romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
Buddhism began to spread throughout Japan during the Heian period, primarily through two major esoteric sects, Tendai and Shingon. Tendai originated in China and is based on the Lotus Sutra, one of the most important sutras of Mahayana Buddhism; Saichō was key to its transmission to Japan. Shingon is the Japanese transmission of the Chinese Chen Yen school. Shingon, brought to Japan by the monk Kūkai, emphasizes Esoteric Buddhism. Both Kūkai and Saichō aimed to connect state and religion and establish support from the aristocracy, leading to the notion of 'aristocratic Buddhism'. An important element of Tendai doctrine was the suggestion that enlightenment was accessible to "every creature". Saichō also sought independent ordination for Tendai monks. A close relationship developed between the Tendai monastery complex on Mount Hiei and the imperial court in its new capital at the foot of the mountain. As a result, Tendai emphasized great reverence for the emperor and the nation. Kammu himself was a notable patron of the otherworldly Tendai sect, which rose to great power over the ensuing centuries. Kūkai greatly impressed the emperors who succeeded Emperor Kammu, and also generations of Japanese, not only with his holiness but also with his poetry, calligraphy, painting, and sculpture. Shingon, through its use of "rich symbols, rituals and mandalas" held a wide-ranging appeal.

Q1: What religion spread during the Heian period?
A1: Buddhism
Q2: What were the two Japanese sects of Buddhism?
A2: Tendai and Shingon
Q3: Who brought Shingon Buddhism to Japan?
A3: Kūkai
Q4: Tendai Buddhism suggested that enlightenment was accessible to who?
A4: every creature
Poetry, in particular, was a staple of court life. Nobles and ladies-in-waiting were expected to be well versed in the art of writing poetry as a mark of their status. Every occasion could call for the writing of a verse, from the birth of a child to the coronation of an emperor, or even a pretty scene of nature. A well-written poem or haiku could easily make or break one's reputation, and often was a key part of social interaction.Almost as important was the choice of calligraphy, or handwriting, used. The Japanese of this period believed handwriting could reflect the condition of a person's soul: therefore, poor or hasty writing could be considered a sign of poor breeding. Whether the script was Chinese or Japanese, good writing and artistic skill was paramount to social reputation when it came to poetry. Sei Shonagon mentions in her Pillow Book that when a certain courtesan tried to ask her advice about how to write a poem to the empress Sadako, she had to politely rebuke him because his writing was so poor.

Q1: What artform became a mark of status in the courts?
A1: poetry
Q2: During the Heian period, what did the Japanese think could reflect one's soul?
A2: handwriting
Q3: What was said to show low status or "poor breeding"?
A3: poor or hasty writing
The lyrics of the modern Japanese national anthem, Kimi ga Yo, were written in the Heian period, as was The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu, one of the first novels ever written. Murasaki Shikibu's contemporary and rival Sei Shōnagon's revealing observations and musings as an attendant in the Empress' court were recorded collectively as The Pillow Book in the 990s, which revealed the quotidian capital lifestyle. The Heian period produced a flowering of poetry including works of Ariwara no Narihira, Ono no Komachi, Izumi Shikibu, Murasaki Shikibu, Saigyō and Fujiwara no Teika. The famous Japanese poem known as the Iroha (いろは), of uncertain authorship, was also written during the Heian period.

Q1: What is the name of the Japanese national anthem?
A1: Kimi ga Yo
Q2: What famous poem with an unknown author was written during the Heian period?
A2: Iroha
Q3: The Pillow Book was a collection of whose observations of the imperial court?
A3: Sei Shōnagon
While on one hand the Heian period was an unusually long period of peace, it can also be argued that the period weakened Japan economically and led to poverty for all but a tiny few of its inhabitants. The control of rice fields provided a key source of income for families such as the Fujiwara and were a fundamental base for their power. The aristocratic beneficiaries of Heian culture, the Ryōmin (良民 "Good People") numbered about five thousand in a land of perhaps five million. One reason the samurai were able to take power was that the ruling nobility proved incompetent at managing Japan and its provinces. By the year 1000 the government no longer knew how to issue currency and money was gradually disappearing. Instead of a fully realised system of money circulation, rice was the primary unit of exchange. The lack of a solid medium of economic exchange is implicitly illustrated in novels of the time. For instance, messengers were rewarded with useful objects, e.g., an old silk kimono, rather than paid a fee.

