romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
In the Regal era, a rex sacrorum (king of the sacred rites) supervised regal and state rites in conjunction with the king (rex) or in his absence, and announced the public festivals. He had little or no civil authority. With the abolition of monarchy, the collegial power and influence of the Republican pontifices increased. By the late Republican era, the flamines were supervised by the pontifical collegia. The rex sacrorum had become a relatively obscure priesthood with an entirely symbolic title: his religious duties still included the daily, ritual announcement of festivals and priestly duties within two or three of the latter but his most important priestly role – the supervision of the Vestals and their rites – fell to the more politically powerful and influential pontifex maximus.

Q1: Who supervised sacred rites during the era of kings?
A1: rex sacrorum
Q2: What type of authority did the rex sacrorum lack?
A2: civil
Q3: What group's power increased after the rise of the Roman Republic?
A3: Republican pontifices
Q4: What individual became more powerful during the late Republic?
A4: pontifex maximus
Q5: By the late Republic, what position had become largely symbolic?
A5: rex sacrorum
Public priests were appointed by the collegia. Once elected, a priest held permanent religious authority from the eternal divine, which offered him lifetime influence, privilege and immunity. Therefore, civil and religious law limited the number and kind of religious offices allowed an individual and his family. Religious law was collegial and traditional; it informed political decisions, could overturn them, and was difficult to exploit for personal gain. Priesthood was a costly honour: in traditional Roman practice, a priest drew no stipend. Cult donations were the property of the deity, whose priest must provide cult regardless of shortfalls in public funding – this could mean subsidy of acolytes and all other cult maintenance from personal funds. For those who had reached their goal in the Cursus honorum, permanent priesthood was best sought or granted after a lifetime's service in military or political life, or preferably both: it was a particularly honourable and active form of retirement which fulfilled an essential public duty. For a freedman or slave, promotion as one of the Compitalia seviri offered a high local profile, and opportunities in local politics; and therefore business. During the Imperial era, priesthood of the Imperial cult offered provincial elites full Roman citizenship and public prominence beyond their single year in religious office; in effect, it was the first step in a provincial cursus honorum. In Rome, the same Imperial cult role was performed by the Arval Brethren, once an obscure Republican priesthood dedicated to several deities, then co-opted by Augustus as part of his religious reforms. The Arvals offered prayer and sacrifice to Roman state gods at various temples for the continued welfare of the Imperial family on their birthdays, accession anniversaries and to mark extraordinary events such as the quashing of conspiracy or revolt. Every January 3 they consecrated the annual vows and rendered any sacrifice promised in the previous year, provided the gods had kept the Imperial family safe for the contracted time.

Q1: What group selected public priests in Rome?
A1: collegia
Q2: What was the term of office for a priest in Rome?
A2: lifetime
Q3: What limited an individual's access to religious offices?
A3: law
Q4: Because of the lack of pay, what was the type of honor in being a priest?
A4: costly
Q5: What did a priesthood in the Imperial cult gain a provencial?
A5: Roman citizenship
The Vestals were a public priesthood of six women devoted to the cultivation of Vesta, goddess of the hearth of the Roman state and its vital flame. A girl chosen to be a Vestal achieved unique religious distinction, public status and privileges, and could exercise considerable political influence. Upon entering her office, a Vestal was emancipated from her father's authority. In archaic Roman society, these priestesses were the only women not required to be under the legal guardianship of a man, instead answering directly to the Pontifex Maximus.

Q1: How many Vestals were there in Rome?
A1: six
Q2: Of what was Vesta the goddess?
A2: hearth
Q3: Of what were the Vestals protectors?
A3: vital flame
Q4: What was the benefit of being a Vestal?
A4: political influence
Q5: To whom did the Vestal answer?
A5: Pontifex Maximus
A Vestal's dress represented her status outside the usual categories that defined Roman women, with elements of both virgin bride and daughter, and Roman matron and wife. Unlike male priests, Vestals were freed of the traditional obligations of marrying and producing children, and were required to take a vow of chastity that was strictly enforced: a Vestal polluted by the loss of her chastity while in office was buried alive. Thus the exceptional honor accorded a Vestal was religious rather than personal or social; her privileges required her to be fully devoted to the performance of her duties, which were considered essential to the security of Rome.

