romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
Whitehead has had some influence on philosophy of business administration and organizational theory. This has led in part to a focus on identifying and investigating the effect of temporal events (as opposed to static things) within organizations through an “organization studies” discourse that accommodates a variety of 'weak' and 'strong' process perspectives from a number of philosophers. One of the leading figures having an explicitly Whiteheadian and panexperientialist stance towards management is Mark Dibben, who works in what he calls "applied process thought" to articulate a philosophy of management and business administration as part of a wider examination of the social sciences through the lens of process metaphysics. For Dibben, this allows "a comprehensive exploration of life as perpetually active experiencing, as opposed to occasional – and thoroughly passive – happening." Dibben has published two books on applied process thought, Applied Process Thought I: Initial Explorations in Theory and Research (2008), and Applied Process Thought II: Following a Trail Ablaze (2009), as well as other papers in this vein in the fields of philosophy of management and business ethics.

Q1: What prominent business professor has been heavily influenced by Whitehead?
A1: Mark Dibben
Q2: What does Dibben call his philosophy on management and business administration?
A2: "applied process thought"
Q3: In what fields has Dibben published two books and other papers?
A3: philosophy of management and business ethics
Q4: What business fields has Whitehead influenced?
A4: philosophy of business administration and organizational theory
Q5: According to Dibben, what are the benefits of applying process metaphysics to examining management and business administration as a component of social science?
A5: this allows "a comprehensive exploration of life as perpetually active experiencing, as opposed to occasional – and thoroughly passive – happening."
Beginning in the late 1910s and early 1920s, Whitehead gradually turned his attention from mathematics to philosophy of science, and finally to metaphysics. He developed a comprehensive metaphysical system which radically departed from most of western philosophy. Whitehead argued that reality consists of processes rather than material objects, and that processes are best defined by their relations with other processes, thus rejecting the theory that reality is fundamentally constructed by bits of matter that exist independently of one another. Today Whitehead's philosophical works – particularly Process and Reality – are regarded as the foundational texts of process philosophy.

Q1: During which decade did Whitehead's focus start shifting away from mathematics?
A1: 1910s
Q2: After moving away from mathematics, what subjects did Whitehead explore?
A2: philosophy of science, and finally to metaphysics
Q3: As opposed to physical objects, what did Whitehead believe reality is composed of?
A3: processes
Q4: What was the predominant theory of reality that Whitehead opposed?
A4: reality is fundamentally constructed by bits of matter that exist independently of one another
Q5: What book of Whitehead's is now considered a primary source of process philosophy?
A5: Process and Reality
Q6: What did Whitehead first study?
A6: mathematics
Q7: What was Whitehead's second area of study?
A7: philosophy
Q8: What was Whitehead's final area of study?
A8: metaphysics
Q9: What type of system did he develop?
A9: metaphysical
Q10: What did Whitehead argue reality consists of?
A10: processes
Alfred North Whitehead was born in Ramsgate, Kent, England, in 1861. His father, Alfred Whitehead, was a minister and schoolmaster of Chatham House Academy, a successful school for boys established by Thomas Whitehead, Alfred North's grandfather. Whitehead himself recalled both of them as being very successful schoolmasters, but that his grandfather was the more extraordinary man. Whitehead's mother was Maria Sarah Whitehead, formerly Maria Sarah Buckmaster. Whitehead was apparently not particularly close with his mother, as he never mentioned her in any of his writings, and there is evidence that Whitehead's wife, Evelyn, had a low opinion of her.

