romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
Most prime ministers in parliamentary systems are not appointed for a specific term in office and in effect may remain in power through a number of elections and parliaments. For example, Margaret Thatcher was only ever appointed prime minister on one occasion, in 1979. She remained continuously in power until 1990, though she used the assembly of each House of Commons after a general election to reshuffle her cabinet.

Q1: Which prime minister was appointed only one time?
A1: Margaret Thatcher
Q2: When was Thatcher appointed prime minister?
A2: 1979
Q3: When did Thatcher last hold power?
A3: 1990
Q4: What did Margaret Thatcher reconfigure following each general election?
A4: cabinet
Some states, however, do have a term of office of the prime minister linked to the period in office of the parliament. Hence the Irish Taoiseach is formally 'renominated' after every general election. (Some constitutional experts have questioned whether this process is actually in keeping with the provisions of the Irish constitution, which appear to suggest that a taoiseach should remain in office, without the requirement of a renomination, unless s/he has clearly lost the general election.) The position of prime minister is normally chosen from the political party that commands majority of seats in the lower house of parliament.

Q1: What is the name of the prime ministerial position in Ireland?
A1: Taoiseach
Q2: From where is the Irish prime minister usually selected?
A2: the political party that commands majority of seats in the lower house of parliament
Q3: When is the Irish Taoiseach renominated?
A3: after every general election
In parliamentary systems, governments are generally required to have the confidence of the lower house of parliament (though a small minority of parliaments, by giving a right to block supply to upper houses, in effect make the cabinet responsible to both houses, though in reality upper houses, even when they have the power, rarely exercise it). Where they lose a vote of confidence, have a motion of no confidence passed against them, or where they lose supply, most constitutional systems require either:

Q1: Most parliamentary governments need to have the support of what governmental body?
A1: lower house of parliament
Q2: Which political division does not often utilize its power, if it has any?
A2: upper houses
Q3: What kind of referendum can the lower house of parliament take against the government?
A3: vote of confidence
The latter in effect allows the government to appeal the opposition of parliament to the electorate. However, in many jurisdictions a head of state may refuse a parliamentary dissolution, requiring the resignation of the prime minister and his or her government. In most modern parliamentary systems, the prime minister is the person who decides when to request a parliamentary dissolution.

Q1: Who can put a stop the parliamentary attempts at dissovling itself in some areas?
A1: head of state
Q2: If the head of state prevents the dissolution of parliament, what needs to happen?
A2: resignation of the prime minister and his or her government
Q3: In contemporary parliamentary governments, which official is usually in charge of asking parliament to dissolve?
A3: prime minister
Older constitutions often vest this power in the cabinet. In the United Kingdom, for example, the tradition whereby it is the prime minister who requests a dissolution of parliament dates back to 1918. Prior to then, it was the entire government that made the request. Similarly, though the modern 1937 Irish constitution grants to the Taoiseach the right to make the request, the earlier 1922 Irish Free State Constitution vested the power in the Executive Council (the then name for the Irish cabinet).

Q1: When was the convention of prime ministers initiating the dissolution of parliament started?
A1: 1918
Q2: In Ireland, when was the power to dissolve parliament assigned to the prime minister?
A2: 1937
Q3: The 1922 Irish Free State Constitution previously gave what body the power to dissolve parliament?
A3: the Executive Council
Q4: What was the Executive Council an alternate name for?
A4: cabinet
In Australia, the Prime Minister is expected to step down if s/he loses the majority support of his/her party under a spill motion as have many such as Tony Abbott, Julia Gillard and Kevin Rudd.

Q1: What process signals the need for the prime minister to resign in Australia?
A1: spill motion
In the Russian constitution the prime minister is actually titled Chairman of the government while the Irish prime minister is called the Taoiseach (which is rendered into English as prime minister), and in Israel he is Rosh HaMemshalah meaning "head of the government". In many cases, though commonly used, "prime minister" is not the official title of the office-holder; the Spanish prime minister is the President of the Government (Presidente del Gobierno).

Q1: What is the Russian term for prime minister?
A1: Chairman of the government
Q2: What is the Israeli term for prime minister?
A2: Rosh HaMemshalah
Q3: What is the term used in spain for prime minister?
A3: President of the Government (Presidente del Gobierno)
Q4: What is the Irish term for prime minister?
A4: Taoiseach
Other common forms include president of the council of ministers (for example in Italy, Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri), President of the Executive Council, or Minister-President. In the Scandinavian countries the prime minister is called statsminister in the native languages (i.e. minister of state). In federations, the head of government of subnational entities such as provinces is most commonly known as the premier, chief minister, governor or minister-president.

