romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
Many bird populations migrate long distances along a flyway. The most common pattern involves flying north in the spring to breed in the temperate or Arctic summer and returning in the autumn to wintering grounds in warmer regions to the south. Of course, in the southern hemisphere the directions are reversed, but there is less land area in the far south to support long-distance migration.

Q1: Along where do many birds migrate?
A1: a flyway
Q2: What is the most common directionof migration in autumn?
A2: south
Q3: What is the most common pattern of migration in the spring?
A3: flying north
Q4: Why do the birds fly north?
A4: to breed
The primary motivation for migration appears to be food; for example, some hummingbirds choose not to migrate if fed through the winter. Also, the longer days of the northern summer provide extended time for breeding birds to feed their young. This helps diurnal birds to produce larger clutches than related non-migratory species that remain in the tropics. As the days shorten in autumn, the birds return to warmer regions where the available food supply varies little with the season.

Q1: What is the primary motivation for migration?
A1: food
Q2: Which birds will not migrate if they are well fed through winter?
A2: hummingbirds
Q3: When do the birds return to warmer regions?
A3: autumn
Q4: what do the longer days of summer provide the birds?
A4: time for breeding birds to feed their young.
Q5: What do diurnal birds produce as opposed to non migratory species?
A5: larger clutches
These advantages offset the high stress, physical exertion costs, and other risks of the migration. Predation can be heightened during migration: Eleonora's falcon Falco eleonorae, which breeds on Mediterranean islands, has a very late breeding season, coordinated with the autumn passage of southbound passerine migrants, which it feeds to its young. A similar strategy is adopted by the greater noctule bat, which preys on nocturnal passerine migrants. The higher concentrations of migrating birds at stopover sites make them prone to parasites and pathogens, which require a heightened immune response.

Q1: What is hightened during migration?
A1: Predation
Q2: Where do Eleonora's falcon breed?
A2: Mediterranean islands
Q3: What do Eleonora's falcon feed their young?
A3: southbound passerine migrants
Q4: What preys on nocturnal passerine migrants?
A4: the greater noctule bat
Q5: What makes birds prone to parasites and pathogens?
A5: higher concentrations of migrating birds
Within a species not all populations may be migratory; this is known as "partial migration". Partial migration is very common in the southern continents; in Australia, 44% of non-passerine birds and 32% of passerine species are partially migratory. In some species, the population at higher latitudes tends to be migratory and will often winter at lower latitude. The migrating birds bypass the latitudes where other populations may be sedentary, where suitable wintering habitats may already be occupied. This is an example of leap-frog migration. Many fully migratory species show leap-frog migration (birds that nest at higher latitudes spend the winter at lower latitudes), and many show the alternative, chain migration, where populations 'slide' more evenly north and south without reversing order.

Q1: What is partial migration?
A1: not all populations may be migratory
Q2: Where is partial migration most common?
A2: the southern continents
Q3: In Australia, what percent of non-passerine birds are partially migratory?
A3: 44%
Q4: In Australia, what percent of passerine species are partially migratory?
A4: 32%
Q5: What is leap frog migration?
A5: birds that nest at higher latitudes spend the winter at lower latitudes
Within a population, it is common for different ages and/or sexes to have different patterns of timing and distance. Female chaffinches Fringilla coelebs in Eastern Fennoscandia migrate earlier in the autumn than males do.

Q1: Which sex of the chaffinches Fringilla coelebs migrate earlier?
A1: Female
Q2: Where are chaffinches Fringilla coelebs from?
A2: Eastern Fennoscandia
Q3: When do the chaffinches Fringilla coelebs migrate?
A3: autumn
Most migrations begin with the birds starting off in a broad front. Often, this front narrows into one or more preferred routes termed flyways. These routes typically follow mountain ranges or coastlines, sometimes rivers, and may take advantage of updrafts and other wind patterns or avoid geographical barriers such as large stretches of open water. The specific routes may be genetically programmed or learned to varying degrees. The routes taken on forward and return migration are often different. A common pattern in North America is clockwise migration, where birds flying North tend to be further West, and flying South tend to shift Eastwards.