Q1: Where was Alfred North Whitehead born?
A1: Ramsgate, Kent, England
Q2: In what year was Whitehead born?
A2: 1861
Q3: Who founded Chatham House Academy?
A3: Thomas Whitehead, Alfred North's grandfather
Q4: What was Whitehead's father's profession?
A4: minister and schoolmaster of Chatham House Academy
Q5: Who was Whitehead's mother?
A5: Maria Sarah Whitehead, formerly Maria Sarah Buckmaster
Q6: Where was Alfred North Whitehead born?
A6: Ramsgate, Kent, England
Q7: What year was Whitehead born?
A7: 1861
Q8: What was Whitehead's father's profession?
A8: minister and schoolmaster
Q9: What was Whitehead's mother's name?
A9: Maria Sarah Whitehead,
Q10: What was Whitehead's wife's name?
A10: Evelyn
In 1918 Whitehead's academic responsibilities began to seriously expand as he accepted a number of high administrative positions within the University of London system, of which Imperial College London was a member at the time. He was elected Dean of the Faculty of Science at the University of London in late 1918 (a post he held for four years), a member of the University of London's Senate in 1919, and chairman of the Senate's Academic (leadership) Council in 1920, a post which he held until he departed for America in 1924. Whitehead was able to exert his newfound influence to successfully lobby for a new history of science department, help establish a Bachelor of Science degree (previously only Bachelor of Arts degrees had been offered), and make the school more accessible to less wealthy students.

Q1: In which educational system was Whitehead employed in the late 1910s?
A1: University of London system
Q2: What was Whitehead's title at the University of London in late 1918?
A2: Dean of the Faculty of Science
Q3: What was Whitehead's last position before he traveled to America?
A3: chairman of the Senate's Academic (leadership) Council
Q4: In which year did Whitehead relocate to America?
A4: 1924
Q5: What degree program did Whitehead contribute to establishing at University of London?
A5: Bachelor of Science
Q6: When did Whitehead accept administrative positions?
A6: 1918
Q7: What was he elected at the University of London?
A7: Dean of the Faculty of Science
Q8: Where did Whitehead accept administrative positions?
A8: University of London
Q9: When did Whitehead go to America?
A9: 1924
The two volume biography of Whitehead by Victor Lowe is the most definitive presentation of the life of Whitehead. However, many details of Whitehead's life remain obscure because he left no Nachlass; his family carried out his instructions that all of his papers be destroyed after his death. Additionally, Whitehead was known for his "almost fanatical belief in the right to privacy", and for writing very few personal letters of the kind that would help to gain insight on his life. This led to Lowe himself remarking on the first page of Whitehead's biography, "No professional biographer in his right mind would touch him."

Q1: Who authored Whitehead's biography that is considered to be the most reliable description of Whitehead's life?
A1: Victor Lowe
Q2: Why was no Nachlass left behind after Whitehead's death?
A2: his family carried out his instructions that all of his papers be destroyed after his death
Q3: What was Whitehead's opinion on privacy?
A3: almost fanatical belief in the right to privacy
Q4: What did the author of Whitehead's biography comment on the first page regarding the difficulty of obtaining information about Whitehead?
A4: "No professional biographer in his right mind would touch him."
Q5: How many volumes is the biography of Whitehead?
A5: two
Q6: Who wrote the biography of Whitehead?
A6: Victor Lowe
Q7: What was Whitehead's wish upon his death for his family?
A7: all of his papers be destroyed after his death.
Q8: What did Whitehead believe in so profusely that it was difficult to write a biography on him?
A8: right to privacy
In addition to numerous articles on mathematics, Whitehead wrote three major books on the subject: A Treatise on Universal Algebra (1898), Principia Mathematica (co-written with Bertrand Russell and published in three volumes between 1910 and 1913), and An Introduction to Mathematics (1911). The former two books were aimed exclusively at professional mathematicians, while the latter book was intended for a larger audience, covering the history of mathematics and its philosophical foundations. Principia Mathematica in particular is regarded as one of the most important works in mathematical logic of the 20th century.

