romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
Materialism is closely related to physicalism, the view that all that exists is ultimately physical. Philosophical physicalism has evolved from materialism with the discoveries of the physical sciences to incorporate more sophisticated notions of physicality than mere ordinary matter, such as: spacetime, physical energies and forces, dark matter, and so on. Thus the term "physicalism" is preferred over "materialism" by some, while others use the terms as if they are synonymous.

Q1: What are some examples of philosophical physicalism?
A1: spacetime, physical energies and forces, dark matter
Q2: Some people consider physicalism to be synonymous with what?
A2: Materialism
Materialism belongs to the class of monist ontology. As such, it is different from ontological theories based on dualism or pluralism. For singular explanations of the phenomenal reality, materialism would be in contrast to idealism, neutral monism, and spiritualism.

Q1: What class does materialism belong to?
A1: monist ontology
Despite the large number of philosophical schools and subtle nuances between many, all philosophies are said to fall into one of two primary categories, which are defined in contrast to each other: Idealism, and materialism.[a] The basic proposition of these two categories pertains to the nature of reality, and the primary distinction between them is the way they answer two fundamental questions: "what does reality consist of?" and "how does it originate?" To idealists, spirit or mind or the objects of mind (ideas) are primary, and matter secondary. To materialists, matter is primary, and mind or spirit or ideas are secondary, the product of matter acting upon matter.

Q1: What is the first question to ask in order to define the two classes?
A1: "what does reality consist of?"
Q2: What is the second question to ask in order to define the two classes?
A2: "how does it originate?"
Q3: An idealist considers what as the most important?
A3: spirit or mind or the objects of mind (ideas)
Q4: A materialist considers what as the most important?
A4: matter
The materialist view is perhaps best understood in its opposition to the doctrines of immaterial substance applied to the mind historically, famously by René Descartes. However, by itself materialism says nothing about how material substance should be characterized. In practice, it is frequently assimilated to one variety of physicalism or another.

Q1: Was René Descartes an idealist or a materialist?
A1: materialist
Q2: Materialism does not define what?
A2: how material substance should be characterized.
During the 19th century, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels extended the concept of materialism to elaborate a materialist conception of history centered on the roughly empirical world of human activity (practice, including labor) and the institutions created, reproduced, or destroyed by that activity (see materialist conception of history). Later Marxists developed the notion of dialectical materialism which characterized later Marxist philosophy and method.

Q1: What type of materialism defined the Marxist philosophy?
A1: dialectical materialism
Materialism developed, possibly independently, in several geographically separated regions of Eurasia during what Karl Jaspers termed the Axial Age (approximately 800 to 200 BC).

Q1: Who coined the Axial Age?
A1: Karl Jaspers
Q2: In what part of the world did materialism develop during the Axial Age?
A2: Eurasia
In Ancient Indian philosophy, materialism developed around 600 BC with the works of Ajita Kesakambali, Payasi, Kanada, and the proponents of the Cārvāka school of philosophy. Kanada became one of the early proponents of atomism. The Nyaya–Vaisesika school (600 BC - 100 BC) developed one of the earliest forms of atomism, though their proofs of God and their positing that the consciousness was not material precludes labelling them as materialists. Buddhist atomism and the Jaina school continued the atomic tradition.

Q1: Around what time did materialism become part of Ancient Indian philosophy?
A1: 600 BC
Q2: At that time, who helped develop materialism?
A2: Ajita Kesakambali, Payasi, Kanada, and the proponents of the Cārvāka school of philosophy
Q3: What school advanced atomism?
A3: Nyaya–Vaisesika school
Q4: Between what years did the school advance atomism?
A4: 600 BC - 100 BC
Materialism is often associated with reductionism, according to which the objects or phenomena individuated at one level of description, if they are genuine, must be explicable in terms of the objects or phenomena at some other level of description — typically, at a more reduced level. Non-reductive materialism explicitly rejects this notion, however, taking the material constitution of all particulars to be consistent with the existence of real objects, properties, or phenomena not explicable in the terms canonically used for the basic material constituents. Jerry Fodor influentially argues this view, according to which empirical laws and explanations in "special sciences" like psychology or geology are invisible from the perspective of basic physics. A lot of vigorous literature has grown up around the relation between these views.

