romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
The French crown's increasing dominance over the Papacy culminated in the transference of the Holy See to Avignon in 1309. When the Pope returned to Rome in 1377, this led to the election of different popes in Avignon and Rome, resulting in the Papal Schism (1378–1417). The Schism divided Europe along political lines; while France, her ally Scotland and the Spanish kingdoms supported the Avignon Papacy, France's enemy England stood behind the Pope in Rome, together with Portugal, Scandinavia and most of the German princes.

Q1: What was the result of the election of two popes at the same time?
A1: Papal Schism
Q2: Where was the Holy See transferred to in 1309?
A2: Avignon
Q3: In what year did the Pope return to Rome from Avignon?
A3: 1377
Q4: What was the time frame of the Papal Schism?
A4: 1378–1417
Q5: Who were the supporters of the Avignon Papacy?
A5: France, her ally Scotland and the Spanish kingdoms
Though many of the events were outside the traditional time-period of the Middle Ages, the end of the unity of the Western Church (the Protestant Reformation), was one of the distinguishing characteristics of the medieval period. The Catholic Church had long fought against heretic movements, but during the Late Middle Ages, it started to experience demands for reform from within. The first of these came from Oxford professor John Wycliffe in England. Wycliffe held that the Bible should be the only authority in religious questions, and he spoke out against transubstantiation, celibacy and indulgences. In spite of influential supporters among the English aristocracy, such as John of Gaunt, the movement was not allowed to survive. Though Wycliffe himself was left unmolested, his supporters, the Lollards, were eventually suppressed in England.

Q1: Which Oxford professor believed that the Bible should be the sole authority in religious questions?
A1: John Wycliffe
Q2: What were Jon Wycliffe's supporters called?
A2: the Lollards
Q3: What was the event that ended religious unity in the Western Church?
A3: the Protestant Reformation
Q4: Which Catholic practices did Wycliffe speak out against?
A4: transubstantiation, celibacy and indulgences
Q5: Who was one of the English aristocrats who supported the Lollard movement?
A5: John of Gaunt
The marriage of Richard II of England to Anne of Bohemia established contacts between the two nations and brought Lollard ideas to her homeland. The teachings of the Czech priest Jan Hus were based on those of John Wycliffe, yet his followers, the Hussites, were to have a much greater political impact than the Lollards. Hus gained a great following in Bohemia, and in 1414, he was requested to appear at the Council of Constance to defend his cause. When he was burned as a heretic in 1415, it caused a popular uprising in the Czech lands. The subsequent Hussite Wars fell apart due to internal quarrels and did not result in religious or national independence for the Czechs, but both the Catholic Church and the German element within the country were weakened.

Q1: In what year was Jan Hus burned at the stake?
A1: 1415
Q2: Who did Richard II of England marry?
A2: Anne of Bohemia
Q3: Whose teachings did Jan Hus base his own on?
A3: John Wycliffe
Q4: What were the followers of Jan Hus called?
A4: Hussites
Q5: What conflict resulted from death of Jan Hus?
A5: Hussite Wars
Martin Luther, a German monk, started the German Reformation by posting 95 theses on the castle church of Wittenberg on October 31, 1517. The immediate provocation spurring this act was Pope Leo X’s renewal of the indulgence for the building of the new St. Peter's Basilica in 1514. Luther was challenged to recant his heresy at the Diet of Worms in 1521. When he refused, he was placed under the ban of the Empire by Charles V. Receiving the protection of Frederick the Wise, he was then able to translate the Bible into German.

Q1: Into what language did Martin Luther translate the Bible?
A1: German
Q2: What did Martin Luther post on the castle church of Wittenberg?
A2: 95 theses
Q3: In what year did Martin Luther post his 95 theses?
A3: 1517
Q4: What was Martin Luther's response when challenged to recant his heresy?
A4: he refused
Q5: Who acted as protector to Martin Luther when he was under the ban of the Empire?
A5: Frederick the Wise
In the late 13th and early 14th centuries, a process took place – primarily in Italy but partly also in the Empire – that historians have termed a 'commercial revolution'. Among the innovations of the period were new forms of partnership and the issuing of insurance, both of which contributed to reducing the risk of commercial ventures; the bill of exchange and other forms of credit that circumvented the canonical laws for gentiles against usury, and eliminated the dangers of carrying bullion; and new forms of accounting, in particular double-entry bookkeeping, which allowed for better oversight and accuracy.

