romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
The Jesuit China missions of the 16th and 17th centuries "learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture." Western academic thought on the history of Chinese technology and science was galvanized by the work of Joseph Needham and the Needham Research Institute. Among the technological accomplishments of China were, according to the British scholar Needham, early seismological detectors (Zhang Heng in the 2nd century), the water-powered celestial globe (Zhang Heng), matches, the independent invention of the decimal system, dry docks, sliding calipers, the double-action piston pump, cast iron, the blast furnace, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the winnowing machine, the rotary fan, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the crossbow, and a solid fuel rocket, the multistage rocket, the horse collar, along with contributions in logic, astronomy, medicine, and other fields.

Q1: Who was the Needham Research Institute named after?
A1: Joseph Needham
Q2: What type of bridge originated in China?
A2: suspension
Q3: What type of map originated in China?
A3: raised-relief
Q4: What type of fan originated in China?
A4: rotary
Q5: What type of globe did Zhang Heng invent?
A5: water-powered celestial
With the division of the Roman Empire, the Western Roman Empire lost contact with much of its past. In the Middle East, Greek philosophy was able to find some support under the newly created Arab Empire. With the spread of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, a period of Muslim scholarship, known as the Islamic Golden Age, lasted until the 13th century. This scholarship was aided by several factors. The use of a single language, Arabic, allowed communication without need of a translator. Access to Greek texts from the Byzantine Empire, along with Indian sources of learning, provided Muslim scholars a knowledge base to build upon.

Q1: What was a consequence of the Roman Empire being divided?
A1: the Western Roman Empire lost contact with much of its past
Q2: Where was support found for Greek philosophy?
A2: Arab Empire
Q3: What time period was marked by the spreading of Islam?
A3: the 7th and 8th centuries
Q4: How long did the Islamic Golden Age last?
A4: until the 13th century
Q5: What language did Muslim philosophers speak?
A5: Arabic
Muslim scientists placed far greater emphasis on experiment than had the Greeks. This led to an early scientific method being developed in the Muslim world, where significant progress in methodology was made, beginning with the experiments of Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) on optics from c. 1000, in his Book of Optics. The law of refraction of light was known to the Persians. The most important development of the scientific method was the use of experiments to distinguish between competing scientific theories set within a generally empirical orientation, which began among Muslim scientists. Ibn al-Haytham is also regarded as the father of optics, especially for his empirical proof of the intromission theory of light. Some have also described Ibn al-Haytham as the "first scientist" for his development of the modern scientific method.

Q1: What method did Muslim scientists use more than the Greeks?
A1: experiment
Q2: What book did Ibn al-Haytham write?
A2: Book of Optics
Q3: What law did the Persians know of?
A3: The law of refraction of light
Q4: What was Ibn al-Haytham's nickname?
A4: the father of optics
Q5: What theory did Ibn al-Haytham have proof for?
A5: the intromission theory of light
In mathematics, the Persian mathematician Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the concept of the algorithm, while the term algebra is derived from al-jabr, the beginning of the title of one of his publications. What is now known as Arabic numerals originally came from India, but Muslim mathematicians did make several refinements to the number system, such as the introduction of decimal point notation. Sabian mathematician Al-Battani (850-929) contributed to astronomy and mathematics, while Persian scholar Al-Razi contributed to chemistry and medicine.

Q1: What was Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi's profession?
A1: mathematician
Q2: Where does the word "algebra" come from?
A2: al-jabr
Q3: Where did Arabic numerals originate?
A3: India
Q4: What did Muslim mathematicians add to Arabic numerals?
A4: decimal point notation
Q5: What area of science did Al-Razi contribute to?
A5: chemistry and medicine
In astronomy, Al-Battani improved the measurements of Hipparchus, preserved in the translation of Ptolemy's Hè Megalè Syntaxis (The great treatise) translated as Almagest. Al-Battani also improved the precision of the measurement of the precession of the Earth's axis. The corrections made to the geocentric model by al-Battani, Ibn al-Haytham, Averroes and the Maragha astronomers such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi and Ibn al-Shatir are similar to Copernican heliocentric model. Heliocentric theories may have also been discussed by several other Muslim astronomers such as Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi, Abu-Rayhan Biruni, Abu Said al-Sijzi, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, and Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī.

Q1: Whose work did Al-Battani improve?
A1: Hipparchus
Q2: What does He Megale Syntaxis mean?
A2: The great treatise
Q3: Which measurement did Al-Battani improve upon?
A3: the Earth's axis
Q4: The geocentric model is similar to what other model?
A4: Copernican heliocentric model
Ibn Sina (Avicenna) is regarded as the most influential philosopher of Islam. He pioneered the science of experimental medicine and was the first physician to conduct clinical trials. His two most notable works in medicine are the Kitāb al-shifāʾ ("Book of Healing") and The Canon of Medicine, both of which were used as standard medicinal texts in both the Muslim world and in Europe well into the 17th century. Amongst his many contributions are the discovery of the contagious nature of infectious diseases, and the introduction of clinical pharmacology.

