romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
Darwin's barnacle studies convinced him that variation arose constantly and not just in response to changed circumstances. In 1854, he completed the last part of his Beagle-related writing and began working full-time on evolution. His thinking changed from the view that species formed in isolated populations only, as on islands, to an emphasis on speciation without isolation; that is, he saw increasing specialisation within large stable populations as continuously exploiting new ecological niches. He conducted empirical research focusing on difficulties with his theory. He studied the developmental and anatomical differences between different breeds of many domestic animals, became actively involved in fancy pigeon breeding, and experimented (with the help of his son Francis) on ways that plant seeds and animals might disperse across oceans to colonise distant islands. By 1856, his theory was much more sophisticated, with a mass of supporting evidence.

Q1: What creatures did Darwin study that made him believe variation arose constantly?
A1: barnacle
Q2: In what year did Darwin begin to work on his evolution theory full-time?
A2: 1854
Q3: By which year had Darwin's theory become more complex and supported by a lot of evidence?
A3: 1856
Q4: Which bird species did Darwin become extremely interested in studying?
A4: fancy pigeon
Q5: What species did Darwin study for dispersal across oceans>
A5: plant seeds and animals
An 1855 paper on the "introduction" of species, written by Alfred Russel Wallace, claimed that patterns in the geographical distribution of living and fossil species could be explained if every new species always came into existence near an already existing, closely related species. Charles Lyell recognised the implications of Wallace's paper and its possible connection to Darwin's work, although Darwin did not, and in a letter written on 1–2 May 1856 Lyell urged Darwin to publish his theory to establish priority. Darwin was torn between the desire to set out a full and convincing account and the pressure to quickly produce a short paper. He met Lyell, and in correspondence with Joseph Dalton Hooker affirmed that he did not want to expose his ideas to review by an editor as would have been required to publish in an academic journal. He began a "sketch" account on 14 May 1856, and by July had decided to produce a full technical treatise on species. His theory including the principle of divergence was complete by 5 September 1857 when he sent Asa Gray a brief but detailed abstract of his ideas.

Q1: When was the "Introduction of Species" paper written?
A1: 1855
Q2: Who wrote the "Introduction of Species" paper?
A2: Alfred Russel Wallace
Q3: How did Wallace claim that patterns in the distribution of species could be explained?
A3: if every new species always came into existence near an already existing, closely related species
Q4: Which scientist recognized the possible validity and implications of Wallace's paper?
A4: Charles Lyell
Q5: When did Lyell ask Darwin to publish his theory to give it priority?
A5: 1–2 May 1856
Darwin was hard at work on his "big book" on Natural Selection, when on 18 June 1858 he received a parcel from Wallace, who stayed on the Maluku Islands (Ternate and Gilolo). It enclosed twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism, a response to Darwin's recent encouragement, with a request to send it on to Lyell if Darwin thought it worthwhile. The mechanism was similar to Darwin's own theory. Darwin wrote to Lyell that "your words have come true with a vengeance, ... forestalled" and he would "of course, at once write and offer to send [it] to any journal" that Wallace chose, adding that "all my originality, whatever it may amount to, will be smashed". Lyell and Hooker agreed that a joint publication putting together Wallace's pages with extracts from Darwin's 1844 Essay and his 1857 letter to Gray should be presented at the Linnean Society, and on 1 July 1858, the papers entitled On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection, by Wallace and Darwin respectively, were read out but drew little reaction. While Darwin considered Wallace's idea to be identical to his concept of natural selection, historians have pointed out differences. Darwin described natural selection as being analogous to the artificial selection practised by animal breeders, and emphasised competition between individuals; Wallace drew no comparison to selective breeding, and focused on ecological pressures that kept different varieties adapted to local conditions. Some historians have suggested that Wallace was actually discussing group selection rather than selection acting on individual variation.

Q1: Which book was Darwin working on when he received a package from Wallace?
A1: "big book" on Natural Selection,
Q2: What was in the packages Darwin received from Wallace?
A2: twenty pages describing an evolutionary mechanism
Q3: Who wrote the paper, On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties?
A3: Wallace
Q4: Who wrote the paper, On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties?
A4: Darwin
Q5: What do some historians think made Wallace's concept of natural selection different from Darwin's?
A5: Some historians have suggested that Wallace was actually discussing group selection rather than selection acting on individual variation.
After the meeting, Darwin decided to write "an abstract of my whole work". He started work on 20 July 1858, while on holiday at Sandown, and wrote parts of it from memory. Lyell discussed arrangements with publisher John Murray III, of the publishing house John Murray, who responded immediately to Darwin's letter of 31 March 1859 with an agreement to publish the book without even seeing the manuscript, and an offer to Darwin of 2⁄3 of the profits. (eventually Murray paid £180 to Darwin for the 1st edition and by Darwin's death in 1882 the book was in its 6th edition, earning Darwin nearly £3000.)