Q1: What new form of accounting was created during the late 13th and early 14th centuries?
A1: double-entry bookkeeping
Q2: In which country did the so-called 'commercial revolution' primarily take place?
A2: Italy
Q3: What was the main benefit of the creation of new forms of partnerships during the commercial revolution?
A3: reducing the risk of commercial ventures
Q4: Laws against what lending practice were addressed by the creation of bills of exchange?
A4: usury
Q5: What were the benefits of the new system of double-entry bookkeeping?
A5: better oversight and accuracy
With the financial expansion, trading rights became more jealously guarded by the commercial elite. Towns saw the growing power of guilds, while on a national level special companies would be granted monopolies on particular trades, like the English wool Staple. The beneficiaries of these developments would accumulate immense wealth. Families like the Fuggers in Germany, the Medicis in Italy, the de la Poles in England, and individuals like Jacques Coeur in France would help finance the wars of kings, and achieve great political influence in the process.

Q1: What privilege was granted to companies on a national level?
A1: monopolies
Q2: Which families financed the wars of kings?
A2: the Fuggers in Germany, the Medicis in Italy, the de la Poles in England
Q3: Which economic associations gained power in the towns?
A3: guilds
Q4: Where was Jacques Couer from?
A4: France
Though there is no doubt that the demographic crisis of the 14th century caused a dramatic fall in production and commerce in absolute terms, there has been a vigorous historical debate over whether the decline was greater than the fall in population. While the older orthodoxy held that the artistic output of the Renaissance was a result of greater opulence, more recent studies have suggested that there might have been a so-called 'depression of the Renaissance'. In spite of convincing arguments for the case, the statistical evidence is simply too incomplete for a definite conclusion to be made.

Q1: What caused the decrease in commerce and production in the 14th century?
A1: demographic crisis
Q2: What is the alternative to the theory that the Renaissance was a time of great opulence?
A2: depression of the Renaissance
Q3: What type of evidence is too incomplete for a decision to be made between the two theories of the Renaissance?
A3: statistical
Q4: What is posited as the cause of increased artistic output during the Renaissance?
A4: greater opulence
The predominant school of thought in the 13th century was the Thomistic reconciliation of the teachings of Aristotle with Christian theology. The Condemnation of 1277, enacted at the University of Paris, placed restrictions on ideas that could be interpreted as heretical; restrictions that had implication for Aristotelian thought. An alternative was presented by William of Ockham, who insisted that the world of reason and the world of faith had to be kept apart. Ockham introduced the principle of parsimony – or Occam's razor – whereby a simple theory is preferred to a more complex one, and speculation on unobservable phenomena is avoided.

Q1: Which philosophy attempted to reconcile Aristotelian teachings and Christian theology in the 13th century?
A1: Thomistic
Q2: Where was the Condemnation of 1277 enacted?
A2: University of Paris
Q3: Which philosopher believed that reason and faith were to be kept separate?
A3: William of Ockham
Q4: What is the common name for William of Ockham's principle of parsimony?
A4: Occam's razor
Q5: On what types of ideas did the Condemnation of 1277 place restrictions?
A5: heretical
This new approach liberated scientific speculation from the dogmatic restraints of Aristotelian science, and paved the way for new approaches. Particularly within the field of theories of motion great advances were made, when such scholars as Jean Buridan, Nicole Oresme and the Oxford Calculators challenged the work of Aristotle. Buridan developed the theory of impetus as the cause of the motion of projectiles, which was an important step towards the modern concept of inertia. The works of these scholars anticipated the heliocentric worldview of Nicolaus Copernicus.

