romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
However, relatively few organisations maintain computer systems with effective detection systems, and fewer still have organised response mechanisms in place. As result, as Reuters points out: "Companies for the first time report they are losing more through electronic theft of data than physical stealing of assets". The primary obstacle to effective eradication of cyber crime could be traced to excessive reliance on firewalls and other automated "detection" systems. Yet it is basic evidence gathering by using packet capture appliances that puts criminals behind bars.

Q1: How many organisations are estimated to maintain computer systems with effective detection systems?
A1: relatively few
Q2: What is the basic evidence gathered by that puts criminals behind bars?
A2: packet capture appliances
Q3: The primary obstacle to the eradication of cyber crime is the excessive reliance on what?
A3: firewalls and other automated "detection" systems
Q4: What is the source of the quote?
A4: Reuters
Q5: Electronic theft of data is causing more loss than what?
A5: physical stealing of assets
One use of the term "computer security" refers to technology that is used to implement secure operating systems. In the 1980s the United States Department of Defense (DoD) used the "Orange Book" standards, but the current international standard ISO/IEC 15408, "Common Criteria" defines a number of progressively more stringent Evaluation Assurance Levels. Many common operating systems meet the EAL4 standard of being "Methodically Designed, Tested and Reviewed", but the formal verification required for the highest levels means that they are uncommon. An example of an EAL6 ("Semiformally Verified Design and Tested") system is Integrity-178B, which is used in the Airbus A380 and several military jets.

Q1: Technology that is used to implement secure operating systems is one use of what term?
A1: computer security
Q2: What does EAL stand for?
A2: Evaluation Assurance Levels
Q3: What is the standard of EAL4?
A3: Methodically Designed, Tested and Reviewed
Q4: What is the standard for EAL6?
A4: Semiformally Verified Design and Tested
Q5: What is an example of a system that meets EAL6?
A5: Integrity-178B
China's network security and information technology leadership team was established February 27, 2014. The leadership team is tasked with national security and long-term development and co-ordination of major issues related to network security and information technology. Economic, political, cultural, social and military fields as related to network security and information technology strategy, planning and major macroeconomic policy are being researched. The promotion of national network security and information technology law are constantly under study for enhanced national security capabilities.

Q1: When was Chine's network security and information technology leadership team established?
A1: February 27, 2014
Q2: What is the reason for studying the promotion of national network security ad information technology law?
A2: enhanced national security capabilities.
Q3: What country has a network security and information technology leadership team??
A3: China
Eavesdropping is the act of surreptitiously listening to a private conversation, typically between hosts on a network. For instance, programs such as Carnivore and NarusInsight have been used by the FBI and NSA to eavesdrop on the systems of internet service providers. Even machines that operate as a closed system (i.e., with no contact to the outside world) can be eavesdropped upon via monitoring the faint electro-magnetic transmissions generated by the hardware; TEMPEST is a specification by the NSA referring to these attacks.

Q1: What is the act of surreptitiously listening to a private conversation?
A1: Eavesdropping
Q2: Conversations that people eavesdrop on are typically between who?
A2: hosts on a network
Q3: Who has used programs such as Carnivore and NarusInsight to eavesdrop on the systems of internet service providers?
A3: the FBI and NSA
Q4: Eavesdropping on a closed system via the faint electro-magnetic trasmissions generated by the hardware has been referred to as what by the NSA?
A4: TEMPEST
Q5: What are machines that operate with no contact to the outside world called?
A5: a closed system
Desktop computers and laptops are commonly infected with malware either to gather passwords or financial account information, or to construct a botnet to attack another target. Smart phones, tablet computers, smart watches, and other mobile devices such as Quantified Self devices like activity trackers have also become targets and many of these have sensors such as cameras, microphones, GPS receivers, compasses, and accelerometers which could be exploited, and may collect personal information, including sensitive health information. Wifi, Bluetooth, and cell phone network on any of these devices could be used as attack vectors, and sensors might be remotely activated after a successful breach.

Q1: What are desktop computers and laptops commonly infected with?
A1: malware
Q2: Constructing a botnet to attack another target is an example of the activity of what?
A2: malware
Q3: Activity trackers are an example of what?
A3: Quantified Self devices
Q4: What could wifi, bluetooth, and cellphone network on devices be used as?
A4: attack vectors
Q5: What could be remotely activated after a sucessful breach?
A5: sensors
Within computer systems, two of many security models capable of enforcing privilege separation are access control lists (ACLs) and capability-based security. Using ACLs to confine programs has been proven to be insecure in many situations, such as if the host computer can be tricked into indirectly allowing restricted file access, an issue known as the confused deputy problem. It has also been shown that the promise of ACLs of giving access to an object to only one person can never be guaranteed in practice. Both of these problems are resolved by capabilities. This does not mean practical flaws exist in all ACL-based systems, but only that the designers of certain utilities must take responsibility to ensure that they do not introduce flaws.[citation needed]

