). In 2001, Swaziland produced 350,000 cu m of quarry stone products, and also produced brick clay, anthracite coal, pyrophyllite, and sand and gravel. Small-scale, unreported gold mining has taken place. The mining of chrysolite fiber asbestos, once the dominant source of mining revenue—employing 1,000 workers at Bulumbe, one of the world's largest asbestos mines— ceased because of declining reserves, environmental concerns, and weak markets. Mined since 1939, 27,693 tons of asbestos was produced in 1998. Mining of mainly industrial-quality diamonds was from a single kimberlite pipe at Dvokolwako, and was jointly operated by the Swazi Nation (distinct from the government) and a South African company; production was 70,000 carats in 1996. Although fewer than 1,000 Swazis were directly employed in the mining sector, 1,000 people processed timber from the country's extensive pine populations for mines in South Africa, and 10,000–15,000 Swazis were employed in South African mines. Their contributions to Swaziland's economy through wage repatriation have been diminished, though, by the collapse of the international gold market and layoffs in South Africa.

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The first three words in the Constitution are the most powerful: We the People. They declare that the Constitution derives its power not from a king or a Congress, but from the people themselves. This concept of popular sovereignty—power to the people—is the foundation upon which the entire Consti-tution depends. The framers of the Constitution designed a system of government in 1787 that distributed power among three branches—legislative, executive, and judicial. Having just overthrown a king, the framers did not want to concentrate power in one ruler, whether a president or a Congress. Therefore, they established checks and balances for each branch over the other two. Some modern critics argue that this system creates gridlock and is ill-suited to the demands of the 21st century, where global electronic networks can collapse financial markets and national governments in milliseconds. They advocate creation of a new constitution. But even the framers themselves did not think the Constitution was perfect. That's why they included an amendment process in Article V, so the people could make changes to the Constitution as they saw fit. Over the past 225 years, the people have added 27 amendments; the most common theme has been expanding the right to vote. In the end, each generation strives to create a “more perfect union” for those yet to come. The Constitution begins and ends with We the People. We the People content written by Linda R. Monk, Constitutional scholar |Separation of Powers||Political Parties||The Amendment Process|

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Beach sands can harbor a slew of stomach bugs, which can cause bouts of nausea and cramping or even severe gastroenteritis. A 2009 study in the American Journal of Epidemiology found that digging in beach sand (and being buried in beach sand) raised the risk of diarrhea. Beachgoers could come down with some familiar pathogens, such as Salmonella, E. coli and norovirus—the most common stomach flu in the U.S., seen here. Parasites such as Giardia and Campylobacter are also on the watch list. The prevalence of stomach bugs at the beach comes down to one thing: poop. Traces of fecal contaminants and microbes have been found in sand samples and in some water samples at both freshwater and marine beaches. How does poop end up at the beach? Some studies point to human sewage contamination from nearby treatment plants. But fecal pollution also shows up at beaches far from treatment facilities. Storm surges and heavy rainfall could carry human waste further from a source, or wild animals may contribute their droppings. Keep in mind, seawater that renders 36 out of 1000 swimmers sick with gastroenteritis is acceptably clean by EPA standards.

