romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
Molecules of carbohydrates and fats consist of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Carbohydrates range from simple monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose) to complex polysaccharides (starch). Fats are triglycerides, made of assorted fatty acid monomers bound to a glycerol backbone. Some fatty acids, but not all, are essential in the diet: they cannot be synthesized in the body. Protein molecules contain nitrogen atoms in addition to carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. The fundamental components of protein are nitrogen-containing amino acids, some of which are essential in the sense that humans cannot make them internally. Some of the amino acids are convertible (with the expenditure of energy) to glucose and can be used for energy production, just as ordinary glucose, in a process known as gluconeogenesis. By breaking down existing protein, the carbon skeleton of the various amino acids can be metabolized to intermediates in cellular respiration; the remaining ammonia is discarded primarily as urea in urine. This occurs normally only during prolonged starvation.

Q1: Other than fats, what else consists of atoms of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen?
A1: carbohydrates
Q2: If a carbohydrate is not a simple monosaccharide, what else could it be?
A2: complex polysaccharides
Q3: What do fatty acid monomers that are bound to glycerol backbones make up?
A3: triglycerides
Q4: What characteristic about fatty acids requires them to be an essential component in a diet?
A4: cannot be synthesized in the body
Q5: Which element do the amino acids that make up the core component of protein have in common?
A5: nitrogen
Traditionally, simple carbohydrates are believed to be absorbed quickly, and therefore to raise blood-glucose levels more rapidly than complex carbohydrates. This, however, is not accurate. Some simple carbohydrates (e.g., fructose) follow different metabolic pathways (e.g., fructolysis) that result in only a partial catabolism to glucose, while, in essence, many complex carbohydrates may be digested at the same rate as simple carbohydrates. Glucose stimulates the production of insulin through food entering the bloodstream, which is grasped by the beta cells in the pancreas.

Q1: What was traditionally believed to be absorbed quickly causing blood - glucose levels to rapidly rise?
A1: simple carbohydrates
Q2: What is an example of a simple carbohydrate?
A2: fructose
Q3: When simple carbohydrates undergo metabolic pathways, what do they result in after partial catabolism?
A3: glucose
Q4: What is glucose able to stimulate that is required in the human body?
A4: production of insulin
Q5: Where are beta cells that attach to insulin located?
A5: pancreas
Dietary fiber is a carbohydrate that is incompletely absorbed in humans and in some animals. Like all carbohydrates, when it is metabolized it can produce four Calories (kilocalories) of energy per gram. However, in most circumstances it accounts for less than that because of its limited absorption and digestibility. Dietary fiber consists mainly of cellulose, a large carbohydrate polymer which is indigestible as humans do not have the required enzymes to disassemble it. There are two subcategories: soluble and insoluble fiber. Whole grains, fruits (especially plums, prunes, and figs), and vegetables are good sources of dietary fiber. There are many health benefits of a high-fiber diet. Dietary fiber helps reduce the chance of gastrointestinal problems such as constipation and diarrhea by increasing the weight and size of stool and softening it. Insoluble fiber, found in whole wheat flour, nuts and vegetables, especially stimulates peristalsis – the rhythmic muscular contractions of the intestines, which move digesta along the digestive tract. Soluble fiber, found in oats, peas, beans, and many fruits, dissolves in water in the intestinal tract to produce a gel that slows the movement of food through the intestines. This may help lower blood glucose levels because it can slow the absorption of sugar. Additionally, fiber, perhaps especially that from whole grains, is thought to possibly help lessen insulin spikes, and therefore reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes. The link between increased fiber consumption and a decreased risk of colorectal cancer is still uncertain.

