romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
The central Sahara is estimated to include five hundred species of plants, which is extremely low considering the huge extent of the area. Plants such as acacia trees, palms, succulents, spiny shrubs, and grasses have adapted to the arid conditions, by growing lower to avoid water loss by strong winds, by storing water in their thick stems to use it in dry periods, by having long roots that travel horizontally to reach the maximum area of water and to find any surface moisture and by having small thick leaves or needles to prevent water loss by evapo-transpiration. Plant leaves may dry out totally and then recover.

Q1: What is the number of plants in the Central Sahara?
A1: five hundred species
Q2: What do plants do in order to avoid water loss?
A2: growing lower
Q3: Where do plants store their water to avoid the conditions?
A3: thick stems
Q4: What helps plants in order to get as much water as   possible?
A4: long roots that travel horizontally
The Saharan cheetah (northwest African cheetah) lives in Algeria, Togo, Niger, Mali, Benin, and Burkina Faso. There remain fewer than 250 mature cheetahs, which are very cautious, fleeing any human presence. The cheetah avoids the sun from April to October, seeking the shelter of shrubs such as balanites and acacias. They are unusually pale. The other cheetah subspecies (northeast African cheetah) lives in Chad, Sudan and the eastern region of Niger. However, it is currently extinct in the wild of Egypt and Libya. They are approximately 2,000 mature individuals left in the wild.

Q1: How many cheetahs remain in the Northwest Africa area?
A1: 250
Q2: What months do the cheetah's avoid the sun?
A2: April to October
Q3: How many many cheetah's are left in the wild?
A3: 2,000
human activities are more likely to affect the habitat in areas of permanent water (oases) or where water comes close to the surface. Here, the local pressure on natural resources can be intense. The remaining populations of large mammals have been greatly reduced by hunting for food and recreation. In recent years development projects have started in the deserts of Algeria and Tunisia using irrigated water pumped from underground aquifers. These schemes often lead to soil degradation and salinization.

Q1: What activities from these mammals will likely affect   habitat areas?
A1: human activities
Q2: What underground items have lead to soil degradation?
A2: irrigated water pumped
Q3: What kind of pressure can be intense in the Sahara?
A3: natural resources
People lived on the edge of the desert thousands of years ago since the last ice age. The Sahara was then a much wetter place than it is today. Over 30,000 petroglyphs of river animals such as crocodiles survive, with half found in the Tassili n'Ajjer in southeast Algeria. Fossils of dinosaurs, including Afrovenator, Jobaria and Ouranosaurus, have also been found here. The modern Sahara, though, is not lush in vegetation, except in the Nile Valley, at a few oases, and in the northern highlands, where Mediterranean plants such as the olive tree are found to grow. It was long believed that the region had been this way since about 1600 BCE, after shifts in the Earth's axis increased temperatures and decreased precipitation. However, this theory has recently been called into dispute, when samples taken from several 7 million year old sand deposits led scientists to reconsider the timeline for desertification.

Q1: When did people start living on the edge of the desert?
A1: ice age
Q2: How many river animals were thought to be found during   the ice age era?
A2: Over 30,000 petroglyphs
Q3: What area of the Sahara is full of vegetation?
A3: the Nile Valley
Q4: What is believed to have increased temperatures in the   Sahara?
A4: shifts in the Earth's axis
During the Neolithic Era, before the onset of desertification, around 9500 BCE the central Sudan had been a rich environment supporting a large population ranging across what is now barren desert, like the Wadi el-Qa'ab. By the 5th millennium BCE, the people who inhabited what is now called Nubia, were full participants in the "agricultural revolution", living a settled lifestyle with domesticated plants and animals. Saharan rock art of cattle and herdsmen suggests the presence of a cattle cult like those found in Sudan and other pastoral societies in Africa today. Megaliths found at Nabta Playa are overt examples of probably the world's first known archaeoastronomy devices, predating Stonehenge by some 2,000 years. This complexity, as observed at Nabta Playa, and as expressed by different levels of authority within the society there, likely formed the basis for the structure of both the Neolithic society at Nabta and the Old Kingdom of Egypt.

