romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
The Permian–Triassic extinction event, which was a prolonged event due to the accumulation of several extinction pulses, ended the dominance of the carnivores among the therapsids. In the early Triassic, all the medium to large land carnivore niches were taken over by archosaurs which, over an extended period of time (35 million years), came to include the crocodylomorphs, the pterosaurs, and the dinosaurs. By the Jurassic, the dinosaurs had come to dominate the large terrestrial herbivore niches as well.

Q1: What was the name of extinction level event that ended the dominance of the carnivores among therapsids?
A1: Permian–Triassic
Q2: During which time period did archosaurs begin to take over as the dominant carnivore?
A2: Triassic
Q3: Which three groups did the early Triassic period consist of?
A3: crocodylomorphs, the pterosaurs, and the dinosaurs
Q4: During the Jurassic period which group came out as the most dominate for both carnivores and herbivores?
A4: dinosaurs
The oldest known fossil among the Eutheria ("true beasts") is the small shrewlike Juramaia sinensis, or "Jurassic mother from China", dated to 160 million years ago in the Late Jurassic. A later eutherian, Eomaia, dated to 125 million years ago in the Early Cretaceous, possessed some features in common with the marsupials but not with the placentals, evidence that these features were present in the last common ancestor of the two groups but were later lost in the placental lineage. In particular:

Q1: What is the oldest know fossil among the Eutheria group?
A1: shrewlike Juramaia sinensis
Q2: How long ago does oldest know fossil date back to?
A2: 160 million years ago
Q3: In what time period did early animals share some features with marsupials?
A3: 125 million years ago
Q4: Which lineage were some of these early marsupial features were lost?
A4: placental
Recent molecular phylogenetic studies suggest that most placental orders diverged about 100 to 85 million years ago and that modern families appeared in the period from the late Eocene through the Miocene. But paleontologists object that no placental fossils have been found from before the end of the Cretaceous. The earliest undisputed fossils of placentals come from the early Paleocene, after the extinction of the dinosaurs. In particular, scientists have recently identified an early Paleocene animal named Protungulatum donnae as one of the first placental mammals. The earliest known ancestor of primates is Archicebus achilles from around 55 million years ago. This tiny primate weighed 20–30 grams (0.7–1.1 ounce) and could fit within a human palm.

Q1: How long ago did most placental orders diverge from?
A1: 100 to 85 million years ago
Q2: Which two major time periods did placentals appear?
A2: Eocene through the Miocene
Q3: Which time period did early highly undisputed fossils of placental mammals appear?
A3: Paleocene
Q4: When is the earliest know primate thought to had exist?
A4: 55 million years ago
Q5: How much did the first primate weigh?
A5: 20–30 grams (0.7–1.1 ounce)
The earliest clear evidence of hair or fur is in fossils of Castorocauda, from 164 million years ago in the Middle Jurassic. In the 1950s, it was suggested that the foramina (passages) in the maxillae and premaxillae (bones in the front of the upper jaw) of cynodonts were channels which supplied blood vessels and nerves to vibrissae (whiskers) and so were evidence of hair or fur; it was soon pointed out, however, that foramina do not necessarily show that an animal had vibrissae, as the modern lizard Tupinambis has foramina that are almost identical to those found in the nonmammalian cynodont Thrinaxodon. Popular sources, nevertheless, continue to attribute whiskers to Thrinaxodon.

Q1: When is it believed that the earliest know hair was said to exist?
A1: 164 million years ago
Q2: When was it suggested that foramina premaxillae could contain the first know hairs?
A2: 1950s
Q3: Which major time period were these suggested hairs from?
A3: Jurassic
When endothermy first appeared in the evolution of mammals is uncertain. Modern monotremes have lower body temperatures and more variable metabolic rates than marsupials and placentals, but there is evidence that some of their ancestors, perhaps including ancestors of the therians, may have had body temperatures like those of modern therians. Some of the evidence found so far suggests that Triassic cynodonts had fairly high metabolic rates, but it is not conclusive. For small animals, an insulative covering like fur is necessary for the maintenance of a high and stable body temperature.

