romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
In eastern Pennsylvania the Great Appalachian Valley, or Great Valley, was accessible by reason of a broad gateway between the end of South Mountain and the Highlands, and many Germans and Moravians settled here between the Susquehanna and Delaware Rivers forming the Pennsylvania Dutch community, some of whom even now speak a unique American dialect of German known as the "Pennsylvania German language" or "Pennsylvania Dutch." These latecomers to the New World were forced to the frontier to find cheap land. With their followers of both German, English and Scots-Irish origin, they worked their way southward and soon occupied all of the Shenandoah Valley, ceded by the Iroquois, and the upper reaches of the Great Valley tributaries of the Tennessee River, ceded by the Cherokee.

Q1: Where did a lot of Germans settle?
A1: between the Susquehanna and Delaware Rivers
Q2: What dialect was created because of this?
A2: Pennsylvania German language
Q3: Where did these Germans eventually occupy?
A3: all of the Shenandoah Valley
Characteristic birds of the forest are wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris), ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), mourning dove (Zenaida macroura), common raven (Corvus corax), wood duck (Aix sponsa), great horned owl (Bubo virginianus), barred owl (Strix varia), screech owl (Megascops asio), red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus), and northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis), as well as a great variety of "songbirds" (Passeriformes), like the warblers in particular.

Q1: What is one typical bird found in the range?
A1: wild turkey
Animals that characterize the Appalachian forests include five species of tree squirrels. The most commonly seen is the low to moderate elevation eastern gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis). Occupying similar habitat is the slightly larger fox squirrel (Sciurus niger) and the much smaller southern flying squirrel (Glaucomys volans). More characteristic of cooler northern and high elevation habitat is the red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus), whereas the Appalachian northern flying squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus fuscus), which closely resembles the southern flying squirrel, is confined to northern hardwood and spruce-fir forests.

Q1: How many species of tree squirrel are commonly found in the range?
A1: five species
Q2: What is the most commonly seen species?
A2: gray squirrel
Q3: What does the squirrel share its habitat with?
A3: larger fox squirrel
Q4: What is found more in the northern portions?
A4: red squirrel
Q5: Which species is commonly found more in spruce-fir forests?
A5: Appalachian northern flying squirrel
Dryer and rockier uplands and ridges are occupied by oak-chestnut type forests dominated by a variety of oaks (Quercus spp.), hickories (Carya spp.) and, in the past, by the American chestnut (Castanea dentata). The American chestnut was virtually eliminated as a canopy species by the introduced fungal chestnut blight (Cryphonectaria parasitica), but lives on as sapling-sized sprouts that originate from roots, which are not killed by the fungus. In present-day forest canopies chestnut has been largely replaced by oaks.

Q1: What trees are typically found in the dryer portions?
A1: oak
Q2: What species of tree was pretty much eliminated?
A2: The American chestnut
Q3: What does the tree live on?
A3: sapling-sized sprouts
Q4: What trees replaced chestnut trees?
A4: oaks
The oak forests of the southern and central Appalachians consist largely of black, northern red, white, chestnut and scarlet oaks (Quercus velutina, Q. rubra, Q. alba, Q. prinus and Q. coccinea) and hickories, such as the pignut (Carya glabra) in particular. The richest forests, which grade into mesic types, usually in coves and on gentle slopes, have dominantly white and northern red oaks, while the driest sites are dominated by chestnut oak, or sometimes by scarlet or northern red oaks. In the northern Appalachians the oaks, except for white and northern red, drop out, while the latter extends farthest north.

Q1: What kind of oaks are in the central and southern portions?
A1: black, northern red, white, chestnut and scarlet oaks
Q2: What other tree is common there?
A2: hickories
Q3: What trees are located in drier portions?
A3: chestnut oak
In physics, energy is a property of objects which can be transferred to other objects or converted into different forms. The "ability of a system to perform work" is a common description, but it is difficult to give one single comprehensive definition of energy because of its many forms. For instance, in SI units, energy is measured in joules, and one joule is defined "mechanically", being the energy transferred to an object by the mechanical work of moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 newton.[note 1] However, there are many other definitions of energy, depending on the context, such as thermal energy, radiant energy, electromagnetic, nuclear, etc., where definitions are derived that are the most convenient.

