romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
Proponents of affirmative action argue that by nature the system is not only race based, but also class and gender based. To eliminate two of its key components would undermine the purpose of the entire system. The African American Policy Forum believes that the class based argument is based on the idea that non-poor minorities do not experience racial and gender based discrimination. The AAPF believes that "Race-conscious affirmative action remains necessary to address race-based obstacles that block the path to success of countless people of color of all classes". The groups goes on to say that affirmative action is responsible for creating the African American middle class, so it does not make sense to say that the system only benefits the middle and upper classes.

Q1: Other than being race and gender based, what did believers in affirmative action also feel that the system discriminated against?
A1: class
Q2: Which organization believed in the class based argument?
A2: African American Policy Forum
Q3: What group of people did the AAPF claim affirmative action created?
A3: African American middle class
Q4: What does the AAPF believe the foundation for the class based argument is?
A4: non-poor minorities do not experience racial and gender based discrimination
Q5: What does the AAPF believe the goal of affirmative action should be?
A5: to address race-based obstacles that block the path to success
Following the end of World War II the educational gap between White and Black Americans was widened by Dwight D. Eisenhower's GI Bill. This piece of legislation paved the way for white GIs to attend college. Despite their veteran status returning black servicemen were not afforded loans at the same rate as whites. Furthermore, at the time of its introduction, segregation was still the law of the land barring blacks from the best institutions. Overall, "Nearly 8 million servicemen and servicewomen were educated under the provisions of the GI Bill after World War II. But for blacks, higher educational opportunities were so few that the promise of the GI Bill went largely unfulfilled."

Q1: What major event preceded the growth of the divide in education between White and Black Americans?
A1: end of World War II
Q2: What was considered to be a major cause of the increase in educational gap?
A2: Dwight D. Eisenhower's GI Bill
Q3: What did returning black veterans not receive?
A3: loans at the same rate as whites
Q4: How many servicemen and women were educated as a result of the GI Bill?
A4: Nearly 8 million
Q5: What opportunities were few for black veterans?
A5: higher educational
According to a study by Dr. Paul Brest, Hispanics or "Latinos" include immigrants who are descendants of immigrants from the countries comprising Central and South America. In 1991, Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Cuban Americans made up 80% of the Latino population in the United States. Latinos are disadvantaged compared to White Americans and are more likely to live in poverty. They are the least well educated major ethnic group and suffered a 3% drop in high school completion rate while African Americans experienced a 12% increase between 1975-1990. In 1990, they constituted 9% of the population, but only received 3.1% of the bachelors's degrees awarded. At times when it is favorable to lawmakers, Latinos were considered "white" by the Jim Crow laws during the Reconstruction. In other cases, according to Paul Brest, Latinos have been classified as an inferior race and a threat to white purity. Latinos have encountered considerable discrimination in areas such as employment, housing, and education. Brest finds that stereotypes continue to be largely negative and many perceive Latinos as "lazy, unproductive, and on the dole." Furthermore, native-born Latino-Americans and recent immigrants are seen as identical since outsiders tend not to differentiate between Latino groups.

Q1: Who conducted a study about the origins of "Latinos"?
A1: Dr. Paul Brest
Q2: How much of the Latino population did Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans and Cuban Americans make up in 1991?
A2: 80%
Q3: In relation to other major ethnic groups, what is the education level of Latinos?
A3: least well educated
Q4: What was the percentage increase of the high school completion rate for African Americans between 1975 and 1990?
A4: 12%
Q5: How many of the total bachelor degrees awarded in 1990 went to Latinos?
A5: 3.1%
The category of Native American applies to the diverse group of people who lived in North America before European settlement. During the U.S. government's westward expansion, Native Americans were displaced from their land which had been their home for centuries. Instead, they were forced onto reservations which were far smaller and less productive. According to Brest, land belonging to Native Americans was reduced from 138 million acres in 1887 to 52 million acres in 1934. In 1990, the poverty rate for Native Americans was more than triple that of the whites and only 9.4% of Native Americans have completed a bachelor's degree as opposed to 25.2% of whites and 12.2% of African Americans.