Q1: What did Jean Buridan create to explain the motion of projectiles?
A1: the theory of impetus
Q2: What school of scientific thought was challenged by Jean Buridan and Nicole Oresme?
A2: Aristotelian
Q3: What scientist is most associated with the heliocentric worldview?
A3: Nicolaus Copernicus
Q4: Which scholars made great advances in the theories of motion?
A4: Jean Buridan, Nicole Oresme and the Oxford Calculators
Q5: Buridan's theory of impetus led to what modern concept?
A5: inertia
Certain technological inventions of the period – whether of Arab or Chinese origin, or unique European innovations – were to have great influence on political and social developments, in particular gunpowder, the printing press and the compass. The introduction of gunpowder to the field of battle affected not only military organisation, but helped advance the nation state. Gutenberg's movable type printing press made possible not only the Reformation, but also a dissemination of knowledge that would lead to a gradually more egalitarian society. The compass, along with other innovations such as the cross-staff, the mariner's astrolabe, and advances in shipbuilding, enabled the navigation of the World Oceans, and the early phases of colonialism. Other inventions had a greater impact on everyday life, such as eyeglasses and the weight-driven clock.

Q1: Who invented the movable printing press?
A1: Gutenberg
Q2: What religious movement was spurred by the invention of the printing press?
A2: the Reformation
Q3: Which inventions of the period had a great impact on everyday life?
A3: eyeglasses and the weight-driven clock
Q4: Which invention with military applications helped bring about the nation state?
A4: gunpowder
Q5: Advances in what construction trade helped to increase global navigation?
A5: shipbuilding
The period saw several important technical innovations, like the principle of linear perspective found in the work of Masaccio, and later described by Brunelleschi. Greater realism was also achieved through the scientific study of anatomy, championed by artists like Donatello. This can be seen particularly well in his sculptures, inspired by the study of classical models. As the centre of the movement shifted to Rome, the period culminated in the High Renaissance masters da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael.

Q1: Who championed the scientific study of anatomy for the benefit of art?
A1: Donatello
Q2: Which artistic principle was innovated by Brunelleschi?
A2: linear perspective
Q3: Along with da Vinci, who were two other artists regarded as masters of the High Renaissance?
A3: Michelangelo and Raphael
Q4: What was achieved though the use of the scientific study of anatomy in the field of art?
A4: Greater realism
Q5: What did Donatello study that inspired sculptures?
A5: classical models
The ideas of the Italian Renaissance were slow to cross the Alps into northern Europe, but important artistic innovations were made also in the Low Countries. Though not – as previously believed – the inventor of oil painting, Jan van Eyck was a champion of the new medium, and used it to create works of great realism and minute detail. The two cultures influenced each other and learned from each other, but painting in the Netherlands remained more focused on textures and surfaces than the idealized compositions of Italy.

Q1: What was the focus of paintings in Italy?
A1: idealized compositions
Q2: Where was the focus of paintings on textures and surfaces?
A2: the Netherlands
Q3: What painter was an early champion of oil as a medium in painting?
A3: Jan van Eyck
Q4: Jan van Eyck's paintings are known for what characteristics?
A4: great realism and minute detail
Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy, written in the early 14th century, merged a medieval world view with classical ideals. Another promoter of the Italian language was Boccaccio with his Decameron. The application of the vernacular did not entail a rejection of Latin, and both Dante and Boccaccio wrote prolifically in Latin as well as Italian, as would Petrarch later (whose Canzoniere also promoted the vernacular and whose contents are considered the first modern lyric poems). Together the three poets established the Tuscan dialect as the norm for the modern Italian language.

Q1: Who wrote the Divine Comedy?
A1: Dante Alighieri
Q2: In what languages did Dante and Boccaccio create their works?
A2: Latin as well as Italian
Q3: Which dialect became the norm for the modern Italian language?
A3: Tuscan
Q4: What is one of Boccaccio's works that helped promote the Italian language?
A4: Decameron
Q5: Whose work, Canzoniere, is considered to be the first example of modern lyric poetry?
A5: Petrarch
Music was an important part of both secular and spiritual culture, and in the universities it made up part of the quadrivium of the liberal arts. From the early 13th century, the dominant sacred musical form had been the motet; a composition with text in several parts. From the 1330s and onwards, emerged the polyphonic style, which was a more complex fusion of independent voices. Polyphony had been common in the secular music of the Provençal troubadours. Many of these had fallen victim to the 13th-century Albigensian Crusade, but their influence reached the papal court at Avignon.

