romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
The emergence of Vedanta school represented a period when a more knowledge-centered understanding began to emerge. These focussed on jnana (knowledge) driven aspects of the Vedic religion and the Upanishads. This included metaphysical concepts such as ātman and Brahman, and emphasized meditation, self-discipline, self-knowledge and abstract spirituality, rather than ritualism. The Upanishads were variously interpreted by ancient and medieval era Vedanta scholars. Consequently, the Vedanta separated into many sub-schools, ranging from theistic dualism to non-theistic monism, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries.

Q1: What did the Vedanta school represent in Hindu philosophy?
A1: knowledge-centered understanding
Q2: On what aspects of Vedic did the Vedanta understanding focus?
A2: jnana
Q3: On what did the Vedanta school lessen focus?
A3: ritualism
Q4: Due to differences in text interpretations,into  what did the Vedanta school separate?
A4: many sub-schools
Q5: What metaphysical concepts were included in the Vedanta school?
A5: ātman and Brahman
Advaita literally means "not two, sole, unity". It is a sub-school of Vedanta, and asserts spiritual and universal non-dualism. Its metaphysics is a form of absolute monism, that is all ultimate reality is interconnected oneness. This is the oldest and most widely acknowledged Vedantic school. The foundational texts of this school are the Brahma Sutras and the early Upanishads from the 1st millennium BCE. Its first great consolidator was the 8th century scholar Adi Shankara, who continued the line of thought of the Upanishadic teachers, and that of his teacher's teacher Gaudapada. He wrote extensive commentaries on the major Vedantic scriptures and is celebrated as one of the major Hindu philosophers from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived.

Q1: What means
A1: Advaita
According to this school of Vedanta, all reality is Brahman, and there exists nothing whatsoever which is not Brahman. Its metaphysics includes the concept of māyā and ātman. Māyā connotes "that which exists, but is constantly changing and thus is spiritually unreal". The empirical reality is considered as always changing and therefore "transitory, incomplete, misleading and not what it appears to be". The concept of ātman is of soul, self within each person, each living being. Advaita Vedantins assert that ātman is same as Brahman, and this Brahman is within each human being and all life, all living beings are spiritually interconnected, and there is oneness in all of existence. They hold that dualities and misunderstanding of māyā as the spiritual reality that matters is caused by ignorance, and are the cause of sorrow, suffering. Jīvanmukti (liberation during life) can be achieved through Self-knowledge, the understanding that ātman within is same as ātman in another person and all of Brahman – the eternal, unchanging, entirety of cosmic principles and true reality.

Q1: According to a school of Vedanta, what is all reality?
A1: Brahman
Q2: What concepts of metaphysics are included in Vedanta?
A2: māyā and ātman
Q3: How is the reality of maya viewed in Vedanta?
A3: always changing
Q4: To what does the concept of atman refer?
A4: soul
Q5: To what do Advaita Vedantins view atman as the same?
A5: Brahman
Ramanuja (c. 1037–1137) was the foremost proponent of the philosophy of Viśiṣṭādvaita or qualified non-dualism. Viśiṣṭādvaita advocated the concept of a Supreme Being with essential qualities or attributes. Viśiṣṭādvaitins argued against the Advaitin conception of Brahman as an impersonal empty oneness. They saw Brahman as an eternal oneness, but also as the source of all creation, which was omnipresent and actively involved in existence. To them the sense of subject-object perception was illusory and a sign of ignorance. However, the individual's sense of self was not a complete illusion since it was derived from the universal beingness that is Brahman. Ramanuja saw Vishnu as a personification of Brahman.

