romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
Clinical immunology is the study of diseases caused by disorders of the immune system (failure, aberrant action, and malignant growth of the cellular elements of the system). It also involves diseases of other systems, where immune reactions play a part in the pathology and clinical features.

Q1: The study of diseases caused by immune system disorders is called?
A1: Clinical immunology
Q2: What are three problems of the immune system studied by clinical immunology?
A2: failure, aberrant action, and malignant growth
Q3: Where can these three elements occur in the immune system?
A3: cellular elements
Q4: What else does clinical immunology concern itself with?
A4: diseases of other systems
Q5: Why does clinical immunology extend to those areas?
A5: immune reactions play a part in the pathology and clinical features
Other immune system disorders include various hypersensitivities (such as in asthma and other allergies) that respond inappropriately to otherwise harmless compounds.

Q1: What is a type of immune system disorder?
A1: hypersensitivities
Q2: What are some examples of hypersensitivities?
A2: asthma and other allergies
Q3: What characterizes a hypersensitivity?
A3: respond inappropriately to otherwise harmless compounds.
The most well-known disease that affects the immune system itself is AIDS, an immunodeficiency characterized by the suppression of CD4+ ("helper") T cells, dendritic cells and macrophages by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).

Q1: What is the most famous immune system disease?
A1: AIDS
Q2: What kind of disease is AIDS?
A2: an immunodeficiency
Q3: Which types of cells are suppressed by AIDS?
A3: CD4+ ("helper") T cells, dendritic cells and macrophages
Q4: What virus specifically suppresses those cells?
A4: Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
The body’s capability to react to antigen depends on a person's age, antigen type, maternal factors and the area where the antigen is presented. Neonates are said to be in a state of physiological immunodeficiency, because both their innate and adaptive immunological responses are greatly suppressed. Once born, a child’s immune system responds favorably to protein antigens while not as well to glycoproteins and polysaccharides. In fact, many of the infections acquired by neonates are caused by low virulence organisms like Staphylococcus and Pseudomonas. In neonates, opsonic activity and the ability to activate the complement cascade is very limited. For example, the mean level of C3 in a newborn is approximately 65% of that found in the adult. Phagocytic activity is also greatly impaired in newborns. This is due to lower opsonic activity, as well as diminished up-regulation of integrin and selectin receptors, which limit the ability of neutrophils to interact with adhesion molecules in the endothelium. Their monocytes are slow and have a reduced ATP production, which also limits the newborn's phagocytic activity. Although, the number of total lymphocytes is significantly higher than in adults, the cellular and humoral immunity is also impaired. Antigen-presenting cells in newborns have a reduced capability to activate T cells. Also, T cells of a newborn proliferate poorly and produce very small amounts of cytokines like IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-12, and IFN-g which limits their capacity to activate the humoral response as well as the phagocitic activity of macrophage. B cells develop early during gestation but are not fully active.

Q1: What are the four factors that determine how the body reacts to an antigen?
A1: person's age, antigen type, maternal factors and the area
Q2: Newborns are particularly susceptible to infections caused by?
A2: low virulence organisms like Staphylococcus and Pseudomonas
Q3: What activity is also greatly reduced in newborn infants?
A3: phagocytic
Q4: Why are newborns described as being physiologically immunodeficient?
A4: both their innate and adaptive immunological responses are greatly suppressed
Q5: Antigen cells in newborns are also struggle to do this?
A5: activate T cells
Maternal factors also play a role in the body’s immune response. At birth, most of the immunoglobulin present is maternal IgG. Because IgM, IgD, IgE and IgA don’t cross the placenta, they are almost undetectable at birth. Some IgA is provided by breast milk. These passively-acquired antibodies can protect the newborn for up to 18 months, but their response is usually short-lived and of low affinity. These antibodies can also produce a negative response. If a child is exposed to the antibody for a particular antigen before being exposed to the antigen itself then the child will produce a dampened response. Passively acquired maternal antibodies can suppress the antibody response to active immunization. Similarly the response of T-cells to vaccination differs in children compared to adults, and vaccines that induce Th1 responses in adults do not readily elicit these same responses in neonates. Between six to nine months after birth, a child’s immune system begins to respond more strongly to glycoproteins, but there is usually no marked improvement in their response to polysaccharides until they are at least one year old. This can be the reason for distinct time frames found in vaccination schedules.