Q1: What does ACL stand for?
A1: access control lists
Q2: ACLs and capability based security are two security models capable of what?
A2: enforcing privilege separation
Q3: A host computer tricked into indirectly allowing access to restricted files is known as what?
A3: the confused deputy problem
Q4: What must designers of systems that are ACL based do?
A4: take responsibility to ensure that they do not introduce flaws
Q5: The confused deputy problem and the problem of not guaranteeing only one person has access are resolved by what?
A5: capabilities
In 1994, over a hundred intrusions were made by unidentified crackers into the Rome Laboratory, the US Air Force's main command and research facility. Using trojan horses, hackers were able to obtain unrestricted access to Rome's networking systems and remove traces of their activities. The intruders were able to obtain classified files, such as air tasking order systems data and furthermore able to penetrate connected networks of National Aeronautics and Space Administration's Goddard Space Flight Center, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, some Defense contractors, and other private sector organizations, by posing as a trusted Rome center user.

Q1: In what year did over a hundred intrusions made into the Rome Laboraroty?
A1: 1994
Q2: How were hackers able to obtain unrestricted access to Rome's networking systems?
A2: Using trojan horses
Q3: How were hackers able to penetrate connected networks?
A3: by posing as a trusted Rome center user
Q4: What is the Rome Laboratory?
A4: the US Air Force's main command and research facility
Q5: Who does the Goddard Space Flight Center belong to?
A5: National Aeronautics and Space Administration
In July of 2015, a hacker group known as "The Impact Team" successfully breached the extramarital relationship website Ashley Madison. The group claimed that they had taken not only company data but user data as well. After the breach, The Impact Team dumped emails from the company's CEO, to prove their point, and threatened to dump customer data unless the website was taken down permanently. With this initial data release, the group stated “Avid Life Media has been instructed to take Ashley Madison and Established Men offline permanently in all forms, or we will release all customer records, including profiles with all the customers' secret sexual fantasies and matching credit card transactions, real names and addresses, and employee documents and emails. The other websites may stay online.”  When Avid Life Media, the parent company that created the Ashley Madison website, did not take the site offline, The Impact Group released two more compressed files, one 9.7GB and the second 20GB. After the second data dump, Avid Life Media CEO Noel Biderman resigned, but the website remained functional.

Q1: When did The Impact Team successfully breach Ashley Madison?
A1: July of 2015
Q2: What is the name of the parent company that created Ashley Madison?
A2: Avid Life Media
Q3: When did the Avid Life Media CEO resign?
A3: After the second data dump
Q4: What was in the first data dump?
A4: emails from the company's CEO
Q5: What website, in addition to Ashley Madison, was Avid Media instructed to take offline?
A5: Established Men
The question of whether the government should intervene or not in the regulation of the cyberspace is a very polemical one. Indeed, for as long as it has existed and by definition, the cyberspace is a virtual space free of any government intervention. Where everyone agree that an improvement on cybersecurity is more than vital, is the government the best actor to solve this issue? Many government officials and experts think that the government should step in and that there is a crucial need for regulation, mainly due to the failure of the private sector to solve efficiently the cybersecurity problem. R. Clarke said during a panel discussion at the RSA Security Conference in San Francisco, he believes that the "industry only responds when you threaten regulation. If industry doesn't respond (to the threat), you have to follow through." On the other hand, executives from the private sector agree that improvements are necessary, but think that the government intervention would affect their ability to innovate efficiently.

Q1: According to goverment officials, what has the failure of the private sector to solve efficiently the cybersecurity problem created?
A1: a crucial need for regulation
Q2: Where was the RSA Security Conference held?
A2: San Francisco
Q3: Who believes that government intervention would affect innovation?
A3: executives from the private sector
Q4: Who said "industry only responds when you threaten regulation"?
A4: R. Clarke
Q5: What is a virtual space free of any government intervention?
A5: cyberspace
On October 3, 2010, Public Safety Canada unveiled Canada’s Cyber Security Strategy, following a Speech from the Throne commitment to boost the security of Canadian cyberspace. The aim of the strategy is to strengthen Canada’s "cyber systems and critical infrastructure sectors, support economic growth and protect Canadians as they connect to each other and to the world." Three main pillars define the strategy: securing government systems, partnering to secure vital cyber systems outside the federal government, and helping Canadians to be secure online. The strategy involves multiple departments and agencies across the Government of Canada. The Cyber Incident Management Framework for Canada outlines these responsibilities, and provides a plan for coordinated response between government and other partners in the event of a cyber incident. The Action Plan 2010–2015 for Canada's Cyber Security Strategy outlines the ongoing implementation of the strategy.

