romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
Since life began on Earth, five major mass extinctions and several minor events have led to large and sudden drops in biodiversity. The Phanerozoic eon (the last 540 million years) marked a rapid growth in biodiversity via the Cambrian explosion—a period during which the majority of multicellular phyla first appeared. The next 400 million years included repeated, massive biodiversity losses classified as mass extinction events. In the Carboniferous, rainforest collapse led to a great loss of plant and animal life. The Permian–Triassic extinction event, 251 million years ago, was the worst; vertebrate recovery took 30 million years. The most recent, the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, occurred 65 million years ago and has often attracted more attention than others because it resulted in the extinction of the dinosaurs.

Q1: How many mass extinctions have happened since Life began on Earth?
A1: five major mass extinctions
Q2: When was the period where the majority of multicellular phyla first appeared?
A2: the Cambrian explosion
Q3: What happened in the Carboniferous?
A3: rainforest collapse led to a great loss of plant and animal life.
Q4: When was the Permian–Triassic extinction event?
A4: 251 million years ago
Q5: How long did vertebrate recovery take?
A5: 30 million years
The number of species invasions has been on the rise at least since the beginning of the 1900s. Species are increasingly being moved by humans (on purpose and accidentally). In some cases the invaders are causing drastic changes and damage to their new habitats (e.g.: zebra mussels and the emerald ash borer in the Great Lakes region and the lion fish along the North American Atlantic coast). Some evidence suggests that invasive species are competitive in their new habitats because they are subject to less pathogen disturbance. Others report confounding evidence that occasionally suggest that species-rich communities harbor many native and exotic species simultaneously while some say that diverse ecosystems are more resilient and resist invasive plants and animals. An important question is, "do invasive species cause extinctions?" Many studies cite effects of invasive species on natives, but not extinctions. Invasive species seem to increase local (i.e.: alpha diversity) diversity, which decreases turnover of diversity (i.e.: beta diversity). Overall gamma diversity may be lowered because species are going extinct because of other causes, but even some of the most insidious invaders (e.g.: Dutch elm disease, emerald ash borer, chestnut blight in North America) have not caused their host species to become extinct. Extirpation, population decline, and homogenization of regional biodiversity are much more common. Human activities have frequently been the cause of invasive species circumventing their barriers, by introducing them for food and other purposes. Human activities therefore allow species to migrate to new areas (and thus become invasive) occurred on time scales much shorter than historically have been required for a species to extend its range.

Q1: What century started the increase of species invasions?
A1: 1900s
Q2: Who intentionally and unintentionally moves species around?
A2: humans
Q3: What invaders are causing changes in the Great Lakes region?
A3: zebra mussels and the emerald ash borer
Q4: What invaders are causing changes along the North American Atlantic coast?
A4: lion fish
Brazil's Atlantic Forest is considered one such hotspot, containing roughly 20,000 plant species, 1,350 vertebrates, and millions of insects, about half of which occur nowhere else.[citation needed] The island of Madagascar and India are also particularly notable. Colombia is characterized by high biodiversity, with the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide and it has the largest number of endemics (species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country. About 10% of the species of the Earth can be found in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in Europe and North America combined, Colombia has 10% of the world’s mammals species, 14% of the amphibian species, and 18% of the bird species of the world. Madagascar dry deciduous forests and lowland rainforests possess a high ratio of endemism.[citation needed] Since the island separated from mainland Africa 66 million years ago, many species and ecosystems have evolved independently.[citation needed] Indonesia's 17,000 islands cover 735,355 square miles (1,904,560 km2) and contain 10% of the world's flowering plants, 12% of mammals, and 17% of reptiles, amphibians and birds—along with nearly 240 million people. Many regions of high biodiversity and/or endemism arise from specialized habitats which require unusual adaptations, for example, alpine environments in high mountains, or Northern European peat bogs.[citation needed]

