romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
The framers of the US Constitution were influenced by the Constitution of the Republic of the United Provinces, as Federalist No. 20, by James Madison, shows. Such influence appears, however, to have been of a negative nature, as Madison describes the Dutch confederacy as exhibiting "Imbecility in the government; discord among the provinces; foreign influence and indignities; a precarious existence in peace, and peculiar calamities from war." Apart from this, the American Declaration of Independence is similar to the Act of Abjuration, essentially the declaration of independence of the United Provinces, but concrete evidence that the former directly influenced the latter is absent.

Q1: Who was influenced by the Constitution of the Republic of the United Provinces?
A1: The framers of the US Constitution
Q2: Who described the Dutch confederacy as exhibiting "Imbecility in the government; discord among the provinces; foreign influence and indignities; a precarious existence in peace, and peculiar calamities from war."
A2: James Madison
Q3: The American Declaration of Independence is similar to what?
A3: the Act of Abjuration, essentially the declaration of independence of the United Provinces
In the Union of Utrecht of 20 January 1579, Holland and Zeeland were granted the right to accept only one religion (in practice, Calvinism). Every other province had the freedom to regulate the religious question as it wished, although the Union stated every person should be free in the choice of personal religion and that no person should be prosecuted based on religious choice. William of Orange had been a strong supporter of public and personal freedom of religion and hoped to unite Protestants and Catholics in the new union, and, for him, the Union was a defeat. In practice, Catholic services in all provinces were quickly forbidden, and the Reformed Church became the "public" or "privileged" church in the Republic.

Q1: What granted Holland and Zeeland the right to accept only one religion?
A1: the Union of Utrecht of 20 January 1579
Q2: What did the Union state that every person should be free to choose?
A2: personal religion
Q3: Who was a strong supporter of freedom of religion and wanted to unite Protestants and Catholics in the new union?
A3: William of Orange
Q4: What was forbidden in all provinces?
A4: Catholic services
During the Republic, any person who wished to hold public office had to conform to the Reformed Church and take an oath to this effect. The extent to which different religions or denominations were persecuted depended much on the time period and regional or city leaders. In the beginning, this was especially focused on Roman Catholics, being the religion of the enemy. In 17th-century Leiden, for instance, people opening their homes to services could be fined 200 guilders (a year's wage for a skilled tradesman) and banned from the city. Throughout this, however, personal freedom of religion existed and was one factor – along with economic reasons – in causing large immigration of religious refugees from other parts of Europe.

Q1: What did any person who wanted to hold public office need to conform to during the Republic?
A1: the Reformed Church
Q2: The degree to which different religions were persecuted depended on what?
A2: the time period and regional or city leaders
Q3: What was the punishment for people who opened their homes to Catholic services during 17th-century Leiden?
A3: fined 200 guilders (a year's wage for a skilled tradesman) and banned from the city
Q4: What was one reason for the large amounts of immigration of religious refugees from other parts of Europe?
A4: personal freedom of religion
In the first years of the Republic, controversy arose within the Reformed Church, mainly around the subject of predestination. This has become known as the struggle between Arminianism and Gomarism, or between Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants. In 1618 the Synod of Dort tackled this issue, which led to the banning of the Remonstrant faith.

Q1: What was the main subject of controversy that arose within the Reformed Church during the beginning of the Republic?
A1: predestination
Q2: The controversy surrounding the subject of predestination is known as what?
A2: the struggle between Arminianism and Gomarism, or between Remonstrants and Contra-Remonstrants
Q3: What led to the banning of the Remonstrant faith in 1618?
A3: the Synod of Dort
Beginning in the 18th century, the situation changed from more or less active persecution of religious services to a state of restricted toleration of other religions, as long as their services took place secretly in private churches.

Q1: When did the active persecution of religious services become more of a restricted tolerance?
A1: in the 18th century
Q2: Religious services for other religions were tolerated as long as they adhered to what rule?
A2: as long as their services took place secretly in private churches
Symbiosis (from Greek σύν "together" and βίωσις "living") is close and often long-term interaction between two different biological species. In 1877 Albert Bernhard Frank used the word symbiosis (which previously had been used to depict people living together in community) to describe the mutualistic relationship in lichens. In 1879, the German mycologist Heinrich Anton de Bary defined it as "the living together of unlike organisms."

