romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
In a slower process, radioactive decay of atoms in the core of the Earth releases heat. This thermal energy drives plate tectonics and may lift mountains, via orogenesis. This slow lifting represents a kind of gravitational potential energy storage of the thermal energy, which may be later released to active kinetic energy in landslides, after a triggering event. Earthquakes also release stored elastic potential energy in rocks, a store that has been produced ultimately from the same radioactive heat sources. Thus, according to present understanding, familiar events such as landslides and earthquakes release energy that has been stored as potential energy in the Earth's gravitational field or elastic strain (mechanical potential energy) in rocks. Prior to this, they represent release of energy that has been stored in heavy atoms since the collapse of long-destroyed supernova stars created these atoms.

Q1: What releases stored elastic potential energy in rocks?
A1: Earthquakes
Q2: What does radioactive decay of atoms in the core of the Earth release?
A2: heat
Q3: What drives plate tectonics and may lift mountains via orogenesis?
A3: thermal energy
Q4: What is mechanical potential energy?
A4: elastic strain
In cosmology and astronomy the phenomena of stars, nova, supernova, quasars and gamma-ray bursts are the universe's highest-output energy transformations of matter. All stellar phenomena (including solar activity) are driven by various kinds of energy transformations. Energy in such transformations is either from gravitational collapse of matter (usually molecular hydrogen) into various classes of astronomical objects (stars, black holes, etc.), or from nuclear fusion (of lighter elements, primarily hydrogen). The nuclear fusion of hydrogen in the Sun also releases another store of potential energy which was created at the time of the Big Bang. At that time, according to theory, space expanded and the universe cooled too rapidly for hydrogen to completely fuse into heavier elements. This meant that hydrogen represents a store of potential energy that can be released by fusion. Such a fusion process is triggered by heat and pressure generated from gravitational collapse of hydrogen clouds when they produce stars, and some of the fusion energy is then transformed into sunlight.

Q1: What is driven by various kinds of energy transformations?
A1: stellar phenomena
Q2: What releases another store of potential energy which was created at the time of the Big Bang?
A2: nuclear fusion of hydrogen in the Sun
Q3: What theory states that space expanded and the universe cooled too rapidly for hydrogen to completely fuse into heavier elements?
A3: Big Bang
Q4: Hydrogen represents a store of potential energy that can be released by what?
A4: fusion
In quantum mechanics, energy is defined in terms of the energy operator as a time derivative of the wave function. The Schrödinger equation equates the energy operator to the full energy of a particle or a system. Its results can be considered as a definition of measurement of energy in quantum mechanics. The Schrödinger equation describes the space- and time-dependence of a slowly changing (non-relativistic) wave function of quantum systems. The solution of this equation for a bound system is discrete (a set of permitted states, each characterized by an energy level) which results in the concept of quanta. In the solution of the Schrödinger equation for any oscillator (vibrator) and for electromagnetic waves in a vacuum, the resulting energy states are related to the frequency by Planck's relation:  (where  is Planck's constant and  the frequency). In the case of an electromagnetic wave these energy states are called quanta of light or photons.

Q1: In quantum mechanics, what is defined in terms of the energy operator as a time derivative of the wave function?
A1: energy
Q2: What equates the energy operator to the full energy of a particle or a system?
A2: The Schrödinger equation
Q3: What describes the space-and-time dependence of a slowly changing wave function of quantum systems?
A3: The Schrödinger equation
For example, consider electron–positron annihilation, in which the rest mass of individual particles is destroyed, but the inertia equivalent of the system of the two particles (its invariant mass) remains (since all energy is associated with mass), and this inertia and invariant mass is carried off by photons which individually are massless, but as a system retain their mass. This is a reversible process – the inverse process is called pair creation – in which the rest mass of particles is created from energy of two (or more) annihilating photons. In this system the matter (electrons and positrons) is destroyed and changed to non-matter energy (the photons). However, the total system mass and energy do not change during this interaction.

