romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
The use of uranium in its natural oxide form dates back to at least the year 79 CE, when it was used to add a yellow color to ceramic glazes. Yellow glass with 1% uranium oxide was found in a Roman villa on Cape Posillipo in the Bay of Naples, Italy, by R. T. Gunther of the University of Oxford in 1912. Starting in the late Middle Ages, pitchblende was extracted from the Habsburg silver mines in Joachimsthal, Bohemia (now Jáchymov in the Czech Republic), and was used as a coloring agent in the local glassmaking industry. In the early 19th century, the world's only known sources of uranium ore were these mines.

Q1: What was the earliest year in recorded history that uranium oxide was used?
A1: 79 CE
Q2: In what county was glass with uranium oxide content found?
A2: Italy
Q3: What color of ceramic glaze was extracted from uranium oxide?
A3: yellow
Q4: In what year was yellow uranium oxide glass discovered?
A4: 1912
Q5: What institution did R.T. Gunther belong to?
A5: the University of Oxford
On 2 December 1942, as part of the Manhattan Project, another team led by Enrico Fermi was able to initiate the first artificial self-sustained nuclear chain reaction, Chicago Pile-1. Working in a lab below the stands of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago, the team created the conditions needed for such a reaction by piling together 400 short tons (360 metric tons) of graphite, 58 short tons (53 metric tons) of uranium oxide, and six short tons (5.5 metric tons) of uranium metal, a majority of which was supplied by Westinghouse Lamp Plant in a makeshift production process.

Q1: What was the first self-sustained nuclear chain reaction created by human beings called?
A1: Chicago Pile-1
Q2: On what date was the first self-sustained nuclear chain reaction created artificially?
A2: 2 December 1942
Q3: What project was Fermi working for?
A3: Manhattan
Q4: On the campus of what educational institution was Chicago Pile-1 created?
A4: University of Chicago
Q5: How many metric tons of uranium oxide was used in Chicago Pile-1?
A5: 53
Uranium is used as a colorant in uranium glass producing orange-red to lemon yellow hues. It was also used for tinting and shading in early photography. The 1789 discovery of uranium in the mineral pitchblende is credited to Martin Heinrich Klaproth, who named the new element after the planet Uranus. Eugène-Melchior Péligot was the first person to isolate the metal and its radioactive properties were discovered in 1896 by Henri Becquerel. Research by Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner, Enrico Fermi and others, such as J. Robert Oppenheimer starting in 1934 led to its use as a fuel in the nuclear power industry and in Little Boy, the first nuclear weapon used in war. An ensuing arms race during the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union produced tens of thousands of nuclear weapons that used uranium metal and uranium-derived plutonium-239. The security of those weapons and their fissile material following the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 is an ongoing concern for public health and safety. See Nuclear proliferation.

Q1: Along with lemon yellow, what color is produced in uranium glass?
A1: orange-red
Q2: Who discovered uranium in pitchblende?
A2: Martin Heinrich Klaproth
Q3: Who was responsible for first isolating uranium?
A3: Eugène-Melchior Péligot
Q4: Who discovered that uranium was radioactive?
A4: Henri Becquerel
Q5: What was the first nuclear weapon used in a war called?
A5: Little Boy
In nature, uranium is found as uranium-238 (99.2742%) and uranium-235 (0.7204%). Isotope separation concentrates (enriches) the fissionable uranium-235 for nuclear weapons and most nuclear power plants, except for gas cooled reactors and pressurised heavy water reactors. Most neutrons released by a fissioning atom of uranium-235 must impact other uranium-235 atoms to sustain the nuclear chain reaction. The concentration and amount of uranium-235 needed to achieve this is called a 'critical mass'.

Q1: What percentage of uranium in nature is uranium-235?
A1: 0.7204%
Q2: What is the term for the amount of uranium-235 needed to sustain a nuclear chain reaction?
A2: critical mass
Q3: What is the most prevalent natural isotope of uranium?
A3: uranium-238
Q4: What percentage of natural uranium is isotope 238?
A4: 99.2742%
Q5: Along with gas cooled reactors, what type of reactor doesn't use uranium-235?
A5: pressurised heavy water
The major application of uranium in the military sector is in high-density penetrators. This ammunition consists of depleted uranium (DU) alloyed with 1–2% other elements, such as titanium or molybdenum. At high impact speed, the density, hardness, and pyrophoricity of the projectile enable the destruction of heavily armored targets. Tank armor and other removable vehicle armor can also be hardened with depleted uranium plates. The use of depleted uranium became politically and environmentally contentious after the use of such munitions by the US, UK and other countries during wars in the Persian Gulf and the Balkans raised questions concerning uranium compounds left in the soil (see Gulf War Syndrome).

