romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
In the semiconductor industry, infrared light can be used to characterize materials such as thin films and periodic trench structures. By measuring the reflectance of light from the surface of a semiconductor wafer, the index of refraction (n) and the extinction Coefficient (k) can be determined via the Forouhi-Bloomer dispersion equations. The reflectance from the infrared light can also be used to determine the critical dimension, depth, and sidewall angle of high aspect ratio trench structures.

Q1: What letter represents the index of refraction?
A1: n
Q2: What letter represents the extinction Coefficient?
A2: k
Q3: What equations are used to figure out the index of refraction and extinction Coefficient?
A3: Forouhi-Bloomer dispersion
Q4: Along with critical dimension and depth, what can the infrared light reflectance be used to determine in regard to high aspect ratio trench structures?
A4: sidewall angle
Q5: What reflectance is measured from a semiconductor wafer's surface to determine the index of refraction?
A5: light
Infrared cleaning is a technique used by some Motion picture film scanner, film scanners and flatbed scanners to reduce or remove the effect of dust and scratches upon the finished scan. It works by collecting an additional infrared channel from the scan at the same position and resolution as the three visible color channels (red, green, and blue). The infrared channel, in combination with the other channels, is used to detect the location of scratches and dust. Once located, those defects can be corrected by scaling or replaced by inpainting.

Q1: What is the name of the technique used in scanners to minimize the effects of dust and scratches?
A1: Infrared cleaning
Q2: Along with red and blue, what is the third visible color channel?
A2: green
Q3: Along with replacement via inpainting, what procedure is used in infrared cleaning to remove the effect of scratches and dust?
A3: scaling
Q4: Along with the visible light channels, what channel is used to locate scratches and dust in scanners?
A4: infrared
Earth's surface and the clouds absorb visible and invisible radiation from the sun and re-emit much of the energy as infrared back to atmosphere. Certain substances in the atmosphere, chiefly cloud droplets and water vapor, but also carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, sulfur hexafluoride, and chlorofluorocarbons, absorb this infrared, and re-radiate it in all directions including back to Earth. Thus, the greenhouse effect keeps the atmosphere and surface much warmer than if the infrared absorbers were absent from the atmosphere.

Q1: Along with the surface of the Earth, what objects absorb radiation from the sun?
A1: clouds
Q2: After Earth surface's absorbs radiation, in what spectrum is much of it re-emitted?
A2: infrared
Q3: Along with water vapor, what atmospheric substance primarily absorbs the infrared emitted by the Earth?
A3: cloud droplets
Q4: What notable warming effect does the presence of infrared absorbers contribute to?
A4: greenhouse
Biodiversity, a contraction of "biological diversity," generally refers to the variety and variability of life on Earth. One of the most widely used definitions defines it in terms of the variability within species, between species, and between ecosystems. It is a measure of the variety of organisms present in different ecosystems. This can refer to genetic variation, ecosystem variation, or species variation (number of species) within an area, biome, or planet. Terrestrial biodiversity tends to be greater near the equator, which seems to be the result of the warm climate and high primary productivity. Biodiversity is not distributed evenly on Earth. It is richest in the tropics. Marine biodiversity tends to be highest along coasts in the Western Pacific, where sea surface temperature is highest and in the mid-latitudinal band in all oceans. There are latitudinal gradients in species diversity. Biodiversity generally tends to cluster in hotspots, and has been increasing through time, but will be likely to slow in the future.

Q1: What term refers to  the variety and variability of life on Earth?
A1: Biodiversity
Q2: What types of variations does Biodiversity refer to?
A2: genetic variation, ecosystem variation, or species variation
Q3: What type of biodiversity happens near the equator?
A3: Terrestrial biodiversity
Q4: Where on Earth is biodiversity the most abundnant?
A4: It is richest in the tropics.
Q5: Where is sea surface temperature the highest?
A5: along coasts in the Western Pacific
This multilevel construct is consistent with Dasmann and Lovejoy. An explicit definition consistent with this interpretation was first given in a paper by Bruce A. Wilcox commissioned by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) for the 1982 World National Parks Conference. Wilcox's definition was "Biological diversity is the variety of life forms...at all levels of biological systems (i.e., molecular, organismic, population, species and ecosystem)...". The 1992 United Nations Earth Summit defined "biological diversity" as "the variability among living organisms from all sources, including, 'inter alia', terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems". This definition is used in the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity.

