romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
In 1963, the Robbins Report on universities in the United Kingdom concluded that such institutions should have four main "objectives essential to any properly balanced system: instruction in skills; the promotion of the general powers of the mind so as to produce not mere specialists but rather cultivated men and women; to maintain research in balance with teaching, since teaching should not be separated from the advancement of learning and the search for truth; and to transmit a common culture and common standards of citizenship."

Q1: In what year did the Robbins report say that universities should have four objectives to remain balanced?
A1: 1963
Q2: What nation did the 1963 Robbins Report focus on?
A2: the United Kingdom
Q3: What should a university promote, according to the Robbins Report?
A3: general powers of the mind
Q4: Universities should maintain what, according to the Robbins Report?
A4: research in balance with teaching
Q5: The Robbins Report says universities should transmit what?
A5: a common culture and common standards of citizenship
Until the 19th century, religion played a significant role in university curriculum; however, the role of religion in research universities decreased in the 19th century, and by the end of the 19th century, the German university model had spread around the world. Universities concentrated on science in the 19th and 20th centuries and became increasingly accessible to the masses. In Britain, the move from Industrial Revolution to modernity saw the arrival of new civic universities with an emphasis on science and engineering, a movement initiated in 1960 by Sir Keith Murray (chairman of the University Grants Committee) and Sir Samuel Curran, with the formation of the University of Strathclyde. The British also established universities worldwide, and higher education became available to the masses not only in Europe.

Q1: Ending with what century did religion play a smaller part in the curriculum of universities?
A1: 19th
Q2: what model of university structure was being used throughout the world at the finish of the 19th century?
A2: the German university model
Q3: What was the focus of universities in the 20th century?
A3: science
Q4: Who was Sir Keith Murray?
A4: chairman of the University Grants Committee
Q5: What university did Sir Samuel Curran contribute to the creation of?
A5: the University of Strathclyde
By the end of the early modern period, the structure and orientation of higher education had changed in ways that are eminently recognizable for the modern context. Aristotle was no longer a force providing the epistemological and methodological focus for universities and a more mechanistic orientation was emerging. The hierarchical place of theological knowledge had for the most part been displaced and the humanities had become a fixture, and a new openness was beginning to take hold in the construction and dissemination of knowledge that were to become imperative for the formation of the modern state.

Q1: At the end of what period would universities become alike to contemporary universities?
A1: the end of the early modern period
Q2: What type of focus did universities have at the end of the early modern period?
A2: mechanistic
Q3: What replaced theological studies in universities at the completion of the early modern period?
A3: humanities
Q4: The change in universities towards the completion of the early modern period is credited with the formation of what entity?
A4: the modern state
Q5: The study of the humanities at the end of the early modern period replaced the study of the work of what individual?
A5: Aristotle
The epistemological tensions between scientists and universities were also heightened by the economic realities of research during this time, as individual scientists, associations and universities were vying for limited resources. There was also competition from the formation of new colleges funded by private benefactors and designed to provide free education to the public, or established by local governments to provide a knowledge hungry populace with an alternative to traditional universities. Even when universities supported new scientific endeavors, and the university provided foundational training and authority for the research and conclusions, they could not compete with the resources available through private benefactors.

Q1: Scientists and universities were competing for what?
A1: limited resources
Q2: What type of education did private benefactors hope to provide to the public?
A2: free
Q3:  Governments created universities to serve as what?
A3: an alternative to traditional universities
Q4: What type of entity created competition with government created universities?
A4: private benefactors
Other historians find incongruity in the proposition that the very place where the vast number of the scholars that influenced the scientific revolution received their education should also be the place that inhibits their research and the advancement of science. In fact, more than 80% of the European scientists between 1450–1650 included in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography were university trained, of which approximately 45% held university posts. It was the case that the academic foundations remaining from the Middle Ages were stable, and they did provide for an environment that fostered considerable growth and development. There was considerable reluctance on the part of universities to relinquish the symmetry and comprehensiveness provided by the Aristotelian system, which was effective as a coherent system for understanding and interpreting the world. However, university professors still utilized some autonomy, at least in the sciences, to choose epistemological foundations and methods. For instance, Melanchthon and his disciples at University of Wittenberg were instrumental for integrating Copernican mathematical constructs into astronomical debate and instruction. Another example was the short-lived but fairly rapid adoption of Cartesian epistemology and methodology in European universities, and the debates surrounding that adoption, which led to more mechanistic approaches to scientific problems as well as demonstrated an openness to change. There are many examples which belie the commonly perceived intransigence of universities. Although universities may have been slow to accept new sciences and methodologies as they emerged, when they did accept new ideas it helped to convey legitimacy and respectability, and supported the scientific changes through providing a stable environment for instruction and material resources.

