romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
While the book was readable enough to sell, its dryness ensured that it was seen as aimed at specialist scientists and could not be dismissed as mere journalism or imaginative fiction. Unlike the still-popular Vestiges, it avoided the narrative style of the historical novel and cosmological speculation, though the closing sentence clearly hinted at cosmic progression. Darwin had long been immersed in the literary forms and practices of specialist science, and made effective use of his skills in structuring arguments. David Quammen has described the book as written in everyday language for a wide audience, but noted that Darwin's literary style was uneven: in some places he used convoluted sentences that are difficult to read, while in other places his writing was beautiful. Quammen advised that later editions were weakened by Darwin making concessions and adding details to address his critics, and recommended the first edition. James T. Costa said that because the book was an abstract produced in haste in response to Wallace's essay, it was more approachable than the big book on natural selection Darwin had been working on, which would have been encumbered by scholarly footnotes and much more technical detail. He added that some parts of Origin are dense, but other parts are almost lyrical, and the case studies and observations are presented in a narrative style unusual in serious scientific books, which broadened its audience.

Q1: What reason did David Quammen believe that On the Origin of Species was weakened in later editions?
A1: Darwin making concessions and adding details to address his critics
Q2: Why did James T. Costa think that On the Origin of Species was more likely to draw interest than a larger book that Darwin had been working on?
A2: because the book was an abstract produced in haste in response to Wallace's essay
Q3: What did On Origin of Species avoid in order to raise its chance of being taken seriously?
A3: it avoided the narrative style of the historical novel and cosmological speculation
Q4: What element of On the Origin of Species ensured that the book would be taken seriously by scientists?
A4: its dryness ensured that it was seen as aimed at specialist scientists and could not be dismissed as mere journalism or imaginative fiction.
Q5: Why did James T. Costa think the larger, abandoned book would not have been as successful?
A5: would have been encumbered by scholarly footnotes and much more technical detail
The book aroused international interest and a widespread debate, with no sharp line between scientific issues and ideological, social and religious implications. Much of the initial reaction was hostile, but Darwin had to be taken seriously as a prominent and respected name in science. There was much less controversy than had greeted the 1844 publication Vestiges of Creation, which had been rejected by scientists, but had influenced a wide public readership into believing that nature and human society were governed by natural laws. The Origin of Species as a book of wide general interest became associated with ideas of social reform. Its proponents made full use of a surge in the publication of review journals, and it was given more popular attention than almost any other scientific work, though it failed to match the continuing sales of Vestiges. Darwin's book legitimised scientific discussion of evolutionary mechanisms, and the newly coined term Darwinism was used to cover the whole range of evolutionism, not just his own ideas. By the mid-1870s, evolutionism was triumphant.

Q1: Why did On the Origin of Species likely raise so much interest and debate?
A1: no sharp line between scientific issues and ideological, social and religious implications
Q2: Why was the book taken seriously even though much of the response was hostile?
A2: Darwin had to be taken seriously as a prominent and respected name in science
Q3: What field of ideas latched onto On the Origin of Species when it became a widespread success?
A3: social reform
Q4: What did Darwin's book do for the field of scientific study of evolution?
A4: Darwin's book legitimised scientific discussion of evolutionary mechanisms
Q5: What was the term used to not only describe Darwin's theories, but the whole spectrum of evolution-ism after his book met with success?
A5: Darwinism
Scientific readers were already aware of arguments that species changed through processes that were subject to laws of nature, but the transmutational ideas of Lamarck and the vague "law of development" of Vestiges had not found scientific favour. Darwin presented natural selection as a scientifically testable mechanism while accepting that other mechanisms such as inheritance of acquired characters were possible. His strategy established that evolution through natural laws was worthy of scientific study, and by 1875, most scientists accepted that evolution occurred but few thought natural selection was significant. Darwin's scientific method was also disputed, with his proponents favouring the empiricism of John Stuart Mill's A System of Logic, while opponents held to the idealist school of William Whewell's Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, in which investigation could begin with the intuitive truth that species were fixed objects created by design. Early support for Darwin's ideas came from the findings of field naturalists studying biogeography and ecology, including Joseph Dalton Hooker in 1860, and Asa Gray in 1862. Henry Walter Bates presented research in 1861 that explained insect mimicry using natural selection. Alfred Russel Wallace discussed evidence from his Malay archipelago research, including an 1864 paper with an evolutionary explanation for the Wallace line.