Q1: What is it called when the rest mass of individual particles is destroyed but the inertia equivalent of the system of the two particles remains?
A1: electron–positron annihilation
Q2: What is the inverse process called?
A2: pair creation
Q3: What is the process in which the rest mass of particles is created from energy of two or more annihilating photons?
A3: pair creation
There are strict limits to how efficiently heat can be converted into work in a cyclic process, e.g. in a heat engine, as described by Carnot's theorem and the second law of thermodynamics. However, some energy transformations can be quite efficient. The direction of transformations in energy (what kind of energy is transformed to what other kind) is often determined by entropy (equal energy spread among all available degrees of freedom) considerations. In practice all energy transformations are permitted on a small scale, but certain larger transformations are not permitted because it is statistically unlikely that energy or matter will randomly move into more concentrated forms or smaller spaces.

Q1: What states that there are strict limits to how efficiently heat can be converted into a work in a cyclic process?
A1: Carnot's theorem
Q2: What is the direction of transformations in energy?
A2: what kind of energy is transformed to what other kind
Q3: What is often determined by entropy considerations?
A3: direction of transformations in energy
Q4: Why are certain larger transformations not permitted?
A4: because it is statistically unlikely that energy or matter will randomly move into more concentrated forms or smaller spaces
Energy transformations in the universe over time are characterized by various kinds of potential energy that has been available since the Big Bang later being "released" (transformed to more active types of energy such as kinetic or radiant energy) when a triggering mechanism is available. Familiar examples of such processes include nuclear decay, in which energy is released that was originally "stored" in heavy isotopes (such as uranium and thorium), by nucleosynthesis, a process ultimately using the gravitational potential energy released from the gravitational collapse of supernovae, to store energy in the creation of these heavy elements before they were incorporated into the solar system and the Earth. This energy is triggered and released in nuclear fission bombs or in civil nuclear power generation. Similarly, in the case of a chemical explosion, chemical potential energy is transformed to kinetic energy and thermal energy in a very short time. Yet another example is that of a pendulum. At its highest points the kinetic energy is zero and the gravitational potential energy is at maximum. At its lowest point the kinetic energy is at maximum and is equal to the decrease of potential energy. If one (unrealistically) assumes that there is no friction or other losses, the conversion of energy between these processes would be perfect, and the pendulum would continue swinging forever.

Q1: Name an example of a heavy isotope?
A1: uranium
Q2: Name another example of a heavy isotope.
A2: thorium
Q3: What is a process ultimately using the gravitational potential energy in the creation of these heavy elements before they were incorporated into the solar system and the Earth?
A3: nucleosynthesis
Q4: In the case of a chemical explosion, what is transformed to kinetic energy and thermal energy in a short time?
A4: chemical potential energy
Energy gives rise to weight when it is trapped in a system with zero momentum, where it can be weighed. It is also equivalent to mass, and this mass is always associated with it. Mass is also equivalent to a certain amount of energy, and likewise always appears associated with it, as described in mass-energy equivalence. The formula E = mc², derived by Albert Einstein (1905) quantifies the relationship between rest-mass and rest-energy within the concept of special relativity. In different theoretical frameworks, similar formulas were derived by J. J. Thomson (1881), Henri Poincaré (1900), Friedrich Hasenöhrl (1904) and others (see Mass-energy equivalence#History for further information).

Q1: When does energy give rise to weight?
A1: when it is trapped in a system with zero momentum
Q2: Mass is also equivalent to what?
A2: certain amount of energy
Q3: Who created the formula E = mc2?
A3: Albert Einstein
Q4: In what year did Einstein create E = mc2?
A4: 1905
Q5: What quantifies the relationship between rest-mass and rest-energy within the concept of special relativity?
A5: E = mc²
Matter may be converted to energy (and vice versa), but mass cannot ever be destroyed; rather, mass/energy equivalence remains a constant for both the matter and the energy, during any process when they are converted into each other. However, since  is extremely large relative to ordinary human scales, the conversion of ordinary amount of matter (for example, 1 kg) to other forms of energy (such as heat, light, and other radiation) can liberate tremendous amounts of energy (~ joules = 21 megatons of TNT), as can be seen in nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons. Conversely, the mass equivalent of a unit of energy is minuscule, which is why a loss of energy (loss of mass) from most systems is difficult to measure by weight, unless the energy loss is very large. Examples of energy transformation into matter (i.e., kinetic energy into particles with rest mass) are found in high-energy nuclear physics.

