romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
Short-term memory is also known as working memory. Short-term memory allows recall for a period of several seconds to a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is also very limited: George A. Miller (1956), when working at Bell Laboratories, conducted experiments showing that the store of short-term memory was 7±2 items (the title of his famous paper, "The magical number 7±2"). Modern estimates of the capacity of short-term memory are lower, typically of the order of 4–5 items; however, memory capacity can be increased through a process called chunking. For example, in recalling a ten-digit telephone number, a person could chunk the digits into three groups: first, the area code (such as 123), then a three-digit chunk (456) and lastly a four-digit chunk (7890). This method of remembering telephone numbers is far more effective than attempting to remember a string of 10 digits; this is because we are able to chunk the information into meaningful groups of numbers. This may be reflected in some countries in the tendency to display telephone numbers as several chunks of two to four numbers.

Q1: What is another name for short-term memory?
A1: working memory.
Q2: What exactly does short-term memory allow a person to do?
A2: recall for a period of several seconds to a minute without rehearsal
Q3: How much information can one store and recall in short-term memory?
A3: capacity is also very limited
Q4: How can one higher their memory capacity?
A4: chunking.
Q5: Why do some countries display numbers in chunks of two to four numbers?
A5: because we are able to chunk the information into meaningful groups of numbers
The storage in sensory memory and short-term memory generally has a strictly limited capacity and duration, which means that information is not retained indefinitely. By contrast, long-term memory can store much larger quantities of information for potentially unlimited duration (sometimes a whole life span). Its capacity is immeasurable. For example, given a random seven-digit number we may remember it for only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in our short-term memory. On the other hand, we can remember telephone numbers for many years through repetition; this information is said to be stored in long-term memory.

Q1: Why can't some memories be held onto forever?
A1: The storage in sensory memory and short-term memory generally has a strictly limited capacity and duration
Q2: If a memory that is stored in with long term-memories, how long can you possibly rememeber it?
A2: sometimes a whole life span)
Q3: What is the capacity of long term memory?
A3: capacity is immeasurable
Q4: If you knew a telephone number one week ago, but have forgotten it now, where was this memory stored?
A4: in our short-term memory
The model also shows all the memory stores as being a single unit whereas research into this shows differently. For example, short-term memory can be broken up into different units such as visual information and acoustic information. In a study by Zlonoga and Gerber (1986), patient 'KF' demonstrated certain deviations from the Atkinson–Shiffrin model. Patient KF was brain damaged, displaying difficulties regarding short-term memory. Recognition of sounds such as spoken numbers, letters, words and easily identifiable noises (such as doorbells and cats meowing) were all impacted. Interestingly, visual short-term memory was unaffected, suggesting a dichotomy between visual and audial memory.

Q1: What are some examples of units that short-term memory can be categorized in to?
A1: visual information and acoustic information
Q2: Who performed a study in 1986 invovling a participant known as KF?
A2: Zlonoga and Gerber
Q3: What did KF disprove during this study?
A3: Atkinson–Shiffrin model.
Q4: What did KF have trouble doing?
A4: difficulties regarding short-term memory.
Q5: What did this study seem to conclude?
A5: a dichotomy between visual and audial memory.
Short-term memory is supported by transient patterns of neuronal communication, dependent on regions of the frontal lobe (especially dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and the parietal lobe. Long-term memory, on the other hand, is maintained by more stable and permanent changes in neural connections widely spread throughout the brain. The hippocampus is essential (for learning new information) to the consolidation of information from short-term to long-term memory, although it does not seem to store information itself. Without the hippocampus, new memories are unable to be stored into long-term memory, as learned from patient Henry Molaison after removal of both his hippocampi, and there will be a very short attention span. Furthermore, it may be involved in changing neural connections for a period of three months or more after the initial learning.

Q1: Which part of the brain does short-term memory seem to rely on?
A1: frontal lobe (especially dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and the parietal lobe
Q2: Which part of the brain does long-term memory rely on?
A2: hippocampus
Q3: How much information can the hippocampus store?
A3: does not
Q4: If the hippocampus doesn't store information what does it do?
A4: may be involved in changing neural connections for a period of three months or more after the initial learning.
Sensory memory holds sensory information less than one second after an item is perceived. The ability to look at an item and remember what it looked like with just a split second of observation, or memorization, is the example of sensory memory. It is out of cognitive control and is an automatic response. With very short presentations, participants often report that they seem to "see" more than they can actually report. The first experiments exploring this form of sensory memory were conducted by George Sperling (1963) using the "partial report paradigm". Subjects were presented with a grid of 12 letters, arranged into three rows of four. After a brief presentation, subjects were then played either a high, medium or low tone, cuing them which of the rows to report. Based on these partial report experiments,Sperling was able to show that the capacity of sensory memory was approximately 12 items, but that it degraded very quickly (within a few hundred milliseconds). Because this form of memory degrades so quickly, participants would see the display but be unable to report all of the items (12 in the "whole report" procedure) before they decayed. This type of memory cannot be prolonged via rehearsal.