Q1: What was the general response from scientific readers to Lamarck's written work?
A1: the transmutational ideas of Lamarck and the vague "law of development" of Vestiges had not found scientific favour
Q2: What was the likely reason that Darwin's ideas were accepted more readily than Lamarck's?
A2: natural selection as a scientifically testable mechanism while accepting that other mechanisms such as inheritance of acquired characters were possible.
Q3: Which school did opponents to Darwin's method support?
A3: the idealist school of William Whewell's Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences
Q4: Where did early support for Darwin's findings come from?
A4: the findings of field naturalists studying biogeography and ecology, including Joseph Dalton Hooker in 1860, and Asa Gray in 1862
Q5: Who authored research supporting insect mimicry  using natural selection?
A5: Henry Walter Bates
Evolution had less obvious applications to anatomy and morphology, and at first had little impact on the research of the anatomist Thomas Henry Huxley. Despite this, Huxley strongly supported Darwin on evolution; though he called for experiments to show whether natural selection could form new species, and questioned if Darwin's gradualism was sufficient without sudden leaps to cause speciation. Huxley wanted science to be secular, without religious interference, and his article in the April 1860 Westminster Review promoted scientific naturalism over natural theology, praising Darwin for "extending the domination of Science over regions of thought into which she has, as yet, hardly penetrated" and coining the term "Darwinism" as part of his efforts to secularise and professionalise science. Huxley gained influence, and initiated the X Club, which used the journal Nature to promote evolution and naturalism, shaping much of late Victorian science. Later, the German morphologist Ernst Haeckel would convince Huxley that comparative anatomy and palaeontology could be used to reconstruct evolutionary genealogies.

Q1: Who supported Darwin's theories on evolution despite it having little impact on his own research?
A1: Thomas Henry Huxley
Q2: What did Huxley's 1860 article in the Westminster Review promote?
A2: scientific naturalism over natural theology
Q3: Why did Huxley coin the name "Darwinism?"
A3: as part of his efforts to secularise and professionalise science
Q4: What did the morphologist Ernst Haeckel convince Huxley of about comparative anatomy and paleontology?
A4: that comparative anatomy and palaeontology could be used to reconstruct evolutionary genealogies
The leading naturalist in Britain was the anatomist Richard Owen, an idealist who had shifted to the view in the 1850s that the history of life was the gradual unfolding of a divine plan. Owen's review of the Origin in the April 1860 Edinburgh Review bitterly attacked Huxley, Hooker and Darwin, but also signalled acceptance of a kind of evolution as a teleological plan in a continuous "ordained becoming", with new species appearing by natural birth. Others that rejected natural selection, but supported "creation by birth", included the Duke of Argyll who explained beauty in plumage by design. Since 1858, Huxley had emphasised anatomical similarities between apes and humans, contesting Owen's view that humans were a separate sub-class. Their disagreement over human origins came to the fore at the British Association for the Advancement of Science meeting featuring the legendary 1860 Oxford evolution debate. In two years of acrimonious public dispute that Charles Kingsley satirised as the "Great Hippocampus Question" and parodied in The Water-Babies as the "great hippopotamus test", Huxley showed that Owen was incorrect in asserting that ape brains lacked a structure present in human brains. Others, including Charles Lyell and Alfred Russel Wallace, thought that humans shared a common ancestor with apes, but higher mental faculties could not have evolved through a purely material process. Darwin published his own explanation in the Descent of Man (1871).