Q1: What crop was a primary source of income during the Heian period?
A1: rice
Q2: What was the name of the beneficiaries of Heian culture?
A2: Ryōmin
Q3: Currency gradually disappeared around what year?
A3: 1000
Q4: What crop became the primary unit of exchange?
A4: rice
The Fujiwara rulers failed to maintain adequate police forces, which left robbers free to prey on travelers. This is implicitly illustrated in novels by the terror that night travel inspired in the main characters. The shōen system enabled the accumulation of wealth by an aristocratic elite; the economic surplus can be linked to the cultural developments of the Heian period and the "pursuit of arts". The major Buddhist temples in Heian-kyō and Nara also made use of the shōen. The establishment of branches rurally and integration of some Shinto shrines within these temple networks reflects a greater "organizational dynamism".

Q1: Buddhist temples in which two cities made use of the shoen system?
A1: Heian-kyō and Nara
Q2: Why were travelers often robbed under Fujiwara rule?
A2: The Fujiwara rulers failed to maintain adequate police forces
Q3: The integration of Shinto shrines into government branches reflected a greater what?
A3: organizational dynamism
The game Total War: Shogun 2 has the Rise of the Samurai expansion pack as downloadable campaign. It allows the player to make their own version of the Gempei War which happened during the Heian period. The player is able to choose one of the most powerful families of Japan at the time, the Taira, Minamoto or Fujiwara; each family fielding two branches for a total of six playable clans. The expansion pack features a different set of land units, ships and buildings and is also playable in the multiplayer modes.

Q1: Which Total War game has an expansion set during the Heian period?
A1: Shogun 2
Q2: What families are playable characters in Total War: Shogun 2?
A2: Taira, Minamoto or Fujiwara
Q3: The Rise of the Samurai expansion for Total War: Shogun 2 depicts which war during the Heian period?
A3: Gempei War
On the Origin of Species, published on 24 November 1859, is a work of scientific literature by Charles Darwin which is considered to be the foundation of evolutionary biology. Darwin's book introduced the scientific theory that populations evolve over the course of generations through a process of natural selection. It presented a body of evidence that the diversity of life arose by common descent through a branching pattern of evolution. Darwin included evidence that he had gathered on the Beagle expedition in the 1830s and his subsequent findings from research, correspondence, and experimentation.

Q1: When was the Origin of Species published?
A1: 24 November 1859
Q2: Who wrote The Origin of Species?
A2: Charles Darwin
Q3: What branch of biology was The Origin of Species founded on?
A3: evolutionary biology
Q4: What was the expedition called that Charles Darwin discovered some of his evidence?
A4: Beagle expedition
Q5: How do populations evolve according to Charles Darwin's theory?
A5: through a process of natural selection
Various evolutionary ideas had already been proposed to explain new findings in biology. There was growing support for such ideas among dissident anatomists and the general public, but during the first half of the 19th century the English scientific establishment was closely tied to the Church of England, while science was part of natural theology. Ideas about the transmutation of species were controversial as they conflicted with the beliefs that species were unchanging parts of a designed hierarchy and that humans were unique, unrelated to other animals. The political and theological implications were intensely debated, but transmutation was not accepted by the scientific mainstream.

