romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
Aves and a sister group, the clade Crocodilia, contain the only living representatives of the reptile clade Archosauria. During the late 1990s, Aves was most commonly defined phylogenetically as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of modern birds and Archaeopteryx lithographica. However, an earlier definition proposed by Jacques Gauthier gained wide currency in the 21st century, and is used by many scientists including adherents of the Phylocode system. Gauthier defined Aves to include only the crown group of the set of modern birds. This was done by excluding most groups known only from fossils, and assigning them, instead, to the Avialae, in part to avoid the uncertainties about the placement of Archaeopteryx in relation to animals traditionally thought of as theropod dinosaurs.

Q1: Besides Aves, what group contains the only living representatives of the reptile clade Archosauria?
A1: clade Crocodilia
Q2: Who defined Aves to include only the crown group of the set of modern birds?
A2: Gauthier
Q3: What is a sister group to Aves?
A3: clade Crocodilia
Based on fossil and biological evidence, most scientists accept that birds are a specialized subgroup of theropod dinosaurs, and more specifically, they are members of Maniraptora, a group of theropods which includes dromaeosaurs and oviraptorids, among others. As scientists have discovered more theropods closely related to birds, the previously clear distinction between non-birds and birds has become blurred. Recent discoveries in the Liaoning Province of northeast China, which demonstrate many small theropod feathered dinosaurs, contribute to this ambiguity.

Q1: What evidence leads most scientists to accept that birds are a specialized subgroup of theropod dinosaurs?
A1: fossil and biological evidence
Q2: What is a group of theropods which include dromaeosaurs and oviraptorids?
A2: Maniraptora
Q3: Recent discoveries in what country demonstrate many small theropod feathered dinosaurs.
A3: China
The consensus view in contemporary paleontology is that the flying theropods, or avialans, are the closest relatives of the deinonychosaurs, which include dromaeosaurids and troodontids. Together, these form a group called Paraves. Some basal members of this group, such as Microraptor, have features which may have enabled them to glide or fly. The most basal deinonychosaurs were very small. This evidence raises the possibility that the ancestor of all paravians may have been arboreal, have been able to glide, or both. Unlike Archaeopteryx and the non-avialan feathered dinosaurs, who primarily ate meat, recent studies suggest that the first avialans were omnivores.

Q1: What are the closest relatives of the deinonychosaurs?
A1: flying theropods
Q2: What are the closest relatives of flying theropods?
A2: deinonychosaurs
Q3: Dromaeosaurids and troodontids are members of what group?
A3: deinonychosaurs
The Late Jurassic Archaeopteryx is well known as one of the first transitional fossils to be found, and it provided support for the theory of evolution in the late 19th century. Archaeopteryx was the first fossil to display both clearly traditional reptilian characteristics: teeth, clawed fingers, and a long, lizard-like tail, as well as wings with flight feathers similar to those of modern birds. It is not considered a direct ancestor of birds, though it is possibly closely related to the true ancestor.

Q1: What is known as one of the first transitional fossils to be found?
A1: Late Jurassic Archaeopteryx
Q2: What was the first fossil to display both clearly traditional reptilian characteristics?
A2: Archaeopteryx
Q3: Fossils with teeth, clawed fingers and a long lizard-like tail have what type of characteristics?
A3: reptilian
The earliest known avialan fossils come from the Tiaojishan Formation of China, which has been dated to the late Jurassic period (Oxfordian stage), about 160 million years ago. The avialan species from this time period include Anchiornis huxleyi, Xiaotingia zhengi, and Aurornis xui. The well-known early avialan, Archaeopteryx, dates from slightly later Jurassic rocks (about 155 million years old) from Germany. Many of these early avialans shared unusual anatomical features that may be ancestral to modern birds, but were later lost during bird evolution. These features include enlarged claws on the second toe which may have been held clear of the ground in life, and long feathers or "hind wings" covering the hind limbs and feet, which may have been used in aerial maneuvering.

