romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
Ninety-five percent of bird species are socially monogamous. These species pair for at least the length of the breeding season or—in some cases—for several years or until the death of one mate. Monogamy allows for both paternal care and biparental care, which is especially important for species in which females require males' assistance for successful brood-rearing. Among many socially monogamous species, extra-pair copulation (infidelity) is common. Such behaviour typically occurs between dominant males and females paired with subordinate males, but may also be the result of forced copulation in ducks and other anatids. Female birds have sperm storage mechanisms that allow sperm from males to remain viable long after copulation, a hundred days in some species. Sperm from multiple males may compete through this mechanism. For females, possible benefits of extra-pair copulation include getting better genes for her offspring and insuring against the possibility of infertility in her mate. Males of species that engage in extra-pair copulations will closely guard their mates to ensure the parentage of the offspring that they raise.

Q1: What percent of bird species are socially monogamous?
A1: Ninety-five percent
Q2: What do female birds have that allow sperm from males to remain viable long after copulation?
A2: sperm storage mechanisms
Q3: What is extra-pair copulation?
A3: infidelity
Q4: Why do males that engage in extra-pair copulation closely guard their mates?
A4: to ensure the parentage of the offspring that they raise
Breeding usually involves some form of courtship display, typically performed by the male. Most displays are rather simple and involve some type of song. Some displays, however, are quite elaborate. Depending on the species, these may include wing or tail drumming, dancing, aerial flights, or communal lekking. Females are generally the ones that drive partner selection, although in the polyandrous phalaropes, this is reversed: plainer males choose brightly coloured females. Courtship feeding, billing and allopreening are commonly performed between partners, generally after the birds have paired and mated.

Q1: Which gender typically performs some form of courtship display?
A1: male
Q2: Most courtship displays involve some type of what?
A2: song
Q3: Which gender generally drive partner selection?:
A3: Females
Q4: Generally, when is courtship feeding and billing performed between partners?
A4: after the birds have paired and mated
All birds lay amniotic eggs with hard shells made mostly of calcium carbonate. Hole and burrow nesting species tend to lay white or pale eggs, while open nesters lay camouflaged eggs. There are many exceptions to this pattern, however; the ground-nesting nightjars have pale eggs, and camouflage is instead provided by their plumage. Species that are victims of brood parasites have varying egg colours to improve the chances of spotting a parasite's egg, which forces female parasites to match their eggs to those of their hosts.

Q1: What kind of eggs to all birds lay?
A1: amniotic eggs
Q2: All birds lay eggs with hard shells made mostly out of what?
A2: calcium carbonate
Q3: What type of birds lay white or pale eggs?
A3: Hole and burrow nesting species
Q4: What kind of eggs do open nesters lay?
A4: camouflaged eggs
Bird eggs are usually laid in a nest. Most species create somewhat elaborate nests, which can be cups, domes, plates, beds scrapes, mounds, or burrows. Some bird nests, however, are extremely primitive; albatross nests are no more than a scrape on the ground. Most birds build nests in sheltered, hidden areas to avoid predation, but large or colonial birds—which are more capable of defence—may build more open nests. During nest construction, some species seek out plant matter from plants with parasite-reducing toxins to improve chick survival, and feathers are often used for nest insulation. Some bird species have no nests; the cliff-nesting common guillemot lays its eggs on bare rock, and male emperor penguins keep eggs between their body and feet. The absence of nests is especially prevalent in ground-nesting species where the newly hatched young are precocial.

