romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
Italy is home to a vast array of native regional minority languages, most of which are Romance-based and have their own local variants. These regional languages are often referred to colloquially or in non-linguistic circles as Italian "dialects," or dialetti (standard Italian for "dialects"). However, the majority of the regional languages in Italy are in fact not actually "dialects" of standard Italian in the strict linguistic sense, as they are not derived from modern standard Italian but instead evolved locally from Vulgar Latin independent of standard Italian, with little to no influence from what is now known as "standard Italian." They are therefore better classified as individual languages rather than "dialects."

Q1: What are Italian dialects termed in the Italian language?
A1: dialetti
Q2: What language are many Italian dialects derived from?
A2: Vulgar Latin
Q3: What does 'dialetti' mean in Italian?
A3: dialects
Q4: Why might Italian dialects be regarded as independent languages rather than dialects of standard Italian?
A4: they are not derived from modern standard Italian
In addition to having evolved, for the most part, separately from one another and with distinct individual histories, the Latin-based regional Romance languages of Italy are also better classified as separate languages rather than true "dialects" due to the often high degree in which they lack mutual intelligibility. Though mostly mutually unintelligible, the exact degree to which the regional Italian languages are mutual unintelligible varies, often correlating with geographical distance or geographical barriers between the languages, with some regional Italian languages that are closer in geographical proximity to each other or closer to each other on the dialect continuum being more or less mutually intelligible. For instance, a speaker of purely Eastern Lombard, a language in Northern Italy's Lombardy region that includes the Bergamasque dialect, would have severely limited mutual intelligibility with a purely standard Italian speaker and would be nearly completely unintelligible to a speaker of a pure Sicilian language variant. Due to Eastern Lombard's status as a Gallo-Italic language, an Eastern Lombard speaker may, in fact, have more mutual intelligibility with a Occitan, Catalan, or French speaker than a standard Italian or Sicilian language speaker. Meanwhile, a Sicilian language speaker would have an greater degree of mutual intelligibility with a speaker of the more closely related Neapolitan language, but far less mutual intelligibility with a person speaking Sicilian Gallo-Italic, a language that developed in isolated Lombard emigrant communities on the same island as the Sicilian language.

Q1: What is a major reason why the Latin-based regional Romance languages of Italy should be regarded as independent languages rather than dialects of each other?
A1: they lack mutual intelligibility
Q2: From what region of Italy does the Eastern Lombard dialect hail?
A2: Lombardy
Q3: What language family does Eastern Lombard belong to?
A3: Gallo-Italic
Q4: What type of language is Sicilian?
A4: Neapolitan
Q5: What language was spoken by Lombard immigrants to Sicily?
A5: Sicilian Gallo-Italic
Modern standard Italian itself is heavily based on the Latin-derived Florentine Tuscan language. The Tuscan-based language that would eventually become modern standard Italian had been used in poetry and literature since at least the 12th century, and it first became widely known in Italy through the works of authors such as Dante Alighieri, Giovanni Boccaccio, Niccolò Machiavelli, and Petrarch. Dante's Florentine-Tuscan literary Italian thus became the language of the literate and upper class in Italy, and it spread throughout the peninsula as the lingua franca among the Italian educated class as well as Italian traveling merchants. The economic prowess and cultural and artistic importance of Tuscany in the Late Middle Ages and the Renaissance further encouraged the diffusion of the Florentine-Tuscan Italian throughout Italy and among the educated and powerful, though local and regional languages remained the main languages of the common people.

Q1: What language is modern standard Italian derived from?
A1: Florentine Tuscan
Q2: What language is Florentine Tuscan based on?
A2: Latin
Q3: During what century did Florentine Tuscan begin to be used in poetry?
A3: 12th
Q4: What socioeconomic class used the Florentine Tuscan language in Dante's time?
A4: upper class
Q5: From what region of Italy did Florentine Tuscan derive?
A5: Tuscany
During the Risorgimento, proponents of Italian republicanism and Italian nationalism, such as Alessandro Manzoni, stressed the importance of establishing a uniform national language in order to better create an Italian national identity. With the unification of Italy in the 1860s, standard Italian became the official national language of the new Italian state, while the various unofficial regional languages of Italy gradually became regarded as subordinate "dialects" to Italian, increasingly associated negatively with lack of education or provincialism. However, at the time of the Italian Unification, standard Italian still existed mainly as a literary language, and only 2.5% of Italy's population could speak standard Italian.