Q1: Materialism is linked to what?
A1: reductionism
Ancient Greek philosophers like Thales, Anaxagoras (ca. 500 BC – 428 BC), Epicurus and Democritus prefigure later materialists. The Latin poem De Rerum Natura by Lucretius (ca. 99 BC – ca. 55 BC) reflects the mechanistic philosophy of Democritus and Epicurus. According to this view, all that exists is matter and void, and all phenomena result from different motions and conglomerations of base material particles called "atoms" (literally: "indivisibles"). De Rerum Natura provides mechanistic explanations for phenomena such as erosion, evaporation, wind, and sound. Famous principles like "nothing can touch body but body" first appeared in the works of Lucretius. Democritus and Epicurus however did not hold to a monist ontology since they held to the ontological separation of matter and space i.e. space being "another kind" of being, indicating that the definition of "materialism" is wider than given scope for in this article.

Q1: De Rerum Natura is a poem by who?
A1: Lucretius
Q2: What kinf of explanation does De Rerum Natura provide for phenomena?
A2: mechanistic explanations
Later Indian materialist Jayaraashi Bhatta (6th century) in his work Tattvopaplavasimha ("The upsetting of all principles") refuted the Nyaya Sutra epistemology. The materialistic Cārvāka philosophy appears to have died out some time after 1400. When Madhavacharya compiled Sarva-darśana-samgraha (a digest of all philosophies) in the 14th century, he had no Cārvāka/Lokāyata text to quote from, or even refer to.

Q1: Name the title of the work by Jayaraashi Bhatta.
A1: Tattvopaplavasimha ("The upsetting of all principles")
Q2: Which type of philosphy did not continue after 1400?
A2: materialistic Cārvāka philosophy
Q3: What is Sarva-darśana-samgraha?
A3: a digest of all philosophies
Q4: Who wrote the Sarva-darśana-samgraha?
A4: Madhavacharya
In early 12th-century al-Andalus, the Arabian philosopher, Ibn Tufail (Abubacer), wrote discussions on materialism in his philosophical novel, Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus), while vaguely foreshadowing the idea of a historical materialism.

Q1: What is the name of the novel written by Ibn Tufail?
A1: Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus)
The French cleric Pierre Gassendi (1592-1665) represented the materialist tradition in opposition to the attempts of René Descartes (1596-1650) to provide the natural sciences with dualist foundations. There followed the materialist and atheist abbé Jean Meslier (1664-1729), Julien Offray de La Mettrie, the German-French Paul-Henri Thiry Baron d'Holbach (1723-1789), the Encyclopedist Denis Diderot (1713-1784), and other French Enlightenment thinkers; as well as (in England) John "Walking" Stewart (1747-1822), whose insistence in seeing matter as endowed with a moral dimension had a major impact on the philosophical poetry of William Wordsworth (1770-1850).

Q1: Pierre Gassendi lived from what year to what year?
A1: 1592-1665
Q2: René Descartes lived from what year to what year?
A2: 1596-1650
Q3: abbé Jean Meslier lived from what year to what year?
A3: 1664-1729
Q4: Denis Diderot lived from what year to what year?
A4: 1713-1784
Q5: William Wordsworth lived from what year to what year?
A5: 1770-1850
Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860) wrote that "...materialism is the philosophy of the subject who forgets to take account of himself". He claimed that an observing subject can only know material objects through the mediation of the brain and its particular organization. That is, the brain itself is the "determiner" of how material objects will be experienced or perceived:

Q1: Arthur Schopenhauer lived from what year to what year?
A1: 1788-1860
Q2: What did he say that the brain would decide?
A2: how material objects will be experienced or perceived
The German materialist and atheist anthropologist Ludwig Feuerbach would signal a new turn in materialism through his book, The Essence of Christianity (1841), which provided a humanist account of religion as the outward projection of man's inward nature. Feuerbach's materialism would later heavily influence Karl Marx.