Q1: What vow was required of Vestals?
A1: chastity
Q2: How were the Vestals' devotion to Rome's security viewed to be ?
A2: essential
Q3: What was the punishment for the loss of a Vestal's chastity?
A3: buried alive
Q4: What was a Vestal expected to be to her duties?
A4: devoted
Q5: What was the honor granted a Vestal ?
A5: religious
The Vestals embody the profound connection between domestic cult and the religious life of the community. Any householder could rekindle their own household fire from Vesta's flame. The Vestals cared for the Lares and Penates of the state that were the equivalent of those enshrined in each home. Besides their own festival of Vestalia, they participated directly in the rites of Parilia, Parentalia and Fordicidia. Indirectly, they played a role in every official sacrifice; among their duties was the preparation of the mola salsa, the salted flour that was sprinkled on every sacrificial victim as part of its immolation.

Q1: Where could a householder rekindle the home's flame?
A1: Vesta's flame
Q2: For what state artifacts did the Vestals care?
A2: Lares and Penates
Q3: What was the Vestal festival called?
A3: Vestalia
Q4: To what part of official state sacrifices did the Vestals attend?
A4: mola salsa
Q5: What was the nature of the role of the Vestals in state sacrifices?
A5: Indirect
Augustus' religious reformations raised the funding and public profile of the Vestals. They were given high-status seating at games and theatres. The emperor Claudius appointed them as priestesses to the cult of the deified Livia, wife of Augustus. They seem to have retained their religious and social distinctions well into the 4th century, after political power within the Empire had shifted to the Christians. When the Christian emperor Gratian refused the office of pontifex maximus, he took steps toward the dissolution of the order. His successor Theodosius I extinguished Vesta's sacred fire and vacated her temple.

Q1: What group's status was improved by Augustus' religious reforms?
A1: Vestals
Q2: What advantage was there in being a Vestal at games?
A2: seating
Q3: For whose cult were the Vestals appointed as priestesses?
A3: Livia
Q4: Until what time did the Vestal retain their social distinctions?
A4: 4th century
Q5: Which emperor disbanded the Vestals?
A5: Theodosius I
Public religion took place within a sacred precinct that had been marked out ritually by an augur. The original meaning of the Latin word templum was this sacred space, and only later referred to a building. Rome itself was an intrinsically sacred space; its ancient boundary (pomerium) had been marked by Romulus himself with oxen and plough; what lay within was the earthly home and protectorate of the gods of the state. In Rome, the central references for the establishment of an augural templum appear to have been the Via Sacra (Sacred Way) and the pomerium. Magistrates sought divine opinion of proposed official acts through an augur, who read the divine will through observations made within the templum before, during and after an act of sacrifice. Divine disapproval could arise through unfit sacrifice, errant rites (vitium) or an unacceptable plan of action. If an unfavourable sign was given, the magistrate could repeat the sacrifice until favourable signs were seen, consult with his augural colleagues, or abandon the project. Magistrates could use their right of augury (ius augurum) to adjourn and overturn the process of law, but were obliged to base their decision on the augur's observations and advice. For Cicero, himself an augur, this made the augur the most powerful authority in the Late Republic. By his time (mid 1st century BC) augury was supervised by the college of pontifices, whose powers were increasingly woven into the magistracies of the cursus honorum.