Q1: Who is the author of the biodiversity research paper?
A1: Bruce A. Wilcox
Q2: Who commissioned the biodiversity research paper?
A2: International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
Q3: At what event was the biodiversity research paper presented?
A3: 1982 World National Parks Conference
Q4: What year did the United Nations Earth Summit define "biological diversity"?
A4: 1992
On the other hand, changes through the Phanerozoic correlate much better with the hyperbolic model (widely used in population biology, demography and macrosociology, as well as fossil biodiversity) than with exponential and logistic models. The latter models imply that changes in diversity are guided by a first-order positive feedback (more ancestors, more descendants) and/or a negative feedback arising from resource limitation. Hyperbolic model implies a second-order positive feedback. The hyperbolic pattern of the world population growth arises from a second-order positive feedback between the population size and the rate of technological growth. The hyperbolic character of biodiversity growth can be similarly accounted for by a feedback between diversity and community structure complexity. The similarity between the curves of biodiversity and human population probably comes from the fact that both are derived from the interference of the hyperbolic trend with cyclical and stochastic dynamics.

Q1: What model correlates much better than the hyperbolic model?
A1: the Phanerozoic
Q2: What model is widely used in macrosociology?
A2: hyperbolic model
Q3: What models imply that changes in diversity are guided by a first-order positive feedback?
A3: exponential and logistic models
Q4: What model implies a second-order positive feedback?
A4: Hyperbolic model
Q5: What can be accounted for by a feedback between diversity and community structure complexity?
A5: The hyperbolic character of biodiversity growth
Interspecific crop diversity is, in part, responsible for offering variety in what we eat. Intraspecific diversity, the variety of alleles within a single species, also offers us choice in our diets. If a crop fails in a monoculture, we rely on agricultural diversity to replant the land with something new. If a wheat crop is destroyed by a pest we may plant a hardier variety of wheat the next year, relying on intraspecific diversity. We may forgo wheat production in that area and plant a different species altogether, relying on interspecific diversity. Even an agricultural society which primarily grows monocultures, relies on biodiversity at some point.

Q1: What has some responsibility for offering variety in what we eat?
A1: Interspecific crop diversity
Q2: What is the variety of alleles within a single species?
A2: Interspecific crop diversity
Q3: When do we rely on agricultural diversity to replant the land with something new?
A3: If a crop fails in a monoculture
Q4: What can destroy a wheat crop?
A4: a pest
Q5: What type of a society primarily grows monocultures?
A5: agricultural society
In absolute terms, the planet has lost 52% of its biodiversity since 1970 according to a 2014 study by the World Wildlife Fund. The Living Planet Report 2014 claims that "the number of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and fish across the globe is, on average, about half the size it was 40 years ago". Of that number, 39% accounts for the terrestrial wildlife gone, 39% for the marine wildlife gone, and 76% for the freshwater wildlife gone. Biodiversity took the biggest hit in Latin America, plummeting 83 percent. High-income countries showed a 10% increase in biodiversity, which was canceled out by a loss in low-income countries. This is despite the fact that high-income countries use five times the ecological resources of low-income countries, which was explained as a result of process whereby wealthy nations are outsourcing resource depletion to poorer nations, which are suffering the greatest ecosystem losses.

Q1: What percentage of biodiversity has the planet lost since 1970
A1: 52%
Q2: What year was they study done by the World Wildlife Fund?
A2: 2014
Q3: What percentage accounts for the terrestrial wildlife gone?
A3: 39%
Q4: What percentage accounts for the marine wildlife gone?
A4: 39%
Q5: What percentage accounts for the freshwater wildlife gone?
A5: 76%
A 2007 study conducted by the National Science Foundation found that biodiversity and genetic diversity are codependent—that diversity among species requires diversity within a species, and vice versa. "If any one type is removed from the system, the cycle can break down, and the community becomes dominated by a single species." At present, the most threatened ecosystems are found in fresh water, according to the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005, which was confirmed by the "Freshwater Animal Diversity Assessment", organised by the biodiversity platform, and the French Institut de recherche pour le développement (MNHNP).

Q1: In which year was the study published that found biodiversity and genetic diversity are codependent?
A1: 2007
Q2: Who conducted the 2007 study?
A2: National Science Foundation
Q3: What can cause a break down of a biodiversity system?
A3: If any one type is removed from the system
Q4: Where are the most threatened ecosystems found?
A4: in fresh water
Finally, an introduced species may unintentionally injure a species that depends on the species it replaces. In Belgium, Prunus spinosa from Eastern Europe leafs much sooner than its West European counterparts, disrupting the feeding habits of the Thecla betulae butterfly (which feeds on the leaves). Introducing new species often leaves endemic and other local species unable to compete with the exotic species and unable to survive. The exotic organisms may be predators, parasites, or may simply outcompete indigenous species for nutrients, water and light.

