romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
Although exotic on Earth, one of the most common ions in the universe is the H+
3 ion, known as protonated molecular hydrogen or the trihydrogen cation.

Q1: What kind of molecular hydrogen is the H+3 knows as?
A1: protonated
Q2: What kind of cation is the H+3 knowns as?
A2: trihydrogen cation
Hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes, denoted 1H, 2H and 3H. Other, highly unstable nuclei (4H to 7H) have been synthesized in the laboratory but not observed in nature.

Q1: How many natural isotopes does hydrogen have>
A1: 3H
Q2: What are the names of these isotopes?
A2: denoted 1H, 2H and 3H
Q3: Which isotopes have unstable nuclei?
A3: 4H to 7H
Hydrogen is the only element that has different names for its isotopes in common use today. During the early study of radioactivity, various heavy radioactive isotopes were given their own names, but such names are no longer used, except for deuterium and tritium. The symbols D and T (instead of 2H and 3H) are sometimes used for deuterium and tritium, but the corresponding symbol for protium, P, is already in use for phosphorus and thus is not available for protium. In its nomenclatural guidelines, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry allows any of D, T, 2H, and 3H to be used, although 2H and 3H are preferred.

Q1: Which element is the only that has different names for its isotopes?
A1: Hydrogen
Q2: What are the only two names still used for radioactive isotopes?
A2: deuterium and tritium
Q3: What are the symbols used for deuterium and tritium?
A3: D and T
Q4: What does the symbol P represent?
A4: phosphorus
Q5: What are the preferred symbols for deuterium and tritium?
A5: 2H and 3H
In 1671, Robert Boyle discovered and described the reaction between iron filings and dilute acids, which results in the production of hydrogen gas. In 1766, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize hydrogen gas as a discrete substance, by naming the gas from a metal-acid reaction "flammable air". He speculated that "flammable air" was in fact identical to the hypothetical substance called "phlogiston" and further finding in 1781 that the gas produces water when burned. He is usually given credit for its discovery as an element. In 1783, Antoine Lavoisier gave the element the name hydrogen (from the Greek ὑδρο- hydro meaning "water" and -γενής genes meaning "creator") when he and Laplace reproduced Cavendish's finding that water is produced when hydrogen is burned.

Q1: What year was the discovery of hydrogen gas?
A1: 1671
Q2: Who discovered Hydrogen gas?
A2: Robert Boyle
Q3: Who recognized hydrogen gas as a discreet substance?
A3: Henry Cavendish
Q4: In what year did Henry Cavendish recognize hydrogen gas as a discreet substance?
A4: 1766
Q5: What does gas produce when burned?
A5: water
Lavoisier produced hydrogen for his experiments on mass conservation by reacting a flux of steam with metallic iron through an incandescent iron tube heated in a fire. Anaerobic oxidation of iron by the protons of water at high temperature can be schematically represented by the set of following reactions:

Q1: How did Lavoisier produce hydrogen for his experiments?
A1: reacting a flux of steam with metallic iron through an incandescent iron tube heated in a fire
Hydrogen was liquefied for the first time by James Dewar in 1898 by using regenerative cooling and his invention, the vacuum flask. He produced solid hydrogen the next year. Deuterium was discovered in December 1931 by Harold Urey, and tritium was prepared in 1934 by Ernest Rutherford, Mark Oliphant, and Paul Harteck. Heavy water, which consists of deuterium in the place of regular hydrogen, was discovered by Urey's group in 1932. François Isaac de Rivaz built the first de Rivaz engine, an internal combustion engine powered by a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen in 1806. Edward Daniel Clarke invented the hydrogen gas blowpipe in 1819. The Döbereiner's lamp and limelight were invented in 1823.

Q1: Who was the first to liquidize hydrogen?
A1: James Dewar
Q2: In what year Did James Dewar first liquidize hydrogen?
A2: 1898
Q3: What year was Deuterium discovered?
A3: 1931
Q4: Who was the first to discover deuterium?
A4: Harold Urey
Q5: What year was tritium discovered?
A5: 1934
The first hydrogen-filled balloon was invented by Jacques Charles in 1783. Hydrogen provided the lift for the first reliable form of air-travel following the 1852 invention of the first hydrogen-lifted airship by Henri Giffard. German count Ferdinand von Zeppelin promoted the idea of rigid airships lifted by hydrogen that later were called Zeppelins; the first of which had its maiden flight in 1900. Regularly scheduled flights started in 1910 and by the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, they had carried 35,000 passengers without a serious incident. Hydrogen-lifted airships were used as observation platforms and bombers during the war.