Q1: What Italian nationalist spoke of the importance of a national Italian language?
A1: Alessandro Manzoni
Q2: During what period was the importance of having an Italian national language raised?
A2: the Risorgimento
Q3: In what decade was Italy unified?
A3: 1860s
Q4: What percentage of Italians spoke standard Italian when Italy was first unified?
A4: 2.5%
Q5: When Italy was unified, what was named the official national language?
A5: standard Italian
In the early 20th century, the vast conscription of Italian men from all throughout Italy during World War I is credited with facilitating the diffusion of standard Italian among less educated Italian men, as these men from various regions with various regional languages were forced to communicate with each other in a common tongue while serving in the Italian military. With the eventual spread of the radio and television throughout Italy and the establishment of public education, Italians from all regions were increasingly exposed to standard Italian, while literacy rates among all social classes improved. Today, the majority of Italians are able to speak standard Italian, though many Italians still speak their regional language regularly or as their primary day-to-day language, especially at home with family or when communicating with Italians from the same town or region. However, to some Italians, speaking a regional language, especially in a formal setting or outside of one's region, may carry a stigma or negative connotations associated with being lower class, uneducated, boorish, or overly informal.

Q1: During what war did a large number of Italian men first learn standard Italian?
A1: World War I
Q2: Along with radio and public education, what invention helped to diffuse standard Italian among the Italian population?
A2: television
Q3: In modern Italy, what class of people are regional languages sometimes associated with?
A3: lower
Q4: Along with formal settings, where do some Italians avoid speaking their regional language?
A4: outside of one's region
Q5: Aside from when they're speaking to Italians from their same town or region, where is a common place where Italians speak their regional language?
A5: at home with family
Italians in different regions today may also speak regional varieties of standard Italian, or regional Italian dialects, which, unlike the majority of languages of Italy, are actually dialects of standard Italian rather than separate languages. A regional Italian dialect is generally standard Italian that has been heavily influenced or mixed with local or regional native languages and accents.

Q1: Regional Italian dialects are often influenced by regional languages and what other language?
A1: standard Italian
The languages of Italy are primarily Latin-based Romance languages, with the most widely spoken languages falling within the Italo-Dalmatian language family. This wide category includes:

Q1: What language family do most of the languages of Italy belong to?
A1: Italo-Dalmatian
Q2: What language are most languages of Italy derived from?
A2: Latin
Q3: Aside from Italo-Dalmatian, what is another term for the group that Italian languages belong to?
A3: Romance
The Sardinian language is considered to be its own Romance language family, separate not only from standard Italian but also the wider Italo-Dalmatian family, and it includes the Campidanese Sardinian and Logudorese Sardinian variants. However, Gallurese, Sassarese, and Corsican are also spoken in Sardinia, and these languages are considered closely related or derived from the Italian Tuscan language and thus are Italo-Dalmatian languages. Furthermore, the Gallo-Romance language of Ligurian and the Catalan Algherese dialect are also spoken in Sardinia.

Q1: Campidanese Sardinian is a variant of what language?
A1: The Sardinian language
Q2: What language is Sassarese closely related to?
A2: Italian Tuscan
Q3: What language family does Gallurese belong to?
A3: Italo-Dalmatian
Q4: What language family does Ligurian belong to?
A4: Gallo-Romance
Q5: Where is the Catalan Algherese dialect spoken?
A5: Sardinian
The classification of speech varieties as dialects or languages and their relationship to other varieties of speech can be controversial and the verdicts inconsistent. English and Serbo-Croatian illustrate the point. English and Serbo-Croatian each have two major variants (British and American English, and Serbian and Croatian, respectively), along with numerous other varieties. For political reasons, analyzing these varieties as "languages" or "dialects" yields inconsistent results: British and American English, spoken by close political and military allies, are almost universally regarded as dialects of a single language, whereas the standard languages of Serbia and Croatia, which differ from each other to a similar extent as the dialects of English, are being treated by some linguists from the region as distinct languages, largely because the two countries oscillate from being brotherly to being bitter enemies. (The Serbo-Croatian language article deals with this topic much more fully.)