Q1: What is the Italian term for the prime minister?
A1: president of the council of ministers
Q2: What is the native term for prime minister in Scandinavia?
A2: statsminister
The convention in the English language is to call nearly all national heads of government "prime minister" (sometimes modified to the equivalent term of premier), regardless of the correct title of the head of government as applied in his or her respective country. The few exceptions to the rule are Germany and Austria, whose heads of government titles are almost always translated as Chancellor; Monaco, whose head of government is referred to as the Minister of State; and Vatican City, for which the head of government is titled the Secretary of State. In the case of Ireland, the head of government is occasionally referred to as the Taoiseach by English speakers. A stand-out case is the President of Iran, who is not actually a head of state, but the head of the government of Iran. He is referred to as "president" in both the Persian and English languages.

Q1: What is a term that is used to mean prime minister?
A1: premier
Q2: Which countries use the term chancellor to denote the head of government?
A2: Germany and Austria
Q3: What is the head of Monaco's government called?
A3: Minister of State
Q4: What is the term for the highest position in government in Vatican City?
A4: Secretary of State
Q5: What is the head of Iran's government called?
A5: President
In non-Commonwealth countries the prime minister may be entitled to the style of Excellency like a president. In some Commonwealth countries prime ministers and former prime ministers are styled Right Honourable due to their position, for example in the Prime Minister of Canada. In the United Kingdom the prime minister and former prime ministers may appear to also be styled Right Honourable, however this is not due to their position as head of government but as a privilege of being current members of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council.

Q1: In what kinds of nations can the head of government attain the title of Excellency?
A1: non-Commonwealth countries
Q2: What honorific title can be given to prime ministers in commonwealth nations?
A2: Right Honourable
Q3: What are British prime ministers part of that grants them the title Right Honourable?
A3: Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council
Q4: What is an example of a country where prime ministers can be called Right Honourable solely because of their position?
A4: Canada
In the UK, where devolved government is in place, the leaders of the Scottish, Northern Irish and Welsh Governments are styled First Minister. In India, The Prime Minister is referred to as "Pradhan Mantri", meaning "prime minister". In Pakistan, the prime minister is referred to as "Wazir-e-Azam", meaning "Grand Vizier".

Q1: What kind of government is in operation in the United Kingdom?
A1: devolved
Q2: What are the heads of government in Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland called?
A2: First Minister
Q3: What is the Indian term for Prime Minister?
A3: Pradhan Mantri
Q4: What is the term for prime minister in Pakistan?
A4: Wazir-e-Azam
Q5: What does Wazir-e-Azam mean in English?
A5: Grand Vizier
The Prime Minister's executive office is usually called the Office of the Prime Minister in the case of the Canada and other Commonwealth countries, it is called Cabinet Office in United Kingdom. Some Prime Minister's office do include the role of Cabinet. In other countries, it is called the Prime Minister's Department or the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet as for Australia.

Q1: What is the head of government's office called in Canada?
A1: Office of the Prime Minister
Q2: What is the head of government's office called in the UK?
A2: Cabinet Office
Institute of technology (also: university of technology, polytechnic university, technikon, and technical college) is a designation employed for a wide range of learning institutions awarding different types of degrees and operating often at variable levels of the educational system. It may be an institution of higher education and advanced engineering and scientific research or professional vocational education, specializing in science, engineering, and technology or different sorts of technical subjects. It may also refer to a secondary education school focused in vocational training.[citation needed] The term institute of technology is often abbreviated IT and is not to be confused with information technology.

Q1: What's a common abbreviation for the term institute of technology?
A1: IT
The English term polytechnic appeared in the early 19th century, from the French École Polytechnique, an engineering school founded in 1794 in Paris. The French term comes from the Greek πολύ (polú or polý) meaning "many" and τεχνικός (tekhnikós) meaning "arts".

Q1: In what century did the term polytechnic first show up?
A1: 19th century
Q2: What school founded in 1794 first used a form of the word polytechnic in its name?
A2: École Polytechnique
Q3: What language does the French word polytechnique come from?
A3: Greek
While the terms "institute of technology" and "polytechnic" are synonymous, the preference concerning which one is the preferred term varies from country to country.[citation needed]

Q1: What word means the same thing as "institute of technology"?
A1: polytechnic
The institutes of technology and polytechnics have been in existence since at least the 18th century, but became popular after World War II with the expansion of engineering and applied science education, associated with the new needs created by industrialization. The world's first institution of technology, the Berg-Schola (today its legal successor is the University of Miskolc) was founded by the Court Chamber of Vienna in Selmecbánya, Kingdom of Hungary in 1735 in order to train specialists of precious metal and copper mining according to the requirements of the industrial revolution in Hungary. The oldest German Institute of Technology is the Braunschweig University of Technology (founded in 1745 as "Collegium Carolinum"). Another exception is the École Polytechnique, which has educated French élites since its foundation in 1794. In some cases, polytechnics or institutes of technology are engineering schools or technical colleges.