Q1: Who was the leading naturalist in Britain?
A1: Richard Owen,
Q2: How did Owen respond to On the Origin of Species with his review?
A2: bitterly attacked Huxley, Hooker and Darwin, but also signalled acceptance of a kind of evolution as a teleological plan in a continuous "ordained becoming"
Q3: What was the debate between Huxley and Owen concerning humans and apes?
A3: Huxley had emphasised anatomical similarities between apes and humans, contesting Owen's view that humans were a separate sub-class
Q4: What was the primary debate at the British Association for the Advancement of Science meeting of 1860?
A4: legendary 1860 Oxford evolution debate
Q5: When did Darwin publish his own explanation of the question of the evolution of man and ape?
A5: Darwin published his own explanation in the Descent of Man (1871)
Evolutionary ideas, although not natural selection, were accepted by German biologists accustomed to ideas of homology in morphology from Goethe's Metamorphosis of Plants and from their long tradition of comparative anatomy. Bronn's alterations in his German translation added to the misgivings of conservatives, but enthused political radicals. Ernst Haeckel was particularly ardent, aiming to synthesise Darwin's ideas with those of Lamarck and Goethe while still reflecting the spirit of Naturphilosophie. Their ambitious programme to reconstruct the evolutionary history of life was joined by Huxley and supported by discoveries in palaeontology. Haeckel used embryology extensively in his recapitulation theory, which embodied a progressive, almost linear model of evolution. Darwin was cautious about such histories, and had already noted that von Baer's laws of embryology supported his idea of complex branching.

Q1: While evolutionary ideas were accepted by German biologists, what was not?
A1: natural selection
Q2: What led to more misgivings of conservative scientists when Bronn's German translation of On the Origin of Species was published?
A2: Bronn's alterations in his German translation added to the misgivings of conservatives
Q3: Which group of people was excited by the German translation of On the Origin of Species?
A3: political radicals
Q4: Why were political radicals such as Ernst Haekel so interested in On the Origin of Species?
A4: aiming to synthesise Darwin's ideas with those of Lamarck and Goethe while still reflecting the spirit of Naturphilosophie
French-speaking naturalists in several countries showed appreciation of the much modified French translation by Clémence Royer, but Darwin's ideas had little impact in France, where any scientists supporting evolutionary ideas opted for a form of Lamarckism. The intelligentsia in Russia had accepted the general phenomenon of evolution for several years before Darwin had published his theory, and scientists were quick to take it into account, although the Malthusian aspects were felt to be relatively unimportant. The political economy of struggle was criticised as a British stereotype by Karl Marx and by Leo Tolstoy, who had the character Levin in his novel Anna Karenina voice sharp criticism of the morality of Darwin's views.

Q1: What was the general feeling toward Darwin's ideas in France?
A1: Darwin's ideas had little impact in France, where any scientists supporting evolutionary ideas opted for a form of Lamarckism
Q2: What people in what country had embraced the idea of evolution for many years before Darwin published his theory?
A2: The intelligentsia in Russia
Q3: Which aspects of evolution theory were thought to be unimportant by many who read Darwin's work?
A3: the Malthusian aspects
Q4: Which author voiced his displeasure of the morality of Darwin's views in a novel?
A4: Leo Tolstoy
There were serious scientific objections to the process of natural selection as the key mechanism of evolution, including Karl von Nägeli's insistence that a trivial characteristic with no adaptive advantage could not be developed by selection. Darwin conceded that these could be linked to adaptive characteristics. His estimate that the age of the Earth allowed gradual evolution was disputed by William Thomson (later awarded the title Lord Kelvin), who calculated that it had cooled in less than 100 million years. Darwin accepted blending inheritance, but Fleeming Jenkin calculated that as it mixed traits, natural selection could not accumulate useful traits. Darwin tried to meet these objections in the 5th edition. Mivart supported directed evolution, and compiled scientific and religious objections to natural selection. In response, Darwin made considerable changes to the sixth edition. The problems of the age of the Earth and heredity were only resolved in the 20th century.