Q1: Matter may be converted to what?
A1: energy
Q2: Energy may be converted to what?
A2: Matter
Q3: Why is a loss of energy difficult to measure by weight?
A3: mass equivalent of a unit of energy is minuscule
Q4: Where are examples of energy transformation into matter found?
A4: high-energy nuclear physics
Thermodynamics divides energy transformation into two kinds: reversible processes and irreversible processes. An irreversible process is one in which energy is dissipated (spread) into empty energy states available in a volume, from which it cannot be recovered into more concentrated forms (fewer quantum states), without degradation of even more energy. A reversible process is one in which this sort of dissipation does not happen. For example, conversion of energy from one type of potential field to another, is reversible, as in the pendulum system described above. In processes where heat is generated, quantum states of lower energy, present as possible excitations in fields between atoms, act as a reservoir for part of the energy, from which it cannot be recovered, in order to be converted with 100% efficiency into other forms of energy. In this case, the energy must partly stay as heat, and cannot be completely recovered as usable energy, except at the price of an increase in some other kind of heat-like increase in disorder in quantum states, in the universe (such as an expansion of matter, or a randomisation in a crystal).

Q1: Thermodynamics divides energy information into what two kinds?
A1: reversible processes and irreversible processes
Q2: What divides energy transformation into two kinds reversible processes and irreversible processes?
A2: Thermodynamics
Q3: A reversible process is one in which this does not happen.
A3: dissipation
As the universe evolves in time, more and more of its energy becomes trapped in irreversible states (i.e., as heat or other kinds of increases in disorder). This has been referred to as the inevitable thermodynamic heat death of the universe. In this heat death the energy of the universe does not change, but the fraction of energy which is available to do work through a heat engine, or be transformed to other usable forms of energy (through the use of generators attached to heat engines), grows less and less.

Q1: As the universe evolves in time, more and more of its energy becomes trapped in what?
A1: irreversible states
Q2: What is it referred to when more and more of energy becomes trapped in irreversible states?
A2: inevitable thermodynamic heat death of the universe
Q3: In this heat death of energy, what does not change?
A3: energy of the universe
According to conservation of energy, energy can neither be created (produced) nor destroyed by itself. It can only be transformed. The total inflow of energy into a system must equal the total outflow of energy from the system, plus the change in the energy contained within the system. Energy is subject to a strict global conservation law; that is, whenever one measures (or calculates) the total energy of a system of particles whose interactions do not depend explicitly on time, it is found that the total energy of the system always remains constant.

Q1: According to what, energy can neither be created nor destroyed by itself?
A1: conservation of energy
Q2: The total inflow of energy into a system must equal what?
A2: total outflow of energy from the system, plus the change in the energy contained within the system
Q3: What can neither be created nor destroyed by itself; it can only be transformed?
A3: energy
This law is a fundamental principle of physics. As shown rigorously by Noether's theorem, the conservation of energy is a mathematical consequence of translational symmetry of time, a property of most phenomena below the cosmic scale that makes them independent of their locations on the time coordinate. Put differently, yesterday, today, and tomorrow are physically indistinguishable. This is because energy is the quantity which is canonical conjugate to time. This mathematical entanglement of energy and time also results in the uncertainty principle - it is impossible to define the exact amount of energy during any definite time interval. The uncertainty principle should not be confused with energy conservation - rather it provides mathematical limits to which energy can in principle be defined and measured.