Q1: What was Whitehead's first published book on mathematics?
A1: A Treatise on Universal Algebra
Q2: With what mathematician and philosopher did Whitehead collaborate to write Principia Mathematica?
A2: Bertrand Russell
Q3: Who was the intended audience of Whitehead's first two mathematics books?
A3: professional mathematicians
Q4: What was Whitehead's final book on mathematics?
A4: An Introduction to Mathematics
Q5: What is the significance of Principia Mathematica currently?
A5: regarded as one of the most important works in mathematical logic of the 20th century
Q6: What did Whitehead publish numerous articles about?
A6: mathematics
Q7: How many books on mathematics did Whitehead write?
A7: three
Q8: Who co-wrote Principia Mathematica with Whitehead?
A8: Bertrand Russell
Q9: Which of Whitehead's books is known as one of the most important works in mathematical logical?
A9: Principia Mathematica
Q10: When did Whitehead write his first book?
A10: 1898
At the time structures such as Lie algebras and hyperbolic quaternions drew attention to the need to expand algebraic structures beyond the associatively multiplicative class. In a review Alexander Macfarlane wrote: "The main idea of the work is not unification of the several methods, nor generalization of ordinary algebra so as to include them, but rather the comparative study of their several structures." In a separate review, G. B. Mathews wrote, "It possesses a unity of design which is really remarkable, considering the variety of its themes."

Q1: What did Lie algebras and hyperbolic quaternions demonstrate a need for?
A1: the need to expand algebraic structures beyond the associatively multiplicative class
Q2: How did Alexander Macfarlane summarize the relationship between different methods in "A Treatise on Algebra" in his review?
A2: comparative study of their several structures
Q3: What was G.B. Matthew's opinion of "A Treatise on Algebra"?
A3: "It possesses a unity of design which is really remarkable, considering the variety of its themes."
Q4: Lie algebras and hypobolic quanternions drew attention to the need for what?
A4: expand algebraic structures
Q5: What did reviewer GB Mathews say algebraic structures possessed?
A5: unity of design
Q6: Reviewer Alexander Macfarlane believed that the main idea of the work is a comparative study of what?
A6: several structures
Whitehead and Russell had thought originally that Principia Mathematica would take a year to complete; it ended up taking them ten years. To add insult to injury, when it came time for publication, the three-volume work was so massive (more than 2,000 pages) and its audience so narrow (professional mathematicians) that it was initially published at a loss of 600 pounds, 300 of which was paid by Cambridge University Press, 200 by the Royal Society of London, and 50 apiece by Whitehead and Russell themselves. Despite the initial loss, today there is likely no major academic library in the world which does not hold a copy of Principia Mathematica.

Q1: How long did Whitehead and Russell expect to spend creating Principia Mathematica?
A1: a year
Q2: How long did it actually take to complete Principia Mathematica?
A2: ten years
Q3: Why was there a funding shortfall for the publishing of Princpia Mathematica?
A3: the three-volume work was so massive (more than 2,000 pages) and its audience so narrow (professional mathematicians)
Q4: Who supplied the funding to cover the shortfall?
A4: 00 of which was paid by Cambridge University Press, 200 by the Royal Society of London, and 50 apiece by Whitehead and Russell
Q5: How prevalent is Principia Mathematica today?
A5: today there is likely no major academic library in the world which does not hold a copy of Principia Mathematica
Q6: How long did Whitehead and Russell think it would take them to complete Principia Mathematica?
A6: a year
Q7: How long did it actually take Whitehead and Russell to complete Principia Mathematica?
A7: ten years
Q8: How many volumes was Principia Mathematica?
A8: three
Q9: How many pages was Principia Mathematica?
A9: 2,000
Q10: Who paid to publish Principia Mathematica?
A10: Cambridge University Press
This is not to say that Whitehead's thought was widely accepted or even well-understood. His philosophical work is generally considered to be among the most difficult to understand in all of the western canon. Even professional philosophers struggled to follow Whitehead's writings. One famous story illustrating the level of difficulty of Whitehead's philosophy centers around the delivery of Whitehead's Gifford lectures in 1927–28 – following Arthur Eddington's lectures of the year previous – which Whitehead would later publish as Process and Reality:

Q1: What is the general opinion of the difficulty level of Whitehead's work in philosophy?
A1: generally considered to be among the most difficult to understand in all of the western canon
Q2: What lectures did Whitehead present in 1927-28?
A2: Gifford lectures
Q3: Under what name were those lectures later published?
A3: Process and Reality
Q4: Who also struggled to follow Whitehead's writings?
A4: professional philosophers
Q5: Following Arthur Eddington's lectures, what did Whitehead  publish?
A5: Process and Reality
Q6: When did Whitehead delivery the Gifford lectures?
A6: 1927–28
Q7: In all of the western canon, what is Whitehead's work considered?
A7: the most difficult to understand
However, Mathews' frustration with Whitehead's books did not negatively affect his interest. In fact, there were numerous philosophers and theologians at Chicago's Divinity School that perceived the importance of what Whitehead was doing without fully grasping all of the details and implications. In 1927 they invited one of America's only Whitehead experts – Henry Nelson Wieman – to Chicago to give a lecture explaining Whitehead's thought. Wieman's lecture was so brilliant that he was promptly hired to the faculty and taught there for twenty years, and for at least thirty years afterward Chicago's Divinity School was closely associated with Whitehead's thought.

Q1: What affect did Matthews' opinion of the difficulty of Whitehead's works have on his interest in them?
A1: Mathews' frustration with Whitehead's books did not negatively affect his interest
Q2: How did many philosophers and theologians at Chicago's Divinity School view Whitehead's work?
A2: perceived the importance of what Whitehead was doing without fully grasping all of the details and implications
Q3: What expert on Whitehead delivered a lecture at the school to explain Whitehead's ideas?
A3: Henry Nelson Wieman
Q4: What was the result of that lecture?
A4: Wieman's lecture was so brilliant that he was promptly hired to the faculty and taught there for twenty years
Q5: Who was frustrated in Whitehead's books but still interested?
A5: Mathews
Q6: What school recognized the importance of Whitehead's work?
A6: Chicago's Divinity School
Q7: When was Henry Nelson Wieman invited to the Chicago Divinity school?
A7: 1927
Q8: Who was invited to the Chicago Divinity school as one of Whitehead's only experts?
A8: Henry Nelson Wieman
Q9: What happened after Henry Nelson Wieman gave a lecture about Whitehead?
A9: hired
Wieman's words proved prophetic. Though Process and Reality has been called "arguably the most impressive single metaphysical text of the twentieth century," it has been little-read and little-understood, partly because it demands – as Isabelle Stengers puts it – "that its readers accept the adventure of the questions that will separate them from every consensus." Whitehead questioned western philosophy's most dearly held assumptions about how the universe works, but in doing so he managed to anticipate a number of 21st century scientific and philosophical problems and provide novel solutions.

Q1: How has "Process and Reality" been described?
A1: "arguably the most impressive single metaphysical text of the twentieth century,"
Q2: What did Isabelle Stengers say is the reason that "Process and Reality" is not commonly read and understood?
A2: it demands – as Isabelle Stengers puts it – "that its readers accept the adventure of the questions that will separate them from every consensus."
Q3: What effect did Whitehead have on the future of metaphysics?
A3: he managed to anticipate a number of 21st century scientific and philosophical problems and provide novel solutions.
Q4: Which publication is considered the most impressive metaphysical text?
A4: Process and Reality
Q5: Who thought Process and Reality was little-read because the reader has to separate them from normal thought?
A5: Isabelle Stengers
Q6: What philosophy in the west was challenged by Whitehead?
A6: how the universe works
Q7: What was Whitehead's philosophy able to anticipate for the 21st century?
A7: scientific and philosophical problems
Q8: What was the outcome of anticipating the scientific and philosophical problems Whitehead proposed?
A8: novel solutions
It must be emphasized, however, that an entity is not merely a sum of its relations, but also a valuation of them and reaction to them. For Whitehead, creativity is the absolute principle of existence, and every entity (whether it is a human being, a tree, or an electron) has some degree of novelty in how it responds to other entities, and is not fully determined by causal or mechanistic laws. Of course, most entities do not have consciousness. As a human being's actions cannot always be predicted, the same can be said of where a tree's roots will grow, or how an electron will move, or whether it will rain tomorrow. Moreover, inability to predict an electron's movement (for instance) is not due to faulty understanding or inadequate technology; rather, the fundamental creativity/freedom of all entities means that there will always remain phenomena that are unpredictable.