Q1: How do most migrations begin?
A1: the birds starting off in a broad front
Q2: What to the migrating birds usually follow?
A2: mountain ranges or coastlines
Q3: What obsticals will migrating birds avoid?
A3: large stretches of open water
Q4: What is a common pattern in North America migration?
A4: clockwise
Q5: What are the preferred routes for migration called?
A5: flyways
Many, if not most, birds migrate in flocks. For larger birds, flying in flocks reduces the energy cost. Geese in a V-formation may conserve 12–20% of the energy they would need to fly alone. Red knots Calidris canutus and dunlins Calidris alpina were found in radar studies to fly 5 km/h (3.1 mph) faster in flocks than when they were flying alone.

Q1: How do most birds migrate?
A1: in flocks
Q2: How much energy do geese conserve flying in a flock?
A2: 12–20%
Q3: How much faster do Red knots and dunlins fly in a flock?
A3: 3.1 mph
Q4: What does flying in flocks reduce?
A4: energy cost
Q5: How do birds conserve energy?
A5: a V-formation
Birds fly at varying altitudes during migration. An expedition to Mt. Everest found skeletons of northern pintail Anas acuta and black-tailed godwit Limosa limosa at 5,000 m (16,000 ft) on the Khumbu Glacier. Bar-headed geese Anser indicus have been recorded by GPS flying at up to 6,540 metres (21,460 ft) while crossing the Himalayas, at the same time engaging in the highest rates of climb to altitude for any bird. Anecdotal reports of them flying much higher have yet to be corroborated with any direct evidence. Seabirds fly low over water but gain altitude when crossing land, and the reverse pattern is seen in landbirds. However most bird migration is in the range of 150 to 600 m (490 to 1,970 ft). Bird strike aviation records from the United States show most collisions occur below 600 m (2,000 ft) and almost none above 1,800 m (5,900 ft).

Q1: What part of birds was found on an expedition to Mt. Everest?
A1: skeletons
Q2: Which birds have the highest rates of climb to altitude?
A2: Bar-headed geese Anser indicus
Q3: What kind of birds fly low over water?
A3: Seabirds
Q4: What altitude range is most migration recorded?
A4: 150 to 600 m
Q5: Where do most in air collisions occur?
A5: below 600 m
Bird migration is not limited to birds that can fly. Most species of penguin (Spheniscidae) migrate by swimming. These routes can cover over 1,000 km (620 mi). Dusky grouse Dendragapus obscurus perform altitudinal migration mostly by walking. Emus Dromaius novaehollandiae in Australia have been observed to undertake long-distance movements on foot during droughts.

Q1: How do penguins migrate?
A1: by swimming
Q2: How far do penguins travel when they migrate?
A2: over 1,000 km
Q3: How do Dusky grouse migrate?
A3: mostly by walking
Q4: How do Emus migrate long distances during droughts?
A4: on foot
Q5: Where are Emus from?
A5: Australia
The typical image of migration is of northern landbirds, such as swallows (Hirundinidae) and birds of prey, making long flights to the tropics. However, many Holarctic wildfowl and finch (Fringillidae) species winter in the North Temperate Zone, in regions with milder winters than their summer breeding grounds. For example, the pink-footed goose Anser brachyrhynchus migrates from Iceland to Britain and neighbouring countries, whilst the dark-eyed junco Junco hyemalis migrates from subarctic and arctic climates to the contiguous United States and the American goldfinch from taiga to wintering grounds extending from the American South northwestward to Western Oregon. Migratory routes and wintering grounds are traditional and learned by young during their first migration with their parents. Some ducks, such as the garganey Anas querquedula, move completely or partially into the tropics. The European pied flycatcher Ficedula hypoleuca also follows this migratory trend, breeding in Asia and Europe and wintering in Africa.

Q1: Where do the pink-footed goose migrate?
A1: from Iceland to Britain
Q2: Where do the dark-eyed junco migrate?
A2: arctic climates to the contiguous United States
Q3: Where do the European pied flycatcher breed?
A3: Asia and Europe
Q4: Where does the European pied flycatcher spend the winter?
A4: Africa
Q5: How do young learn migratory routes?
A5: during their first migration with their parents
Often, the migration route of a long-distance migrator bird doesn't follow a straight line between breeding and wintering grounds. Rather, it could follow an hooked or arched line, with detours around geographical barriers. For most land-birds, such barriers could consist in seas, large water bodies or high mountain ranges, because of the lack of stopover or feeding sites, or the lack of thermal columns for broad-winged birds.