Q1: What did Darwin decide to write in July, 1858?
A1: "an abstract of my whole work".
Q2: Which publisher did Lyell convince to arrange publication of Darwin's work?
A2: John Murray III
Q3: What did the publisher offer Darwin in payment for the book?
A3: 2⁄3 of the profits
Q4: What edition was the book in by the time of Darwin's death?
A4: 6th edition
Q5: How much had the book earned Darwin by the time he died?
A5: nearly £3000
Darwin had initially decided to call his book An abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties Through natural selection, but with Murray's persuasion it was eventually changed to the snappier title: On the Origin of Species, with the title page adding by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. Here the term "races" is used as an alternative for "varieties" and does not carry the modern connotation of human races—the first use in the book refers to "the several races, for instance, of the cabbage" and proceeds to a discussion of "the hereditary varieties or races of our domestic animals and plants".

Q1: What title did Darwin's book ultimately have?
A1: On the Origin of Species
Q2: What had Darwin wanted to name his book?
A2: An abstract of an Essay on the Origin of Species and Varieties Through natural selection
Q3: Who convinced Darwin that his book needed a shorter, more compelling title?
A3: Murray
Q4: What does the word "races" mean as referenced in Darwin's book?
A4: an alternative for "varieties" and does not carry the modern connotation of human races
Q5: What is the extended name of The Origin of Species that is written on the title page?
A5: by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life
Darwin had his basic theory of natural selection "by which to work" by December 1838, yet almost twenty years later, when Wallace's letter arrived on 18 June 1858, Darwin was still not ready to publish his theory. It was long thought that Darwin avoided or delayed making his ideas public for personal reasons. Reasons suggested have included fear of religious persecution or social disgrace if his views were revealed, and concern about upsetting his clergymen naturalist friends or his pious wife Emma. Charles Darwin's illness caused repeated delays. His paper on Glen Roy had proved embarrassingly wrong, and he may have wanted to be sure he was correct. David Quammen has suggested all these factors may have contributed, and notes Darwin's large output of books and busy family life during that time.

Q1: By which year did Darwin have the basic premise of his natural selection theory?
A1: 1838
Q2: Why might Darwin have postponed publishing his theory of evolution for over 20 years?
A2: fear of religious persecution or social disgrace
Q3: Which paper did Darwin write that was incorrect?
A3: Glen Roy
Q4: Who might Darwin have feared upsetting by publishing his work?
A4: his clergymen naturalist friends or his pious wife Emma.
A more recent study by science historian John van Wyhe has determined that the idea that Darwin delayed publication only dates back to the 1940s, and Darwin's contemporaries thought the time he took was reasonable. Darwin always finished one book before starting another. While he was researching, he told many people about his interest in transmutation without causing outrage. He firmly intended to publish, but it was not until September 1854 that he could work on it full-time. His estimate that writing his "big book" would take five years was optimistic.

Q1: What did Darwin's contemporaries think of the long delays on his publishing?
A1: Darwin's contemporaries thought the time he took was reasonable
Q2: What was Darwin's process on writing his books?
A2: Darwin always finished one book before starting another
Q3: What was Darwin's original estimate for the amount of time his book would take to write?
A3: five years
Q4: Which scientist's study theorized that the idea of Darwin's work being delayed dates to the 1940s?
A4: John van Wyhe
On the Origin of Species was first published on Thursday 24 November 1859, priced at fifteen shillings with a first printing of 1250 copies. The book had been offered to booksellers at Murray's autumn sale on Tuesday 22 November, and all available copies had been taken up immediately. In total, 1,250 copies were printed but after deducting presentation and review copies, and five for Stationers' Hall copyright, around 1,170 copies were available for sale. Significantly, 500 were taken by Mudie's Library, ensuring that the book promptly reached a large number of subscribers to the library. The second edition of 3,000 copies was quickly brought out on 7 January 1860, and incorporated numerous corrections as well as a response to religious objections by the addition of a new epigraph on page ii, a quotation from Charles Kingsley, and the phrase "by the Creator" added to the closing sentence. During Darwin's lifetime the book went through six editions, with cumulative changes and revisions to deal with counter-arguments raised. The third edition came out in 1861, with a number of sentences rewritten or added and an introductory appendix, An Historical Sketch of the Recent Progress of Opinion on the Origin of Species, while the fourth in 1866 had further revisions. The fifth edition, published on 10 February 1869, incorporated more changes and for the first time included the phrase "survival of the fittest", which had been coined by the philosopher Herbert Spencer in his Principles of Biology (1864).