Q1: How many plant species does Brazil's Atlantic Forest contain?
A1: 20,000 plant species
Q2: How many vertebrates does Brazil's Atlantic Forest contain?
A2: 1,350 vertebrates
Q3: Which country has the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide?
A3: Colombia
Q4: Which country has about 10% of the species on Earth?
A4: Colombia
Q5: What island separated from mainland Africa 66 million years ago?
A5: Madagascar
The existence of a "global carrying capacity", limiting the amount of life that can live at once, is debated, as is the question of whether such a limit would also cap the number of species. While records of life in the sea shows a logistic pattern of growth, life on land (insects, plants and tetrapods)shows an exponential rise in diversity. As one author states, "Tetrapods have not yet invaded 64 per cent of potentially habitable modes, and it could be that without human influence the ecological and taxonomic diversity of tetrapods would continue to increase in an exponential fashion until most or all of the available ecospace is filled."

Q1: What limits the amount of life that can live at once on Earth?
A1: global carrying capacity
Q2: What type of animal shows a logistic pattern of growth?
A2: life in the sea
Q3: What type of animal shows an exponential rise in diversity?
A3: life on land
Q4: What percentage of potentially habitable modes have Tetrapods not yet invaded?
A4: 64 per cent
From 1950 to 2011, world population increased from 2.5 billion to 7 billion and is forecast to reach a plateau of more than 9 billion during the 21st century. Sir David King, former chief scientific adviser to the UK government, told a parliamentary inquiry: "It is self-evident that the massive growth in the human population through the 20th century has had more impact on biodiversity than any other single factor." At least until the middle of the 21st century, worldwide losses of pristine biodiverse land will probably depend much on the worldwide human birth rate.

Q1: What was the increase in population from 1950 to 2011?
A1: world population increased from 2.5 billion to 7 billion
Q2: What year started the increase of population to 7 billion?
A2: From 1950
Q3: What is the forecast plateau that the population will reach during the 21st century?
A3: more than 9 billion
Q4: Who is the former chief scientific adviser to the UK government?
A4: Sir David King
The control of associated biodiversity is one of the great agricultural challenges that farmers face. On monoculture farms, the approach is generally to eradicate associated diversity using a suite of biologically destructive pesticides, mechanized tools and transgenic engineering techniques, then to rotate crops. Although some polyculture farmers use the same techniques, they also employ integrated pest management strategies as well as strategies that are more labor-intensive, but generally less dependent on capital, biotechnology and energy.

Q1: What farms use biologically destructive pesticides
A1: monoculture farms
Q2: What is one of the great agricultural challenges that farmers face?
A2: The control of associated biodiversity
Q3: What farmers use integrated pest management strategies?
A3: polyculture farmers
Q4: What farmers are generally less dependent on capital, biotechnology and energy?
A4: polyculture farmers
National park and nature reserve is the area selected by governments or private organizations for special protection against damage or degradation with the objective of biodiversity and landscape conservation. National parks are usually owned and managed by national or state governments. A limit is placed on the number of visitors permitted to enter certain fragile areas. Designated trails or roads are created. The visitors are allowed to enter only for study, cultural and recreation purposes. Forestry operations, grazing of animals and hunting of animals are prohibited. Exploitation of habitat or wildlife is banned.

Q1: What types of parks receive special protection against damage or degradation?
A1: National park and nature reserve
Q2: Who selects National parks?
A2: governments or private organizations
Q3: What is the goal of protecting National Parks from damage?
A3: with the objective of biodiversity and landscape conservation
Q4: Who usually owns and manages National parks?
A4: national or state governments
Q5: What activities are prohibited in national parks?
A5: Forestry operations, grazing of animals and hunting of animals
During the last century, decreases in biodiversity have been increasingly observed. In 2007, German Federal Environment Minister Sigmar Gabriel cited estimates that up to 30% of all species will be extinct by 2050. Of these, about one eighth of known plant species are threatened with extinction. Estimates reach as high as 140,000 species per year (based on Species-area theory). This figure indicates unsustainable ecological practices, because few species emerge each year.[citation needed] Almost all scientists acknowledge that the rate of species loss is greater now than at any time in human history, with extinctions occurring at rates hundreds of times higher than background extinction rates. As of 2012, some studies suggest that 25% of all mammal species could be extinct in 20 years.