Q1: Along with British English, what is the major variant of the English language?
A1: American English
Q2: What are the two major variants of Serbo-Croatian?
A2: Serbian and Croatian
Q3: Are British and American English regarded as distinct languages, or dialects of a single language?
A3: dialects of a single language
Q4: Do regional linguists treat Serbian and Croation as distinct languages or as dialects of a single language?
A4: distinct languages
Q5: Why are Serbian and Croatian often treated like distinct languages?
A5: the two countries oscillate from being brotherly to being bitter enemies
Similar examples abound. Macedonian, although mutually intelligible with Bulgarian, certain dialects of Serbian and to a lesser extent the rest of the South Slavic dialect continuum, is considered by Bulgarian linguists to be a Bulgarian dialect, in contrast with the contemporary international view and the view in the Republic of Macedonia, which regards it as a language in its own right. Nevertheless, before the establishment of a literary standard of Macedonian in 1944, in most sources in and out of Bulgaria before the Second World War, the southern Slavonic dialect continuum covering the area of today's Republic of Macedonia were referred to as Bulgarian dialects.

Q1: Along with Serbian, with what language is Macedonian mutually intelligible?
A1: Bulgarian
Q2: What dialect continuum does Macedonian belong to?
A2: South Slavic
Q3: What do Bulgarian linguists regard the Macedonian language as?
A3: a Bulgarian dialect
Q4: In what year was a Macedonian literary standard established?
A4: 1944
Q5: In what country is Macedonian most commonly spoken?
A5: Republic of Macedonia
In Lebanon, a part of the Christian population considers "Lebanese" to be in some sense a distinct language from Arabic and not merely a dialect. During the civil war Christians often used Lebanese Arabic officially, and sporadically used the Latin script to write Lebanese, thus further distinguishing it from Arabic. All Lebanese laws are written in the standard literary form of Arabic, though parliamentary debate may be conducted in Lebanese Arabic.

Q1: Lebanese people of what religion sometimes consider Lebanese to be a distinct language?
A1: Christian
Q2: In what language are Lebanese laws written?
A2: Arabic
Q3: During the Lebanese Civil War, what language did Lebanese Christians sometimes use officially?
A3: Lebanese Arabic
Q4: What language is Lebanese closely related to?
A4: Arabic
Q5: What script did Lebanese Christians sometimes use to write Lebanese Arabic during the civil war?
A5: Latin
In Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco, the Darijas (spoken North African languages) are sometimes considered more different from other Arabic dialects. Officially, North African countries prefer to give preference to the Literary Arabic and conduct much of their political and religious life in it (adherence to Islam), and refrain from declaring each country's specific variety to be a separate language, because Literary Arabic is the liturgical language of Islam and the language of the Islamic sacred book, the Qur'an. Although, especially since the 1960s, the Darijas are occupying an increasing use and influence in the cultural life of these countries. Examples of cultural elements where Darijas' use became dominant include: theatre, film, music, television, advertisement, social media, folk-tale books and companies' names.

Q1: Along with Morocco and Tunisia, in what country are the Darijas spoken?
A1: Algeria
Q2: What is the liturgical language of Islam?
A2: Literary Arabic
Q3: In what language is the Qur'an written?
A3: Literary Arabic
Q4: What does the term Dariajs refer to?
A4: spoken North African languages
Q5: What is the dominant religion of North Africa?
A5: Islam
In the 19th century, the Tsarist Government of the Russian Empire claimed that Ukrainian was merely a dialect of Russian and not a language on its own. The differences were few and caused by the conquest of western Ukraine by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. However, the dialects in Ukraine eventually differed substantially from the dialects in Russia.

