romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
The North American Environmental Atlas, produced by the Commission for Environmental Cooperation, a NAFTA agency composed of the geographical agencies of the Mexican, American, and Canadian governments uses the "Great Plains" as an ecoregion synonymous with predominant prairies and grasslands rather than as physiographic region defined by topography. The Great Plains ecoregion includes five sub-regions: Temperate Prairies, West-Central Semi-Arid Prairies, South-Central Semi-Arid Prairies, Texas Louisiana Coastal Plains, and Tamaulipus-Texas Semi-Arid Plain, which overlap or expand upon other Great Plains designations.

Q1: who is the North American Environmental Atlas made by?
A1: Commission for Environmental Cooperation
Q2: what countries is the Commission for Environmental Cooperation made up of?
A2: Mexican, American, and Canadian governments
The railroads opened up the Great Plains for settlement, for now it was possible to ship wheat and other crops at low cost to the urban markets in the East, and Europe. Homestead land was free for American settlers. Railroads sold their land at cheap rates to immigrants in expectation they would generate traffic as soon as farms were established. Immigrants poured in, especially from Germany and Scandinavia. On the plains, very few single men attempted to operate a farm or ranch by themselves; they clearly understood the need for a hard-working wife, and numerous children, to handle the many chores, including child-rearing, feeding and clothing the family, managing the housework, feeding the hired hands, and, especially after the 1930s, handling paperwork and financial details. During the early years of settlement, farm women played an integral role in assuring family survival by working outdoors. After approximately one generation, women increasingly left the fields, thus redefining their roles within the family. New technology including sewing and washing machines encouraged women to turn to domestic roles. The scientific housekeeping movement, promoted across the land by the media and government extension agents, as well as county fairs which featured achievements in home cookery and canning, advice columns for women regarding farm bookkeeping, and home economics courses in the schools.

Q1: what mainly opened the great plains for settlement?
A1: railroads
Q2: what did the railroads make it easy to do?
A2: ship wheat and other crops
Q3: who did the railroads sell cheap lands to?
A3: immigrants
Q4: who two new technologies were introducted in the 1930s?
A4: sewing and washing machines
During the Cenozoic era, specifically about 25 million years ago during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs, the continental climate became favorable to the evolution of grasslands. Existing forest biomes declined and grasslands became much more widespread. The grasslands provided a new niche for mammals, including many ungulates and glires, that switched from browsing diets to grazing diets. Traditionally, the spread of grasslands and the development of grazers have been strongly linked. However, an examination of mammalian teeth suggests that it is the open, gritty habitat and not the grass itself which is linked to diet changes in mammals, giving rise to the "grit, not grass" hypothesis.

Q1: about how long ago did the climate become favorable?
A1: about 25 million years ago
Q2: what animals did the grasslands provide a new home for?
A2: mammals
Q3: what diet did the mammals switch to from browsing diets?
A3: grazing diets
Q4: the spread of grasslands and what have been strongly linked?
A4: development of grazers
To allow for agricultural development of the Great Plains and house a growing population, the US passed the Homestead Acts of 1862: it allowed a settler to claim up to 160 acres (65 ha) of land, provided that he lived on it for a period of five years and cultivated it. The provisions were expanded under the Kinkaid Act of 1904 to include a homestead of an entire section. Hundreds of thousands of people claimed such homesteads, sometimes building sod houses out of the very turf of their land. Many of them were not skilled dryland farmers and failures were frequent. Much of the Plains were settled during relatively wet years. Government experts did not understand how farmers should cultivate the prairies and gave advice counter to what would have worked[citation needed]. Germans from Russia who had previously farmed, under similar circumstances, in what is now Ukraine were marginally more successful than other homesteaders. The Dominion Lands Act of 1871 served a similar function for establishing homesteads on the prairies in Canada.