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‘Unfitness to stand trial’ rules in Australia have been the subject of human rights and law reform enquiries in recent years, following concerns that such rules may violate the rights of people with cognitive disability in the criminal justice system. ‘Unfitness to stand trial rules’ refer to procedures by which courts decide that a person cannot meaningfully participate in and understand criminal trial proceedings brought against them. Such rules are designed to prevent disadvantage by ensuring that people receive a fair trial. Yet unfitness to stand trial provisions have the potential to create a separate and lesser form of justice for people with cognitive disabilities. At worst, people with cognitive disabilities found unfit to stand trial are subject to indefinite detention, including being detained for longer than if had they been convicted and sentenced in the first place. The aim of this project is to develop practical and legal solutions to the problem of people with cognitive impairments, including Indigenous people with cognitive impairments, being found “unfit to plead” and subject to indefinite detention in Australia. A secondary aim is to better ensure that people with cognitive disabilities can meaningfully participate, on an equal basis with others, in criminal proceedings brought against them. This secondary aim responds to the issue of people who may not be able to understand and meaningfully participate in a trial, but who nevertheless proceed through typical trials due to the inappropriateness or inaccessibility of unfitness rules in their current form. The project is funded as part of the Australian Government Department of Social Services, National Disability Research and Development Research Scheme. - Analyse the social, legal and policy issues leading to unfitness to plead findings and indefinite detention in Australia, with a strong focus on the experiences of Indigenous people - Provide and evaluate supported decision-making for up to 60 individuals with cognitive impairments who have been charged with a crime and who may be subject to unfitness to plead processes - Recommend options for the reform of unfitness to plead law and policy The expected outcomes are the: - Analysis of the differences and similarities in unfitness to plead laws and policy across the Australian states and territories - Development and evaluation of a practice model in supported decision-making in the criminal justice context that can be used in Australia and abroad - Creation of recommendations for law and policy reform in compliance with human rights standards. The researchers conducting the project are Chief Investigator (CI), Professor Bernadette McSherry (Foundation Director, Melbourne Social Equity Institute, University of Melbourne (UoM)); CI, Professor Kerry Arabena (Chair of Indigenous Health, UoM); CI, Professor Eileen Baldry (School of Social Sciences, University of New South Wales (UNSW)); CI, Dr Anna Arstein‐Kerslake (Academic Convenor, Hallmark Disability Research Initiative, Melbourne Law School, UoM) and Post-Doctoral Research Fellow, Dr Piers Gooding (Melbourne Law School, UoM), Research Assistant, Louis Andrews (UoM) and Research Assistant, Dr Ruth McCausland (UNSW). ‘New project to tackle the detention of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people with disabilities‘, Croakey, 6 January 2016 ‘What Making a Murderer tells us about disability and disadvantage in criminal law‘, The Conversation, 9 February 2016. ‘Disability-based disadvantage – a life sentence?‘ Pursuit, 4 April 2016. Submission to Senate Community Affairs References Committee inquiry on the indefinite detention of people with cognitive and psychiatric impairment in Australia, 21 March 2016. (See also the transcript of evidence provided by Dr Anna Arstein-Kerslake for the Committee’s hearing in Melbourne on Friday 29 April 2016). This project is jointly funded by Commonwealth, state and territory governments under the National Disability Special Account, administered by the Department of Social Services on behalf of the Commonwealth, state and territory Research and Data Working Group.

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A+ Certification/Exam Objectives/Hardware/Basics/Motherboard/Architecture/Cooling System What characteristics make a heatsink a good one? There are a number of factors to consider: High heatsink surface. It's at the surface of the heatsink where the thermal transfer takes place. Therefore, heatsinks should be designed to have a large surface; this goal can be reached by using a large amount of fine fins, or by increasing the size of the heatsink itself. Good aerodynamics. Heatsinks must be designed in a way that air can easily and quickly float through the cooler, and reach all cooling fins. Especially heatsinks having a large number of fine fins, with small distances between the fins may not allow good air flow. A compromise between high surface (many fins with small gaps between them) and good aerodynamics must be found. This also depends on the fan the heatsink is used with: A powerful fan can force air evenly through a heatsink with lots of fine fins with only small gaps for air flow - whereas on a passive heatsink, there should be