Q1: Who was most influential in Islamic philosophy?
A1: Ibn Sina
Q2: What method did Ibn Sina introduce?
A2: clinical trials
Q3: What does Kitab al-shifa mean?
A3: Book of Healing
Q4: The Kitab al-shifa and The Canon of Medicine are considered what?
A4: standard medicinal texts
Q5: What characteristic did Ibn Sina find out about infectious diseases?
A5: contagious
An intellectual revitalization of Europe started with the birth of medieval universities in the 12th century. The contact with the Islamic world in Spain and Sicily, and during the Reconquista and the Crusades, allowed Europeans access to scientific Greek and Arabic texts, including the works of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Jābir ibn Hayyān, al-Khwarizmi, Alhazen, Avicenna, and Averroes. European scholars had access to the translation programs of Raymond of Toledo, who sponsored the 12th century Toledo School of Translators from Arabic to Latin. Later translators like Michael Scotus would learn Arabic in order to study these texts directly. The European universities aided materially in the translation and propagation of these texts and started a new infrastructure which was needed for scientific communities. In fact, European university put many works about the natural world and the study of nature at the center of its curriculum, with the result that the "medieval university laid far greater emphasis on science than does its modern counterpart and descendent."

Q1: When were medieval universities created?
A1: the 12th century
Q2: Who sponsored the Toledo School of Translators?
A2: Raymond of Toledo
Q3: At the Toledo School of Translators, what language was Arabic text translated into?
A3: Latin
Q4: Which translator learned Arabic to be able to study the Arabic texts directly?
A4: Michael Scotus
At the beginning of the 13th century, there were reasonably accurate Latin translations of the main works of almost all the intellectually crucial ancient authors, allowing a sound transfer of scientific ideas via both the universities and the monasteries. By then, the natural philosophy contained in these texts began to be extended by notable scholastics such as Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus and Duns Scotus. Precursors of the modern scientific method, influenced by earlier contributions of the Islamic world, can be seen already in Grosseteste's emphasis on mathematics as a way to understand nature, and in the empirical approach admired by Bacon, particularly in his Opus Majus. Pierre Duhem's provocative thesis of the Catholic Church's Condemnation of 1277 led to the study of medieval science as a serious discipline, "but no one in the field any longer endorses his view that modern science started in 1277". However, many scholars agree with Duhem's view that the Middle Ages were a period of important scientific developments.

Q1: What language did the important scientific works get translated into for universities and monasteries?
A1: Latin
Q2: Who favored empirical methods?
A2: Bacon
Q3: Who favored mathematics?
A3: Grosseteste
Q4: Who wrote the Catholic Church's Condemnation of 1277?
A4: Pierre Duhem
Q5: What era was important for scientific advancements?
A5: the Middle Ages
The first half of the 14th century saw much important scientific work being done, largely within the framework of scholastic commentaries on Aristotle's scientific writings. William of Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony: natural philosophers should not postulate unnecessary entities, so that motion is not a distinct thing but is only the moving object and an intermediary "sensible species" is not needed to transmit an image of an object to the eye. Scholars such as Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme started to reinterpret elements of Aristotle's mechanics. In particular, Buridan developed the theory that impetus was the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was a first step towards the modern concept of inertia. The Oxford Calculators began to mathematically analyze the kinematics of motion, making this analysis without considering the causes of motion.

Q1: Who pioneered parsimony?
A1: William of Ockham
Q2: What theory is based off of projectiles' motion?
A2: impetus
Q3: What theory did impetus pave the way for?
A3: inertia
Q4: What did the Oxford Calculators measure?
A4: the kinematics of motion
In 1348, the Black Death and other disasters sealed a sudden end to the previous period of massive philosophic and scientific development. Yet, the rediscovery of ancient texts was improved after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453, when many Byzantine scholars had to seek refuge in the West. Meanwhile, the introduction of printing was to have great effect on European society. The facilitated dissemination of the printed word democratized learning and allowed a faster propagation of new ideas. New ideas also helped to influence the development of European science at this point: not least the introduction of Algebra. These developments paved the way for the Scientific Revolution, which may also be understood as a resumption of the process of scientific inquiry, halted at the start of the Black Death.