Q1: Which groups can be categorized as Native Americans?
A1: people who lived in North America before European settlement
Q2: When did the Native Americans lose their land?
A2: During the U.S. government's westward expansion
Q3: Where were Native Americans forced to live after they lost their land?
A3: reservations
Q4: How much land did the Native Americans own in 1934?
A4: 52 million acres
Q5: In relation to whites, what was the poverty rate for Native Americans in 1990?
A5: more than triple
Early Asian immigrants experienced prejudice and discrimination in the forms of not having the ability to become naturalized citizens. They also struggled with many of the same school segregation laws that African Americans faced. Particularly, during World War II, Japanese Americans were interned in camps and lost their property, homes, and businesses. Discrimination against Asians began with the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and then continued with the Scott Act of 1888 and the Geary Act of 1892. At the beginning of the 20th century, the United States passed the Immigration Act of 1924 to prevent Asian immigration out of fear that Asians were stealing white jobs and lowering the standard for wages. In addition, whites and non-Asians do not differentiate among the different Asian groups and perpetuate the "model minority" stereotype. According to a 2010 article by Professor Qin Zhang of Fairfield University, Asians are characterized as one dimensional in having great work ethic and valuing education, but lacking in communication skills and personality. A negative outcome of this stereotype is that Asians have been portrayed as having poor leadership and interpersonal skills. This has contributing to the "glass ceiling" phenomenon in which although there are many qualified Asian Americans, they occupy a disproportionately small number of executive positions in businesses. Furthermore, the model minority stereotype has led to resentment of Asian success and several universities and colleges have limited or have been accused of limiting Asian matriculation.

Q1: What form of discrimination did early Asian immigrants experience?
A1: not having the ability to become naturalized citizens
Q2: What law type did Asian immigrants struggle with?
A2: school segregation
Q3: Which piece of legislature marked the start of discrimination against Asians?
A3: Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882
Q4: Which bill was passed in an attempt to limit or prevent Asian immigration?
A4: Immigration Act of 1924
Q5: According to studies, what are Asians perceived to be lacking?
A5: communication skills and personality
Proponents of affirmative action recognize that the policy is inherently unequal; however, minding the inescapable fact that historic inequalities exist in America, they believe the policy is much more fair than one in which these circumstances are not taken into account. Furthermore, those in favor of affirmative action see it as an effort towards inclusion rather than a discriminatory practice. "Job discrimination is grounded in prejudice and exclusion, whereas affirmative action is an effort to overcome prejudicial treatment through inclusion. The most effective way to cure society of exclusionary practices is to make special efforts at inclusion, which is exactly what affirmative action does."

Q1: What is one of the issues with affirmative action?
A1: inherently unequal
Q2: How do people who are in favor of affirmative action view it?
A2: an effort towards inclusion rather than a discriminatory practice
Q3: What does affirmative action supposedly aim to do?
A3: overcome prejudicial treatment through inclusion
Q4: What do proponents of affirmative action believe is the best way to combat exclusionary practices?
A4: make special efforts at inclusion
There are a multitude of supporters as well as opponents to the policy of affirmative action. Many presidents throughout the last century have failed to take a very firm stance on the policy, and the public has had to discern the president's opinion for themselves. Bill Clinton, however, made his stance on affirmative action very clear in a speech on July 19, 1995, nearly two and a half years after his inauguration. In his speech, he discussed the history in the United States that brought the policy into fruition: slavery, Jim Crow, and segregation. Clinton also mentioned a point similar to President Lyndon B. Johnson's "Freedom is not Enough" speech, and declared that just outlawing discrimination in the country would not be enough to give everyone in America equality. He addressed the arguments that affirmative action hurt the white middle class and said that the policy was not the source of their problems. Clinton plainly outlined his stance on affirmative action, saying:

Q1: Which President made their stance on affirmative action clear in 1995?
A1: Bill Clinton
Q2: How long after his inauguration was Bill Clinton's speech?
A2: two and a half years
Q3: Which speech did Bill Clinton's speech draw parallels to?
A3: President Lyndon B. Johnson's "Freedom is not Enough"
Q4: What did President Clinton claim would not be enough to give everyone in American equality?
A4: just outlawing discrimination
Q5: What was President Clinton's response to the claim that affirmative action was hurting the white middle class.
A5: the policy was not the source of their problems
The National Conference of State Legislatures held in Washington D.C. stated in a 2014 overview that many supporters for affirmative action argue that policies stemming from affirmative action help to open doors for historically excluded groups in workplace settings and higher education. Workplace diversity has become a business management concept in which employers actively seek to promote an inclusive workplace. By valuing diversity, employers have the capacity to create an environment in which there is a culture of respect for individual differences as well as the ability to draw in talent and ideas from all segments of the population. By creating this diverse workforce, these employers and companies gain a competitive advantage in an increasingly global economy. According to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, many private sector employers have concluded that a diverse workforce makes a "company stronger, more profitable, and a better place to work." Therefore, these diversity promoting policies are implemented for competitive reasons rather than as a response to discrimination, but have shown the value in having diversity.

