romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
Some countries have multiple "supreme courts" whose respective jurisdictions have different geographical extents, or which are restricted to particular areas of law. In particular, countries with a federal system of government typically[citation needed] have both a federal supreme court (such as the Supreme Court of the United States), and supreme courts for each member state (such as the Supreme Court of Nevada), with the former having jurisdiction over the latter only to the extent that the federal constitution extends federal law over state law. Jurisdictions with a civil law system often have a hierarchy of administrative courts separate from the ordinary courts, headed by a supreme administrative court as it the case in the Netherlands. A number of jurisdictions also maintain a separate constitutional court (first developed in the Czechoslovak Constitution of 1920), such as Austria, France, Germany, Luxemburg, Portugal, Spain and South Africa.

Q1: Countries with more than one supreme court may divide their primacy by what factors?
A1: different geographical extents, or which are restricted to particular areas of law
Q2: What is an example of the highest court in a federal system of government?
A2: the Supreme Court of the United States
Q3: What are some countries that have a separate supreme court to decide constitutional matters?
A3: Austria, France, Germany, Luxemburg, Portugal, Spain and South Africa
Q4: A court system with a hierarchy of different administrative courts occurs in what kind of legal system?
A4: a civil law system
In jurisdictions using a common law system, the doctrine of stare decisis applies, whereby the principles applied by the supreme court in its decisions are binding upon all lower courts; this is intended to apply a uniform interpretation and implementation of the law. In civil law jurisdictions the doctrine of stare decisis is not generally considered to apply, so the decisions of the supreme court are not necessarily binding beyond the immediate case before it; however, in practice the decisions of the supreme court usually provide a very strong precedent, or jurisprudence constante, for both itself and all lower courts.

Q1: What term describes a system where the supreme court's decisions are binding over the lower courts?
A1: stare decisis
Q2: What jurisdictions does this system not apply to?
A2: civil law jurisdictions
Q3: In a civil law jurisdiction, rulings by a supreme court are only binding for which decisions?
A3: the immediate case before it
Q4: Even in civil law jurisdictions, decisions by supreme courts establish what?
A4: a very strong precedent
Q5: What is the legal term for the precedence established by multiple court rulings?
A5: jurisprudence constante
In Canada, the Supreme Court of Canada was established in 1875 but only became the highest court in the country in 1949 when the right of appeal to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council was abolished. This court hears appeals of decisions made by courts of appeal from the provinces and territories and appeals of decisions made by the Federal Court of Appeal. The court's decisions are final and binding on the federal courts and the courts from all provinces and territories. The title "Supreme" can be confusing because, for example, The Supreme Court of British Columbia does not have the final say and controversial cases heard there often get appealed in higher courts - it is in fact one of the lower courts in such a process.

Q1: When was Canada's Supreme Court first established?
A1: 1875
Q2: Canada's Supreme Court didn't actually become that country's highest court until when?
A2: 1949
Q3: If a provincial case is appealed, how is the Supreme Court's decision applied?
A3: The court's decisions are final and binding
Q4: Before 1949, Supreme Court decisions in Canada could be appealed to what body?
A4: the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
In Hong Kong, the Supreme Court of Hong Kong (now known as the High Court of Hong Kong) was the final court of appeal during its colonial times which ended with transfer of sovereignty in 1997. The final adjudication power, as in any other British Colonies, rested with the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC) in London, United Kingdom. Now the power of final adjudication is vested in the Court of Final Appeal created in 1997. Under the Basic Law, its constitution, the territory remains a common law jurisdiction. Consequently, judges from other common law jurisdictions (including England and Wales) can be recruited and continue to serve in the judiciary according to Article 92 of the Basic Law. On the other hand, the power of interpretation of the Basic Law itself is vested in the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC) in Beijing (without retroactive effect), and the courts are authorised to interpret the Basic Law when trying cases, in accordance with Article 158 of the Basic Law. This arrangement became controversial in light of the right of abode issue in 1999, raising concerns for judicial independence.