Q1: What may unintentionally injure a species that depends on the species it replaces?
A1: an introduced species
Q2: Where does the Prunus spinosa leaf much sooner?
A2: In Belgium
Q3: What animal can its feeding habits disturbed by the Prunus spinosa?
A3: leaves endemic and other local species unable to compete with the exotic species and unable to survive
Q4: What species struggle to with the introduction of new species?
A4: endemic and other local species
Q5: What types of new species can be introduced?
A5: The exotic organisms may be predators, parasites
The forests play a vital role in harbouring more than 45,000 floral and 81,000 faunal species of which 5150 floral and 1837 faunal species are endemic. Plant and animal species confined to a specific geographical area are called endemic species. In reserved forests, rights to activities like hunting and grazing are sometimes given to communities living on the fringes of the forest, who sustain their livelihood partially or wholly from forest resources or products. The unclassed forests covers 6.4 percent of the total forest area and they are marked by the following characteristics:

Q1: What plays a vital role in harbouring floral and faunal species?
A1: The forests
Q2: How many endemic floral species do forests harbor?
A2: 5150
Q3: How many endemic faunal species do forests harbor?
A3: 1837
Q4: What types of animals and plans are confined to a specific geographical area?
A4: endemic species
Q5: What types of activities are granted rights in reserved forests?
A5: hunting and grazing
Global agreements such as the Convention on Biological Diversity, give "sovereign national rights over biological resources" (not property). The agreements commit countries to "conserve biodiversity", "develop resources for sustainability" and "share the benefits" resulting from their use. Biodiverse countries that allow bioprospecting or collection of natural products, expect a share of the benefits rather than allowing the individual or institution that discovers/exploits the resource to capture them privately. Bioprospecting can become a type of biopiracy when such principles are not respected.[citation needed]

Q1: What global agreement gives sovereign national rights over biological resources?
A1: the Convention on Biological Diversity
Q2: What agreement commits countries to conserve biodiversity?
A2: the Convention on Biological Diversity
Q3: What agreement commits countries to develop resources for sustainability?
A3: the Convention on Biological Diversity
Q4: What is the process of collecting natural products?
A4: bioprospecting
Rapid environmental changes typically cause mass extinctions. More than 99 percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, that ever lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been described. The total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 1037, and weighs 50 billion tonnes. In comparison, the total mass of the biosphere has been estimated to be as much as 4 TtC (trillion tons of carbon).

Q1: What can typically cause mass extinctions?
A1: Rapid environmental changes
Q2: What percentage of species is estimated to be extinct?
A2: More than 99 percent
Q3: How many species have ever lived on earth?
A3: over five billion species
Q4: How many species currently live on earth?
A4: Earth's current species range from 10 million to 14 million,
Q5: What is the estimated weight of the total amount of related DNA base pairs on Earth?
A5: 50 billion tonnes
The history of biodiversity during the Phanerozoic (the last 540 million years), starts with rapid growth during the Cambrian explosion—a period during which nearly every phylum of multicellular organisms first appeared. Over the next 400 million years or so, invertebrate diversity showed little overall trend, and vertebrate diversity shows an overall exponential trend. This dramatic rise in diversity was marked by periodic, massive losses of diversity classified as mass extinction events. A significant loss occurred when rainforests collapsed in the carboniferous. The worst was the Permian-Triassic extinction event, 251 million years ago. Vertebrates took 30 million years to recover from this event.

Q1: Which era included a rapid growth period?
A1: the Cambrian explosion
Q2: The Phanerozoic era covers what time period?
A2: the last 540 million years
Q3: In which era, did the first phylum of multicellular organisms appear?
A3: the Cambrian explosion
Q4: What type of diversity showed an overall exponential trend?
A4: vertebrate diversity
Q5: In which event did the rainforests collapsed in the carboniferous?
A5: the Permian-Triassic extinction event
Jared Diamond describes an "Evil Quartet" of habitat destruction, overkill, introduced species, and secondary extinctions. Edward O. Wilson prefers the acronym HIPPO, standing for Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Pollution, human over-Population, and Over-harvesting. The most authoritative classification in use today is IUCN's Classification of Direct Threats which has been adopted by major international conservation organizations such as the US Nature Conservancy, the World Wildlife Fund, Conservation International, and BirdLife International.

Q1: Who describes the "Evil Quartet"?
A1: Jared Diamond
Q2: What describes habitat destruction, overkill, introduced species, and secondary extinctions?
A2: Evil Quartet
Q3: What describes Habitat destruction, Invasive species, Pollution, human over-Population, and Over-harvesting?
A3: HIPPO
Q4: What is the most authoritative classification in use today?
A4: IUCN's Classification of Direct Threats
Q5: What funding organization uses the IUCN's Classification of Direct Threats?
A5: the World Wildlife Fund
Endemic species can be threatened with extinction through the process of genetic pollution, i.e. uncontrolled hybridization, introgression and genetic swamping. Genetic pollution leads to homogenization or replacement of local genomes as a result of either a numerical and/or fitness advantage of an introduced species. Hybridization and introgression are side-effects of introduction and invasion. These phenomena can be especially detrimental to rare species that come into contact with more abundant ones. The abundant species can interbreed with the rare species, swamping its gene pool. This problem is not always apparent from morphological (outward appearance) observations alone. Some degree of gene flow is normal adaptation, and not all gene and genotype constellations can be preserved. However, hybridization with or without introgression may, nevertheless, threaten a rare species' existence.