Q1: In what area did public rites take place in Rome?
A1: sacred precinct
Q2: What person marked the religious area ritually?
A2: augur
Q3: What was the original meaning of the templum in Latin?
A3: sacred space
Q4: Who designated the first boundary of Rome?
A4: Romulus
Q5: What did augers seek to understand through observances?
A5: divine will
Haruspicy was also used in public cult, under the supervision of the augur or presiding magistrate. The haruspices divined the will of the gods through examination of entrails after sacrifice, particularly the liver. They also interpreted omens, prodigies and portents, and formulated their expiation. Most Roman authors describe haruspicy as an ancient, ethnically Etruscan "outsider" religious profession, separate from Rome's internal and largely unpaid priestly hierarchy, essential but never quite respectable. During the mid-to-late Republic, the reformist Gaius Gracchus, the populist politician-general Gaius Marius and his antagonist Sulla, and the "notorious Verres" justified their very different policies by the divinely inspired utterances of private diviners. The senate and armies used the public haruspices: at some time during the late Republic, the Senate decreed that Roman boys of noble family be sent to Etruria for training in haruspicy and divination. Being of independent means, they would be better motivated to maintain a pure, religious practice for the public good. The motives of private haruspices – especially females – and their clients were officially suspect: none of this seems to have troubled Marius, who employed a Syrian prophetess.

Q1: What process did haruspicy use to divine the will of the gods?
A1: examination of entrails
Q2: Which of the entrails was especially important to augury?
A2: liver
Q3: To which group can haruspicy to traced?
A3: Etruscan
Q4: What type of private  individual had several generals and politicians used to validate their actions?
A4: diviners
Q5: What type of diviners did the armies use to determine the will of the gods?
A5: public haruspices
Prodigies were transgressions in the natural, predictable order of the cosmos – signs of divine anger that portended conflict and misfortune. The Senate decided whether a reported prodigy was false, or genuine and in the public interest, in which case it was referred to the public priests, augurs and haruspices for ritual expiation. In 207 BC, during one of the Punic Wars' worst crises, the Senate dealt with an unprecedented number of confirmed prodigies whose expiation would have involved "at least twenty days" of dedicated rites.

Q1: What were considered to be natural transgressions by the Romans?
A1: Prodigies
Q2: Of what were prodigies predictors?
A2: conflict and misfortune
Q3: What did prodigies show the Romans?
A3: divine anger
Q4: What did the expiation of a prodigy impose?
A4: dedicated rites
Q5: What group determined the truth of a prodigy?
A5: Senate
Livy presents these as signs of widespread failure in Roman religio. The major prodigies included the spontaneous combustion of weapons, the apparent shrinking of the sun's disc, two moons in a daylit sky, a cosmic battle between sun and moon, a rain of red-hot stones, a bloody sweat on statues, and blood in fountains and on ears of corn: all were expiated by sacrifice of "greater victims". The minor prodigies were less warlike but equally unnatural; sheep become goats, a hen become a cock (and vice versa) – these were expiated with "lesser victims". The discovery of an androgynous four-year-old child was expiated by its drowning and the holy procession of 27 virgins to the temple of Juno Regina, singing a hymn to avert disaster: a lightning strike during the hymn rehearsals required further expiation. Religious restitution is proved only by Rome's victory.

Q1: What author wrote of disaster prodigies?
A1: Livy
Q2: What type of sacrifices were required to expiate the minor prodigies ?
A2: lesser victims
Q3: Of what did the greater prodigies require in sacrifice?
A3: greater victims
Q4: Of what did Livy think the prodigies proved about Roman religion?
A4: widespread failure
Q5: What is the only proof of religious success over prodigies?
A5: Rome's victory
Roman beliefs about an afterlife varied, and are known mostly for the educated elite who expressed their views in terms of their chosen philosophy. The traditional care of the dead, however, and the perpetuation after death of their status in life were part of the most archaic practices of Roman religion. Ancient votive deposits to the noble dead of Latium and Rome suggest elaborate and costly funeral offerings and banquets in the company of the deceased, an expectation of afterlife and their association with the gods. As Roman society developed, its Republican nobility tended to invest less in spectacular funerals and extravagant housing for their dead, and more on monumental endowments to the community, such as the donation of a temple or public building whose donor was commemorated by his statue and inscribed name. Persons of low or negligible status might receive simple burial, with such grave goods as relatives could afford.