Q1: Which group of animal has a lower body temperature that marsupials and placentals?
A1: monotremes
Q2: Which time period is suggested that cynodonts had a high metabolic rate?
A2: Triassic
Q3: Why is it necessary for smaller animals to have an insulative covering?
A3: maintenance of a high and stable body temperature
Breathing is largely driven by the muscular diaphragm, which divides the thorax from the abdominal cavity, forming a dome with its convexity towards the thorax. Contraction of the diaphragm flattens the dome, increasing the volume of the cavity in which the lung is enclosed. Air enters through the oral and nasal cavities; it flows through the larynx, trachea and bronchi and expands the alveoli. Relaxation of the diaphragm has the opposite effect, passively recoiling during normal breathing. During exercise, the abdominal wall contracts, increasing visceral pressure on the diaphragm, thus forcing the air out more quickly and forcefully. The rib cage itself also is able to expand and contract the thoracic cavity to some degree, through the action of other respiratory and accessory respiratory muscles. As a result, air is sucked into or expelled out of the lungs, always moving down its pressure gradient. This type of lung is known as a bellows lung as it resembles a blacksmith's bellows. Mammals take oxygen into their lungs, and discard carbon dioxide.

Q1: When air enters both the oral and nasal cavities, where does it flow through?
A1: larynx, trachea and bronchi
Q2: Increasing pressure on the diaphragm thus increasing air output more frequently is usually caused by?
A2: exercise
Q3: A result of air being sucked into or blown out of the lung thats moving its pressure gradient is referred to?
A3: bellows lung
Q4: Where did the term Bellows Lung come from?
A4: blacksmith's bellows
The epidermis is typically 10 to 30 cells thick; its main function is to provide a waterproof layer. Its outermost cells are constantly lost; its bottommost cells are constantly dividing and pushing upward. The middle layer, the dermis, is 15 to 40 times thicker than the epidermis. The dermis is made up of many components, such as bony structures and blood vessels. The hypodermis is made up of adipose tissue. Its job is to store lipids, and to provide cushioning and insulation. The thickness of this layer varies widely from species to species.

Q1: What is the typical thickness of the epidermis?
A1: 10 to 30 cells thick
Q2: What is the main function of the epidermis?
A2: to provide a waterproof layer
Q3: How much more thicker is the dermis to the epidermis?
A3: 15 to 40 times thicker
Q4: What is the dermis mainly consist of?
A4: bony structures and blood vessels
Q5: What does the Hyperdermis consist of?
A5: adipose tissue
Mammalian hair, also known as pelage, can vary in color between populations, organisms within a population, and even on the individual organism. Light-dark color variation is common in the mammalian taxa. Sometimes, this color variation is determined by age variation, however, in other cases, it is determined by other factors. Selective pressures, such as ecological interactions with other populations or environmental conditions, often lead to the variation in mammalian coloration. These selective pressures favor certain colors in order to increase survival. Camouflage is thought to be a major selection pressure shaping coloration in mammals, although there is also evidence that sexual selection, communication, and physiological processes may influence the evolution of coloration as well. Camouflage is the most predominant mechanism for color variation, as it aids in the concealment of the organisms from predators or from their prey. Coat color can also be for intraspecies communication such as warning members of their species about predators, indicating health for reproductive purposes, communicating between mother and young, and intimidating predators. Studies have shown that in some cases, differences in female and male coat color could indicate information nutrition and hormone levels, which are important in the mate selection process. One final mechanism for coat color variation is physiological response purposes, such as temperature regulation in tropical or arctic environments. Although much has been observed about color variation, much of the genetic that link coat color to genes is still unknown. The genetic sites where pigmentation genes are found are known to affect phenotype by: 1) altering the spatial distribution of pigmentation of the hairs, and 2) altering the density and distribution of the hairs. Quantitative trait mapping is being used to better understand the distribution of loci responsible for pigmentation variation. However, although the genetic sites are known, there is still much to learn about how these genes are expressed.