Q1: What is a property of objects which can be transferred to other objects or converted into different forms?
A1: energy
Q2: In SI units, energy is measured in what measurement?
A2: joules
Q3: Mechanically, one joule is defined as what?
A3: the energy transferred to an object by the mechanical work of moving it a distance of 1 metre against a force of 1 newton
Common energy forms include the kinetic energy of a moving object, the potential energy stored by an object's position in a force field (gravitational, electric or magnetic), the elastic energy stored by stretching solid objects, the chemical energy released when a fuel burns, the radiant energy carried by light, and the thermal energy due to an object's temperature. All of the many forms of energy are convertible to other kinds of energy. In Newtonian physics, there is a universal law of conservation of energy which says that energy can be neither created nor be destroyed; however, it can change from one form to another.

Q1: Common energy forms include what?
A1: kinetic energy of a moving object
Q2: In Newtonian physics, there is a universal law that says energy can be neither created nor what?
A2: destroyed
Q3: What law states, in part, that energy can change from one form to another?
A3: Newtonian physics
For "closed systems" with no external source or sink of energy, the first law of thermodynamics states that a system's energy is constant unless energy is transferred in or out by mechanical work or heat, and that no energy is lost in transfer. This means that it is impossible to create or destroy energy. While heat can always be fully converted into work in a reversible isothermal expansion of an ideal gas, for cyclic processes of practical interest in heat engines the second law of thermodynamics states that the system doing work always loses some energy as waste heat. This creates a limit to the amount of heat energy that can do work in a cyclic process, a limit called the available energy. Mechanical and other forms of energy can be transformed in the other direction into thermal energy without such limitations. The total energy of a system can be calculated by adding up all forms of energy in the system.

Q1: How can the total energy of a system be calculated?
A1: by adding up all forms of energy in the system
Q2: The limit to the amount of heat energy that can do work in a cyclic process is known as what?
A2: available energy
Q3: What can be fully converted into work in a reversible isothermal expansion of an ideal gas?
A3: heat
Q4: What states that the system doing work always loses some energy as waste heat?
A4: second law of thermodynamics
Examples of energy transformation include generating electric energy from heat energy via a steam turbine, or lifting an object against gravity using electrical energy driving a crane motor. Lifting against gravity performs mechanical work on the object and stores gravitational potential energy in the object. If the object falls to the ground, gravity does mechanical work on the object which transforms the potential energy in the gravitational field to the kinetic energy released as heat on impact with the ground. Our Sun transforms nuclear potential energy to other forms of energy; its total mass does not decrease due to that in itself (since it still contains the same total energy even if in different forms), but its mass does decrease when the energy escapes out to its surroundings, largely as radiant energy.

Q1: Give one example of energy transformation.
A1: generating electric energy from heat energy via a steam turbine
Q2: What transforms nuclear potential energy to other forms of energy?
A2: Sun
Q3: What is another example of energy transformation?
A3: lifting an object against gravity using electrical energy driving a crane motor
The total energy of a system can be subdivided and classified in various ways. For example, classical mechanics distinguishes between kinetic energy, which is determined by an object's movement through space, and potential energy, which is a function of the position of an object within a field. It may also be convenient to distinguish gravitational energy, thermal energy, several types of nuclear energy (which utilize potentials from the nuclear force and the weak force), electric energy (from the electric field), and magnetic energy (from the magnetic field), among others. Many of these classifications overlap; for instance, thermal energy usually consists partly of kinetic and partly of potential energy.