Q1: Where do birds usually lay their eggs?
A1: nest
Q2: What type of birds lay its eggs on bare rock?
A2: cliff-nesting common guillemot
Q3: Where do male emporer penguins keep eggs?
A3: between their body and feet
Q4: Which type of bird nests are no more than a scrape on the ground?
A4: albatross
Incubation, which optimises temperature for chick development, usually begins after the last egg has been laid. In monogamous species incubation duties are often shared, whereas in polygamous species one parent is wholly responsible for incubation. Warmth from parents passes to the eggs through brood patches, areas of bare skin on the abdomen or breast of the incubating birds. Incubation can be an energetically demanding process; adult albatrosses, for instance, lose as much as 83 grams (2.9 oz) of body weight per day of incubation. The warmth for the incubation of the eggs of megapodes comes from the sun, decaying vegetation or volcanic sources. Incubation periods range from 10 days (in woodpeckers, cuckoos and passerine birds) to over 80 days (in albatrosses and kiwis).

Q1: What process optimises temperature for chick development?
A1: Incubation
Q2: When does incubation begin?
A2: after the last egg has been laid
Q3: What are areas of bare skin on the abdomen or breast of incubating birds?
A3: brood patches
Q4: How many days is the incubation period for woodpeckers?
A4: 10 days
Q5: How many days is the incubation period for kiwis?
A5: over 80 days
The length and nature of parental care varies widely amongst different orders and species. At one extreme, parental care in megapodes ends at hatching; the newly hatched chick digs itself out of the nest mound without parental assistance and can fend for itself immediately. At the other extreme, many seabirds have extended periods of parental care, the longest being that of the great frigatebird, whose chicks take up to six months to fledge and are fed by the parents for up to an additional 14 months. The chick guard stage describes the period of breeding during which one of the adult birds is permanently present at the nest after chicks have hatched. The main purpose of the guard stage is to aid offspring to thermoregulate and protect them from predation.

Q1: When does parental care end in megapodes?
A1: at hatching
Q2: What type of seabird has the longest period of parental care?
A2: frigatebird
Q3: What is the period of breeding during which one of the adult birds is always present at the nest?
A3: chick guard stage
In some species, both parents care for nestlings and fledglings; in others, such care is the responsibility of only one sex. In some species, other members of the same species—usually close relatives of the breeding pair, such as offspring from previous broods—will help with the raising of the young. Such alloparenting is particularly common among the Corvida, which includes such birds as the true crows, Australian magpie and fairy-wrens, but has been observed in species as different as the rifleman and red kite. Among most groups of animals, male parental care is rare. In birds, however, it is quite common—more so than in any other vertebrate class. Though territory and nest site defence, incubation, and chick feeding are often shared tasks, there is sometimes a division of labour in which one mate undertakes all or most of a particular duty.

Q1: Alloparenting is particulary common with what species?
A1: Corvida
Q2: True crows belong to what group?
A2: Corvida
Q3: What is more common in birds than any other vertebrate class?
A3: male parental care
The point at which chicks fledge varies dramatically. The chicks of the Synthliboramphus murrelets, like the ancient murrelet, leave the nest the night after they hatch, following their parents out to sea, where they are raised away from terrestrial predators. Some other species, such as ducks, move their chicks away from the nest at an early age. In most species, chicks leave the nest just before, or soon after, they are able to fly. The amount of parental care after fledging varies; albatross chicks leave the nest on their own and receive no further help, while other species continue some supplementary feeding after fledging. Chicks may also follow their parents during their first migration.

Q1: Which chicks leave the nest the night after they hatch?
A1: chicks of the Synthliboramphus murrelets
Q2: Name a species which move their chicks away from the nest at an early age.
A2: ducks
Q3: When do most species of chicks leave the nest?
A3: just before, or soon after, they are able to fly
Brood parasitism, in which an egg-layer leaves her eggs with another individual's brood, is more common among birds than any other type of organism. After a parasitic bird lays her eggs in another bird's nest, they are often accepted and raised by the host at the expense of the host's own brood. Brood parasites may be either obligate brood parasites, which must lay their eggs in the nests of other species because they are incapable of raising their own young, or non-obligate brood parasites, which sometimes lay eggs in the nests of conspecifics to increase their reproductive output even though they could have raised their own young. One hundred bird species, including honeyguides, icterids, and ducks, are obligate parasites, though the most famous are the cuckoos. Some brood parasites are adapted to hatch before their host's young, which allows them to destroy the host's eggs by pushing them out of the nest or to kill the host's chicks; this ensures that all food brought to the nest will be fed to the parasitic chicks.