Q1: Who invented the hydrogen filled balloons?
A1: Jacques Charles
Q2: What year was hydrogen filled balloons invented?
A2: 1783
Q3: what were the hydrogen lifted airships called?
A3: Zeppelins
Q4: In what year did the first zeppelin make flight?
A4: 1900
The first non-stop transatlantic crossing was made by the British airship R34 in 1919. Regular passenger service resumed in the 1920s and the discovery of helium reserves in the United States promised increased safety, but the U.S. government refused to sell the gas for this purpose. Therefore, H2 was used in the Hindenburg airship, which was destroyed in a midair fire over New Jersey on 6 May 1937. The incident was broadcast live on radio and filmed. Ignition of leaking hydrogen is widely assumed to be the cause, but later investigations pointed to the ignition of the aluminized fabric coating by static electricity. But the damage to hydrogen's reputation as a lifting gas was already done.

Q1: Who made the first non stop transatlantic crossing?
A1: the British
Q2: What year was this done?
A2: 1919
Q3: What year did the airship get destroyed?
A3: 1937
Q4: What city was the ship over when it caught fire?
A4: New Jersey
In the same year the first hydrogen-cooled turbogenerator went into service with gaseous hydrogen as a coolant in the rotor and the stator in 1937 at Dayton, Ohio, by the Dayton Power & Light Co.; because of the thermal conductivity of hydrogen gas, this is the most common type in its field today.

Q1: In what year did the first hydrogen cooled turbogenerator go into service?
A1: 1937
Q2: What state is the Dayton Power and light Company located?
A2: Ohio
The nickel hydrogen battery was used for the first time in 1977 aboard the U.S. Navy's Navigation technology satellite-2 (NTS-2). For example, the ISS, Mars Odyssey and the Mars Global Surveyor are equipped with nickel-hydrogen batteries. In the dark part of its orbit, the Hubble Space Telescope is also powered by nickel-hydrogen batteries, which were finally replaced in May 2009, more than 19 years after launch, and 13 years over their design life.

Q1: What year was the first nickel hydrogen battery used?
A1: 1977
Q2: In what year did the hubble space telescope finally get the nickel hydrogen battery?
A2: 2009
Because of its simple atomic structure, consisting only of a proton and an electron, the hydrogen atom, together with the spectrum of light produced from it or absorbed by it, has been central to the development of the theory of atomic structure. Furthermore, the corresponding simplicity of the hydrogen molecule and the corresponding cation H+
2 allowed fuller understanding of the nature of the chemical bond, which followed shortly after the quantum mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom had been developed in the mid-1920s.

Q1: What is the hydrogen atom made up of?
A1: a proton and an electron
Q2: What theory is the hydrogen atom a big part of?
A2: atomic structure
Q3: When was the quantum mechanical treatment of the hydrogen atom developed?
A3: 1920s
One of the first quantum effects to be explicitly noticed (but not understood at the time) was a Maxwell observation involving hydrogen, half a century before full quantum mechanical theory arrived. Maxwell observed that the specific heat capacity of H2 unaccountably departs from that of a diatomic gas below room temperature and begins to increasingly resemble that of a monatomic gas at cryogenic temperatures. According to quantum theory, this behavior arises from the spacing of the (quantized) rotational energy levels, which are particularly wide-spaced in H2 because of its low mass. These widely spaced levels inhibit equal partition of heat energy into rotational motion in hydrogen at low temperatures. Diatomic gases composed of heavier atoms do not have such widely spaced levels and do not exhibit the same effect.

Q1: Who observed the specific heat capacity of H2?
A1: Maxwell
Q2: What cause H2 to resemble monatomic gas?
A2: spacing of the (quantized) rotational energy levels
Q3: What theory supports this?
A3: quantum theory
Hydrogen, as atomic H, is the most abundant chemical element in the universe, making up 75% of normal matter by mass and over 90% by number of atoms (most of the mass of the universe, however, is not in the form of chemical-element type matter, but rather is postulated to occur as yet-undetected forms of mass such as dark matter and dark energy). This element is found in great abundance in stars and gas giant planets. Molecular clouds of H2 are associated with star formation. Hydrogen plays a vital role in powering stars through the proton-proton reaction and the CNO cycle nuclear fusion.