Q1: In babies, what is another element impacting immune response?
A1: Maternal factors
Q2: Newborns can acquire antibodies from the mother through what means?
A2: breast milk
Q3: For how long do these antibodies have an effect on infants?
A3: up to 18 months
Q4: At 6 to 9 months, an infant's immune system begins to respond to which proteins?
A4: glycoproteins
Q5: The difference in responses in infant immune systems is the cause of what?
A5: distinct time frames found in vaccination schedules
During adolescence, the human body undergoes various physical, physiological and immunological changes triggered and mediated by hormones, of which the most significant in females is 17-β-oestradiol (an oestrogen) and, in males, is testosterone. Oestradiol usually begins to act around the age of 10 and testosterone some months later. There is evidence that these steroids act directly not only on the primary and secondary sexual characteristics but also have an effect on the development and regulation of the immune system, including an increased risk in developing pubescent and post-pubescent autoimmunity. There is also some evidence that cell surface receptors on B cells and macrophages may detect sex hormones in the system.

Q1: What is the primary trigger for immunological changes in teens?
A1: hormones
Q2: What specific hormone catalyzes these changes in females?
A2: 17-β-oestradiol (an oestrogen)
Q3: Which specific hormone precipitates the change in immunology in males?
A3: testosterone
Q4: Adolescent immunological changes can also result in what?
A4: increased risk in developing pubescent and post-pubescent autoimmunity
Q5: Evidence suggests that receptors on B cells may do what?
A5: detect sex hormones in the system
Immunology is strongly experimental in everyday practice but is also characterized by an ongoing theoretical attitude. Many theories have been suggested in immunology from the end of the nineteenth century up to the present time. The end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century saw a battle between "cellular" and "humoral" theories of immunity. According to the cellular theory of immunity, represented in particular by Elie Metchnikoff, it was cells – more precisely, phagocytes – that were responsible for immune responses. In contrast, the humoral theory of immunity, held by Robert Koch and Emil von Behring, among others, stated that the active immune agents were soluble components (molecules) found in the organism’s “humors” rather than its cells.

Q1: The routine practice of immunology can best be characterized as?
A1: strongly experimental
Q2: What are two opposing theories of early 20th century immunology?
A2: "cellular" and "humoral"
Q3: Cellular immunology expressed the theory that what cells caused immune responses?
A3: phagocytes
Q4: Humoral immunology theorized that the origin of the immune system lay in what?
A4: soluble components (molecules)
Q5: Rather than cells, in humoral immunology where did the molecules that cause immune response reside?
A5: the organism’s “humors”
In the mid-1950s, Frank Burnet, inspired by a suggestion made by Niels Jerne, formulated the clonal selection theory (CST) of immunity. On the basis of CST, Burnet developed a theory of how an immune response is triggered according to the self/nonself distinction: "self" constituents (constituents of the body) do not trigger destructive immune responses, while "nonself" entities (e.g., pathogens, an allograft) trigger a destructive immune response. The theory was later modified to reflect new discoveries regarding histocompatibility or the complex "two-signal" activation of T cells. The self/nonself theory of immunity and the self/nonself vocabulary have been criticized, but remain very influential.

Q1: What medical scientist first proposed the clonal selection theory of immunology?
A1: Frank Burnet
Q2: What triggers an immune response according to CST?
A2: self/nonself distinction
Q3: In CST, what triggers a destructive immune response?
A3: "nonself" entities (e.g., pathogens, an allograft)
Q4: What property of T cells caused modification of CST?
A4: the complex "two-signal" activation
Q5: When was clonal selection theory first proposed?
A5: In the mid-1950s
Bioscience is the overall major in which undergraduate students who are interested in general well-being take in college. Immunology is a branch of bioscience for undergraduate programs but the major gets specified as students move on for graduate program in immunology. The aim of immunology is to study the health of humans and animals through effective yet consistent research, (AAAAI, 2013). The most important thing about being immunologists is the research because it is the biggest portion of their jobs.

