romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
Mahayana Buddhism received significant theoretical grounding from Nagarjuna (perhaps c. 150–250 CE), arguably the most influential scholar within the Mahayana tradition. Nagarjuna's primary contribution to Buddhist philosophy was the systematic exposition of the concept of śūnyatā, or "emptiness", widely attested in the Prajñāpāramitā sutras that emerged in his era. The concept of emptiness brings together other key Buddhist doctrines, particularly anatta and dependent origination, to refute the metaphysics of Sarvastivada and Sautrantika (extinct non-Mahayana schools). For Nagarjuna, it is not merely sentient beings that are empty of ātman; all phenomena (dharmas) are without any svabhava (literally "own-nature" or "self-nature"), and thus without any underlying essence; they are "empty" of being independent; thus the heterodox theories of svabhava circulating at the time were refuted on the basis of the doctrines of early Buddhism. Nagarjuna's school of thought is known as the Mādhyamaka. Some of the writings attributed to Nagarjuna made explicit references to Mahayana texts, but his philosophy was argued within the parameters set out by the agamas. He may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the Canon. In the eyes of Nagarjuna the Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Mādhyamaka system.

Q1: Nagarjuna's main contribution was the exposition of the concept of what?
A1: śūnyatā
Q2: What does sunyata mean?
A2: emptiness
Q3: Nagarjuna said that sentient beings are empty of what?
A3: ātman
Q4: What does dharmas mean?
A4: phenomena
Sarvastivada teachings—which were criticized by Nāgārjuna—were reformulated by scholars such as Vasubandhu and Asanga and were adapted into the Yogacara school. While the Mādhyamaka school held that asserting the existence or non-existence of any ultimately real thing was inappropriate, some exponents of Yogacara asserted that the mind and only the mind is ultimately real (a doctrine known as cittamatra). Not all Yogacarins asserted that mind was truly existent; Vasubandhu and Asanga in particular did not.[web 11] These two schools of thought, in opposition or synthesis, form the basis of subsequent Mahayana metaphysics in the Indo-Tibetan tradition.

Q1: What teaching were criticized by Nagarjuna?
A1: Sarvastivada teachings
Q2: What scholars reformed Sarvastivada teachings?
A2: Vasubandhu and Asanga
Q3: What is the doctrine that says that the mind and only the mind are real?
A3: cittamatra
Q4: What Yogacarins asserted that the mind was not truly existent?
A4: Vasubandhu and Asanga
Besides emptiness, Mahayana schools often place emphasis on the notions of perfected spiritual insight (prajñāpāramitā) and Buddha-nature (tathāgatagarbha). There are conflicting interpretations of the tathāgatagarbha in Mahāyāna thought. The idea may be traced to Abhidharma, and ultimately to statements of the Buddha in the Nikāyas. In Tibetan Buddhism, according to the Sakya school, tathāgatagarbha is the inseparability of the clarity and emptiness of one's mind. In Nyingma, tathāgatagarbha also generally refers to inseparability of the clarity and emptiness of one's mind. According to the Gelug school, it is the potential for sentient beings to awaken since they are empty (i.e. dependently originated). According to the Jonang school, it refers to the innate qualities of the mind that expresses themselves as omniscience etc. when adventitious obscurations are removed. The "Tathāgatagarbha Sutras" are a collection of Mahayana sutras that present a unique model of Buddha-nature. Even though this collection was generally ignored in India, East Asian Buddhism provides some significance to these texts.

Q1: What does tathagatagarbha mean?
A1: Buddha-nature
Q2: what does prajnaparamita mean?
A2: perfected spiritual insight
Q3: According to what school is tathgatagarbha the inseparability of clairty and emptiness of one's mind?
A3: Sakya
Q4: According to what school does it refer to the innate qualities of the mind that express themselves as omniscience?
A4: Jonang
Q5: What type of sutras were generally ignored in india?
A5: tathāgatagarbha
Nirvana (Sanskrit; Pali: "Nibbāna") means "cessation", "extinction" (of craving and ignorance and therefore suffering and the cycle of involuntary rebirths (saṃsāra)), "extinguished", "quieted", "calmed"; it is also known as "Awakening" or "Enlightenment" in the West. The term for anybody who has achieved nirvana, including the Buddha, is arahant.