Q1: When did Britain formally surrender sovreignty over Hong Kong?
A1: 1997
Q2: When Hong Kong was a colony of Great Britain, which body was the highest court of appeal?
A2: the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council (JCPC)
Q3: Where is the JCPC located?
A3: London, United Kingdom
Q4: When was the Court of Final Appeal established?
A4: 1997
Q5: The Standing Committee of the National People's Congress is seated in what city?
A5: Beijing
In India, the Supreme Court of India was created on January 28, 1950 after adoption of the Constitution. Article 141 of the Constitution of India states that the law declared by Supreme Court is to be binding on all Courts within the territory of India. It is the highest court in India and has ultimate judicial authority to interpret the Constitution and decide questions of national law (including local bylaws). The Supreme Court is also vested with the power of judicial review to ensure the application of the rule of law.

Q1: On what date was India's Supreme Court established?
A1: January 28, 1950
Q2: What article of India's Constitution makes decisions by their Supreme Court binding on lower courts?
A2: Article 141
Q3: India's Supreme Court has ultimate power to determine interpretations of what?
A3: the Constitution
Q4: When the Supreme Court ensures that lower courts have properly applied the law it is called what?
A4: judicial review
Q5: In addition to national laws, India's Supreme Court may also interpret what regulations?
A5: local bylaws
The Supreme Court is the highest court in Ireland. It has authority to interpret the constitution, and strike down laws and activities of the state that it finds to be unconstitutional. It is also the highest authority in the interpretation of the law. Constitutionally it must have authority to interpret the constitution but its further appellate jurisdiction from lower courts is defined by law. The Irish Supreme Court consists of its presiding member, the Chief Justice, and seven other judges. Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President in accordance with the binding advice of the Government. The Supreme Court sits in the Four Courts in Dublin.

Q1: What is the highest ranking court in Ireland?
A1: The Supreme Court
Q2: Ireland's highest court has the power to determine whether laws are allowed by what document?
A2: the constitution
Q3: Who is the highest judge in Ireland's Supreme Court?
A3: the Chief Justice
Q4: Besides chief justice, how many other judges sit on Ireland's Supreme Court?
A4: seven other judges
Q5: Where is Ireland's Supreme Court seated?
A5: the Four Courts in Dublin
Israel's Supreme Court is at the head of the court system in the State of Israel. It is the highest judicial instance. The Supreme Court sits in Jerusalem. The area of its jurisdiction is the entire State. A ruling of the Supreme Court is binding upon every court, other than the Supreme Court itself. The Israeli supreme court is both an appellate court and the high court of justice. As an appellate court, the Supreme Court considers cases on appeal (both criminal and civil) on judgments and other decisions of the District Courts. It also considers appeals on judicial and quasi-judicial decisions of various kinds, such as matters relating to the legality of Knesset elections and disciplinary rulings of the Bar Association. As the High Court of Justice (Hebrew: Beit Mishpat Gavoha Le'Zedek בית משפט גבוה לצדק; also known by its initials as Bagatz בג"ץ), the Supreme Court rules as a court of first instance, primarily in matters regarding the legality of decisions of State authorities: Government decisions, those of local authorities and other bodies and persons performing public functions under the law, and direct challenges to the constitutionality of laws enacted by the Knesset. The court has broad discretionary authority to rule on matters in which it considers it necessary to grant relief in the interests of justice, and which are not within the jurisdiction of another court or tribunal. The High Court of Justice grants relief through orders such as injunction, mandamus and Habeas Corpus, as well as through declaratory judgments. The Supreme Court can also sit at a further hearing on its own judgment. In a matter on which the Supreme Court has ruled - whether as a court of appeals or as the High Court of Justice - with a panel of three or more justices, it may rule at a further hearing with a panel of a larger number of justices. A further hearing may be held if the Supreme Court makes a ruling inconsistent with a previous ruling or if the Court deems that the importance, difficulty or novelty of a ruling of the Court justifies such hearing. The Supreme Court also holds the unique power of being able to order "trial de novo" (a retrial).