Q1: What is the philosophy of dualism?
A1: Viśiṣṭādvaita
Q2: Who was the leader in pushing the philosophy of Visistadvaita?
A2: Ramanuja
Q3: When did Ramanuja live?
A3: c. 1037–1137
Q4: For the existence of what did the Visistadvaita philosophy argue?
A4: Supreme Being
Q5: What being did Ramanuja believe was the personification of Brahman
A5: Vishnu
Dvaita Vedanta is a dualistic interpretation of the Vedas, espouses dualism by theorizing the existence of two separate realities. The first and the only independent reality, states the Dvaita school, is that of Vishnu or Brahman. Vishnu is the supreme Self, in a manner similar to monotheistic God in other major religions. The distinguishing factor of Dvaita philosophy, as opposed to monistic Advaita Vedanta, is that God takes on a personal role and is seen as a real eternal entity that governs and controls the universe. Like Vishishtadvaita Vedanta subschool, Dvaita philosophy also embraced Vaishnavism, with the metaphysical concept of Brahman in the Vedas identified with Vishnu and the one and only Supreme Being. However, unlike Vishishtadvaita which envisions ultimate qualified nondualism, the dualism of Dvaita was permanent.

Q1: Of what does Dvaita Vedanta theorize the existence?
A1: two separate realities
Q2: To what entity is the Vedanta Vishnu similar in other religions?
A2: monotheistic God
Q3: How is the God of Dvaita different from that of Advaita in actions?
A3: takes on a personal role
Q4: As what did the Dvaita school view dualism?
A4: permanent
Q5: Who did the Dvaita school identify as the Supreme Being?
A5: Vishnu
Dvaitādvaita was proposed by Nimbarka, a 13th-century Vaishnava Philosopher from the Andhra region. According to this philosophy there are three categories of existence: Brahman, soul, and matter. Soul and matter are different from Brahman in that they have attributes and capacities different from Brahman. Brahman exists independently, while soul and matter are dependent. Thus soul and matter have an existence that is separate yet dependent. Further, Brahman is a controller, the soul is the enjoyer, and matter the thing enjoyed. Also, the highest object of worship is Krishna and his consort Radha, attended by thousands of gopis; of the Vrindavan; and devotion consists in self-surrender.

Q1: What early philosopher proposed Dvaitadvaita?
A1: Nimbarka
Q2: In what century did Nimbarka live?
A2: 13th-century
Q3: How many categories of existence are there in Dvaitadvaita?
A3: three
Q4: What are the categories of existence in Dvaitadvaita?
A4: Brahman, soul, and matter
Q5: Who is named as the highest entity worshiped in Dvaitadvaita?
A5: Krishna
Early history of Shaivism is difficult to determine. However, the Śvetāśvatara Upanishad (400 – 200 BCE) is considered to be the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism. Shaivism is represented by various philosophical schools, including non-dualist (abheda), dualist (bheda), and non-dualist-with-dualist (bhedābheda) perspectives. Vidyaranya in his works mentions three major schools of Shaiva thought— Pashupata Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta and Pratyabhijña (Kashmir Shaivism).

Q1: In what text is Shaivism recounted?
A1: Śvetāśvatara Upanishad
Q2: When was the text on Shaivism written?
A2: 400 – 200 BCE
Q3: Who reported the major schools of Shaivism?
A3: Vidyaranya
Q4: How many major schools of Shaivism did Vidyaranya mention?
A4: three
Q5: What is the Kashmir Shaivism mentioned by Vidyaranya?
A5: Pratyabhijña
Pāśupata Shaivism (Pāśupata, "of Paśupati") is the oldest of the major Shaiva schools. The philosophy of Pashupata sect was systematized by Lakulish in the 2nd century CE. Paśu in Paśupati refers to the effect (or created world), the word designates that which is dependent on something ulterior. Whereas, Pati means the cause (or principium), the word designates the Lord, who is the cause of the universe, the pati, or the ruler. Pashupatas disapproved of Vaishnava theology, known for its doctrine servitude of souls to the Supreme Being, on the grounds that dependence upon anything could not be the means of cessation of pain and other desired ends. They recognised that those depending upon another and longing for independence will not be emancipated because they still depend upon something other than themselves. According to Pāśupatas, soul possesses the attributes of the Supreme Deity when it becomes liberated from the 'germ of every pain'.