Q1: What example of a carbohydrate is unable to be fully absorbed in humans?
A1: Dietary fiber
Q2: How many kilocalories of energy per gram is dietary fiber able to produce when successfully metabolized?
A2: four
Q3: What is the main component that makes up dietary fiber?
A3: cellulose
Q4: What is an example of a gastrointestinal problem other than diarrhea?
A4: constipation
Q5: What does soluble fiber do to help lower blood glucose levels?
A5: slow the absorption of sugar
A molecule of dietary fat typically consists of several fatty acids (containing long chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms), bonded to a glycerol. They are typically found as triglycerides (three fatty acids attached to one glycerol backbone). Fats may be classified as saturated or unsaturated depending on the detailed structure of the fatty acids involved. Saturated fats have all of the carbon atoms in their fatty acid chains bonded to hydrogen atoms, whereas unsaturated fats have some of these carbon atoms double-bonded, so their molecules have relatively fewer hydrogen atoms than a saturated fatty acid of the same length. Unsaturated fats may be further classified as monounsaturated (one double-bond) or polyunsaturated (many double-bonds). Furthermore, depending on the location of the double-bond in the fatty acid chain, unsaturated fatty acids are classified as omega-3 or omega-6 fatty acids. Trans fats are a type of unsaturated fat with trans-isomer bonds; these are rare in nature and in foods from natural sources; they are typically created in an industrial process called (partial) hydrogenation. There are nine kilocalories in each gram of fat. Fatty acids such as conjugated linoleic acid, catalpic acid, eleostearic acid and punicic acid, in addition to providing energy, represent potent immune modulatory molecules.

Q1: Dietary fat can be said to consist of fatty acids bonded to which molecule?
A1: glycerol
Q2: How many glycerol backbones does a triglyceride contain?
A2: one
Q3: What needs to be examined to determine whether a fat can be classified as saturated or unsaturated?
A3: the detailed structure of the fatty acids involved
Q4: Which element is present that is bonded to all of the carbons in a saturated fat?
A4: hydrogen
Q5: What kind of fat can a trans fat be categorized as?
A5: unsaturated fat
Saturated fats (typically from animal sources) have been a staple in many world cultures for millennia. Unsaturated fats (e. g., vegetable oil) are considered healthier, while trans fats are to be avoided. Saturated and some trans fats are typically solid at room temperature (such as butter or lard), while unsaturated fats are typically liquids (such as olive oil or flaxseed oil). Trans fats are very rare in nature, and have been shown to be highly detrimental to human health, but have properties useful in the food processing industry, such as rancidity resistance.[citation needed]

Q1: Where do saturated fats in a diet typically originate from?
A1: animal sources
Q2: Which kind of fat is generally considered to be healthiest?
A2: Unsaturated fats
Q3: Which type of fat should people attempt to avoid?
A3: trans fats
Q4: What kind of state of matter do unsaturated fats typically have at room temperature?
A4: liquids
Q5: Although trans fats are harmful to human health, what property do they have that makes them useful in food processing?
A5: rancidity resistance
Most fatty acids are non-essential, meaning the body can produce them as needed, generally from other fatty acids and always by expending energy to do so. However, in humans, at least two fatty acids are essential and must be included in the diet. An appropriate balance of essential fatty acids—omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids—seems also important for health, although definitive experimental demonstration has been elusive. Both of these "omega" long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids are substrates for a class of eicosanoids known as prostaglandins, which have roles throughout the human body. They are hormones, in some respects. The omega-3 eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), which can be made in the human body from the omega-3 essential fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), or taken in through marine food sources, serves as a building block for series 3 prostaglandins (e.g., weakly inflammatory PGE3). The omega-6 dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) serves as a building block for series 1 prostaglandins (e.g. anti-inflammatory PGE1), whereas arachidonic acid (AA) serves as a building block for series 2 prostaglandins (e.g. pro-inflammatory PGE 2). Both DGLA and AA can be made from the omega-6 linoleic acid (LA) in the human body, or can be taken in directly through food. An appropriately balanced intake of omega-3 and omega-6 partly determines the relative production of different prostaglandins, which is one reason why a balance between omega-3 and omega-6 is believed important for cardiovascular health. In industrialized societies, people typically consume large amounts of processed vegetable oils, which have reduced amounts of the essential fatty acids along with too much of omega-6 fatty acids relative to omega-3 fatty acids.

