romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
John Locke, one of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers, based his governance philosophy in social contract theory, a subject that permeated Enlightenment political thought. The English philosopher Thomas Hobbes ushered in this new debate with his work Leviathan in 1651. Hobbes also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between civil society and the state); the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative" and based on the consent of the people; and a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid.

Q1: Who developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought?
A1: Thomas Hobbes
Q2: Thomas Hobbes ushered in the new debate of social contract theory through which work of his?
A2: Leviathan
Q3: What did John Locke base his governance philosophy on?
A3: social contract theory
Q4: What did John Locke base his governance philosphy in?
A4: social contract theory
Q5: Which English philosopher wrote Leviathan in 1651?
A5: Thomas Hobbes
Q6: Who developed the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative?"
A6: Thomas Hobbes
Q7: Which of Hobbes' ideas led to the distinction between civil society and the state?
A7: the artificial character of the political order
Both Rousseau and Locke's social contract theories rest on the presupposition of natural rights, which are not a result of law or custom, but are things that all men have in pre-political societies, and are therefore universal and inalienable. The most famous natural right formulation comes from John Locke in his Second Treatise, when he introduces the state of nature. For Locke the law of nature is grounded on mutual security, or the idea that one cannot infringe on another's natural rights, as every man is equal and has the same inalienable rights. These natural rights include perfect equality and freedom, and the right to preserve life and property. Locke also argued against slavery on the basis that enslaving yourself goes against the law of nature; you cannot surrender your own rights, your freedom is absolute and no one can take it from you. Additionally, Locke argues that one person cannot enslave another because it is morally reprehensible, although he introduces a caveat by saying that enslavement of a lawful captive in time of war would not go against one's natural rights.

Q1: How does John Locke define mutual security?
A1: the idea that one cannot infringe on another's natural rights
Q2: What do Locke's idea of natural rights include?
A2: perfect equality and freedom, and the right to preserve life and property
Q3: Why did John Locke believe that one person cannot enslave another?
A3: because it is morally reprehensible
Q4: What was John Locke's one exception to denouncing slavery?
A4: enslavement of a lawful captive in time of war would not go against one's natural rights
Q5: In which of John Locke's works are natural rights most famously defined and discussed?
A5: Second Treatise
Enlightenment era religious commentary was a response to the preceding century of religious conflict in Europe, especially the Thirty Years' War. Theologians of the Enlightenment wanted to reform their faith to its generally non-confrontational roots and to limit the capacity for religious controversy to spill over into politics and warfare while still maintaining a true faith in God. For moderate Christians, this meant a return to simple Scripture. John Locke abandoned the corpus of theological commentary in favor of an "unprejudiced examination" of the Word of God alone. He determined the essence of Christianity to be a belief in Christ the redeemer and recommended avoiding more detailed debate. Thomas Jefferson in the Jefferson Bible went further; he dropped any passages dealing with miracles, visitations of angels, and the resurrection of Jesus after his death. He tried to extract the practical Christian moral code of the New Testament.

Q1: Who dropped any passages dealing with miracles or visitations of angels from his work the Jefferson Bible?
A1: Thomas Jefferson
Q2: The Enlightenment era religious commentary was, in part, a response to which war?
A2: Thirty Years' War
Q3: What did the Enlightenment mean for moderate Christians?
A3: a return to simple Scripture
Q4: Did John Locke want to foster or avoid increased detailed debate on the essence of Christianity?
A4: avoid
The Enlightenment took hold in most European countries, often with a specific local emphasis. For example, in France it became associated with anti-government and anti-Church radicalism while in Germany it reached deep into the middle classes and where it expressed a spiritualistic and nationalistic tone without threatening governments or established churches. Government responses varied widely. In France, the government was hostile, and the philosophes fought against its censorship, sometimes being imprisoned or hounded into exile. The British government for the most part ignored the Enlightenment's leaders in England and Scotland, although it did give Isaac Newton a knighthood and a very lucrative government office.

Q1: In which country did the Enlightenment become associated with anti-government and anti-Church radicalism?
A1: France
Q2: Which of the Enlightenment's leaders did the British government give a knighthood and lucrative government office?
A2: Isaac Newton
Q3: In which country did the government respond with hostility to the Enlightenment, even imprisoning philosophes?
A3: France
Q4: Was government response to the Enlightenment uniformly positive or widely varied?
A4: varied
Q5: In which class did the Enlightenment reach deepest, expressing a nationalistic tone?
A5: middle
The Enlightenment has always been contested territory. Its supporters "hail it as the source of everything that is progressive about the modern world. For them, it stands for freedom of thought, rational inquiry, critical thinking, religious tolerance, political liberty, scientific achievement, the pursuit of happiness, and hope for the future." However, its detractors accuse it of 'shallow' rationalism, naïve optimism, unrealistic universalism, and moral darkness. From the start there was a Counter-Enlightenment in which conservative and clerical defenders of traditional religion attacked materialism and skepticism as evil forces that encouraged immorality. By 1794, they pointed to the Terror during the French Revolution as confirmation of their predictions. As the Enlightenment was ending, Romantic philosophers argued that excessive dependence on reason was a mistake perpetuated by the Enlightenment, because it disregarded the bonds of history, myth, faith and tradition that were necessary to hold society together.