Q1: During what era was the central Sudan rich in environment?
A1: Neolithic Era
Q2: What kind of rock art was found in the Sudan?
A2: cattle and herdsmen
Q3: What are examples of the first known archaeoastronomy   found in Nabta Playa?
A3: Megaliths
By 6000 BCE predynastic Egyptians in the southwestern corner of Egypt were herding cattle and constructing large buildings. Subsistence in organized and permanent settlements in predynastic Egypt by the middle of the 6th millennium BCE centered predominantly on cereal and animal agriculture: cattle, goats, pigs and sheep. Metal objects replaced prior ones of stone. Tanning of animal skins, pottery and weaving were commonplace in this era also. There are indications of seasonal or only temporary occupation of the Al Fayyum in the 6th millennium BCE, with food activities centering on fishing, hunting and food-gathering. Stone arrowheads, knives and scrapers from the era are commonly found. Burial items included pottery, jewelry, farming and hunting equipment, and assorted foods including dried meat and fruit. Burial in desert environments appears to enhance Egyptian preservation rites, and dead were buried facing due west.

Q1: What were Egyptians herding in the early BCE period?
A1: cattle
Q2: By what time period were the Egyptians constructing  large buildings?
A2: 6000 BCE
Q3: What items replaced previously items made of stone?
A3: Metal objects
Q4: In which direction were the dead facing when they were   buried?
A4: due west
By 3400 BCE, the Sahara was as dry as it is today, due to reduced precipitation and higher temperatures resulting from a shift in the Earth's orbit. As a result of this aridification, it became a largely impenetrable barrier to humans, with the remaining settlements mainly being concentrated around the numerous oases that dot the landscape. Little trade or commerce is known to have passed through the interior in subsequent periods, the only major exception being the Nile Valley. The Nile, however, was impassable at several cataracts, making trade and contact by boat difficult.

Q1: By What time period was the Sahara dry like it is today?
A1: 3400 BCE
Q2: What was the main reason that the Sahara became so   dry?
A2: reduced precipitation and higher temperatures
Q3: What area is known for having the majority of the trade?
A3: the Nile Valley
By 500 BCE, Greeks arrived in the desert. Greek traders spread along the eastern coast of the desert, establishing trading colonies along the Red Sea. The Carthaginians explored the Atlantic coast of the desert, but the turbulence of the waters and the lack of markets caused a lack of presence further south than modern Morocco. Centralized states thus surrounded the desert on the north and east; it remained outside the control of these states. Raids from the nomadic Berber people of the desert were a constant concern of those living on the edge of the desert.

Q1: Where did the Greeks established their trading colonies?
A1: Red Sea
Q2: Which coast did the Carthaginians explore for trade?
A2: the Atlantic coast
Q3: Who would raid the desert leaving the people in constant   fear?
A3: nomadic Berber
An urban civilization, the Garamantes, arose around 500 BCE in the heart of the Sahara, in a valley that is now called the Wadi al-Ajal in Fezzan, Libya. The Garamantes achieved this development by digging tunnels far into the mountains flanking the valley to tap fossil water and bring it to their fields. The Garamantes grew populous and strong, conquering their neighbors and capturing many slaves (which were put to work extending the tunnels). The ancient Greeks and the Romans knew of the Garamantes and regarded them as uncivilized nomads. However, they traded with the Garamantes, and a Roman bath has been found in the Garamantes capital of Garama. Archaeologists have found eight major towns and many other important settlements in the Garamantes territory. The Garamantes civilization eventually collapsed after they had depleted available water in the aquifers and could no longer sustain the effort to extend the tunnels further into the mountains.