Q1: What does it mean when it is claimed that many fatty acids are non - essential?
A1: the body can produce them as needed
Q2: At least how many fatty acids are essential to the human health and have to be consumed rather than produced by the body?
A2: two
Q3: What does EPA stand for?
A3: eicosapentaenoic acid
Q4: Outside of consumption, what would be broken down in the body to obtain DGLA and AA?
A4: omega-6 linoleic acid
Q5: What do people consume that has low amounts of the necessary essential fatty acids?
A5: processed vegetable oils
The conversion rate of omega-6 DGLA to AA largely determines the production of the prostaglandins PGE1 and PGE2. Omega-3 EPA prevents AA from being released from membranes, thereby skewing prostaglandin balance away from pro-inflammatory PGE2 (made from AA) toward anti-inflammatory PGE1 (made from DGLA). Moreover, the conversion (desaturation) of DGLA to AA is controlled by the enzyme delta-5-desaturase, which in turn is controlled by hormones such as insulin (up-regulation) and glucagon (down-regulation). The amount and type of carbohydrates consumed, along with some types of amino acid, can influence processes involving insulin, glucagon, and other hormones; therefore, the ratio of omega-3 versus omega-6 has wide effects on general health, and specific effects on immune function and inflammation, and mitosis (i.e., cell division).

Q1: What is able to prevent AA from being released from membranes?
A1: Omega-3 EPA
Q2: The conversion of omega-6 DGLA to AA is able to help regulate which process?
A2: the production of the prostaglandins PGE1 and PGE2
Q3: What kind of process is the conversion of DGLA to AA?
A3: desaturation
Q4: What is an example of a hormone other than insulin that is able to control the enzyme delta-5-desaturase?
A4: glucagon
Q5: What is the scientific name for cell division?
A5: mitosis
Proteins are structural materials in much of the animal body (e.g. muscles, skin, and hair). They also form the enzymes that control chemical reactions throughout the body. Each protein molecule is composed of amino acids, which are characterized by inclusion of nitrogen and sometimes sulphur (these components are responsible for the distinctive smell of burning protein, such as the keratin in hair). The body requires amino acids to produce new proteins (protein retention) and to replace damaged proteins (maintenance). As there is no protein or amino acid storage provision, amino acids must be present in the diet. Excess amino acids are discarded, typically in the urine. For all animals, some amino acids are essential (an animal cannot produce them internally) and some are non-essential (the animal can produce them from other nitrogen-containing compounds). About twenty amino acids are found in the human body, and about ten of these are essential and, therefore, must be included in the diet. A diet that contains adequate amounts of amino acids (especially those that are essential) is particularly important in some situations: during early development and maturation, pregnancy, lactation, or injury (a burn, for instance). A complete protein source contains all the essential amino acids; an incomplete protein source lacks one or more of the essential amino acids.

Q1: What primarily makes up the enzymes in our body that regulate the chemical reactions that occur?
A1: Proteins
Q2: What is the primary component of every protein?
A2: amino acids
Q3: What is the term that refers to the body process that produces new proteins?
A3: protein retention
Q4: When the body no longer needs the amino acids that are present, through which excretion are they lost?
A4: urine
Q5: Approximately how many amino acid types does the human body generally have?
A5: twenty
It is possible with protein combinations of two incomplete protein sources (e.g., rice and beans) to make a complete protein source, and characteristic combinations are the basis of distinct cultural cooking traditions. However, complementary sources of protein do not need to be eaten at the same meal to be used together by the body. Excess amino acids from protein can be converted into glucose and used for fuel through a process called gluconeogenesis. The amino acids remaining after such conversion are discarded.

