romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
The synthesis of urea by Friedrich Wöhler opened a new research field, organic chemistry, and by the end of the 19th century, scientists were able to synthesize hundreds of organic compounds. The later part of the 19th century saw the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals, after the exhaustion of the oil supply from whaling. By the 20th century, systematic production of refined materials provided a ready supply of products which provided not only energy, but also synthetic materials for clothing, medicine, and everyday disposable resources. Application of the techniques of organic chemistry to living organisms resulted in physiological chemistry, the precursor to biochemistry. The 20th century also saw the integration of physics and chemistry, with chemical properties explained as the result of the electronic structure of the atom. Linus Pauling's book on The Nature of the Chemical Bond used the principles of quantum mechanics to deduce bond angles in ever-more complicated molecules. Pauling's work culminated in the physical modelling of DNA, the secret of life (in the words of Francis Crick, 1953). In the same year, the Miller–Urey experiment demonstrated in a simulation of primordial processes, that basic constituents of proteins, simple amino acids, could themselves be built up from simpler molecules.

Q1: What scientific act is Friedrich Wohler known for?
A1: The synthesis of urea
Q2: What scientific field did Wohler discover?
A2: organic chemistry
Q3: Late 19th century is marked by what event?
A3: the exploitation of the Earth's petrochemicals
Q4: Mixing organic chemistry with living organisms created what early form of biochemistry?
A4: physiological chemistry
Q5: Who wrote The Nature of the Chemical Bond?
A5: Linus Pauling
Geology existed as a cloud of isolated, disconnected ideas about rocks, minerals, and landforms long before it became a coherent science. Theophrastus' work on rocks, Peri lithōn, remained authoritative for millennia: its interpretation of fossils was not overturned until after the Scientific Revolution. Chinese polymath Shen Kua (1031–1095) first formulated hypotheses for the process of land formation. Based on his observation of fossils in a geological stratum in a mountain hundreds of miles from the ocean, he deduced that the land was formed by erosion of the mountains and by deposition of silt.

Q1: What was the work of Theophrastus on rocks called?
A1: Peri lithōn
Q2: When were Theophrastus' ideas about fossils proven false?
A2: the Scientific Revolution
Q3: When did Shen Kua live?
A3: 1031–1095
Q4: What science did Shen Kua observe?
A4: land formation
Geology did not undergo systematic restructuring during the Scientific Revolution, but individual theorists made important contributions. Robert Hooke, for example, formulated a theory of earthquakes, and Nicholas Steno developed the theory of superposition and argued that fossils were the remains of once-living creatures. Beginning with Thomas Burnet's Sacred Theory of the Earth in 1681, natural philosophers began to explore the idea that the Earth had changed over time. Burnet and his contemporaries interpreted Earth's past in terms of events described in the Bible, but their work laid the intellectual foundations for secular interpretations of Earth history.

Q1: What happened to geology during the Scientific Revolution?
A1: individual theorists made important contributions
Q2: What did Robert Hooke study?
A2: earthquakes
Q3: What theory did Nicholas Steno discover?
A3: the theory of superposition
Q4: What book did Thomas Burnet right in 1681?
A4: Sacred Theory of the Earth
Q5: What text did Burnet base his work off of?
A5: the Bible
Modern geology, like modern chemistry, gradually evolved during the 18th and early 19th centuries. Benoît de Maillet and the Comte de Buffon saw the Earth as much older than the 6,000 years envisioned by biblical scholars. Jean-Étienne Guettard and Nicolas Desmarest hiked central France and recorded their observations on some of the first geological maps. Aided by chemical experimentation, naturalists such as Scotland's John Walker, Sweden's Torbern Bergman, and Germany's Abraham Werner created comprehensive classification systems for rocks and minerals—a collective achievement that transformed geology into a cutting edge field by the end of the eighteenth century. These early geologists also proposed a generalized interpretations of Earth history that led James Hutton, Georges Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart, following in the steps of Steno, to argue that layers of rock could be dated by the fossils they contained: a principle first applied to the geology of the Paris Basin. The use of index fossils became a powerful tool for making geological maps, because it allowed geologists to correlate the rocks in one locality with those of similar age in other, distant localities. Over the first half of the 19th century, geologists such as Charles Lyell, Adam Sedgwick, and Roderick Murchison applied the new technique to rocks throughout Europe and eastern North America, setting the stage for more detailed, government-funded mapping projects in later decades.

