romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
The rule of law has been considered as one of the key dimensions that determine the quality and good governance of a country. Research, like the Worldwide Governance Indicators, defines the rule of law as: "the extent to which agents have confidence and abide by the rules of society, and in particular the quality of contract enforcement, the police and the courts, as well as the likelihood of crime or violence." Based on this definition the Worldwide Governance Indicators project has developed aggregate measurements for the rule of law in more than 200 countries, as seen in the map below. A government based on the rule of law can be called a "nomocracy", from the Greek nomos (law) and kratos (power or rule).

Q1: For how many countries have rule of law aggregate measurements been developed?
A1: more than 200 countries
Q2: What is the term that described a government based on the rule of law?
A2: nomocracy
Q3: What is the Greek word for law?
A3: nomos
Q4: What is the Greek word for power?
A4: kratos
Q5: What is a key qualifier for determining good governance?
A5: rule of law
All government officers of the United States, including the President, the Justices of the Supreme Court, state judges and legislators, and all members of Congress, pledge first and foremost to uphold the Constitution. These oaths affirm that the rule of law is superior to the rule of any human leader. At the same time, the federal government has considerable discretion: the legislative branch is free to decide what statutes it will write, as long as it stays within its enumerated powers and respects the constitutionally protected rights of individuals. Likewise, the judicial branch has a degree of judicial discretion, and the executive branch also has various discretionary powers including prosecutorial discretion.

Q1: According to the Constitution, what is superior to the rules of man?
A1: rule of law
Q2: What does the President and Supreme Court Justices vow to stand by?
A2: the Constitution
Q3: What do the President and Supreme Court justices vow to uphold?
A3: the Constitution
Q4: According to the Constitution, to what is the rule of law superior?
A4: the rule of any human leader
Q5: What branch of the government has prosecutorial discretion?
A5: executive branch
Q6: What branch of government can determine what acts it writes?
A6: legislative branch
Q7: Which branch of government has judicial discretion?
A7: judicial branch
Scholars continue to debate whether the U.S. Constitution adopted a particular interpretation of the "rule of law," and if so, which one. For example, John Harrison asserts that the word "law" in the Constitution is simply defined as that which is legally binding, rather than being "defined by formal or substantive criteria," and therefore judges do not have discretion to decide that laws fail to satisfy such unwritten and vague criteria. Law Professor Frederick Mark Gedicks disagrees, writing that Cicero, Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, and the framers of the U.S. Constitution believed that an unjust law was not really a law at all.

Q1: Who disagrees with the ideas proposed by John Harrison?
A1: Law Professor Frederick Mark Gedicks
Q2: For what body of principles is it debated whether or not it was constructed according to the rule of law?
A2: U.S. Constitution
Q3: According to John Harrison, through the Constitution, what is law?
A3: that which is legally binding
Q4: According to Frederick Mark Gedicks, who believed that unjust laws were not really laws?
A4: the framers of the U.S. Constitution
Others argue that the rule of law has survived but was transformed to allow for the exercise of discretion by administrators. For much of American history, the dominant notion of the rule of law, in this setting, has been some version of A. V. Dicey's: “no man is punishable or can be lawfully made to suffer in body or goods except for a distinct breach of law established in the ordinary legal manner before the ordinary Courts of the land.” That is, individuals should be able to challenge an administrative order by bringing suit in a court of general jurisdiction. As the dockets of worker compensation commissions, public utility commissions and other agencies burgeoned, it soon became apparent that letting judges decide for themselves all the facts in a dispute (such as the extent of an injury in a worker's compensation case) would overwhelm the courts and destroy the advantages of specialization that led to the creation of administrative agencies in the first place. Even Charles Evans Hughes, a Chief Justice of the United States, believed “you must have administration, and you must have administration by administrative officers.” By 1941, a compromise had emerged. If administrators adopted procedures that more-or-less tracked "the ordinary legal manner" of the courts, further review of the facts by "the ordinary Courts of the land" was unnecessary. That is, if you had your "day in commission," the rule of law did not require a further "day in court." Thus Dicey's rule of law was recast into a purely procedural form.