fewer cooling fins with more space between them. Therefore, simply adding a fan to a large heatsink designed for fanless usage doesn't necessarily result in a good cooler. Good thermal transfer within the heatsink. Large cooling fins are pointless if the heat can't reach them, so the heatsink must be designed to allow good thermal transfer from the heat source to the fins. Thicker fins have better thermal conductivity; so again, a compromise between high surface (many thin fins) and good thermal transfer (thicker fins) must be found. Of course, the material used has a major influence on thermal transfer within the heatsink. Sometimes, heat pipes are used to lead the heat from the heat source to the parts of the fins that are further away from the heat source. Perfect flatness of the contact area. The part of the heatsink that is in contact with the heat source must be perfectly flat. A flat contact area allows you to use a thinner layer of thermal compound, which will reduce the thermal resistance between heatsink and heat source. Good and bad example for contact area flatness Good mounting method. For good thermal transfer, the pressure between heatsink and heat source must be high. Heatsink clips must be designed to provide a strong pressure, while still being reasonably easy to install. Heatsink mountings with screws/springs are often better than regular clips. Thermoconductive glue or sticky tape should only be used in situations where mounting with clips or screws isn't possible. Measuring heatsink performance; thermal resistance θ Heatsink performance is measured in °C/W (or K/W - since we're dealing with temperature differences, there is no difference between Celsius and Kelvin scale here). We refer to this as thermal resistance (θ). An example for what these values mean: if a thermal load of 20W is applied to a heatsink, and this causes the temperature of the heat source to rise by 10°C, the heatsink has a rating of 10°C/20W = 0.5°C/W. A θ value is valid only for a certain power load and a certain temperature range. The thermal resistance of standard coolers for PC CPUs is usually not specified by the heatsink manufacturers, and if it is, it's often inaccurate or intentionally skewed for marketing purposes. You cannot judge heatsink performance by comparing θ specifications from different manufacturers. The θ values specified by manufacturers specialized in heatsinks for industrial applications (especially large passive heatsinks) are usually more accurate, though. Heatsink testing is not an easy task; many of the heatsink reviews found on the countless cooling-related sites on the net are not done properly. The thermal conductivity of the heatsink's material has a major impact on cooling performance. Thermal conductivity is measured in W/mK; higher values mean better conductivity. As a rule of thumb, materials with a high electrical conductivity also have a high thermal conductivity. See this Wikipedia article for more information on thermal conductivity. Alloys have lower thermal conductivity than pure metals, but may have better mechanical or chemical (corrosion) properties. The following materials are commonly used for heatsinks: Aluminum. It has a thermal conductivity of 205W/mK, which is good (as a comparison: steel has about 50W/mK). The production of aluminum heatsinks is inexpensive; they can be made using extrusion Due to its softness, aluminum can also be milled quickly; die-casting and even cold forging are also possible (see part 2 of this guide for more information about production methods). Aluminum is also very light (thus, an aluminum heatsink will put less stress on its mounting when the unit is moved around). Copper's thermal conductivity is about twice as high as aluminum - almost 400W/mK. This makes it an excellent material for heatsinks; but its disadvantages include high weight, high price, and less choice as far as production methods are concerned. Copper heatsinks can be milled, die-cast, or made of copper plates bonded together; extrusion is not possible. To combine the advantages of aluminum and copper, heatsinks can be made of aluminum and copper bonded together. Here, the area in contact with the heat source is made of copper, which helps lead the heat away to the outer parts of the heatsink. The first heatsink for PC CPUs with an embedded copper piece was the Alpha P7125 (for first-generation Slot A Athlon CPUs). Keep in mind that a copper embedding is only useful if it is tightly bonded to the aluminum part for good thermal transfer. This is not always the case, especially not with inexpensive coolers. If the thermal transfer between the copper and the aluminum is poor, the copper embedding may do more harm than good. Alpha P7125 base plate The copper plate helps spread heat across the base plate. AVC heatsink with copper core The copper core helps the heat move to the upper parts of the heatsink. Thermalright heatsink (prototype) with large heat pipe in the center A heat pipe provides substantially better thermal transfer than a solid piece of copper. Silver has an even higher thermal conductivity than copper, but only by about 10%. This does not justify the much higher price for heatsink production - however, pulverized silver is a common ingredient in high-end thermal compounds.