Q1: What is determined by an object's movement through space?
A1: kinetic energy
Q2: What usually consists partly of kinetic and partly of potential energy?
A2: thermal energy
Q3: What is a function of the position of an object within a field?
A3: potential energy
Some types of energy are a varying mix of both potential and kinetic energy. An example is mechanical energy which is the sum of (usually macroscopic) kinetic and potential energy in a system. Elastic energy in materials is also dependent upon electrical potential energy (among atoms and molecules), as is chemical energy, which is stored and released from a reservoir of electrical potential energy between electrons, and the molecules or atomic nuclei that attract them.[need quotation to verify].The list is also not necessarily complete. Whenever physical scientists discover that a certain phenomenon appears to violate the law of energy conservation, new forms are typically added that account for the discrepancy.

Q1: What is dependent upon electrical potential energy?
A1: Elastic energy in materials
Q2: Where is chemical energy stored and released?
A2: from a reservoir of electrical potential energy between electrons
Q3: Some types of energy are a varying mix of potential and what other kind of energy?
A3: kinetic
In the late 17th century, Gottfried Leibniz proposed the idea of the Latin: vis viva, or living force, which defined as the product of the mass of an object and its velocity squared; he believed that total vis viva was conserved. To account for slowing due to friction, Leibniz theorized that thermal energy consisted of the random motion of the constituent parts of matter, a view shared by Isaac Newton, although it would be more than a century until this was generally accepted. The modern analog of this property, kinetic energy, differs from vis viva only by a factor of two.

Q1: What is a term for living force?
A1: vis viva
Q2: What is defined as the product of mass of an object and its velocity squared?
A2: vis viva
Q3: Who proposed the idea of the Latin: vis viva?
A3: Gottfried Leibniz
Q4: In what century did Leibniz propose the idea of Latin: vis viva?
A4: late 17th century
Q5: Who shared Leibniz's view that thermal energy consisted of random motion of the constituent parts of matter?
A5: Isaac Newton
In 1807, Thomas Young was possibly the first to use the term "energy" instead of vis viva, in its modern sense. Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis described "kinetic energy" in 1829 in its modern sense, and in 1853, William Rankine coined the term "potential energy". The law of conservation of energy was also first postulated in the early 19th century, and applies to any isolated system. It was argued for some years whether heat was a physical substance, dubbed the caloric, or merely a physical quantity, such as momentum. In 1845 James Prescott Joule discovered the link between mechanical work and the generation of heat.

Q1: Who was possibly the first to use the term "energy" instead of vis viva?
A1: Thomas Young
Q2: When did Thomas Young use the term "energy" instead of vis viva?
A2: 1807
Q3: Who coined the term "potential energy?"
A3: William Rankine
Q4: Who discovered the link between mechanical work and the generation of heat?
A4: James Prescott Joule
Q5: When was the law of conservation of energy first postulated?
A5: 19th century
These developments led to the theory of conservation of energy, formalized largely by William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) as the field of thermodynamics. Thermodynamics aided the rapid development of explanations of chemical processes by Rudolf Clausius, Josiah Willard Gibbs, and Walther Nernst. It also led to a mathematical formulation of the concept of entropy by Clausius and to the introduction of laws of radiant energy by Jožef Stefan. According to Noether's theorem, the conservation of energy is a consequence of the fact that the laws of physics do not change over time. Thus, since 1918, theorists have understood that the law of conservation of energy is the direct mathematical consequence of the translational symmetry of the quantity conjugate to energy, namely time.

Q1: Who largely formalized the developments that led to the theory of conservation of energy?
A1: William Thomson
Q2: What aided the rapid development of explanations of chemical processes by Clausius, Gibbs and Nernst?
A2: Thermodynamics
Q3: Who developed the concept of the introduction of laws of radiant energy?
A3: Jožef Stefan
Q4: What states that the conservation of energy is a consequence of the fact that the laws of physics do not change over time?
A4: Noether's theorem
Another energy-related concept is called the Lagrangian, after Joseph-Louis Lagrange. This formalism is as fundamental as the Hamiltonian, and both can be used to derive the equations of motion or be derived from them. It was invented in the context of classical mechanics, but is generally useful in modern physics. The Lagrangian is defined as the kinetic energy minus the potential energy. Usually, the Lagrange formalism is mathematically more convenient than the Hamiltonian for non-conservative systems (such as systems with friction).