Q1: What is uranium used for most often in the military?
A1: high-density penetrators
Q2: Along with titanium, what element often makes up the portion of high-density penetrators not made of depleted uranium?
A2: molybdenum
Q3: What percentage of high-density penetrators is not made up of depleted uranium?
A3: 1–2%
Q4: Along with the Balkans, in what geographical location did a war take place where the UK used depleted uranium munitions?
A4: Persian Gulf
Q5: What illness is possibly tied to the use of depleted uranium munitions?
A5: Gulf War Syndrome
The discovery of the element is credited to the German chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth. While he was working in his experimental laboratory in Berlin in 1789, Klaproth was able to precipitate a yellow compound (likely sodium diuranate) by dissolving pitchblende in nitric acid and neutralizing the solution with sodium hydroxide. Klaproth assumed the yellow substance was the oxide of a yet-undiscovered element and heated it with charcoal to obtain a black powder, which he thought was the newly discovered metal itself (in fact, that powder was an oxide of uranium). He named the newly discovered element after the planet Uranus, (named after the primordial Greek god of the sky), which had been discovered eight years earlier by William Herschel.

Q1: Who discovered uranium?
A1: Martin Heinrich Klaproth
Q2: In what year did the discovery of uranium occur?
A2: 1789
Q3: In what city was uranium discovered?
A3: Berlin
Q4: What did Klaproth probably create when he dissolved pitchblende in nitric acid?
A4: sodium diuranate
Q5: Who discovered the planet Uranus?
A5: William Herschel
Uranium ore is mined in several ways: by open pit, underground, in-situ leaching, and borehole mining (see uranium mining). Low-grade uranium ore mined typically contains 0.01 to 0.25% uranium oxides. Extensive measures must be employed to extract the metal from its ore. High-grade ores found in Athabasca Basin deposits in Saskatchewan, Canada can contain up to 23% uranium oxides on average. Uranium ore is crushed and rendered into a fine powder and then leached with either an acid or alkali. The leachate is subjected to one of several sequences of precipitation, solvent extraction, and ion exchange. The resulting mixture, called yellowcake, contains at least 75% uranium oxides U3O8. Yellowcake is then calcined to remove impurities from the milling process before refining and conversion.

Q1: What percentage range of uranium oxide is usually contained in low-grade uranium ore?
A1: 0.01 to 0.25%
Q2: Along with underground, open pit and in-situ leaching, what sort of mining is used to mine uranium?
A2: borehole
Q3: In what country are high-grade uranium ores notably found?
A3: Canada
Q4: In what province of Canada is the Athabasca Basin?
A4: Saskatchewan
Q5: What is the average percentage of uranium oxide contained in the ores mined in the Athabasca Basin?
A5: 23%
Two major types of atomic bombs were developed by the United States during World War II: a uranium-based device (codenamed "Little Boy") whose fissile material was highly enriched uranium, and a plutonium-based device (see Trinity test and "Fat Man") whose plutonium was derived from uranium-238. The uranium-based Little Boy device became the first nuclear weapon used in war when it was detonated over the Japanese city of Hiroshima on 6 August 1945. Exploding with a yield equivalent to 12,500 tonnes of TNT, the blast and thermal wave of the bomb destroyed nearly 50,000 buildings and killed approximately 75,000 people (see Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki). Initially it was believed that uranium was relatively rare, and that nuclear proliferation could be avoided by simply buying up all known uranium stocks, but within a decade large deposits of it were discovered in many places around the world.