Q1: What percent of normal matter is hydrogen?
A1: 75%
Q2: What percent of atoms is hydrogen?
A2: 90%
Q3: What 2 forms of mass is most of the universe consisted of?
A3: dark matter and dark energy
Q4: Clouds of H2 form what?
A4: stars
Throughout the universe, hydrogen is mostly found in the atomic and plasma states whose properties are quite different from molecular hydrogen. As a plasma, hydrogen's electron and proton are not bound together, resulting in very high electrical conductivity and high emissivity (producing the light from the Sun and other stars). The charged particles are highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example, in the solar wind they interact with the Earth's magnetosphere giving rise to Birkeland currents and the aurora. Hydrogen is found in the neutral atomic state in the interstellar medium. The large amount of neutral hydrogen found in the damped Lyman-alpha systems is thought to dominate the cosmological baryonic density of the Universe up to redshift z=4.

Q1: In what states is hydrogen mostly found in the universe?
A1: atomic and plasma
Q2: Hydrogens electron and proton are not bound together in what state?
A2: plasma
Q3: in the interstellar medium, what state is hydrogen in?
A3: neutral atomic state
Q4: The neutral hydrogen found in the damped Lyman-alpha systems dominates what?
A4: cosmological baryonic density of the Universe
Under ordinary conditions on Earth, elemental hydrogen exists as the diatomic gas, H2. However, hydrogen gas is very rare in the Earth's atmosphere (1 ppm by volume) because of its light weight, which enables it to escape from Earth's gravity more easily than heavier gases. However, hydrogen is the third most abundant element on the Earth's surface, mostly in the form of chemical compounds such as hydrocarbons and water. Hydrogen gas is produced by some bacteria and algae and is a natural component of flatus, as is methane, itself a hydrogen source of increasing importance.

Q1: How abundant is hydrogen on the earths surface?
A1: third most abundant
Q2: what produces hydrogen gas?
A2: bacteria and algae
A molecular form called protonated molecular hydrogen (H+
3) is found in the interstellar medium, where it is generated by ionization of molecular hydrogen from cosmic rays. This charged ion has also been observed in the upper atmosphere of the planet Jupiter. The ion is relatively stable in the environment of outer space due to the low temperature and density. H+
3 is one of the most abundant ions in the Universe, and it plays a notable role in the chemistry of the interstellar medium. Neutral triatomic hydrogen H3 can only exist in an excited form and is unstable. By contrast, the positive hydrogen molecular ion (H+
2) is a rare molecule in the universe.

Q1: What molecular form is found in the interstellar medium?
A1: protonated molecular hydrogen
Q2: What generates protonated molecular hydrogen?
A2: ionization of molecular hydrogen from cosmic rays
Q3: On what planet can you find  protonated molecular hydrogen?
A3: Jupiter
Q4: In what way can Neutral triatomic hydrogen exist?
A4: excited form
H
2 is produced in chemistry and biology laboratories, often as a by-product of other reactions; in industry for the hydrogenation of unsaturated substrates; and in nature as a means of expelling reducing equivalents in biochemical reactions.

Q1: How does nature produce H2?
A1: expelling reducing equivalents in biochemical reactions
Q2: How do labs produce H2?
A2: by-product of other reactions
The electrolysis of water is a simple method of producing hydrogen. A low voltage current is run through the water, and gaseous oxygen forms at the anode while gaseous hydrogen forms at the cathode. Typically the cathode is made from platinum or another inert metal when producing hydrogen for storage. If, however, the gas is to be burnt on site, oxygen is desirable to assist the combustion, and so both electrodes would be made from inert metals. (Iron, for instance, would oxidize, and thus decrease the amount of oxygen given off.) The theoretical maximum efficiency (electricity used vs. energetic value of hydrogen produced) is in the range 80–94%.

Q1: What is an easy way to produce hydrogen?
A1: electrolysis of water
Q2: Where does the gaseous oxygen form at?
A2: anode
Q3: Where does the gaseous hydrogen form at?
A3: cathode
An alloy of aluminium and gallium in pellet form added to water can be used to generate hydrogen. The process also produces alumina, but the expensive gallium, which prevents the formation of an oxide skin on the pellets, can be re-used. This has important potential implications for a hydrogen economy, as hydrogen can be produced on-site and does not need to be transported.