Q1: What year did the Black Death occur?
A1: 1348
Q2: What caused ancient texts to be rediscovered by Byzantine scholars?
A2: the Fall of Constantinople in 1453
Q3: The invention of printing improved which society?
A3: European
Q4: Printed word enabled what?
A4: a faster propagation of new ideas
Q5: What type of mathematics aided in developing European science?
A5: Algebra
The renewal of learning in Europe, that began with 12th century Scholasticism, came to an end about the time of the Black Death, and the initial period of the subsequent Italian Renaissance is sometimes seen as a lull in scientific activity. The Northern Renaissance, on the other hand, showed a decisive shift in focus from Aristoteleian natural philosophy to chemistry and the biological sciences (botany, anatomy, and medicine). Thus modern science in Europe was resumed in a period of great upheaval: the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation; the discovery of the Americas by Christopher Columbus; the Fall of Constantinople; but also the re-discovery of Aristotle during the Scholastic period presaged large social and political changes. Thus, a suitable environment was created in which it became possible to question scientific doctrine, in much the same way that Martin Luther and John Calvin questioned religious doctrine. The works of Ptolemy (astronomy) and Galen (medicine) were found not always to match everyday observations. Work by Vesalius on human cadavers found problems with the Galenic view of anatomy.

Q1: The focus on learning in the 12th century is referred to as what?
A1: Scholasticism
Q2: What began at the same time Scholasticism ended?
A2: the Black Death
Q3: Which era came after Scholasticism?
A3: Italian Renaissance
Q4: What was the focus of the Northern Renaissance?
A4: chemistry and the biological sciences
Q5: Which scientist was known for working on human cadavers?
A5: Vesalius
The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific Revolution. The Scientific Revolution is traditionally held by most historians to have begun in 1543, when the books De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body) by Andreas Vesalius, and also De Revolutionibus, by the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, were first printed. The thesis of Copernicus' book was that the Earth moved around the Sun. The period culminated with the publication of the Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 by Isaac Newton, representative of the unprecedented growth of scientific publications throughout Europe.

Q1: What was the Scientific Revolution?
A1: a period of major scientific advancements
Q2: What year is considered to be the beginning of the Scientific Revolution?
A2: 1543
Q3: What book by Andreas Vesalius was published in 1543?
A3: De humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the Human Body)
Q4: What was the focus of De Revolutionibus by Nicolaus Copernicus?
A4: the Earth moved around the Sun
Q5: What book was printed by Isaac Newton in 1687?
A5: Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
The Age of Enlightenment was a European affair. The 17th century "Age of Reason" opened the avenues to the decisive steps towards modern science, which took place during the 18th century "Age of Enlightenment". Directly based on the works of Newton, Descartes, Pascal and Leibniz, the way was now clear to the development of modern mathematics, physics and technology by the generation of Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790), Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) and Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717–1783), epitomized in the appearance of Denis Diderot's Encyclopédie between 1751 and 1772. The impact of this process was not limited to science and technology, but affected philosophy (Immanuel Kant, David Hume), religion (the increasingly significant impact of science upon religion), and society and politics in general (Adam Smith, Voltaire), the French Revolution of 1789 setting a bloody cesura indicating the beginning of political modernity[citation needed]. The early modern period is seen as a flowering of the European Renaissance, in what is often known as the Scientific Revolution, viewed as a foundation of modern science.

Q1: The Age of Reason made way for which movement?
A1: Age of Enlightenment
Q2: What event is considered to be the start of political modernity?
A2: the French Revolution of 1789
Q3: What book did Denis Diderot write?
A3: Encyclopédie
The Romantic Movement of the early 19th century reshaped science by opening up new pursuits unexpected in the classical approaches of the Enlightenment. Major breakthroughs came in biology, especially in Darwin's theory of evolution, as well as physics (electromagnetism), mathematics (non-Euclidean geometry, group theory) and chemistry (organic chemistry). The decline of Romanticism occurred because a new movement, Positivism, began to take hold of the ideals of the intellectuals after 1840 and lasted until about 1880.

Q1: Which movement took place during the 19th century?
A1: The Romantic Movement
Q2: What theory did Darwin introduce?
A2: theory of evolution
Q3: Which physics subject was affected by The Romantic Movement?
A3: electromagnetism
Q4: What caused Romanticism to end?
A4: Positivism
Q5: What year did Positivism end?
A5: 1880
The scientific revolution is a convenient boundary between ancient thought and classical physics. Nicolaus Copernicus revived the heliocentric model of the solar system described by Aristarchus of Samos. This was followed by the first known model of planetary motion given by Johannes Kepler in the early 17th century, which proposed that the planets follow elliptical orbits, with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. Galileo ("Father of Modern Physics") also made use of experiments to validate physical theories, a key element of the scientific method.