Q1: What shows that the conservation of energy is a mathematical consequence of translational symmetry of time?
A1: Noether's theorem
Q2: What is the quantity which is canonical conjugate to time?
A2: energy
Q3: This mathematical entanglement of energy and time results in what?
A3: the uncertainty principle
Q4: What states it is impossible to define the exact amount of energy during any definite time interval?
A4: uncertainty principle
In particle physics, this inequality permits a qualitative understanding of virtual particles which carry momentum, exchange by which and with real particles, is responsible for the creation of all known fundamental forces (more accurately known as fundamental interactions). Virtual photons (which are simply lowest quantum mechanical energy state of photons) are also responsible for electrostatic interaction between electric charges (which results in Coulomb law), for spontaneous radiative decay of exited atomic and nuclear states, for the Casimir force, for van der Waals bond forces and some other observable phenomena.

Q1: What are simply lowest quantum mechanical energy state of photons?
A1: Virtual photons
Q2: What is responsible for electrostatic interaction between electric charges?
A2: Virtual photons
Q3: What results in Coulomb law?
A3: electrostatic interaction between electric charges
Energy transfer can be considered for the special case of systems which are closed to transfers of matter. The portion of the energy which is transferred by conservative forces over a distance is measured as the work the source system does on the receiving system. The portion of the energy which does not do work during the transfer is called heat.[note 4] Energy can be transferred between systems in a variety of ways. Examples include the transmission of electromagnetic energy via photons, physical collisions which transfer kinetic energy,[note 5] and the conductive transfer of thermal energy.

Q1: What can be considered for the special case of systems which are closed to transfers of matter?
A1: Energy transfer
Q2: The portion of energy which does not do work during the transfer is called what?
A2: heat
Q3: Give one example of how energy can be transferred between systems?
A3: transmission of electromagnetic energy via photons
The first law of thermodynamics asserts that energy (but not necessarily thermodynamic free energy) is always conserved and that heat flow is a form of energy transfer. For homogeneous systems, with a well-defined temperature and pressure, a commonly used corollary of the first law is that, for a system subject only to pressure forces and heat transfer (e.g., a cylinder-full of gas) without chemical changes, the differential change in the internal energy of the system (with a gain in energy signified by a positive quantity) is given as

Q1: What asserts that energy is always conserved and that heat flow is a form of energy transfer.
A1: first law of thermodynamics
Q2: The first law of thermodynamics asserts that what is always conserved and that heat flow is a form of energy transfer?
A2: energy
Q3: What is a commonly used corollary of the first law?
A3: for a system subject only to pressure forces and heat transfer (e.g., a cylinder-full of gas) without chemical changes
This principle is vitally important to understanding the behaviour of a quantity closely related to energy, called entropy. Entropy is a measure of evenness of a distribution of energy between parts of a system. When an isolated system is given more degrees of freedom (i.e., given new available energy states that are the same as existing states), then total energy spreads over all available degrees equally without distinction between "new" and "old" degrees. This mathematical result is called the second law of thermodynamics.

Q1: What is the principle that is vitally important to understanding the behaviour of a quantity closely related to energy?
A1: entropy
Q2: What is entropy?
A2: measure of evenness of a distribution of energy between parts of a system
Q3: What is the mathematical result when an isolated system is given more degrees of freedom?
A3: second law of thermodynamics
East Prussia enclosed the bulk of the ancestral lands of the Baltic Old Prussians. During the 13th century, the native Prussians were conquered by the crusading Teutonic Knights. The indigenous Balts who survived the conquest were gradually converted to Christianity. Because of Germanization and colonisation over the following centuries, Germans became the dominant ethnic group, while Poles and Lithuanians formed minorities. From the 13th century, East Prussia was part of the monastic state of the Teutonic Knights. After the Second Peace of Thorn in 1466 it became a fief of the Kingdom of Poland. In 1525, with the Prussian Homage, the province became the Duchy of Prussia. The Old Prussian language had become extinct by the 17th or early 18th century.

