romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
These reforms were based heavily on French models, as indicated by the adoption of a three-tiered court system. Referred to as Nizamiye, this system was extended to the local magistrate level with the final promulgation of the Mecelle, a civil code that regulated marriage, divorce, alimony, will, and other matters of personal status. In an attempt to clarify the division of judicial competences, an administrative council laid down that religious matters were to be handled by religious courts, and statute matters were to be handled by the Nizamiye courts.

Q1: Reforms in the Ottoman court system were based on what model?
A1: French models
Q2: How many tiers did the Ottoman court system adopt?
A2: three
Q3: What was the new Ottoman court system known as?
A3: Nizamiye
Q4: What code regulated marriage?
A4: the Mecelle
The first military unit of the Ottoman State was an army that was organized by Osman I from the tribesmen inhabiting the hills of western Anatolia in the late 13th century. The military system became an intricate organization with the advance of the Empire. The Ottoman military was a complex system of recruiting and fief-holding. The main corps of the Ottoman Army included Janissary, Sipahi, Akıncı and Mehterân. The Ottoman army was once among the most advanced fighting forces in the world, being one of the first to use muskets and cannons. The Ottoman Turks began using falconets, which were short but wide cannons, during the Siege of Constantinople. The Ottoman cavalry depended on high speed and mobility rather than heavy armour, using bows and short swords on fast Turkoman and Arabian horses (progenitors of the Thoroughbred racing horse), and often applied tactics similar to those of the Mongol Empire, such as pretending to retreat while surrounding the enemy forces inside a crescent-shaped formation and then making the real attack. The decline in the army's performance became clear from the mid-17th century and after the Great Turkish War. The 18th century saw some limited success against Venice, but in the north the European-style Russian armies forced the Ottomans to concede land.

Q1: In what century did the first Osman I organized military unit form?
A1: 13th century
Q2: From where did tribesmen that formed a unit organized by Osman I originate?
A2: the hills of western Anatolia
Q3: There were four corps of the Ottoman Army, what were they?
A3: Janissary, Sipahi, Akıncı and Mehterân
Q4: The Ottoman army was among the first to use what two pieces of weapons technology?
A4: muskets and cannons
Q5: In what conflict did the Ottoman Turks use falconets?
A5: Siege of Constantinople
The Ottoman Navy vastly contributed to the expansion of the Empire's territories on the European continent. It initiated the conquest of North Africa, with the addition of Algeria and Egypt to the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Starting with the loss of Greece in 1821 and Algeria in 1830, Ottoman naval power and control over the Empire's distant overseas territories began to decline. Sultan Abdülaziz (reigned 1861–1876) attempted to reestablish a strong Ottoman navy, building the largest fleet after those of Britain and France. The shipyard at Barrow, England, built its first submarine in 1886 for the Ottoman Empire.

Q1: On what continent did the Ottoman Navy contribute most?
A1: European continent
Q2: What region did the Ottoman Navy conquer in the early 16th century?
A2: North Africa
Q3: Egypt was added to the Ottoman Empire in what year?
A3: 1517
Q4: In what year did the Ottoman empire lose Greece?
A4: 1821
Q5: The Ottoman empire lost what territory in 1830?
A5: Algeria
However, the collapsing Ottoman economy could not sustain the fleet's strength for too long. Sultan Abdülhamid II distrusted the admirals who sided with the reformist Midhat Pasha, and claimed that the large and expensive fleet was of no use against the Russians during the Russo-Turkish War. He locked most of the fleet inside the Golden Horn, where the ships decayed for the next 30 years. Following the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress sought to develop a strong Ottoman naval force. The Ottoman Navy Foundation was established in 1910 to buy new ships through public donations.