Q1: What language does the word "symbiosis" come from?
A1: Greek
Q2: What type of organism did Frank apply the term "symbiosis" to?
A2: lichens
Q3: What nationality was Heinrich Anton de Bary?
A3: German
The definition of symbiosis has varied among scientists. Some believe symbiosis should only refer to persistent mutualisms, while others believe it should apply to any type of persistent biological interaction (in other words mutualistic, commensalistic, or parasitic). After 130 years of debate, current biology and ecology textbooks now use the latter "de Bary" definition or an even broader definition (where symbiosis means all species interactions), with the restrictive definition no longer used (in other words, symbiosis means mutualism).

Q1: How long did it take for scientists to stop using the narrow definition of symbiosis?
A1: 130 years
Some symbiotic relationships are obligate, meaning that both symbionts entirely depend on each other for survival. For example, many lichens consist of fungal and photosynthetic symbionts that cannot live on their own. Others are facultative (optional): they can, but do not have to live with the other organism.

Q1: What is the type of symbiotic relationship where two organisms can't survive without each other?
A1: obligate
Q2: What is the type of symbiotic relationship where the symbionts can live together but can also survive alone?
A2: facultative
Q3: What is an example of an obligate relationship?
A3: lichens
Symbiotic relationships include those associations in which one organism lives on another (ectosymbiosis, such as mistletoe), or where one partner lives inside the other (endosymbiosis, such as lactobacilli and other bacteria in humans or Symbiodinium in corals). Symbiosis is also classified by physical attachment of the organisms; symbiosis in which the organisms have bodily union is called conjunctive symbiosis, and symbiosis in which they are not in union is called disjunctive symbiosis.

Q1: What is an example of ectosymbiosis?
A1: mistletoe
Q2: What is it called when the organisms are not physically joined?
A2: disjunctive symbiosis
Q3: What is it called when one symbiont lives within its partner?
A3: endosymbiosis
Endosymbiosis is any symbiotic relationship in which one symbiont lives within the tissues of the other, either within the cells or extracellularly. Examples include diverse microbiomes, rhizobia, nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live in root nodules on legume roots; actinomycete nitrogen-fixing bacteria called Frankia, which live in alder tree root nodules; single-celled algae inside reef-building corals; and bacterial endosymbionts that provide essential nutrients to about 10%–15% of insects.

Q1: What do bacterial endosymbionts give necessary nutrition to?
A1: insects
Q2: What is the name of a bacteria inside of tree roots?
A2: Frankia
Q3: What endosymbionts live in coral?
A3: algae
Ectosymbiosis, also referred to as exosymbiosis, is any symbiotic relationship in which the symbiont lives on the body surface of the host, including the inner surface of the digestive tract or the ducts of exocrine glands. Examples of this include ectoparasites such as lice, commensal ectosymbionts such as the barnacles that attach themselves to the jaw of baleen whales, and mutualist ectosymbionts such as cleaner fish.

Q1: What organisms are described as living on the surface of whales?
A1: barnacles
Q2: Name a parasitic ectosymbiont.
A2: lice
Q3: What is another name for ectosymbiosis?
A3: exosymbiosis
Mutualism or interspecies reciprocal altruism is a relationship between individuals of different species where both individuals benefit. In general, only lifelong interactions involving close physical and biochemical contact can properly be considered symbiotic. Mutualistic relationships may be either obligate for both species, obligate for one but facultative for the other, or facultative for both. Many biologists restrict the definition of symbiosis to close mutualist relationships.