Q1: When was a compromise reached over administrative procedures for law determination?
A1: 1941
Q2: Who can determine if a law should be approached differently?
A2: administrators
Q3: Who should be able to challenge administrative orders in court?
A3: individuals
Q4: Who was Charles Evans Hughes?
A4: a Chief Justice of the United States
James Wilson said during the Philadelphia Convention in 1787 that, "Laws may be unjust, may be unwise, may be dangerous, may be destructive; and yet not be so unconstitutional as to justify the Judges in refusing to give them effect." George Mason agreed that judges "could declare an unconstitutional law void. But with regard to every law, however unjust, oppressive or pernicious, which did not come plainly under this description, they would be under the necessity as judges to give it a free course." Chief Justice John Marshall (joined by Justice Joseph Story) took a similar position in 1827: "When its existence as law is denied, that existence cannot be proved by showing what are the qualities of a law."

Q1: When was the Philadelphia Convention?
A1: 1787
Q2: Who spoke at the Philadelphia Convention about the potential chaos from not having judges be able to enforce laws?
A2: James Wilson
Q3: What was John Marshall's title?
A3: Chief Justice
Q4: What did George Mason state that judges could do to a law?
A4: declare an unconstitutional law void
East Asian cultures are influenced by two schools of thought, Confucianism, which advocated good governance as rule by leaders who are benevolent and virtuous, and Legalism, which advocated strict adherence to law. The influence of one school of thought over the other has varied throughout the centuries. One study indicates that throughout East Asia, only South Korea, Singapore, Japan, Taiwan and Hong Kong have societies that are robustly committed to a law-bound state. According to Awzar Thi, a member of the Asian Human Rights Commission, the rule of law in Thailand, Cambodia, and most of Asia is weak or nonexistent:

Q1: What East Asian philosophy emphasized virtuous leadership?
A1: Confucianism
Q2: What East Asian philosophy emphasized unwavering rule following?
A2: Legalism
Q3: How strong is the rule of law in most Asian countries?
A3: weak or nonexistent
Q4: Which Asian countries strictly follow laws?
A4: South Korea, Singapore, Japan, Taiwan and Hong Kong
In countries such as China and Vietnam, the transition to a market economy has been a major factor in a move toward the rule of law, because a rule of law is important to foreign investors and to economic development. It remains unclear whether the rule of law in countries like China and Vietnam will be limited to commercial matters or will spill into other areas as well, and if so whether that spillover will enhance prospects for related values such as democracy and human rights. The rule of law in China has been widely discussed and debated by both legal scholars and politicians in China.

Q1: Which two Asian countries have started to adopt the rule of law?
A1: China and Vietnam
Q2: What has influenced China and Vietnam to conform to the rule of law?
A2: the transition to a market economy
Q3: Who is debating the reliance on the rule of law in China?
A3: legal scholars and politicians
Q4: To whom is the rule of law important to in China's trade deals?
A4: foreign investors
Q5: What values might adherence to the rule of law subsequently influence in China?
A5: democracy and human rights
In Thailand, a kingdom that has had a constitution since the initial attempt to overthrow the absolute monarchy system in 1932, the rule of law has been more of a principle than actual practice.[citation needed] Ancient prejudices and political bias have been present in the three branches of government with each of their foundings, and justice has been processed formally according to the law but in fact more closely aligned with royalist principles that are still advocated in the 21st century.[citation needed] In November 2013, Thailand faced still further threats to the rule of law when the executive branch rejected a supreme court decision over how to select senators.[citation needed]

Q1: Where has the rule of law been more of a theory than a way of life?
A1: Thailand
Q2: In Thailand, what branch of government rejected a proposal for senator selection?
A2: executive branch
Q3: According to what principles are most laws in Thailand decided?
A3: royalist
Q4: When did Thailand first try to overthrow its government run by a king?
A4: 1932
Q5: What harms the adherence to the Constitution in Thailand?
A5: Ancient prejudices and political bias
In India, the longest constitutional text in the history of the world has governed that country since 1950. Although the Constitution of India may have been intended to provide details that would limit the opportunity for judicial discretion, the more text there is in a constitution the greater opportunity the judiciary may have to exercise judicial review. According to Indian journalist Harish Khare, "The rule of law or rather the Constitution [is] in danger of being supplanted by the rule of judges."