Q1: Which sultan distrusted his admirals during the Russo-Turkish war?
A1: Sultan Abdülhamid II
Q2: Who was the reformist that had the backing of Ottoman admirals during the Russo-Turkish war?
A2: Midhat Pasha
Q3: Where was the Ottoman fleet left to decay?
A3: the Golden Horn
Q4: When was the Young Turk Revolution?
A4: 1908
Q5: What Ottoman group wanted to form a stronger navy in the early 20th century?
A5: the Committee of Union and Progress
The establishment of Ottoman military aviation dates back to between June 1909 and July 1911. The Ottoman Empire started preparing its first pilots and planes, and with the founding of the Aviation School (Tayyare Mektebi) in Yeşilköy on 3 July 1912, the Empire began to tutor its own flight officers. The founding of the Aviation School quickened advancement in the military aviation program, increased the number of enlisted persons within it, and gave the new pilots an active role in the Ottoman Army and Navy. In May 1913 the world's first specialized Reconnaissance Training Program was started by the Aviation School and the first separate reconnaissance division was established.[citation needed] In June 1914 a new military academy, the Naval Aviation School (Bahriye Tayyare Mektebi) was founded. With the outbreak of World War I, the modernization process stopped abruptly. The Ottoman aviation squadrons fought on many fronts during World War I, from Galicia in the west to the Caucasus in the east and Yemen in the south.

Q1: What was the first date that the Ottoman empire had an air-based military unit?
A1: June 1909
Q2: Where was the first Ottoman Aviation school?
A2: Yeşilköy
Q3: On what date was the Aviation School founded?
A3: 3 July 1912
Q4: What happened at the aviation school in May 1913?
A4: the world's first specialized Reconnaissance Training Program was started
Q5: What new military academy was formed in June 1914?
A5: the Naval Aviation School (Bahriye Tayyare Mektebi)
Ottoman government deliberately pursued a policy for the development of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul, successive Ottoman capitals, into major commercial and industrial centres, considering that merchants and artisans were indispensable in creating a new metropolis. To this end, Mehmed and his successor Bayezid, also encouraged and welcomed migration of the Jews from different parts of Europe, who were settled in Istanbul and other port cities like Salonica. In many places in Europe, Jews were suffering persecution at the hands of their Christian counterparts, such as in Spain after the conclusion of Reconquista. The tolerance displayed by the Turks was welcomed by the immigrants.

Q1: The goal of developing Bursa and Istanbul was an intentional act to create what?
A1: commercial and industrial centres
Q2: Who was Mehmed's successor?
A2: Bayezid
Q3: Who did Mehmed and Bayezid encourage to come to Istanbul?
A3: the Jews from different parts of Europe
Q4: What group were Jews being persecuted by in Europe?
A4: their Christian counterparts
Q5: Persecution of Jews in Spain occurred after what event concluded?
A5: the conclusion of Reconquista
The Ottoman economic mind was closely related to the basic concepts of state and society in the Middle East in which the ultimate goal of a state was consolidation and extension of the ruler's power, and the way to reach it was to get rich resources of revenues by making the productive classes prosperous. The ultimate aim was to increase the state revenues without damaging the prosperity of subjects to prevent the emergence of social disorder and to keep the traditional organization of the society intact.

Q1: The economic goal of the state was to serve as what for the ruler?
A1: consolidation and extension of the ruler's power
Q2: In what regions concepts was the Ottoman economic system based on?
A2: the Middle East
Q3: What was a way to reach the economic goals of the Ottoman economic system?
A3: making the productive classes prosperous
Q4: What was the final goal of the state economic system?
A4: to increase the state revenues without damaging the prosperity of subjects
Q5: What did the state economic system hope to avoid?
A5: the emergence of social disorder
The organization of the treasury and chancery were developed under the Ottoman Empire more than any other Islamic government and, until the 17th century, they were the leading organization among all their contemporaries. This organization developed a scribal bureaucracy (known as "men of the pen") as a distinct group, partly highly trained ulama, which developed into a professional body. The effectiveness of this professional financial body stands behind the success of many great Ottoman statesmen.

Q1: Two of the most developed economic organizations under the Ottoman Empire were what?
A1: the treasury and chancery
Q2: What were the scribes of the chancery known as?
A2: men of the pen
Q3: Part of the scribal bureaucracy were trained what?
A3: ulama
Q4: What did the scribal bureaucracy become?
A4: a professional body
Q5: The Ottoman Empire had the most developed economic organizations among Islamic Governments until which century?
A5: the 17th century
The economic structure of the Empire was defined by its geopolitical structure. The Ottoman Empire stood between the West and the East, thus blocking the land route eastward and forcing Spanish and Portuguese navigators to set sail in search of a new route to the Orient. The Empire controlled the spice route that Marco Polo once used. When Vasco da Gama bypassed Ottoman controlled routes and established direct trade links with India in 1498, and Christopher Columbus first journeyed to the Bahamas in 1492, the Ottoman Empire was at its zenith.