Q1: What would be required for the human body to potentially have a chance to create a complete protein source?
A1: two incomplete protein sources
Q2: Other than rice, what would be another example of an incomplete protein source?
A2: beans
Q3: What is taken from proteins and converted to glucose by the body?
A3: Excess amino acids
Q4: What is the term for the conversion of amino acids into glucose?
A4: gluconeogenesis
Q5: What happens to amino acids that are left over after the body has converted what it can to glucose?
A5: discarded
Early recommendations for the quantity of water required for maintenance of good health suggested that 6–8 glasses of water daily is the minimum to maintain proper hydration. However the notion that a person should consume eight glasses of water per day cannot be traced to a credible scientific source. The original water intake recommendation in 1945 by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council read: "An ordinary standard for diverse persons is 1 milliliter for each calorie of food. Most of this quantity is contained in prepared foods." More recent comparisons of well-known recommendations on fluid intake have revealed large discrepancies in the volumes of water we need to consume for good health. Therefore, to help standardize guidelines, recommendations for water consumption are included in two recent European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) documents (2010): (i) Food-based dietary guidelines and (ii) Dietary reference values for water or adequate daily intakes (ADI). These specifications were provided by calculating adequate intakes from measured intakes in populations of individuals with “desirable osmolarity values of urine and desirable water volumes per energy unit consumed.” For healthful hydration, the current EFSA guidelines recommend total water intakes of 2.0 L/day for adult females and 2.5 L/day for adult males. These reference values include water from drinking water, other beverages, and from food. About 80% of our daily water requirement comes from the beverages we drink, with the remaining 20% coming from food. Water content varies depending on the type of food consumed, with fruit and vegetables containing more than cereals, for example. These values are estimated using country-specific food balance sheets published by the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. Other guidelines for nutrition also have implications for the beverages we consume for healthy hydration- for example, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommend that added sugars should represent no more than 10% of total energy intake.

Q1: What was the early recommended amount of water that was supposedly required to keep the body hydrated?
A1: 6–8 glasses of water daily
Q2: Who originally made a water intake recommendation in 1945?
A2: Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council
Q3: How much water should be taken in for each calorie of food that is consumed?
A3: 1 milliliter
Q4: What does ADI stand for?
A4: adequate daily intakes
Q5: Where do humans get the 20% of water that does not come from the beverages we drink?
A5: food
The EFSA panel also determined intakes for different populations. Recommended intake volumes in the elderly are the same as for adults as despite lower energy consumption, the water requirement of this group is increased due to a reduction in renal concentrating capacity. Pregnant and breastfeeding women require additional fluids to stay hydrated. The EFSA panel proposes that pregnant women should consume the same volume of water as non-pregnant women, plus an increase in proportion to the higher energy requirement, equal to 300 mL/day. To compensate for additional fluid output, breastfeeding women require an additional 700 mL/day above the recommended intake values for non-lactating women.

Q1: Who was similar recommended intake volumes as adults?
A1: the elderly
Q2: Other then breastfeeding women, who what other category of woman should have increased water intake?
A2: Pregnant
Q3: How much more water should pregnant women consumed compared to an average non - pregnant woman?
A3: 300 mL/day
Q4: Why should lactating women increase their water consumption?
A4: To compensate for additional fluid output
Q5: How much more water do lactating women need to consume in relation to the average woman?
A5: 700 mL/day
Dietary minerals are inorganic chemical elements required by living organisms, other than the four elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen that are present in nearly all organic molecules. The term "mineral" is archaic, since the intent is to describe simply the less common elements in the diet. Some are heavier than the four just mentioned, including several metals, which often occur as ions in the body. Some dietitians recommend that these be supplied from foods in which they occur naturally, or at least as complex compounds, or sometimes even from natural inorganic sources (such as calcium carbonate from ground oyster shells). Some minerals are absorbed much more readily in the ionic forms found in such sources. On the other hand, minerals are often artificially added to the diet as supplements; the most famous is likely iodine in iodized salt which prevents goiter.