Q1: What country has the longest version of a constitution?
A1: India
Q2: In what year was India's constitution drafted?
A2: 1950
Q3: What country has the longest Constitution?
A3: India
Q4: In Thailand, the length of the constitution impacts the judges chances to exercise what?
A4: judicial review
Q5: What is in position to gain control over the rule of law in Thailand?
A5: rule of judges
In 1959, an international gathering of over 185 judges, lawyers, and law professors from 53 countries, meeting in New Delhi and speaking as the International Commission of Jurists, made a declaration as to the fundamental principle of the rule of law. This was the Declaration of Delhi. They declared that the rule of law implies certain rights and freedoms, that it implies an independent judiciary, and that it implies social, economic and cultural conditions conducive to human dignity. The Declaration of Delhi did not, however, suggest that the rule of law requires legislative power to be subject to judicial review.

Q1: When did the Declaration of Delhi happen?
A1: 1959
Q2: How many judges participated in the Declaration of Delhi?
A2: 185
Q3: According to the Declaration of Delhi, what provides certain rights and freedoms?
A3: rule of law
Q4: According to the Declaration of Delhi, what type of conditions are needed for human dignity?
A4: social, economic and cultural
The General Assembly has considered rule of law as an agenda item since 1992, with renewed interest since 2006 and has adopted resolutions at its last three sessions. The Security Council has held a number of thematic debates on the rule of law, and adopted resolutions emphasizing the importance of these issues in the context of women, peace and security, children in armed conflict, and the protection of civilians in armed conflict. The Peacebuilding Commission has also regularly addressed rule of law issues with respect to countries on its agenda. The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action also requires the rule of law be included in human rights education.

Q1: When the rule of law become an agenda item for the General Assembly?
A1: 1992
Q2: What organization debates the rule of law?
A2: The Security Council
Q3: What organization meets to discuss and determine the countries that are considered by the rule of law?
A3: The Peacebuilding Commission
Q4: What do the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action require the rule of law to be used in?
A4: human rights education
Q5: In what year was interest renewed in the rule of law within the General Assembly?
A5: 2006
The International Development Law Organization (IDLO) is an intergovernmental organization with a joint focus on the promotion of rule of law and development. It works to empower people and communities to claim their rights, and provides governments with the know-how to realize them. It supports emerging economies and middle-income countries to strengthen their legal capacity and rule of law framework for sustainable development and economic opportunity. It is the only intergovernmental organization with an exclusive mandate to promote the rule of law and has experience working in more than 170 countries around the world.

Q1: What organization works to further the understanding and adherence to the rule of law?
A1: The International Development Law Organization
Q2: What types of economies does the IDLO focus on helping?
A2: emerging economies and middle-income
Q3: With how many countries does the IDLO work?
A3: more than 170
One important aspect of the rule-of-law initiatives is the study and analysis of the rule of law’s impact on economic development. The rule-of-law movement cannot be fully successful in transitional and developing countries without an answer to the question: does the rule of law matter for economic development or not? Constitutional economics is the study of the compatibility of economic and financial decisions within existing constitutional law frameworks, and such a framework includes government spending on the judiciary, which, in many transitional and developing countries, is completely controlled by the executive. It is useful to distinguish between the two methods of corruption of the judiciary: corruption by the executive branch, in contrast to corruption by private actors.

Q1: The impact of the rule of law on what is closely studied?
A1: economic development
Q2: What doctrine seeks to study rules and their relationship with the economy?
A2: Constitutional economics
Q3: In what branch of government is corruption examined?
A3: executive branch
Q4: In developing countries, who makes most of the spending decisions?
A4: the executive
Q5: What is the term for corruption by individuals?
A5: corruption by private actors
The Rule of Law is especially important as an influence on the economic development in developing and transitional countries. To date, the term “rule of law” has been used primarily in the English-speaking countries, and it is not yet fully clarified even with regard to such well-established democracies as, for instance, Sweden, Denmark, France, Germany, or Japan. A common language between lawyers of common law and civil law countries as well as between legal communities of developed and developing countries is critically important for research of links between the rule of law and real economy.