Q1: Who is the German Federal Environment Minister?
A1: Sigmar Gabriel
Q2: What year did Gabriel estimate 30% of of all species will be extinct by?
A2: 2050
Q3: How many plant species are close to extinction?
A3: about one eighth
Q4: 2012 studies estimated what percentage of mammals could be extinct in 20 years?
A4: 25%
Habitat size and numbers of species are systematically related. Physically larger species and those living at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area. Conversion to "trivial" standardized ecosystems (e.g., monoculture following deforestation) effectively destroys habitat for the more diverse species that preceded the conversion. In some countries lack of property rights or lax law/regulatory enforcement necessarily leads to biodiversity loss (degradation costs having to be supported by the community).[citation needed]

Q1: What is systematically related to the numbers of species?
A1: Habitat size
Q2: What animals are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area?
A2: Physically larger species and those living at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans
Q3: How is a standardized ecosystem formed?
A3: monoculture following deforestation
Q4: What leads to biodiversity loss is some countries?
A4: lack of property rights or lax law/regulatory enforcement
Not all introduced species are invasive, nor all invasive species deliberately introduced. In cases such as the zebra mussel, invasion of US waterways was unintentional. In other cases, such as mongooses in Hawaii, the introduction is deliberate but ineffective (nocturnal rats were not vulnerable to the diurnal mongoose). In other cases, such as oil palms in Indonesia and Malaysia, the introduction produces substantial economic benefits, but the benefits are accompanied by costly unintended consequences.

Q1: What animal unintentionally invaded the US waterways?
A1: the zebra mussel
Q2: What animal intentionally invaded Hawaii?
A2: mongooses
Q3: What animals were not vulnerable to the mongoose?
A3: nocturnal rats
Q4: What countries experienced unintended consequences from species invasion?
A4: Indonesia and Malaysia,
Less than 1% of all species that have been described have been studied beyond simply noting their existence. The vast majority of Earth's species are microbial. Contemporary biodiversity physics is "firmly fixated on the visible [macroscopic] world". For example, microbial life is metabolically and environmentally more diverse than multicellular life (see e.g., extremophile). "On the tree of life, based on analyses of small-subunit ribosomal RNA, visible life consists of barely noticeable twigs. The inverse relationship of size and population recurs higher on the evolutionary ladder—"to a first approximation, all multicellular species on Earth are insects". Insect extinction rates are high—supporting the Holocene extinction hypothesis.

Q1: What type of science is firmly fixated on the visible world?
A1: Contemporary biodiversity physics
Q2: What type of life is more metabolically diverse than multicellular life?
A2: microbial life
Q3: What type of life is more enviromentally diverse than multicellular life?
A3: microbial life
Q4: What rate supports the Holocene extinction hypothesis?
A4: Insect extinction rates
The number and variety of plants, animals and other organisms that exist is known as biodiversity. It is an essential component of nature and it ensures the survival of human species by providing food, fuel, shelter, medicines and other resources to mankind. The richness of biodiversity depends on the climatic conditions and area of the region. All species of plants taken together are known as flora and about 70,000 species of plants are known till date. All species of animals taken together are known as fauna which includes birds, mammals, fish, reptiles, insects, crustaceans, molluscs, etc.

Q1: What term describes the number and variety of plants, animals and other organisms in existence?
A1: biodiversity
Q2: What ensures the survival of human species by providing food, shelter, other resources to mankind?
A2: biodiversity
Q3: What influences richness of biodiversity?
A3: the climatic conditions and area of the region
Q4: What term describes all the species of plants in existence?
A4: flora
The term biological diversity was used first by wildlife scientist and conservationist Raymond F. Dasmann in the year 1968 lay book A Different Kind of Country advocating conservation. The term was widely adopted only after more than a decade, when in the 1980s it came into common usage in science and environmental policy. Thomas Lovejoy, in the foreword to the book Conservation Biology, introduced the term to the scientific community. Until then the term "natural diversity" was common, introduced by The Science Division of The Nature Conservancy in an important 1975 study, "The Preservation of Natural Diversity." By the early 1980s TNC's Science program and its head, Robert E. Jenkins, Lovejoy and other leading conservation scientists at the time in America advocated the use of the term "biological diversity".

