romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
Hayek's influence on the development of economics is widely acknowledged. Hayek is the second-most frequently cited economist (after Kenneth Arrow) in the Nobel lectures of the prize winners in economics, which is particularly striking since his own lecture was critical of the field of orthodox economics and neo-classical modelisation. A number of Nobel Laureates in economics, such as Vernon Smith and Herbert A. Simon, recognise Hayek as the greatest modern economist. Another Nobel winner, Paul Samuelson, believed that Hayek was worthy of his award but nevertheless claimed that "there were good historical reasons for fading memories of Hayek within the mainstream last half of the twentieth century economist fraternity. In 1931, Hayek's Prices and Production had enjoyed an ultra-short Byronic success. In retrospect hindsight tells us that its mumbo-jumbo about the period of production grossly misdiagnosed the macroeconomics of the 1927–1931 (and the 1931–2007) historical scene". Despite this comment, Samuelson spent the last 50 years of his life obsessed with the problems of capital theory identified by Hayek and Böhm-Bawerk, and Samuelson flatly judged Hayek to have been right and his own teacher, Joseph Schumpeter, to have been wrong on the central economic question of the 20th century, the feasibility of socialist economic planning in a production goods dominated economy.

Q1: Which economist is cited the most by winners of the Nobel prize in that field?
A1: Kenneth Arrow
Q2: What Nobel prize winner has spent most of his life studying Hayek's capital theory despite being critical of the man?
A2: Paul Samuelson
Q3: On the topic of the practicality of a socialist economy, who does Samuelson believe was wrong?
A3: Joseph Schumpeter
Q4: On the topic of mainstream economics, whose Nobel lecture was particularly critical?
A4: Hayek's
Q5: Which of Hayek's works does Samuelson cite as being incorrect regarding macroeconomics?
A5: Prices and Production
Hayek is widely recognised for having introduced the time dimension to the equilibrium construction and for his key role in helping inspire the fields of growth theory, information economics, and the theory of spontaneous order. The "informal" economics presented in Milton Friedman's massively influential popular work Free to Choose (1980), is explicitly Hayekian in its account of the price system as a system for transmitting and co-ordinating knowledge. This can be explained by the fact that Friedman taught Hayek's famous paper "The Use of Knowledge in Society" (1945) in his graduate seminars.

Q1: Whose 1980 book mentions "informal" economics?
A1: Milton Friedman's
Q2: What is the name of the book Friedman released in 1980?
A2: Free to Choose
Q3: How is Friedman's book described in regards to the price system?
A3: Hayekian
Q4: Which of Hayek's works did Friedman once teach?
A4: The Use of Knowledge in Society
Hayek had a long-standing and close friendship with philosopher of science Karl Popper, also from Vienna. In a letter to Hayek in 1944, Popper stated, "I think I have learnt more from you than from any other living thinker, except perhaps Alfred Tarski." (See Hacohen, 2000). Popper dedicated his Conjectures and Refutations to Hayek. For his part, Hayek dedicated a collection of papers, Studies in Philosophy, Politics, and Economics, to Popper and, in 1982, said that "ever since his Logik der Forschung first came out in 1934, I have been a complete adherent to his general theory of methodology". Popper also participated in the inaugural meeting of the Mont Pelerin Society. Their friendship and mutual admiration, however, do not change the fact that there are important differences between their ideas.

Q1: Which fellow Vienna native was Hayek friends with?
A1: Karl Popper
Q2: Who is the only exception from whom Hayek claims to have learned more than he did from Popper?
A2: Alfred Tarski
Q3: Hayek dedicated many of his papers to Popper based on a dedication Popper made to him in which of his work?
A3: Conjectures and Refutations
Q4: Which of Popper's works was the first to grasp Hayek's attention?
A4: Logik der Forschung
Q5: Popper was present for which notable Mont Pelerin Society event?
A5: the inaugural meeting
Hayek's greatest intellectual debt was to Carl Menger, who pioneered an approach to social explanation similar to that developed in Britain by Bernard Mandeville and the Scottish moral philosophers in the Scottish Enlightenment. He had a wide-reaching influence on contemporary economics, politics, philosophy, sociology, psychology and anthropology. For example, Hayek's discussion in The Road to Serfdom (1944) about truth, falsehood and the use of language influenced some later opponents of postmodernism.