Q1: What time period did the Garamantes arrive in?
A1: 500 BCE
Q2: What did the Garamantes do in order to bring water to   their crops?
A2: digging tunnels
Q3: How many towns are believed to be found by   Archaeologists?
A3: eight major towns
Q4: What was the reason for the collapse of the Garamantes   civilization?
A4: depleted available water
The Byzantine Empire ruled the northern shores of the Sahara from the 5th to the 7th centuries. After the Muslim conquest of Arabia (Arabian peninsula) the Muslim conquest of North Africa began in the mid-7th to early 8th centuries, Islamic influence expanded rapidly on the Sahara. By the end of 641 all of Egypt was in Muslim hands. The trade across the desert intensified. A significant slave trade crossed the desert. It has been estimated that from the 10th to 19th centuries some 6,000 to 7,000 slaves were transported north each year.

Q1: What group of people ruled the northern shoes of the   Sahara?
A1: Byzantine Empire
Q2: What time period did the Muslim conquest of North Africa   take place?
A2: mid-7th to early 8th centuries
Q3: What is the estimated number of slaves that were   transported each year?
A3: 6,000 to 7,000 slaves
In the 16th century the northern fringe of the Sahara, such as coastal regencies in present-day Algeria and Tunisia, as well as some parts of present-day Libya, together with the semi-autonomous kingdom of Egypt, were occupied by the Ottoman Empire. From 1517 Egypt was a valued part of the Ottoman Empire, ownership of which provided the Ottomans with control over the Nile Valley, the east Mediterranean and North Africa. The benefit of the Ottoman Empire was the freedom of movement for citizens and goods. Trade exploited the Ottoman land routes to handle the spices, gold and silk from the East, manufactures from Europe, and the slave and gold traffic from Africa. Arabic continued as the local language and Islamic culture was much reinforced. The Sahel and southern Sahara regions were home to several independent states or to roaming Tuareg clans.

Q1: During the 1500 who was a valued part of the Ottoman   Empire?
A1: Egypt
Q2: What did the Ottoman Empire provide to its people?
A2: freedom of movement for citizens and goods
Q3: What was the local language during this time in Egypt?
A3: Arabic
European colonialism in the Sahara began in the 19th century. France conquered the regency of Algiers from the Ottomans in 1830, and French rule spread south from Algeria and eastwards from Senegal into the upper Niger to include present-day Algeria, Chad, Mali then French Sudan including Timbuktu, Mauritania, Morocco (1912), Niger, and Tunisia (1881). By the beginning of the 20th century, the trans-Saharan trade had clearly declined because goods were moved through more modern and efficient means, such as airplanes, rather than across the desert.

Q1: What time period did the colonialism of the Sahara begin?
A1: 19th century
Q2: What country conquered the Algiers from the Ottomans in   1830?
A2: France
Q3: During what time were good moved through more modern   means?
A3: 20th century
Arabic dialects are the most widely spoken languages in the Sahara. The live in the Red Sea Hills of southeastern Egypt and eastern Sudan. Arabic, Berber and its variants now regrouped under the term Amazigh (which includes the Guanche language spoken by the original Berber inhabitants of the Canary Islands) and Beja languages are part of the Afro-Asiatic or Hamito-Semitic family.[citation needed] Unlike neighboring West Africa and the central governments of the states that comprise the Sahara, the French language bears little relevance to inter-personal discourse and commerce within the region, its people retaining staunch ethnic and political affiliations with Tuareg and Berber leaders and culture. The legacy of the French colonial era administration is primarily manifested in the territorial reorganization enacted by the Third and Fourth republics, which engendered artificial political divisions within a hitherto isolated and porous region. Diplomacy with local clients was primarily conducted in Arabic, which was the traditional language of bureaucratic affairs. Mediation of disputes and inter-agency communication was served by interpreters contracted by the French government, who, according to Keenan, "documented a space of intercultural mediation," contributing much to preserving indigenous cultural identities in the region.

Q1: What is the most common dialect spoken in the Sahara?
A1: Arabic
Q2: What language is mainly spoken in West Africa?
A2: French
Q3: What was the traditional language of Bureaucratic affairs?
A3: Arabic
The rule of law is the legal principle that law should govern a nation, as opposed to being governed by arbitrary decisions of individual government officials. It primarily refers to the influence and authority of law within society, particularly as a constraint upon behaviour, including behaviour of government officials. The phrase can be traced back to 16th century Britain, and in the following century the Scottish theologian Samuel Rutherford used the phrase in his argument against the divine right of kings. The rule of law was further popularized in the 19th century by British jurist A. V. Dicey. The concept, if not the phrase, was familiar to ancient philosophers such as Aristotle, who wrote "Law should govern".