Q1: Where was the National Conference of State Legislatures held in 2014?
A1: Washington D.C.
Q2: What did proponents of affirmative action claim some of the effects of policies that support affirmative action had done?
A2: help to open doors for historically excluded groups in workplace settings and higher education
Q3: What has the concept of workplace diversity caused employers to do?
A3: actively seek to promote an inclusive workplace
Q4: Having a diverse workplace allows for employers to do what?
A4: draw in talent and ideas from all segments of the population
Q5: Which organization claims that private sector employers believe having a diverse workplace is beneficial?
A5: U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
In the year 2000, according to a study by American Association of University Professors (AAUP), affirmative action promoted diversity within colleges and universities. This has been shown to have positive effects on the educational outcomes and experiences of college students as well as the teaching of faculty members. According to a study by Geoffrey Maruyama and José F. Moreno, the results showed that faculty members believed diversity helps students to reach the essential goals of a college education, Caucasian students suffer no detrimental effects from classroom diversity, and that attention to multicultural learning improves the ability of colleges and universities to accomplish their missions. Furthermore, a diverse population of students offers unique perspectives in order to challenge preconceived notions through exposure to the experiences and ideas of others. According to Professor Gurin of the University of Michigan, skills such as "perspective-taking, acceptance of differences, a willingness and capacity to find commonalities among differences, acceptance of conflict as normal, conflict resolution, participation in democracy, and interest in the wider social world" can potentially be developed in college while being exposed to heterogeneous group of students. In addition, broadening perspectives helps students confront personal and substantive stereotypes and fosters discussion about racial and ethnic issues in a classroom setting. Furthermore, the 2000 AAUP study states that having a diversity of views leads to a better discussion and greater understanding among the students on issues of race, tolerance, fairness, etc.

Q1: What does AAUP stand for?
A1: American Association of University Professors
Q2: What were the effects of affirmative action on universities according to the study done by the AAUP?
A2: positive effects on the educational outcomes and experiences of college students
Q3: What did a study claim about the beliefs of faculty members on increased diversity?
A3: helps students to reach the essential goals of a college education
Q4: Who supposedly suffers no detrimental effects from classroom diversity?
A4: Caucasian students
Q5: In which year did the AAUP release their study?
A5: 2000
Richard Sander claims that by artificially elevating minority students into schools they otherwise would not be capable of attending, this discourages them and tends to engender failure and high dropout rates for these students. For example, about half of black college students rank in the bottom 20 percent of their classes, black law school graduates are four times as likely to fail bar exams as are whites, and interracial friendships are more likely to form among students with relatively similar levels of academic preparation; thus, blacks and Hispanics are more socially integrated on campuses where they are less academically mismatched. He claims that the supposed "beneficiaries" of affirmative action – minorities – do not actually benefit and rather are harmed by the policy. Sander's claims have been disputed, and his empirical analyses have been subject to substantial criticism. A group including some of the country's lead statistical methodologists told the Supreme Court that Sander's analyses were sufficiently flawed that the Court would be wise to ignore them entirely. At the same time many scholars have found that minorities gain substantially from affirmative action.

Q1: Who claims that artificially raising minority students into schools has a negative effect on them?
A1: Richard Sander
Q2: What was a negative effect of affirmative action according to Richard Sander?
A2: high dropout rates
Q3: Where do half of the black college students rank in terms of their performance relative to the rest of their class?
A3: bottom 20 percent
Q4: What is the failure rate for black law school graduates compared to whites for the bar exam?
A4: four times
The controversy surrounding affirmative action's effectiveness is based on the idea of class inequality. Opponents of racial affirmative action argue that the program actually benefits middle- and upper-class African Americans and Hispanic Americans at the expense of lower-class European Americans and Asian Americans. This argument supports the idea of class-based affirmative action. America's poor is disproportionately made up of people of color, so class-based affirmative action would disproportionately help people of color. This would eliminate the need for race-based affirmative action as well as reducing any disproportionate benefits for middle- and upper-class people of color.