Q1: What term means cessation?
A1: Nirvana
Q2: What term means awakening?
A2: nirvana
Q3: What is the term for someone who has achieved nirvana?
A3: arahant
Bodhi (Pāli and Sanskrit, in devanagari: बॊधि) is a term applied to the experience of Awakening of arahants. Bodhi literally means "awakening", but it is more commonly translated into English as "enlightenment". In Early Buddhism, bodhi carried a meaning synonymous to nirvana, using only some different metaphors to describe the experience, which implies the extinction of raga (greed, craving),[web 12] dosa (hate, aversion)[web 13] and moha (delusion).[web 14] In the later school of Mahayana Buddhism, the status of nirvana was downgraded in some scriptures, coming to refer only to the extinction of greed and hate, implying that delusion was still present in one who attained nirvana, and that one needed to attain bodhi to eradicate delusion:

Q1: What is the term applied to the experience of the awakening of arahants?
A1: Bodhi
Q2: In early Buddhism Bodhi used a meaning synonymous to what word?
A2: nirvana
Q3: What is the term for greed or craving?
A3: raga
Q4: what is the word for hate or aversion?
A4: dosa
Q5: What does moha mean?
A5: delusion
Therefore, according to Mahayana Buddhism, the arahant has attained only nirvana, thus still being subject to delusion, while the bodhisattva not only achieves nirvana but full liberation from delusion as well. He thus attains bodhi and becomes a buddha. In Theravada Buddhism, bodhi and nirvana carry the same meaning as in the early texts, that of being freed from greed, hate and delusion.

Q1: What has achieved nirvana and also liberation from delusion?
A1: bodhisattva
Q2: If bodhi is attained what do you become?
A2: a buddha
Q3: In theravada buddhism, bodhi and what term have the same meaning?
A3: nirvana
The term parinirvana is also encountered in Buddhism, and this generally refers to the complete nirvana attained by the arahant at the moment of death, when the physical body expires.

Q1: What term is used for the complete nirvana attained by the arahant at death?
A1: parinirvana
According to Buddhist traditions a Buddha is a fully awakened being who has completely purified his mind of the three poisons of desire, aversion and ignorance. A Buddha is no longer bound by Samsara and has ended the suffering which unawakened people experience in life.

Q1: Who is a fully awakened being who has purified his mind of the three poisons of desire, aversion, and ignorance?
A1: a Buddha
Q2: A Buddha is no longer bound by what?
A2: Samsara
Q3: What do unawakend people experience?
A3: suffering
Buddhists do not consider Siddhartha Gautama to have been the only Buddha. The Pali Canon refers to many previous ones (see List of the 28 Buddhas), while the Mahayana tradition additionally has many Buddhas of celestial, rather than historical, origin (see Amitabha or Vairocana as examples, for lists of many thousands Buddha names see Taishō Shinshū Daizōkyō numbers 439–448). A common Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist belief is that the next Buddha will be one named Maitreya (Pali: Metteyya).

Q1: How many Buddhas are considered to have existed in the Pali Canon?
A1: 28
Q2: A Theravada and Mahayana belief is that the next Buddha will be one named what?
A2: Maitreya
Q3: Mahayana has many Buddhas of what origin?
A3: celestial
In Theravada doctrine, a person may awaken from the "sleep of ignorance" by directly realizing the true nature of reality; such people are called arahants and occasionally buddhas. After numerous lifetimes of spiritual striving, they have reached the end of the cycle of rebirth, no longer reincarnating as human, animal, ghost, or other being. The commentaries to the Pali Canon classify these awakened beings into three types:

Q1: A person can awaken from the "sleep of ignorance" by acknowledging the true nature of what?
A1: reality
Q2: At the end of the cycle of rebirth a person is called what?
A2: arahants
Bodhi and nirvana carry the same meaning, that of being freed from craving, hate, and delusion. In attaining bodhi, the arahant has overcome these obstacles. As a further distinction, the extinction of only hatred and greed (in the sensory context) with some residue of delusion, is called anagami.

Q1: Nirvana and what term carry the same meaning?
A1: Bodhi
Q2: What is the term for extinction of only hatred and greed, with residue of delusion?
A2: anagami
In the Mahayana, the Buddha tends not to be viewed as merely human, but as the earthly projection of a beginningless and endless, omnipresent being (see Dharmakaya) beyond the range and reach of thought. Moreover, in certain Mahayana sutras, the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha are viewed essentially as One: all three are seen as the eternal Buddha himself.