Q1: When did Public Safety Canada unveil Canada's Cyber Security Strategy?
A1: October 3, 2010
Q2: What outlines the ongoing implementation of the Cyber Security Strategy?
A2: The Action Plan 2010–2015 for Canada's Cyber Security Strategy
Q3: What outlines the responsibilities and provides a plan for coordination during a cyber incident?
A3: The Cyber Incident Management Framework for Canada
Computers control functions at many utilities, including coordination of telecommunications, the power grid, nuclear power plants, and valve opening and closing in water and gas networks. The Internet is a potential attack vector for such machines if connected, but the Stuxnet worm demonstrated that even equipment controlled by computers not connected to the Internet can be vulnerable to physical damage caused by malicious commands sent to industrial equipment (in that case uranium enrichment centrifuges) which are infected via removable media. In 2014, the Computer Emergency Readiness Team, a division of the Department of Homeland Security, investigated 79 hacking incidents at energy companies.

Q1: What is a potential attack vector for utilities such as the power grid?
A1: The Internet
Q2: What demonstrated equipment controlled by computers not connected to the internet can also be vulnerable?
A2: the Stuxnet worm
Q3: When did the Computer Emergency Readiness Team investigate 79 hacking incidents at energy companies?
A3: 2014
Q4: What department does the Computer Emergency Readiness Team belong to?
A4: the Department of Homeland Security
Q5: How did the Stuxnet worm infect industrial equipment?
A5: via removable media
Today, computer security comprises mainly "preventive" measures, like firewalls or an exit procedure. A firewall can be defined as a way of filtering network data between a host or a network and another network, such as the Internet, and can be implemented as software running on the machine, hooking into the network stack (or, in the case of most UNIX-based operating systems such as Linux, built into the operating system kernel) to provide real time filtering and blocking. Another implementation is a so-called physical firewall which consists of a separate machine filtering network traffic. Firewalls are common amongst machines that are permanently connected to the Internet.

Q1: Firewalls and exit procedures are considered what?
A1: "preventive" measures
Q2: What is defined as a way of filtering network data between a host or network and another network?
A2: A firewall
Q3: What does a physical firewall consist of?
A3: a separate machine filtering network traffic
Q4: What type of machines normall have a firewall?
A4: permanently connected to the Internet
Q5: What compromises mainly preventative measures?
A5: computer security
Serious financial damage has been caused by security breaches, but because there is no standard model for estimating the cost of an incident, the only data available is that which is made public by the organizations involved. "Several computer security consulting firms produce estimates of total worldwide losses attributable to virus and worm attacks and to hostile digital acts in general. The 2003 loss estimates by these firms range from $13 billion (worms and viruses only) to $226 billion (for all forms of covert attacks). The reliability of these estimates is often challenged; the underlying methodology is basically anecdotal."

Q1: What has caused serious financial damage?
A1: security breaches
Q2: Data made public who is available to estimate the cost of an incident?
A2: the organizations involved
Q3: What is the amount of losses estimated from worms and viruses in 2003?
A3: $13 billion
Q4: Who produces estimates of worldwide losses attributable to security breaches?
A4: Several computer security consulting firms
Q5: What is the underlying methodology of finding worldwide estimates for losses fur to security breaches?
A5: basically anecdotal
While hardware may be a source of insecurity, such as with microchip vulnerabilities maliciously introduced during the manufacturing process, hardware-based or assisted computer security also offers an alternative to software-only computer security. Using devices and methods such as dongles, trusted platform modules, intrusion-aware cases, drive locks, disabling USB ports, and mobile-enabled access may be considered more secure due to the physical access (or sophisticated backdoor access) required in order to be compromised. Each of these is covered in more detail below.

Q1: Microchips vulnerabilities are introduced when?
A1: during the manufacturing process
Q2: What offers an alternative to soft-ware only computer security?
A2: hardware-based or assisted computer security
Q3: What can hardware be a source of?
A3: insecurity
Q4: What is required in order for hardware to be compromised?
A4: physical access (or sophisticated backdoor access)
Public Safety Canada’s Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre (CCIRC) is responsible for mitigating and responding to threats to Canada’s critical infrastructure and cyber systems. The CCIRC provides support to mitigate cyber threats, technical support to respond and recover from targeted cyber attacks, and provides online tools for members of Canada’s critical infrastructure sectors. The CCIRC posts regular cyber security bulletins on the Public Safety Canada website. The CCIRC also operates an online reporting tool where individuals and organizations can report a cyber incident. Canada's Cyber Security Strategy is part of a larger, integrated approach to critical infrastructure protection, and functions as a counterpart document to the National Strategy and Action Plan for Critical Infrastructure.