Q1: Which scientist first used the term biological diversity?
A1: Raymond F. Dasmann
Q2: What book first contained the term biological diversity?
A2: A Different Kind of Country
Q3: What decade did the term biological diversity become common usage in science and economics?
A3: the 1980s
Q4: Who introduced the term biological diversity to the scientific community?
A4: Thomas Lovejoy
Q5: What term was common before biological diversity?
A5: "natural diversity"
Biodiversity provides critical support for drug discovery and the availability of medicinal resources. A significant proportion of drugs are derived, directly or indirectly, from biological sources: at least 50% of the pharmaceutical compounds on the US market are derived from plants, animals, and micro-organisms, while about 80% of the world population depends on medicines from nature (used in either modern or traditional medical practice) for primary healthcare. Only a tiny fraction of wild species has been investigated for medical potential. Biodiversity has been critical to advances throughout the field of bionics. Evidence from market analysis and biodiversity science indicates that the decline in output from the pharmaceutical sector since the mid-1980s can be attributed to a move away from natural product exploration ("bioprospecting") in favor of genomics and synthetic chemistry, indeed claims about the value of undiscovered pharmaceuticals may not provide enough incentive for companies in free markets to search for them because of the high cost of development; meanwhile, natural products have a long history of supporting significant economic and health innovation. Marine ecosystems are particularly important, although inappropriate bioprospecting can increase biodiversity loss, as well as violating the laws of the communities and states from which the resources are taken.

Q1: What provides critical support for drug discovery and the availability of medicinal resources?
A1: Biodiversity
Q2: What percentage of US drugs are derived from plants, animals, and micro-organisms?
A2: at least 50%
Q3: What field has biodiversity made critical advances in?
A3: bionics
Q4: What percentage of worldwide drugs are derived from nature?
A4: about 80%
In agriculture and animal husbandry, the Green Revolution popularized the use of conventional hybridization to increase yield. Often hybridized breeds originated in developed countries and were further hybridized with local varieties in the developing world to create high yield strains resistant to local climate and diseases. Local governments and industry have been pushing hybridization. Formerly huge gene pools of various wild and indigenous breeds have collapsed causing widespread genetic erosion and genetic pollution. This has resulted in loss of genetic diversity and biodiversity as a whole.

Q1: What popularized the use of conventional hybridization to increase yield?
A1: the Green Revolution
Q2: What did the high yield strains become resistant to?
A2: local climate and diseases
Q3: Who has been pushing for hybridization?
A3: Local governments and industry
Q4: What caused the loss of biodiversity?
A4: Formerly huge gene pools of various wild and indigenous breeds have collapsed causing widespread genetic erosion
Originally based on the English alphabet, ASCII encodes 128 specified characters into seven-bit integers as shown by the ASCII chart on the right. The characters encoded are numbers 0 to 9, lowercase letters a to z, uppercase letters A to Z, basic punctuation symbols, control codes that originated with Teletype machines, and a space. For example, lowercase j would become binary 1101010 and decimal 106. ASCII includes definitions for 128 characters: 33 are non-printing control characters (many now obsolete) that affect how text and space are processed and 95 printable characters, including the space (which is considered an invisible graphic:223).