Q1: What is the oldest school of Shaivism?
A1: Pāśupata Shaivism
Q2: Who organized the Pasupata philosophy?
A2: Lakulish
Q3: When did Lakulish systematize the Pasupata Shaivism?
A3: 2nd century CE
Q4: What school of philosophy did the Pasupatas dislike?
A4: Vaishnava theology
Q5: What aspect of Vaishnava was unpalatable for the Pasupatas?
A5: servitude of souls
Pāśupatas divided the created world into the insentient and the sentient. The insentient was the unconscious and thus dependent on the sentient or conscious. The insentient was further divided into effects and causes. The effects were of ten kinds, the earth, four elements and their qualities, colour etc. The causes were of thirteen kinds, the five organs of cognition, the five organs of action, the three internal organs, intellect, the ego principle and the cognising principle. These insentient causes were held responsible for the illusive identification of Self with non-Self. Salvation in Pāśupata involved the union of the soul with God through the intellect.

Q1: What group divided the world into two parts?
A1: Pāśupatas
Q2: Into what parts did the Pasupatas divide the world?
A2: insentient and the sentient
Q3: In what staet was the insentient considered to be?
A3: unconscious
Q4: How was the sentient seen as being?
A4: conscious
Q5: For the Pasupatas, how was the union of the soul with God achieved?
A5: through the intellect
Even though, both Kashmir Shaivism and Advaita Vedanta are non-dual philosophies which give primacy to Universal Consciousness (Chit or Brahman), in Kashmir Shavisim, as opposed to Advaita, all things are a manifestation of this Consciousness. This implies that from the point of view of Kashmir Shavisim, the phenomenal world (Śakti) is real, and it exists and has its being in Consciousness (Chit). Whereas, Advaita holds that Brahman is inactive (niṣkriya) and the phenomenal world is an illusion (māyā). The objective of human life, according to Kashmir Shaivism, is to merge in Shiva or Universal Consciousness, or to realize one's already existing identity with Shiva, by means of wisdom, yoga and grace.

Q1: What type of philosophy does both Kasmir Shaivism and Advaita Vedanta share?
A1: non-dual
Q2: What aspect do non-dual philosophies give to the highest order of worship?
A2: Universal Consciousness
Q3: As what does Kashmir Shaivism view the conscious world?
A3: real
Q4: Which group sees the world as illusion?
A4: Advaita
Q5: According to Kashmir Shaivism, what is the goal in belief?
A5: merge in Shiva
While there is some international commonality in the way political parties are recognized, and in how they operate, there are often many differences, and some are significant. Many political parties have an ideological core, but some do not, and many represent very different ideologies than they did when first founded. In democracies, political parties are elected by the electorate to run a government. Many countries have numerous powerful political parties, such as Germany and India and some nations have one-party systems, such as China. The United States is a two-party system, with its two most powerful parties being the Democratic Party and the Republican Party.

Q1: What are the two most powerful political parties in the United States?
A1: Democratic Party and the Republican Party
Q2: Name a nation that has a one-party political system.
A2: China
Q3: How are political parties elected in democracies?
A3: the electorate
Q4: What are some countries that have multiple powerful political parties?
A4: Germany and India
The first political factions, cohering around a basic, if fluid, set of principles emerged from the Exclusion Crisis and Glorious Revolution in late-17th-century England. The Whigs supported Protestant constitutional monarchy against absolute rule and the Tories, originating in the Royalist (or "Cavalier") faction of the English Civil War, were conservative royalist supporters of a strong monarchy as a counterbalance to the republican tendencies of Whigs, who were the dominant political faction for most of the first half of the 18th century; they supported the Hanoverian succession of 1715 against the Jacobite supporters of the deposed Roman Catholic Stuart dynasty and were able to purge Tory politicians from important government positions after the failed Jacobite rising of 1715. The leader of the Whigs was Robert Walpole, who maintained control of the government in the period 1721–1742; his protégé was Henry Pelham (1743–1754).