Q1: when did the US pass the Homestead ACt?
A1: 1862
Q2: how much land did the Homestead Act allow a person to claim?
A2: up to 160 acres
Q3: how long did the person have to live on the land?
A3: five years
Q4: when was the Kinkaid Act brought about?
A4: 1904
Q5: the dominion act was passed in what year
A5: 1871
Infrared radiation is used in industrial, scientific, and medical applications. Night-vision devices using active near-infrared illumination allow people or animals to be observed without the observer being detected. Infrared astronomy uses sensor-equipped telescopes to penetrate dusty regions of space, such as molecular clouds; detect objects such as planets, and to view highly red-shifted objects from the early days of the universe. Infrared thermal-imaging cameras are used to detect heat loss in insulated systems, to observe changing blood flow in the skin, and to detect overheating of electrical apparatus.

Q1: What technology is used by night-vision devices?
A1: active near-infrared illumination
Q2: What discipline uses infrared telescopes to see through molecular clouds?
A2: Infrared astronomy
Q3: What color shift indicates that space objects date from the early days of the universe?
A3: red
Q4: What devices are used to observe insulated system heat loss?
A4: Infrared thermal-imaging cameras
Q5: Along with industrial and medical, in what applications is infrared radiation used?
A5: scientific
The onset of infrared is defined (according to different standards) at various values typically between 700 nm and 800 nm, but the boundary between visible and infrared light is not precisely defined. The human eye is markedly less sensitive to light above 700 nm wavelength, so longer wavelengths make insignificant contributions to scenes illuminated by common light sources. However, particularly intense near-IR light (e.g., from IR lasers, IR LED sources, or from bright daylight with the visible light removed by colored gels) can be detected up to approximately 780 nm, and will be perceived as red light. Sources providing wavelengths as long as 1050 nm can be seen as a dull red glow in intense sources, causing some difficulty in near-IR illumination of scenes in the dark (usually this practical problem is solved by indirect illumination). Leaves are particularly bright in the near IR, and if all visible light leaks from around an IR-filter are blocked, and the eye is given a moment to adjust to the extremely dim image coming through a visually opaque IR-passing photographic filter, it is possible to see the Wood effect that consists of IR-glowing foliage.

Q1: At what wavelength does the human eye become significantly less sensitive to light?
A1: 700 nm
Q2: What sort of light is generated by IR lasers?
A2: near-IR
Q3: Up to what wavelength does the human eye perceive IR LED sources as red?
A3: 780 nm
Q4: Up to what wavelength does the human eye perceive certain intense lights as being dull red in color?
A4: 1050 nm
Q5: What objects are notably bright in near IR?
A5: Leaves
The concept of emissivity is important in understanding the infrared emissions of objects. This is a property of a surface that describes how its thermal emissions deviate from the ideal of a black body. To further explain, two objects at the same physical temperature will not show the same infrared image if they have differing emissivity. For example, for any pre-set emissivity value, objects with higher emissivity will appear hotter, and those with a lower emissivity will appear cooler. For that reason, incorrect selection of emissivity will give inaccurate results when using infrared cameras and pyrometers.

Q1: What is the term for the property that describes how a surface's thermal emissions deviate from the ideal of a black body?
A1: emissivity
Q2: How will the infrared image of an object with a higher emissivity appear in relation to one with lower emissivity?
A2: hotter
Q3: Along with pyrometers, what devices can receive inaccurate results if emissivity is not set correctly?
A3: infrared cameras
Infrared vibrational spectroscopy (see also near-infrared spectroscopy) is a technique that can be used to identify molecules by analysis of their constituent bonds. Each chemical bond in a molecule vibrates at a frequency characteristic of that bond. A group of atoms in a molecule (e.g., CH2) may have multiple modes of oscillation caused by the stretching and bending motions of the group as a whole. If an oscillation leads to a change in dipole in the molecule then it will absorb a photon that has the same frequency. The vibrational frequencies of most molecules correspond to the frequencies of infrared light. Typically, the technique is used to study organic compounds using light radiation from 4000–400 cm−1, the mid-infrared. A spectrum of all the frequencies of absorption in a sample is recorded. This can be used to gain information about the sample composition in terms of chemical groups present and also its purity (for example, a wet sample will show a broad O-H absorption around 3200 cm−1).