Q1: Where is Israel's Supreme Court located?
A1: Jerusalem
Q2: Israel's Supreme Court fulfills what two major functions?
A2: both an appellate court and the high court of justice
Q3: Israel's legislative body is called what?
A3: the Knesset
Q4: Israel's Supreme court has uses what internal method to review its own decisions?
A4: a panel of three or more justices
Q5: A retrial is also called what?
A5: "trial de novo"
The new Supreme Court of New Zealand was officially established at the beginning of 2004, although it did not come into operation until July. The High Court of New Zealand was until 1980 known as the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court has a purely appellate jurisdiction and hears appeals from the Court of Appeal of New Zealand. In some cases, an appeal may be removed directly to the Supreme Court from the High Court. For certain cases, particularly cases which commenced in the District Court, a lower court (typically the High Court or the Court of Appeal) may be the court of final jurisdiction.

Q1: When did New Zealand's Supreme Court come into being?
A1: 2004
Q2: What is the role of New Zealand's highest court?
A2: purely appellate
Q3: What court's decisions may be appealed to New Zealand's supreme court?
A3: Court of Appeal of New Zealand
Q4: New Zealand's second ranking court is known as what?
A4: the High Court
Q5: Local decisions by what judicial body may remain within the jurisdiction of local courts?
A5: the District Court
With respect to Pakistan's territories (i.e. FATA, Azad Kashmir, Northern Areas and Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT)) the Supreme Court's jurisdiction is rather limited and varies from territory to territory; it can hear appeals only of a constitutional nature from FATA and Northern Areas, while ICT generally functions the same as provinces. Azad Kashmir has its own courts system and the constitution of Pakistan does not apply to it as such; appeals from Azad Kashmir relate to its relationship with Pakistan.

Q1: What are some of the territories within Pakistan?
A1: FATA, Azad Kashmir, Northern Areas and Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT)
Q2: What type of cases may Pakistan's Supreme Court hear from FATA?
A2: appeals only of a constitutional nature
Q3: What Pakistani territory's own courts retain supremacy?
A3: Azad Kashmir
Q4: What is the relationship between Pakistan's Constitution and Azad Kashmir?
A4: does not apply to it
The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the ultimate court for criminal and civil matters in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and for civil matters in Scotland. (The supreme court for criminal matters in Scotland is the High Court of Justiciary.) The Supreme Court was established by the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 with effect from 1 October 2009, replacing and assuming the judicial functions of the House of Lords. Devolution issues under the Scotland Act 1998, Government of Wales Act and Northern Ireland Act were also transferred to the new Supreme Court by the Constitutional Reform Act, from the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.

Q1: The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom holds Supremacy in what jurisdictions?
A1: England, Wales and Northern Ireland and for civil matters in Scotland
Q2: What is the high court in Scotland that has supremacy on criminal matters?
A2: the High Court of Justiciary
Q3: What legislation established the Supremacy of the Supreme Court of the UK?
A3: Constitutional Reform Act 2005
Q4: When did this act go into affect?
A4: 1 October 2009
Q5: What body previously had judicial supremacy in the UK prior to this?
A5: House of Lords
The titles of state supreme court vary, which can cause confusion between jurisdictions because one state may use a name for its highest court that another uses for a lower court. In New York, Maryland, and the District of Columbia the highest court is called the Court of Appeals, a name used by many states for their intermediate appellate courts. Further, trial courts of general jurisdiction in New York are called the Supreme Court, and the intermediate appellate court is called the Supreme Court, Appellate Division. In West Virginia, the highest court of the state is the Supreme Court of Appeals. In Maine and Massachusetts the highest court is styled the "Supreme Judicial Court"; the last is the oldest appellate court of continuous operation in the Western Hemisphere.