Q1: During what century did the Russian government claim that Ukrainian was a Russian dialect?
A1: 19th
Q2: What Russian government claimed that Ukrainian was not a distinct language?
A2: the Tsarist Government
Q3: The conquest of western Ukraine by what country altered the language of Ukraine?
A3: Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
The German Empire conquered Ukraine during World War I and was planning on either annexing it or installing a puppet king, but was defeated by the Entente, with major involvement by the Ukrainian Bolsheviks. After conquering the rest of Ukraine from the Whites, Ukraine joined the USSR and was enlarged (gaining Crimea and then Eastern Galicia), whence a process of Ukrainization was begun, with encouragement from Moscow.

Q1: What nation conquered Ukraine during the First World War?
A1: The German Empire
Q2: What alliance defeated the German Empire in World War I?
A2: the Entente
Q3: What Ukrainian political group was involved in the defeat of the German Empire?
A3: Bolsheviks
Q4: Who did the Ukrainian Bolsheviks conquer the Ukraine from?
A4: Whites
After World War II, due to Ukrainian collaborationism with the Axis powers in an attempt to gain independence, Moscow changed its policy towards repression of the Ukrainian language.

Q1: After what war did Moscow begin to repress the Ukrainian language?
A1: World War II
Q2: Why did Moscow begin to repress the Ukrainian language?
A2: Ukrainian collaborationism with the Axis powers
Q3: Why did Ukrainians collaborate with the Axis?
A3: to gain independence
Today the boundaries of the Ukrainian language to the Russian language are still not drawn clearly, with an intermediate dialect between them, called Surzhyk, developing in Ukraine.

Q1: In what country is the Surzhyk dialect spoken?
A1: Ukraine
Q2: Surzhyk is a dialect intermediate between the Ukrainian language and what other language?
A2: Russian
There have been cases of a variety of speech being deliberately reclassified to serve political purposes. One example is Moldovan. In 1996, the Moldovan parliament, citing fears of "Romanian expansionism", rejected a proposal from President Mircea Snegur to change the name of the language to Romanian, and in 2003 a Moldovan–Romanian dictionary was published, purporting to show that the two countries speak different languages. Linguists of the Romanian Academy reacted by declaring that all the Moldovan words were also Romanian words; while in Moldova, the head of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Ion Bărbuţă, described the dictionary as a politically motivated "absurdity".

Q1: Who was the president of Moldova in 1996?
A1: Mircea Snegur
Q2: In what year was a Moldovan-Romanian dictionary published?
A2: 2003
Q3: Fear of what caused the Moldovan parliament to reject changing the name of the country's language to Romanian in 1996?
A3: Romanian expansionism
Q4: Who was the head of the Academy of Sciences of Moldova?
A4: Ion Bărbuţă
Unlike most languages that use alphabets to indicate the pronunciation, Chinese characters have developed from logograms that do not always give hints to its pronunciation. Although the written characters remained relatively consistent for the last two thousand years, the pronunciation and grammar in different regions has developed to an extent that the varieties of the spoken language are often mutually unintelligible. As a series of migration to the south throughout the history, the regional languages of the south, including Xiang, Wu, Gan, Min, Yue (Cantonese), and Hakka often show traces of Old Chinese or Middle Chinese. From the Ming dynasty onward, Beijing has been the capital of China and the dialect spoken in Beijing has had the most prestige among other varieties. With the founding of the Republic of China, Standard Mandarin was designated as the official language, based on the spoken language of Beijing. Since then, other spoken varieties are regarded as fangyan (dialects). Cantonese is still the most commonly used language in Hong Kong, Macau and among some overseas Chinese communities, whereas Southern Min has been accepted in Taiwan as an important local language along with Mandarin.