Q1: What does CCIRC stand for?
A1: Canadian Cyber Incident Response Centre
Q2: Who is resposible for mitigating and responding to threats to Canada's critical infrastructure?
A2: CCIRC
Q3: Where does the CCIRC post regular cyber security bulletins?
A3: on the Public Safety Canada website
Q4: What functions as a counterpart document to the National Strategy and Action Plan for Critical Infrastructure?
A4: Canada's Cyber Security Strategy
This has led to new terms such as cyberwarfare and cyberterrorism. More and more critical infrastructure is being controlled via computer programs that, while increasing efficiency, exposes new vulnerabilities. The test will be to see if governments and corporations that control critical systems such as energy, communications and other information will be able to prevent attacks before they occur. As Jay Cross, the chief scientist of the Internet Time Group, remarked, "Connectedness begets vulnerability."

Q1: Who said "Connectedness begets vulnerability?"
A1: Jay Cross
Q2: What organization does Jay Cross belong to?
A2: the Internet Time Group
Q3: What is the advantage of more critical infrastructure being controlled via computer programs?
A3: increasing efficiency
Q4: What is the disadvantage of more critical infrastructure being controlled via computer programs?
A4: exposes new vulnerabilities
On September 27, 2010, Public Safety Canada partnered with STOP.THINK.CONNECT, a coalition of non-profit, private sector, and government organizations dedicated to informing the general public on how to protect themselves online. On February 4, 2014, the Government of Canada launched the Cyber Security Cooperation Program. The program is a $1.5 million five-year initiative aimed at improving Canada’s cyber systems through grants and contributions to projects in support of this objective. Public Safety Canada aims to begin an evaluation of Canada's Cyber Security Strategy in early 2015. Public Safety Canada administers and routinely updates the GetCyberSafe portal for Canadian citizens, and carries out Cyber Security Awareness Month during October.

Q1: When did Public Safety Canada partner with Stop.Think. Connect?
A1: September 27, 2010
Q2: When was the Cyber Security Cooperation Program launched by the Government of Canada?
A2: February 4, 2014
Q3: Who routinely updates the GetCyberSafe portal for Canadian citizens?
A3: Public Safety Canada
Q4: What month is Cyber Security Awareness Month?
A4: October
Q5: How much does the Cyber Security Cooperation Program cost?
A5: $1.5 million
An unauthorized user gaining physical access to a computer is most likely able to directly download data from it. They may also compromise security by making operating system modifications, installing software worms, keyloggers, or covert listening devices. Even when the system is protected by standard security measures, these may be able to be by passed by booting another operating system or tool from a CD-ROM or other bootable media. Disk encryption and Trusted Platform Module are designed to prevent these attacks.

Q1: Installing keyloggers and making operating system modifications are examples of ways unauthorized users for what?
A1: compromise security
Q2: Booting a tool or another operating system from a CD Rom can bypass what?
A2: standard security measures
Q3: Disk encryption and Trusted Platform Module are designed to prevent what?
A3: attacks
Q4: An unauthorized user with physical access to a computer can likely do what?
A4: directly download data from it
Clickjacking, also known as "UI redress attack or User Interface redress attack", is a malicious technique in which an attacker tricks a user into clicking on a button or link on another webpage while the user intended to click on the top level page. This is done using multiple transparent or opaque layers. The attacker is basically "hijacking" the clicks meant for the top level page and routing them to some other irrelevant page, most likely owned by someone else. A similar technique can be used to hijack keystrokes. Carefully drafting a combination of stylesheets, iframes, buttons and text boxes, a user can be led into believing that they are typing the password or other information on some authentic webpage while it is being channeled into an invisible frame controlled by the attacker.

Q1: UI redress attack or User Interface redress attack is also known as what?
A1: Clickjacking
Q2: What is a malicious technique in which an attacker tricks the user into clicking on a button or link?
A2: Clickjacking
Q3: Where are the clicks meant for the top level page routed?
A3: some other irrelevant page
Q4: Where would a password typed on a seemingly authetic webpage be directed?
A4: into an invisible frame controlled by the attacker
Q5: How istricking the user accomplished in clickjacking?
A5: using multiple transparent or opaque layers
In 1988, only 60,000 computers were connected to the Internet, and most were mainframes, minicomputers and professional workstations. On November 2, 1988, many started to slow down, because they were running a malicious code that demanded processor time and that spread itself to other computers – the first internet "computer worm". The software was traced back to 23-year-old Cornell University graduate student Robert Tappan Morris, Jr. who said 'he wanted to count how many machines were connected to the Internet'.

Q1: How many computers were connected to the internet in 1988?
A1: 60,000
Q2: When was the first computer worm released?
A2: November 2, 1988
Q3: Who was the first computer worm traced back to?
A3: Robert Tappan Morris, Jr.
Q4: What is a malicious code that demands processor time and spreads itself to other computers?
A4: computer worm
Q5: Why did Morris Jr make the computer worm?
A5: he wanted to count how many machines were connected to the Internet