Q1: What is another term for mutualism?
A1: interspecies reciprocal altruism
Q2: Of what duration are symbiotic relationships?
A2: lifelong
A large percentage of herbivores have mutualistic gut flora that help them digest plant matter, which is more difficult to digest than animal prey. This gut flora is made up of cellulose-digesting protozoans or bacteria living in the herbivores' intestines. Coral reefs are the result of mutualisms between coral organisms and various types of algae that live inside them. Most land plants and land ecosystems rely on mutualisms between the plants, which fix carbon from the air, and mycorrhyzal fungi, which help in extracting water and minerals from the ground.

Q1: What type of relationship do herbivores have with the bacteria in their intestines?
A1: mutualistic
Q2: What do coral and algae produce together?
A2: Coral reefs
Q3: How do plants contribute to terrestrial ecosystems?
A3: fix carbon from the air
Q4: What type of fungus draws liquid and minerals out of the earth?
A4: mycorrhyzal
An example of mutual symbiosis is the relationship between the ocellaris clownfish that dwell among the tentacles of Ritteri sea anemones. The territorial fish protects the anemone from anemone-eating fish, and in turn the stinging tentacles of the anemone protect the clownfish from its predators. A special mucus on the clownfish protects it from the stinging tentacles.

Q1: What lives with Ritteri sea anemones?
A1: ocellaris clownfish
Q2: What prevents the clownfish from being stung?
A2: A special mucus
Q3: What type of relationship do the clownfish and anemone have?
A3: mutual symbiosis
A further example is the goby fish, which sometimes lives together with a shrimp. The shrimp digs and cleans up a burrow in the sand in which both the shrimp and the goby fish live. The shrimp is almost blind, leaving it vulnerable to predators when outside its burrow. In case of danger the goby fish touches the shrimp with its tail to warn it. When that happens both the shrimp and goby fish quickly retreat into the burrow. Different species of gobies (Elacatinus spp.) also exhibit mutualistic behavior through cleaning up ectoparasites in other fish.

Q1: What species does this shrimp have a relationship with?
A1: the goby fish
Q2: What part of the fish is used to signal danger?
A2: its tail
Another non-obligate symbiosis is known from encrusting bryozoans and hermit crabs that live in a close relationship. The bryozoan colony (Acanthodesia commensale) develops a cirumrotatory growth and offers the crab (Pseudopagurus granulimanus) a helicospiral-tubular extension of its living chamber that initially was situated within a gastropod shell.

Q1: What type of symbiosis seen between bryozoans and hermit crabs?
A1: non-obligate
One of the most spectacular examples of obligate mutualism is between the siboglinid tube worms and symbiotic bacteria that live at hydrothermal vents and cold seeps. The worm has no digestive tract and is wholly reliant on its internal symbionts for nutrition. The bacteria oxidize either hydrogen sulfide or methane, which the host supplies to them. These worms were discovered in the late 1980s at the hydrothermal vents near the Galapagos Islands and have since been found at deep-sea hydrothermal vents and cold seeps in all of the world's oceans.

Q1: When were the worms found?
A1: the late 1980s
Q2: What does the bacteria give the worm?
A2: nutrition
Q3: What land is near the worms' first known location?
A3: the Galapagos Islands
During mutualistic symbioses, the host cell lacks some of the nutrients, which are provided by the endosymbiont. As a result, the host favors endosymbiont's growth processes within itself by producing some specialized cells. These cells affect the genetic composition of the host in order to regulate the increasing population of the endosymbionts and ensuring that these genetic changes are passed onto the offspring via vertical transmission (heredity).

Q1: What is given to the host cell?
A1: nutrients
Q2: What does the host make that affect its genes?
A2: specialized cells
Q3: In what manner are the described genetic alternations given to future generations?
A3: vertical transmission
Adaptation of the endosymbiont to the host's lifestyle leads to many changes in the endosymbiont–the foremost being drastic reduction in its genome size. This is due to many genes being lost during the process of metabolism, and DNA repair and recombination. While important genes participating in the DNA to RNA transcription, protein translation and DNA/RNA replication are retained. That is, a decrease in genome size is due to loss of protein coding genes and not due to lessening of inter-genic regions or open reading frame (ORF) size. Thus, species that are naturally evolving and contain reduced sizes of genes can be accounted for an increased number of noticeable differences between them, thereby leading to changes in their evolutionary rates. As the endosymbiotic bacteria related with these insects are passed on to the offspring strictly via vertical genetic transmission, intracellular bacteria goes through many hurdles during the process, resulting in the decrease in effective population sizes when compared to the free living bacteria. This incapability of the endosymbiotic bacteria to reinstate its wild type phenotype via a recombination process is called as Muller's ratchet phenomenon. Muller's ratchet phenomenon together with less effective population sizes has led to an accretion of deleterious mutations in the non-essential genes of the intracellular bacteria. This could have been due to lack of selection mechanisms prevailing in the rich environment of the host.