Q1: Which of Hayek's books had an impact on those against postmodernism?
A1: The Road to Serfdom
Q2: To whom did Hayek owe his intellectual success?
A2: Carl Menger
Q3: Carl Menger's work in social explanation was not too different from those in which Scottish period??
A3: Scottish Enlightenment
Hayek received new attention in the 1980s and 1990s with the rise of conservative governments in the United States, United Kingdom, and Canada. After winning the United Kingdom general election, 1979, Margaret Thatcher appointed Keith Joseph, the director of the Hayekian Centre for Policy Studies, as her secretary of state for industry in an effort to redirect parliament's economic strategies. Likewise, David Stockman, Ronald Reagan's most influential financial official in 1981 was an acknowledged follower of Hayek.

Q1: In what year was Margaret Thatcher elected Prime Minister?
A1: 1979
Q2: Whom did the Prime Minister of England choose as secretary of state?
A2: Keith Joseph
Q3: During the 80s and 90s, three major English speaking nations experienced a political shift to to what?
A3: conservative governments
Q4: What position did the British Prime Minister's secretary of state previously hold?
A4: director of the Hayekian Centre for Policy Studies
Q5: One of Hayek's supporters served which US president?
A5: Ronald Reagan's
Hayek wrote an essay, "Why I Am Not a Conservative" (included as an appendix to The Constitution of Liberty), in which he disparaged conservatism for its inability to adapt to changing human realities or to offer a positive political program, remarking, "Conservatism is only as good as what it conserves." Although he noted that modern day conservatism shares many opinions on economics with classical liberals, particularly a belief in the free market, he believed it's because conservatism wants to "stand still," whereas liberalism embraces the free market because it "wants to go somewhere." Hayek identified himself as a classical liberal, but noted that in the United States it had become almost impossible to use "liberal" in its original definition, and the term "libertarian" has been used instead. In this text, Hayek also opposed conservatism for "its hostility to internationalism and its proneness to a strident nationalism" and its frequent association with imperialism.

Q1: What ideology did Hayek not agree with in an essay appended to The Constitution of Liberty?
A1: conservatism
Q2: What word is used in the United States to identify Hayek's ideology?
A2: libertarian
Q3: Which ideology did Hayek believe conservatism discouraged?
A3: internationalism
Q4: What does conservatism have in common with classical liberalism?
A4: belief in the free market
Q5: What was Hayek's statement regarding conservatism?
A5: "Conservatism is only as good as what it conserves."
However, for his part, Hayek found this term "singularly unattractive" and offered the term "Old Whig" (a phrase borrowed from Edmund Burke) instead. In his later life, he said, "I am becoming a Burkean Whig." However, Whiggery as a political doctrine had little affinity for classical political economy, the tabernacle of the Manchester School and William Gladstone. His essay has served as an inspiration to other liberal-minded economists wishing to distinguish themselves from conservative thinkers, for example James M. Buchanan's essay "Why I, Too, Am Not a Conservative: The Normative Vision of Classical Liberalism".

Q1: What did Hayek suggest as an alternative to being called a libertarian?
A1: Old Whig
Q2: In opposition to conservatives, what group has Hayek's work influenced?
A2: liberal-minded economists
Q3: Who wrote an essay as a result of Hayek's "Why I Am Not a Conservative"?
A3: James M. Buchanan
Q4: From whom did Hayek acquire the term he proposed as an alternative to libertarian?
A4: Edmund Burke
Q5: In his later years, what term did Hayek use to describe himself?
A5: a Burkean Whig
His opponents have attacked Hayek as a leading promoter of "neoliberalism". A British scholar, Samuel Brittan, concluded in 2010, "Hayek's book [The Constitution of Liberty] is still probably the most comprehensive statement of the underlying ideas of the moderate free market philosophy espoused by neoliberals." Brittan adds that although Raymond Plant (2009) comes out in the end against Hayek's doctrines, Plant gives The Constitution of Liberty a "more thorough and fair-minded analysis than it has received even from its professed adherents".