Q1: What is another name used for mammalian hair?
A1: pelage
Q2: Which color of hair is most common among mammalian taxa?
A2: Light-dark color
Q3: Besides Camouflage being a reason for having certain hair colors, what other reasons have been discovered?
A3: sexual selection, communication, and physiological processes
Most mammals are viviparous, giving birth to live young. However, the five species of monotreme, the platypuses and the echidnas, lay eggs. The monotremes have a sex determination system different from that of most other mammals. In particular, the sex chromosomes of a platypus are more like those of a chicken than those of a therian mammal. Like marsupials and most other mammals, monotreme young are larval and fetus-like, as the presence of epipubic bones prevents the expansion of the torso, forcing them to produce small young.

Q1: What is the common mammal group that gives birth to live young?
A1: viviparous
Q2: How many species of mammals lay eggs?
A2: five species
Q3: Which mammal that has the bill of a duck lays eggs?
A3: platypus
Q4: The platypus has sex chromosomes more related to which other non-mammal?
A4: chicken
Viviparous mammals are in the subclass Theria; those living today are in the marsupial and placental infraclasses. A marsupial has a short gestation period, typically shorter than its estrous cycle, and gives birth to an undeveloped newborn that then undergoes further development; in many species, this takes place within a pouch-like sac, the marsupium, located in the front of the mother's abdomen. This is the plesyomorphic condition among viviparous mammals; the presence of epipubic bones in all non-placental mammals prevents the expansion of the torso needed for full pregnancy. Even non-placental eutherians probably reproduced this way.

Q1: Which sub class are most viviparous mammals in?
A1: Theria
Q2: Viviparous mammals today are in which two main infraclasses?
A2: marsupial and placental
Q3: What is present in all non-placental mammals?
A3: epipubic bones
In intelligent mammals, such as primates, the cerebrum is larger relative to the rest of the brain. Intelligence itself is not easy to define, but indications of intelligence include the ability to learn, matched with behavioral flexibility. Rats, for example, are considered to be highly intelligent, as they can learn and perform new tasks, an ability that may be important when they first colonize a fresh habitat. In some mammals, food gathering appears to be related to intelligence: a deer feeding on plants has a brain smaller than a cat, which must think to outwit its prey.

Q1: Which part is larger relative to the brain in primates?
A1: cerebrum
Q2: Which non-primate has the ability to learn and perform new task?
A2: Rats
Q3: Mammals with smaller brains tend to be in what class in the food chain?
A3: prey
To maintain a high constant body temperature is energy expensive – mammals therefore need a nutritious and plentiful diet. While the earliest mammals were probably predators, different species have since adapted to meet their dietary requirements in a variety of ways. Some eat other animals – this is a carnivorous diet (and includes insectivorous diets). Other mammals, called herbivores, eat plants. A herbivorous diet includes subtypes such as fruit-eating and grass-eating. An omnivore eats both prey and plants. Carnivorous mammals have a simple digestive tract, because the proteins, lipids, and minerals found in meat require little in the way of specialized digestion. Plants, on the other hand, contain complex carbohydrates, such as cellulose. The digestive tract of an herbivore is therefore host to bacteria that ferment these substances, and make them available for digestion. The bacteria are either housed in the multichambered stomach or in a large cecum. The size of an animal is also a factor in determining diet type. Since small mammals have a high ratio of heat-losing surface area to heat-generating volume, they tend to have high energy requirements and a high metabolic rate. Mammals that weigh less than about 18 oz (500 g) are mostly insectivorous because they cannot tolerate the slow, complex digestive process of a herbivore. Larger animals, on the other hand, generate more heat and less of this heat is lost. They can therefore tolerate either a slower collection process (those that prey on larger vertebrates) or a slower digestive process (herbivores). Furthermore, mammals that weigh more than 18 oz (500 g) usually cannot collect enough insects during their waking hours to sustain themselves. The only large insectivorous mammals are those that feed on huge colonies of insects (ants or termites).