Q1: What discipline can undergraduate students interested in general health study?
A1: Bioscience
Q2: Immunology is a branch of what larger field of study?
A2: bioscience
Q3: The goal of an immunologist is to study what beings?
A3: humans and animals
Q4: The biggest part of an immunologist's job is what?
A4: research
Q5: What two conditions apply to good immunological study?
A5: effective yet consistent research
Most graduate immunology schools follow the AAI courses immunology which are offered throughout numerous schools in the United States. For example, in New York State, there are several universities that offer the AAI courses immunology: Albany Medical College, Cornell University, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York University Langone Medical Center, University at Albany (SUNY), University at Buffalo (SUNY), University of Rochester Medical Center and Upstate Medical University (SUNY). The AAI immunology courses include an Introductory Course and an Advance Course. The Introductory Course is a course that gives students an overview of the basics of immunology.

Q1: Most graduate schools specializing in immunology follow what organization's parameters?
A1: AAI courses
Q2: What is the name of the immunology school at Mount Sinai?
A2: Icahn School of Medicine
Q3: AAI immunology courses include what two components?
A3: Introductory Course and an Advance Course
Q4: What does the introductory AAI immunology course do?
A4: gives students an overview of the basics of immunology
Q5: The Langone Medical Center is part of what college?
A5: New York University
In addition, this Introductory Course gives students more information to complement general biology or science training. It also has two different parts: Part I is an introduction to the basic principles of immunology and Part II is a clinically-oriented lecture series. On the other hand, the Advanced Course is another course for those who are willing to expand or update their understanding of immunology. It is advised for students who want to attend the Advanced Course to have a background of the principles of immunology. Most schools require students to take electives in other to complete their degrees. A Master’s degree requires two years of study following the attainment of a bachelor's degree. For a doctoral programme it is required to take two additional years of study.

Q1: Part 1 of the AAI introductory immunology course is meant to be what?
A1: an introduction to the basic principles of immunology
Q2: Part 2 of the AAI introductory immunology course revolves around what?
A2: clinically-oriented lecture series
Q3: What pre-requisite should enrollees in the advanced immunology course have?
A3: a background of the principles of immunology
Q4: How long does it typically take to earn a Master's degree?
A4: two years of study
Q5: What program requires an additional two years of study?
A5: a doctoral programme
MPEG-1 or MPEG-2 Audio Layer III, more commonly referred to as MP3, is an audio coding format for digital audio which uses a form of lossy data compression. It is a common audio format for consumer audio streaming or storage, as well as a de facto standard of digital audio compression for the transfer and playback of music on most digital audio players.

Q1: What is the common name for MPEG-2 Audio Layer III?
A1: MP3
Q2: What kind of audio is the coding format for?
A2: digital
Q3: Other than storage, what is the common audio format used for?
A3: consumer audio streaming
Q4: What does MP3 use to format it's data?
A4: lossy data compression
Q5: Where will MP3 files most commonly be found?
A5: digital audio players
The use of lossy compression is designed to greatly reduce the amount of data required to represent the audio recording and still sound like a faithful reproduction of the original uncompressed audio for most listeners. An MP3 file that is created using the setting of 128 kbit/s will result in a file that is about 1/11 the size of the CD file created from the original audio source (44,100 samples per second × 16 bits per sample × 2 channels = 1,411,200 bit/s; MP3 compressed at 128 kbit/s: 128,000 bit/s [1 k = 1,000, not 1024, because it is a bit rate]. Ratio: 1,411,200/128,000 = 11.025). An MP3 file can also be constructed at higher or lower bit rates, with higher or lower resulting quality.

Q1: What is the main goal aside from reducing the amount of data required to store the audio?
A1: sound like a faithful reproduction
Q2: What kind of compression is used?
A2: created
Q3: If a file is created using 128 kbit/s, what size is the file going to be compared to a CD?
A3: 1/11
Q4: How many total bit/s would a CD have?
A4: 1,411,200
Q5: How many total bit/s would an MP3 compressed at 128 kbit/s have?
A5: 128,000
The compression works by reducing the accuracy of certain parts of a sound that are considered to be beyond the auditory resolution ability of most people. This method is commonly referred to as perceptual coding. It uses psychoacoustic models to discard or reduce precision of components less audible to human hearing, and then records the remaining information in an efficient manner.