Q1: What language is spoken in most rule of law countries?
A1: English
Q2: In non English speaking countries, what is the rule of law referred to as?
A2: not yet fully clarified
Q3: In what types of countries is the rule of law important to the economy?
A3: developing and transitional
Q4: What other countries have successful democracies?
A4: Sweden, Denmark, France, Germany, or Japan
Q5: What is critically important for discussion of rules, laws, and the economy?
A5: common language
The economist F. A. Hayek analyzed how the Rule of Law might be beneficial to the free market. Hayek proposed that under the Rule of Law individuals would be able to make wise investments and future plans with some confidence in a successful return on investment when he stated: "under the Rule of Law the government is prevented from stultifying individual efforts by ad hoc action. Within the known rules of the game the individual is free to pursue his personal ends and desires, certain that the powers of government will not be used deliberately to frustrate his efforts."

Q1: What is F.A. Hayek's profession?
A1: economist
Q2: According to Hayek, with the rule of law in place what will help people make more wise investments?
A2: confidence in a successful return on investment
Q3: According to Hayek, limited governemnt power through the rule of law does not do what to people?
A3: frustrate his efforts
Q4: According to Hayek, people are free to do what within the rule of law?
A4: pursue his personal ends and desires
Tibet (i/tᵻˈbɛt/; Wylie: Bod, pronounced [pʰø̀ʔ]; Chinese: 西藏; pinyin: Xīzàng) is a region on the Tibetan Plateau in Asia. It is the traditional homeland of the Tibetan people as well as some other ethnic groups such as Monpa, Qiang and Lhoba peoples and is now also inhabited by considerable numbers of Han Chinese and Hui people. Tibet is the highest region on Earth, with an average elevation of 4,900 metres (16,000 ft). The highest elevation in Tibet is Mount Everest, earth's highest mountain rising 8,848 m (29,029 ft) above sea level.

Q1: What is the highest elevation in Tibet?
A1: Mount Everest
Q2: Which continent contains Tibet?
A2: Asia
Q3: What is the average elevation of Tibet, in feet?
A3: 16,000
Q4: How many feet above sea level does earth's highest mountain rise?
A4: 29,029
Q5: Where is the traditional homeland of Monpa, Qiang, and Lhoba peoples?
A5: Tibet
The Tibetan Empire emerged in the 7th century, but with the fall of the empire the region soon divided into a variety of territories. The bulk of western and central Tibet (Ü-Tsang) was often at least nominally unified under a series of Tibetan governments in Lhasa, Shigatse, or nearby locations; these governments were at various times under Mongol and Chinese overlordship. The eastern regions of Kham and Amdo often maintained a more decentralized indigenous political structure, being divided among a number of small principalities and tribal groups, while also often falling more directly under Chinese rule after the Battle of Chamdo; most of this area was eventually incorporated into the Chinese provinces of Sichuan and Qinghai. The current borders of Tibet were generally established in the 18th century.

Q1: When were the current borders of Tibet established?
A1: 18th century
Q2: When did the Tibetan empire emerge?
A2: 7th century
Q3: Which Chinese provinces used to be the eastern part of Tibet?
A3: Sichuan and Qinghai
Q4: Which battle left parts of Tibet under Chinese rule?
A4: Battle of Chamdo
Following the Xinhai Revolution against the Qing dynasty in 1912, Qing soldiers were disarmed and escorted out of Tibet Area (Ü-Tsang). The region subsequently declared its independence in 1913 without recognition by the subsequent Chinese Republican government. Later, Lhasa took control of the western part of Xikang, China. The region maintained its autonomy until 1951 when, following the Battle of Chamdo, Tibet became incorporated into the People's Republic of China, and the previous Tibetan government was abolished in 1959 after a failed uprising. Today, China governs western and central Tibet as the Tibet Autonomous Region while the eastern areas are now mostly ethnic autonomous prefectures within Sichuan, Qinghai and other neighbouring provinces. There are tensions regarding Tibet's political status and dissident groups that are active in exile. It is also said that Tibetan activists in Tibet have been arrested or tortured.