Q1: The Oxfordian stage is also known as what?
A1: late Jurassic period
Q2: How long ago was the late Jurassic period?
A2: about 160 million years ago
Q3: What may have been used in aerial maneuvering?
A3: hind wings
Q4: Avian species such as Anchiornis huxleyi and Xiaotingia zhengi are from which time period?
A4: late Jurassic period
Avialans diversified into a wide variety of forms during the Cretaceous Period. Many groups retained primitive characteristics, such as clawed wings and teeth, though the latter were lost independently in a number of avialan groups, including modern birds (Aves). While the earliest forms, such as Archaeopteryx and Jeholornis, retained the long bony tails of their ancestors, the tails of more advanced avialans were shortened with the advent of the pygostyle bone in the group Pygostylia. In the late Cretaceous, around 95 million years ago, the ancestor of all modern birds also evolved a better sense of smell.

Q1: During which time period did avialans diversify into a wide variety of forms?
A1: Cretaceous Period
Q2: Which forms retained the long bony tails of their ancestors?
A2: Archaeopteryx and Jeholornis
Q3: When did the ancestor of all modern birds evolve a better sense of smell?
A3: late Cretaceous
Q4: How long ago was the late Cretaceous period?
A4: around 95 million years ago
The first large, diverse lineage of short-tailed avialans to evolve were the enantiornithes, or "opposite birds", so named because the construction of their shoulder bones was in reverse to that of modern birds. Enantiornithes occupied a wide array of ecological niches, from sand-probing shorebirds and fish-eaters to tree-dwelling forms and seed-eaters. While they were the dominant group of avialans during the Cretaceous period, enantiornithes became extinct along with many other dinosaur groups at the end of the Mesozoic era.

Q1: What were the first large, diverse lineage of short-tailed avialans to evolve?
A1: enantiornithes
Q2: Because of the construction of their shoulder bones, what were the enantiornithes called?
A2: opposite birds
Q3: What was the dominant group of avialans during the Cretaceous period?
A3: enantiornithes
Q4: When did enantiornithes become extinct?
A4: end of the Mesozoic era
Many species of the second major avialan lineage to diversify, the Euornithes (meaning "true birds", because they include the ancestors of modern birds), were semi-aquatic and specialized in eating fish and other small aquatic organisms. Unlike the enantiornithes, which dominated land-based and arboreal habitats, most early euornithes lacked perching adaptations and seem to have included shorebird-like species, waders, and swimming and diving species. The later included the superficially gull-like Ichthyornis, the Hesperornithiformes, which became so well adapted to hunting fish in marine environments that they lost the ability to fly and became primarily aquatic. The early euornithes also saw the development of many traits associated with modern birds, like strongly keeled breastbones, toothless, beaked portions of their jaws (though most non-avian euornithes retained teeth in other parts of the jaws). Euornithes also included the first avialans to develop true pygostyle and a fully mobile fan of tail feathers, which may have replaced the "hind wing" as the primary mode of aerial maneuverability and braking in flight.

Q1: What group became the first avialans to develop true pygostyle and a fully mobile fan of tail feathers?
A1: Euornithes
Q2: What does Euornithes mean?
A2: true birds
Q3: Why does Euornithes mean "true birds?"
A3: because they include the ancestors of modern birds
Q4: What may have replaced the "hind wing" as the primary mode of aerial maneuverability?
A4: fully mobile fan of tail feathers
All modern birds lie within the crown group Aves (alternately Neornithes), which has two subdivisions: the Palaeognathae, which includes the flightless ratites (such as the ostriches) and the weak-flying tinamous, and the extremely diverse Neognathae, containing all other birds. These two subdivisions are often given the rank of superorder, although Livezey and Zusi assigned them "cohort" rank. Depending on the taxonomic viewpoint, the number of known living bird species varies anywhere from 9,800 to 10,050.