Q1: When you combine an alloy of alluminum and gallium to water, what do you get?
A1: hydrogen
Q2: What else can it produce?
A2: alumina
Q3: What can be reused after the formation?
A3: the expensive gallium
Hydrogen can be prepared in several different ways, but economically the most important processes involve removal of hydrogen from hydrocarbons. Commercial bulk hydrogen is usually produced by the steam reforming of natural gas. At high temperatures (1000–1400 K, 700–1100 °C or 1300–2000 °F), steam (water vapor) reacts with methane to yield carbon monoxide and H
2.

Q1: The most economical way to prepare hydrogen involves removing it from what?
A1: hydrocarbons
Q2: What temperature is needed for steam to react with methane?
A2: 1000–1400 K, 700–1100 °C or 1300–2000 °F
This reaction is favored at low pressures but is nonetheless conducted at high pressures (2.0  MPa, 20 atm or 600 inHg). This is because high-pressure H
2 is the most marketable product and Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) purification systems work better at higher pressures. The product mixture is known as "synthesis gas" because it is often used directly for the production of methanol and related compounds. Hydrocarbons other than methane can be used to produce synthesis gas with varying product ratios. One of the many complications to this highly optimized technology is the formation of coke or carbon:

Q1: At what pressure does PSA work best in?
A1: high pressures
Q2: What is synthesis gas used for?
A2: production of methanol
Q3: Besides methane, what else can be used to produce synthesis gas?
A3: Hydrocarbons
Consequently, steam reforming typically employs an excess of H
2O. Additional hydrogen can be recovered from the steam by use of carbon monoxide through the water gas shift reaction, especially with an iron oxide catalyst. This reaction is also a common industrial source of carbon dioxide:

Q1: How can it be recovered through steam?
A1: use of carbon monoxide through the water gas shift reaction
Hydrogen is sometimes produced and consumed in the same industrial process, without being separated. In the Haber process for the production of ammonia, hydrogen is generated from natural gas. Electrolysis of brine to yield chlorine also produces hydrogen as a co-product.

Q1: When hydrogen is generated from natural gas, what des it produce?
A1: ammonia
Q2: How is hydrogen produced as a co product?
A2: Electrolysis of brine to yield chlorine
There are more than 200 thermochemical cycles which can be used for water splitting, around a dozen of these cycles such as the iron oxide cycle, cerium(IV) oxide–cerium(III) oxide cycle, zinc zinc-oxide cycle, sulfur-iodine cycle, copper-chlorine cycle and hybrid sulfur cycle are under research and in testing phase to produce hydrogen and oxygen from water and heat without using electricity. A number of laboratories (including in France, Germany, Greece, Japan, and the USA) are developing thermochemical methods to produce hydrogen from solar energy and water.

Q1: What are the thermochemical cycyles in a testing phase for?
A1: produce hydrogen and oxygen from water and heat without using electricity
Q2: What are labs trying to produce hydrogen from?
A2: solar energy and water
Q3: What countries are testing this?
A3: France, Germany, Greece, Japan, and the USA
Under anaerobic conditions, iron and steel alloys are slowly oxidized by the protons of water concomitantly reduced in molecular hydrogen (H
2). The anaerobic corrosion of iron leads first to the formation of ferrous hydroxide (green rust) and can be described by the following reaction:

Q1: What condition is iron and steel alloys slowly oxidized?
A1: anaerobic
Q2: What does the anaerobic corrosion of iron lead to?
A2: formation of ferrous hydroxide
Q3: What is another name for formation of ferrous hydroxide?
A3: green rust
In its turn, under anaerobic conditions, the ferrous hydroxide (Fe(OH)
2 ) can be oxidized by the protons of water to form magnetite and molecular hydrogen. This process is described by the Schikorr reaction:

Q1: Under what condition can ferrous hydroxide be oxidized?
A1: anaerobic
Q2: What does this process form?
A2: magnetite and molecular hydrogen
Q3: What reaction describes this process?
A3: Schikorr reaction
In the absence of atmospheric oxygen (O
2), in deep geological conditions prevailing far away from Earth atmosphere, hydrogen (H
2) is produced during the process of serpentinization by the anaerobic oxidation by the water protons (H+) of the ferrous (Fe2+) silicate present in the crystal lattice of the fayalite (Fe
2SiO
4, the olivine iron-endmember). The corresponding reaction leading to the formation of magnetite (Fe
3O
4), quartz (SiO
2) and hydrogen (H
2) is the following:

Q1: How is hydrogen produced when there is no atmospheric oxygen?
A1: serpentinization by the anaerobic oxidation
Q2: Where do you find silicate?
A2: crystal lattice of the fayalite
From all the fault gases formed in power transformers, hydrogen is the most common and is generated under most fault conditions; thus, formation of hydrogen is an early indication of serious problems in the transformer's life cycle.