Q1: What is the technique that analyzes the constituent bonds of molecules to identify them?
A1: Infrared vibrational spectroscopy
Q2: What happens to a molecule if an oscillation results in a dipole being changed?
A2: it will absorb a photon that has the same frequency
Q3: What do the vibrational frequencies of molecules usually correspond to?
A3: the frequencies of infrared light
Q4: What is the term for light radiation in the 4000–400 cm−1 spectrum?
A4: the mid-infrared
In infrared photography, infrared filters are used to capture the near-infrared spectrum. Digital cameras often use infrared blockers. Cheaper digital cameras and camera phones have less effective filters and can "see" intense near-infrared, appearing as a bright purple-white color. This is especially pronounced when taking pictures of subjects near IR-bright areas (such as near a lamp), where the resulting infrared interference can wash out the image. There is also a technique called 'T-ray' imaging, which is imaging using far-infrared or terahertz radiation. Lack of bright sources can make terahertz photography more challenging than most other infrared imaging techniques. Recently T-ray imaging has been of considerable interest due to a number of new developments such as terahertz time-domain spectroscopy.

Q1: What is used in infrared photography to capture the near-infrared spectrum?
A1: infrared filters
Q2: What devices are often equipped with infrared blockers?
A2: Digital cameras
Q3: What is the technique that involves imaging with terahertz radiation?
A3: 'T-ray' imaging
Q4: What is another name for terahertz radiation?
A4: far-infrared
Q5: What is a notable recent development in T-ray imaging?
A5: terahertz time-domain spectroscopy
Infrared reflectography (fr; it; es), as called by art conservators, can be applied to paintings to reveal underlying layers in a completely non-destructive manner, in particular the underdrawing or outline drawn by the artist as a guide. This often reveals the artist's use of carbon black, which shows up well in reflectograms, as long as it has not also been used in the ground underlying the whole painting. Art conservators are looking to see whether the visible layers of paint differ from the underdrawing or layers in between – such alterations are called pentimenti when made by the original artist. This is very useful information in deciding whether a painting is the prime version by the original artist or a copy, and whether it has been altered by over-enthusiastic restoration work. In general, the more pentimenti the more likely a painting is to be the prime version. It also gives useful insights into working practices.

Q1: What technique is used in art to examine underlying layers of a painting without damaging it?
A1: Infrared reflectography
Q2: What shows up particularly well in reflectograms?
A2: carbon black
Q3: What is the term for differences in the painting and underdrawing made by the original artist?
A3: pentimenti
The discovery of infrared radiation is ascribed to William Herschel, the astronomer, in the early 19th century. Herschel published his results in 1800 before the Royal Society of London. Herschel used a prism to refract light from the sun and detected the infrared, beyond the red part of the spectrum, through an increase in the temperature recorded on a thermometer. He was surprised at the result and called them "Calorific Rays". The term 'Infrared' did not appear until late in the 19th century.

Q1: Who discovered infrared radiation?
A1: William Herschel
Q2: To whom did Herschel present his work on infrared radiation?
A2: the Royal Society of London
Q3: In what year did Herschel publish his work on infrared radiation?
A3: 1800
Q4: What device did Herschel use to discover the infrared?
A4: a prism
Q5: What did Herschel call the infrared spectrum?
A5: Calorific Rays
Infrared radiation is popularly known as "heat radiation"[citation needed], but light and electromagnetic waves of any frequency will heat surfaces that absorb them. Infrared light from the Sun accounts for 49% of the heating of Earth, with the rest being caused by visible light that is absorbed then re-radiated at longer wavelengths. Visible light or ultraviolet-emitting lasers can char paper and incandescently hot objects emit visible radiation. Objects at room temperature will emit radiation concentrated mostly in the 8 to 25 µm band, but this is not distinct from the emission of visible light by incandescent objects and ultraviolet by even hotter objects (see black body and Wien's displacement law).