Q1: What is the main alteration in an endosymbiont when it adapts to a host?
A1: drastic reduction in its genome size
Q2: What is the term that describes the way the endosymbiont can't go back to its original phenotype?
A2: Muller's ratchet phenomenon
Q3: What does the article say could be the reason for the buildup of harmful mutations?
A3: lack of selection mechanisms
Commensalism describes a relationship between two living organisms where one benefits and the other is not significantly harmed or helped. It is derived from the English word commensal used of human social interaction. The word derives from the medieval Latin word, formed from com- and mensa, meaning "sharing a table".

Q1: What language do the roots of "commensal" come from?
A1: Latin
Q2: What type of symbiotic relationship helps one organism and doesn't have a major affect on the other?
A2: Commensalism
Commensal relationships may involve one organism using another for transportation (phoresy) or for housing (inquilinism), or it may also involve one organism using something another created, after its death (metabiosis). Examples of metabiosis are hermit crabs using gastropod shells to protect their bodies and spiders building their webs on plants.

Q1: What is the term for a relationship where one organism provides a dwelling for the other?
A1: inquilinism
Q2: What type of relationship is it when arachnids attach webs to dead plants?
A2: metabiosis
Q3: In what type of relationship does an organism travel by means of another?
A3: phoresy
A parasitic relationship is one in which one member of the association benefits while the other is harmed. This is also known as antagonistic or antipathetic symbiosis. Parasitic symbioses take many forms, from endoparasites that live within the host's body to ectoparasites that live on its surface. In addition, parasites may be necrotrophic, which is to say they kill their host, or biotrophic, meaning they rely on their host's surviving. Biotrophic parasitism is an extremely successful mode of life. Depending on the definition used, as many as half of all animals have at least one parasitic phase in their life cycles, and it is also frequent in plants and fungi. Moreover, almost all free-living animals are host to one or more parasite taxa. An example of a biotrophic relationship would be a tick feeding on the blood of its host.

Q1: Antagonistic or antipathetic symbiosis are alternate names for what?
A1: A parasitic relationship
Q2: What is it called when organisms are lethal to their host?
A2: necrotrophic
Q3: What is it called when parasites need their host to live?
A3: biotrophic
Q4: What proportion of animals go through a parasitic stage?
A4: as many as half
Q5: Name a biotrophic organism.
A5: a tick
Amensalism is the type of relationship that exists where one species is inhibited or completely obliterated and one is unaffected. This type of symbiosis is relatively uncommon in rudimentary reference texts, but is omnipresent in the natural world.[citation needed] There are two types of amensalism, competition and antibiosis. Competition is where a larger or stronger organisms deprives a smaller or weaker one from a resource. Antibiosis occurs when one organism is damaged or killed by another through a chemical secretion. An example of competition is a sapling growing under the shadow of a mature tree. The mature tree can begin to rob the sapling of necessary sunlight and, if the mature tree is very large, it can take up rainwater and deplete soil nutrients. Throughout the process the mature tree is unaffected. Indeed, if the sapling dies, the mature tree gains nutrients from the decaying sapling. Note that these nutrients become available because of the sapling's decomposition, rather than from the living sapling, which would be a case of parasitism.[citation needed] An example of antibiosis is Juglans nigra (black walnut), secreting juglone, a substance which destroys many herbaceous plants within its root zone.