Q1: What style of sacred musical form emerged in the 1330s?
A1: polyphonic
Q2: Polyphony was common in the secular music of which French region?
A2: Provençal
Q3: What is the term for the four subjects that comprised the liberal arts in medieval universities?
A3: the quadrivium
Q4: What was the dominant sacred musical form in the early 13th century?
A4: the motet
The main representatives of the new style, often referred to as ars nova as opposed to the ars antiqua, were the composers Philippe de Vitry and Guillaume de Machaut. In Italy, where the Provençal troubadours had also found refuge, the corresponding period goes under the name of trecento, and the leading composers were Giovanni da Cascia, Jacopo da Bologna and Francesco Landini. Prominent reformer of Orthodox Church music from the first half of 14th century was John Kukuzelis; he also introduced a system of notation widely used in the Balkans in the following centuries.

Q1: Who introduced a system of musical notation used in the Balkans in the 14th century?
A1: John Kukuzelis
Q2: What was the name of the new musical style introduced in the Late Middle Ages?
A2: ars nova
Q3: Which musical style did ars nova replace in the 14th century?
A3: ars antiqua
Q4: Who were the leading composers of the trecento period?
A4: Giovanni da Cascia, Jacopo da Bologna and Francesco Landini
Q5: Kukuzelis reformed the music of which religion?
A5: Orthodox Church
Morality plays emerged as a distinct dramatic form around 1400 and flourished until 1550. The most interesting morality play is The Castle of Perseverance which depicts mankind's progress from birth to death. However, the most famous morality play and perhaps best known medieval drama is Everyman. Everyman receives Death's summons, struggles to escape and finally resigns himself to necessity. Along the way, he is deserted by Kindred, Goods, and Fellowship - only Good Deeds goes with him to the grave.

Q1: What is the most famous morality play from the medieval period?
A1: Everyman
Q2: Which dramatic form was created around 1400?
A2: Morality plays
Q3: What goes to the grave with Everyman in the morality play?
A3: Good Deeds
Q4: Which morality play depicted mankind's progress from birth to death?
A4: The Castle of Perseverance
Q5: In the morality play, who summoned Everyman?
A5: Death
At the end of the Late Middle Ages, professional actors began to appear in England and Europe. Richard III and Henry VII both maintained small companies of professional actors. Their plays were performed in the Great Hall of a nobleman's residence, often with a raised platform at one end for the audience and a "screen" at the other for the actors. Also important were Mummers' plays, performed during the Christmas season, and court masques. These masques were especially popular during the reign of Henry VIII who had a House of Revels built and an Office of Revels established in 1545.

Q1: Which Late Middle Age English kings kept their own troupes of professional actors?
A1: Richard III and Henry VII
Q2: Who performed the seasonal Christmas plays?
A2: Mummers
Q3: In what year did Henry VIII establish an Office of Revels?
A3: 1545
Q4: What did Henry VIII build in 1545 for the benefit of the theatrical arts?
A4: House of Revels
Q5: In what part of a nobleman's house were plays performed?
A5: the Great Hall
The end of medieval drama came about due to a number of factors, including the weakening power of the Catholic Church, the Protestant Reformation and the banning of religious plays in many countries. Elizabeth I forbid all religious plays in 1558 and the great cycle plays had been silenced by the 1580s. Similarly, religious plays were banned in the Netherlands in 1539, the Papal States in 1547 and in Paris in 1548. The abandonment of these plays destroyed the international theatre that had thereto existed and forced each country to develop its own form of drama. It also allowed dramatists to turn to secular subjects and the reviving interest in Greek and Roman theatre provided them with the perfect opportunity.

Q1: What was banned that led to the demise of medieval drama?
A1: religious plays
Q2: In what year did Elizabeth I ban religious plays?
A2: 1558
Q3: In what year were religious plays banned in the Netherlands?
A3: 1539
Q4: What types of subjects did dramatists turn to when religious plays were banned?
A4: secular
Q5: Where were religious plays banned in 1548?
A5: Paris
After the end of the late Middle Ages period, the Renaissance would spread unevenly over continental Europe from the southern European region. The intellectual transformation of the Renaissance is viewed as a bridge between the Middle Ages and the Modern era. Europeans would later begin an era of world discovery. Combined with the influx of classical ideas was the invention of printing which facilitated dissemination of the printed word and democratized learning. These two things would lead to the Protestant Reformation. Europeans also discovered new trading routes, as was the case with Columbus’s travel to the Americas in 1492, and Vasco da Gama’s circumnavigation of Africa and India in 1498. Their discoveries strengthened the economy and power of European nations.