Q1: What percentage of scientists from 1450–1650 in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography were taught in a university?
A1: more than 80%
Q2: On the part of universities what was their reaction to giving up the Aristotelian system?
A2: considerable reluctance
Q3: What university was Melancthon from?
A3: University of Wittenberg
Q4: The acceptance of new concepts and sciences by universities brought these ideas what?
A4: legitimacy and respectability
Q5: What type of epistemology was adopted for a short period of time in European universities?
A5: Cartesian
Regardless of the way the tension between universities, individual scientists, and the scientific revolution itself is perceived, there was a discernible impact on the way that university education was constructed. Aristotelian epistemology provided a coherent framework not simply for knowledge and knowledge construction, but also for the training of scholars within the higher education setting. The creation of new scientific constructs during the scientific revolution, and the epistemological challenges that were inherent within this creation, initiated the idea of both the autonomy of science and the hierarchy of the disciplines. Instead of entering higher education to become a "general scholar" immersed in becoming proficient in the entire curriculum, there emerged a type of scholar that put science first and viewed it as a vocation in itself. The divergence between those focused on science and those still entrenched in the idea of a general scholar exacerbated the epistemological tensions that were already beginning to emerge.

Q1: What type of epistemology served as the foundation of knowledge constructions and  training scholars in universities?
A1: Aristotelian
Q2: The scientific revolution contributed to what, in terms of science?
A2: autonomy
Q3: There was disagreement between universities and scientists over schools focusing on science, and the idea of what?
A3: a general scholar
Q4: A hierarchy of scientific disciplines came out of what?
A4: the scientific revolution
Q5: Where did students after the scientific revolution put science on the scale of importance?
A5: first
Examining the influence of humanism on scholars in medicine, mathematics, astronomy and physics may suggest that humanism and universities were a strong impetus for the scientific revolution. Although the connection between humanism and the scientific discovery may very well have begun within the confines of the university, the connection has been commonly perceived as having been severed by the changing nature of science during the scientific revolution. Historians such as Richard S. Westfall have argued that the overt traditionalism of universities inhibited attempts to re-conceptualize nature and knowledge and caused an indelible tension between universities and scientists. This resistance to changes in science may have been a significant factor in driving many scientists away from the university and toward private benefactors, usually in princely courts, and associations with newly forming scientific societies.

Q1: The study of humanism among those studying math, astronomy and medicine is said to have caused what?
A1: the scientific revolution
Q2: Resisting what caused many scientists to court private benefactors?
A2: changes in science
Q3: Where might a scientist find a friendly private benefactor?
A3: princely courts
Q4: Which historian argues that traditionalism in a university system hindered attempts to form new views on knowledge and nature?
A4: Richard S. Westfall
The priesthoods of public religion were held by members of the elite classes. There was no principle analogous to separation of church and state in ancient Rome. During the Roman Republic (509–27 BC), the same men who were elected public officials might also serve as augurs and pontiffs. Priests married, raised families, and led politically active lives. Julius Caesar became pontifex maximus before he was elected consul. The augurs read the will of the gods and supervised the marking of boundaries as a reflection of universal order, thus sanctioning Roman expansionism as a matter of divine destiny. The Roman triumph was at its core a religious procession in which the victorious general displayed his piety and his willingness to serve the public good by dedicating a portion of his spoils to the gods, especially Jupiter, who embodied just rule. As a result of the Punic Wars (264–146 BC), when Rome struggled to establish itself as a dominant power, many new temples were built by magistrates in fulfillment of a vow to a deity for assuring their military success.

Q1: The members of what class were priests in ancient Rome?
A1: elite
Q2: Which God exemplified just rule for the Romans?
A2: Jupiter
Q3: What was the time span of the Roman Republic?
A3: 509–27 BC
Q4: What kind of political separation did not exist in Rome?
A4: church and state
Q5: As a result of what war were many new temples built by victorious generals?
A5: Punic Wars
Roman religion was thus practical and contractual, based on the principle of do ut des, "I give that you might give." Religion depended on knowledge and the correct practice of prayer, ritual, and sacrifice, not on faith or dogma, although Latin literature preserves learned speculation on the nature of the divine and its relation to human affairs. Even the most skeptical among Rome's intellectual elite such as Cicero, who was an augur, saw religion as a source of social order. For ordinary Romans, religion was a part of daily life. Each home had a household shrine at which prayers and libations to the family's domestic deities were offered. Neighborhood shrines and sacred places such as springs and groves dotted the city. The Roman calendar was structured around religious observances. Women, slaves, and children all participated in a range of religious activities. Some public rituals could be conducted only by women, and women formed what is perhaps Rome's most famous priesthood, the state-supported Vestals, who tended Rome's sacred hearth for centuries, until disbanded under Christian domination.

