romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
The northern group consists of the keskmurre or central dialect that is also the basis for the standard language, the läänemurre or western dialect, roughly corresponding to Läänemaa and Pärnumaa, the saarte murre (islands') dialect of Saaremaa and Hiiumaa and the idamurre or eastern dialect on the northwestern shore of Lake Peipsi.

Q1: What dialect is also known as the central dialect?
A1: the keskmurre
Q2: What is the dialect from Lake Peipsi?
A2: the idamurre or eastern dialect
Q3: What dialects of the northern group are spoken on the saarte murre?
A3: Saaremaa and Hiiumaa
Q4: What is another name for Estonian's northern group's western dialect?
A4: the läänemurre
The southern group (South Estonian language) consists of the Tartu, Mulgi, Võru (Võro) and Setu (Seto) dialects. These are sometimes considered either variants of a South Estonian language, or separate languages altogether. Also, Seto and Võro distinguish themselves from each other less by language and more by their culture and their respective Christian confession.

Q1: What dialects comprise the southern group?
A1: the Tartu, Mulgi, Võru (Võro) and Setu (Seto) dialects
Q2: More importantly than their language aspect how do the Seto and Võro dialects set themselves apart from each other?
A2: their culture
Q3: Aside from being thought of as variants of Estonian's southern group what else are the Tartu, Mulgi, Võru (Võro) and Setu (Seto) dialects sometimes considered?
A3: separate languages altogether
Q4: What religion is associated with Seto and Võro?
A4: Christian
Like Finnish, Estonian employs the Latin script as the basis for its alphabet, which adds the letters ä, ö, ü, and õ, plus the later additions š and ž. The letters c, q, w, x and y are limited to proper names of foreign origin, and f, z, š, and ž appear in loanwords and foreign names only. Ö and ü are pronounced similarly to their equivalents in Swedish and German. Unlike in standard German but like Finnish and Swedish (when followed by 'r'), Ä is pronounced [æ], as in English mat. The vowels Ä, Ö and Ü are clearly separate phonemes and inherent in Estonian, although the letter shapes come from German. The letter õ denotes /ɤ/, unrounded /o/, or a close-mid back unrounded vowel. It is almost identical to the Bulgarian ъ /ɤ̞/ and the Vietnamese ơ, and is used to transcribe the Russian ы.

Q1: From what script does the Estonian language get its alphabet?
A1: Latin
Q2: What is another language that uses Latin for its alphabet?
A2: Finnish
Q3: In the Estonian language how is the letter A pronounced?
A3: [æ], as in English mat
Although the Estonian orthography is generally guided by phonemic principles, with each grapheme corresponding to one phoneme, there are some historical and morphological deviations from this: for example preservation of the morpheme in declension of the word (writing b, g, d in places where p, k, t is pronounced) and in the use of 'i' and 'j'.[clarification needed] Where it is very impractical or impossible to type š and ž, they are substituted with sh and zh in some written texts, although this is considered incorrect. Otherwise, the h in sh represents a voiceless glottal fricative, as in Pasha (pas-ha); this also applies to some foreign names.

Q1: What principles usually govern the Estonian orthography?
A1: phonemic principles
Q2: To how many phoneme's does each grapheme correspond?
A2: one
Q3: What type of deviations are there from the single phoneme to each grapheme general principle?
A3: some historical and morphological deviations
Q4: On what occasions are š and ž replaced with sh and zh?
A4: Where it is very impractical or impossible to type š and ž
Q5: What is an example of a word containing a voiceless glottal fricative?
A5: Pasha (pas-ha)
Modern Estonian orthography is based on the Newer Orthography created by Eduard Ahrens in the second half of the 19th century based on Finnish orthography. The Older Orthography it replaced was created in the 17th century by Bengt Gottfried Forselius and Johann Hornung based on standard German orthography. Earlier writing in Estonian had by and large used an ad hoc orthography based on Latin and Middle Low German orthography. Some influences of the standard German orthography — for example, writing 'W'/'w' instead of 'V'/'v' persisted well into the 1930s.