Q1: How old did biblical scholars think the Earth was?
A1: 6,000 years
Q2: Jean-Etienne Guettard and NIcolas Desmarest went to France and recorded what?
A2: the first geological maps
Q3: In the 18th century, what changed geology drastically?
A3: comprehensive classification systems for rocks and minerals
Q4: What are used to create geological maps?
A4: index fossils
Q5: What geological theory was applied to the Paris Basin?
A5: layers of rock could be dated by the fossils they contained
Midway through the 19th century, the focus of geology shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand how the surface of the Earth had changed. The first comprehensive theories of mountain building were proposed during this period, as were the first modern theories of earthquakes and volcanoes. Louis Agassiz and others established the reality of continent-covering ice ages, and "fluvialists" like Andrew Crombie Ramsay argued that river valleys were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them. After the discovery of radioactivity, radiometric dating methods were developed, starting in the 20th century. Alfred Wegener's theory of "continental drift" was widely dismissed when he proposed it in the 1910s, but new data gathered in the 1950s and 1960s led to the theory of plate tectonics, which provided a plausible mechanism for it. Plate tectonics also provided a unified explanation for a wide range of seemingly unrelated geological phenomena. Since 1970 it has served as the unifying principle in geology.

Q1: What changed about the way geology was implemented during the 19th century?
A1: shifted from description and classification to attempts to understand how the surface of the Earth had changed
Q2: The idea of an ice-age that completely covered a continent was suggested by whom?
A2: Louis Agassiz
Q3: What group did Andrew Crombie Ramsay belong to?
A3: fluvialists
Q4: What did Ramsay believe about river valleys?
A4: were formed, over millions of years by the rivers that flow through them
Q5: What happened after radioactivity was realized?
A5: radiometric dating methods were developed
In 1847, Hungarian physician Ignác Fülöp Semmelweis dramatically reduced the occurrency of puerperal fever by simply requiring physicians to wash their hands before attending to women in childbirth. This discovery predated the germ theory of disease. However, Semmelweis' findings were not appreciated by his contemporaries and came into use only with discoveries by British surgeon Joseph Lister, who in 1865 proved the principles of antisepsis. Lister's work was based on the important findings by French biologist Louis Pasteur. Pasteur was able to link microorganisms with disease, revolutionizing medicine. He also devised one of the most important methods in preventive medicine, when in 1880 he produced a vaccine against rabies. Pasteur invented the process of pasteurization, to help prevent the spread of disease through milk and other foods.

Q1: What was Ignac Fulop Semmelweis' profession?
A1: physician
Q2: How did Semmelweis reduce puerperal fever?
A2: requiring physicians to wash their hands
Q3: What came after the realization that physicians should was their hands before childbirth?
A3: the germ theory of disease
Q4: What did Joseph Lister prove?
A4: antisepsis
Q5: Who did Joseph Lister base his work off of?
A5: Louis Pasteur
Perhaps the most prominent, controversial and far-reaching theory in all of science has been the theory of evolution by natural selection put forward by the British naturalist Charles Darwin in his book On the Origin of Species in 1859. Darwin proposed that the features of all living things, including humans, were shaped by natural processes over long periods of time. The theory of evolution in its current form affects almost all areas of biology. Implications of evolution on fields outside of pure science have led to both opposition and support from different parts of society, and profoundly influenced the popular understanding of "man's place in the universe". In the early 20th century, the study of heredity became a major investigation after the rediscovery in 1900 of the laws of inheritance developed by the Moravian monk Gregor Mendel in 1866. Mendel's laws provided the beginnings of the study of genetics, which became a major field of research for both scientific and industrial research. By 1953, James D. Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins clarified the basic structure of DNA, the genetic material for expressing life in all its forms. In the late 20th century, the possibilities of genetic engineering became practical for the first time, and a massive international effort began in 1990 to map out an entire human genome (the Human Genome Project).