Q1: What characteristics were not inherent in Roman religious practice?
A1: faith or dogma
Q2: What was brought forth by religion in Rome?
A2: social order
Q3: What religious feature did each Roman home have?
A3: household shrine
Q4: What type of celebrations made up the Roman calendar?
A4: religious observances
Q5: What religious group was in charge of Rome's sacred flame?
A5: Vestals
The Romans are known for the great number of deities they honored, a capacity that earned the mockery of early Christian polemicists. The presence of Greeks on the Italian peninsula from the beginning of the historical period influenced Roman culture, introducing some religious practices that became as fundamental as the cult of Apollo. The Romans looked for common ground between their major gods and those of the Greeks (interpretatio graeca), adapting Greek myths and iconography for Latin literature and Roman art. Etruscan religion was also a major influence, particularly on the practice of augury.

Q1: How deities did the Romans have?
A1: great number
Q2: What group was an influence to Roman culture?
A2: Greeks
Q3: What sort  of practices did the Greeks offer to Rome's culture?
A3: religious
Q4: What myths did the Romans adapt to their needs?
A4: Greek
Q5: What religion influenced augury for the Romans?
A5: Etruscan
Imported mystery religions, which offered initiates salvation in the afterlife, were a matter of personal choice for an individual, practiced in addition to carrying on one's family rites and participating in public religion. The mysteries, however, involved exclusive oaths and secrecy, conditions that conservative Romans viewed with suspicion as characteristic of "magic", conspiratorial (coniuratio), or subversive activity. Sporadic and sometimes brutal attempts were made to suppress religionists who seemed to threaten traditional morality and unity, as with the senate's efforts to restrict the Bacchanals in 186 BC.

Q1: What was the practice of religion to the Romans?
A1: personal choice
Q2: What was the standard practice in Roman religious life?
A2: public religion
Q3: What part of Roman religious practice involved secrecy?
A3: mysteries
Q4: What group viewed the mysteries as suspicious or subversive?
A4: conservative Romans
Q5: What did the mysteries seem to threaten that made the Romans occasionally attempt to ban them?
A5: morality and unity
As the Romans extended their dominance throughout the Mediterranean world, their policy in general was to absorb the deities and cults of other peoples rather than try to eradicate them, since they believed that preserving tradition promoted social stability. One way that Rome incorporated diverse peoples was by supporting their religious heritage, building temples to local deities that framed their theology within the hierarchy of Roman religion. Inscriptions throughout the Empire record the side-by-side worship of local and Roman deities, including dedications made by Romans to local gods. By the height of the Empire, numerous international deities were cultivated at Rome and had been carried to even the most remote provinces, among them Cybele, Isis, Epona, and gods of solar monism such as Mithras and Sol Invictus, found as far north as Roman Britain. Because Romans had never been obligated to cultivate one god or one cult only, religious tolerance was not an issue in the sense that it is for competing monotheistic systems. The monotheistic rigor of Judaism posed difficulties for Roman policy that led at times to compromise and the granting of special exemptions, but sometimes to intractable conflict. For example, religious disputes helped cause the First Jewish–Roman War and the Bar Kokhba revolt.

Q1: To the Romans what did them think promoted social stability?
A1: preserving tradition
Q2: What did the Romans tend to do with local religions and deities in conquered areas?
A2: absorb
Q3: What facet of religion was not an issue for Roman?
A3: tolerance
Q4: To what areas of the Roman empire did the Romans take their deities?
A4: remote provinces
Q5: What facet of a foreign people did Rome add to itself to promote order?
A5: religious heritage
In the wake of the Republic's collapse, state religion had adapted to support the new regime of the emperors. Augustus, the first Roman emperor, justified the novelty of one-man rule with a vast program of religious revivalism and reform. Public vows formerly made for the security of the republic now were directed at the wellbeing of the emperor. So-called "emperor worship" expanded on a grand scale the traditional Roman veneration of the ancestral dead and of the Genius, the divine tutelary of every individual. Imperial cult became one of the major ways in which Rome advertised its presence in the provinces and cultivated shared cultural identity and loyalty throughout the Empire. Rejection of the state religion was tantamount to treason. This was the context for Rome's conflict with Christianity, which Romans variously regarded as a form of atheism and novel superstitio.

Q1: After the Republic collapsed,  what addition was made to the religions of Rome?
A1: emperors
Q2: Who was the first Roman emperor?
A2: Augustus
Q3: For whose well being were public vows made in the empire?
A3: emperor
Q4: What did the Romans use as a means of expanding their rule throughout the empire?
A4: Imperial cult
Q5: As what during the time of the Roman empire  was rejection of the state religion viewed?
A5: treason
Rome had a semi-divine ancestor in the Trojan refugee Aeneas, son of Venus, who was said to have established the nucleus of Roman religion when he brought the Palladium, Lares and Penates from Troy to Italy. These objects were believed in historical times to remain in the keeping of the Vestals, Rome's female priesthood. Aeneas had been given refuge by King Evander, a Greek exile from Arcadia, to whom were attributed other religious foundations: he established the Ara Maxima, "Greatest Altar," to Hercules at the site that would become the Forum Boarium, and he was the first to celebrate the Lupercalia, an archaic festival in February that was celebrated as late as the 5th century of the Christian era.