Q1: What is it called when an egg-layer leaves her eggs with another individual's brood?
A1: Brood parasitism
Q2: How many bird species are obligate parasites?
A2: One hundred
Q3: What type of birds lay eggs in the nests of conspecifics to increase their reproductive output?
A3: non-obligate brood parasites
Birds have evolved a variety of mating behaviors, with the peacock tail being perhaps the most famous example of sexual selection and the Fisherian runaway. Commonly occurring sexual dimorphisms such as size and color differences are energetically costly attributes that signal competitive breeding situations. Many types of avian sexual selection have been identified; intersexual selection, also known as female choice; and intrasexual competition, where individuals of the more abundant sex compete with each other for the privilege to mate. Sexually selected traits often evolve to become more pronounced in competitive breeding situations until the trait begins to limit the individual’s fitness. Conflicts between an individual fitness and signaling adaptations ensure that sexually selected ornaments such as plumage coloration and courtship behavior are "honest" traits. Signals must be costly to ensure that only good-quality individuals can present these exaggerated sexual ornaments and behaviors.

Q1: What is the most famous example of sexual selection?
A1: peacock tail
Q2: What is intersexual selection also known as?
A2: female choice
Q3: What is it called when individuals of the more abundant sex compete with each other for the privilege to mate?
A3: intrasexual competition
Incestuous matings by the purple-crowned fairy wren Malurus coronatus result in severe fitness costs due to inbreeding depression (greater than 30% reduction in hatchability of eggs). Females paired with related males may undertake extra pair matings (see Promiscuity#Other animals for 90% frequency in avian species) that can reduce the negative effects of inbreeding. However, there are ecological and demographic constraints on extra pair matings. Nevertheless, 43% of broods produced by incestuously paired females contained extra pair young.

Q1: What is it called when there is greater than 30 percent reduction in hatchability of eggs?
A1: inbreeding depression
Q2: What can reduce the negative effects of inbreeding?
A2: Females paired with related males may undertake extra pair matings
Q3: What percentage of broods produced by incestuously paired females contained extra pair of young?
A3: 43%
Cooperative breeding in birds typically occurs when offspring, usually males, delay dispersal from their natal group in order to remain with the family to help rear younger kin. Female offspring rarely stay at home, dispersing over distances that allow them to breed independently, or to join unrelated groups. In general, inbreeding is avoided because it leads to a reduction in progeny fitness (inbreeding depression) due largely to the homozygous expression of deleterious recessive alleles. Cross-fertilization between unrelated individuals ordinarily leads to the masking of deleterious recessive alleles in progeny.

Q1: What occurs when offspring delay dispersal from their natal group?
A1: Cooperative breeding
Q2: What leads to the masking of deleterious recesive alleles in progeny?
A2: Cross-fertilization between unrelated individuals
Q3: Why is inbreeding avoided?
A3: because it leads to a reduction in progeny fitness
Birds occupy a wide range of ecological positions. While some birds are generalists, others are highly specialised in their habitat or food requirements. Even within a single habitat, such as a forest, the niches occupied by different species of birds vary, with some species feeding in the forest canopy, others beneath the canopy, and still others on the forest floor. Forest birds may be insectivores, frugivores, and nectarivores. Aquatic birds generally feed by fishing, plant eating, and piracy or kleptoparasitism. Birds of prey specialise in hunting mammals or other birds, while vultures are specialised scavengers. Avivores are animals that are specialized at preying on birds.