Q1: What is the most common gas found in power tranformers?
A1: hydrogen
Large quantities of H
2 are needed in the petroleum and chemical industries. The largest application of H
2 is for the processing ("upgrading") of fossil fuels, and in the production of ammonia. The key consumers of H
2 in the petrochemical plant include hydrodealkylation, hydrodesulfurization, and hydrocracking. H
2 has several other important uses. H
2 is used as a hydrogenating agent, particularly in increasing the level of saturation of unsaturated fats and oils (found in items such as margarine), and in the production of methanol. It is similarly the source of hydrogen in the manufacture of hydrochloric acid. H
2 is also used as a reducing agent of metallic ores.

Q1: Where are large quantities of H2 needed?
A1: petroleum and chemical industries
Q2: What are the consumers of H2 in petrochemical plant?
A2: hydrodealkylation, hydrodesulfurization, and hydrocracking
Hydrogen is highly soluble in many rare earth and transition metals and is soluble in both nanocrystalline and amorphous metals. Hydrogen solubility in metals is influenced by local distortions or impurities in the crystal lattice. These properties may be useful when hydrogen is purified by passage through hot palladium disks, but the gas's high solubility is a metallurgical problem, contributing to the embrittlement of many metals, complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks.

Q1: Where is hydrogen highly soluble?
A1: rare earth and transition metals
Q2: Where can you find soluble hydrogen?
A2: nanocrystalline and amorphous metals
Q3: What influences hydrogens solubility in metals?
A3: local distortions or impurities in the crystal lattice
Q4: When are these useful?
A4: when hydrogen is purified by passage through hot palladium disks
Q5: When is it damaging?
A5: gas's high solubility is a metallurgical problem, contributing to the embrittlement of many metals, complicating the design of pipelines and storage tanks
Apart from its use as a reactant, H
2 has wide applications in physics and engineering. It is used as a shielding gas in welding methods such as atomic hydrogen welding. H2 is used as the rotor coolant in electrical generators at power stations, because it has the highest thermal conductivity of any gas. Liquid H2 is used in cryogenic research, including superconductivity studies. Because H
2 is lighter than air, having a little more than 1⁄14 of the density of air, it was once widely used as a lifting gas in balloons and airships.

Q1: Where else is H2 applied?
A1: in physics and engineering
Q2: How is H2 used in electrical generators at power stations?
A2: as the rotor coolant
Q3: Why is it used as the rotor coolant?
A3: it has the highest thermal conductivity of any gas
Q4: What research uses liquid H2?
A4: cryogenic
In more recent applications, hydrogen is used pure or mixed with nitrogen (sometimes called forming gas) as a tracer gas for minute leak detection. Applications can be found in the automotive, chemical, power generation, aerospace, and telecommunications industries. Hydrogen is an authorized food additive (E 949) that allows food package leak testing among other anti-oxidizing properties.

Q1: Why would one use hydrogen mixed with nitrogen?
A1: as a tracer gas for minute leak detection
Q2: What industries can you find these applications?
A2: automotive, chemical, power generation, aerospace, and telecommunications
Q3: How is hydrogen used as a food additive?
A3: allows food package leak testing
Hydrogen's rarer isotopes also each have specific applications. Deuterium (hydrogen-2) is used in nuclear fission applications as a moderator to slow neutrons, and in nuclear fusion reactions. Deuterium compounds have applications in chemistry and biology in studies of reaction isotope effects. Tritium (hydrogen-3), produced in nuclear reactors, is used in the production of hydrogen bombs, as an isotopic label in the biosciences, and as a radiation source in luminous paints.

Q1: What isotope is used in nuclear fission?
A1: Deuterium
Q2: Where is tritium produced?
A2: nuclear reactors
Q3: What is tritium used for?
A3: production of hydrogen bombs, as an isotopic label in the biosciences, and as a radiation source in luminous paints
Hydrogen is commonly used in power stations as a coolant in generators due to a number of favorable properties that are a direct result of its light diatomic molecules. These include low density, low viscosity, and the highest specific heat and thermal conductivity of all gases.

Q1: How is hydrogen used at power stations?
A1: as a coolant in generators
Q2: Why is it used as a coolant?
A2: favorable properties that are a direct result of its light diatomic molecules
Q3: What are these properties?
A3: low density, low viscosity, and the highest specific heat and thermal conductivity of all gases