Q1: What was the cost for the first published copies of On the Origin of Species?
A1: fifteen shillings
Q2: How many copies of On the Origin of Species were created in the first printing?
A2: 1250 copies
Q3: Where was the book, On the Origin of Species first offered for sale?
A3: Murray's autumn sale
Q4: How many editions did On the Origin of Species go through during Darwin's lifetime?
A4: six editions
Q5: Which institution bought 500 copies of the book, ensuring that a large number of people would have access to it?
A5: Mudie's Library
In January 1871, George Jackson Mivart's On the Genesis of Species listed detailed arguments against natural selection, and claimed it included false metaphysics. Darwin made extensive revisions to the sixth edition of the Origin (this was the first edition in which he used the word "evolution" which had commonly been associated with embryological development, though all editions concluded with the word "evolved"), and added a new chapter VII, Miscellaneous objections, to address Mivart's arguments.

Q1: What did On the Genesis of Species argue against natural selection?
A1: claimed it included false metaphysics
Q2: Who wrote On the Genesis of Species?
A2: George Jackson Mivart
Q3: When did Charles Darwin first use the word "evolution" in On the Origin of Species?
A3: the sixth edition
Q4: What did Charles Darwin do to address Mivart's arguments?
A4: added a new chapter VII,
Q5: What was chapter VII entitled?
A5: Miscellaneous objections
In the United States, botanist Asa Gray an American colleague of Darwin negotiated with a Boston publisher for publication of an authorised American version, but learnt that two New York publishing firms were already planning to exploit the absence of international copyright to print Origin. Darwin was delighted by the popularity of the book, and asked Gray to keep any profits. Gray managed to negotiate a 5% royalty with Appleton's of New York, who got their edition out in mid January 1860, and the other two withdrew. In a May letter, Darwin mentioned a print run of 2,500 copies, but it is not clear if this referred to the first printing only as there were four that year.

Q1: Why couldn't Asa Gray use a Boston publisher for an American version of On the Origin of Species?
A1: two New York publishing firms were already planning to exploit the absence of international copyright to print Origin
Q2: How much of a royalty was Gray able to negotiate with a New York publisher for On the Origin of Species?
A2: a 5% royalty
Q3: When was the first American edition of On the Origin of Species published?
A3: mid January 1860
Q4: What did Darwin decide to do with the profits of the American version of On the Origin of Species?
A4: asked Gray to keep any profits
Q5: What was the print run that Darwin mentioned for On the Origin of Species?
A5: 2,500 copies
The book was widely translated in Darwin's lifetime, but problems arose with translating concepts and metaphors, and some translations were biased by the translator's own agenda. Darwin distributed presentation copies in France and Germany, hoping that suitable applicants would come forward, as translators were expected to make their own arrangements with a local publisher. He welcomed the distinguished elderly naturalist and geologist Heinrich Georg Bronn, but the German translation published in 1860 imposed Bronn's own ideas, adding controversial themes that Darwin had deliberately omitted. Bronn translated "favoured races" as "perfected races", and added essays on issues including the origin of life, as well as a final chapter on religious implications partly inspired by Bronn's adherence to Naturphilosophie. In 1862, Bronn produced a second edition based on the third English edition and Darwin's suggested additions, but then died of a heart attack. Darwin corresponded closely with Julius Victor Carus, who published an improved translation in 1867. Darwin's attempts to find a translator in France fell through, and the translation by Clémence Royer published in 1862 added an introduction praising Darwin's ideas as an alternative to religious revelation and promoting ideas anticipating social Darwinism and eugenics, as well as numerous explanatory notes giving her own answers to doubts that Darwin expressed. Darwin corresponded with Royer about a second edition published in 1866 and a third in 1870, but he had difficulty getting her to remove her notes and was troubled by these editions. He remained unsatisfied until a translation by Edmond Barbier was published in 1876. A Dutch translation by Tiberius Cornelis Winkler was published in 1860. By 1864, additional translations had appeared in Italian and Russian. In Darwin's lifetime, Origin was published in Swedish in 1871, Danish in 1872, Polish in 1873, Hungarian in 1873–1874, Spanish in 1877 and Serbian in 1878. By 1977, it had appeared in an additional 18 languages.

Q1: Who was the German translator that Darwin welcomed for On the Origin of Species?
A1: Heinrich Georg Bronn,
Q2: What did Bronn do in his translation that went completely against what Darwin wanted in On the Origin of Species?
A2: the German translation published in 1860 imposed Bronn's own ideas, adding controversial themes that Darwin had deliberately omitted.
Q3: What did Bronn change "Favoured Races" to in his translated edition of On the Origin of Species?
A3: "perfected races"
Q4: Who published an improved translation of On the Origin of Species in 1867?
A4: Julius Victor Carus
Q5: Why was Darwin unhappy with the first French translation of On the Origins of Species?
A5: numerous explanatory notes giving her own answers to doubts that Darwin expressed
Page ii contains quotations by William Whewell and Francis Bacon on the theology of natural laws, harmonising science and religion in accordance with Isaac Newton's belief in a rational God who established a law-abiding cosmos. In the second edition, Darwin added an epigraph from Joseph Butler affirming that God could work through scientific laws as much as through miracles, in a nod to the religious concerns of his oldest friends. The Introduction establishes Darwin's credentials as a naturalist and author, then refers to John Herschel's letter suggesting that the origin of species "would be found to be a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process":