Q1: Which idea is the controversy of affirmative action primarily based upon?
A1: class inequality
Q2: Other than African Americans, who do detractors of affirmative action claim benefit most from affirmative action?
A2: Hispanic Americans
Q3: At who's expense other than Asian Americans are upper-class African Americans and Hispanic Americans supposedly benefiting?
A3: lower-class European Americans
Q4: What do some people believe should be the basis for affirmative action instead of race based legislation?
A4: class-based affirmative action
Q5: Who primarily makes up America's poor group?
A5: people of color
In 1976, a group of Italian American professors at City University of New York asked to be added as an affirmative action category for promotion and hiring. Italian Americans are usually considered white in the US and would not be covered under affirmative action policies, but the professors believed they were underrepresented. Libertarian economist Thomas Sowell wrote in his book, Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study, that affirmative action policies encourage non-preferred groups to designate themselves as members of preferred groups [i.e., primary beneficiaries of affirmative action] to take advantage of group preference policies.

Q1: Where were the Italian American professors employed that asked to be added as an affirmative action category?
A1: City University of New York
Q2: Which year did the Italian American Professors make their request?
A2: 1976
Q3: What category of race do Italian Americans normally fall under?
A3: white
Q4: What was the title of the book written by Thomas Sowell?
A4: Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study
Q5: Why would Italian Americans want to get themselves designated as members of a preferred group?
A5: to take advantage of group preference policies
Frederick Lynch, the author of Invisible Victims: White Males and the Crisis of Affirmative Action, did a study on white males that said they were victims of reverse discrimination. Lynch explains that these white men felt frustrated and unfairly victimized by affirmative action. Shelby Steele, another author against affirmative action, wanted to see affirmative action go back to its original meaning of enforcing equal opportunity. He argued that blacks had to take full responsibility in their education and in maintaining a job. Steele believes that there is still a long way to go in America to reach our goals of eradicating discrimination.

Q1: What book did Frederick Lynch author?
A1: Invisible Victims: White Males and the Crisis of Affirmative Action
Q2: What did white males feel was happening to them as a result of affirmative action?
A2: reverse discrimination
Q3: What moral position does Shelby Steele hold?
A3: against affirmative action
Q4: What does Shelby Steele believe that the true concept of affirmative action is?
A4: enforcing equal opportunity
Terry Eastland, the author who wrote From Ending Affirmative Action: The Case for Colorblind Justice states, "Most arguments for affirmative action fall into two categories: remedying past discrimination and promoting diversity". Eastland believes that the founders of affirmative action did not anticipate how the benefits of affirmative action would go to those who did not need it, mostly middle class minorities. Additionally, she argues that affirmative action carries with it a stigma that can create feelings of self-doubt and entitlement in minorities. Eastland believes that affirmative action is a great risk that only sometimes pays off, and that without it we would be able to compete more freely with one another. Libertarian economist Thomas Sowell identified what he says are negative results of affirmative action in his book, Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study. Sowell writes that affirmative action policies encourage non-preferred groups to designate themselves as members of preferred groups [i.e., primary beneficiaries of affirmative action] to take advantage of group preference policies; that they tend to benefit primarily the most fortunate among the preferred group (e.g., upper and middle class blacks), often to the detriment of the least fortunate among the non-preferred groups (e.g., poor white or Asian); that they reduce the incentives of both the preferred and non-preferred to perform at their best – the former because doing so is unnecessary and the latter because it can prove futile – thereby resulting in net losses for society as a whole; and that they engender animosity toward preferred groups as well.:115–147

Q1: Which book did Terry Eastland write?
A1: From Ending Affirmative Action: The Case for Colorblind Justice
Q2: What did Eastland believe the founders of affirmative action did not consider?
A2: how the benefits of affirmative action would go to those who did not need it
Q3: Outside of promoting diversity, was does Eastland believe the other reason to be in favor of affirmative action is?
A3: remedying past discrimination
Q4: Why does Sowell believe that there is little to no incentive for the preferred minority groups to perform at their best?
A4: because doing so is unnecessary
Q5: What argument does Sowell make in his claim that non - preferred minorities have less incentive to perform at their best?
A5: because it can prove futile