Q1: From what did Chinese characters derive?
A1: logograms
Q2: What is another name for the Yue language?
A2: Cantonese
Q3: Hakka is a language from what geographic part of China?
A3: the south
Q4: From the time of the Ming dynasty, what city was the capital of China?
A4: Beijing
Q5: At its founding. what was the official language of the Republic of China?
A5: Standard Mandarin
Many historical linguists view any speech form as a dialect of the older medium of communication from which it developed.[citation needed] This point of view sees the modern Romance languages as dialects of Latin, modern Greek as a dialect of Ancient Greek, Tok Pisin as a dialect of English, and North Germanic as dialects of Old Norse. This paradigm is not entirely problem-free. It sees genetic relationships as paramount: the "dialects" of a "language" (which itself may be a "dialect" of a yet older language) may or may not be mutually intelligible. Moreover, a parent language may spawn several "dialects" which themselves subdivide any number of times, with some "branches" of the tree changing more rapidly than others.

Q1: From the perspective of historical linguists, what are Romance languages dialects of?
A1: Latin
Q2: What do many historical linguists consider modern Greek to be a dialect of?
A2: Ancient Greek
Q3: From what language is North Germanic derived?
A3: Old Norse
Q4: Tok Pisin might be regarded as a dialect of what language?
A4: English
This can give rise to the situation in which two dialects (defined according to this paradigm) with a somewhat distant genetic relationship are mutually more readily comprehensible than more closely related dialects. In one opinion, this pattern is clearly present among the modern Romance languages, with Italian and Spanish having a high degree of mutual comprehensibility, which neither language shares with French, despite some claiming that both languages are genetically closer to French than to each other:[citation needed] In fact, French-Italian and French-Spanish relative mutual incomprehensibility is due to French having undergone more rapid and more pervasive phonological change than have Spanish and Italian, not to real or imagined distance in genetic relationship. In fact, Italian and French share many more root words in common that do not even appear in Spanish.

Q1: Italian is significantly mutually comprehensible with what other Romance language?
A1: Spanish
Q2: With what romance language does Spanish not have a high degree of mutual comprehensibility?
A2: French
Q3: What is the reason for French and Italian not being very mutually comprehensible?
A3: French having undergone more rapid and more pervasive phonological change
For example, the Italian and French words for various foods, some family relationships, and body parts are very similar to each other, yet most of those words are completely different in Spanish. Italian "avere" and "essere" as auxiliaries for forming compound tenses are used similarly to French "avoir" and "être". Spanish only retains "haber" and has done away with "ser" in forming compound tenses. However, when it comes to phonological structures, Italian and Spanish have undergone less change than French, with the result that some native speakers of Italian and Spanish may attain a degree of mutual comprehension that permits extensive communication.[citation needed]

Q1: What Italian word is similar to the French word "avoir"?
A1: avere
Q2: What French word is similar to the Italian word "essere"?
A2: être
Q3: What two languages have the possibility for significant mutual intelligibility?
A3: Italian and Spanish
Q4: Along with foods and family relationships, what sorts of words are similar in French and Italian?
A4: body parts
Q5: When forming compound tenses in Spanish, what auxiliary is no longer used?
A5: sere
One language, Interlingua, was developed so that the languages of Western civilization would act as its dialects. Drawing from such concepts as the international scientific vocabulary and Standard Average European, linguists[who?] developed a theory that the modern Western languages were actually dialects of a hidden or latent language.[citation needed] Researchers at the International Auxiliary Language Association extracted words and affixes that they considered to be part of Interlingua's vocabulary. In theory, speakers of the Western languages would understand written or spoken Interlingua immediately, without prior study, since their own languages were its dialects. This has often turned out to be true, especially, but not solely, for speakers of the Romance languages and educated speakers of English. Interlingua has also been found to assist in the learning of other languages. In one study, Swedish high school students learning Interlingua were able to translate passages from Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian that students of those languages found too difficult to understand. It should be noted, however, that the vocabulary of Interlingua extends beyond the Western language families.

Q1: What language could all Western languages be considered dialects of?
A1: Interlingua
Q2: Researchers at what organization study and develop Interlingua?
A2: International Auxiliary Language Association
Q3: What was the nationality of high school students who learned Interlingua in a notable linguistic experiment?
A3: Swedish
Q4: Along with Italian and Spanish, what language could Swedish Interlingua learners translate?
A4: Portuguese
Q5: Along with Standard Average European, from what concept was Interlingua derived?
A5: the international scientific vocabulary