Q1: By 1794, what did those against the Enlightenment point to as confirmation of their predictions?
A1: Terror during the French Revolution
Q2: Which type of philosophers argued that excessive dependence on reason was a mistake perpetuated by the Enlightenment?
A2: Romantic
Q3: What two ideas did conservative and clerical defenders of traditional religion attack as evil forces that encouraged immorality?
A3: materialism and skepticism
There is little consensus on the precise beginning of the Age of Enlightenment; the beginning of the 18th century (1701) or the middle of the 17th century (1650) are often used as epochs. French historians usually place the period, called the Siècle des Lumières (Century of Enlightenments), between 1715 and 1789, from the beginning of the reign of Louis XV until the French Revolution. If taken back to the mid-17th century, the Enlightenment would trace its origins to Descartes' Discourse on Method, published in 1637. In France, many cited the publication of Isaac Newton's Principia Mathematica in 1687. It is argued by several historians and philosophers that the beginning of the Enlightenment is when Descartes shifted the epistemological basis from external authority to internal certainty by his cogito ergo sum published in 1637. As to its end, most scholars use the last years of the century, often choosing the French Revolution of 1789 or the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars (1804–15) as a convenient point in time with which to date the end of the Enlightenment.

Q1: Most scholars use the beginning of the Napoleonic Wars or which other battle as a convenient date to end the Enlightenment?
A1: French Revolution
Q2: French historians generally use the beginning of which King's reign to date the start of the Enlightenment?
A2: Louis XV
Q3: What do French historians commonly call the Age of Enlightenment?
A3: Siècle des Lumières (Century of Enlightenments)
Q4: In what year was Descartes' Discourse on Method published?
A4: 1637
Q5: In what year was Issaac Newton's Principia Mathematica published?
A5: 1687
The creation of the public sphere has been associated with two long-term historical trends: the rise of the modern nation state and the rise of capitalism. The modern nation state, in its consolidation of public power, created by counterpoint a private realm of society independent of the state, which allowed for the public sphere. Capitalism also increased society's autonomy and self-awareness, and an increasing need for the exchange of information. As the nascent public sphere expanded, it embraced a large variety of institutions; the most commonly cited were coffee houses and cafés, salons and the literary public sphere, figuratively localized in the Republic of Letters. In France, the creation of the public sphere was helped by the aristocracy's move from the King's palace at Versailles to Paris in about 1720, since their rich spending stimulated the trade in luxuries and artistic creations, especially fine paintings.

Q1: The creation of the public sphere is associated with the rise of capitalism and which other historical trend?
A1: rise of the modern nation state
Q2: What increased society's autonomy, self-awareness, and need for exchange of information?
A2: Capitalism
Q3: In what year did the aristocracy move from the King's palace at Versailles to Paris?
A3: 1720
The desire to explore, record and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on music publications. Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Dictionnaire de musique (published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris) was a leading text in the late 18th century. This widely available dictionary gave short definitions of words like genius and taste, and was clearly influenced by the Enlightenment movement. Another text influenced by Enlightenment values was Charles Burney's A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period (1776), which was a historical survey and an attempt to rationalize elements in music systematically over time. Recently, musicologists have shown renewed interest in the ideas and consequences of the Enlightenment. For example, Rose Rosengard Subotnik's Deconstructive Variations (subtitled Music and Reason in Western Society) compares Mozart's Die Zauberflöte (1791) using the Enlightenment and Romantic perspectives, and concludes that the work is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment".