Q1: From what source does information of Roman thought about the afterlife come?
A1: educated elite
Q2: What type of practices were those affecting the care of the dead?
A2: archaic
Q3: What did the ancient Romans expect after death?
A3: afterlife
Q4: With whom did the  early Romans expect to associate?
A4: gods
Q5: What did later Romans invest in rather than grave offerings?
A5: monumental endowments
Funeral and commemorative rites varied according to wealth, status and religious context. In Cicero's time, the better-off sacrificed a sow at the funeral pyre before cremation. The dead consumed their portion in the flames of the pyre, Ceres her portion through the flame of her altar, and the family at the site of the cremation. For the less well-off, inhumation with "a libation of wine, incense, and fruit or crops was sufficient". Ceres functioned as an intermediary between the realms of the living and the dead: the deceased had not yet fully passed to the world of the dead and could share a last meal with the living. The ashes (or body) were entombed or buried. On the eighth day of mourning, the family offered further sacrifice, this time on the ground; the shade of the departed was assumed to have passed entirely into the underworld. They had become one of the di Manes, who were collectively celebrated and appeased at the Parentalia, a multi-day festival of remembrance in February.

Q1: What type of rites varied in accordance with status and religion?
A1: Funeral and commemorative
Q2: What was the grave sacrifice in Cicero's time?
A2: sow
Q3: What class gave only wine and food as a grave offering?
A3: less well-off
Q4: What was the multi day of remembrance for the dead?
A4: Parentalia
Q5: What goddess was an intermediary  between the dead and the living?
A5: Ceres
In the later Imperial era, the burial and commemorative practises of Christian and non-Christians overlapped. Tombs were shared by Christian and non-Christian family members, and the traditional funeral rites and feast of novemdialis found a part-match in the Christian Constitutio Apostolica. The customary offers of wine and food to the dead continued; St Augustine (following St Ambrose) feared that this invited the "drunken" practices of Parentalia but commended funeral feasts as a Christian opportunity to give alms of food to the poor. Christians attended Parentalia and its accompanying Feralia and Caristia in sufficient numbers for the Council of Tours to forbid them in AD 567. Other funerary and commemorative practices were very different. Traditional Roman practice spurned the corpse as a ritual pollution; inscriptions noted the day of birth and duration of life. The Christian Church fostered the veneration of saintly relics, and inscriptions marked the day of death as a transition to "new life".

Q1: What group's burial practices over-lapped with the Roman's?
A1: Christian
Q2: What items were shared among Christian and non- Christians?
A2: Tombs
Q3: What did St Augustine believe that funeral feasts gave an opportunity for?
A3: alms of food
Q4: When was Christian attendance at Parentalia become forbidden by the Christians?
A4: AD 567
Q5: How did the Romans view the corpse of the dead?
A5: ritual pollution
Roman camps followed a standard pattern for defense and religious ritual; in effect they were Rome in miniature. The commander's headquarters stood at the centre; he took the auspices on a dais in front. A small building behind housed the legionary standards, the divine images used in religious rites and in the Imperial era, the image of the ruling emperor. In one camp, this shrine is even called Capitolium. The most important camp-offering appears to have been the suovetaurilia performed before a major, set battle. A ram, a boar and a bull were ritually garlanded, led around the outer perimeter of the camp (a lustratio exercitus) and in through a gate, then sacrificed: Trajan's column shows three such events from his Dacian wars. The perimeter procession and sacrifice suggest the entire camp as a divine templum; all within are purified and protected.

Q1: How were Roman camps laid out?
A1: standard pattern
Q2: For what purpose were Roman camps arranged?
A2: defense and religious ritual
Q3: Of what were Roman camps diminutive versions?
A3: Rome
Q4: What was in the center of each Roman camp?
A4: commander's headquarters
Q5: What does the religious rites performed before battle suggest that the camp has become?
A5: divine templum
Each camp had its own religious personnel; standard bearers, priestly officers and their assistants, including a haruspex, and housekeepers of shrines and images. A senior magistrate-commander (sometimes even a consul) headed it, his chain of subordinates ran it and a ferocious system of training and discipline ensured that every citizen-soldier knew his duty. As in Rome, whatever gods he served in his own time seem to have been his own business; legionary forts and vici included shrines to household gods, personal deities and deities otherwise unknown. From the earliest Imperial era, citizen legionaries and provincial auxiliaries gave cult to the emperor and his familia on Imperial accessions, anniversaries and their renewal of annual vows. They celebrated Rome's official festivals in absentia, and had the official triads appropriate to their function – in the Empire, Jupiter, Victoria and Concordia were typical. By the early Severan era, the military also offered cult to the Imperial divi, the current emperor's numen, genius and domus (or familia), and special cult to the Empress as "mother of the camp." The near ubiquitous legionary shrines to Mithras of the later Imperial era were not part of official cult until Mithras was absorbed into Solar and Stoic Monism as a focus of military concordia and Imperial loyalty.