Q1:  In what Orthagraphy does Modern Estonian orthography have its basis?
A1: Newer Orthography
Q2: Who is responsible for the creation of the Newer Orthography?
A2: Eduard Ahrens
Q3: In what century was the Newer Orthography created?
A3: 19th century
Q4: Previous to the Newer Orthography what orthography was in place?
A4: Older Orthography
Q5: From what other country's orthography did the Older Orthography get its basis?
A5: standard German orthography
It should be noted that Estonian words and names quoted in international publications from Soviet sources are often back-transliterations from the Russian transliteration. Examples are the use of "ya" for "ä" (e.g. Pyarnu instead of Pärnu), "y" instead of "õ" (e.g., Pylva instead of Põlva) and "yu" instead of "ü" (e.g., Pyussi instead of Püssi). Even in the Encyclopædia Britannica one can find "ostrov Khiuma", where "ostrov" means "island" in Russian and "Khiuma" is back-transliteration from Russian instead of "Hiiumaa" (Hiiumaa > Хийума(а) > Khiuma).

Q1: In Soviet international publications what language's transliteration are Estonian words and names often back-transliterations from?
A1: Russian
Q2: What famous encyclopedia contains a Russian back-transliteration of Estonian?
A2: Encyclopædia Britannica
Q3: What is the Russian back-transliteration from Encyclopædia Britannica?
A3: "ostrov Khiuma"
Typologically, Estonian represents a transitional form from an agglutinating language to a fusional language. The canonical word order is SVO (subject–verb–object).

Q1: What is the typological form of Estonian?
A1: transitional
Q2: What is Estonian typologically transitioning from?
A2: an agglutinating language
Q3: What sort of form is Estonian transitioning into?
A3: a fusional language
Q4: How are words ordered in Estonian canonically?
A4: subject–verb–object
In Estonian, nouns and pronouns do not have grammatical gender, but nouns and adjectives decline in fourteen cases: nominative, genitive, partitive, illative, inessive, elative, allative, adessive, ablative, translative, terminative, essive, abessive, and comitative, with the case and number of the adjective(s) always agreeing with that of the noun (except in the terminative, essive, abessive and comitative, where there is agreement only for the number, the adjective being in the genitive form). Thus the illative for kollane maja ("a yellow house") is kollasesse majja ("into a yellow house"), but the terminative is kollase majani ("as far as a yellow house"). With respect to the Proto-Finnic language, elision has occurred; thus, the actual case marker may be absent, but the stem is changed, cf. maja – majja and the Pohjanmaa dialect of Finnish maja – majahan.

Q1: What language lacks gendered nouns and pronouns?
A1: Estonian
Q2: In the nominative, genitive, partitive, illative, inessive, elative, allative, adessive, ablative, translative cases what always agrees with the noun in number and case?
A2: adjectives
The direct object of the verb appears either in the accusative (for total objects) or in the partitive (for partial objects). The accusative coincides with the genitive in the singular and with nominative in the plural. Accusative vs. partitive case opposition of the object used with transitive verbs creates a telicity contrast, just as in Finnish. This is a rough equivalent of the perfective vs. imperfective aspect opposition.

Q1: What other language has a telicity contrast?
A1: Finnish
Q2: Aside from the accusative, where can the direct object of the verb be found?
A2: partitive
Q3: What is the accusative used for?
A3: total objects
The verbal system lacks a distinctive future tense (the present tense serves here) and features special forms to express an action performed by an undetermined subject (the "impersonal").

Q1: From what system is a distinctive future tense lacking?
A1: verbal system
Q2: What is used in place of the future tense?
A2: present tense
Q3: What does Estonian use to show actions performed by an undecided subject?
A3: special forms
Although the Estonian and Germanic languages are of very different origins, one can identify many similar words in Estonian and English, for example. This is primarily because the Estonian language has borrowed nearly one third of its vocabulary from Germanic languages, mainly from Low Saxon (Middle Low German) during the period of German rule, and High German (including standard German). The percentage of Low Saxon and High German loanwords can be estimated at 22–25 percent, with Low Saxon making up about 15 percent.[citation needed]

Q1: Close to 33 percent of Estonian's vocabulary belong to what group of languages?
A1: Germanic languages
Q2: What is the main Germanic language from which Estonia gets the Germanic portion of its vocabulary?
A2: Low Saxon
Q3: When did Low Saxon make its appearance as part of the Estonian language?
A3: during the period of German rule
Q4: From what other Germanic language does Estonian derive its vocabulary?
A4: High German
Q5: Standard German is part of what Germanic language?
A5: High German
Often 'b' & 'p' are interchangeable, for example 'baggage' becomes 'pagas', 'lob' (to throw) becomes 'loopima'. The initial letter 's' is often dropped, for example 'skool' becomes 'kool', 'stool' becomes 'tool'.