Q1: In the Mahayana, who is thought to be an omnipresent being?
A1: Buddha
Q2: Who is thought to be beyond the range and reach of thought?
A2: Buddha
Q3: In what sutras are the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha viewed as One?
A3: Mahayana
The Buddha's death is seen as an illusion, he is living on in other planes of existence, and monks are therefore permitted to offer "new truths" based on his input. Mahayana also differs from Theravada in its concept of śūnyatā (that ultimately nothing has existence), and in its belief in bodhisattvas (enlightened people who vow to continue being reborn until all beings can be enlightened).

Q1: Buddha's death is seen as an illusion, as he is living in other planes of what?
A1: existence
Q2: Who is permitted to offer "new truths" based on Buddhas input?
A2: monks
Q3: What is the term for the idea of ultimately nothing has existance?
A3: śūnyatā
Q4: Who are enlightened people who vow to continue being reborn?
A4: bodhisattvas
The method of self-exertion or "self-power"—without reliance on an external force or being—stands in contrast to another major form of Buddhism, Pure Land, which is characterized by utmost trust in the salvific "other-power" of Amitabha Buddha. Pure Land Buddhism is a very widespread and perhaps the most faith-orientated manifestation of Buddhism and centres upon the conviction that faith in Amitabha Buddha and the chanting of homage to his name liberates one at death into the Blissful (安樂), Pure Land (淨土) of Amitabha Buddha. This Buddhic realm is variously construed as a foretaste of Nirvana, or as essentially Nirvana itself. The great vow of Amitabha Buddha to rescue all beings from samsaric suffering is viewed within Pure Land Buddhism as universally efficacious, if only one has faith in the power of that vow or chants his name.

Q1: What is characterized by the deep truts in the "other-power" of Amitabha Buddha
A1: Pure Land
Q2: What is perhaps the most faith-oriented for of Buddhism?
A2: Pure Land
Q3: What Buddha vowed to rescue all beings from samsaric suffering?
A3: Amitabha
Buddhists believe Gautama Buddha was the first to achieve enlightenment in this Buddha era and is therefore credited with the establishment of Buddhism. A Buddha era is the stretch of history during which people remember and practice the teachings of the earliest known Buddha. This Buddha era will end when all the knowledge, evidence and teachings of Gautama Buddha have vanished. This belief therefore maintains that many Buddha eras have started and ended throughout the course of human existence.[web 15][web 16] The Gautama Buddha, therefore, is the Buddha of this era, who taught directly or indirectly to all other Buddhas in it (see types of Buddhas).

Q1: Who is believed to have achieved enlightenment first?
A1: Gautama Buddha
Q2: What is the term for the stretch of history during which people rmember and practice the teachings of the earliest known buddha?
A2: A Buddha era
Q3: Who is the Buddha of this Buddha era?
A3: Gautama Buddha
Q4: Who taught directly or indirectly to all other Buddhas?
A4: Gautama Buddha
In addition, Mahayana Buddhists believe there are innumerable other Buddhas in other universes. A Theravada commentary says that Buddhas arise one at a time in this world element, and not at all in others. The understandings of this matter reflect widely differing interpretations of basic terms, such as "world realm", between the various schools of Buddhism.

Q1: Who believes there are innumerable other Buddhas in other universes?
A1: Mahayana Buddhists
Q2: What buddhist belief says that Buddhas come one at a time and not within other eras?
A2: Theravada
The idea of the decline and gradual disappearance of the teaching has been influential in East Asian Buddhism. Pure Land Buddhism holds that it has declined to the point where few are capable of following the path, so it may be best to rely on the power of Amitābha.

Q1: What form of Buddhism has declined to the point where few are capable of following the path?
A1: Pure Land
Bodhisattva means "enlightenment being", and generally refers to one who is on the path to buddhahood. Traditionally, a bodhisattva is anyone who, motivated by great compassion, has generated bodhicitta, which is a spontaneous wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings. Theravada Buddhism primarily uses the term in relation to Gautama Buddha's previous existences, but has traditionally acknowledged and respected the bodhisattva path as well.[web 17]

Q1: What does Bodhisattva mean?
A1: enlightenment being
Q2: What is the term for the spontaneous wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all beings?
A2: bodhicitta
According to Jan Nattier, the term Mahāyāna "Great Vehicle" was originally even an honorary synonym for Bodhisattvayāna "Bodhisattva Vehicle." The Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, an early and important Mahayana text, contains a simple and brief definition for the term bodhisattva: "Because he has enlightenment as his aim, a bodhisattva-mahāsattva is so called."