Q1: What was Isaac Newton's belief about God  on the theory of natural law?
A1: a rational God who established a law-abiding cosmos
Q2: Whose epigraph did Darwin add to On the Origin of Species harmonizing God with science and miracles together?
A2: Joseph Butler
Q3: Whose letter does the introduction to On the Origin of Species refer?
A3: John Herschel
Q4: In which edition of On the Origin of Species was the epigraph from Joseph Butler added?
A4: the second edition
Chapter I covers animal husbandry and plant breeding, going back to ancient Egypt. Darwin discusses contemporary opinions on the origins of different breeds under cultivation to argue that many have been produced from common ancestors by selective breeding. As an illustration of artificial selection, he describes fancy pigeon breeding, noting that "[t]he diversity of the breeds is something astonishing", yet all were descended from one species of rock pigeon. Darwin saw two distinct kinds of variation: (1) rare abrupt changes he called "sports" or "monstrosities" (example: ancon sheep with short legs), and (2) ubiquitous small differences (example: slightly shorter or longer bill of pigeons). Both types of hereditary changes can be used by breeders. However, for Darwin the small changes were most important in evolution.

Q1: How far back does Chapter One of On the Origin of Species go in its coverage of animal and plant species?
A1: ancient Egypt
Q2: What does Darwin use to illustrate the effects of artificial selection?
A2: fancy pigeon breeding
Q3: From what does Darwin assert all pigeons are descended?
A3: one species of rock pigeon
Q4: Which evolutionary changes were the most important to Darwin?
A4: the small changes
In Chapter II, Darwin specifies that the distinction between species and varieties is arbitrary, with experts disagreeing and changing their decisions when new forms were found. He concludes that "a well-marked variety may be justly called an incipient species" and that "species are only strongly marked and permanent varieties". He argues for the ubiquity of variation in nature. Historians have noted that naturalists had long been aware that the individuals of a species differed from one another, but had generally considered such variations to be limited and unimportant deviations from the archetype of each species, that archetype being a fixed ideal in the mind of God. Darwin and Wallace made variation among individuals of the same species central to understanding the natural world.

Q1: What does Darwin believe about the differences between species and varieties?
A1: is arbitrary
Q2: What does Darwin theorize about different species with regard to variety?
A2: "species are only strongly marked and permanent varieties"
Q3: What did Darwin and Wallace make central to understanding the natural world?
A3: variation among individuals of the same species
Q4: What did Darwin say that a "well marked variety" could be called?
A4: incipient species"
Q5: What did historians say that naturalists generally thought about the differences in variations in a species?
A5: generally considered such variations to be limited and unimportant deviations from the archetype of each species
He notes that both A. P. de Candolle and Charles Lyell had stated that all organisms are exposed to severe competition. Darwin emphasizes that he used the phrase "struggle for existence" in "a large and metaphorical sense, including dependence of one being on another"; he gives examples ranging from plants struggling against drought to plants competing for birds to eat their fruit and disseminate their seeds. He describes the struggle resulting from population growth: "It is the doctrine of Malthus applied with manifold force to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms." He discusses checks to such increase including complex ecological interdependencies, and notes that competition is most severe between closely related forms "which fill nearly the same place in the economy of nature".

Q1: What is the struggle that Darwin describes about population likened to?
A1: doctrine of Malthus
Q2: Within what frame of reference does Darwin use the phrase "Struggle for Existence?"
A2: "a large and metaphorical sense
Q3: What was Charles Lyell's perception of what organisms are exposed to in their struggle for survival?
A3: all organisms are exposed to severe competition
Q4: When is competition strongest in the natural world?
A4: competition is most severe between closely related forms
Q5: Why is competition so fierce between related species?
A5: fill nearly the same place in the economy of nature".
Chapter IV details natural selection under the "infinitely complex and close-fitting ... mutual relations of all organic beings to each other and to their physical conditions of life". Darwin takes as an example a country where a change in conditions led to extinction of some species, immigration of others and, where suitable variations occurred, descendants of some species became adapted to new conditions. He remarks that the artificial selection practised by animal breeders frequently produced sharp divergence in character between breeds, and suggests that natural selection might do the same, saying:

Q1: What did Darwin say that artificial selection by animal breeders often causes?
A1: sharp divergence in character between breeds,
Q2: What did Darwin say could happen somewhere if there is a change in conditions?
A2: extinction of some species
Q3: What can happen if species immigrate to a new location?
A3: descendants of some species became adapted to new conditions