Q1: What is another energy-related concept?
A1: Lagrangian
Q2: Who is the Lagrangian named after?
A2: Joseph-Louis Lagrange
Q3: What is defined as the kinetic energy minus the potential energy?
A3: Lagrangian
Q4: Is the Lagrange formalism or the Hamiltonian more convenient for non-conservative systems?
A4: Lagrange formalism
Noether's theorem (1918) states that any differentiable symmetry of the action of a physical system has a corresponding conservation law. Noether's theorem has become a fundamental tool of modern theoretical physics and the calculus of variations. A generalisation of the seminal formulations on constants of motion in Lagrangian and Hamiltonian mechanics (1788 and 1833, respectively), it does not apply to systems that cannot be modeled with a Lagrangian; for example, dissipative systems with continuous symmetries need not have a corresponding conservation law.

Q1: When was Noether's theorem created?
A1: 1918
Q2: What states that any differentiable symmetry of the action of a physical system has a corresponding conservation law?
A2: Noether's theorem
Q3: What has become a fundamental tool of modern theoretical physics and the calculus of variations?
A3: Noether's theorem
In the context of chemistry, energy is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of its atomic, molecular or aggregate structure. Since a chemical transformation is accompanied by a change in one or more of these kinds of structure, it is invariably accompanied by an increase or decrease of energy of the substances involved. Some energy is transferred between the surroundings and the reactants of the reaction in the form of heat or light; thus the products of a reaction may have more or less energy than the reactants. A reaction is said to be exergonic if the final state is lower on the energy scale than the initial state; in the case of endergonic reactions the situation is the reverse. Chemical reactions are invariably not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the activation energy. The speed of a chemical reaction (at given temperature T) is related to the activation energy E, by the Boltzmann's population factor e−E/kT – that is the probability of molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T. This exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature is known as the Arrhenius equation.The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction can be in the form of thermal energy.

Q1: In the context of chemistry, what is an attribute of a substance as a consequence of it's atomic, molecular or aggregate structure?
A1: energy
Q2: What is not possible unless the reactants surmount an energy barrier known as the activation energy?
A2: Chemical reactions
Q3: What is the probability of molecule to have energy greater than or equal to E at the given temperature T?
A3: e−E/kT
Q4: Who created the population factor e-E/kT?
A4: Boltzmann's
Q5: What is the exponential dependence of a reaction rate on temperature?
A5: Arrhenius equation
In biology, energy is an attribute of all biological systems from the biosphere to the smallest living organism. Within an organism it is responsible for growth and development of a biological cell or an organelle of a biological organism. Energy is thus often said to be stored by cells in the structures of molecules of substances such as carbohydrates (including sugars), lipids, and proteins, which release energy when reacted with oxygen in respiration. In human terms, the human equivalent (H-e) (Human energy conversion) indicates, for a given amount of energy expenditure, the relative quantity of energy needed for human metabolism, assuming an average human energy expenditure of 12,500 kJ per day and a basal metabolic rate of 80 watts. For example, if our bodies run (on average) at 80 watts, then a light bulb running at 100 watts is running at 1.25 human equivalents (100 ÷ 80) i.e. 1.25 H-e. For a difficult task of only a few seconds' duration, a person can put out thousands of watts, many times the 746 watts in one official horsepower. For tasks lasting a few minutes, a fit human can generate perhaps 1,000 watts. For an activity that must be sustained for an hour, output drops to around 300; for an activity kept up all day, 150 watts is about the maximum. The human equivalent assists understanding of energy flows in physical and biological systems by expressing energy units in human terms: it provides a "feel" for the use of a given amount of energy.