Q1: The desire to explore, record and systematize knowledge had a meaningful impact on what other form of publication?
A1: music
Q2: What publication of Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a leading text in the late 18th century and was published 1767 in Geneva and 1768 in Paris?
A2: Dictionnaire de musique
Q3: In what year was Charles Burney's A General History of Music: From the Earliest Ages to the Present Period published?
A3: 1776
Q4: What Mozart piece did Rose Rosengard Subotnik conclude is "an ideal musical representation of the Enlightenment"?
A4: Die Zauberflöte (1791)
Q5: Which two perspectives did Rose Rosengard Subotnik use to compare Mozart's Die Cauberflote?
A5: Enlightenment and Romantic
Many women played an essential part in the French Enlightenment, due to the role they played as salonnières in Parisian salons, as the contrast to the male philosophes. The salon was the principal social institution of the republic, and "became the civil working spaces of the project of Enlightenment." Women, as salonnières, were "the legitimate governors of [the] potentially unruly discourse" that took place within. While women were marginalized in the public culture of the Ancien Régime, the French Revolution destroyed the old cultural and economic restraints of patronage and corporatism (guilds), opening French society to female participation, particularly in the literary sphere.

Q1: What was the principal social institution of the republic during the French Enlightenment?
A1: salon
Q2: Was French society open or fearful of female participation in the literary sphere during the Enlightenment?
A2: open
Q3: What female occupation allowed women to play an essential part in the French Enlightenment?
A3: salonnières
Q4: Which event destroyed the former patronage and corporatism of France and allowed women to participate in society?
A4: French Revolution
The vast majority of the reading public could not afford to own a private library, and while most of the state-run "universal libraries" set up in the 17th and 18th centuries were open to the public, they were not the only sources of reading material. On one end of the spectrum was the Bibliothèque Bleue, a collection of cheaply produced books published in Troyes, France. Intended for a largely rural and semi-literate audience these books included almanacs, retellings of medieval romances and condensed versions of popular novels, among other things. While some historians have argued against the Enlightenment's penetration into the lower classes, the Bibliothèque Bleue represents at least a desire to participate in Enlightenment sociability. Moving up the classes, a variety of institutions offered readers access to material without needing to buy anything. Libraries that lent out their material for a small price started to appear, and occasionally bookstores would offer a small lending library to their patrons. Coffee houses commonly offered books, journals and sometimes even popular novels to their customers. The Tatler and The Spectator, two influential periodicals sold from 1709 to 1714, were closely associated with coffee house culture in London, being both read and produced in various establishments in the city. This is an example of the triple or even quadruple function of the coffee house: reading material was often obtained, read, discussed and even produced on the premises.

Q1: Where was Bibliotheque Bleue located?
A1: Troyes, France
Q2: For what audience were the books of the Bibliotheque Bleue written?
A2: largely rural and semi-literate
Q3: Which two influential periodicals  were closely associated with London coffee house culture and were sold from 1909 to 1714?
A3: The Tatler and The Spectator
Q4: What collection of cheaply produced books represents the lower class' desire to participate in the Enlightenment?
A4: Bibliothèque Bleue
The target audience of natural history was French polite society, evidenced more by the specific discourse of the genre than by the generally high prices of its works. Naturalists catered to polite society's desire for erudition – many texts had an explicit instructive purpose. However, natural history was often a political affair. As E. C. Spary writes, the classifications used by naturalists "slipped between the natural world and the social ... to establish not only the expertise of the naturalists over the natural, but also the dominance of the natural over the social". The idea of taste (le goût) was a social indicator: to truly be able to categorize nature, one had to have the proper taste, an ability of discretion shared by all members of polite society. In this way natural history spread many of the scientific developments of the time, but also provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class. From this basis, naturalists could then develop their own social ideals based on their scientific works.

Q1: Who was the target audience of natural history?
A1: French polite society
Q2: Many texts had explicit instructive purposes as Naturalists catered to polite society's desire for what?
A2: erudition
Q3: The idea of what quality was a social indicator that provided a new source of legitimacy for the dominant class?
A3: taste (le goût)
Q4: Was the target audience of natural history evidenced more by the price of publications or its specific discourse of the genre?
A4: specific discourse of the genre
The first technical dictionary was drafted by John Harris and entitled Lexicon Technicum: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences. Harris' book avoided theological and biographical entries; instead it concentrated on science and technology. Published in 1704, the Lexicon technicum was the first book to be written in English that took a methodical approach to describing mathematics and commercial arithmetic along with the physical sciences and navigation. Other technical dictionaries followed Harris' model, including Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopaedia (1728), which included five editions, and was a substantially larger work than Harris'. The folio edition of the work even included foldout engravings. The Cyclopaedia emphasized Newtonian theories, Lockean philosophy, and contained thorough examinations of technologies, such as engraving, brewing, and dyeing.