Q1: Who wrote "The Essence of Christianity"?
A1: Ludwig Feuerbach
Q2: In what year was "The Essence of Christianity" written?
A2: 1841
Q3: What did the author of "The Essence of Christianity" consider religion to be?
A3: the outward projection of man's inward nature
Q4: The author's ideas would later influence what well known philosopher?
A4: Karl Marx
Many current and recent philosophers—e.g., Daniel Dennett, Willard Van Orman Quine, Donald Davidson, and Jerry Fodor—operate within a broadly physicalist or materialist framework, producing rival accounts of how best to accommodate mind, including functionalism, anomalous monism, identity theory, and so on.

Q1: In regards to the mind, what are 3 theories that modern day philosophers try to harmonize?
A1: functionalism, anomalous monism, identity theory
The nature and definition of matter - like other key concepts in science and philosophy - have occasioned much debate. Is there a single kind of matter (hyle) which everything is made of, or multiple kinds? Is matter a continuous substance capable of expressing multiple forms (hylomorphism), or a number of discrete, unchanging constituents (atomism)? Does it have intrinsic properties (substance theory), or is it lacking them (prima materia)?

Q1: What is hyle?
A1: matter
One challenge to the traditional concept of matter as tangible "stuff" came with the rise of field physics in the 19th century. Relativity shows that matter and energy (including the spatially distributed energy of fields) are interchangeable. This enables the ontological view that energy is prima materia and matter is one of its forms. On the other hand, the Standard Model of Particle physics uses quantum field theory to describe all interactions. On this view it could be said that fields are prima materia and the energy is a property of the field.

Q1: Relativity illustrates that what is interchangeable?
A1: matter and energy
Q2: Ontological theory suggests that what is the main substance?
A2: energy
Q3: Quantum field theory suggest what is the main substance?
A3: fields
According to the dominant cosmological model, the Lambda-CDM model, less than 5% of the universe's energy density is made up of the "matter" described by the Standard Model of Particle Physics, and the majority of the universe is composed of dark matter and dark energy - with little agreement amongst scientists about what these are made of.

Q1: Which model suggests that matter is 5% of the universe?
A1: Lambda-CDM model
Q2: What type of matter does the model consider it to be?
A2: dark matter
With the advent of quantum physics, some scientists believed the concept of matter had merely changed, while others believed the conventional position could no longer be maintained. For instance Werner Heisenberg said "The ontology of materialism rested upon the illusion that the kind of existence, the direct 'actuality' of the world around us, can be extrapolated into the atomic range. This extrapolation, however, is impossible... atoms are not things." Likewise, some philosophers[which?] feel that these dichotomies necessitate a switch from materialism to physicalism. Others use the terms "materialism" and "physicalism" interchangeably.

Q1: Werner Heisenberg suggested that atoms are not what?
A1: things
Some modern day physicists and science writers—such as Paul Davies and John Gribbin—have argued that materialism has been disproven by certain scientific findings in physics, such as quantum mechanics and chaos theory. In 1991, Gribbin and Davies released their book The Matter Myth, the first chapter of which, "The Death of Materialism", contained the following passage:

Q1: What are some of the findings that support their argument?
A1: quantum mechanics and chaos theory.
Q2: What is the name of the 1991 book by Paul Davies and John Gribbins?
A2: The Matter Myth
Davies' and Gribbin's objections are shared by proponents of digital physics who view information rather than matter to be fundamental. Their objections were also shared by some founders of quantum theory, such as Max Planck, who wrote:

Q1: Digital physicists consider what to be more important than matter?
A1: information
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia of 1907-1912, materialism, defined as "a philosophical system which regards matter as the only reality in the world [...] denies the existence of God and the soul". Materialism, in this view, therefore becomes incompatible with most world religions, including Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. In such a context one can conflate materialism with atheism. Most of Hinduism and transcendentalism regards all matter as an illusion called Maya, blinding humans from knowing "the truth". Maya is the limited, purely physical and mental reality in which our everyday consciousness has become entangled. Maya gets destroyed for a person when s/he perceives Brahman with transcendental knowledge.