Q1: What may cause some confusion in the US regarding state supreme courts?
A1: titles of state supreme court vary
Q2: The Court of Appeals is the high court in which US States or territories?
A2: New York, Maryland, and the District of Columbia
Q3: What is West Virginia's highest court called?
A3: Supreme Court of Appeals
Q4: What state's supreme court is the oldest appellate court body in the western hemisphere?
A4: Massachusetts
Q5: Supreme Courts in New York serve what function?
A5: trial courts of general jurisdiction
In Austria, the Austrian Constitution of 1920 (based on a draft by Hans Kelsen) introduced judicial review of legislative acts for their constitutionality. This function is performed by the Constitutional Court (Verfassungsgerichtshof), which is also charged with the review of administrative acts on whether they violate constitutionally guaranteed rights. Other than that, administrative acts are reviewed by the Administrative Court (Verwaltungsgerichtshof). The Supreme Court (Oberste Gerichtshof (OGH)), stands at the top of Austria's system of "ordinary courts" (ordentliche Gerichte) as the final instance in issues of private law and criminal law.

Q1: What document established judicial oversight of legislation in Austria?
A1: the Austrian Constitution of 1920
Q2: What court is charged with the responsibility of deciding the constitutionality of laws in Austria?
A2: Constitutional Court
Q3: What is the German word for this constitutional high court?
A3: Verfassungsgerichtshof
Q4: What is the Constitutional Court's power over the executive branch of Austrian government?
A4: the review of administrative acts on whether they violate constitutionally guaranteed rights
Q5: The Supreme Court of Austria is known by what German name?
A5: Oberste Gerichtshof (OGH)
In Brazil, the Supreme Federal Tribunal (Supremo Tribunal Federal) is the highest court. It is both the constitutional court and the court of last resort in Brazilian law. It only reviews cases that may be unconstitutional or final habeas corpus pleads for criminal cases. It also judges, in original jurisdiction, cases involving members of congress, senators, ministers of state, members of the high courts and the President and Vice-President of the Republic. The Superior Court of Justice (Tribunal Superior de Justiça) reviews State and Federal Circuit courts decisions for civil law and criminal law cases, when dealing with federal law or conflicting rulings. The Superior Labour Tribunal (Tribunal Superior do Trabalho) reviews cases involving labour law. The Superior Electoral Tribunal (Tribunal Superior Eleitoral) is the court of last resort of electoral law, and also oversees general elections. The Superior Military Tribunal (Tribunal Superior Militar) is the highest court in matters of federal military law.

Q1: What is the highest court in Brazil?
A1: Supreme Federal Tribunal (Supremo Tribunal Federal)
Q2: What are the two areas this court has supremacy over?
A2: cases that may be unconstitutional or final habeas corpus pleads for criminal cases
Q3: Which legislative bodies does this court sit in cases over?
A3: cases involving members of congress, senators
Q4: What other government officials are subject to judgments of Brazil's highest court?
A4: ministers of state, members of the high courts and the President and Vice-President of the Republic
Q5: What is Brazil's high court for labor law?
A5: The Superior Labour Tribunal (Tribunal Superior do Trabalho)
Final interpretation of and amendments to the German Constitution, the Grundgesetz, is the task of the Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court), which is the de facto highest German court, as it can declare both federal and state legislation ineffective, and has the power to overrule decisions of all other federal courts, despite not being a regular court of appeals on itself in the German court system. It is also the only court possessing the power and authority to outlaw political parties, if it is deemed that these parties have repeatedly violated articles of the Constitution.

Q1: What is Germany's constitution called?
A1: the Grundgesetz
Q2: What German high court has the responsibility for interpreting this document?
A2: Bundesverfassungsgericht
Q3: The english translation of this court and its duties is what?
A3: Federal Constitutional Court
Q4: What unique electoral power does this German high court possess?
A4: the power and authority to outlaw political parties
Q5: Under what circumstances may the court enact this responsibility?
A5: it is deemed that these parties have repeatedly violated articles of the Constitution
When it comes to civil and criminal cases, the Bundesgerichtshof is at the top of the hierarchy of courts. The other branches of the German judicial system each have their own appellate systems, each topped by a high court; these are the Bundessozialgericht for matters of social security, the Bundesarbeitsgericht for employment and labour, the Bundesfinanzhof for taxation and financial issues, and the Bundesverwaltungsgericht for administrative law. The so-called Gemeinsamer Senat der Obersten Gerichtshöfe (Joint Senate of the Supreme Courts) is not a supreme court in itself, but an ad-hoc body that is convened in only when one supreme court intends to diverge from another supreme court's legal opinion or when a certain case exceeds the authority of one court. As the courts have well-defined areas of responsibility, situations like these are rather rare and so, the Joint Senate gathers very infrequently, and only to consider matters which are mostly definitory.