Q1: What is a commonly used term for infrared radiation?
A1: heat radiation
Q2: What percentage of the Earth's heat is derived from the Sun's infrared light?
A2: 49%
Q3: What is the common range of emitted radiation of room temperature objects, in micrometers?
A3: 8 to 25
Q4: Other than infrared light, what type of light is responsible for heating the Earth?
A4: visible
Infrared tracking, also known as infrared homing, refers to a passive missile guidance system, which uses the emission from a target of electromagnetic radiation in the infrared part of the spectrum to track it. Missiles that use infrared seeking are often referred to as "heat-seekers", since infrared (IR) is just below the visible spectrum of light in frequency and is radiated strongly by hot bodies. Many objects such as people, vehicle engines, and aircraft generate and retain heat, and as such, are especially visible in the infrared wavelengths of light compared to objects in the background.

Q1: What is another term for infrared homing?
A1: Infrared tracking
Q2: What devices make use of infrared homing?
A2: Missiles
Q3: What is a common name for missiles that make use of infrared seeking?
A3: heat-seekers
Q4: Along with aircraft and people, what objects notably create and retain heat?
A4: vehicle engines
Q5: What does IR stand for?
A5: infrared
High, cold ice clouds such as Cirrus or Cumulonimbus show up bright white, lower warmer clouds such as Stratus or Stratocumulus show up as grey with intermediate clouds shaded accordingly. Hot land surfaces will show up as dark-grey or black. One disadvantage of infrared imagery is that low cloud such as stratus or fog can be a similar temperature to the surrounding land or sea surface and does not show up. However, using the difference in brightness of the IR4 channel (10.3–11.5 µm) and the near-infrared channel (1.58–1.64 µm), low cloud can be distinguished, producing a fog satellite picture. The main advantage of infrared is that images can be produced at night, allowing a continuous sequence of weather to be studied.

Q1: Along with Cirrus, what types of clouds are cold and high?
A1: Cumulonimbus
Q2: What color do Cirrus clouds appear in infrared?
A2: white
Q3: Along with Stratus, what clouds are lower and warmer?
A3: Stratocumulus
Q4: What color are Strarus clouds in infrared?
A4: grey
Q5: What is the range of the near-infrared channel in micrometers?
A5: 1.58–1.64
The sensitivity of Earth-based infrared telescopes is significantly limited by water vapor in the atmosphere, which absorbs a portion of the infrared radiation arriving from space outside of selected atmospheric windows. This limitation can be partially alleviated by placing the telescope observatory at a high altitude, or by carrying the telescope aloft with a balloon or an aircraft. Space telescopes do not suffer from this handicap, and so outer space is considered the ideal location for infrared astronomy.

Q1: What limits the sensitivity of infrared telescopes on Earth?
A1: water vapor in the atmosphere
Q2: To somewhat avoid the water vapor in the atmosphere, where can an observatory be sited?
A2: at a high altitude
Q3: Along with aircraft, what object can be used to carry a telescope aloft?
A3: balloon
Q4: What sorts of telescopes completely avoid water vapor in Earth's atmosphere?
A4: Space telescopes
Near-infrared is the region closest in wavelength to the radiation detectable by the human eye, mid- and far-infrared are progressively further from the visible spectrum. Other definitions follow different physical mechanisms (emission peaks, vs. bands, water absorption) and the newest follow technical reasons (the common silicon detectors are sensitive to about 1,050 nm, while InGaAs's sensitivity starts around 950 nm and ends between 1,700 and 2,600 nm, depending on the specific configuration). Unfortunately, international standards for these specifications are not currently available.

Q1: What is the nearest wavelength to the radiation that a human eye can see?
A1: Near-infrared
Q2: Along with the emission peaks and vs. bands mechanisms, what other physical mechanism is used to define near-infrared?
A2: water absorption
Q3: In micrometers, when do common silicon detectors cease to be sensitive?
A3: 1,050
Q4: What is the lowest level of sensitivity, in micrometers, for InGaAs?
A4: 950
Heat is energy in transit that flows due to temperature difference. Unlike heat transmitted by thermal conduction or thermal convection, thermal radiation can propagate through a vacuum. Thermal radiation is characterized by a particular spectrum of many wavelengths that is associated with emission from an object, due to the vibration of its molecules at a given temperature. Thermal radiation can be emitted from objects at any wavelength, and at very high temperatures such radiations are associated with spectra far above the infrared, extending into visible, ultraviolet, and even X-ray regions (i.e., the solar corona). Thus, the popular association of infrared radiation with thermal radiation is only a coincidence based on typical (comparatively low) temperatures often found near the surface of planet Earth.