Q1: Based on the above definition, materialism is not consistent with what?
A1: religions
In contrast, Joseph Smith, the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, taught: "There is no such thing as immaterial matter. All spirit is matter, but it is more fine or pure, and can only be discerned by purer eyes; We cannot see it; but when our bodies are purified we shall see that it is all matter." This spirit element has always existed; it is co-eternal with God. It is also called "intelligence" or "the light of truth", which like all observable matter "was not created or made, neither indeed can be". Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints view the revelations of Joseph Smith as a restoration of original Christian doctrine, which they believe post-apostolic theologians began to corrupt in the centuries after Christ. The writings of many[quantify] of these theologians indicate a clear influence of Greek metaphysical philosophies such as Neoplatonism, which characterized divinity as an utterly simple, immaterial, formless, substance/essence (ousia) that transcended all that was physical. Despite strong opposition from many Christians, this metaphysical depiction of God eventually became incorporated into the doctrine of the Christian church, displacing the original Judeo-Christian concept of a physical, corporeal God who created humans in His image and likeness.

Q1: Neoplatonism describes divinity as what?
A1: simple, immaterial, formless, substance/essence (ousia) that transcended all that was physical
Q2: Which religious group strongly opposed the idea of Neoplatonism?
A2: Christians
An argument for idealism, such as those of Hegel and Berkeley, is ipso facto an argument against materialism. Matter can be argued to be redundant, as in bundle theory, and mind-independent properties can in turn be reduced to subjective percepts. Berkeley presents an example of the latter by pointing out that it is impossible to gather direct evidence of matter, as there is no direct experience of matter; all that is experienced is perception, whether internal or external. As such, the existence of matter can only be assumed from the apparent (perceived) stability of perceptions; it finds absolutely no evidence in direct experience.

Q1: If you believe in idealism, you are disbeliving in what?
A1: materialism
If matter and energy are seen as necessary to explain the physical world, but incapable of explaining mind, dualism results. Emergence, holism, and process philosophy seek to ameliorate the perceived shortcomings of traditional (especially mechanistic) materialism without abandoning materialism entirely.

Q1: What 3 types of philosophies attempt to correct the problem with matter and energy without removing every belief about materialism?
A1: Emergence, holism, and process philosophy
Some critics object to materialism as part of an overly skeptical, narrow or reductivist approach to theorizing, rather than to the ontological claim that matter is the only substance. Particle physicist and Anglican theologian John Polkinghorne objects to what he calls promissory materialism — claims that materialistic science will eventually succeed in explaining phenomena it has not so far been able to explain. Polkinghorne prefers "dual-aspect monism" to faith in materialism.

Q1: Instead of faith, John Polkinghorne relies on what when it comes to the theory of materialism?
A1: dual-aspect monism
The Space Race was a 20th-century competition between two Cold War rivals, the Soviet Union (USSR) and the United States (US), for supremacy in spaceflight capability. It had its origins in the missile-based nuclear arms race between the two nations that occurred following World War II, enabled by captured German rocket technology and personnel. The technological superiority required for such supremacy was seen as necessary for national security, and symbolic of ideological superiority. The Space Race spawned pioneering efforts to launch artificial satellites, unmanned space probes of the Moon, Venus, and Mars, and human spaceflight in low Earth orbit and to the Moon. The competition began on August 2, 1955, when the Soviet Union responded to the US announcement four days earlier of intent to launch artificial satellites for the International Geophysical Year, by declaring they would also launch a satellite "in the near future". The Soviet Union beat the US to this, with the October 4, 1957 orbiting of Sputnik 1, and later beat the US to the first human in space, Yuri Gagarin, on April 12, 1961. The Space Race peaked with the July 20, 1969 US landing of the first humans on the Moon with Apollo 11. The USSR tried but failed manned lunar missions, and eventually cancelled them and concentrated on Earth orbital space stations. A period of détente followed with the April 1972 agreement on a co-operative Apollo–Soyuz Test Project, resulting in the July 1975 rendezvous in Earth orbit of a US astronaut crew with a Soviet cosmonaut crew.