Q1: What can threaten endemic species with extinction?
A1: genetic pollution
Q2: What are another names for genetic pollution?
A2: uncontrolled hybridization, introgression and genetic swamping
Q3: What causes genetic pollution?
A3: either a numerical and/or fitness advantage of an introduced species
Q4: What are are side-effects of introduction and invasion?
A4: Hybridization and introgression
Q5: What behavior causes swamping of a gene pool?
A5: The abundant species can interbreed with the rare species
The age of the Earth is about 4.54 billion years old. The earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth dates at least from 3.5 billion years ago, during the Eoarchean Era after a geological crust started to solidify following the earlier molten Hadean Eon. There are microbial mat fossils found in 3.48 billion-year-old sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Other early physical evidence of a biogenic substance is graphite in 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western Greenland. More recently, in 2015, "remains of biotic life" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western Australia. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth ... then it could be common in the universe."

Q1: What is the estimate age of the Earth?
A1: about 4.54 billion years old
Q2: What era contains the earliest undisputed evidence of life on Earth?
A2: the Eoarchean Era
Q3: What is the name of the era that predated life on Earth?
A3: Hadean Eon
Q4: Where were the billion year old microbial mat fossils found?
A4: Western Australia
Q5: Where were the 3.7 billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered?
A5: Western Greenland
The fossil record suggests that the last few million years featured the greatest biodiversity in history. However, not all scientists support this view, since there is uncertainty as to how strongly the fossil record is biased by the greater availability and preservation of recent geologic sections. Some scientists believe that corrected for sampling artifacts, modern biodiversity may not be much different from biodiversity 300 million years ago., whereas others consider the fossil record reasonably reflective of the diversification of life. Estimates of the present global macroscopic species diversity vary from 2 million to 100 million, with a best estimate of somewhere near 9 million, the vast majority arthropods. Diversity appears to increase continually in the absence of natural selection.

Q1: What suggests that the last few million years featured the greatest biodiversity in history?
A1: The fossil record
Q2: Why are some scientists uncertain about the fossil record?
A2: how strongly the fossil record is biased by the greater availability and preservation of recent geologic sections.
Q3: What is the estimate variation of the present global macroscopic species diversity?
A3: from 2 million to 100 million
Q4: What appears increase continually in the absence of natural selection?
A4: Diversity
Agricultural diversity can also be divided by whether it is ‘planned’ diversity or ‘associated’ diversity. This is a functional classification that we impose and not an intrinsic feature of life or diversity. Planned diversity includes the crops which a farmer has encouraged, planted or raised (e.g.: crops, covers, symbionts and livestock, among others), which can be contrasted with the associated diversity that arrives among the crops, uninvited (e.g.: herbivores, weed species and pathogens, among others).

Q1: What are two types of Agricultural diversity?
A1: ‘planned’ diversity or ‘associated’ diversity
Q2: What type of diversity includes the crops which a farmer has encouraged, planted or raised?
A2: Planned diversity
Q3: What type of diversity arrives uninvited?
A3: associated diversity
Q4: What type of diversity includes herbivores and pathogens?
A4: associated diversity
Biodiversity's relevance to human health is becoming an international political issue, as scientific evidence builds on the global health implications of biodiversity loss. This issue is closely linked with the issue of climate change, as many of the anticipated health risks of climate change are associated with changes in biodiversity (e.g. changes in populations and distribution of disease vectors, scarcity of fresh water, impacts on agricultural biodiversity and food resources etc.) This is because the species most likely to disappear are those that buffer against infectious disease transmission, while surviving species tend to be the ones that increase disease transmission, such as that of West Nile Virus, Lyme disease and Hantavirus, according to a study done co-authored by Felicia Keesing, an ecologist at Bard College, and Drew Harvell, associate director for Environment of the Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future (ACSF) at Cornell University.

Q1: What is becoming an international political issue?
A1: Biodiversity's relevance to human health
Q2: What issue is closely linked with changes in biodiversity?
A2: climate change
Q3: What changes in biodiversity have an effect on the climate?
A3: changes in populations and distribution of disease vectors, scarcity of fresh water, impacts on agricultural biodiversity and food resources
Q4: What types of species disappear when a new disease is introduced?
A4: those that buffer against infectious disease transmission