Q1: What serviced as the foundation for the structure of the economy of the Ottoman empire?
A1: its geopolitical structure
Q2: The Ottoman Empire caused navigators from which two nations to find another route to the Orient?
A2: Spanish and Portuguese
Q3: Who once used the spice route that the Ottoman Empire controlled?
A3: Marco Polo
Q4: When were direct trade links established with India?
A4: 1498
Q5: When did Christopher Columbus sail to the Bahamas?
A5: 1492
Modern Ottoman studies think that the change in relations between the Ottoman Turks and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in the significance of the land routes to the East as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and Mediterranean as parallel to the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself. The Anglo-Ottoman Treaty, also known as the Treaty of Balta Liman that opened the Ottoman markets directly to English and French competitors, would be seen as one of the staging posts along this development.

Q1: What is believed to have caused the opening of new sea routes during the Ottoman Empire?
A1: change in relations between the Ottoman Turks and central Europe
Q2: The formation of sea routes bypassing the Middle East may have led to the decline of what?
A2: the Ottoman Empire itself
Q3: What is another name for the Treaty of Balta Liman?
A3: The Anglo-Ottoman Treaty
Q4: What did the Treaty of Balta Liman do for Ottoman markets?
A4: opened the Ottoman markets directly to English and French competitors
Q5: In what direction did land routes lose their importance?
A5: East
By developing commercial centres and routes, encouraging people to extend the area of cultivated land in the country and international trade through its dominions, the state performed basic economic functions in the Empire. But in all this the financial and political interests of the state were dominant. Within the social and political system they were living in Ottoman administrators could not have comprehended or seen the desirability of the dynamics and principles of the capitalist and mercantile economies developing in Western Europe.

Q1: The development of what caused people to expand areas of cultivation in the Ottoman Empire?
A1: commercial centres and routes
Q2: What dominated all economic and political interests?
A2: interests of the state
Q3: What were the types of economies that were being developed in western Europe?
A3: capitalist and mercantile economies
Q4: The expansion of international trade through the Empire was the result of what?
A4: developing commercial centres and routes
The rise of port cities saw the clustering of populations caused by the development of steamships and railroads. Urbanization increased from 1700 to 1922, with towns and cities growing. Improvements in health and sanitation made them more attractive to live and work in. Port cities like Salonica, in Greece, saw its population rise from 55,000 in 1800 to 160,000 in 1912 and İzmir which had a population of 150,000 in 1800 grew to 300,000 by 1914. Some regions conversely had population falls – Belgrade saw its population drop from 25,000 to 8,000 mainly due to political strife.

Q1: The rise of ports caused what in populations?
A1: the clustering of populations
Q2: Steamships and railroads rose with what else?
A2: The rise of port cities
Q3: In what year did urbanization in the Ottoman empire begin to increase?
A3: 1700
Q4: What were two improvements that made cities more desirable to live in?
A4: Improvements in health and sanitation
Q5: What was the population of Salonica in 1800?
A5: 55,000
Economic and political migrations made an impact across the empire. For example, the Russian and Austria-Habsburg annexation of the Crimean and Balkan regions respectively saw large influxes of Muslim refugees – 200,000 Crimean Tartars fleeing to Dobruja. Between 1783 and 1913, approximately 5–7 million refugees flooded into the Ottoman Empire, at least 3.8 million of whom were from Russia. Some migrations left indelible marks such as political tension between parts of the empire (e.g. Turkey and Bulgaria) whereas centrifugal effects were noticed in other territories, simpler demographics emerging from diverse populations. Economies were also impacted with the loss of artisans, merchants, manufacturers and agriculturists. Since the 19th century, a large proportion of Muslim peoples from the Balkans emigrated to present-day Turkey. These people are called Muhacir. By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia.