Q1: How long does sensory  memory to to store information?
A1: less than one second
Q2: Can we control what is stored in our sensory memory?
A2: It is out of cognitive control
Q3: Who did the first studies on exploring a new idea of sensory memory?
A3: George Sperling
Q4: What did Spellings' findings reveal?
A4: this form of memory degrades so quickly, participants would see the display but be unable to report all of the items
While short-term memory encodes information acoustically, long-term memory encodes it semantically: Baddeley (1966) discovered that, after 20 minutes, test subjects had the most difficulty recalling a collection of words that had similar meanings (e.g. big, large, great, huge) long-term. Another part of long-term memory is episodic memory, "which attempts to capture information such as 'what', 'when' and 'where'". With episodic memory, individuals are able to recall specific events such as birthday parties and weddings.

Q1: How does short term memory encode information?
A1: acoustically
Q2: What did Baddeleys test subjects have touble doing?
A2: recalling a collection of words that had similar meanings
Q3: How does long term memory encode information?
A3: semantically
Q4: What is episodic memory?
A4: "which attempts to capture information such as 'what', 'when' and 'where'
Q5: If someone where to recall a wedding they had went to a year before, which type of memory would be used?
A5: episodic memory,
Infants do not have the language ability to report on their memories and so verbal reports cannot be used to assess very young children’s memory. Throughout the years, however, researchers have adapted and developed a number of measures for assessing both infants’ recognition memory and their recall memory. Habituation and operant conditioning techniques have been used to assess infants’ recognition memory and the deferred and elicited imitation techniques have been used to assess infants’ recall memory.

Q1: Why do infants and young childrens memories need to be assesed differently?
A1: do not have the language ability to report on their memories
Q2: Can researchers study an infants or young childs memories?
A2: , researchers have adapted and developed a number of measures for assessing both infants’ recognition memory and their recall memory.
Q3: How can a researcher study a childs memory?
A3: elicited imitation techniques
Another major way to distinguish different memory functions is whether the content to be remembered is in the past, retrospective memory, or in the future, prospective memory. Thus, retrospective memory as a category includes semantic, episodic and autobiographical memory. In contrast, prospective memory is memory for future intentions, or remembering to remember (Winograd, 1988). Prospective memory can be further broken down into event- and time-based prospective remembering. Time-based prospective memories are triggered by a time-cue, such as going to the doctor (action) at 4pm (cue). Event-based prospective memories are intentions triggered by cues, such as remembering to post a letter (action) after seeing a mailbox (cue). Cues do not need to be related to the action (as the mailbox/letter example), and lists, sticky-notes, knotted handkerchiefs, or string around the finger all exemplify cues that people use as strategies to enhance prospective memory.

Q1: What are some catgories of retrospective memory?
A1: semantic, episodic and autobiographical memory
Q2: If a memory is triggered by a time, which kind of memory is this?
A2: Time-based prospective memories
Q3: What is something somebody can use to remember something?
A3: Cues
Q4: If Bob realized he needed to mail his mother a letter after seeing the postal office, which kind of memory did he trigger?
A4: Event-based prospective memories
Hebb distinguished between short-term and long-term memory. He postulated that any memory that stayed in short-term storage for a long enough time would be consolidated into a long-term memory. Later research showed this to be false. Research has shown that direct injections of cortisol or epinephrine help the storage of recent experiences. This is also true for stimulation of the amygdala. This proves that excitement enhances memory by the stimulation of hormones that affect the amygdala. Excessive or prolonged stress (with prolonged cortisol) may hurt memory storage. Patients with amygdalar damage are no more likely to remember emotionally charged words than nonemotionally charged ones. The hippocampus is important for explicit memory. The hippocampus is also important for memory consolidation. The hippocampus receives input from different parts of the cortex and sends its output out to different parts of the brain also. The input comes from secondary and tertiary sensory areas that have processed the information a lot already. Hippocampal damage may also cause memory loss and problems with memory storage. This memory loss includes, retrograde amnesia which is the loss of memory for events that occurred shortly before the time of brain damage.