Q1: What does the compression target in the song?
A1: accuracy
Q2: The targetting focuses on what aspect that is beyond the ability of most people?
A2: auditory resolution
Q3: What is this method commonly referred to as?
A3: perceptual coding
Q4: What kind of model is used in this kind of compression?
A4: psychoacoustic
Q5: These models ensure that the precision is reduced for the components that are what to human hearing?
A5: less audible
MP3 was designed by the Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) as part of its MPEG-1 standard and later extended in the MPEG-2 standard. The first subgroup for audio was formed by several teams of engineers at Fraunhofer IIS, University of Hannover, AT&T-Bell Labs, Thomson-Brandt, CCETT, and others. MPEG-1 Audio (MPEG-1 Part 3), which included MPEG-1 Audio Layer I, II and III was approved as a committee draft of ISO/IEC standard in 1991, finalised in 1992 and published in 1993 (ISO/IEC 11172-3:1993). Backwards compatible MPEG-2 Audio (MPEG-2 Part 3) with additional bit rates and sample rates was published in 1995 (ISO/IEC 13818-3:1995).

Q1: Who designed MP3?
A1: Moving Picture Experts Group
Q2: What was the first standard that this group had?
A2: MPEG-1
Q3: The first standard later developed into which standard?
A3: MPEG-2
Q4: When was the draft passed to have MPEG-1 Audio approved as a standard?
A4: 1991
Q5: When was MPEG-2 Audio finally published?
A5: 1995
The MP3 lossy audio data compression algorithm takes advantage of a perceptual limitation of human hearing called auditory masking. In 1894, the American physicist Alfred M. Mayer reported that a tone could be rendered inaudible by another tone of lower frequency. In 1959, Richard Ehmer described a complete set of auditory curves regarding this phenomenon. Ernst Terhardt et al. created an algorithm describing auditory masking with high accuracy. This work added to a variety of reports from authors dating back to Fletcher, and to the work that initially determined critical ratios and critical bandwidths.

Q1: What does the MP3 compression take advantage of?
A1: perceptual limitation
Q2: What is the limitation in human hearing referred to as?
A2: auditory masking
Q3: Who was the physicist to report that a tone could be rendered inaudible.
A3: Alfred M. Mayer
Q4: When were audio curves described by Richard Ehmer?
A4: 1959
Q5: The initial work was aimed at determining critical ratios and what else?
A5: critical bandwidths
The psychoacoustic masking codec was first proposed in 1979, apparently independently, by Manfred R. Schroeder, et al. from Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc. in Murray Hill, NJ, and M. A. Krasner both in the United States. Krasner was the first to publish and to produce hardware for speech (not usable as music bit compression), but the publication of his results as a relatively obscure Lincoln Laboratory Technical Report did not immediately influence the mainstream of psychoacoustic codec development. Manfred Schroeder was already a well-known and revered figure in the worldwide community of acoustical and electrical engineers, but his paper was not much noticed, since it described negative results due to the particular nature of speech and the linear predictive coding (LPC) gain present in speech. Both Krasner and Schroeder built upon the work performed by Eberhard F. Zwicker in the areas of tuning and masking of critical bands, that in turn built on the fundamental research in the area from Bell Labs of Harvey Fletcher and his collaborators. A wide variety of (mostly perceptual) audio compression algorithms were reported in IEEE's refereed Journal on Selected Areas in Communications. That journal reported in February 1988 on a wide range of established, working audio bit compression technologies, some of them using auditory masking as part of their fundamental design, and several showing real-time hardware implementations.

Q1: What was first proposed in 1979?
A1: The psychoacoustic masking codec
Q2: Which country were the researchers located in?
A2: United States
Q3: Who was the first to produce hardware for speech?
A3: Krasner
Q4: What does LPC stand for?
A4: linear predictive coding
Q5: What was reported in IEEE's Journal on Selected Areas in Communications?
A5: audio compression algorithms
The immediate predecessors of MP3 were "Optimum Coding in the Frequency Domain" (OCF), and Perceptual Transform Coding (PXFM). These two codecs, along with block-switching contributions from Thomson-Brandt, were merged into a codec called ASPEC, which was submitted to MPEG, and which won the quality competition, but that was mistakenly rejected as too complex to implement. The first practical implementation of an audio perceptual coder (OCF) in hardware (Krasner's hardware was too cumbersome and slow for practical use), was an implementation of a psychoacoustic transform coder based on Motorola 56000 DSP chips.