Q1: Which Scottish theologian is first credited with using the phrase "rule of law"?
A1: Samuel Rutherford
Q2: Which British jurist later made the phrase "rule of law" popular in the 1800s?
A2: A. V. Dicey
Q3: What phrase Ariostle also use which is closely related to "the rule of law"?
A3: Law should govern
Q4: Samuel Rutherford used the principle of the rule of law to argue what point?
A4: against the divine right of kings
Q5: According to the rule of law, what should hold the determination for rules in a land?
A5: law
Rule of law implies that every citizen is subject to the law, including law makers themselves. In this sense, it stands in contrast to an autocracy, dictatorship, or oligarchy where the rulers are held above the law. Lack of the rule of law can be found in both democracies and dictatorships, for example because of neglect or ignorance of the law, and the rule of law is more apt to decay if a government has insufficient corrective mechanisms for restoring it. Government based upon the rule of law is called nomocracy.

Q1: In what forms of government are leaders not held to the same laws as ordinary citizens?
A1: autocracy, dictatorship, or oligarchy
Q2: According to the rule of law, who must obey the laws?
A2: every citizen
Q3: What are governments called that are created with the rule of law in mind?
A3: nomocracy
Q4: What happens to the rule of law if a government does not have an effective system for maintenance and restoration?
A4: decay
Q5: For what reasons might democratic societies not follow the rule of law?
A5: neglect or ignorance of the law
In the West, the ancient Greeks initially regarded the best form of government as rule by the best men. Plato advocated a benevolent monarchy ruled by an idealized philosopher king, who was above the law. Plato nevertheless hoped that the best men would be good at respecting established laws, explaining that "Where the law is subject to some other authority and has none of its own, the collapse of the state, in my view, is not far off; but if law is the master of the government and the government is its slave, then the situation is full of promise and men enjoy all the blessings that the gods shower on a state." More than Plato attempted to do, Aristotle flatly opposed letting the highest officials wield power beyond guarding and serving the laws. In other words, Aristotle advocated the rule of law:

Q1: On what principle did the Ancient Greeks first think was best for governance?
A1: rule by the best men
Q2: According to Plato, who was above the law?
A2: king
Q3: What type of kingdom was purported by Plato?
A3: benevolent monarchy
Q4: Under what rule did Aristotle believe a nation should be led?
A4: rule of law
Q5: To what did Plato compare a government that follows laws?
A5: slave
There has recently been an effort to reevaluate the influence of the Bible on Western constitutional law. In the Old Testament, there was some language in Deuteronomy imposing restrictions on the Jewish king, regarding such things as how many wives he could have, and how many horses he could own for his personal use. According to Professor Bernard M. Levinson, "This legislation was so utopian in its own time that it seems never to have been implemented...." The Deuteronomic social vision may have influenced opponents of the divine right of kings, including Bishop John Ponet in sixteenth-century England.

Q1: In which book of the Bible are limitations on Jewish monarchs outlined?
A1: Deuteronomy
Q2: Who was against the divine rights of kings in England during the 1500s?
A2: Bishop John Ponet
Q3: What principle did the restrictions on the right of kings, as detailed in Deuteronomy, influence later opposition?
A3: divine right of kings
Q4: What historical book may have a significant impact on contemporary law making practices?
A4: Bible
Q5: According to the restrictions placed on Jewish kings in Deuteronomy, ownership over what was regulated?
A5: horses
In 1607, English Chief Justice Sir Edward Coke said in the Case of Prohibitions (according to his own report) "that the law was the golden met-wand and measure to try the causes of the subjects; and which protected His Majesty in safety and peace: with which the King was greatly offended, and said, that then he should be under the law, which was treason to affirm, as he said; to which I said, that Bracton saith, quod Rex non debed esse sub homine, sed sub Deo et lege (That the King ought not to be under any man but under God and the law.)."