Q1: What was the first institute of technology in the world?
A1: the Berg-Schola
Q2: What war led to the increased popularity of institutes of technology and polytechnics?
A2: World War II
Q3: What was the founding name of the Braunschweig University of Technology?
A3: Collegium Carolinum
Q4: In what year was the École Polytechnique founded?
A4: 1794
In several countries, like Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland and Turkey, institutes of technology and polytechnics are institutions of higher education, and have been accredited to award academic degrees and doctorates. Famous examples are the Istanbul Technical University, ETH Zurich, İYTE, Delft University of Technology and RWTH Aachen, all considered universities.[citation needed]

Q1: What kind of institutions do countries like Germany and Switzerland consider institutes of technology to be?
A1: institutions of higher education
In countries like Iran, Finland, Malaysia, Portugal, Singapore or the United Kingdom, there is often a significant and confused distinction between polytechnics and universities. In the UK a binary system of higher education emerged consisting of universities (research orientation) and Polytechnics (engineering and applied science and professional practice orientation). Polytechnics offered university equivalent degrees from bachelor's, master's and PhD that were validated and governed at the national level by the independent UK Council for National Academic Awards. In 1992 UK Polytechnics were designated as universities which meant they could award their own degrees. The CNAA was disbanded. The UK's first polytechnic, the Royal Polytechnic Institution (now the University of Westminster) was founded in 1838 in Regent Street, London. In Ireland the term institute of technology is the more favored synonym of a regional technical college though the latter is the legally correct term; however, Dublin Institute of Technology is a university in all but name as it can confer degrees in accordance with law, Cork Institute of Technology and another of other Institutes of Technology have delegated authority from HETAC to make awards to and including master's degree level—Level 9 of the National Framework for Qualifications (NFQ)—for all areas of study and Doctorate level in a number of others.

Q1: In what year were polytechnics in the UK given the university designation?
A1: 1992
Q2: What is the name of the Royal Polytechnic Institution now?
A2: University of Westminster
Q3: What street is the University of Westminster on?
A3: Regent Street
In a number of countries, although being today generally considered similar institutions of higher learning across many countries, polytechnics and institutes of technology used to have a quite different statute among each other, its teaching competences and organizational history. In many cases polytechnic were elite technological universities concentrating on applied science and engineering and may also be a former designation for a vocational institution, before it has been granted the exclusive right to award academic degrees and can be truly called an institute of technology. A number of polytechnics providing higher education is simply a result of a formal upgrading from their original and historical role as intermediate technical education schools. In some situations, former polytechnics or other non-university institutions have emerged solely through an administrative change of statutes, which often included a name change with the introduction of new designations like institute of technology, polytechnic university, university of applied sciences, or university of technology for marketing purposes. Such emergence of so many upgraded polytechnics, former vocational education and technical schools converted into more university-like institutions has caused concern where the lack of specialized intermediate technical professionals lead to industrial skill shortages in some fields, being also associated to an increase of the graduate unemployment rate. This is mostly the case in those countries, where the education system is not controlled by the state and everybody can grant degrees.[citation needed] Evidence have also shown a decline in the general quality of teaching and graduate's preparation for the workplace, due to the fast-paced conversion of that technical institutions to more advanced higher level institutions. Mentz, Kotze and Van der Merwe (2008) argues that all the tools are in place to promote the debate on the place of technology in higher education in general and in Universities of Technology specifically. The aspects of this debate can follow the following lines: • To what degree is technology defined as a concept? • What is the scope of technology discourse? • What is the place and relation of science with technology? • How useful is the Mitcham framework in thinking about technology in South Africa? • Can a measure of cooperation as opposed to competition be achieved amongst higher education institutions? • Who ultimately is responsible for vocational training and what is the role of technology in this?

Q1: What term was used in some countries to describe select universities that focus on technological education in applied science and engineering?
A1: polytechnics
During the 1970s to early 1990s, the term was used to describe state owned and funded technical schools that offered both vocational and higher education. They were part of the College of Advanced Education system. In the 1990s most of these merged with existing universities, or formed new ones of their own. These new universities often took the title University of Technology, for marketing rather than legal purposes. AVCC report The most prominent such university in each state founded the Australian Technology Network a few years later.

Q1: What name did some universities switch to in the 1990s for marketing purposes?
A1: University of Technology
Q2: What system were institutes of technology a part of during the seventies, eighties, and early nineties?
A2: College of Advanced Education system
Since the mid-1990s, the term has been applied to some technically minded technical and further education (TAFE) institutes. A recent example is the Melbourne Polytechnic rebranding and repositioning in 2014 from Northern Melbourne Institute of TAFE. These primarily offer vocational education, although some like Melbourne Polytechnic are expanding into higher education offering vocationally oriented applied bachelor degress. This usage of the term is most prevalent historically in NSW and the ACT. The new terminology is apt given that this category of institution are becoming very much like the institutes of the 1970s–1990s period.