Q1: What term do those who disagree with Hayek use to describe his ideals?
A1: neoliberalism
Q2: Who was it that claimed Hayek's The Constitution of Liberty to be an thorough example of neoliberal philosophy?
A2: Samuel Brittan
Q3: Whose ideals does Brittan believe to win out over Hayek's?
A3: Raymond Plant
In Why F A Hayek is a Conservative, British policy analyst Madsen Pirie claims Hayek mistakes the nature of the conservative outlook. Conservatives, he says, are not averse to change – but like Hayek, they are highly averse to change being imposed on the social order by people in authority who think they know how to run things better. They wish to allow the market to function smoothly and give it the freedom to change and develop. It is an outlook, says Pirie, that Hayek and conservatives both share.

Q1: Who makes the claim that Hayek was actually a conservative?
A1: Madsen Pirie
Q2: According to Pirie, conservatives dislike change only when its forced upon them by whom?
A2: people in authority who think they know how to run things better
Q3: Pirie believes Hayek to be a conservative for what reason?
A3: mistakes the nature of the conservative outlook
Q4: What does Pirie claim conservatives want for the free market?
A4: to function smoothly
Diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea, is the condition of having at least three loose or liquid bowel movements each day. It often lasts for a few days and can result in dehydration due to fluid loss. Signs of dehydration often begin with loss of the normal stretchiness of the skin and irritable behaviour. This can progress to decreased urination, loss of skin color, a fast heart rate, and a decrease in responsiveness as it becomes more severe. Loose but non-watery stools in babies who are breastfed, however, may be normal.

Q1: What is diarrhea?
A1: the condition of having at least three loose or liquid bowel movements each day
Q2: What is one of the effects of diarrhea?
A2: can result in dehydration due to fluid loss
Q3: What are the warning signs of dehydration?
A3: loss of the normal stretchiness of the skin and irritable behaviour
Q4: What are other signs of dehydration?
A4: decreased urination, loss of skin color, a fast heart rate, and a decrease in responsiveness
The most common cause is an infection of the intestines due to either a virus, bacteria, or parasite; a condition known as gastroenteritis. These infections are often acquired from food or water that has been contaminated by stool, or directly from another person who is infected. It may be divided into three types: short duration watery diarrhea, short duration bloody diarrhea, and if it lasts for more than two weeks, persistent diarrhea. The short duration watery diarrhea may be due to an infection by cholera, although this is rare in the developed world. If blood is present it is also known as dysentery. A number of non-infectious causes may also result in diarrhea, including hyperthyroidism, lactose intolerance, inflammatory bowel disease, a number of medications, and irritable bowel syndrome. In most cases, stool cultures are not required to confirm the exact cause.

Q1: What is the most common cause of diarrhea?
A1: an infection of the intestines
Q2: What can cause an infection in the intestines?
A2: a virus, bacteria, or parasite
Q3: What are the three types of diarrhea?
A3: short duration watery diarrhea, short duration bloody diarrhea, and if it lasts for more than two weeks, persistent diarrhea
Q4: What is it known as if blood is present?
A4: dysentery
Prevention of infectious diarrhea is by improved sanitation, clean drinking water, and hand washing with soap. Breastfeeding for at least six months is also recommended as is vaccination against rotavirus. Oral rehydration solution (ORS), which is clean water with modest amounts of salts and sugar, is the treatment of choice. Zinc tablets are also recommended. These treatments have been estimated to have saved 50 million children in the past 25 years. When people have diarrhea it is recommended that they continue to eat healthy food and babies continue to be breastfed. If commercial ORS are not available, homemade solutions may be used. In those with severe dehydration, intravenous fluids may be required. Most cases; however, can be managed well with fluids by mouth. Antibiotics, while rarely used, may be recommended in a few cases such as those who have bloody diarrhea and a high fever, those with severe diarrhea following travelling, and those who grow specific bacteria or parasites in their stool. Loperamide may help decrease the number of bowel movement but is not recommended in those with severe disease.