Q1: All modern birds lie within which crown group?
A1: Aves
Q2: What is another name for Aves?
A2: Neornithes
Q3: The two subdivisions of what group include Palaeognathae and Neognathae?
A3: Aves
Q4: What is the number range of living bird species?
A4: 9,800 to 10,050
The earliest divergence within the Neognathes was that of the Galloanserae, the superorder containing the Anseriformes (ducks, geese, swans and screamers) and the Galliformes (the pheasants, grouse, and their allies, together with the mound builders and the guans and their allies). The earliest fossil remains of true birds come from the possible galliform Austinornis lentus, dated to about 85 million years ago, but the dates for the actual splits are much debated by scientists. The Aves are agreed to have evolved in the Cretaceous, and the split between the Galloanseri from other Neognathes occurred before the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, but there are different opinions about whether the radiation of the remaining Neognathes occurred before or after the extinction of the other dinosaurs. This disagreement is in part caused by a divergence in the evidence; molecular dating suggests a Cretaceous radiation, while fossil evidence supports a Cenozoic radiation. Attempts to reconcile the molecular and fossil evidence have proved controversial, but recent results show that all the extant groups of birds originated from only a small handful of species that survived the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction.

Q1: What was the earliest divergence within the Neognathes?
A1: Galloanserae
Q2: What is the superorder containing the Anseriformes?
A2: Galloanserae
Q3: Ducks, geese, swans and screamers are part of which group?
A3: Anseriformes
Q4: The pheasants, grouse and their allies form which group?
A4: Galliformes
The classification of birds is a contentious issue. Sibley and Ahlquist's Phylogeny and Classification of Birds (1990) is a landmark work on the classification of birds, although it is frequently debated and constantly revised. Most evidence seems to suggest the assignment of orders is accurate, but scientists disagree about the relationships between the orders themselves; evidence from modern bird anatomy, fossils and DNA have all been brought to bear on the problem, but no strong consensus has emerged. More recently, new fossil and molecular evidence is providing an increasingly clear picture of the evolution of modern bird orders. The most recent effort is drawn above and is based on whole genome sequencing of 48 representative species.

Q1: Sibley and Ahlquist' Phylogeny and Classification of Birds is a landmark work on the classification of what animals?
A1: birds
Q2: What do scientists disagree about?
A2: relationships between the orders themselves
Q3: What do scientists tend to agree on?
A3: the assignment of orders is accurate
Birds live and breed in most terrestrial habitats and on all seven continents, reaching their southern extreme in the snow petrel's breeding colonies up to 440 kilometres (270 mi) inland in Antarctica. The highest bird diversity occurs in tropical regions. It was earlier thought that this high diversity was the result of higher speciation rates in the tropics, however recent studies found higher speciation rates in the high latitudes that were offset by greater extinction rates than in the tropics. Several families of birds have adapted to life both on the world's oceans and in them, with some seabird species coming ashore only to breed and some penguins have been recorded diving up to 300 metres (980 ft).

Q1: Birds live on how many continents?
A1: seven
Q2: Highest bird diversity occurs in which regions?
A2: tropical
Q3: Some penguins have been recording diving up to how many feet?
A3: 980
Q4: Some seabird species only come ashore for what purpose?
A4: to breed
Many bird species have established breeding populations in areas to which they have been introduced by humans. Some of these introductions have been deliberate; the ring-necked pheasant, for example, has been introduced around the world as a game bird. Others have been accidental, such as the establishment of wild monk parakeets in several North American cities after their escape from captivity. Some species, including cattle egret, yellow-headed caracara and galah, have spread naturally far beyond their original ranges as agricultural practices created suitable new habitat.

Q1: The ring-necked pheasant has been introduced as what kind of bird?
A1: game bird
Q2: Why have some species spread naturally far beyond their original ranges?
A2: agricultural practices created suitable new habitat
Q3: Where have many birds established breeding populations?
A3: in areas to which they have been introduced by humans
The skeleton consists of very lightweight bones. They have large air-filled cavities (called pneumatic cavities) which connect with the respiratory system. The skull bones in adults are fused and do not show cranial sutures. The orbits are large and separated by a bony septum. The spine has cervical, thoracic, lumbar and caudal regions with the number of cervical (neck) vertebrae highly variable and especially flexible, but movement is reduced in the anterior thoracic vertebrae and absent in the later vertebrae. The last few are fused with the pelvis to form the synsacrum. The ribs are flattened and the sternum is keeled for the attachment of flight muscles except in the flightless bird orders. The forelimbs are modified into wings.