Q1: What is the term for transit energy flowing as a result of differences in temperature?
A1: Heat
Q2: What type of heat transmission can propagate through a vacuum?
A2: thermal radiation
Q3: What object emits thermal radiation in the X-ray spectrum?
A3: the solar corona
Q4: The visible, ultraviolet and X-ray spectra are all above what spectrum?
A4: infrared
Thermographic cameras detect radiation in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum (roughly 900–14,000 nanometers or 0.9–14 μm) and produce images of that radiation. Since infrared radiation is emitted by all objects based on their temperatures, according to the black body radiation law, thermography makes it possible to "see" one's environment with or without visible illumination. The amount of radiation emitted by an object increases with temperature, therefore thermography allows one to see variations in temperature (hence the name).

Q1: What is the range of the electromagnetic spectrum in micrometers?
A1: 0.9–14
Q2: In nanometers, what is the electromagnetic spectrum's range?
A2: 900–14,000
Q3: What law states that infrared radiation is emitted by objects based on temperature?
A3: the black body radiation law
Q4: What happens to the amount of radiation an object emits as temperature increases?
A4: increases
Q5: What type of cameras see infrared radiation?
A5: Thermographic
The infrared portion of the spectrum has several useful benefits for astronomers. Cold, dark molecular clouds of gas and dust in our galaxy will glow with radiated heat as they are irradiated by imbedded stars. Infrared can also be used to detect protostars before they begin to emit visible light. Stars emit a smaller portion of their energy in the infrared spectrum, so nearby cool objects such as planets can be more readily detected. (In the visible light spectrum, the glare from the star will drown out the reflected light from a planet.)

Q1: What irradiates clouds of gas in the galaxy and makes them glow?
A1: imbedded stars
Q2: What can be detected via infrared prior to their emitting visible light?
A2: protostars
Q3: What objects emit less of their energy as infrared light versus visible light?
A3: Stars
Infrared is used in night vision equipment when there is insufficient visible light to see. Night vision devices operate through a process involving the conversion of ambient light photons into electrons that are then amplified by a chemical and electrical process and then converted back into visible light. Infrared light sources can be used to augment the available ambient light for conversion by night vision devices, increasing in-the-dark visibility without actually using a visible light source.

Q1: What sort of equipment uses the infrared spectrum in the absence of sufficient visible light?
A1: night vision
Q2: What do night vision devices convert ambient light photons into?
A2: electrons
Q3: Along with a chemical process, what type of process is used by night vision devices to convert infrared into visible light?
A3: electrical
IR data transmission is also employed in short-range communication among computer peripherals and personal digital assistants. These devices usually conform to standards published by IrDA, the Infrared Data Association. Remote controls and IrDA devices use infrared light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to emit infrared radiation that is focused by a plastic lens into a narrow beam. The beam is modulated, i.e. switched on and off, to encode the data. The receiver uses a silicon photodiode to convert the infrared radiation to an electric current. It responds only to the rapidly pulsing signal created by the transmitter, and filters out slowly changing infrared radiation from ambient light. Infrared communications are useful for indoor use in areas of high population density. IR does not penetrate walls and so does not interfere with other devices in adjoining rooms. Infrared is the most common way for remote controls to command appliances. Infrared remote control protocols like RC-5, SIRC, are used to communicate with infrared.

Q1: What is the IrDA?
A1: the Infrared Data Association
Q2: What does the acronym LEDs stand for?
A2: light-emitting diodes
Q3: What is a term for when something is switched on and off?
A3: modulated
Q4: What device is used to transform infrared radiation into an electric current?
A4: silicon photodiode
Q5: Why does infrared not cause trouble for devices in adjacent rooms?
A5: IR does not penetrate walls