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Prickly Pear Cactus Production Small Farm Center, University of California, Davis, CA 95616 Revised July 1989 The genus Opuntia includes the prickly pear, bunny ears, and beaver tail cacti. It is also called cactus pear and Indian fig (fico d'India in Italian). You may have been intrigued by the seemingly erratic growth of the prickly pear cactus, with its pads protruding at all angles; or you may have avoided it because of its sharp, barbed spines and tiny stickers. Everyone, however, can appreciate the prickly pear's large but delicate and colorful blooms and the sweet, succulent fruit. Over a period of several weeks in late spring and early summer, each pad produces several three-to-four-inch wide flowers that bloom in an array of colors, depending on the variety, from subtle to brilliant tones of yellows and oranges, pinks and reds. When the blooms fade, the edible fruits form. While the prickly pear cactus is native to the United States, Mexico, and South America, it grows well in many areas of the world, including Africa, Australia, and the Mediterranean. In some areas of South Africa and Australia, it has become a notorious weed. It will grow at elevations ranging from sea level to 15,000 feet. Large commercial plantations thrive in Mediterranean areas, and the fruit is an important agricultural crop of Sicily. In California, the D'Arrigo Brothers plantation is located in Gilroy, off Heckler Pass Road. Like most plants that thrive in a wide variety of areas, the prickly pear is tolerant of varied soils, temperatures, and moisture levels. The plants grow best in a sunny position in well-drained sandy loam with some protection from cold winter winds. Plants benefit from applications of a balanced fertilizer during their spring-through-fall growing period and, with excellent drainage, can tolerate almost as much water as any other cultivated plant. They are, however, drought tolerant once established. The pads are actually rapidly-growing flattened stems. Depending on the variety, the pads will grow from four to 16 inches long, nine inches wide, and three-quarters of an inch thick. They may be elliptical to oblong in shape, bright green to blue-gray in color, and have a smooth skin. Most of the cultivated ones are spineless, but some have single inch-long white spines. Smaller stickers (glochids), cloaked in deceptively soft-looking fuzzy patches, will penetrate the skin at the slightest touch. If you grow the prickly pear for its pads, feed with a high-nitrogen fertilizer. In warm climates, well-tended plants may be harvested of pads up to six times a year, and established plants may yield 20 to 40 one-half pound pads at each harvest. Remove the pads by carefully cutting them from their supporting pads. The best time of day to harvest the pads is from mid-morning to mid-afternoon, when the acid content in the pads is at its lowest. If you prefer more flowers and fruits, give the plants a no-nitrogen fertilizer such as 0-10-10 once a month, even through the winter. During this dormant period, the plants require a bright situation and enough water only to keep the pads from shriveling. The cactus will bloom and set fruit from early spring through the summer, depending on the variety. Each pad can support numerous flowers, each yielding one fruit. Up to 30 blooms have been counted on mature pads, but 8 to 16 is a good number to allow for development of good-sized fruits. The fruits are ripe enough to harvest when the glochids fall off. Twist, rather than pull, the fruit from the pad to avoid tearing it. If the fruits are harvested unripe, the peel color will change some, but some of the sugar in the fruit will be lost. Opuntias may be started from seeds, and will sprout readily if they are simply scattered in a shady garden bed and watered to keep the soil moist until germination. Seeds need a shady bed, whereas plants need full sun. However, growth from seed is slow, and three to four years may pass before flowers and fruits appear. Propagation from pads is simpler and faster, advises Lorraine Thomas of K&L Cactus Nursery in Galt, California. From a growing cactus, cut a pad that is at least six months old, and allow it to form callous. This will take a week or two in warm weather but longer when the air is moist. Be sure to allow more time rather than less, to avoid rot. Sit the pad upright while it forms callous so that it will not curl. The cured pads may be dipped in a Bordeaux mixture to further protect them from fungal infection. When planting the pad, settle it upright only about an inch deep in a mixture of equal parts of soil and sand or rough pumice. Planting the pad too deeply will encourage rot. In area with intense summer sun, situate the pad so that the slim side points north and south, and