Q1: Around what time did the first political factions start to emerge?
A1: late-17th-century England
Q2: Who was the dominate political party for the first half of the 18th century?
A2: Whigs
Q3: Who was the leader if the Whigs?
A3: Robert Walpole
Q4: In what year did the jacobite rising fail?
A4: 1715
As the century wore on, the factions slowly began to adopt more coherent political tendencies as the interests of their power bases began to diverge. The Whig party's initial base of support from the great aristocratic families, widened to include the emerging industrial interests and wealthy merchants. As well as championing constitutional monarchy with strict limits on the monarch's power, the Whigs adamantly opposed a Catholic king as a threat to liberty, and believed in extending toleration to nonconformist Protestants, or dissenters. A major influence on the Whigs were the liberal political ideas of John Locke, and the concepts of universal rights employed by Locke and Algernon Sidney.

Q1: Who's liberal political ideas influenced the Whigs?
A1: John Locke
Q2: Name the two people who's concepts of universal rights influenced the Whigs.
A2: Locke and Algernon Sidney
Q3: Did the Whigs want to limit the monarch's power?
A3: championing constitutional monarchy with strict limits on the monarch's power
Q4: Did the Whigs support or oppose the Catholic king?
A4: the Whigs adamantly opposed a Catholic king as a threat to liberty
Although the Tories were dismissed from office for half a century, for most of this period (at first under the leadership of Sir William Wyndham), the Tories retained party cohesion, with occasional hopes of regaining office, particularly at the accession of George II (1727) and the downfall of the ministry of Sir Robert Walpole in 1742. They acted as a united, though unavailing, opposition to Whig corruption and scandals. At times they cooperated with the "Opposition Whigs", Whigs who were in opposition to the Whig government; however, the ideological gap between the Tories and the Opposition Whigs prevented them from coalescing as a single party. They finally regained power with the accession of George III in 1760 under Lord Bute.

Q1: Who did the Tories oppose?
A1: Whigs
Q2: Who did the Tories occasionally cooperate with?
A2: the "Opposition Whigs"
Q3: When did the Tories regain power?
A3: 1760
Q4: For how long were the Tories dismissed from office?
A4: half a century
Q5: Why could the Tories and the Opposition Whigs never form a single party?
A5: ideological gap
When they lost power, the old Whig leadership dissolved into a decade of factional chaos with distinct "Grenvillite", "Bedfordite", "Rockinghamite", and "Chathamite" factions successively in power, and all referring to themselves as "Whigs". Out of this chaos, the first distinctive parties emerged. The first such party was the Rockingham Whigs under the leadership of Charles Watson-Wentworth and the intellectual guidance of the political philosopher Edmund Burke. Burke laid out a philosophy that described the basic framework of the political party as "a body of men united for promoting by their joint endeavours the national interest, upon some particular principle in which they are all agreed". As opposed to the instability of the earlier factions, which were often tied to a particular leader and could disintegrate if removed from power, the party was centred around a set of core principles and remained out of power as a united opposition to government.

Q1: Who was the first distinctive Whig party that emerged from the chaos?
A1: the Rockingham Whigs
Q2: Who was the leader of the Rockingham Whigs?
A2: Charles Watson-Wentworth
Q3: What was the description for the basic framework of the Rockingham Whigs party?
A3: "a body of men united for promoting by their joint endeavours the national interest, upon some particular principle in which they are all agreed"
Q4: Did the Rockingham Whigs ever regain power as a opposition to the government?
A4: remained out of power as a united opposition to government.
The modern Conservative Party was created out of the 'Pittite' Tories of the early 19th century. In the late 1820s disputes over political reform broke up this grouping. A government led by the Duke of Wellington collapsed amidst dire election results. Following this disaster Robert Peel set about assembling a new coalition of forces. Peel issued the Tamworth Manifesto in 1834 which set out the basic principles of Conservatism; – the necessity in specific cases of reform in order to survive, but an opposition to unnecessary change, that could lead to "a perpetual vortex of agitation". Meanwhile, the Whigs, along with free trade Tory followers of Robert Peel, and independent Radicals, formed the Liberal Party under Lord Palmerston in 1859, and transformed into a party of the growing urban middle-class, under the long leadership of William Ewart Gladstone.