Q1: What kind of element are dietary minerals?
A1: inorganic chemical elements
Q2: What was the term "mineral" originally meant to describe?
A2: the less common elements in the diet
Q3: In what form are some metals commonly found in the body?
A3: ions
Q4: In what form should minerals be to be absorbed easier?
A4: ionic forms
Q5: What is the most famous mineral that is artificially added that prevents goiter?
A5: iodine
As with the minerals discussed above, some vitamins are recognized as organic essential nutrients, necessary in the diet for good health. (Vitamin D is the exception: it can be synthesized in the skin, in the presence of UVB radiation.) Certain vitamin-like compounds that are recommended in the diet, such as carnitine, are thought useful for survival and health, but these are not "essential" dietary nutrients because the human body has some capacity to produce them from other compounds. Moreover, thousands of different phytochemicals have recently been discovered in food (particularly in fresh vegetables), which may have desirable properties including antioxidant activity (see below); however, experimental demonstration has been suggestive but inconclusive. Other essential nutrients that are not classified as vitamins include essential amino acids (see above), choline, essential fatty acids (see above), and the minerals discussed in the preceding section.

Q1: Which vitamin can be synthesized in the skin?
A1: Vitamin D
Q2: What is required for vitamin D to be synthesized?
A2: UVB radiation
Q3: What is an example of a vitamin - like compound that is not considered an essential dietary nutrient?
A3: carnitine
Q4: What has recently been discovered in the thousands, especially from examining fresh vegetables?
A4: phytochemicals
Q5: What is choline not an example of?
A5: vitamins
As cellular metabolism/energy production requires oxygen, potentially damaging (e.g., mutation causing) compounds known as free radicals can form. Most of these are oxidizers (i.e., acceptors of electrons) and some react very strongly. For the continued normal cellular maintenance, growth, and division, these free radicals must be sufficiently neutralized by antioxidant compounds. Recently, some researchers suggested an interesting theory of evolution of dietary antioxidants. Some are produced by the human body with adequate precursors (glutathione, Vitamin C), and those the body cannot produce may only be obtained in the diet via direct sources (Vitamin C in humans, Vitamin A, Vitamin K) or produced by the body from other compounds (Beta-carotene converted to Vitamin A by the body, Vitamin D synthesized from cholesterol by sunlight). Phytochemicals (Section Below) and their subgroup, polyphenols, make up the majority of antioxidants; about 4,000 are known. Different antioxidants are now known to function in a cooperative network. For example, Vitamin C can reactivate free radical-containing glutathione or Vitamin E by accepting the free radical itself. Some antioxidants are more effective than others at neutralizing different free radicals. Some cannot neutralize certain free radicals. Some cannot be present in certain areas of free radical development (Vitamin A is fat-soluble and protects fat areas, Vitamin C is water-soluble and protects those areas). When interacting with a free radical, some antioxidants produce a different free radical compound that is less dangerous or more dangerous than the previous compound. Having a variety of antioxidants allows any byproducts to be safely dealt with by more efficient antioxidants in neutralizing a free radical's butterfly effect.

Q1: What is another term that can be used to describe "potentially damaging" compounds?
A1: mutation causing
Q2: What are oxidizers?
A2: acceptors of electrons
Q3: In order for the body to function normally, what must be used to neutralize free radicals?
A3: antioxidant compounds
Q4: What subgroup of phytochemicals helps make up the majority of the body's antioxidants?
A4: polyphenols
Q5: Which area of the body does vitamin A protect?
A5: fat areas
Animal intestines contain a large population of gut flora. In humans, the four dominant phyla are Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Actinobacteria, and Proteobacteria. They are essential to digestion and are also affected by food that is consumed. Bacteria in the gut perform many important functions for humans, including breaking down and aiding in the absorption of otherwise indigestible food; stimulating cell growth; repressing the growth of harmful bacteria, training the immune system to respond only to pathogens; producing vitamin B12; and defending against some infectious diseases.

Q1: What term collectively describes "Firmicutes" and "Bacteroidetes" among others?
A1: phyla
Q2: What is the importance of having phyla in the body?
A2: essential to digestion
Q3: Which vitamin are the bacteria present in the gut responsible for producing?
A3: vitamin B12
Q4: What role specifically in digestion do bacteria in the gut have?
A4: breaking down and aiding in the absorption of otherwise indigestible food
Q5: Where could one find a large population of gut flora?
A5: Animal intestines