Q1: What two letters can be replaced with each other a lot of the time in Estonian?
A1: 'b' & 'p'
Q2: What happens in many cases when a word starts with an 's'?
A2: The initial letter 's' is often dropped
Q3: In an example of replacing 'b' with 'p' how is 'baggage' pronounced?
A3: pagas
Estonian language planners such as Ado Grenzstein (a journalist active in Estonia in the 1870s–90s) tried to use formation ex nihilo, Urschöpfung; i.e. they created new words out of nothing.

Q1: Who was the journalist who was also a language planner?
A1: Ado Grenzstein
Q2: In what years did Ado Grenzstein do journalism work in Estonia?
A2: 1870s–90s
Q3: What is another term for making up words from nothing?
A3: formation ex nihilo
Q4: Who in the course of their language planning attempted to use the formation ex nihilo technique?
A4: Ado Grenzstein
The most famous reformer of Estonian, Johannes Aavik (1880–1973), used creations ex nihilo (cf. ‘free constructions’, Tauli 1977), along with other sources of lexical enrichment such as derivations, compositions and loanwords (often from Finnish; cf. Saareste and Raun 1965: 76). In Aavik’s dictionary (1921), which lists approximately 4000 words, there are many words which were (allegedly) created ex nihilo, many of which are in common use today. Examples are

Q1: Of all of Estonian's language reformers who is the most well known?
A1: Johannes Aavik
Q2: What was the period of time in which Johannes Aavik was alive?
A2: 1880–1973
Q3: What is the technique Aavic used to create Estonian words out of nothing?
A3: creations ex nihilo
Q4: In what publication can examples of ex nihilo words be found?
A4: Aavik’s dictionary
Q5: How many words did Aavik put in his dictionary?
A5: approximately 4000
Many of the coinages that have been considered (often by Aavik himself) as words concocted ex nihilo could well have been influenced by foreign lexical items, for example words from Russian, German, French, Finnish, English and Swedish. Aavik had a broad classical education and knew Ancient Greek, Latin and French. Consider roim ‘crime’ versus English crime or taunima ‘to condemn, disapprove’ versus Finnish tuomita ‘to condemn, to judge’ (these Aavikisms appear in Aavik’s 1921 dictionary). These words might be better regarded as a peculiar manifestation of morpho-phonemic adaptation of a foreign lexical item.

Q1: What languages did Aavik know?
A1: Ancient Greek, Latin and French
Q2: When was Aavik's dictionary published?
A2: 1921
Q3: What is another term for words created by Aavik?
A3: Aavikisms
Q4: Instead of being created from nothing Aavik's ex nihilo terms are thought to actually possibly have been influenced by what?
A4: foreign lexical items
Paper is a thin material produced by pressing together moist fibres of cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets. It is a versatile material with many uses, including writing, printing, packaging, cleaning, and a number of industrial and construction processes.

Q1: What is a source for the particles in paper?
A1: wood
Q2: What is a common use for paper?
A2: writing
Q3: What is the last step in paper production?
A3: drying
The pulp papermaking process is said to have been developed in China during the early 2nd century AD, possibly as early as the year 105 A.D., by the Han court eunuch Cai Lun, although the earliest archaeological fragments of paper derive from the 2nd century BC in China. The modern pulp and paper industry is global, with China leading its production and the United States right behind it.

Q1: When was the pulp papermaking process developed?
A1: 2nd century AD
Q2: What country was the process developed in?
A2: China
Q3: What country is leading in production of paper?
A3: China
Q4: What country is the second largest produced of paper?
A4: United States
Q5: Which court eunuch was associated with the papermaking process?
A5: Cai Lun
The oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate precursor to modern paper, date to the 2nd century BC in China. The pulp papermaking process is ascribed to Cai Lun, a 2nd-century AD Han court eunuch. With paper as an effective substitute for silk in many applications, China could export silk in greater quantity, contributing to a Golden Age.