the broad side east and west. The sun will then pass along the narrow side during the hottest time of the day, and the pad won't sunburn. Anchor the pad in place with rocks to keep it upright, but do not water it(the moisture stored in the pad will enable it to sprout roots, and excess moisture may cause it to rot. After a month, some roots will have formed, and the pad will stand firmly by itself in the soil. Water it once then, but let it dry between future waterings. Wait several months before beginning to harvest either pads or fruit, or future harvests will lessened. Generally, the second or third pad to form will bear flowers and fruit, but a pad from an older plant may flower and set fruit sooner than a section from a younger, immature. A Variety of Uses Around the turn of the century, the plant scientist Luther Burbank researched many uses of the prickly pear cactus. Bob Hornback of Santa Rosa, California, has worked with the Luther Burbank collection for many years and done much to relocate and save specimens of these varieties. He has compiled a list of prickly pear uses from Burbank's research notes, circa 1914. Prickly pear cacti can be grown into hedges and fences by planting them a foot or so apart. Within several years, the plants will grow together to form a wall of the spiny pads protruding at all angles( a barrier that will repel any intruder larger than a rabbit. Plantings can also be made for erosion control in deforested areas. In time, cacti plants such as Opuntia ficus-indica may grow into freely-branching trees from 10 to 20 feet tall. The sap from the pads can be used in first aid similar to the aloe vera plant. Simply cutoff a portion of a pad, crush it, and squeeze the juice onto a cut, burn, or bruise. The sap will soothe the wound. Ground or pureed young pads are used as a laxative and also as a remedy for diabetes. According to Marita Cantwellde-Trejo, Extension Vegetable Postharvest Specialist at the University of California, Davis, the Mexican Institute of Nutrition in Mexico City is researching the hypoglycemic effect of cactus consumed by humans. In Central Africa, the sap from the pads served as a mosquito repellent. In 1911, Burbank noted in Scientific American, that when spread on water, it smothers mosquito larvae, and the effect lasts up to a year. The stickiness of the sap makes it useful in formulating various products. It can be extracted to make chewing gum and candles, and is used as a stiffening agent for cotton cloth. A common use in rural areas of Mexico is to boil it down into a concentrate and mix it with whitewash and mortar to increase the durability of buildings. Fresh pads provide a dependable source of food and drink for livestock and poultry. From 1906 to 1915, Burbank developed and promoted some 35 varieties of "spineless" cactus for this purpose. Charles E. Russell, of Texas A&I University, has studied some of these and other varieties as animal fodder in arid regions of Texas, Mexico, and Chile. Russell points out that the pads, when supplemented with a portion of cottonseed meal, offer all the moisture and nutrition an animal needs. Cantwell-de-Trejo adds that while there is a maximum amount of cactus pads that animals can eat (if pads make up over 50% of their diet, they will develop diarrhea), the pads may be the only source of food and water for range animals during times of drought or hardship. A wide variety of other animals has been successfully raised on the cactus pads. These include sheep, pigs, horses, ostriches (grown for their feather plumes), and at least one circus elephant. According to Russell, the pads are a highly-prized commodity in the dairy industry of Mexico. When fed to dairy stock, the pads impart a distinctive flavor to the milk and butter, and these products are highly desired locally. A mutually beneficial barter system between cacti and dairy producers provides all the manure the cactus can use in return for all the pads the dairy stock can eat. Other parts of the cactus also are useful. The pads can be pounded and dried, and the strong fibers woven into mats, baskets, fans, and fabrics. Pressed fibers can be used in making paper. The large spines are used as toothpicks, needles, and pins. Even the woody skeletons left after the fleshy tissues is dried can be used( in the construction of houses, rustic furniture, and assorted trinkets. Before commercial dependence on synthetic dyes, cactus plantations were planted for the production of red pigments. The red-colored fruit of Opuntia streptacantha contain betacyanins (similar to anthocyanins) that are used for food coloring. Carminic acid ( "cochineal" ( is produced by the cochineal insect that feeds on the pads and fruit, and is used in botanical stains and as a cloth dye. In the 16th century, the export of cochineal