Q1: To be able to maintain a constant body temperature, what do mammals need to maintain?
A1: nutritious and plentiful diet
Q2: What does a omnivore imply?
A2: eats both prey and plants
Q3: What do the majority of mammals under 18 oz eat?
A3: insects
Q4: What determines a mammals diet type?
A4: The size
The deliberate or accidental hybridising of two or more species of closely related animals through captive breeding is a human activity which has been in existence for millennia and has grown in recent times for economic purposes. The number of successful interspecific mammalian hybrids is relatively small, although it has come to be known that there is a significant number of naturally occurring hybrids between forms or regional varieties of a single species.[citation needed] These may form zones of gradation known as clines. Indeed, the distinction between some hitherto distinct species can become clouded once it can be shown that they may not only breed but produce fertile offspring. Some hybrid animals exhibit greater strength and resilience than either parent. This is known as hybrid vigor. The existence of the mule (donkey sire; horse dam) being used widely as a hardy draught animal throughout ancient and modern history is testament to this. Other well known examples are the lion/tiger hybrid, the liger, which is by far the largest big cat and sometimes used in circuses; and cattle hybrids such as between European and Indian domestic cattle or between domestic cattle and American bison, which are used in the meat industry and marketed as Beefalo. There is some speculation that the donkey itself may be the result of an ancient hybridisation between two wild ass species or sub-species. Hybrid animals are normally infertile partly because their parents usually have slightly different numbers of chromosomes, resulting in unpaired chromosomes in their cells, which prevents division of sex cells and the gonads from operating correctly, particularly in males. There are exceptions to this rule, especially if the speciation process was relatively recent or incomplete as is the case with many cattle and dog species. Normally behavior traits, natural hostility, natural ranges and breeding cycle differences maintain the separateness of closely related species and prevent natural hybridisation. However, the widespread disturbances to natural animal behaviours and range caused by human activity, cities, dumping grounds with food, agriculture, fencing, roads and so on do force animals together which would not normally breed. Clear examples exist between the various sub-species of grey wolf, coyote and domestic dog in North America. As many birds and mammals imprint on their mother and immediate family from infancy, a practice used by animal hybridizers is to foster a planned parent in a hybridization program with the same species as the one with which they are planned to mate.

Q1: What is the name given when zones of gradation exits?
A1: clines
Q2: What is the given name of a lion and tiger hybrid?
A2: liger
Q3: What is the marketed name given in the meat industry when you involve a european or indian domestic cattle mixed with an American bison?
A3: Beefalo
Q4: What is the given name of a offspring from two different animals?
A4: hybrid
Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean. The permission was granted, and despite the defeat of the English Armada in 1589, on 10 April 1591 three ships sailed from Torbay around the Cape of Good Hope to the Arabian Sea on one of the earliest English overseas Indian expeditions. One of them, Edward Bonventure, then sailed around Cape Comorin and on to the Malay Peninsula and subsequently returned to England in 1594.

Q1: The Spanish Armada suffered a defeat in what year?
A1: 1588
Q2: What was the first year the London merchants were granted permission to sail the Indina Ocean?
A2: 1589
Q3: Who did the London merchants petition to get permission to sail the Indian Ocean?
A3: Queen Elizabeth I
Q4: how many ships sailed Torbay?
A4: three
Q5: who returned to england after sailing around Cape Comorin?
A5: Edward Bonventure
Q6:  in this paragraph the Spanish Armada suffered a defeat in what year?
A6: 1588
Q7: how many ships sailed  from Torbay?
A7: three
This time they succeeded, and on 31 December 1600, the Queen granted a Royal Charter to "George, Earl of Cumberland, and 215 Knights, Aldermen, and Burgesses" under the name, Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading with the East Indies. For a period of fifteen years the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601 and returned in 1603. and in March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the second voyage. General William Keeling, a captain during the second voyage, led the third voyage from 1607 to 1610.