Q1: What was the uranium-based bomb made by the US in World War II called?
A1: Little Boy
Q2: What was the codename of the plutonium-based bomb created in the Second World War?
A2: Fat Man
Q3: On what date was Little Boy detonated?
A3: 6 August 1945
Q4: What was the equivalent yield in TNT of the Little Boy bomb, in tonnes?
A4: 12,500
Q5: Over what city was Little Boy detonated?
A5: Hiroshima
In 2005, seventeen countries produced concentrated uranium oxides, with Canada (27.9% of world production) and Australia (22.8%) being the largest producers and Kazakhstan (10.5%), Russia (8.0%), Namibia (7.5%), Niger (7.4%), Uzbekistan (5.5%), the United States (2.5%), Argentina (2.1%), Ukraine (1.9%) and China (1.7%) also producing significant amounts. Kazakhstan continues to increase production and may have become the world's largest producer of uranium by 2009 with an expected production of 12,826 tonnes, compared to Canada with 11,100 t and Australia with 9,430 t. In the late 1960s, UN geologists also discovered major uranium deposits and other rare mineral reserves in Somalia. The find was the largest of its kind, with industry experts estimating the deposits at over 25% of the world's then known uranium reserves of 800,000 tons.

Q1: As of 2005, what country was the largest producer of uranium oxides?
A1: Canada
Q2: What percentage of world uranium oxide production is produced by Argentina?
A2: 2.1%
Q3: What country produced 5.5% of the world's concentrated uranium oxide in 2005?
A3: Uzbekistan
Q4: How many countries produced concentrated uranium oxides in 2005?
A4: seventeen
Q5: How many tonnes of uranium was Australia expected to produce in 2009?
A5: 9,430
During the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, huge stockpiles of uranium were amassed and tens of thousands of nuclear weapons were created using enriched uranium and plutonium made from uranium. Since the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991, an estimated 600 short tons (540 metric tons) of highly enriched weapons grade uranium (enough to make 40,000 nuclear warheads) have been stored in often inadequately guarded facilities in the Russian Federation and several other former Soviet states. Police in Asia, Europe, and South America on at least 16 occasions from 1993 to 2005 have intercepted shipments of smuggled bomb-grade uranium or plutonium, most of which was from ex-Soviet sources. From 1993 to 2005 the Material Protection, Control, and Accounting Program, operated by the federal government of the United States, spent approximately US $550 million to help safeguard uranium and plutonium stockpiles in Russia. This money was used for improvements and security enhancements at research and storage facilities. Scientific American reported in February 2006 that in some of the facilities security consisted of chain link fences which were in severe states of disrepair. According to an interview from the article, one facility had been storing samples of enriched (weapons grade) uranium in a broom closet before the improvement project; another had been keeping track of its stock of nuclear warheads using index cards kept in a shoe box.

Q1: Who was the Soviet Union's opponent in the Cold War?
A1: United States
Q2: How many nuclear warheads can be made with 540 metric tons of highly enriched weapons grade uranium?
A2: 40,000
Q3: What was the expenditure of the Material Protection, Control, and Accounting Program between 1993 and 2005?
A3: US $550 million
Q4: What is another term for uranium that is enriched?
A4: weapons grade
Q5: Approximately how many times did police capture shipments of bomb-grade plutonium or uranium between 1993 and 2005?
A5: 16
Salts of many oxidation states of uranium are water-soluble and may be studied in aqueous solutions. The most common ionic forms are U3+ (brown-red), U4+ (green), UO+
2 (unstable), and UO2+
2 (yellow), for U(III), U(IV), U(V), and U(VI), respectively. A few solid and semi-metallic compounds such as UO and US exist for the formal oxidation state uranium(II), but no simple ions are known to exist in solution for that state. Ions of U3+ liberate hydrogen from water and are therefore considered to be highly unstable. The UO2+
2 ion represents the uranium(VI) state and is known to form compounds such as uranyl carbonate, uranyl chloride and uranyl sulfate. UO2+
2 also forms complexes with various organic chelating agents, the most commonly encountered of which is uranyl acetate.

Q1: What is the color of U4+?
A1: green
Q2: What state is represented by the UO2+ 2 ion?
A2: uranium(VI)
Q3: Along with uranyl sulfate and uranyl chloride, what compound is formed by the UO2+ 2 ion?
A3: uranyl carbonate
Q4: What common complex is formed by the UO2+ 2 ion with organic chelating agents?
A4: uranyl acetate
Some organisms, such as the lichen Trapelia involuta or microorganisms such as the bacterium Citrobacter, can absorb concentrations of uranium that are up to 300 times the level of their environment. Citrobacter species absorb uranyl ions when given glycerol phosphate (or other similar organic phosphates). After one day, one gram of bacteria can encrust themselves with nine grams of uranyl phosphate crystals; this creates the possibility that these organisms could be used in bioremediation to decontaminate uranium-polluted water. The proteobacterium Geobacter has also been shown to bioremediate uranium in ground water. The mycorrhizal fungus Glomus intraradices increases uranium content in the roots of its symbiotic plant.