Q1: Who is credited with the papermaking process?
A1: Cai Lun
Q2: What material did paper replace upon its invention?
A2: silk
Q3: Which Age did the invention of the papermaking process contribute towards?
A3: Golden Age
Q4: What century is the first papermaking process attributed to?
A4: 2nd
Its knowledge and uses spread from China through the Middle East to medieval Europe in the 13th century, where the first water powered paper mills were built. Because of paper's introduction to the West through the city of Baghdad, it was first called bagdatikos. In the 19th century, industrial manufacture greatly lowered its cost, enabling mass exchange of information and contributing to significant cultural shifts. In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German F. G. Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres.

Q1: In what century did the papermaking process spread from China to Europe?
A1: 13th
Q2: Which middle eastern city did the papermaking process to Europe from?
A2: Baghdad
Q3: What name did the process take on in Baghdad?
A3: bagdatikos
Q4: In which century did the process become much cheaper than before?
A4: 19th
Q5: Which Canadian inventor helped F.G. Keller to develop their own process?
A5: Charles Fenerty
The word "paper" is etymologically derived from Latin papyrus, which comes from the Greek πάπυρος (papuros), the word for the Cyperus papyrus plant. Papyrus is a thick, paper-like material produced from the pith of the Cyperus papyrus plant, which was used in ancient Egypt and other Mediterranean cultures for writing before the introduction of paper into the Middle East and Europe. Although the word paper is etymologically derived from papyrus, the two are produced very differently and the development of the first is distinct from the development of the second. Papyrus is a lamination of natural plant fibres, while paper is manufactured from fibres whose properties have been changed by maceration.

Q1: What Latin word is paper derived from?
A1: Papyrus
Q2: What language is papyrus derived from?
A2: Greek
Q3: What process changes the properties of the fibres used in papermaking?
A3: maceration
Q4: What plant was used in Egypt to make papyrus?
A4: Cyperus
Q5: What part of the Cyperus plant was used in making papyrus?
A5: the pith
To make pulp from wood, a chemical pulping process separates lignin from cellulose fibres. This is accomplished by dissolving lignin in a cooking liquor, so that it may be washed from the cellulose; this preserves the length of the cellulose fibres. Paper made from chemical pulps are also known as wood-free papers–not to be confused with tree-free paper; this is because they do not contain lignin, which deteriorates over time. The pulp can also be bleached to produce white paper, but this consumes 5% of the fibres; chemical pulping processes are not used to make paper made from cotton, which is already 90% cellulose.

Q1: What is separated from the cellulose fibres?
A1: lignin
Q2: What type of paper is paper made from chemical pulps known as?
A2: wood-free
Q3: What percentage of fibres are wasted in the bleaching process?
A3: 5%
Q4: What percentage of cotton is cellulose?
A4: 90%
There are three main chemical pulping processes: the sulfite process dates back to the 1840s and it was the dominant method extent before the second world war. The kraft process, invented in the 1870s and first used in the 1890s, is now the most commonly practiced strategy, one of its advantages is the chemical reaction with lignin, that produces heat, which can be used to run a generator. Most pulping operations using the kraft process are net contributors to the electricity grid or use the electricity to run an adjacent paper mill. Another advantage is that this process recovers and reuses all inorganic chemical reagents. Soda pulping is another specialty process used to pulp straws, bagasse and hardwoods with high silicate content.

Q1: How many chemical pulping processes are there?
A1: three
Q2: What decade does the sulfite process date to?
A2: 1840s
Q3: What process is most commonly used?
A3: The kraft process
Q4: What is another process used to pulp straws with high silicate content?
A4: Soda pulping
There are two major mechanical pulps, the thermomechanical one (TMP) and groundwood pulp (GW). In the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into large steam heated refiners, where the chips are squeezed and converted to fibres between two steel discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones to be made into fibres. Mechanical pulping does not remove the lignin, so the yield is very high, >95%, however it causes the paper thus produced to turn yellow and become brittle over time. Mechanical pulps have rather short fibres, thus producing weak paper. Although large amounts of electrical energy are required to produce mechanical pulp, it costs less than the chemical kind.

Q1: Besides the thermomechanical process, what is a process used in pulping?
A1: groundwood pulp
Q2: What is the main ingredient in the groundwood process?
A2: debarked logs
Q3: What strength of paper is produced by mechanical pulps?
A3: weak
Recycled papers can be made from 100% recycled materials or blended with virgin pulp, although they are (generally) not as strong nor as bright as papers made from the latter.