Q1: What type of personnel did every camp have?
A1: religious
Q2: What officer headed the religious personnel of a Roman camp?
A2: senior magistrate-commander
Q3: In the Imperial era, what cult did legionnaires follow?
A3: emperor
Q4: Even in other places, of what did the legions keep observance?
A4: Rome's official festivals
Q5: What person was considered to be "Mother of the camp''?
A5: Empress
The devotio was the most extreme offering a Roman general could make, promising to offer his own life in battle along with the enemy as an offering to the underworld gods. Livy offers a detailed account of the devotio carried out by Decius Mus; family tradition maintained that his son and grandson, all bearing the same name, also devoted themselves. Before the battle, Decius is granted a prescient dream that reveals his fate. When he offers sacrifice, the victim's liver appears "damaged where it refers to his own fortunes". Otherwise, the haruspex tells him, the sacrifice is entirely acceptable to the gods. In a prayer recorded by Livy, Decius commits himself and the enemy to the dii Manes and Tellus, charges alone and headlong into the enemy ranks, and is killed; his action cleanses the sacrificial offering. Had he failed to die, his sacrificial offering would have been tainted and therefore void, with possibly disastrous consequences. The act of devotio is a link between military ethics and those of the Roman gladiator.

Q1: What was a Roman general's most extreme offering?
A1: devotio
Q2: What Roman general had a dream of his fate in battle?
A2: Decius Mus
Q3: With what does the devotio link to military ethics?
A3: Roman gladiator
Q4: By dying what did Decius avoid for the battle?
A4: disastrous consequences
Q5: Who wrote a detailed account of the demise of Decius Mus?
A5: Livy
The efforts of military commanders to channel the divine will were on occasion less successful. In the early days of Rome's war against Carthage, the commander Publius Claudius Pulcher (consul 249 BC) launched a sea campaign "though the sacred chickens would not eat when he took the auspices." In defiance of the omen, he threw them into the sea, "saying that they might drink, since they would not eat. He was defeated, and on being bidden by the senate to appoint a dictator, he appointed his messenger Glycias, as if again making a jest of his country's peril." His impiety not only lost the battle but ruined his career.

Q1: What general was consul in 249 BC?
A1: Publius Claudius Pulcher
Q2: What type of campaign did Publius fight?
A2: sea
Q3: What was Publius's critical mistake in his sea campaign?
A3: defiance of the omen
Q4: How did Publius fare in his battle?
A4: defeated
Q5: What was the cause of Publius's failures according to Roman feeling?
A5: impiety
Roman women were present at most festivals and cult observances. Some rituals specifically required the presence of women, but their active participation was limited. As a rule women did not perform animal sacrifice, the central rite of most major public ceremonies. In addition to the public priesthood of the Vestals, some cult practices were reserved for women only. The rites of the Bona Dea excluded men entirely. Because women enter the public record less frequently than men, their religious practices are less known, and even family cults were headed by the paterfamilias. A host of deities, however, are associated with motherhood. Juno, Diana, Lucina, and specialized divine attendants presided over the life-threatening act of giving birth and the perils of caring for a baby at a time when the infant mortality rate was as high as 40 percent.

Q1: What was the amount of participation by women in religious observances?
A1: limited
Q2: What religious act did women not perform?
A2: animal sacrifice
Q3: What priesthood was reserved solely for women?
A3: Vestals
Q4: What Roman rites excluded men?
A4: Bona Dea
Q5: With what are many deities aligned for women in Rome's religions?
A5: motherhood