Q1: What microorganism can notably absorb a very high concentrate of uranium?
A1: Citrobacter
Q2: What is given to Citrobacter to cause it to absorb uranyl ions?
A2: glycerol phosphate
Q3: What lichen is known to absorb a uranium concentration nearly 300 times higher than the amount in the environment?
A3: Trapelia involuta
Q4: What protobacterium notably bioremediates ground water uranium?
A4: Geobacter
Q5: What fungus is known to cause uranium content in its symbiotic plant roots to increase?
A5: Glomus intraradices
Uranium metal heated to 250 to 300 °C (482 to 572 °F) reacts with hydrogen to form uranium hydride. Even higher temperatures will reversibly remove the hydrogen. This property makes uranium hydrides convenient starting materials to create reactive uranium powder along with various uranium carbide, nitride, and halide compounds. Two crystal modifications of uranium hydride exist: an α form that is obtained at low temperatures and a β form that is created when the formation temperature is above 250 °C.

Q1: At what temperature range in degrees Fahrenheit will uranium metal form uranium hydride?
A1: 482 to 572
Q2: What does uranium metal react with to create uranium hydride?
A2: hydrogen
Q3: Above what temperature is the β form of uranium hydride created?
A3: 250 °C
Q4: Along with uranium carbide and halide, what type of compound is often created with uranium hydride?
A4: nitride
Q5: How many crystal modifications of uranium hydride are extant?
A5: Two
Uranium carbides and uranium nitrides are both relatively inert semimetallic compounds that are minimally soluble in acids, react with water, and can ignite in air to form U
3O
8. Carbides of uranium include uranium monocarbide (UC), uranium dicarbide (UC
2), and diuranium tricarbide (U
2C
3). Both UC and UC
2 are formed by adding carbon to molten uranium or by exposing the metal to carbon monoxide at high temperatures. Stable below 1800 °C, U
2C
3 is prepared by subjecting a heated mixture of UC and UC
2 to mechanical stress. Uranium nitrides obtained by direct exposure of the metal to nitrogen include uranium mononitride (UN), uranium dinitride (UN
2), and diuranium trinitride (U
2N
3).

Q1: Along with uranium monocarbide and uranium dicarbide, what is a notable carbide of uranium?
A1: diuranium tricarbide
Q2: Below what temperature is U2C3 stable?
A2: 1800 °C
To be considered 'enriched', the uranium-235 fraction should be between 3% and 5%. This process produces huge quantities of uranium that is depleted of uranium-235 and with a correspondingly increased fraction of uranium-238, called depleted uranium or 'DU'. To be considered 'depleted', the uranium-235 isotope concentration should be no more than 0.3%. The price of uranium has risen since 2001, so enrichment tailings containing more than 0.35% uranium-235 are being considered for re-enrichment, driving the price of depleted uranium hexafluoride above $130 per kilogram in July 2007 from $5 in 2001.

Q1: Between what percent fraction range of uranium-235 is uranium regarded as enriched?
A1: 3% and 5%
Q2: In what year did the cost of uranium notably begin to increase?
A2: 2001
Q3: What is the maximum uranium-235 isotope concentration for uranium to be considered depleted?
A3: 0.3%
Q4: What was the price of a kilogram of depleted uranium hexafluoride in 2001?
A4: $5
Q5: How much did a kilogram of depleted uranium hexafluoride cost as of July 2007?
A5: $130
Normal functioning of the kidney, brain, liver, heart, and other systems can be affected by uranium exposure, because, besides being weakly radioactive, uranium is a toxic metal. Uranium is also a reproductive toxicant. Radiological effects are generally local because alpha radiation, the primary form of 238U decay, has a very short range, and will not penetrate skin. Uranyl (UO2+
2) ions, such as from uranium trioxide or uranyl nitrate and other hexavalent uranium compounds, have been shown to cause birth defects and immune system damage in laboratory animals. While the CDC has published one study that no human cancer has been seen as a result of exposure to natural or depleted uranium, exposure to uranium and its decay products, especially radon, are widely known and significant health threats. Exposure to strontium-90, iodine-131, and other fission products is unrelated to uranium exposure, but may result from medical procedures or exposure to spent reactor fuel or fallout from nuclear weapons. Although accidental inhalation exposure to a high concentration of uranium hexafluoride has resulted in human fatalities, those deaths were associated with the generation of highly toxic hydrofluoric acid and uranyl fluoride rather than with uranium itself. Finely divided uranium metal presents a fire hazard because uranium is pyrophoric; small grains will ignite spontaneously in air at room temperature.