Q1: Recylced papers can be made with what new type of pulp?
A1: virgin
Besides the fibres, pulps may contain fillers such as chalk or china clay, which improve its characteristics for printing or writing. Additives for sizing purposes may be mixed with it and/or applied to the paper web later in the manufacturing process; the purpose of such sizing is to establish the correct level of surface absorbency to suit ink or paint.

Q1: What type of clay improves the characteristics of the pulps used in papermaking?
A1: china clay
Q2: What is added for sizing purposes?
A2: Additives
Q3: What besides china clay is used as a filler?
A3: chalk
Pressing the sheet removes the water by force; once the water is forced from the sheet, a special kind of felt, which is not to be confused with the traditional one, is used to collect the water; whereas when making paper by hand, a blotter sheet is used instead.

Q1: How is the water removed by force from a sheet of paper?
A1: Pressing
Q2: What is used to collect the water expelled from pressing?
A2: felt
Q3: What is used to collect water when hand-making paper?
A3: blotter sheet
Q4: Besides a blotter sheet, what can be used to collect water?
A4: felt
Drying involves using air and/or heat to remove water from the paper sheets; in the earliest days of paper making this was done by hanging the sheets like laundry; in more modern times various forms of heated drying mechanisms are used. On the paper machine the most common is the steam heated can dryer. These can reach temperatures above 200 °F (93 °C) and are used in long sequences of more than 40 cans; where the heat produced by these can easily dry the paper to less than 6% moisture.

Q1: What is the main component of drying the paper?
A1: air
Q2: At what percentage moisture content is the papermaking process trying to achieve in the end?
A2: 6
Paper at this point is uncoated. Coated paper has a thin layer of material such as calcium carbonate or china clay applied to one or both sides in order to create a surface more suitable for high-resolution halftone screens. (Uncoated papers are rarely suitable for screens above 150 lpi.) Coated or uncoated papers may have their surfaces polished by calendering. Coated papers are divided into matte, semi-matte or silk, and gloss. Gloss papers give the highest optical density in the printed image.

Q1: Besides calcium, coated paper has a thin layer of what?
A1: china clay
Q2: What process is done to polish the surface of the paper?
A2: calendering
Q3: What is the shiniest type of coated paper?
A3: Gloss
Q4: What papers give the best optical density?
A4: Gloss
The paper is then fed onto reels if it is to be used on web printing presses, or cut into sheets for other printing processes or other purposes. The fibres in the paper basically run in the machine direction. Sheets are usually cut "long-grain", i.e. with the grain parallel to the longer dimension of the sheet.

Q1: What contraption is used to carry the paper to the web printing presses?
A1: reels
Q2: In what manner are sheets normally cut?
A2: long-grain
Q3: If the paper is not to be used in the web printing process, what is done?
A3: cut into sheets
All paper produced by paper machines as the Fourdrinier Machine are wove paper, i.e. the wire mesh that transports the web leaves a pattern that has the same density along the paper grain and across the grain. Textured finishes, watermarks and wire patterns imitating hand-made laid paper can be created by the use of appropriate rollers in the later stages of the machine.

Q1: What type of paper is produced on a machine like the Fourdrinier?
A1: wove paper
Q2: What is used to apply watermarks and other patterns?
A2: rollers
Q3: What is in common with the lentgh along and across the grain of paper produced by a machine such as the Fourdrinier?
A3: density
Q4: What leaves a pattern on the paper that has a consistent density width and lengthwise?
A4: wire mesh
Wove paper does not exhibit "laidlines", which are small regular lines left behind on paper when it was handmade in a mould made from rows of metal wires or bamboo. Laidlines are very close together. They run perpendicular to the "chainlines", which are further apart. Handmade paper similarly exhibits "deckle edges", or rough and feathery borders.

Q1: What type of lines does wove paper not exhibit?
A1: Laidlines
Q2: What are small regular lines left on paper when handmade in a mould?
A2: Laidlines
Q3: What runs perpendicular to the laidlines?
A3: chainlines
Q4: Which is lines are commonly higher in density, laidlines or chainlines?
A4: Laidlines