Q1: What consists of very lightweight bones?
A1: The skeleton
Q2: What does the skeleton consist of?
A2: very lightweight bones
Q3: What are pneumatic cavities?
A3: large air-filled cavities
Q4: What are large air-filled cavities that connect to the respiratory system?
A4: pneumatic cavities
Q5: What is formed when vertebrae are fused with the pelvis?
A5: synsacrum
Like the reptiles, birds are primarily uricotelic, that is, their kidneys extract nitrogenous waste from their bloodstream and excrete it as uric acid instead of urea or ammonia through the ureters into the intestine. Birds do not have a urinary bladder or external urethral opening and (with exception of the ostrich) uric acid is excreted along with feces as a semisolid waste. However, birds such as hummingbirds can be facultatively ammonotelic, excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia. They also excrete creatine, rather than creatinine like mammals. This material, as well as the output of the intestines, emerges from the bird's cloaca. The cloaca is a multi-purpose opening: waste is expelled through it, most birds mate by joining cloaca, and females lay eggs from it. In addition, many species of birds regurgitate pellets. Males within Palaeognathae (with the exception of the kiwis), the Anseriformes (with the exception of screamers), and in rudimentary forms in Galliformes (but fully developed in Cracidae) possess a penis, which is never present in Neoaves. The length is thought to be related to sperm competition. When not copulating, it is hidden within the proctodeum compartment within the cloaca, just inside the vent. The digestive system of birds is unique, with a crop for storage and a gizzard that contains swallowed stones for grinding food to compensate for the lack of teeth. Most birds are highly adapted for rapid digestion to aid with flight. Some migratory birds have adapted to use protein from many parts of their bodies, including protein from the intestines, as additional energy during migration.

Q1: What is it called when a bird's kidneys extract nitrogenous waste from their bloodstream and secrete it as uric acid?
A1: uricotelic
Q2: Which bid has a urinary bladder or external urethral opening?
A2: ostrich
Q3: What is a multi-purpose opening on birds?
A3: cloaca
Q4: How do most birds mate?
A4: by joining cloaca
Q5: What aids birds with flight?
A5: rapid digestion
Birds have one of the most complex respiratory systems of all animal groups. Upon inhalation, 75% of the fresh air bypasses the lungs and flows directly into a posterior air sac which extends from the lungs and connects with air spaces in the bones and fills them with air. The other 25% of the air goes directly into the lungs. When the bird exhales, the used air flows out of the lung and the stored fresh air from the posterior air sac is simultaneously forced into the lungs. Thus, a bird's lungs receive a constant supply of fresh air during both inhalation and exhalation. Sound production is achieved using the syrinx, a muscular chamber incorporating multiple tympanic membranes which diverges from the lower end of the trachea; the trachea being elongated in some species, increasing the volume of vocalizations and the perception of the bird's size.

Q1: Upon inhalation, what percentage of fresh air bypasses the lungs and flows directly into a posterior air sac?
A1: 75%
Q2: Where does the other 25 percent of fresh air go?
A2: directly into the lungs
Q3: What is the syrinx?
A3: a muscular chamber incorporating multiple tympanic membranes
Q4: Sound production is achieved using what muscular chamber?
A4: syrinx
Q5: Which animal has one of the most complex respiratory system of all animal groups?
A5: Birds
The avian circulatory system is driven by a four-chambered, myogenic heart contained in a fibrous pericardial sac. This pericardial sac is filled with a serous fluid for lubrication. The heart itself is divided into a right and left half, each with an atrium and ventricle. The atrium and ventricles of each side are separated by atrioventricular valves which prevent back flow from one chamber to the next during contraction. Being myogenic, the heart's pace is maintained by pacemaker cells found in the sinoatrial node, located on the right atrium. The sinoatrial node uses calcium to cause a depolarizing signal transduction pathway from the atrium through right and left atrioventricular bundle which communicates contraction to the ventricles. The avian heart also consists of muscular arches that are made up of thick bundles of muscular layers. Much like a mammalian heart, the avian heart is composed of endocardial, myocardial and epicardial layers. The atrium walls tend to be thinner than the ventricle walls, due to the intense ventricular contraction used to pump oxygenated blood throughout the body. Avian hearts are generally larger than mammalian hearts when compared to body mass. This adaptation allows more blood to be pumped to meet the high metabolic need associated with flight.