Q1: To what did English Chief Justice Sir Edward Coke compare the law?
A1: golden met-wand
Q2: According to English Chief Justice Sir Edward Coke, what should Kings follow?
A2: God and the law
Q3: When did English Chief Justice Sir Edward Coke speak in the Case of Prohibitions?
A3: 1607
Q4: How did the king feel about what was said in the Case of Prohibitions?
A4: greatly offended
Q5: What was Edward Coke's official title?
A5: Chief Justice Sir
Despite wide use by politicians, judges and academics, the rule of law has been described as "an exceedingly elusive notion". Among modern legal theorists, one finds that at least two principal conceptions of the rule of law can be identified: a formalist or "thin" definition, and a substantive or "thick" definition; one occasionally encounters a third "functional" conception. Formalist definitions of the rule of law do not make a judgment about the "justness" of law itself, but define specific procedural attributes that a legal framework must have in order to be in compliance with the rule of law. Substantive conceptions of the rule of law go beyond this and include certain substantive rights that are said to be based on, or derived from, the rule of law.

Q1: What is another word for a thin definition?
A1: formalist
Q2: What is another word for a thick definition?
A2: substantive
Q3: Who commonly, or at least attempt to, abide by the rule of law?
A3: politicians, judges and academics
Q4: On what do aspects of the rule of law do formalist definitions focus?
A4: specific procedural attributes
Q5: What is the third and lesser referred to approach on defining the rule of law?
A5: functional
Most legal theorists believe that the rule of law has purely formal characteristics, meaning that the law must be publicly declared, with prospective application, and possess the characteristics of generality, equality, and certainty, but there are no requirements with regard to the content of the law. Others, including a few legal theorists, believe that the rule of law necessarily entails protection of individual rights. Within legal theory, these two approaches to the rule of law are seen as the two basic alternatives, respectively labelled the formal and substantive approaches. Still, there are other views as well. Some believe that democracy is part of the rule of law.

Q1: According to legal theorists, what characteristics must the rule of law have?
A1: generality, equality, and certainty
Q2: According to some, what is the rule of law is formed to protect?
A2: individual rights
Q3: What system of government is considered as a component of the rule of law?
A3: democracy
Q4: According to some legal theorists, for what are there no requirements for something to be considered a law?
A4: content
Q5: What are the two approaches to defining the concept of the rule of law?
A5: formal and substantive
The "formal" interpretation is more widespread than the "substantive" interpretation. Formalists hold that the law must be prospective, well-known, and have characteristics of generality, equality, and certainty. Other than that, the formal view contains no requirements as to the content of the law. This formal approach allows laws that protect democracy and individual rights, but recognizes the existence of "rule of law" in countries that do not necessarily have such laws protecting democracy or individual rights.

Q1: Which interpretation of the rule of law is used on a larger scale?
A1: formal
Q2: According to the formalist approach, what else, besides democracy, can laws protect?
A2: individual rights
Q3: According to the formalist approach, how much notoriety must a law have?
A3: well-known
Q4: How many requirements for content are there for the rule of law under the formalist approach?
A4: no requirements
Q5: Which interpretation of the rule of law is less commonly used?
A5: substantive
The functional interpretation of the term "rule of law", consistent with the traditional English meaning, contrasts the "rule of law" with the "rule of man." According to the functional view, a society in which government officers have a great deal of discretion has a low degree of "rule of law", whereas a society in which government officers have little discretion has a high degree of "rule of law". Upholding the rule of law can sometimes require the punishment of those who commit offenses that are justifiable under natural law but not statutory law. The rule of law is thus somewhat at odds with flexibility, even when flexibility may be preferable.

Q1: According to the functional interpretation, what principle is opposite of the rule of man?
A1: rule of law
Q2: What level of discretion do governments with a high degree of the "rule of law" have?
A2: little
Q3: What level of discretion do governments with a low degree of the "rule of law" have?
A3: a great deal
Q4: What happens to those that do not follow to the rule of law?
A4: punishment
Q5: What fights against the rule of law?
A5: flexibility