Q1: What term means "great vehicle"?
A1: Mahayana
Q2: What is an honorary synonym for Bodhisattvayana?
A2: Mahayana
Q3: The Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita Sutra is an important text of what type?
A3: Mahayana
Mahayana Buddhism encourages everyone to become bodhisattvas and to take the bodhisattva vow, where the practitioner promises to work for the complete enlightenment of all beings by practicing the six pāramitās. According to Mahayana teachings, these perfections are: dāna, śīla, kṣanti, vīrya, dhyāna, and prajñā.

Q1: What buddhism encourages everyone to become bodhisattvas?
A1: Mahayana
Q2: What is the idea there the practitioner promises to work for the complete enlightenment of all beings by practicing the six paramitas?
A2: bodhisattva vow
Q3: What are the six perfections under Mahayana teachings?
A3: dāna, śīla, kṣanti, vīrya, dhyāna, and prajñā
A famous saying by the 8th-century Indian Buddhist scholar-saint Shantideva, which the 14th Dalai Lama often cites as his favourite verse, summarizes the Bodhisattva's intention (Bodhicitta) as follows: "For as long as space endures, and for as long as living beings remain, until then may I too abide to dispel the misery of the world."[citation needed]

Q1: Which Dalai Lama cites Shantideva's famous saying?
A1: the 14th Dalai Lama
Devotion is an important part of the practice of most Buddhists. Devotional practices include bowing, offerings, pilgrimage, and chanting. In Pure Land Buddhism, devotion to the Buddha Amitabha is the main practice. In Nichiren Buddhism, devotion to the Lotus Sutra is the main practice.

Q1: Devotion is an important part of the practice of most what?
A1: Buddhists
Q2: What are the devotional practices?
A2: bowing, offerings, pilgrimage, and chanting
Buddhism traditionally incorporates states of meditative absorption (Pali: jhāna; Skt: dhyāna). The most ancient sustained expression of yogic ideas is found in the early sermons of the Buddha. One key innovative teaching of the Buddha was that meditative absorption must be combined with liberating cognition. The difference between the Buddha's teaching and the yoga presented in early Brahminic texts is striking. Meditative states alone are not an end, for according to the Buddha, even the highest meditative state is not liberating. Instead of attaining a complete cessation of thought, some sort of mental activity must take place: a liberating cognition, based on the practice of mindful awareness.

Q1: Buddhism traditionally incorporates states of what type of absorption?
A1: meditative
Q2: The most acient yogic ideas is found in the early sermons of who?
A2: the Buddha
Q3: The difference between the Buddha's teaching and the yoga presented in what what type of texts is significant?
A3: Brahminic
Q4: According to the Buddha event he highest meditative state is not what?
A4: liberating
Meditation was an aspect of the practice of the yogis in the centuries preceding the Buddha. The Buddha built upon the yogis' concern with introspection and developed their meditative techniques, but rejected their theories of liberation. In Buddhism, mindfulness and clear awareness are to be developed at all times; in pre-Buddhist yogic practices there is no such injunction. A yogi in the Brahmanical tradition is not to practice while defecating, for example, while a Buddhist monastic should do so.

Q1: Meditation was an aspect of the practice of who?
A1: the yogis
Q2: In Buddhism, what must be developed at all times?
A2: mindfulness and clear awareness
Religious knowledge or "vision" was indicated as a result of practice both within and outside of the Buddhist fold. According to the Samaññaphala Sutta, this sort of vision arose for the Buddhist adept as a result of the perfection of "meditation" coupled with the perfection of "discipline" (Pali sīla; Skt. śīla). Some of the Buddha's meditative techniques were shared with other traditions of his day, but the idea that ethics are causally related to the attainment of "transcendent wisdom" (Pali paññā; Skt. prajñā) was original.[web 18]

Q1: Religious knowledge is also known as what?
A1: vision
Q2: What type of techniques were shared with other traditions of his day?
A2: meditative
Q3: There is an idea where ethics are causally related to the attainment of what?
A3: transcendent wisdom
The Buddhist texts are probably the earliest describing meditation techniques. They describe meditative practices and states that existed before the Buddha as well as those first developed within Buddhism. Two Upanishads written after the rise of Buddhism do contain full-fledged descriptions of yoga as a means to liberation.