Q1: The annexation of what two regions resulted in large groups of Muslim refugees coming into the empire?
A1: the Crimean and Balkan regions
Q2: Muslims representing 200,000 of what group fled to Dobruja?
A2: Crimean Tartars
Q3: How many refugees fled Russia to the Ottoman Empire from 1783 to 1913?
A3: 3.8 million
Q4: What are the people from the Balkans who emigrated to Turkey called?
A4: Muhacir
Q5: In what year did the Ottoman Empire end?
A5: 1922
Ottoman Turkish was the official language of the Empire. It was an Oghuz Turkic language highly influenced by Persian and Arabic. The Ottomans had several influential languages: Turkish, spoken by the majority of the people in Anatolia and by the majority of Muslims of the Balkans except in Albania and Bosnia; Persian, only spoken by the educated; Arabic, spoken mainly in Arabia, North Africa, Iraq, Kuwait, the Levant and parts of the Horn of Africa; and Somali throughout the Horn of Africa. In the last two centuries, usage of these became limited, though, and specific: Persian served mainly as a literary language for the educated, while Arabic was used for religious rites.

Q1: What was the official language of the Ottoman Empire?
A1: Ottoman Turkish
Q2: What were the main influences of the official language of the Empire?
A2: Persian and Arabic
Q3: What language was spoken by most people in Anatolia?
A3: Turkish
Q4: Which languages influenced by the empire was spoken in Iraq?
A4: Arabic
Q5: What language was used for religious uses in the Empire?
A5: Arabic
Because of a low literacy rate among the public (about 2–3% until the early 19th century and just about 15% at the end of 19th century),[citation needed] ordinary people had to hire scribes as "special request-writers" (arzuhâlcis) to be able to communicate with the government. The ethnic groups continued to speak within their families and neighborhoods (mahalles) with their own languages (e.g., Jews, Greeks, Armenians, etc.). In villages where two or more populations lived together, the inhabitants would often speak each other's language. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages; many of those who were not ethnic Turks spoke Turkish as a second language.

Q1: What was the public's literacy rate in leading up to the early 19th century in the empire?
A1: about 2–3%
Q2: At the end of the 19th century what was the literacy rate for the public in the Empire believed to be?
A2: 15%
Q3: What did people resort to when they needed to communicate with the government?
A3: people had to hire scribes
Q4: What were hired scribes known as?
A4: "special request-writers" (arzuhâlcis)
Q5: What was the second language of those that weren't ethnically Turkish?
A5: Turkish
Until the second half of the 15th century the empire had a Christian majority, under the rule of a Muslim minority. In the late 19th century, the non-Muslim population of the empire began to fall considerably, not only due to secession, but also because of migratory movements. The proportion of Muslims amounted to 60% in the 1820s, gradually increasing to 69% in the 1870s and then to 76% in the 1890s. By 1914, only 19.1% of the empire's population was non-Muslim, mostly made up of Christian Greeks, Assyrians, Armenians, and Jews.

Q1: The Empire had a Christian majority until what time?
A1: the second half of the 15th century
Q2: What group ruled the empire until the 15th century?
A2: a Muslim minority
Q3: What group began to decline within the Empire in the late 19th century?
A3: the non-Muslim population
Q4: Muslims accounted for what amount of the population of the Empire in the 1820s?
A4: 60%
Q5: In 1914 what portion of the Empire weren't Muslims?
A5: 19.1%
Muslim sects regarded as heretical, such as the Druze, Ismailis, Alevis, and Alawites, ranked below Jews and Christians. In 1514, Sultan Selim I, nicknamed "the Grim" because of his cruelty, ordered the massacre of 40,000 Anatolian Alevis (Qizilbash), whom he considered heretics, reportedly proclaiming that "the killing of one Alevi had as much otherworldly reward as killing 70 Christians."[page needed] Selim was also responsible for an unprecedented and rapid expansion of the Ottoman Empire into the Middle East, especially through his conquest of the entire Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt, which included much of the region. With these conquests, Selim further solidified the Ottoman claim for being an Islamic caliphate, although Ottoman sultans had been claiming the title of caliph since the 14th century starting with Murad I (reigned 1362 to 1389). The caliphate would remain held by Ottoman sultans for the rest of the office's duration, which ended with its abolition on 3 March 1924 by the Grand National Assembly of Turkey and the exile of the last caliph, Abdülmecid II, to France.