from Mexico was second in importance and monetary value only to silver. According to Cantwell-de-Trejo, there is a resurgence of interest in these natural pigments. Also, some Indian groups dry the pads, flower buds, and fruits for later boiling and eating. Young flower buds can be baked and eaten. Russell and Cantwell-de-Trejo concur that the prickly pear cactus is an underappreciated plant species, and they optimistically anticipate the development of future economic uses for both the pads and the fruit. Some possible uses, Russell suggests, include adapting the natural mucilage in pads as a soup thickener similar to agar, using the fruit's juice in various flavorings, and fermenting the juice into vinegar and wine ( the distillate retains a wonderfully fruity aroma. However, forbidding the spines, this cactus is definitely worth eating. The pads are "cladodes" or "nopales" when they're whole, and "nopalitos" when they're diced. They taste something like green beans. The fruits are called prickly pears, cactus pears, or "tunas." Whether you add sliced or cubed pads to omelettes or gently urge the fruit from its stickery skin and eat it fresh or cooked into jelly, this cactus has much to offer. Even the seeds can be eaten in soups or dried and ground into flour. Recipes and entertaining and informative tips on preparation can be found in Joyce L. Tate'sCactus Cookbook, available from the Cactus and Succulent Society of America. Recipes range from appetizers, soups, and salads through entrees, vegetable dishes, and breads to desserts, beverages, and candies. In Central Mexico, the pads have grown as a traditional vegetable since before the Spanish arrived. Today, the pads are available in this country throughout the year in specialty produce sections and at farmer's markets. The smaller young pads in the early spring are the most succulent, delicate in flavor, and have the fewest spines. Fresh pads are full of water and should be bright green and firm. To prepare the pad, simply hold its base and scrape the skin on both sides with a blunt knife until all the spines are removed. Then peel the pads and cut them into shoestring strips or dice them according to the needs of the recipe. They can be eaten raw in salads, boiled and fried like eggplant, pickled with spices, or cooked with shellfish, pork, chilies, tomatoes, eggs, coriander, garlic, and onions. The flavor of a ripe prickly pear cactus fruit depends on the variety but include strawberries, watermelons, honeydew melons, figs, bananas, and citrus. You can eat them raw, at room temperature or chilled, and alone or with lemon juice. They can be cooked into jams and preserves or cooked down into a syrup as a base for jelly and candy ( the "cactus candy" in some Mexican food stores. This syrup can be reduced even further into a dark red or black paste that is fermented into a potent alcoholic drink called "coloncha." The fruit pulp can be dried and ground into flour for baking into small sweet cakes, or stored for future use. Individual taste preferences will dictate which varieties to choose for eating fresh and which for cooking. In Mexico alone, there are over 100 species with edible fruits. Sam Williams, a cactus enthusiast in Carmichael, California, says that while all the fleshy fruit kinds are edible and none are poisonous, only a few are palatable and even fewer taste really sweet. They range from juicy to dry and sweet to acid. Cantwell-de-Trejo says that the acidity and fibrousness of the fruits are called "xoconochtlis" and are used in certain traditional Mexican stews and other dishes. Fruit size, shape, and color vary from small and round like a walnut to three inches long and two inches wide like a rounded cylinder. Skin and flesh come in a rainbow of colors ( white, green, yellow, orange, red, purple, and brown. White-skinned varieties are the most popular in Mexico, says Cantwell-de-Trejo, while the sweetest varieties generally available in this country have dark reddish-orange or purple skins and deep red-purple flesh. The fruit contains about one-half the amount of an orange. According to Cantwell-de-Trejo, this is its most important use in the diet of rural Mexicans. The fruits ripen from early spring through late fall, depending on the variety. Those that are best for eating fresh ripen from September through November. Charlotte Glenn of Le Marche Seeds International in Dixon, California, who works extensively with gourmet vegetables, says that the perfect stage of ripeness of each fruit lasts only about a week, and the maximum shelf life of a fruit is only eight or nine days. Many of the fruits sold in California are imported from Mexico to extend the market season. Ashley, George, The Punctured Thumb, or Cactus and Other Succulents, 101 Productions. 