Q1: What was the modern Conservative party created from?
A1: the 'Pittite' Tories
Q2: Who Issued the Tamworth manifesto?
A2: Robert Peel
Q3: Which party did the Whigs, along with others form?
A3: the Liberal Party
Q4: In what year was the Tamworth manifesto introduced?
A4: 1834
Although the Founding Fathers of the United States did not originally intend for American politics to be partisan, early political controversies in the 1790s over the extent of federal government powers saw the emergence of two proto-political parties- the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party, which were championed by Framers Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, respectively. However, a consensus reached on these issues ended party politics in 1816 for a decade, a period commonly known as the Era of Good Feelings.

Q1: What were the two proto-political parties?
A1: the Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican Party
Q2: In which year did the period known as the "Era of Good Feelings" begin?
A2: 1816
Q3: What did the founding fathers not intend American politics to become?
A3: partisan
Q4: Who were the leaders of the Federalist and Democratic-Republican parties?
A4: Framers Alexander Hamilton and James Madison
At the same time, the political party reached its modern form, with a membership disciplined through the use of a party whip and the implementation of efficient structures of control. The Home Rule League Party, campaigning for Home Rule for Ireland in the British Parliament was fundamentally changed by the great Irish political leader Charles Stewart Parnell in the 1880s. In 1882, he changed his party's name to the Irish Parliamentary Party and created a well-organized grass roots structure, introducing membership to replace "ad hoc" informal groupings. He created a new selection procedure to ensure the professional selection of party candidates committed to taking their seats, and in 1884 he imposed a firm 'party pledge' which obliged MPs to vote as a bloc in parliament on all occasions. The creation of a strict party whip and a formal party structure was unique at the time. His party's efficient structure and control contrasted with the loose rules and flexible informality found in the main British parties; – they soon came to model themselves on the Parnellite model.

Q1: Who was the leader of the Irish political party in the 1880s?
A1: Charles Stewart Parnell
Q2: What did Charles Stewart Parnell change his parties name to in 1882?
A2: Irish Parliamentary Party
Q3: Did the Irish Parliamentary Party ever adopt the Parnellite model?
A3: they soon came to model themselves on the Parnellite model.
A political party is typically led by a party leader (the most powerful member and spokesperson representing the party), a party secretary (who maintains the daily work and records of party meetings), party treasurer (who is responsible for membership dues) and party chair (who forms strategies for recruiting and retaining party members, and also chairs party meetings). Most of the above positions are also members of the party executive, the leading organization which sets policy for the entire party at the national level. The structure is far more decentralized in the United States because of the separation of powers, federalism and the multiplicity of economic interests and religious sects. Even state parties are decentralized as county and other local committees are largely independent of state central committees. The national party leader in the U.S. will be the president, if the party holds that office, or a prominent member of Congress in opposition (although a big-state governor may aspire to that role). Officially, each party has a chairman for its national committee who is a prominent spokesman, organizer and fund-raiser, but without the status of prominent elected office holders.

Q1: Do political parties have a Party leader?
A1: A political party is typically led by a party leader
Q2: Who maintains the daily work and records of party meetings?
A2: party secretary
Q3: Who is responsible for the membership fees and expenses?
A3: party treasurer
Q4: Who is responsible for recruiting and maintaining party members?
A4: party chair
When the party is represented by members in the lower house of parliament, the party leader simultaneously serves as the leader of the parliamentary group of that full party representation; depending on a minimum number of seats held, Westminster-based parties typically allow for leaders to form frontbench teams of senior fellow members of the parliamentary group to serve as critics of aspects of government policy. When a party becomes the largest party not part of the Government, the party's parliamentary group forms the Official Opposition, with Official Opposition frontbench team members often forming the Official Opposition Shadow cabinet. When a party achieves enough seats in an election to form a majority, the party's frontbench becomes the Cabinet of government ministers.

Q1: When does a party form an official opposition?
A1: When a party becomes the largest party not part of the Government
Q2: What type of parties allow leaders to form frontbench teams?
A2: Westminster-based parties
Q3: When does a party's frontbench become the Cabinet of government ministers?
A3: When a party achieves enough seats in an election to form a majority
Q4: If a party is represented by members from the lower house of parliament, what other position can the party leader serve?
A4: leader of the parliamentary group of that full party representation