Q1: The German high court has jurisdiction over what two areas of law?
A1: civil and criminal cases
Q2: What court has supremacy for matters of social security?
A2: Bundessozialgericht
Q3: What court sits in supremacy for cases related to employment and labor law in Germany?
A3: Bundesarbeitsgericht
Q4: Germany's Joint Senate of the Supreme Courts is also known by what name?
A4: Gemeinsamer Senat der Obersten Gerichtshöfe
In the Netherlands, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands is the highest. Its decisions, known as "arresten", are absolutely final. The court is banned from testing legislation against the constitution, pursuant to the principle of the sovereignty of the States-General; the court can, however, test legislation against some treaties. Also, the ordinary courts in the Netherlands, including the Hoge Raad, do not deal with administrative law, which is dealt with in separate administrative courts, the highest of which is the Council of State (Raad van State)

Q1: Decisions of the Dutch Supreme Court are called what?
A1: arresten
Q2: The Supreme Court of the Netherlands cannot interpret what?
A2: legislation against the constitution
Q3: What areas of interpretative oversight does the supreme court have?
A3: legislation against some treaties
Q4: Holland's regular court system does not handle cases related to what area of law?
A4: administrative law
Q5: The high court for administrative law is also known as what?
A5: Council of State (Raad van State)
While the Philippines is generally considered a civil law nation, its Supreme Court is heavily modelled after the American Supreme Court. This can be attributed to the fact that the Philippines was colonized by both Spain and the United States, and the system of laws of both nations strongly influenced the development of Philippine laws and jurisprudence. Even as the body of Philippine laws remain mostly codified, the Philippine Civil Code expressly recognizes that decisions of the Supreme Court "form part of the law of the land", belonging to the same class as statutes. The 1987 Philippine Constitution also explicitly grants to the Supreme Court the power of judicial review over laws and executive actions. The Supreme Court is composed of 1 Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices. The court sits either en banc or in divisions, depending on the nature of the case to be decided.

Q1: What type of legal system is the Philippines officially?
A1: a civil law nation
Q2: The high court in The Philippines is modeled after what judicial body?
A2: the American Supreme Court
Q3: What document grants the Philippines Supreme Court the right of judicial review?
A3: 1987 Philippine Constitution
Q4: How many justices make up the Philippines Supreme Court?
A4: 1 Chief Justice and 14 Associate Justices
Q5: When all judges of a court hear a case at once it is called?
A5: en banc
Spanish Supreme Court is the highest court for all cases in Spain (both private and public). Only those cases related to human rights can be appealed at the Constitutional Court (which also decides about acts accordance with Spanish Constitution).
In Spain, high courts cannot create binding precedents; however, lower rank courts usually observe Supreme Court interpretations. In most private law cases, two Supreme Court judgements supporting a claim are needed to appeal at the Supreme Court.
Five sections form the Spanish Supreme court:

Q1: The Spanish Supreme Court hears all cases related to law in what areas?
A1: private and public
Q2: What types of cases can be appealed to Spain's Constitutional Court?
A2: those cases related to human rights
Q3: What is the other power of this latter court?
A3: decides about acts accordance with Spanish Constitution
Q4: High courts in Spain do not establish what for lower court rulings?
A4: binding precedents
Q5: In practicality, how do lower courts typically view the rulings of higher courts?
A5: lower rank courts usually observe Supreme Court interpretations