Q1: What justification for his objections to the process of natural selection did Karl von Nägel give?
A1: insistence that a trivial characteristic with no adaptive advantage could not be developed by selection
Q2: What was Darwin's concession to Karl von Nägel's objections?
A2: Darwin conceded that these could be linked to adaptive characteristics
Q3: Who disputed Darwin's estimate that the age of the earth allowed gradual evolution of species?
A3: William Thomson
Q4: What were William Thomson's reasons for disputing Darwin's estimate?
A4: calculated that it had cooled in less than 100 million years
Q5: When were the problems of the earth and heredity resolved?
A5: in the 20th century
By the mid-1870s, most scientists accepted evolution, but relegated natural selection to a minor role as they believed evolution was purposeful and progressive. The range of evolutionary theories during "the eclipse of Darwinism" included forms of "saltationism" in which new species were thought to arise through "jumps" rather than gradual adaptation, forms of orthogenesis claiming that species had an inherent tendency to change in a particular direction, and forms of neo-Lamarckism in which inheritance of acquired characteristics led to progress. The minority view of August Weismann, that natural selection was the only mechanism, was called neo-Darwinism. It was thought that the rediscovery of Mendelian inheritance invalidated Darwin's views.

Q1: Why did most scientists accept the validity of evolution by the 1870s, but considered natural selection a minor part of it?
A1: they believed evolution was purposeful and progressive.
Q2: What was meant by the term saltationism?
A2: new species were thought to arise through "jumps" rather than gradual adaptation
Q3: What is the term for the belief that species have a tendency to change and adapt in a certain direction?
A3: orthogenesis
Q4: What was the minority view on evolution that was believed by August Weismann?
A4: neo-Darwinism
Q5: What rediscovered inheritance was thought to invalidate Darwin's views on evolution?
A5: Mendelian inheritance
While some, like Spencer, used analogy from natural selection as an argument against government intervention in the economy to benefit the poor, others, including Alfred Russel Wallace, argued that action was needed to correct social and economic inequities to level the playing field before natural selection could improve humanity further. Some political commentaries, including Walter Bagehot's Physics and Politics (1872), attempted to extend the idea of natural selection to competition between nations and between human races. Such ideas were incorporated into what was already an ongoing effort by some working in anthropology to provide scientific evidence for the superiority of Caucasians over non white races and justify European imperialism. Historians write that most such political and economic commentators had only a superficial understanding of Darwin's scientific theory, and were as strongly influenced by other concepts about social progress and evolution, such as the Lamarckian ideas of Spencer and Haeckel, as they were by Darwin's work. Darwin objected to his ideas being used to justify military aggression and unethical business practices as he believed morality was part of fitness in humans, and he opposed polygenism, the idea that human races were fundamentally distinct and did not share a recent common ancestry.

Q1: Who believed that action needed to be taken to level out the social and economic playing field before natural selection could occur to improve humanity?
A1: Alfred Russel Wallace
Q2: Which political commentary attempted to widen the idea of natural selection to include competition between different races of people and countries?
A2: Walter Bagehot's Physics and Politics (1872)
Q3: Why were some political commentaries attempting to attach natural selection to human races?
A3: to provide scientific evidence for the superiority of Caucasians over non white races and justify European imperialism
Q4: What uses of his ideology did Darwin object to being used?
A4: to justify military aggression and unethical business practices
Q5: What theory about humanity did Darwin oppose?
A5: he opposed polygenism, the idea that human races were fundamentally distinct and did not share a recent common ancestry.
Natural theology was not a unified doctrine, and while some such as Louis Agassiz were strongly opposed to the ideas in the book, others sought a reconciliation in which evolution was seen as purposeful. In the Church of England, some liberal clergymen interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design, with the cleric Charles Kingsley seeing it as "just as noble a conception of Deity". In the second edition of January 1860, Darwin quoted Kingsley as "a celebrated cleric", and added the phrase "by the Creator" to the closing sentence, which from then on read "life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one". While some commentators have taken this as a concession to religion that Darwin later regretted, Darwin's view at the time was of God creating life through the laws of nature, and even in the first edition there are several references to "creation".