Q1: Which group of scientists began to support evolutionary ideas?
A1: dissident anatomists
Q2: Which powerful religious institution was a big part of scientific study in the 19th century?
A2: the Church of England
Q3: What was the general opinion about transmutation of species in the 19th century?
A3: Ideas about the transmutation of species were controversial
Q4: How did the majority of science see humanity in relation to animals in the 19th century?
A4: that humans were unique, unrelated to other animals.
Q5: Which theology did everyone agree science was a part of in the 19th century?
A5: natural theology
The book was written for non-specialist readers and attracted widespread interest upon its publication. As Darwin was an eminent scientist, his findings were taken seriously and the evidence he presented generated scientific, philosophical, and religious discussion. The debate over the book contributed to the campaign by T. H. Huxley and his fellow members of the X Club to secularise science by promoting scientific naturalism. Within two decades there was widespread scientific agreement that evolution, with a branching pattern of common descent, had occurred, but scientists were slow to give natural selection the significance that Darwin thought appropriate. During "the eclipse of Darwinism" from the 1880s to the 1930s, various other mechanisms of evolution were given more credit. With the development of the modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s, Darwin's concept of evolutionary adaptation through natural selection became central to modern evolutionary theory, and it has now become the unifying concept of the life sciences.

Q1: What section of the population was Darwin's book written for?
A1: non-specialist readers
Q2: Who attempted to secularize science during the debate over Darwin's book?
A2: T. H. Huxley
Q3: What was T.H. Huxley promoting?
A3: scientific naturalism
Q4: What was the growing change in opinion about evolution called?
A4: "the eclipse of Darwinism"
Q5: When did Darwin's concept of evolution become widely believed and central to the modern theory of evolution?
A5: in the 1930s and 1940s
In later editions of the book, Darwin traced evolutionary ideas as far back as Aristotle; the text he cites is a summary by Aristotle of the ideas of the earlier Greek philosopher Empedocles. Early Christian Church Fathers and Medieval European scholars interpreted the Genesis creation narrative allegorically rather than as a literal historical account; organisms were described by their mythological and heraldic significance as well as by their physical form. Nature was widely believed to be unstable and capricious, with monstrous births from union between species, and spontaneous generation of life.

Q1: To what ancient philosopher did Darwin trace some of his evolutionary ideas?
A1: Aristotle
Q2: Whose ideas were summarized by Aristotle in the work Darwin studied?
A2: Greek philosopher Empedocles
Q3: How did medieval scholars view the Genesis creation story?
A3: allegorically
Q4: What kind of births did the Christian Church fathers believe occurred in nature?
A4: monstrous births from union between species, and spontaneous generation of life.
The Protestant Reformation inspired a literal interpretation of the Bible, with concepts of creation that conflicted with the findings of an emerging science seeking explanations congruent with the mechanical philosophy of René Descartes and the empiricism of the Baconian method. After the turmoil of the English Civil War, the Royal Society wanted to show that science did not threaten religious and political stability. John Ray developed an influential natural theology of rational order; in his taxonomy, species were static and fixed, their adaptation and complexity designed by God, and varieties showed minor differences caused by local conditions. In God's benevolent design, carnivores caused mercifully swift death, but the suffering caused by parasitism was a puzzling problem. The biological classification introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1735 also viewed species as fixed according to the divine plan. In 1766, Georges Buffon suggested that some similar species, such as horses and asses, or lions, tigers, and leopards, might be varieties descended from a common ancestor. The Ussher chronology of the 1650s had calculated creation at 4004 BC, but by the 1780s geologists assumed a much older world. Wernerians thought strata were deposits from shrinking seas, but James Hutton proposed a self-maintaining infinite cycle, anticipating uniformitarianism.

Q1: Which group wanted to assuage fears that science was a threat to religious stability?
A1: the Royal Society
Q2: Whose theory claimed that species were unchanging and designed by God?
A2: John Ray
Q3: Who created a biological classification in 1735?
A3: Carl Linnaeus
Q4: When did the Ussher chronology state that creation began?
A4: 4004 BC
Q5: Who proposed that life is a self-maintaining, infinite cycle?
A5: James Hutton
Charles Darwin's grandfather Erasmus Darwin outlined a hypothesis of transmutation of species in the 1790s, and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck published a more developed theory in 1809. Both envisaged that spontaneous generation produced simple forms of life that progressively developed greater complexity, adapting to the environment by inheriting changes in adults caused by use or disuse. This process was later called Lamarckism. Lamarck thought there was an inherent progressive tendency driving organisms continuously towards greater complexity, in parallel but separate lineages with no extinction. Geoffroy contended that embryonic development recapitulated transformations of organisms in past eras when the environment acted on embryos, and that animal structures were determined by a constant plan as demonstrated by homologies. Georges Cuvier strongly disputed such ideas, holding that unrelated, fixed species showed similarities that reflected a design for functional needs. His palæontological work in the 1790s had established the reality of extinction, which he explained by local catastrophes, followed by repopulation of the affected areas by other species.