Q1: Who defeated the native Prussians during the 13 century?
A1: Teutonic Knights
Q2: What other groups during this period for form minorities?
A2: Poles and Lithuanians
Q3: The Balts were gradually converted into which religion?
A3: Christianity
Q4: Which ethnic group become dominant following the 13 century just a few hundred years later?
A4: Germans
Q5: Around when did the Old Prussian language become extinct?
A5: 17th or early 18th century
Because the duchy was outside of the core Holy Roman Empire, the prince-electors of Brandenburg were able to proclaim themselves King of Prussia beginning in 1701. After the annexation of most of western Royal Prussia in the First Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772, eastern (ducal) Prussia was connected by land with the rest of the Prussian state and was reorganized as a province the following year (1773). Between 1829 and 1878, the Province of East Prussia was joined with West Prussia to form the Province of Prussia.

Q1: Why were the prince electors able to proclaim themselves King of Prussia?
A1: Because the duchy was outside of the core Holy Roman Empire
Q2: In what year were the prince electors elect them selves as King?
A2: 1701
Q3: What time period did East Prussia and West Prussia join to become Prussia?
A3: Prussia
The Kingdom of Prussia became the leading state of the German Empire after its creation in 1871. However, the Treaty of Versailles following World War I granted West Prussia to Poland and made East Prussia an exclave of Weimar Germany (the new Polish Corridor separating East Prussia from the rest of Germany), while the Memel Territory was detached and was annexed by Lithuania in 1923. Following Nazi Germany's defeat in World War II in 1945, war-torn East Prussia was divided at Joseph Stalin's insistence between the Soviet Union (the Kaliningrad Oblast in the Russian SFSR and the constituent counties of the Klaipėda Region in the Lithuanian SSR) and the People's Republic of Poland (the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship). The capital city Königsberg was renamed Kaliningrad in 1946. The German population of the province was largely evacuated during the war or expelled shortly thereafter in the expulsion of Germans after World War II. An estimated 300,000 (around one fifth of the population) died either in war time bombings raids or in the battles to defend the province.[citation needed]

Q1: What year did the Kingdom of Prussia become the leading state of the German Empire?
A1: 1871
Q2: What well known treaty would eventually would grant West Prussia to Poland?
A2: Versailles
Q3: What year did the Nazi's fall in World War II?
A3: 1945
Q4: How many died trying to defend the province in Kaliningrad?
A4: 300,000
Upon the invitation of Duke Konrad I of Masovia, the Teutonic Knights took possession of Prussia in the 13th century and created a monastic state to administer the conquered Old Prussians. Local Old-Prussian (north) and Polish (south) toponyms were gradually Germanised. The Knights' expansionist policies, including occupation of Polish Pomerania with Gdańsk/Danzig and western Lithuania, brought them into conflict with the Kingdom of Poland and embroiled them in several wars, culminating in the Polish-Lithuanian-Teutonic War, whereby the united armies of Poland and Lithuania, defeated the Teutonic Order at the Battle of Grunwald (Tannenberg) in 1410. Its defeat was formalised in the Second Treaty of Thorn in 1466 ending the Thirteen Years' War, and leaving the former Polish region Pomerania/Pomerelia under Polish control. Together with Warmia it formed the province of Royal Prussia. Eastern Prussia remained under the Knights, but as a fief of Poland. 1466 and 1525 arrangements by kings of Poland were not verified by the Holy Roman Empire as well as the previous gains of the Teutonic Knights were not verified.

Q1: Which group took possession of Prussia in the 13th century?
A1: Teutonic Knights
Q2: Which two areas were slowly Germanized during the 13th century?
A2: Old-Prussian (north) and Polish (south) toponyms
Q3: What did the knights of expansionist polices eventually lead to?
A3: several wars
Q4: What year was the Second Treaty of Thorn enacted?
A4: 1466