Q1: Which movement is considered to be a dividing line between ancient thought and classical physics?
A1: The scientific revolution
Q2: Who made the heliocentric model popular?
A2: Nicolaus Copernicus
Q3: Johannes Kepler created a model of what?
A3: planetary motion
Q4: What did Johannes Kepler's model suggest about the planets?
A4: the planets follow elliptical orbits
Q5: What was Galileo's nickname?
A5: Father of Modern Physics
In 1687, Isaac Newton published the Principia Mathematica, detailing two comprehensive and successful physical theories: Newton's laws of motion, which led to classical mechanics; and Newton's Law of Gravitation, which describes the fundamental force of gravity. The behavior of electricity and magnetism was studied by Faraday, Ohm, and others during the early 19th century. These studies led to the unification of the two phenomena into a single theory of electromagnetism, by James Clerk Maxwell (known as Maxwell's equations).

Q1: What work was printed by Isaac Newton in 1687?
A1: the Principia Mathematica
Q2: How many theories were included within the Principia Mathematica?
A2: two
Q3: What concept did the Law of Gravitation deal with?
A3: the fundamental force of gravity
Q4: What are Maxwell's equations about?
A4: electromagnetism
The beginning of the 20th century brought the start of a revolution in physics. The long-held theories of Newton were shown not to be correct in all circumstances. Beginning in 1900, Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr and others developed quantum theories to explain various anomalous experimental results, by introducing discrete energy levels. Not only did quantum mechanics show that the laws of motion did not hold on small scales, but even more disturbingly, the theory of general relativity, proposed by Einstein in 1915, showed that the fixed background of spacetime, on which both Newtonian mechanics and special relativity depended, could not exist. In 1925, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger formulated quantum mechanics, which explained the preceding quantum theories. The observation by Edwin Hubble in 1929 that the speed at which galaxies recede positively correlates with their distance, led to the understanding that the universe is expanding, and the formulation of the Big Bang theory by Georges Lemaître.

Q1: What science subject explains anomalous results?
A1: quantum theories
Q2: What year did Einstein discover the theory of general relativity?
A2: 1915
Q3: Quantum theories became which subject in 1925?
A3: quantum mechanics
Q4: Which scientist noticed the relationship between the speed and distance of galaxies?
A4: Edwin Hubble
Q5: Edwin Hubble's discovery about galaxies allowed for which theory by Georges Lemaitre?
A5: the Big Bang theory
In 1938 Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann discovered nuclear fission with radiochemical methods, and in 1939 Lise Meitner and Otto Robert Frisch wrote the first theoretical interpretation of the fission process, which was later improved by Niels Bohr and John A. Wheeler. Further developments took place during World War II, which led to the practical application of radar and the development and use of the atomic bomb. Though the process had begun with the invention of the cyclotron by Ernest O. Lawrence in the 1930s, physics in the postwar period entered into a phase of what historians have called "Big Science", requiring massive machines, budgets, and laboratories in order to test their theories and move into new frontiers. The primary patron of physics became state governments, who recognized that the support of "basic" research could often lead to technologies useful to both military and industrial applications. Currently, general relativity and quantum mechanics are inconsistent with each other, and efforts are underway to unify the two.

Q1: Who discovered nuclear fission?
A1: Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann
Q2: Who edited the first paper about nuclear fission?
A2: Niels Bohr and John A. Wheeler
Q3: What event was going on during the creation of the atomic bomb?
A3: World War II
Q4: The atomic bomb was a part of which movement?
A4: Big Science
Q5: What is the problem with general relativity and quantum mechanics?
A5: inconsistent with each other
Modern chemistry emerged from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries through the material practices and theories promoted by alchemy, medicine, manufacturing and mining. A decisive moment came when 'chymistry' was distinguished from alchemy by Robert Boyle in his work The Sceptical Chymist, in 1661; although the alchemical tradition continued for some time after his work. Other important steps included the gravimetric experimental practices of medical chemists like William Cullen, Joseph Black, Torbern Bergman and Pierre Macquer and through the work of Antoine Lavoisier (Father of Modern Chemistry) on oxygen and the law of conservation of mass, which refuted phlogiston theory. The theory that all matter is made of atoms, which are the smallest constituents of matter that cannot be broken down without losing the basic chemical and physical properties of that matter, was provided by John Dalton in 1803, although the question took a hundred years to settle as proven. Dalton also formulated the law of mass relationships. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev composed his periodic table of elements on the basis of Dalton's discoveries.

Q1: When did modern chemistry come into existence?
A1: the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries
Q2: Who decided that chemistry and alchemy were different?
A2: Robert Boyle
Q3: What book was written by Robert Boyle in 1661?
A3: The Sceptical Chymist
Q4: What was Antoine Lavoisier's nickname?
A4: Father of Modern Chemistry
Q5: Which theory did the law of conservation of mass disagree with?
A5: phlogiston theory