Q1: The Muslim sect known as the Druze is considered what?
A1: heretical
Q2: What was Sultan Selim I's nickname?
A2: the Grim
Q3: In what year did Sultan Selim I order the massacre of 40,000 people whom he considered heretics?
A3: 1514
Q4: What group did Sultan Selim I consider heretics and subsequently slaughter?
A4: Anatolian Alevis (Qizilbash)
Q5: Under Sultan Selim I the empire swallowed what sultanate in Egypt?
A5: Mamluk Sultanate
Under the millet system, non-Muslim people were considered subjects of the Empire, but were not subject to the Muslim faith or Muslim law. The Orthodox millet, for instance, was still officially legally subject to Justinian's Code, which had been in effect in the Byzantine Empire for 900 years. Also, as the largest group of non-Muslim subjects (or zimmi) of the Islamic Ottoman state, the Orthodox millet was granted a number of special privileges in the fields of politics and commerce, and had to pay higher taxes than Muslim subjects.

Q1: What system deemed non-Muslims subjects of the empire but unbound by Muslim law?
A1: the millet system
Q2: What code had been active for 900 years in the Byzantine empire?
A2: Justinian's Code
Q3: What were non-Muslims also known as in the Islamic Ottoman State?
A3: zimmi
Q4: Being a non-muslim in the Empire resulted in what as it related to taxes?
A4: higher taxes
Q5: What millet was subject to Justinian's Code?
A5: The Orthodox millet
The Ottomans absorbed some of the traditions, art and institutions of cultures in the regions they conquered, and added new dimensions to them. Numerous traditions and cultural traits of previous empires (in fields such as architecture, cuisine, music, leisure and government) were adopted by the Ottoman Turks, who elaborated them into new forms, which resulted in a new and distinctively Ottoman cultural identity. Despite newer added amalgamations, the Ottoman dynasty, like their predecessors in the Sultanate of Rum and the Seljuk Empire, were thoroughly Persianised in their culture, language, habits and customs, and therefore, the empire has been described as a Persianate empire. Intercultural marriages also played their part in creating the characteristic Ottoman elite culture. When compared to the Turkish folk culture, the influence of these new cultures in creating the culture of the Ottoman elite was clear.

Q1: The Ottoman dynasty was preceded by what sultanate?
A1: Sultanate of Rum
Q2: What is one way that the Empire was described as it related to culture?
A2: Persianate empire
Q3: When the Ottoman empire conquered a region what also became a part of the empire?
A3: some of the traditions, art and institutions of cultures
Q4: The Seljuk Empire was influenced by the cultures of others resulting in it being referred to as what?
A4: Persianised
Ottoman Divan poetry was a highly ritualized and symbolic art form. From the Persian poetry that largely inspired it, it inherited a wealth of symbols whose meanings and interrelationships—both of similitude (مراعات نظير mura'ât-i nazîr / تناسب tenâsüb) and opposition (تضاد tezâd) were more or less prescribed. Divan poetry was composed through the constant juxtaposition of many such images within a strict metrical framework, thus allowing numerous potential meanings to emerge. The vast majority of Divan poetry was lyric in nature: either gazels (which make up the greatest part of the repertoire of the tradition), or kasîdes. There were, however, other common genres, most particularly the mesnevî, a kind of verse romance and thus a variety of narrative poetry; the two most notable examples of this form are the Leyli and Majnun of Fuzûlî and the Hüsn ü Aşk of Şeyh Gâlib.

Q1: What type of Ottoman poetry is ritualized?
A1: Divan poetry
Q2: What kind of poetry inspired Ottoman Divan Poetry?
A2: Persian poetry
Q3: What type of framework was Divan poetry based on?
A3: a strict metrical framework
Q4: What was the romance genre of Divan poetry known as?
A4: mesnevî
Q5: What make up the largest portion of Divan poetry?
A5: gazels (which make up the greatest part of the repertoire of the tradition), or kasîdes.