Q1: What did Whitehead believe regarding creativity?
A1: creativity is the absolute principle of existence
Q2: An entity is a sum of relations, a valuation of them and what else?
A2: reaction to them.
Q3: Most entities do not have what?
A3: consciousness
Q4: All entities, being unable to predict behavior, are because of what?
A4: the fundamental creativity/freedom of all entities
Q5: Not being able to predict what any entity is going to do is what principle b Whitehead?
A5: creativity is the absolute principle of existence
Q6: Other than the combination of its relations, what else defines an entity?
A6: an entity is not merely a sum of its relations, but also a valuation of them and reaction to them
Q7: What did Whitehead believe about an entity's relation to other entities?
A7: has some degree of novelty in how it responds to other entities, and is not fully determined by causal or mechanistic laws
Since Whitehead's metaphysics described a universe in which all entities experience, he needed a new way of describing perception that was not limited to living, self-conscious beings. The term he coined was "prehension", which comes from the Latin prehensio, meaning "to seize." The term is meant to indicate a kind of perception that can be conscious or unconscious, applying to people as well as electrons. It is also intended to make clear Whitehead's rejection of the theory of representative perception, in which the mind only has private ideas about other entities. For Whitehead, the term "prehension" indicates that the perceiver actually incorporates aspects of the perceived thing into itself. In this way, entities are constituted by their perceptions and relations, rather than being independent of them. Further, Whitehead regards perception as occurring in two modes, causal efficacy (or "physical prehension") and presentational immediacy (or "conceptual prehension").

Q1: What is the origin of the word "prehension"?
A1: comes from the Latin prehensio, meaning "to seize."
Q2: What is a basic description of the theory of representative perception?
A2: the mind only has private ideas about other entities
Q3: What term did Whitehead describe that perception is not limited to the living?
A3: prehension
Q4: What language does the term "prehensio" come from?
A4: Latin
Q5: What does the word "Prehensio" translate into?
A5: to seize
Q6: What entities does the term prehension apply to?
A6: conscious or unconscious
Q7: How many modes does perception occur in according to Whitehead?
A7: two
Q8: What is prehension used to define?
A8: a kind of perception that can be conscious or unconscious, applying to people as well as electrons
Q9: What does the term "prehension" signify regarding an entities perceptions and relations?
A9: entities are constituted by their perceptions and relations, rather than being independent of them
Q10: What did Whitehead state are the two types of perception?
A10: causal efficacy (or "physical prehension") and presentational immediacy (or "conceptual prehension")
Whitehead describes causal efficacy as "the experience dominating the primitive living organisms, which have a sense for the fate from which they have emerged, and the fate towards which they go." It is, in other words, the sense of causal relations between entities, a feeling of being influenced and affected by the surrounding environment, unmediated by the senses. Presentational immediacy, on the other hand, is what is usually referred to as "pure sense perception", unmediated by any causal or symbolic interpretation, even unconscious interpretation. In other words, it is pure appearance, which may or may not be delusive (e.g. mistaking an image in a mirror for "the real thing").

Q1: How do the senses affect causal efficacy?
A1: unmediated by the senses
Q2: What can be said about the accuracy of presentational immediacy?
A2: it is pure appearance, which may or may not be delusive
Q3: What is the term for the experience dominating primitive organisms that have a sense for fate?
A3: causal efficacy
Q4: What is the other term for "pure sense perception"?
A4: Presentational immediacy
Q5: What is it called if you mistake a reflection in a mirror for the real thing?
A5: Presentational immediacy
Q6: How does Whitehead define causal efficacy?
A6: "the experience dominating the primitive living organisms, which have a sense for the fate from which they have emerged, and the fate towards which they go."
Q7: How does Whitehead define presentational immediacy?
A7: "pure sense perception", unmediated by any causal or symbolic interpretation, even unconscious interpretation