Q1: What was the name of Charles Darwin's grandfather?
A1: Erasmus Darwin
Q2: What theory did Erasmus Darwin outline in the 1790s?
A2: hypothesis of transmutation of species
Q3: What was the name of the scientist who developed and published a more complex version of Erasmus Darwin's theory in 1809?
A3: Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
Q4: What is the process of adapting to the environment and inheriting changes through use or disuse called?
A4: Lamarckism
Q5: Whose paleontology work in the 1790s established the reality of extinction?
A5: Georges Cuvier
In Britain, William Paley's Natural Theology saw adaptation as evidence of beneficial "design" by the Creator acting through natural laws. All naturalists in the two English universities (Oxford and Cambridge) were Church of England clergymen, and science became a search for these laws. Geologists adapted catastrophism to show repeated worldwide annihilation and creation of new fixed species adapted to a changed environment, initially identifying the most recent catastrophe as the biblical flood. Some anatomists such as Robert Grant were influenced by Lamarck and Geoffroy, but most naturalists regarded their ideas of transmutation as a threat to divinely appointed social order.

Q1: Whose work considered adaptation to be evidence of God's design?
A1: William Paley's
Q2: What was the name of William Paley's book claiming divine beneficial design?
A2: Natural Theology
Q3: What religion were all naturalists working at the two English universities?
A3: Church of England
Q4: How did most naturalists view the concept of transmutation of species?
A4: a threat to divinely appointed social order.
Q5: How did geologists explain the creation of new species in keeping with their belief in divine creation?
A5: adapted catastrophism to show repeated worldwide annihilation and creation of new fixed species adapted to a changed environment
Darwin went to Edinburgh University in 1825 to study medicine. In his second year he neglected his medical studies for natural history and spent four months assisting Robert Grant's research into marine invertebrates. Grant revealed his enthusiasm for the transmutation of species, but Darwin rejected it. Starting in 1827, at Cambridge University, Darwin learnt science as natural theology from botanist John Stevens Henslow, and read Paley, John Herschel and Alexander von Humboldt. Filled with zeal for science, he studied catastrophist geology with Adam Sedgwick.

Q1: When did Darwin begin attending university?
A1: 1825
Q2: What university did Darwin attend?
A2: Edinburgh University
Q3: What was Darwin originally studying at university?
A3: medicine
Q4: Who did Darwin assist in researching marine invertebrates?
A4: Robert Grant
Q5: With whom did Darwin study about catastrophic geology?
A5: Adam Sedgwick
In December 1831, he joined the Beagle expedition as a gentleman naturalist and geologist. He read Charles Lyell's Principles of Geology and from the first stop ashore, at St. Jago, found Lyell's uniformitarianism a key to the geological history of landscapes. Darwin discovered fossils resembling huge armadillos, and noted the geographical distribution of modern species in hope of finding their "centre of creation". The three Fuegian missionaries the expedition returned to Tierra del Fuego were friendly and civilised, yet to Darwin their relatives on the island seemed "miserable, degraded savages", and he no longer saw an unbridgeable gap between humans and animals. As the Beagle neared England in 1836, he noted that species might not be fixed.

Q1: What expedition did Darwin join in 1831?
A1: Beagle expedition
Q2: Who wrote The Principles of Geology?
A2: Charles Lyell
Q3: Where was the first stop of the Beagle Expedition?
A3: St. Jago
Q4: What did some of the fossils Darwin found on St. Jago resemble?
A4: huge armadillos
Q5: What caused Darwin to change his mind about the unbridgeable gap between animals and humans?
A5: their relatives on the island seemed "miserable, degraded savages"
Richard Owen showed that fossils of extinct species Darwin found in South America were allied to living species on the same continent. In March 1837, ornithologist John Gould announced that Darwin's rhea was a separate species from the previously described rhea (though their territories overlapped), that mockingbirds collected on the Galápagos Islands represented three separate species each unique to a particular island, and that several distinct birds from those islands were all classified as finches. Darwin began speculating, in a series of notebooks, on the possibility that "one species does change into another" to explain these findings, and around July sketched a genealogical branching of a single evolutionary tree, discarding Lamarck's independent lineages progressing to higher forms. Unconventionally, Darwin asked questions of fancy pigeon and animal breeders as well as established scientists. At the zoo he had his first sight of an ape, and was profoundly impressed by how human the orangutan seemed.