Q1: What did the Queen give them for suceeding?
A1: a Royal Charter
Q2: What was the name of the Royal Charter?
A2: Governor and Company of Merchants of London trading with the East Indies
Q3: What did this charter give them?
A3: a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan
Q4: Who commanded the the voyage between 1601 and 1603?
A4: Sir James Lancaster
Q5: Who led the third voyage?
A5: General William Keeling
Q6: Who commanded the the voyage between 1601 and 1603?
A6: Sir James Lancaster
Q7: Who commanded the second  voyage in 1604?
A7: Sir Henry Middleton
Q8: What was the rank of the person who commanded the third voyage?
A8: General
Q9: what was the name of the company that traded with East Indies?
A9: Merchants of London
Q10: how many years did the Merchants of London has a monoploy on trade?
A10: fifteen
In the next two years, the company established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal. The high profits reported by the company after landing in India initially prompted King James I to grant subsidiary licences to other trading companies in England. But in 1609 he renewed the charter given to the company for an indefinite period, including a clause that specified that the charter would cease to be in force if the trade turned unprofitable for three consecutive years.

Q1: Where was the first factory in south India?
A1: town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal
Q2: In 1609 the charter was renewed for what period of time?
A2: indefinite
Q3: what would happen if the trade did not return a profit for at least 3 years?
A3: charter would cease to be in force
Q4: why did King James I licence other trading companies from england?
A4: high profits
Q5: Where was the first factory in south India?
A5: Machilipatnam
Q6: What initially moved King James 1 to grant subsidiary licences to other trading companies in England?
A6: high profits
Q7: While the company was  giving an indefinite period when renewing thier charter what clause did King james use to make sure the company stayed profitable
A7: the charter would cease to be in force if the trade turned unprofitable for three consecutive years.
Q8: how many years did the Merchants of London have to become profitabl when their charter was renewed by king james?
A8: three consecutive years
The company, which benefited from the imperial patronage, soon expanded its commercial trading operations, eclipsing the Portuguese Estado da Índia, which had established bases in Goa, Chittagong, and Bombay, which Portugal later ceded to England as part of the dowry of Catherine de Braganza. The East India Company also launched a joint attack with the Dutch United East India Company on Portuguese and Spanish ships off the coast of China, which helped secure their ports in China. The company established trading posts in Surat (1619), Madras (1639), Bombay (1668), and Calcutta (1690). By 1647, the company had 23 factories, each under the command of a factor or master merchant and governor if so chosen, and 90 employees in India. The major factories became the walled forts of Fort William in Bengal, Fort St George in Madras, and Bombay Castle.

Q1: when was the bombay trading post established?
A1: 1668
Q2: who commanded the factories owned by the East India company?
A2: factor or master merchant and governor
Q3: who helped join the East India company in a joint attack on Portuguese and Spanish ships?
A3: Dutch United East India Company
Q4: how many employees were in the factories in India?
A4: 90
Q5: what were the walled forts of Fort William in Bengal, Fort St George in Madras and Bombay castle before they were forts?
A5: major factories
Q6: who helped join the East India company in a joint attack on Portuguese and Spanish ships?
A6: Dutch
Q7: by 1647 how many factories did the company have?
A7: 23
Q8: the east india company changed how it did business by moving from  focusing on royal patronage to what type of business?
A8: commercial trading operations
Q9: when the east india company move to commercial  trading what  company did they surpass?
A9: Portuguese Estado da Índia
Q10: The top or most important factories had what  physical feature in  common?
A10: walled forts