Q1: Whose technology enabled the Space Race between the Soviet Union and the united States?
A1: German rocket technology
Q2: Who was able to launch the first orbiting satellite?
A2: the Soviet Union
Q3: Who was the first human in space?
A3: Yuri Gagarin
Q4: When did Apollo 11 land on the moon?
A4: July 20, 1969
Q5: On what date did the Space Race begin?
A5: August 2, 1955
Q6: Sputnik 1 started orbiting on what date?
A6: October 4, 1957
Q7: Who was the first person in space?
A7: Yuri Gagarin
Q8: What was the date that the first human reached space?
A8: April 12, 1961
The Space Race can trace its origins to Germany, beginning in the 1930s and continuing during World War II when Nazi Germany researched and built operational ballistic missiles. Starting in the early 1930s, during the last stages of the Weimar Republic, German aerospace engineers experimented with liquid-fueled rockets, with the goal that one day they would be capable of reaching high altitudes and traversing long distances. The head of the German Army's Ballistics and Munitions Branch, Lieutenant Colonel Karl Emil Becker, gathered a small team of engineers that included Walter Dornberger and Leo Zanssen, to figure out how to use rockets as long-range artillery in order to get around the Treaty of Versailles' ban on research and development of long-range cannons. Wernher von Braun, a young engineering prodigy, was recruited by Becker and Dornberger to join their secret army program at Kummersdorf-West in 1932. Von Braun had dreams about conquering outer space with rockets, and did not initially see the military value in missile technology.

Q1: Where were the actual origin of the Space Race?
A1: Germany
Q2: What were German aerospace engineers experimenting with in the 1930's?
A2: liquid-fueled rockets
Q3: What engineer was recruited by Becker and Dornberger to join their secret program?
A3: Wernher von Braun
Q4: Which war in history did the Space Race begin to take root?
A4: World War II
Q5: A secretive army installation began in Kummersdorf-West in what year?
A5: 1932
During the Second World War, General Dornberger was the military head of the army's rocket program, Zanssen became the commandant of the Peenemünde army rocket centre, and von Braun was the technical director of the ballistic missile program. They would lead the team that built the Aggregate-4 (A-4) rocket, which became the first vehicle to reach outer space during its test flight program in 1942 and 1943. By 1943, Germany began mass-producing the A-4 as the Vergeltungswaffe 2 ("Vengeance Weapon" 2, or more commonly, V2), a ballistic missile with a 320 kilometers (200 mi) range carrying a 1,130 kilograms (2,490 lb) warhead at 4,000 kilometers per hour (2,500 mph). Its supersonic speed meant there was no defense against it, and radar detection provided little warning. Germany used the weapon to bombard southern England and parts of Allied-liberated western Europe from 1944 until 1945. After the war, the V-2 became the basis of early American and Soviet rocket designs.

Q1: What was von Braun's role in the army's rocket program during during World War II?
A1: technical director of the ballistic missile program
Q2: What was the name of the first vehicle to reach outer space?
A2: the Aggregate-4
Q3: During WWII, who was in charge of the German army's rocket program?
A3: General Dornberger
Q4: What was the first object to enter space?
A4: Aggregate-4 (A-4) rocket
Q5: When did the Aggregate-4 (A-4) rocket reach space?
A5: 1942 and 1943
At war's end, American, British, and Soviet scientific intelligence teams competed to capture Germany's rocket engineers along with the German rockets themselves and the designs on which they were based. Each of the Allies captured a share of the available members of the German rocket team, but the United States benefited the most with Operation Paperclip, recruiting von Braun and most of his engineering team, who later helped develop the American missile and space exploration programs. The United States also acquired a large number of complete V2 rockets.

Q1: After World War II what did the American, English and Soviet allies want to capture?
A1: Germany's rocket engineers
Q2: What military operation allowed the US to recruit the German engineer, Von Braun?
A2: Operation Paperclip
Q3: The US had captured what type of missiles during Operation Paperclip?
A3: V2 rockets