Q1: What route does a migrating bird usually follow?
A1: an hooked or arched line
Q2: What geographical barriers to land birds try to avoid?
A2: large water bodies or high mountain ranges
Q3: Why do migrating land birds avoid large water bodies or mountain ranges?
A3: the lack of stopover or feeding sites
Q4: Why do broad winged birds avoid geographical barriers?
A4: lack of thermal columns
The same considerations about barriers and detours that apply to long-distance land-bird migration apply to water birds, but in reverse: a large area of land without bodies of water that offer feeding sites may also be a barrier to a bird that feeds in coastal waters. Detours avoiding such barriers are observed: for example, brent geese Branta bernicla migrating from the Taymyr Peninsula to the Wadden Sea travel via the White Sea coast and the Baltic Sea rather than directly across the Arctic Ocean and northern Scandinavia.

Q1: What do water birds avoid while migrating?
A1: a large area of land without bodies of water
Q2: Where do brent geese migrate from?
A2: the Taymyr Peninsula
Q3: Where do brent geese migrate to?
A3: the Wadden Sea
Q4: How do brent geese migrate?
A4: via the White Sea coast and the Baltic Sea
A similar situation occurs with waders (called shorebirds in North America). Many species, such as dunlin Calidris alpina and western sandpiper Calidris mauri, undertake long movements from their Arctic breeding grounds to warmer locations in the same hemisphere, but others such as semipalmated sandpiper C. pusilla travel longer distances to the tropics in the Southern Hemisphere.

Q1: What are waders called in North America?
A1: shorebirds
Q2: Where do dunlin Calidris alpina migrate to?
A2: warmer locations in the same hemisphere
Q3: Where do semiplamated sandpiper C. pusilla migrate to?
A3: the tropics in the Southern Hemisphere
Q4: Where do western sandpiper Calidris migrate from?
A4: Arctic breeding grounds
For some species of waders, migration success depends on the availability of certain key food resources at stopover points along the migration route. This gives the migrants an opportunity to refuel for the next leg of the voyage. Some examples of important stopover locations are the Bay of Fundy and Delaware Bay.

Q1: What does successful migration depend on for some waders?
A1: the availability of certain key food resources
Q2: Where do migrants refuel?
A2: stopover points along the migration route
Q3: Where is an important stopover location?
A3: the Bay of Fundy
Q4: What is another stopover location?
A4: Delaware Bay
Some bar-tailed godwits Limosa lapponica have the longest known non-stop flight of any migrant, flying 11,000 km from Alaska to their New Zealand non-breeding areas. Prior to migration, 55 percent of their bodyweight is stored as fat to fuel this uninterrupted journey.

Q1: Which bird has the longest migration?
A1: bar-tailed godwits
Q2: How far do bar-tailed godwits travel to migrate?
A2: 11,000 km
Q3: Where do bar-tailed godwits migrate from
A3: Alaska
Q4: Where do bar-tailed godwits migrate to?
A4: New Zealand
Q5: How much of the bar-tailed godwits bodyweight is stored as fat before migration?
A5: 55 percent
Seabird migration is similar in pattern to those of the waders and waterfowl. Some, such as the black guillemot Cepphus grylle and some gulls, are quite sedentary; others, such as most terns and auks breeding in the temperate northern hemisphere, move varying distances south in the northern winter. The Arctic tern Sterna paradisaea has the longest-distance migration of any bird, and sees more daylight than any other, moving from its Arctic breeding grounds to the Antarctic non-breeding areas. One Arctic tern, ringed (banded) as a chick on the Farne Islands off the British east coast, reached Melbourne, Australia in just three months from fledging, a sea journey of over 22,000 km (14,000 mi). Many tubenosed birds breed in the southern hemisphere and migrate north in the southern winter.