Q1: What are some ways to prevent diarrhea?
A1: improved sanitation, clean drinking water, and hand washing with soap
Q2: What else can a mom do to prevent diarrhea for her baby?
A2: Breastfeeding for at least six months
Q3: What is the treatment of choice for diarrhea?
A3: Oral rehydration solution (ORS), which is clean water with modest amounts of salts and sugar
Q4: What conditions would a doctor prescribe antibiotics?
A4: cases such as those who have bloody diarrhea and a high fever, those with severe diarrhea following travelling, and those who grow specific bacteria or parasites
About 1.7 to 5 billion cases of diarrhea occur per year. It is most common in developing countries, where young children get diarrhea on average three times a year. Total deaths from diarrhea are estimated at 1.26 million in 2013 – down from 2.58 million in 1990. In 2012, it is the second most common cause of deaths in children younger than five (0.76 million or 11%). Frequent episodes of diarrhea are also a common cause of malnutrition and the most common cause in those younger than five years of age. Other long term problems that can result include stunted growth and poor intellectual development.

Q1: HOw many cases of diarrhea are there a year?
A1: 1.7 to 5 billion cases
Q2: How often do kids get diarrhea in developing countries?
A2: average three times a year
Q3: Frequent episodes of diarrhea are common in what type of cases?
A3: malnutrition
Q4: What long term issues can arise from frequent diarrhea?
A4: stunted growth and poor intellectual development
Secretory diarrhea means that there is an increase in the active secretion, or there is an inhibition of absorption. There is little to no structural damage. The most common cause of this type of diarrhea is a cholera toxin that stimulates the secretion of anions, especially chloride ions. Therefore, to maintain a charge balance in the lumen, sodium is carried with it, along with water. In this type of diarrhea intestinal fluid secretion is isotonic with plasma even during fasting. It continues even when there is no oral food intake.

Q1: What is secretory diarrhea?
A1: an increase in the active secretion, or there is an inhibition of absorption
Q2: What are the causes of secretory diarrhea?
A2: cause of this type of diarrhea is a cholera toxin that stimulates the secretion of anions, especially chloride ions
Q3: Is there any structural damage associated with secretory diarrhea?
A3: . There is little to no structural damage.
Osmotic diarrhea occurs when too much water is drawn into the bowels. If a person drinks solutions with excessive sugar or excessive salt, these can draw water from the body into the bowel and cause osmotic diarrhea. Osmotic diarrhea can also be the result of maldigestion (e.g., pancreatic disease or Coeliac disease), in which the nutrients are left in the lumen to pull in water. Or it can be caused by osmotic laxatives (which work to alleviate constipation by drawing water into the bowels). In healthy individuals, too much magnesium or vitamin C or undigested lactose can produce osmotic diarrhea and distention of the bowel. A person who has lactose intolerance can have difficulty absorbing lactose after an extraordinarily high intake of dairy products. In persons who have fructose malabsorption, excess fructose intake can also cause diarrhea. High-fructose foods that also have a high glucose content are more absorbable and less likely to cause diarrhea. Sugar alcohols such as sorbitol (often found in sugar-free foods) are difficult for the body to absorb and, in large amounts, may lead to osmotic diarrhea. In most of these cases, osmotic diarrhea stops when offending agent (e.g. milk, sorbitol) is stopped.

Q1: What occures with osmotic diarrhea?
A1: s when too much water is drawn into the bowels
Q2: What causes osmotic diarrhea?
A2: If a person drinks solutions with excessive sugar or excessive salt, these can draw water from the body into the bowel
Q3: How do osmotic lazatives work?
A3: alleviate constipation by drawing water into the bowels
Q4: What can cause osmotic diarrhea in healthy people?
A4: too much magnesium or vitamin C or undigested lactose
Inflammatory diarrhea occurs when there is damage to the mucosal lining or brush border, which leads to a passive loss of protein-rich fluids and a decreased ability to absorb these lost fluids. Features of all three of the other types of diarrhea[clarification needed] can be found in this type of diarrhea. It can be caused by bacterial infections, viral infections, parasitic infections, or autoimmune problems such as inflammatory bowel diseases. It can also be caused by tuberculosis, colon cancer, and enteritis.[citation needed]

Q1: When does inflammatory diarrhea occur?
A1: when there is damage to the mucosal lining or brush border
Q2: What happens with inflammatory diarrhea?
A2: a passive loss of protein-rich fluids and a decreased ability to absorb these lost fluids
Q3: What can cause inflammatory diarrhea?
A3: bacterial infections, viral infections, parasitic infections, or autoimmune problems
Q4: What other causes are there for inflammatory diarrhea?
A4: tuberculosis, colon cancer, and enteritis.
Diarrheal disease may have a negative impact on both physical fitness and mental development. "Early childhood malnutrition resulting from any cause reduces physical fitness and work productivity in adults," and diarrhea is a primary cause of childhood malnutrition. Further, evidence suggests that diarrheal disease has significant impacts on mental development and health; it has been shown that, even when controlling for helminth infection and early breastfeeding, children who had experienced severe diarrhea had significantly lower scores on a series of tests of intelligence.