Q1: In biology, what is an attribute of all biological systems from the biosphere to the smallest living organism?
A1: energy
Q2: What is often said to be stored by cells in the structures of molecules of substances such as carbohydrates, lipids and proteins?
A2: Energy
Q3: What does H-e stand for?
A3: Human energy conversion
Q4: How many watts is in one official horsepower?
A4: 746 watts
Sunlight is also captured by plants as chemical potential energy in photosynthesis, when carbon dioxide and water (two low-energy compounds) are converted into the high-energy compounds carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Plants also release oxygen during photosynthesis, which is utilized by living organisms as an electron acceptor, to release the energy of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Release of the energy stored during photosynthesis as heat or light may be triggered suddenly by a spark, in a forest fire, or it may be made available more slowly for animal or human metabolism, when these molecules are ingested, and catabolism is triggered by enzyme action.

Q1: What is also captured by plants as chemical potential energy in photosynthesis?
A1: Sunlight
Q2: What do plants release during photosynthesis?
A2: oxygen
Q3: What may be triggered suddenly by a spark?
A3: Release of the energy stored during photosynthesis
Q4: What are two low-energy compounds?
A4: carbon dioxide and water
Any living organism relies on an external source of energy—radiation from the Sun in the case of green plants, chemical energy in some form in the case of animals—to be able to grow and reproduce. The daily 1500–2000 Calories (6–8 MJ) recommended for a human adult are taken as a combination of oxygen and food molecules, the latter mostly carbohydrates and fats, of which glucose (C6H12O6) and stearin (C57H110O6) are convenient examples. The food molecules are oxidised to carbon dioxide and water in the mitochondria

Q1: What does any living organism rely on to be able to grow and reproduce?
A1: an external source of energy
Q2: How many daily calories are recommended for a human adult?
A2: 1500–2000
Q3: Where are food molecules oxidised to carbon dioxide and water?
A3: mitochondria
It would appear that living organisms are remarkably inefficient (in the physical sense) in their use of the energy they receive (chemical energy or radiation), and it is true that most real machines manage higher efficiencies. In growing organisms the energy that is converted to heat serves a vital purpose, as it allows the organism tissue to be highly ordered with regard to the molecules it is built from. The second law of thermodynamics states that energy (and matter) tends to become more evenly spread out across the universe: to concentrate energy (or matter) in one specific place, it is necessary to spread out a greater amount of energy (as heat) across the remainder of the universe ("the surroundings").[note 3] Simpler organisms can achieve higher energy efficiencies than more complex ones, but the complex organisms can occupy ecological niches that are not available to their simpler brethren. The conversion of a portion of the chemical energy to heat at each step in a metabolic pathway is the physical reason behind the pyramid of biomass observed in ecology: to take just the first step in the food chain, of the estimated 124.7 Pg/a of carbon that is fixed by photosynthesis, 64.3 Pg/a (52%) are used for the metabolism of green plants, i.e. reconverted into carbon dioxide and heat.

Q1: What states that energy tends to become more evenly spread out across the universe?
A1: The second law of thermodynamics
Q2: What are remarkably inefficient in their use of the energy they receive?
A2: living organisms
Q3: Complex organisms can occupy this, that are not available to their simpler brethern?
A3: ecological niches
Sunlight may be stored as gravitational potential energy after it strikes the Earth, as (for example) water evaporates from oceans and is deposited upon mountains (where, after being released at a hydroelectric dam, it can be used to drive turbines or generators to produce electricity). Sunlight also drives many weather phenomena, save those generated by volcanic events. An example of a solar-mediated weather event is a hurricane, which occurs when large unstable areas of warm ocean, heated over months, give up some of their thermal energy suddenly to power a few days of violent air movement.

Q1: This drives many weather phenomena, save those generated by volcanic events.
A1: Sunlight
Q2: When may sunlight be stored as gravitational potential energy?
A2: after it strikes the Earth
Q3: What is an example of a solar-mediated weather event?
A3: hurricane
Q4: What occurs when large unstable areas of warm ocean, heated over months, give up some of their thermal energy suddenly to power a few days of violent air movement?
A4: hurricane