Q1: What is the ASCII based on?
A1: English alphabet
Q2: How many specific characters are there in the ASCII code?
A2: 128 specified characters
Q3: How many are non-printing control characters?
A3: 33 are non-printing control characters
Q4: How many characters are printable characters?
A4: 95 printable characters
Q5: What is the space also known as what?
A5: invisible graphic:223
The code itself was patterned so that most control codes were together, and all graphic codes were together, for ease of identification. The first two columns (32 positions) were reserved for control characters.:220, 236 § 8,9) The "space" character had to come before graphics to make sorting easier, so it became position 20hex;:237 § 10 for the same reason, many special signs commonly used as separators were placed before digits. The committee decided it was important to support uppercase 64-character alphabets, and chose to pattern ASCII so it could be reduced easily to a usable 64-character set of graphic codes,:228, 237 § 14 as was done in the DEC SIXBIT code. Lowercase letters were therefore not interleaved with uppercase. To keep options available for lowercase letters and other graphics, the special and numeric codes were arranged before the letters, and the letter A was placed in position 41hex to match the draft of the corresponding British standard.:238 § 18 The digits 0–9 were arranged so they correspond to values in binary prefixed with 011, making conversion with binary-coded decimal straightforward.

Q1: Why was the code patterned so that most codes were together?
A1: for ease of identification
Q2: How many positions are in the first two columns?
A2: 32 positions
Q3: What did the committee decide was important?
A3: to support uppercase 64-character alphabets
Q4: Where was the letter A places in position?
A4: 41hex
ASCII was incorporated into the Unicode character set as the first 128 symbols, so the 7-bit ASCII characters have the same numeric codes in both sets. This allows UTF-8 to be backward compatible with 7-bit ASCII, as a UTF-8 file containing only ASCII characters is identical to an ASCII file containing the same sequence of characters. Even more importantly, forward compatibility is ensured as software that recognizes only 7-bit ASCII characters as special and does not alter bytes with the highest bit set (as is often done to support 8-bit ASCII extensions such as ISO-8859-1) will preserve UTF-8 data unchanged.

Q1: ASCII was incorporated into what other character set?
A1: Unicode
Q2: How many of the symbols are the same in the beginning of the ASCII and Unicode?
A2: 128 symbols
Q3: What set is backward compatible with 7-bit ASCII?
A3: UTF-8
When a Teletype 33 ASR equipped with the automatic paper tape reader received a Control-S (XOFF, an abbreviation for transmit off), it caused the tape reader to stop; receiving Control-Q (XON, "transmit on") caused the tape reader to resume. This technique became adopted by several early computer operating systems as a "handshaking" signal warning a sender to stop transmission because of impending overflow; it persists to this day in many systems as a manual output control technique. On some systems Control-S retains its meaning but Control-Q is replaced by a second Control-S to resume output. The 33 ASR also could be configured to employ Control-R (DC2) and Control-T (DC4) to start and stop the tape punch; on some units equipped with this function, the corresponding control character lettering on the keycap above the letter was TAPE and TAPE respectively.

Q1: What casued the automatic paper tape reader to stop?
A1: a Control-S
Q2: What caused the automatic paper tape reader to start again?
A2: Control-Q
Q3: What was the warning signal called that warned the sender that there was impending overflow?
A3: handshaking
Q4: What two controls can be configured with 33 ASR?
A4: Control-R (DC2) and Control-T (DC4)
DEC operating systems (OS/8, RT-11, RSX-11, RSTS, TOPS-10, etc.) used both characters to mark the end of a line so that the console device (originally Teletype machines) would work. By the time so-called "glass TTYs" (later called CRTs or terminals) came along, the convention was so well established that backward compatibility necessitated continuing the convention. When Gary Kildall cloned RT-11 to create CP/M he followed established DEC convention. Until the introduction of PC DOS in 1981, IBM had no hand in this because their 1970s operating systems used EBCDIC instead of ASCII and they were oriented toward punch-card input and line printer output on which the concept of carriage return was meaningless. IBM's PC DOS (also marketed as MS-DOS by Microsoft) inherited the convention by virtue of being a clone of CP/M, and Windows inherited it from MS-DOS.

Q1: What are glass TTYs also known as?
A1: CRTs or terminals
Q2: What did Gary Kildall clone to create CP/M?
A2: RT-11
Q3: When was the introduction of PC DOS?
A3: 1981
Q4: What programming did IBM use in the 1970s?
A4: EBCDIC
Q5: What was IBM's PC DOS marketed as by Microsoft?
A5: MS-DOS