Q1: Who drafted the first technical dictionary?
A1: John Harris
Q2: What was the first technical dictionary drafted by John Harris titled?
A2: Lexicon Technicum: Or, An Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences
Q3: Did the Lexicon Technicum focus on theological and biographical entries or science and technology?
A3: science and technology
Q4: What year was the Lexicon Technicum published?
A4: 1704
Q5: In what language was the Lexicon Technicum written?
A5: English
The first significant work that expressed scientific theory and knowledge expressly for the laity, in the vernacular, and with the entertainment of readers in mind, was Bernard de Fontenelle's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686). The book was produced specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing and inspired a variety of similar works. These popular works were written in a discursive style, which was laid out much more clearly for the reader than the complicated articles, treatises, and books published by the academies and scientists. Charles Leadbetter's Astronomy (1727) was advertised as "a Work entirely New" that would include "short and easie  [sic] Rules and Astronomical Tables." The first French introduction to Newtonianism and the Principia was Eléments de la philosophie de Newton, published by Voltaire in 1738. Émilie du Châtelet's translation of the Principia, published after her death in 1756, also helped to spread Newton's theories beyond scientific academies and the university. Francesco Algarotti, writing for a growing female audience, published Il Newtonianism per le dame, which was a tremendously popular work and was translated from Italian into English by Elizabeth Carter. A similar introduction to Newtonianism for women was produced by Henry Pembarton. His A View of Sir Isaac Newton's Philosophy was published by subscription. Extant records of subscribers show that women from a wide range of social standings purchased the book, indicating the growing number of scientifically inclined female readers among the middling class. During the Enlightenment, women also began producing popular scientific works themselves. Sarah Trimmer wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782), which was published for many years after in eleven editions.

Q1: What book was published in 1686 specifically for women with an interest in scientific writing?
A1: Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds
Q2: Who was the author of Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686)?
A2: Bernard de Fontenelle
Q3: Who wrote a successful natural history textbook for children titled The Easy Introduction to the Knowledge of Nature (1782)?
A3: Sarah Trimmer
Q4: How many editions were published of Sarah Trimmer's history textbook for children?
A4: eleven
Q5: Emilie du Chatelet's translation of what Newton work was published after her death in 1756?
A5: Principia
The strongest contribution of the French Academies to the public sphere comes from the concours académiques (roughly translated as 'academic contests') they sponsored throughout France. These academic contests were perhaps the most public of any institution during the Enlightenment. The practice of contests dated back to the Middle Ages, and was revived in the mid-17th century. The subject matter had previously been generally religious and/or monarchical, featuring essays, poetry, and painting. By roughly 1725, however, this subject matter had radically expanded and diversified, including "royal propaganda, philosophical battles, and critical ruminations on the social and political institutions of the Old Regime." Topics of public controversy were also discussed such as the theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women's education, and justice in France.

Q1: The practice of contests dates back to what time period?
A1: Middle Ages
Q2: Previous to 1725, what subject matter was focused on by the concours academiques?
A2: generally religious and/or monarchical
Q3: Which topics of public controversy became more widely discussed around 1725?
A3: theories of Newton and Descartes, the slave trade, women's education, and justice
Q4: Were the concours academiques public or private matters?
A4: public
The first English coffeehouse opened in Oxford in 1650. Brian Cowan said that Oxford coffeehouses developed into "penny universities", offering a locus of learning that was less formal than structured institutions. These penny universities occupied a significant position in Oxford academic life, as they were frequented by those consequently referred to as the "virtuosi", who conducted their research on some of the resulting premises. According to Cowan, "the coffeehouse was a place for like-minded scholars to congregate, to read, as well as learn from and to debate with each other, but was emphatically not a university institution, and the discourse there was of a far different order than any university tutorial."

Q1: Where did the first English coffeehouse open in 1650?
A1: Oxford
Q2: According to Brian Cowan, was learning more or less formal in coffehouses as opposed to private institutions?
A2: less
Q3: What term did Brian Cowan give Oxford coffeehouses?
A3: penny universities
Historians have long debated the extent to which the secret network of Freemasonry was a main factor in the Enlightenment. The leaders of the Enlightenment included Freemasons such as Diderot, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Pope, Horace Walpole, Sir Robert Walpole, Mozart, Goethe, Frederick the Great, Benjamin Franklin, and George Washington. Norman Davies said that Freemasonry was a powerful force on behalf of Liberalism in Europe, from about 1700 to the twentieth century. It expanded rapidly during the Age of Enlightenment, reaching practically every country in Europe. It was especially attractive to powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists.

Q1: Diderot, Voltaire, Mozart, Goethe, and Benjamin Franklin were all members of what secret network?
A1: Freemasonry
Q2: To whom was Freemasonry most attractive?
A2: powerful aristocrats and politicians as well as intellectuals, artists and political activists
Q3: Freemasonry expanded rapidly to nearly every country in which continent?
A3: Europe