Q1: Was Hebb's thought of the relationship between short and long term memory true?
A1: research showed this to be false
Q2: Which drugs seemed to help someone remember earlier events?
A2: cortisol or epinephrine
Q3: What relationship does excitement and memory share?
A3: excitement enhances memory
Q4: Bob was in a car accident and couldn't remember his wifes name, what part of his brain could have been damaged?
A4: hippocampus
One question that is crucial in cognitive neuroscience is how information and mental experiences are coded and represented in the brain. Scientists have gained much knowledge about the neuronal codes from the studies of plasticity, but most of such research has been focused on simple learning in simple neuronal circuits; it is considerably less clear about the neuronal changes involved in more complex examples of memory, particularly declarative memory that requires the storage of facts and events (Byrne 2007). Convergence-divergence zones might be the neural networks where memories are stored and retrieved.

Q1: Is it important to know how information is coded in the brain?
A1: that is crucial
Q2: Have researchers learned anything studying plasticity?
A2: have gained much knowledge
Q3: What are the roles of Covergence-divergence zones?
A3: might be the neural networks where memories are stored and retrieved.
Q4: What has most of the research on memories revolved around?
A4: simple learning in simple neuronal circuits;
Cognitive neuroscientists consider memory as the retention, reactivation, and reconstruction of the experience-independent internal representation. The term of internal representation implies that such definition of memory contains two components: the expression of memory at the behavioral or conscious level, and the underpinning physical neural changes (Dudai 2007). The latter component is also called engram or memory traces (Semon 1904). Some neuroscientists and psychologists mistakenly equate the concept of engram and memory, broadly conceiving all persisting after-effects of experiences as memory; others argue against this notion that memory does not exist until it is revealed in behavior or thought (Moscovitch 2007).

Q1: What do cognitive neuroscientists believe memory is?
A1: the retention, reactivation, and reconstruction of the experience-independent internal representation
Q2: What suggests that memory has two different components?
A2: term of internal representation
Q3: What showed that memory exists even before that memory is known to the person?
A3: Moscovitch 2007
Q4: What is an engram trace?
A4: the underpinning physical neural changes
In contrast, procedural memory (or implicit memory) is not based on the conscious recall of information, but on implicit learning. It can best be summarized as remember how to do something. Procedural memory is primarily employed in learning motor skills and should be considered a subset of implicit memory. It is revealed when one does better in a given task due only to repetition - no new explicit memories have been formed, but one is unconsciously accessing aspects of those previous experiences. Procedural memory involved in motor learning depends on the cerebellum and basal ganglia.

Q1: What is another term for procedural memory?
A1: implicit memory
Q2: If bob remembered how to bake a cake after seeing this on television what memory is he using?
A2: procedural memory
Q3: What set of skills is reliant on procedural memory?
A3: motor skills
Q4: If Bob does throws 15 more free throws than he did last week, how many more explicit memories has he gained?
A4: no new explicit memories have been formed,
The working memory model explains many practical observations, such as why it is easier to do two different tasks (one verbal and one visual) than two similar tasks (e.g., two visual), and the aforementioned word-length effect. However, the concept of a central executive as noted here has been criticised as inadequate and vague.[citation needed] Working memory is also the premise for what allows us to do everyday activities involving thought. It is the section of memory where we carry out thought processes and use them to learn and reason about topics.

Q1: Which model explains why bob has an easier time reading a book, and then discussing it rather than reading two books?
A1: working memory model
Q2: Which concept is criticised for being unworthy and too broad?
A2: concept of a central executive
Q3: Which part of memory allows us to go about our daily lives?
A3: Working memory
One of the key concerns of older adults is the experience of memory loss, especially as it is one of the hallmark symptoms of Alzheimer's disease. However, memory loss is qualitatively different in normal aging from the kind of memory loss associated with a diagnosis of Alzheimer's (Budson & Price, 2005). Research has revealed that individuals’ performance on memory tasks that rely on frontal regions declines with age. Older adults tend to exhibit deficits on tasks that involve knowing the temporal order in which they learned information; source memory tasks that require them to remember the specific circumstances or context in which they learned information; and prospective memory tasks that involve remembering to perform an act at a future time. Older adults can manage their problems with prospective memory by using appointment books, for example.