Q1: Along with the heart, brain and liver, what system is notably affected by exposure to uranium?
A1: kidney
Q2: What is the main form of 238U decay?
A2: alpha radiation
Q3: What type of uranium compounds are uranium trioxide and uranyl nitrate?
A3: hexavalent
Q4: At what temperature will grains of uranium metal spontaneously ignite in air?
A4: room
The gas centrifuge process, where gaseous uranium hexafluoride (UF
6) is separated by the difference in molecular weight between 235UF6 and 238UF6 using high-speed centrifuges, is the cheapest and leading enrichment process. The gaseous diffusion process had been the leading method for enrichment and was used in the Manhattan Project. In this process, uranium hexafluoride is repeatedly diffused through a silver-zinc membrane, and the different isotopes of uranium are separated by diffusion rate (since uranium 238 is heavier it diffuses slightly slower than uranium-235). The molecular laser isotope separation method employs a laser beam of precise energy to sever the bond between uranium-235 and fluorine. This leaves uranium-238 bonded to fluorine and allows uranium-235 metal to precipitate from the solution. An alternative laser method of enrichment is known as atomic vapor laser isotope separation (AVLIS) and employs visible tunable lasers such as dye lasers. Another method used is liquid thermal diffusion.

Q1: What is the name of the most widely used enrichment process?
A1: gas centrifuge
Q2: What compound is UF6?
A2: uranium hexafluoride
Q3: What enrichment process was used by the Manhattan Project?
A3: gaseous diffusion
Q4: In the gaseous diffusion process, what is diffused through a silver-zinc membrane?
A4: uranium hexafluoride
Q5: How does the weight of uranium-238 compare to that of uranium-235?
A5: heavier
Uranium is a chemical element with symbol U and atomic number 92. It is a silvery-white metal in the actinide series of the periodic table. A uranium atom has 92 protons and 92 electrons, of which 6 are valence electrons. Uranium is weakly radioactive because all its isotopes are unstable (with half-lives of the six naturally known isotopes, uranium-233 to uranium-238, varying between 69 years and 4.5 billion years). The most common isotopes of uranium are uranium-238 (which has 146 neutrons and accounts for almost 99.3% of the uranium found in nature) and uranium-235 (which has 143 neutrons, accounting for 0.7% of the element found naturally). Uranium has the second highest atomic weight of the primordially occurring elements, lighter only than plutonium. Its density is about 70% higher than that of lead, but slightly lower than that of gold or tungsten. It occurs naturally in low concentrations of a few parts per million in soil, rock and water, and is commercially extracted from uranium-bearing minerals such as uraninite.

Q1: What is uranium's symbol on the Periodic Table of Elements?
A1: U
Q2: What is the atomic number of uranium?
A2: 92
Q3: What color is uranium?
A3: silvery-white
Q4: How many valence electrons are contained in an atom of uranium?
A4: 6
Q5: Of what series in the Periodic Table of Elements is uranium a part?
A5: actinide
Uranium metal reacts with almost all non-metal elements (with an exception of the noble gases) and their compounds, with reactivity increasing with temperature. Hydrochloric and nitric acids dissolve uranium, but non-oxidizing acids other than hydrochloric acid attack the element very slowly. When finely divided, it can react with cold water; in air, uranium metal becomes coated with a dark layer of uranium oxide. Uranium in ores is extracted chemically and converted into uranium dioxide or other chemical forms usable in industry.

Q1: What non-metal elements does uranium notably not react to?
A1: noble gases
Q2: What coats uranium metal in air?
A2: uranium oxide
Q3: Along with nitric acids, what acids dissolve uranium?
A3: Hydrochloric
Q4: What is a notable form uranium ore is converted into after extraction?
A4: uranium dioxide
Q5: What reacts with finely divided uranium?
A5: cold water