1977. Dawson, E. Yale, The Cacti of California, University of California Press. 1966. Everett, Thomas, Encyclopedia of Horticulture, The New York Botanical Garden, Rodale Press. 1978. Hunter, Mel, In Defense of Opuntias, Cactus & Succulent Journal. Vol. 57, September-October. 1985. Kemp, E. E., Cacti and Succulents, a Practical Handbook, E. P. Dutton and Co., Inc. 1963. Martin, Margaret , P. R. Chapman and H. A. Auger, Cacti and Their Cultivation. Charles Scribner's Sons. 1971. Mitich, Larry. Prickly Peat Cactus, Botany Department Cooperative Extension, University of California, Davis, California 95616. Russell, Charles E. and Peter Felker, The Prickly Pears (Opuntia spp.): Plants With Economic Potential, Texas A&I University, Kingsville, Texas. Tate, Joyce L., Cactus Cookbook, Succulent Cookery International, Cactus and Succulent Society of America, 1978. Cantwell-de-Trejo, Marita. Cooperative Extension Vegetable Postharvest Specialist, Vegetable Crops Department, University of California, Davis, California 95616. (916) 752-7305. Glenn, Charlotte. Le Marche Seeds International, PO Box 5656, Dixon, California. (916) 678-4125. Hornback, Bob. PO Box 683, Occidental, California 95465. (707) 823-1009. Mitich, Larry. Cooperative Extension Weed Scientist, Botany Department, University of California, Davis, California 95616. (916) 752-0612. Russell, Charles E. College of Agriculture, Texas A&I University , Campus Box 218 Kingsville, Texas 78363. (512) 595-3922. Thomas, Lorraine. K&L Nursery, 12712 Stockton Blvd., Galt, California. (209) 745-4756. Williams, Sam and Dorothy. 6240 Wildomar Way, Carmichael, California 95608. (916) 967-7988. Sources For Prickly Pear Cactus Small Quantities: Retail Outlets Clubs, and Individuals 4620 Carpinteria Ave Carpinteria, CA 93013A Sticky Business Cactus & Succulents PO Box 743 Petaluma, CA 94952Cactus and Succulent Society of America c/o Virginia Martin 2631 Fairgreen Ave Arcadia, CA 91006Cactus Pete Nursery 4949 Valley Blvd. East Los Angeles, CA 90032California Rare Fruit Growers Association California State University at Fullerton Fullerton, CA 92634Desert Botanical Garden 1201 N. Galvin Parkway Phoenix, AZ 85008Hahn's Cactus nursery 2663 Loomis Drive San Jose, CA 95121Bob Hornback PO Box 683 Occidental, CA 95465 (works with Burbank collection)House of Cactus 10580 Beach Blvd. Stanton, CA 90680La Cienega Nursery<BR8511 Sherwood Drive West Hollywood, CA 90069Lorraine Thomas Galt, CA 95632Maleenee Desert Gallery 216 S. Rosemead Blvd. Pasadena, CA 91107John Riley 3370 Princeton Court Santa Clara, CA 95051 (Has limited number of pads of select variety from Mexico grown specifically for nopales)Sacramento Cactus & Succulent Society Shepard Garden Art Center 3330 McKinley Blvd. Sacramento, CA 95816San Gabriel Valley Cactus & Succulent Society c/o Los Angeles State and County Arboretum Arcadia, CA 91006Sam Williams 6240 Wildomar Way Carmichael, CA 95608 by Yvonne Savio University of California, Davis Published June 1989. Revised July 1989. Minor correction 2012. Back to Brochures

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An adze ( / ˈ æ d z /; American English: adz) is a tool used for smoothing or carving rough-cut wood in hand woodworking. Green woodworking tools; Lithics; Primitive technology; Woodworking hand tools Woodworking is a potentially dangerous hobby. Most hand tools are very sharp, and power tools can cause serious injury, even death, when used improperly. The workshop chain is turning DIY mania into a growing franchise Subpart I: Tools – Hand and Power . 1926.304 – Woodworking tools . 1926.305 – Jacks: lever and ratchet, screw, and hydraulic Employers shall not issue or permit the use of unsafe hand tools. Wrenches shall not be used when jaws are sprung to the point that A twybil is a hand tool used for green woodworking. It is used for chopping out mortises when timber framing, or making smaller pieces such as gates. It combines chopping and levering functions in a single tool. The appearance of a twybil is that of a T-shaped double-edged axe with unusually In woodworking and carpentry, hand saws, also known as "panel saws", "fish saws", are used to cut pieces of wood into different shapes. Hand tools; Saws; Woodworking hand tools

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Pelargonium or Geranium? Pelargonium is a genus of flowering plants which includes 200 species commonly known as Geranium. Confusingly Geranium is the botanical name of a separate genus of related plants often called Cranesbill. Both genera belong to the family Geraniaceae. This Spring we have a wonderful display of Zonal, Ivy-leaved, Scented, Decora/Balcon & Variegated Zonal Geraniums and they are all locally grown in Wiltshire. Call them what you wish, but come and choose from our excellent display at Barters.

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