Q1: Which seabird has the longest-distance migration?
A1: The Arctic tern
Q2: Which bird sees more daylight than any other during migration?
A2: The Arctic tern
Q3: How long did one Arctic tern take to migrate?
A3: three months
Q4: How far did the Arctic tern chick travel?
A4: 22,000 km
Q5: Where do tubenosed birds breed?
A5: the southern hemisphere
The most pelagic species, mainly in the 'tubenose' order Procellariiformes, are great wanderers, and the albatrosses of the southern oceans may circle the globe as they ride the "roaring forties" outside the breeding season. The tubenoses spread widely over large areas of open ocean, but congregate when food becomes available. Many are also among the longest-distance migrants; sooty shearwaters Puffinus griseus nesting on the Falkland Islands migrate 14,000 km (8,700 mi) between the breeding colony and the North Atlantic Ocean off Norway. Some Manx shearwaters Puffinus puffinus do this same journey in reverse. As they are long-lived birds, they may cover enormous distances during their lives; one record-breaking Manx shearwater is calculated to have flown 8 million km (5 million miles) during its over-50 year lifespan.

Q1: Which species are great wanderers?
A1: pelagic
Q2: How far did a Manx shearwater fly over it's lifespan?
A2: 8 million km
Q3: Which bird broke a record in how far it flew over it's life?
A3: Manx shearwater
Q4: How long did the Manx shearwater live?
A4: 50 year
Q5: How far will Puffinus griseus migrate each year?
A5: 14,000 km
Some large broad-winged birds rely on thermal columns of rising hot air to enable them to soar. These include many birds of prey such as vultures, eagles, and buzzards, but also storks. These birds migrate in the daytime. Migratory species in these groups have great difficulty crossing large bodies of water, since thermals only form over land, and these birds cannot maintain active flight for long distances. Mediterranean and other seas present a major obstacle to soaring birds, which must cross at the narrowest points. Massive numbers of large raptors and storks pass through areas such as the Strait of Messina, Gibraltar, Falsterbo, and the Bosphorus at migration times. More common species, such as the European honey buzzard Pernis apivorus, can be counted in hundreds of thousands in autumn. Other barriers, such as mountain ranges, can also cause funnelling, particularly of large diurnal migrants. This is a notable factor in the Central American migratory bottleneck. Batumi bottleneck in the Caucasus is one of the heaviest migratory funnels on earth. Avoiding flying over the Black Sea surface and across high mountains, hundreds of thousands of soaring birds funnel through an area around the city of Batumi, Georgia. Birds of prey such as honey buzzards which migrate using thermals lose only 10 to 20% of their weight during migration, which may explain why they forage less during migration than do smaller birds of prey with more active flight such as falcons, hawks and harriers.

Q1: What do some large broad-winged birds rely on to help them soar?
A1: thermal columns of rising hot air
Q2: When do large birds of pray migrate?
A2: daytime
Q3: What is one of the heaviest migratory funnels?
A3: Batumi bottleneck
Q4: How much of their body weight do honey buzzards lose during migration?
A4: 10 to 20%
Q5: How many birds funnel through Batumi, Georgia each year?
A5: hundreds of thousands
Many of the smaller insectivorous birds including the warblers, hummingbirds and flycatchers migrate large distances, usually at night. They land in the morning and may feed for a few days before resuming their migration. The birds are referred to as passage migrants in the regions where they occur for short durations between the origin and destination.

Q1: When do many insectivorous birds migrate?
A1: usually at night
Q2: Which kinds of birds land for a few days before resuming migration?
A2: smaller insectivorous birds
Q3: What are smaller insectivorous birds referred to?
A3: passage migrants
Q4: How long do passage migrants stop and feed before resuming migration?
A4: a few days
Nocturnal migrants minimize predation, avoid overheating, and can feed during the day. One cost of nocturnal migration is the loss of sleep. Migrants may be able to alter their quality of sleep to compensate for the loss.

Q1: What is a benefit of nocturnal migration?
A1: minimize predation
Q2: What is a cost of nocturnal migration?
A2: loss of sleep
Q3: How do nocturnal migrants compensate for loss of sleep?
A3: Migrants may be able to alter their quality of sleep
Q4: What is another benefit of nocturnal migration?
A4: avoid overheating
Many long-distance migrants appear to be genetically programmed to respond to changing day length. Species that move short distances, however, may not need such a timing mechanism, instead moving in response to local weather conditions. Thus mountain and moorland breeders, such as wallcreeper Tichodroma muraria and white-throated dipper Cinclus cinclus, may move only altitudinally to escape the cold higher ground. Other species such as merlin Falco columbarius and Eurasian skylark Alauda arvensis move further, to the coast or towards the south. Species like the chaffinch are much less migratory in Britain than those of continental Europe, mostly not moving more than 5 km in their lives.