Q1: What's the four-letter abbreviation for technically minded technical and further education institutes?
A1: TAFE
Q2: What is the new name of the Northern Melbourne Institute of TAFE?
A2: Melbourne Polytechnic
In Tasmania in 2009 the old college system and TAFE Tasmania have started a 3-year restructure to become the Tasmanian Polytechnic www.polytechnic.tas.edu.au, Tasmanian Skills Institute www.skillsinstitute.tas.edu.au and Tasmanian Academy www.academy.tas.edu.au

Q1: TAFE Tasmania started a three-year restructuring in what year?
A1: 2009
In the higher education sector, there are seven designated Universities of Technology in Australia (though, note, not all use the phrase "university of technology", such as the Universities of Canberra and South Australia, which used to be Colleges of Advanced Education before transitioning into fully-fledged universities with the ability - most important of all - to confer doctorates):

Q1: In Australia, how many universities are recognized as Universities of Technology?
A1: seven
Fachhochschule is a German type of tertiary education institution and adopted later in Austria and Switzerland. They do not focus exclusively on technology, but may also offer courses in social science, medicine, business and design. They grant bachelor's degrees and master's degrees, and focus more on teaching than research and more on specific professions than on science.

Q1: What's the German word for a tertiary education institution?
A1: Fachhochschule
Q2: In addition to Bachelor's degrees, what other kind of degree can one earn from a Fachhochschule?
A2: master's degrees
Hogeschool is used in Belgium and in the Netherlands. The hogeschool has many similarities to the Fachhochschule in the German language areas and to the ammattikorkeakoulu in Finland.

Q1: What term is used in Belgium and the Netherlands to refer to an institution like a German Fachhochschule?
A1: hogeschool
Hogeschool institutions in the Flemish Community of Belgium (such as the Erasmus Hogeschool Brussel) are currently undergoing a process of academization. They form associations with a university and integrate research into the curriculum, which will allow them to deliver academic master's degrees.

Q1: What term refers to the process that a hogeschool undergoes before it's able to award Master's degrees?
A1: academization
In the Netherlands, four former institutes of technology have become universities over the past decades. These are the current three Technical Universities (at Delft, Eindhoven and Enschede), plus the former agricultural institute in Wageningen. A list of all hogescholen in the Netherlands, including some which might be called polytechnics, can be found here.

Q1: How many institutes of technology in the Netherlands have converted into full-fledged universities in the past few decades?
A1: four
Q2: How many Technical Universities are there in the Netherlands today?
A2: three
In Cambodia, there are Institutes of Technology/Polytechnic Institutes, and Universities that offer instruction in a variety of programs that can lead to: certificates, diplomas, and degrees. Institutes of Technology/Polytechnic Institutes and Universities tend to be independent institutions.

Q1: What country has Institutes of Technology/Polytechnic Institutes from which students can earn certificates, diplomas, and degrees?
A1: Cambodia
In Canada, there are Affiliate Schools, Colleges, Institutes of Technology/Polytechnic Institutes, and Universities that offer instruction in a variety of programs that can lead to: engineering and applied science degrees, apprenticeship and trade programs, certificates, and diplomas. Affiliate Schools are polytechnic divisions belonging to a national university and offer select technical and engineering programs. Colleges, Institutes of Technology/Polytechnic Institutes, and Universities tend to be independent institutions.

Q1: What are polytechnic divisions of national universities called in Canada?
A1: Affiliate Schools
Credentials are typically conferred at the undergraduate level, however university-affiliated schools like the École de technologie supérieure and the École Polytechnique de Montréal (both of which are located in Quebec), also offer graduate and postgraduate programs, in accordance with provincial higher education guidelines. Canadian higher education institutions, at all levels, undertake directed and applied research with financing allocated through public funding, private equity, or industry sources.

Q1: In what city is the École Polytechnique de Montréal located?
A1: Quebec
Q2: In addition to private equity and industry sources, what's a third source of research funding for institutions of higher learning in Canada?
A2: public funding
Some of Canada's most esteemed colleges and polytechnic institutions also partake in collaborative institute-industry projects, leading to technology commercialization, made possible through the scope of Polytechnics Canada; a national alliance of eleven leading research-intensive colleges and institutes of technology.

Q1: What is Canada's national alliance of 11 research-focused schools called?
A1: Polytechnics Canada
Q2: What kind of projects does Polytechnics Canada sponsor that can lead to technology commercialization?
A2: collaborative institute-industry projects