Q1: What does OCF stand for?
A1: Optimum Coding in the Frequency Domain
Q2: What does PXFM stand for?
A2: Perceptual Transform Coding
Q3: What was the name of the codec that OCF, PFXM and other contributes merged into?
A3: ASPEC
Q4: Which competition did ASPEC win?
A4: quality
Q5: What was the first practical implementation based on?
A5: Motorola 56000 DSP chips
As a doctoral student at Germany's University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Karlheinz Brandenburg began working on digital music compression in the early 1980s, focusing on how people perceive music. He completed his doctoral work in 1989. MP3 is directly descended from OCF and PXFM, representing the outcome of the collaboration of Brandenburg—working as a postdoc at AT&T-Bell Labs with James D. Johnston ("JJ") of AT&T-Bell Labs—with the Fraunhofer Institut for Integrated Circuits, Erlangen, with relatively minor contributions from the MP2 branch of psychoacoustic sub-band coders. In 1990, Brandenburg became an assistant professor at Erlangen-Nuremberg. While there, he continued to work on music compression with scientists at the Fraunhofer Society (in 1993 he joined the staff of the Fraunhofer Institute).

Q1: What kind of student was Karlheinz Brandenburg?
A1: doctoral
Q2: When did Karlheinz start working on digitmal music compression?
A2: early 1980s
Q3: Where did Bradenburg become an assistant professor at?
A3: Erlangen-Nuremberg
Q4: Who did Brandenburg work with in music compression?
A4: Fraunhofer Society
Q5: When did Brandenburg join the Fraunhofen Institute?
A5: 1993
The song "Tom's Diner" by Suzanne Vega was the first song used by Karlheinz Brandenburg to develop the MP3. Brandenburg adopted the song for testing purposes, listening to it again and again each time refining the scheme, making sure it did not adversely affect the subtlety of Vega's voice.

Q1: What was the name of the first song used to develop the MP3?
A1: Tom's Diner
Q2: Who was the artist of the first song used?
A2: Suzanne Vega
Q3: Who adjusted the song?
A3: Karlheinz Brandenburg
Q4: The song was listened to multiple times to try and refine what?
A4: scheme
Q5: What particular aspect of the artists voice was he trying to preserve?
A5: subtlety
In 1991, there were only two proposals available that could be completely assessed for an MPEG audio standard: Musicam (Masking pattern adapted Universal Subband Integrated Coding And Multiplexing) and ASPEC (Adaptive Spectral Perceptual Entropy Coding). The Musicam technique, as proposed by Philips (the Netherlands), CCETT (France) and Institut für Rundfunktechnik (Germany) was chosen due to its simplicity and error robustness, as well as its low computational power associated with the encoding of high quality compressed audio. The Musicam format, based on sub-band coding, was the basis of the MPEG Audio compression format (sampling rates, structure of frames, headers, number of samples per frame).

Q1: How many proposals were available in 1991?
A1: two
Q2: Other than ASPEC what was another proposal?
A2: Musicam
Q3: The Musicam format was proposed by Philips, based in which country?
A3: Netherlands
Q4: Which other quality alongside simplicty was key in selecting this proposal?
A4: error robustness
Q5: What was the Musican format based on?
A5: sub-band coding
Much of its technology and ideas were incorporated into the definition of ISO MPEG Audio Layer I and Layer II and the filter bank alone into Layer III (MP3) format as part of the computationally inefficient hybrid filter bank. Under the chairmanship of Professor Musmann (University of Hannover) the editing of the standard was made under the responsibilities of Leon van de Kerkhof (Layer I) and Gerhard Stoll (Layer II).

Q1: What was only incorporated into Layer III and not Layers I or II?
A1: filter bank
Q2: Who was the chair that oversaw the editing of the standard?
A2: Professor Musmann
Q3: Who's responsibility was it to edit the standard for Layer I?
A3: Leon van de Kerkhof
Q4: Who's responsibility was it to edit the standard for Layer II?
A4: Gerhard Stoll