Q1: What type of birds generally feed by fishing, plant eating or piracy?
A1: Aquatic birds
Q2: What type of birds may be either insectivores, frugivores and nectarivores?
A2: Forest birds
Q3: What type of birds specialise in hunting mammals or other birds?
A3: Birds of prey
Birds are often important to island ecology. Birds have frequently reached islands that mammals have not; on those islands, birds may fulfill ecological roles typically played by larger animals. For example, in New Zealand the moas were important browsers, as are the kereru and kokako today. Today the plants of New Zealand retain the defensive adaptations evolved to protect them from the extinct moa. Nesting seabirds may also affect the ecology of islands and surrounding seas, principally through the concentration of large quantities of guano, which may enrich the local soil and the surrounding seas.

Q1: What are often important to island ecology?
A1: Birds
Q2: In New Zealand, what were important browsers, as the kereru and kokako are today?
A2: moas
Q3: What type of birds may also affect the ecology of islands and surrounding areas?
A3: Nesting seabirds
Since birds are highly visible and common animals, humans have had a relationship with them since the dawn of man. Sometimes, these relationships are mutualistic, like the cooperative honey-gathering among honeyguides and African peoples such as the Borana. Other times, they may be commensal, as when species such as the house sparrow have benefited from human activities. Several bird species have become commercially significant agricultural pests, and some pose an aviation hazard. Human activities can also be detrimental, and have threatened numerous bird species with extinction (hunting, avian lead poisoning, pesticides, roadkill, and predation by pet cats and dogs are common sources of death for birds).

Q1: What is it called when the house sparrow has benefited from human activity?
A1: commensal
Q2: What have threatened numerous bird species with extinction?
A2: Human activities
Q3: Why have humans had a relationship with birds since the dawn of man?
A3: Since birds are highly visible and common animals
Domesticated birds raised for meat and eggs, called poultry, are the largest source of animal protein eaten by humans; in 2003, 76 million tons of poultry and 61 million tons of eggs were produced worldwide. Chickens account for much of human poultry consumption, though domesticated turkeys, ducks, and geese are also relatively common. Many species of birds are also hunted for meat. Bird hunting is primarily a recreational activity except in extremely undeveloped areas. The most important birds hunted in North and South America are waterfowl; other widely hunted birds include pheasants, wild turkeys, quail, doves, partridge, grouse, snipe, and woodcock. Muttonbirding is also popular in Australia and New Zealand. Though some hunting, such as that of muttonbirds, may be sustainable, hunting has led to the extinction or endangerment of dozens of species.

Q1: What are domesticated birds raised for meat and eggs?
A1: poultry
Q2: What is the largest source of animal protein eaten by humans?
A2: poultry
Q3: In 2003, how many tons of poultry were produced worldwide?
A3: 76 million tons
Q4: What is primarily a recreational activity except in extremely underdeveloped areas?
A4: Bird hunting
Birds have been domesticated by humans both as pets and for practical purposes. Colourful birds, such as parrots and mynas, are bred in captivity or kept as pets, a practice that has led to the illegal trafficking of some endangered species. Falcons and cormorants have long been used for hunting and fishing, respectively. Messenger pigeons, used since at least 1 AD, remained important as recently as World War II. Today, such activities are more common either as hobbies, for entertainment and tourism, or for sports such as pigeon racing.

Q1: Why have birds been domesticated by humans?
A1: both as pets and for practical purposes
Q2: What type of birds are bred in captivity or kept as pets?
A2: Colourful birds
Q3: How long have messenger pigeons been used?
A3: since at least 1 AD
Birds play prominent and diverse roles in religion and mythology. In religion, birds may serve as either messengers or priests and leaders for a deity, such as in the Cult of Makemake, in which the Tangata manu of Easter Island served as chiefs or as attendants, as in the case of Hugin and Munin, the two common ravens who whispered news into the ears of the Norse god Odin. In several civilizations of ancient Italy, particularly Etruscan and Roman religion, priests were involved in augury, or interpreting the words of birds while the "auspex" (from which the word "auspicious" is derived) watched their activities to foretell events. They may also serve as religious symbols, as when Jonah (Hebrew: יוֹנָה, dove) embodied the fright, passivity, mourning, and beauty traditionally associated with doves. Birds have themselves been deified, as in the case of the common peacock, which is perceived as Mother Earth by the Dravidians of India. In religious images preserved from the Inca and Tiwanaku empires, birds are depicted in the process of transgressing boundaries between earthly and underground spiritual realms. Indigenous peoples of the central Andes maintain legends of birds passing to and from metaphysical worlds. The mythical chullumpi bird is said to mark the existence of a portal between such worlds, and to transform itself into a llama.