Q1: What mythical figure did the Romans consider to be semi-divine?
A1: Aeneas
Q2: Of what did Aeneas establish the central feature?
A2: Roman religion
Q3: Who were the keepers of Aeneas's sacred objects?
A3: Vestals
Q4: What ancient festival was celebrated until the 5th century?
A4: Lupercalia
Q5: To whom did Aeneas set up an alter in Rome?
A5: Hercules
The myth of a Trojan founding with Greek influence was reconciled through an elaborate genealogy (the Latin kings of Alba Longa) with the well-known legend of Rome's founding by Romulus and Remus. The most common version of the twins' story displays several aspects of hero myth. Their mother, Rhea Silvia, had been ordered by her uncle the king to remain a virgin, in order to preserve the throne he had usurped from her father. Through divine intervention, the rightful line was restored when Rhea Silvia was impregnated by the god Mars. She gave birth to twins, who were duly exposed by order of the king but saved through a series of miraculous events.

Q1: What mythical characters were involved in the founding of Rome?
A1: Romulus and Remus
Q2: What type of story was the Romulus and Remus tale?
A2: hero myth
Q3: Who was the mother of Romulus and Remus?
A3: Rhea Silvia
Q4: What god was the father of Romulus and Remus?
A4: Mars
Q5: What type of events saved the twins of Roman myth?
A5: miraculous
Romulus was credited with several religious institutions. He founded the Consualia festival, inviting the neighbouring Sabines to participate; the ensuing rape of the Sabine women by Romulus's men further embedded both violence and cultural assimilation in Rome's myth of origins. As a successful general, Romulus is also supposed to have founded Rome's first temple to Jupiter Feretrius and offered the spolia opima, the prime spoils taken in war, in the celebration of the first Roman triumph. Spared a mortal's death, Romulus was mysteriously spirited away and deified.

Q1: What type of organization did Romulus establish?
A1: religious
Q2: According to myth, what god's temple did Romulus found?
A2: Jupiter
Q3: What did Romulus offer to Jupiter in the first Roman Triumph?
A3: spoils taken in war
Q4: What religious festival did Romulus found?
A4: Consualia
Q5: Instead of death, what happened to Romulus?
A5: deified
Each of Rome's legendary or semi-legendary kings was associated with one or more religious institutions still known to the later Republic. Tullus Hostilius and Ancus Marcius instituted the fetial priests. The first "outsider" Etruscan king, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, founded a Capitoline temple to the triad Jupiter, Juno and Minerva which served as the model for the highest official cult throughout the Roman world. The benevolent, divinely fathered Servius Tullius established the Latin League, its Aventine Temple to Diana, and the Compitalia to mark his social reforms. Servius Tullius was murdered and succeeded by the arrogant Tarquinius Superbus, whose expulsion marked the beginning of Rome as a republic with annually elected magistrates.

Q1: To what were the first kings of Rome associated?
A1: religious institutions
Q2: To what group of deities did Lucius Tarquinius Priscus  establish a temple?
A2: Jupiter, Juno and Minerva
Q3: The removal of whom marked the beginning of the Roman Republic?
A3: Tarquinius Superbus
Q4: Where was the temple to the triad gods established?
A4: Capitoline
Q5: What organization did Servius Tullius found?
A5: Latin League,
Rome offers no native creation myth, and little mythography to explain the character of its deities, their mutual relationships or their interactions with the human world, but Roman theology acknowledged that di immortales (immortal gods) ruled all realms of the heavens and earth. There were gods of the upper heavens, gods of the underworld and a myriad of lesser deities between. Some evidently favoured Rome because Rome honoured them, but none were intrinsically, irredeemably foreign or alien. The political, cultural and religious coherence of an emergent Roman super-state required a broad, inclusive and flexible network of lawful cults. At different times and in different places, the sphere of influence, character and functions of a divine being could expand, overlap with those of others, and be redefined as Roman. Change was embedded within existing traditions.

Q1: What type of myth did Rome not have?
A1: creation
Q2: To the Romans who ruled all aspects of heaven and earth?
A2: immortal gods
Q3: What did the Romans do for those deities that favored Rome?
A3: Rome honoured them
Q4: What did Rome make the myriad various cults?
A4: lawful
Q5: What was basic facet of Roman religious experience?
A5: Change