Q1: Diarrheal disease has what effects on a person?
A1: a negative impact on both physical fitness and mental development
Q2: What can early childhood malnutrition cause?
A2: reduces physical fitness and work productivity in adults
Q3: What is the cause of childhood malnutrition?
A3: diarrhea
Q4: Children who have experienced sever diarrhea are more likely to have what effect?
A4: significantly lower scores on a series of tests of intelligence
Another possible cause of diarrhea is irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), which usually presents with abdominal discomfort relieved by defecation and unusual stool (diarrhea or constipation) for at least 3 days a week over the previous 3 months. Symptoms of diarrhea-predominant IBS can be managed through a combination of dietary changes, soluble fiber supplements, and/or medications such as loperamide or codeine. About 30% of patients with diarrhea-predominant IBS have bile acid malabsorption diagnosed with an abnormal SeHCAT test.

Q1: What is IBS?
A1: irritable bowel syndrome
Q2: What symptoms do you have with IBS?
A2: abdominal discomfort relieved by defecation and unusual stool (diarrhea or constipation) for at least 3 days a week over the previous 3 months
Q3: How can symptoms be managed with IBS?
A3: a combination of dietary changes, soluble fiber supplements, and/or medications
Poverty is a good indicator of the rate of infectious diarrhea in a population. This association does not stem from poverty itself, but rather from the conditions under which impoverished people live. The absence of certain resources compromises the ability of the poor to defend themselves against infectious diarrhea. "Poverty is associated with poor housing, crowding, dirt floors, lack of access to clean water or to sanitary disposal of fecal waste (sanitation), cohabitation with domestic animals that may carry human pathogens, and a lack of refrigerated storage for food, all of which increase the frequency of diarrhea... Poverty also restricts the ability to provide age-appropriate, nutritionally balanced diets or to modify diets when diarrhea develops so as to mitigate and repair nutrient losses. The impact is exacerbated by the lack of adequate, available, and affordable medical care."

Q1: What is a good indicator of the rate of infectious diarrhea?
A1: Poverty
Q2: Why does living in poverty raise your risk of diarrhea?
A2: from the conditions under which impoverished people live
Q3: What causes this to be exacerbated?
A3: the lack of adequate, available, and affordable medical care.
Proper nutrition is important for health and functioning, including the prevention of infectious diarrhea. It is especially important to young children who do not have a fully developed immune system. Zinc deficiency, a condition often found in children in developing countries can, even in mild cases, have a significant impact on the development and proper functioning of the human immune system. Indeed, this relationship between zinc deficiency reduced immune functioning corresponds with an increased severity of infectious diarrhea. Children who have lowered levels of zinc have a greater number of instances of diarrhea, severe diarrhea, and diarrhea associated with fever. Similarly, vitamin A deficiency can cause an increase in the severity of diarrheal episodes, however there is some discrepancy when it comes to the impact of vitamin A deficiency on the rate of disease. While some argue that a relationship does not exist between the rate of disease and vitamin A status, others suggest an increase in the rate associated with deficiency. Given that estimates suggest 127 million preschool children worldwide are vitamin A deficient, this population has the potential for increased risk of disease contraction.

Q1: Why is proper nutrition important?
A1: for health and functioning, including the prevention of infectious diarrhea
Q2: What effects does lower levels of zinc have in children?
A2: greater number of instances of diarrhea, severe diarrhea, and diarrhea associated with fever
Q3: What can having a vitamin A deficiency cause?
A3: cause an increase in the severity of diarrheal episodes
Q4: What is the rate of  vitamin A deficiency in children worldwide?
A4: 127 million