Q1: The avian circulatory system is driven by what?
A1: four-chambered, myogenic heart
Q2: Where is the heart contained in the avian circulatory system?
A2: fibrous pericardial sac
Q3: What lubricates the pericardial sac?
A3: serous fluid
Q4: Why are Avian hearts larger than mammalian hearts when compared to body mass?
A4: allows more blood to be pumped
Birds have a very efficient system for diffusing oxygen into the blood; birds have a ten times greater surface area to gas exchange volume than mammals. As a result, birds have more blood in their capillaries per unit of volume of lung than a mammal. The arteries are composed of thick elastic muscles to withstand the pressure of the ventricular constriction, and become more rigid as they move away from the heart. Blood moves through the arteries, which undergo vasoconstriction, and into arterioles which act as a transportation system to distribute primarily oxygen as well as nutrients to all tissues of the body. As the arterioles move away from the heart and into individual organs and tissues they are further divided to increase surface area and slow blood flow. Travelling through the arterioles blood moves into the capillaries where gas exchange can occur. Capillaries are organized into capillary beds in tissues, it is here that blood exchanges oxygen for carbon dioxide waste. In the capillary beds blood flow is slowed to allow maximum diffusion of oxygen into the tissues. Once the blood has become deoxygenated it travels through venules then veins and back to the heart. Veins, unlike arteries, are thin and rigid as they do not need to withstand extreme pressure. As blood travels through the venules to the veins a funneling occurs called vasodilation bringing blood back to the heart. Once the blood reaches the heart it moves first into the right atrium, then the right ventricle to be pumped through the lungs for further gas exchange of carbon dioxide waste for oxygen. Oxygenated blood then flows from the lungs through the left atrium to the left ventricle where it is pumped out to the body.

Q1: Why are birds' arteries composed of thick elastic muscles?
A1: to withstand the pressure of the ventricular constriction
Q2: What moves through the arteries?
A2: Blood
Q3: What is organized into capillary beds in tissues?
A3: Capillaries
Q4: What is the funneling that occurs that brings blood back to the heart?
A4: vasodilation
The nervous system is large relative to the bird's size. The most developed part of the brain is the one that controls the flight-related functions, while the cerebellum coordinates movement and the cerebrum controls behaviour patterns, navigation, mating and nest building. Most birds have a poor sense of smell with notable exceptions including kiwis, New World vultures and tubenoses. The avian visual system is usually highly developed. Water birds have special flexible lenses, allowing accommodation for vision in air and water. Some species also have dual fovea. Birds are tetrachromatic, possessing ultraviolet (UV) sensitive cone cells in the eye as well as green, red and blue ones. This allows them to perceive ultraviolet light, which is involved in courtship. Birds have specialized light-sensing cells deep in their brains that respond to light without input from eyes or other sensory neurons. These photo-receptive cells in the hypothalamus are involved in detecting the longer days of spring, and thus regulate breeding activities.

Q1: Which bird system is large relative to a bird's size?
A1: nervous system
Q2: What is tetrachromatic?
A2: possessing ultraviolet (UV) sensitive cone cells in the eye as well as green, red and blue ones
Q3: Why do birds need to perceive ultraviolet light?
A3: courtship
Q4: What regulates breeding activities?
A4: photo-receptive cells in