Q1: What are many long distance migrants genetically programmed to do?
A1: respond to changing day length
Q2: How do species that move short distances know when to migrate?
A2: response to local weather conditions
Q3: Why do mountain and moorland breeders move only altitudinally?
A3: to escape the cold higher ground
Q4: Where do the merlin Falco columbarius migrate to?
A4: the coast or towards the south
Q5: How far do British chaffinch more in their lives?
A5: 5 km
Short-distance passerine migrants have two evolutionary origins. Those that have long-distance migrants in the same family, such as the common chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita, are species of southern hemisphere origins that have progressively shortened their return migration to stay in the northern hemisphere.

Q1: How many evolutionary origins do short distance passerine migrants have?
A1: two
Q2: Which species have long-distance migrants in the same family?
A2: the common chiffchaff Phylloscopus collybita
Q3: Why have some specied progressively shortened their return migration?
A3: to stay in the northern hemisphere
Species that have no long-distance migratory relatives, such as the waxwings Bombycilla, are effectively moving in response to winter weather and the loss of their usual winter food, rather than enhanced breeding opportunities.

Q1: What species has no long-distance migratory relatives?
A1: the waxwings Bombycilla
Q2: What are the waxwings Bombycilla moving in response to?
A2: winter weather and the loss of their usual winter food
Q3: Why are the waxwing Bombycilla not migrating for?
A3: enhanced breeding opportunities
In the tropics there is little variation in the length of day throughout the year, and it is always warm enough for a food supply, but altitudinal migration occurs in some tropical birds. There is evidence that this enables the migrants to obtain more of their preferred foods such as fruits.

Q1: Where is there little variation in the length of day throughout the year?
A1: In the tropics
Q2: Why does altitudinal migration occur in some tropical birds?
A2: to obtain more of their preferred foods
Q3: What are tropical birds preferred foods?
A3: fruits
Q4: Where is it always warm enough for food supply?
A4: In the tropics
Sometimes circumstances such as a good breeding season followed by a food source failure the following year lead to irruptions in which large numbers of a species move far beyond the normal range. Bohemian waxwings Bombycilla garrulus well show this unpredictable variation in annual numbers, with five major arrivals in Britain during the nineteenth century, but 18 between the years 1937 and 2000. Red crossbills Loxia curvirostra too are irruptive, with widespread invasions across England noted in 1251, 1593, 1757, and 1791.

Q1: For what reason would birds mor far beyond the normal range?
A1: a good breeding season followed by a food source failure
Q2: How many times did Bohemian waxwings come to Britain in the nineteeth century?
A2: five
Q3: How many times did Bohemian waxwings come to Britain between 1937 and 200?
A3: 18
Q4: What years did Red crossbills invade England?
A4: 1251, 1593, 1757, and 1791
Bird migration is primarily, but not entirely, a Northern Hemisphere phenomenon. This is because land birds in high northern latitudes, where food becomes scarce in winter, leave for areas further south (including the Southern Hemisphere) to overwinter, and because the continental landmass is much larger in the Northern Hemisphere. In contrast, among (pelagic) seabirds, species of the Southern Hemisphere are more likely to migrate. This is because there is a large area of ocean in the Southern Hemisphere, and more islands suitable for seabirds to nest.

Q1: In which hemisphere does bird migration primarily happen?
A1: Northern
Q2: Where do birds from high northern latitutes migrate to?
A2: south
Q3: Why do birds migrate south in winter?
A3: food becomes scarce
Q4: Which species of seabirds are more likely to migrate?
A4: species of the Southern Hemisphere
Q5: Why are seabirds from the southern hemisphere more likely to migrate?
A5: there is a large area of ocean in the Southern Hemisphere
The control of migration, its timing and response are genetically controlled and appear to be a primitive trait that is present even in non-migratory species of birds. The ability to navigate and orient themselves during migration is a much more complex phenomenon that may include both endogenous programs as well as learning.

Q1: What controls a birds migration?
A1: a primitive trait
Q2: How do birds navigate and orient themselves during migration?
A2: endogenous programs as well as learning
Q3: What is a primitive trait present even in non migrating birds?
A3: migration
Q4: What is a complex phenomenon in regards to migration?
A4: The ability to navigate