Q1: Which scientist championed the idea of evolution?
A1: Charles Darwin
Q2: What was the name of the book that Darwin wrote about evolution?
A2: On the Origin of Species
Q3: What was the reception of Darwin's ideas about evolution?
A3: both opposition and support from different parts of society
Q4: Who rediscovered the laws of inheritance?
A4: Moravian monk Gregor Mendel
Q5: What was the major break through for the study of genetics?
A5: the basic structure of DNA
The discipline of ecology typically traces its origin to the synthesis of Darwinian evolution and Humboldtian biogeography, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Equally important in the rise of ecology, however, were microbiology and soil science—particularly the cycle of life concept, prominent in the work Louis Pasteur and Ferdinand Cohn. The word ecology was coined by Ernst Haeckel, whose particularly holistic view of nature in general (and Darwin's theory in particular) was important in the spread of ecological thinking. In the 1930s, Arthur Tansley and others began developing the field of ecosystem ecology, which combined experimental soil science with physiological concepts of energy and the techniques of field biology. The history of ecology in the 20th century is closely tied to that of environmentalism; the Gaia hypothesis, first formulated in the 1960s, and spreading in the 1970s, and more recently the scientific-religious movement of Deep Ecology have brought the two closer together.

Q1: The discipline of ecology is a combination of what two subjects?
A1: Darwinian evolution and Humboldtian biogeography
Q2: What did the work of Louis Pasteur and Ferdinand Cohn focus on?
A2: the cycle of life concept
Q3: Who came up with the word "ecology"?
A3: Ernst Haeckel
Q4: When was the Gaia hypothesis discovered?
A4: in the 1960s
Q5: What movement occurred during the 1970s?
A5: Deep Ecology
Political science is a late arrival in terms of social sciences[citation needed]. However, the discipline has a clear set of antecedents such as moral philosophy, political philosophy, political economy, history, and other fields concerned with normative determinations of what ought to be and with deducing the characteristics and functions of the ideal form of government. The roots of politics are in prehistory. In each historic period and in almost every geographic area, we can find someone studying politics and increasing political understanding.

Q1: What larger group does political science belong to?
A1: social sciences
Q2: Where did the ideas of political science begin?
A2: prehistory
Q3: In history, where could you find someone studying politics?
A3: in almost every geographic area
In Western culture, the study of politics is first found in Ancient Greece. The antecedents of European politics trace their roots back even earlier than Plato and Aristotle, particularly in the works of Homer, Hesiod, Thucydides, Xenophon, and Euripides. Later, Plato analyzed political systems, abstracted their analysis from more literary- and history- oriented studies and applied an approach we would understand as closer to philosophy. Similarly, Aristotle built upon Plato's analysis to include historical empirical evidence in his analysis.

Q1: Where did studying politics originate?
A1: Ancient Greece
Q2: What did Plato study?
A2: political systems
Q3: What method did Plato use to understand political systems?
A3: philosophy
Q4: What did Aristotle add to Plato's work?
A4: historical empirical evidence
An ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economic policy and military strategy by Kautilya and Viṣhṇugupta, who are traditionally identified with Chāṇakya (c. 350–-283 BCE). In this treatise, the behaviors and relationships of the people, the King, the State, the Government Superintendents, Courtiers, Enemies, Invaders, and Corporations are analysed and documented. Roger Boesche describes the Arthaśāstra as "a book of political realism, a book analysing how the political world does work and not very often stating how it ought to work, a book that frequently discloses to a king what calculating and sometimes brutal measures he must carry out to preserve the state and the common good."