Q1: What are probably the earliest texts describing meditation techniques?
A1: Buddhist texts
Q2: What describes meditative states exising before the Buddha?
A2: Buddhist texts
Q3: What two items were written after the rise of Buddhism?
A3: Upanishads
While there is no convincing evidence for meditation in pre-Buddhist early Brahminic texts, Wynne argues that formless meditation originated in the Brahminic or Shramanic tradition, based on strong parallels between Upanishadic cosmological statements and the meditative goals of the two teachers of the Buddha as recorded in the early Buddhist texts. He mentions less likely possibilities as well. Having argued that the cosmological statements in the Upanishads also reflect a contemplative tradition, he argues that the Nasadiya Sukta contains evidence for a contemplative tradition, even as early as the late Rig Vedic period.

Q1: In pre-buddhist early Brahminic texts there is no evidence for what?
A1: meditation
Q2: The upanishads statements reflect what type of tradition?
A2: contemplative
Q3: What contains evidence for a contemplative tradition?
A3: Nasadiya Sukta
Traditionally, the first step in most Buddhist schools requires taking refuge in the Three Jewels (Sanskrit: tri-ratna, Pāli: ti-ratana)[web 19] as the foundation of one's religious practice. The practice of taking refuge on behalf of young or even unborn children is mentioned in the Majjhima Nikaya, recognized by most scholars as an early text (cf. Infant baptism). Tibetan Buddhism sometimes adds a fourth refuge, in the lama. In Mahayana, the person who chooses the bodhisattva path makes a vow or pledge, considered the ultimate expression of compassion. In Mahayana, too, the Three Jewels are perceived as possessed of an eternal and unchanging essence and as having an irreversible effect: "The Three Jewels have the quality of excellence. Just as real jewels never change their faculty and goodness, whether praised or reviled, so are the Three Jewels (Refuges), because they have an eternal and immutable essence. These Three Jewels bring a fruition that is changeless, for once one has reached Buddhahood, there is no possibility of falling back to suffering.

Q1: What is the first step in a school of Buddhism?
A1: the Three Jewels
Q2: What mentions taking refuge on behalf of young or unborn children?
A2: Majjhima Nikaya
Q3: What type of Buddhism adds a fourth refuge?
A3: Tibetan
Q4: The Three Jewels are preceived as possessed of an eternal and unchanging what?
A4: essence.
Q5: What has an irreversable effect?
A5: The Three Jewels
According to the scriptures, Gautama Buddha presented himself as a model. The Dharma offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering and the attainment of Nirvana. The Sangha is considered to provide a refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha and providing further examples that the truth of the Buddha's teachings is attainable.

Q1: Who presented himself as a model?
A1: Gautama Buddha
Q2: What offers a refuge by providing guidelines for the alleviation of suffering?
A2: Dharma
Q3: What provides refuge by preserving the authentic teachings of the Buddha?
A3: Sangha
Śīla (Sanskrit) or sīla (Pāli) is usually translated into English as "virtuous behavior", "morality", "moral discipline", "ethics" or "precept". It is an action committed through the body, speech, or mind, and involves an intentional effort. It is one of the three practices (sīla, samādhi, and paññā) and the second pāramitā. It refers to moral purity of thought, word, and deed. The four conditions of śīla are chastity, calmness, quiet, and extinguishment.

Q1: What is an action committed through the body and involves intentional effort?
A1: Śīla
Q2: Sila is the second what?
A2: pāramitā
Śīla is the foundation of Samādhi/Bhāvana (Meditative cultivation) or mind cultivation. Keeping the precepts promotes not only the peace of mind of the cultivator, which is internal, but also peace in the community, which is external. According to the Law of Karma, keeping the precepts is meritorious and it acts as causes that would bring about peaceful and happy effects. Keeping these precepts keeps the cultivator from rebirth in the four woeful realms of existence.

Q1: What keeps the cultivator from rebirth in the four realms of existance?
A1: keeping the precepts
Q2: What is the foundation of Samadhi/Bhavana?
A2: Śīla
Q3: What promotes not only the peace of mind but also peace in the community?
A3: keeping the precepts
Śīla refers to overall principles of ethical behavior. There are several levels of sīla, which correspond to "basic morality" (five precepts), "basic morality with asceticism" (eight precepts), "novice monkhood" (ten precepts) and "monkhood" (Vinaya or Patimokkha). Lay people generally undertake to live by the five precepts, which are common to all Buddhist schools. If they wish, they can choose to undertake the eight precepts, which add basic asceticism.

Q1: What does sila refer to?
A1: overall principles of ethical behavior
Q2: Lay people tend to live by the five what?
A2: precepts
Q3: Schools can undertake eight precepts, which add basic what?
A3: asceticism.