Q1: In what year was the Tibetan government abolished?
A1: 1959
Q2: In what year did Xinhai revolt against the Qing dynasty?
A2: 1912
Q3: Where is the Tibet Autonomous Region?
A3: western and central Tibet
Q4: Which battle led to Tibet's incorporation into the People's Republic of China?
A4: Battle of Chamdo
The economy of Tibet is dominated by subsistence agriculture, though tourism has become a growing industry in recent decades. The dominant religion in Tibet is Tibetan Buddhism; in addition there is Bön, which is similar to Tibetan Buddhism, and there are also Tibetan Muslims and Christian minorities. Tibetan Buddhism is a primary influence on the art, music, and festivals of the region. Tibetan architecture reflects Chinese and Indian influences. Staple foods in Tibet are roasted barley, yak meat, and butter tea.

Q1: What is the economy of Tibet dominated by?
A1: subsistence agriculture
Q2: What has recently become a growing industry in Tibet?
A2: tourism
Q3: What is the dominant religion in Tibet?
A3: Tibetan Buddhism
Q4: What is a staple food in Tibet?
A4: yak meat
Q5: Which two cultures does Tibetan architecture reflect?
A5: Chinese and Indian
The Tibetan name for their land, Bod བོད་, means "Tibet" or "Tibetan Plateau", although it originally meant the central region around Lhasa, now known in Tibetan as Ü. The Standard Tibetan pronunciation of Bod, [pʰøʔ˨˧˨], is transcribed Bhö in Tournadre Phonetic Transcription, Bö in the THL Simplified Phonetic Transcription and Poi in Tibetan pinyin. Some scholars believe the first written reference to Bod "Tibet" was the ancient Bautai people recorded in the Egyptian Greek works Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st century CE) and Geographia (Ptolemy, 2nd century CE), itself from the Sanskrit form Bhauṭṭa of the Indian geographical tradition.

Q1: What is the Tibetan name for the area?
A1: Bod
Q2: Which ancient people were mentioned in the first written reference to Bod "Tibet"?
A2: Bautai
Q3: What area did Bod originally refer to?
A3: central region around Lhasa
The modern Standard Chinese exonym for the ethnic Tibetan region is Zangqu (Chinese: 藏区; pinyin: Zàngqū), which derives by metonymy from the Tsang region around Shigatse plus the addition of a Chinese suffix, 区 qū, which means "area, district, region, ward". Tibetan people, language, and culture, regardless of where they are from, are referred to as Zang (Chinese: 藏; pinyin: Zàng) although the geographical term Xīzàng is often limited to the Tibet Autonomous Region. The term Xīzàng was coined during the Qing dynasty in the reign of the Jiaqing Emperor (1796–1820) through the addition of a prefix meaning "west" (西 xī) to Zang.

Q1: How is the ethnic Tibetan region referred to as a modern Standard Chinese exonym?
A1: Zangqu
Q2: How do the Chinese refer to Tibetan people, language, and culture?
A2: Zang
Q3: During which dynasty was the term Xizang first used?
A3: Qing
Q4: Which Chinese suffix means "area, district, region, ward"?
A4: qū
The best-known medieval Chinese name for Tibet is Tubo (Chinese: 吐蕃 also written as 土蕃 or 土番; pinyin: Tǔbō or Tǔfān). This name first appears in Chinese characters as 土番 in the 7th century (Li Tai) and as 吐蕃 in the 10th-century (Old Book of Tang describing 608–609 emissaries from Tibetan King Namri Songtsen to Emperor Yang of Sui). In the Middle Chinese spoken during that period, as reconstructed by William H. Baxter, 土番 was pronounced thux-phjon and 吐蕃 was pronounced thux-pjon (with the x representing tone).

Q1: What is the best-known medieval Chinese name for Tibet?
A1: Tubo
Q2: When did the name for Tibet, Tubo, first appear in Chinese characters?
A2: 7th century
Q3: Who reconstructed Middle Chinese spoken from the 7th century to the 10th century?
A3: William H. Baxter