Q1: Who are Kautilya and Vishnugupta usually grouped with?
A1: Chāṇakya
Q2: What did the Arthasastra say a king must use?
A2: brutal measures
Q3: When was Chanakya alive?
A3: 350–-283 BCE
With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, there arose a more diffuse arena for political studies. The rise of monotheism and, particularly for the Western tradition, Christianity, brought to light a new space for politics and political action[citation needed]. During the Middle Ages, the study of politics was widespread in the churches and courts. Works such as Augustine of Hippo's The City of God synthesized current philosophies and political traditions with those of Christianity, redefining the borders between what was religious and what was political. Most of the political questions surrounding the relationship between Church and State were clarified and contested in this period.

Q1: What allowed political studies to spread?
A1: the fall of the Western Roman Empire
Q2: What new idea caused politics to cover a larger spectrum?
A2: monotheism
Q3: Where did politics touch in the Middle Ages?
A3: churches and courts
Q4: Who wrote The City of God?
A4: Augustine of Hippo
Q5: What did The City of God change?
A5: the borders between what was religious and what was political
Historical linguistics emerged as an independent field of study at the end of the 18th century. Sir William Jones proposed that Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Celtic languages all shared a common base. After Jones, an effort to catalog all languages of the world was made throughout the 19th century and into the 20th century. Publication of Ferdinand de Saussure's Cours de linguistique générale created the development of descriptive linguistics. Descriptive linguistics, and the related structuralism movement caused linguistics to focus on how language changes over time, instead of just describing the differences between languages. Noam Chomsky further diversified linguistics with the development of generative linguistics in the 1950s. His effort is based upon a mathematical model of language that allows for the description and prediction of valid syntax. Additional specialties such as sociolinguistics, cognitive linguistics, and computational linguistics have emerged from collaboration between linguistics and other disciplines.

Q1: What new subject surface at the end of the 18th century?
A1: Historical linguistics
Q2: Who realized that languages like Sanskrit, Persian, and Greek share the same foundation?
A2: Sir William Jones
Q3: What did Sir William Jones do to document his work?
A3: catalog all languages of the world
Q4: What did Noam Chomsky add to the study of linguistics?
A4: the development of generative linguistics
Q5: What method did Chomsky use to develop generative linguistics?
A5: a mathematical model of language
The basis for classical economics forms Adam Smith's An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, published in 1776. Smith criticized mercantilism, advocating a system of free trade with division of labour. He postulated an "invisible hand" that regulated economic systems made up of actors guided only by self-interest. Karl Marx developed an alternative economic theory, called Marxian economics. Marxian economics is based on the labor theory of value and assumes the value of good to be based on the amount of labor required to produce it. Under this assumption, capitalism was based on employers not paying the full value of workers labor to create profit. The Austrian school responded to Marxian economics by viewing entrepreneurship as driving force of economic development. This replaced the labor theory of value by a system of supply and demand.

Q1: Who wrote An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations?
A1: Adam Smith
Q2: What did Adam Smith's work cover?
A2: The basis for classical economics
Q3: What idea did Adam Smith disagree with?
A3: mercantilism
Q4: What idea did Adam Smith propose?
A4: an "invisible hand"
Q5: Who is Marxian economics named after?
A5: Karl Marx
In the 1920s, John Maynard Keynes prompted a division between microeconomics and macroeconomics. Under Keynesian economics macroeconomic trends can overwhelm economic choices made by individuals. Governments should promote aggregate demand for goods as a means to encourage economic expansion. Following World War II, Milton Friedman created the concept of monetarism. Monetarism focuses on using the supply and demand of money as a method for controlling economic activity. In the 1970s, monetarism has adapted into supply-side economics which advocates reducing taxes as a means to increase the amount of money available for economic expansion.