Q1: Who showed that extinct South American fossils were related to living species?
A1: Richard Owen
Q2: What did John Gould announce in 1837?
A2: Darwin's rhea was a separate species from the previously described rhea
Q3: How many species of mockingbirds were found to be present on the Galapagos Islands?
A3: three separate species
Q4: What type of scientist was John Gould?
A4: ornithologist
Q5: Which animal did Darwin see at a zoo that made him further consider evolution?
A5: an ape
In late September 1838, he started reading Thomas Malthus's An Essay on the Principle of Population with its statistical argument that human populations, if unrestrained, breed beyond their means and struggle to survive. Darwin related this to the struggle for existence among wildlife and botanist de Candolle's "warring of the species" in plants; he immediately envisioned "a force like a hundred thousand wedges" pushing well-adapted variations into "gaps in the economy of nature", so that the survivors would pass on their form and abilities, and unfavourable variations would be destroyed. By December 1838, he had noted a similarity between the act of breeders selecting traits and a Malthusian Nature selecting among variants thrown up by "chance" so that "every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected".

Q1: Which book did Darwin begin reading in 1838?
A1: An Essay on the Principle of Population
Q2: What did Thomas Malthus' book theorize would happen to human populations if they were unrestrained?
A2: breed beyond their means and struggle to survive
Q3: Which species did Darwin compare with the human struggle to survive?
A3: plants
Q4: What concept was de Candolle considering as he studied plants?
A4: "warring of the species"
Darwin continued to research and extensively revise his theory while focusing on his main work of publishing the scientific results of the Beagle voyage. He tentatively wrote of his ideas to Lyell in January 1842; then in June he roughed out a 35-page "Pencil Sketch" of his theory. Darwin began correspondence about his theorising with the botanist Joseph Dalton Hooker in January 1844, and by July had rounded out his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results and published if he died prematurely.

Q1: Who did Darwin write his ideas to in 1842?
A1: Lyell
Q2: What was the name of Darwin's 35-page writing of his theory?
A2: "Pencil Sketch"
Q3: Which botanist did Darwin begin a correspondence with about his theories?
A3: Joseph Dalton Hooker
Q4: What information was Darwin's essay based on?
A4: scientific results of the Beagle voyage
Q5: How many pages had Darwin's sketch grown to in 1844?
A5: 230-page
In November 1844, the anonymously published popular science book Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, written by Scottish journalist Robert Chambers, widened public interest in the concept of transmutation of species. Vestiges used evidence from the fossil record and embryology to support the claim that living things had progressed from the simple to the more complex over time. But it proposed a linear progression rather than the branching common descent theory behind Darwin's work in progress, and it ignored adaptation. Darwin read it soon after publication, and scorned its amateurish geology and zoology, but he carefully reviewed his own arguments after leading scientists, including Adam Sedgwick, attacked its morality and scientific errors. Vestiges had significant influence on public opinion, and the intense debate helped to pave the way for the acceptance of the more scientifically sophisticated Origin by moving evolutionary speculation into the mainstream. While few naturalists were willing to consider transmutation, Herbert Spencer became an active proponent of Lamarckism and progressive development in the 1850s.

Q1: What was the name of the anonymously published science book?
A1: Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation
Q2: What kind of progression did Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation propose?
A2: a linear progression
Q3: Who wrote Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation?
A3: Robert Chambers
Q4: What was the evidence in Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation used to support?
A4: that living things had progressed from the simple to the more complex over time.
Q5: Which scientist was in favor of Lamarckism in the 1850s?
A5: Herbert Spencer