Q1: What play prominent roles in religion and mythology?
A1: Birds
Q2: The word auspicious is derived from which word?
A2: auspex
Q3: What is said to mark the existence of a portal between such worlds, and to transform itself into a llama?
A3: mythical chullumpi bird
Birds have featured in culture and art since prehistoric times, when they were represented in early cave paintings. Some birds have been perceived as monsters, including the mythological Roc and the Māori's legendary Pouākai, a giant bird capable of snatching humans. Birds were later used as symbols of power, as in the magnificent Peacock Throne of the Mughal and Persian emperors. With the advent of scientific interest in birds, many paintings of birds were commissioned for books. Among the most famous of these bird artists was John James Audubon, whose paintings of North American birds were a great commercial success in Europe and who later lent his name to the National Audubon Society. Birds are also important figures in poetry; for example, Homer incorporated nightingales into his Odyssey, and Catullus used a sparrow as an erotic symbol in his Catullus 2. The relationship between an albatross and a sailor is the central theme of Samuel Taylor Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, which led to the use of the term as a metaphor for a 'burden'. Other English metaphors derive from birds; vulture funds and vulture investors, for instance, take their name from the scavenging vulture.

Q1: When were birds represented in early cave paintings?
A1: since prehistoric times
Q2: What is a mythological giant bird capable of snatching humans?
A2: Pouākai
Q3: John James Audubon later lent his name to which group?
A3: National Audubon Society
Q4: What did Homer incorporate into his Odyssey?
A4: nightingales
Q5: The relationship between an albatross and a sailor is the central theme of what book?
A5: The Rime of the Ancient Mariner
Though human activities have allowed the expansion of a few species, such as the barn swallow and European starling, they have caused population decreases or extinction in many other species. Over a hundred bird species have gone extinct in historical times, although the most dramatic human-caused avian extinctions, eradicating an estimated 750–1800 species, occurred during the human colonisation of Melanesian, Polynesian, and Micronesian islands. Many bird populations are declining worldwide, with 1,227 species listed as threatened by BirdLife International and the IUCN in 2009.

Q1: How many bird species have gone extinct in historical times?
A1: Over a hundred
Q2: How many species are listed as threatened by BirdLife International and the IUCN?
A2: 1,227
Q3: When did the most dramatic human-caused avian extinctions occur?
A3: during the human colonisation of Melanesian, Polynesian, and Micronesian islands
The Qing dynasty (Chinese: 清朝; pinyin: Qīng Cháo; Wade–Giles: Ch'ing Ch'ao; IPA: [tɕʰíŋ tʂʰɑ̌ʊ̯]), officially the Great Qing (Chinese: 大清; pinyin: Dà Qīng), also called the Empire of the Great Qing, or the Manchu dynasty, was the last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China. The Qing multi-cultural empire lasted almost three centuries and formed the territorial base for the modern Chinese state.

Q1: What was the last Chinese dynasty?
A1: Great Qing, or the Manchu dynasty
Q2: When did the Manchu dynasty rule?
A2: 1644 to 1912
Q3: What was the dynasty that ruled before the Manchu?
A3: Ming
Q4: What government took over from the Manchu dynasty?
A4: Republic of China
Q5: What is another name for the Manchu dynasty?
A5: Qing