Q1: What did John Maynard Keynes want to separate?
A1: microeconomics and macroeconomics
Q2: What concept did Milton Friedman propose after World War II?
A2: monetarism
Q3: How did monaterism aim to control the economy?
A3: using the supply and demand of money
Q4: In the 1970s, what did monaterism turn into?
A4: supply-side economics
Q5: How did supply-side economics try to increase the amount of money in the market?
A5: reducing taxes
The above "history of economics" reflects modern economic textbooks and this means that the last stage of a science is represented as the culmination of its history (Kuhn, 1962). The "invisible hand" mentioned in a lost page in the middle of a chapter in the middle of the to "Wealth of Nations", 1776, advances as Smith's central message.[clarification needed] It is played down that this "invisible hand" acts only "frequently" and that it is "no part of his [the individual's] intentions" because competition leads to lower prices by imitating "his" invention. That this "invisible hand" prefers "the support of domestic to foreign industry" is cleansed—often without indication that part of the citation is truncated. The opening passage of the "Wealth" containing Smith's message is never mentioned as it cannot be integrated into modern theory: "Wealth" depends on the division of labour which changes with market volume and on the proportion of productive to Unproductive labor.

Q1: When was Wealth of Nations written?
A1: 1776
Q2: How present was Smith's invisible hand intended to be?
A2: frequently
Q3: What happens in a market when there is competition?
A3: lower prices
Q4: What is the most important part of "Wealth"?
A4: the division of labour
The end of the 19th century marks the start of psychology as a scientific enterprise. The year 1879 is commonly seen as the start of psychology as an independent field of study. In that year Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory dedicated exclusively to psychological research (in Leipzig). Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in memory studies), Ivan Pavlov (who discovered classical conditioning), William James, and Sigmund Freud. Freud's influence has been enormous, though more as cultural icon than a force in scientific psychology.

Q1: What was the beginning of psychology classified as?
A1: a scientific enterprise
Q2: What year is most commonly referred to as the beginning of psychology?
A2: 1879
Q3: Who has the first lab completely dedicated to psychology?
A3: Wilhelm Wundt
Q4: What did Hermann Ebbinghaus study?
A4: memory studies
Q5: What was Ivan Pavlov known for?
A5: classical conditioning
The final decades of the 20th century have seen the rise of a new interdisciplinary approach to studying human psychology, known collectively as cognitive science. Cognitive science again considers the mind as a subject for investigation, using the tools of psychology, linguistics, computer science, philosophy, and neurobiology. New methods of visualizing the activity of the brain, such as PET scans and CAT scans, began to exert their influence as well, leading some researchers to investigate the mind by investigating the brain, rather than cognition. These new forms of investigation assume that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible, and that such an understanding may be applied to other research domains, such as artificial intelligence.

Q1: What is the group that human psychology belongs to?
A1: cognitive science
Q2: What is investigated in cognitive science?
A2: the mind
Q3: What inventions advanced the study of cognitive science?
A3: PET scans and CAT scans
Q4: What new technology could be created as a result of studying cognitive science?
A4: artificial intelligence
Ibn Khaldun can be regarded as the earliest scientific systematic sociologist. The modern sociology, emerged in the early 19th century as the academic response to the modernization of the world. Among many early sociologists (e.g., Émile Durkheim), the aim of sociology was in structuralism, understanding the cohesion of social groups, and developing an "antidote" to social disintegration. Max Weber was concerned with the modernization of society through the concept of rationalization, which he believed would trap individuals in an "iron cage" of rational thought. Some sociologists, including Georg Simmel and W. E. B. Du Bois, utilized more microsociological, qualitative analyses. This microlevel approach played an important role in American sociology, with the theories of George Herbert Mead and his student Herbert Blumer resulting in the creation of the symbolic interactionism approach to sociology.

Q1: What was Ibn Khaldun's profession?
A1: scientific systematic sociologist
Q2: When did modern sociology surface?
A2: early 19th century
Q3: What is the main goal of sociology?
A3: understanding the cohesion of social groups
Q4: How did Max Weber view rationalization?
A4: he believed would trap individuals in an "iron cage"