Q1: What do most elderly people worry about?
A1: memory loss,
Q2: Is an eldery person with alzheimers having the same problem as a similar aged person experiencing memory loss?
A2: memory loss is qualitatively different
Q3: Which part of the brain is associated with the memory loss an elderly person suffers?
A3: frontal regions
Q4: Which memory is an elderly person helping by using appointment books?
A4: prospective memory
It should be noted that although 6-month-olds can recall information over the short-term, they have difficulty recalling the temporal order of information. It is only by 9 months of age that infants can recall the actions of a two-step sequence in the correct temporal order - that is, recalling step 1 and then step 2. In other words, when asked to imitate a two-step action sequence (such as putting a toy car in the base and pushing in the plunger to make the toy roll to the other end), 9-month-olds tend to imitate the actions of the sequence in the correct order (step 1 and then step 2). Younger infants (6-month-olds) can only recall one step of a two-step sequence. Researchers have suggested that these age differences are probably due to the fact that the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and the frontal components of the neural network are not fully developed at the age of 6-months.

Q1: Does a 6 month old have short term memory?
A1: can recall information over the short-term
Q2: What age can an infabt recall steps in an order?
A2: 9 months of age
Q3: What part of a two step sequence can a 6 month old remember?
A3: one step of a two-step sequence
Q4: What part of the brain is not fully developed in infants which can cause the memory differences in ages?
A4: the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and the frontal components of the neural network are not fully developed
Declarative memory can be further sub-divided into semantic memory, concerning principles and facts taken independent of context; and episodic memory, concerning information specific to a particular context, such as a time and place. Semantic memory allows the encoding of abstract knowledge about the world, such as "Paris is the capital of France". Episodic memory, on the other hand, is used for more personal memories, such as the sensations, emotions, and personal associations of a particular place or time. Episodic memories often reflect the "firsts" in life such as a first kiss, first day of school or first time winning a championship. These are key events in one's life that can be remembered clearly. Autobiographical memory - memory for particular events within one's own life - is generally viewed as either equivalent to, or a subset of, episodic memory. Visual memory is part of memory preserving some characteristics of our senses pertaining to visual experience. One is able to place in memory information that resembles objects, places, animals or people in sort of a mental image. Visual memory can result in priming and it is assumed some kind of perceptual representational system underlies this phenomenon.[citation needed]

Q1: When remembering your first day of school or first dance, which memory are you using?
A1: Episodic memories
Q2: Which type of memory enables us to remember knowledge of the world?
A2: Semantic memory
Q3: When fondly remembering your memory, which type of memory are you using?
A3: Autobiographical memory
Q4: Which type of memory is used when remembering something that we've seen?
A4: Visual memory
Stress has a significant effect on memory formation and learning. In response to stressful situations, the brain releases hormones and neurotransmitters (ex. glucocorticoids and catecholamines) which affect memory encoding processes in the hippocampus. Behavioural research on animals shows that chronic stress produces adrenal hormones which impact the hippocampal structure in the brains of rats. An experimental study by German cognitive psychologists L. Schwabe and O. Wolf demonstrates how learning under stress also decreases memory recall in humans. In this study, 48 healthy female and male university students participated in either a stress test or a control group. Those randomly assigned to the stress test group had a hand immersed in ice cold water (the reputable SECPT or ‘Socially Evaluated Cold Pressor Test’) for up to three minutes, while being monitored and videotaped. Both the stress and control groups were then presented with 32 words to memorize. Twenty-four hours later, both groups were tested to see how many words they could remember (free recall) as well as how many they could recognize from a larger list of words (recognition performance). The results showed a clear impairment of memory performance in the stress test group, who recalled 30% fewer words than the control group. The researchers suggest that stress experienced during learning distracts people by diverting their attention during the memory encoding process.

Q1: What can cause your memory to deterioriate or not work as well?
A1: Stress
Q2: Which hormones are produces when a animal is stressed out?
A2: adrenal hormones
Q3: Who performed a study that involved having peoples hands in cold water while also memorizing words?
A3: L. Schwabe and O. Wolf
Q4: What did L. Schwabes and O. Wolfs study seem to conlcude?
A4: stress experienced during learning distracts people by diverting their attention during the memory encoding process.
Interference can hamper memorization and retrieval. There is retroactive interference, when learning new information makes it harder to recall old information and proactive interference, where prior learning disrupts recall of new information. Although interference can lead to forgetting, it is important to keep in mind that there are situations when old information can facilitate learning of new information. Knowing Latin, for instance, can help an individual learn a related language such as French – this phenomenon is known as positive transfer.

Q1: What trouble can interference cause?
A1: can hamper memorization and retrieval
Q2: What is retroactive interference?
A2: when learning new information makes it harder to recall old information
Q3: What is proactive interference?
A3: where prior learning disrupts recall of new information
Q4: What is a term used to describe being able to learn something quicker due to an older ability?
A4: positive transfer.