Q1: What view did Louis Agassiz have of On the Origin of Species?
A1: strongly opposed to the ideas in the book
Q2: What view did some clergymen in the Church of England take of the theory of natural selection?
A2: interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design
Q3: What did Darwin do to show that he admired the cleric Charles Kingsley?
A3: Darwin quoted Kingsley as "a celebrated cleric", and added the phrase "by the Creator" to the closing sentence,
Q4: What did some commentators think about Darwin changing the phrasing in his book?
A4: some commentators have taken this as a concession to religion that Darwin later regretted
Q5: What were Darwin's views on the part of God in his theory?
A5: Darwin's view at the time was of God creating life through the laws of nature
Baden Powell praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature". In America, Asa Gray argued that evolution is the secondary effect, or modus operandi, of the first cause, design, and published a pamphlet defending the book in terms of theistic evolution, Natural Selection is not inconsistent with Natural Theology. Theistic evolution became a popular compromise, and St. George Jackson Mivart was among those accepting evolution but attacking Darwin's naturalistic mechanism. Eventually it was realised that supernatural intervention could not be a scientific explanation, and naturalistic mechanisms such as neo-Lamarckism were favoured over natural selection as being more compatible with purpose.

Q1: What was Baden Powell's opinion of On the Origin of Species?
A1: Baden Powell praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature"
Q2: What did the pamphlet that Asa Gray published defend?
A2: defending the book in terms of theistic evolution, Natural Selection is not inconsistent with Natural Theology.
Q3: What was a way that theologians compromised with the information in Darwin's book?
A3: Theistic evolution became a popular compromise
Q4: What was later realized that caused naturalistic mechanisms such as neo-Lamarckism to be embraced?
A4: supernatural intervention could not be a scientific explanation
Even though the book had barely hinted at human evolution, it quickly became central to the debate as mental and moral qualities were seen as spiritual aspects of the immaterial soul, and it was believed that animals did not have spiritual qualities. This conflict could be reconciled by supposing there was some supernatural intervention on the path leading to humans, or viewing evolution as a purposeful and progressive ascent to mankind's position at the head of nature. While many conservative theologians accepted evolution, Charles Hodge argued in his 1874 critique "What is Darwinism?" that "Darwinism", defined narrowly as including rejection of design, was atheism though he accepted that Asa Gray did not reject design. Asa Gray responded that this charge misrepresented Darwin's text. By the early 20th century, four noted authors of The Fundamentals were explicitly open to the possibility that God created through evolution, but fundamentalism inspired the American creation–evolution controversy that began in the 1920s. Some conservative Roman Catholic writers and influential Jesuits opposed evolution in the late 19th and early 20th century, but other Catholic writers, starting with Mivart, pointed out that early Church Fathers had not interpreted Genesis literally in this area. The Vatican stated its official position in a 1950 papal encyclical, which held that evolution was not inconsistent with Catholic teaching.

Q1: How did people attempt to rationalize or reconcile the concept of natural selection?
A1: by supposing there was some supernatural intervention on the path leading to humans
Q2: Which scientist argued that Darwinism was atheism?
A2: Charles Hodge
Q3: What controversy around Darwin's book began in the 1920s?
A3: the American creation–evolution controversy
Q4: What official position did the Vatican take on the subject of evolution in 1950?
A4: The Vatican stated its official position in a 1950 papal encyclical, which held that evolution was not inconsistent with Catholic teaching.