Q1: What is the name for the kind of symbiosis in which one organism is seriously harmed and there is no affect on the other?
A1: Amensalism
Q2: What kinds of amensalism are there?
A2: competition and antibiosis
Q3: When a large tree takes the resources a young tree needs, what type of amensalism is it?
A3: competition
Q4: What does the black walnut give out that kills plants?
A4: juglone
Amensalism is an interaction where an organism inflicts harm to another organism without any costs or benefits received by the other. A clear case of amensalism is where sheep or cattle trample grass. Whilst the presence of the grass causes negligible detrimental effects to the animal's hoof, the grass suffers from being crushed. Amensalism is often used to describe strongly asymmetrical competitive interactions, such as has been observed between the Spanish ibex and weevils of the genus Timarcha which feed upon the same type of shrub. Whilst the presence of the weevil has almost no influence on food availability, the presence of ibex has an enormous detrimental effect on weevil numbers, as they consume significant quantities of plant matter and incidentally ingest the weevils upon it.

Q1: What organisms is the ibex in an amensalistic relationship with?
A1: weevils
Q2: What does the Spanish ibex eat?
A2: shrub
Q3: What type of relationship is it when large animals crush small plants?
A3: Amensalism
Synnecrosis is a rare type of symbiosis in which the interaction between species is detrimental to both organisms involved. It is a short-lived condition, as the interaction eventually causes death. Because of this, evolution selects against synnecrosis and it is uncommon in nature. An example of this is the relationship between some species of bees and victims of the bee sting. Species of bees who die after stinging their prey inflict pain on themselves (albeit to protect the hive) as well as on the victim. This term is rarely used.

Q1: What type of relationship harms both organisms?
A1: Synnecrosis
Q2: What is the ultimate result of synnecrosis?
A2: death
Q3: How common is synnecrosis in the natural world?
A3: uncommon
Q4: Why do bees sting even though it will kill them?
A4: to protect the hive
While historically, symbiosis has received less attention than other interactions such as predation or competition, it is increasingly recognized as an important selective force behind evolution, with many species having a long history of interdependent co-evolution. In fact, the evolution of all eukaryotes (plants, animals, fungi, and protists) is believed under the endosymbiotic theory to have resulted from a symbiosis between various sorts of bacteria. This theory is supported by certain organelles dividing independently of the cell, and the observation that some organelles seem to have their own nucleic acid.

Q1: What far-reaching result do scientists think has come about from symbiosis with bacteria?
A1: the evolution of all eukaryotes
Q2: What are eukaryotes?
A2: plants, animals, fungi, and protists
The biologist Lynn Margulis, famous for her work on endosymbiosis, contends that symbiosis is a major driving force behind evolution. She considers Darwin's notion of evolution, driven by competition, to be incomplete and claims that evolution is strongly based on co-operation, interaction, and mutual dependence among organisms. According to Margulis and Dorion Sagan, "Life did not take over the globe by combat, but by networking."

Q1: What does Margulis think is the main driver of evolution?
A1: symbiosis
Q2: Who agrees with Margulis' cooperative view of evolution?
A2: Dorion Sagan
Symbiosis played a major role in the co-evolution of flowering plants and the animals that pollinate them. Many plants that are pollinated by insects, bats, or birds have highly specialized flowers modified to promote pollination by a specific pollinator that is also correspondingly adapted. The first flowering plants in the fossil record had relatively simple flowers. Adaptive speciation quickly gave rise to many diverse groups of plants, and, at the same time, corresponding speciation occurred in certain insect groups. Some groups of plants developed nectar and large sticky pollen, while insects evolved more specialized morphologies to access and collect these rich food sources. In some taxa of plants and insects the relationship has become dependent, where the plant species can only be pollinated by one species of insect.

Q1: How big a part did symbiosis have in the development of flowering plants and their pollinators?
A1: a major role
Q2: What did some plants produce when flowers became less simple?
A2: nectar and large sticky pollen
Q3: What is the word for the kind of relationship in which a plant depend on a single type of insect?
A3: dependent