Q1: Along with the invention of printing, and the associated dissemination of the printed word, what other factor is believed to have led to the Protestant Reformation?
A1: democratized learning
Q2: Which continents did Vasco da Gama circumnavigate in 1498?
A2: Africa and India
Q3: What effect did the discoveries of Columbus and da Gama have on European nations?
A3: strengthened the economy and power
Q4: What historical era is viewed as a bridge between the Middle Ages and the Modern Era?
A4: the Renaissance
Q5: What was discovered as the result of both Columbus' and da Gama's voyages?
A5: new trading routes
At the end of the 15th century the Ottoman Empire advanced all over Southeastern Europe, eventually conquering the Byzantine Empire and extending control over the Balkan states. Hungary was the last bastion of the Latin Christian world in the East, and fought to keep its rule over a period of two centuries. After the tragic death of the young king Vladislaus I of Hungary during the Battle of Varna in 1444 against the Ottomans, the Kingdom was placed in the hands of count John Hunyadi, who became Hungary's regent-governor (1446–1453). Hunyadi was considered one of the most relevant military figures of the 15th century: Pope Pius II awarded him the title of Athleta Christi or Champion of Christ for being the only hope of resisting the Ottomans from advancing to Central and Western Europe.

Q1: Which empire completed its conquest of the Byzantines at the end of the 15th century?
A1: Ottoman
Q2: In what year did the Battle of Varna take place?
A2: 1444
Q3: Which Hungarian ruler was killed at the Battle of Varna?
A3: Vladislaus I
Q4: Who was appointed regent-governor of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1446?
A4: count John Hunyadi
Q5: Who gave the title of Champion of Christ to John Hyundai?
A5: Pope Pius II
Hunyadi succeeded during the Siege of Belgrade in 1456 against the Ottomans, the biggest victory against that empire in decades. This battle became a real Crusade against the Muslims, as the peasants were motivated by the Franciscan monk Saint John of Capistrano, who came from Italy predicating Holy War. The effect that it created in that time was one of the main factors that helped in achieving the victory. However the premature death of the Hungarian Lord left Pannonia defenseless and in chaos. In an extremely unusual event for the Middle Ages, Hunyadi's son, Matthias, was elected as King of Hungary by the nobility. For the first time, a member of an aristocratic family (and not from a royal family) was crowned.

Q1: Which Franciscan monk motivated the peasants to fight against Muslims at the Siege of Belgrade?
A1: Saint John of Capistrano
Q2: In what year was the Siege of Belgrade fought?
A2: 1456
Q3: Who did the Hungarian nobility elect as King of Hungary?
A3: Matthias
Q4: Which country did Saint Francis of Capistrano come from?
A4: Italy
Q5: When John Hunyadi died, which province was left in chaos?
A5: Pannonia
King Matthias Corvinus of Hungary (1458–1490) was one of the most prominent figures of the period, directing campaigns to the West, conquering Bohemia in answer to the Pope's call for help against the Hussite Protestants. Also, in resolving political hostilities with the German emperor Frederick III of Habsburg, he invaded his western domains. Matthew organized the Black Army of mercenary soldiers; it was considered as the biggest army of its time. Using this powerful tool, the Hungarian king led wars against the Turkish armies and stopped the Ottomans during his reign. After the death of Matthew, and with end of the Black Army, the Ottoman Empire grew in strength and Central Europe was defenseless. At the Battle of Mohács, the forces of the Ottoman Empire annihilated the Hungarian army and Louis II of Hungary drowned in the Csele Creek while trying to escape. The leader of the Hungarian army, Pál Tomori, also died in the battle. This is considered to be one of the final battles of Medieval times.

Q1: How did Louis II of Hungary die?
A1: drowned in the Csele Creek while trying to escape
Q2: Who was the leader of the Hungarian army at the Battle of Mohács?
A2: Pál Tomori
Q3: In what years did Matthias Corvinus reign as King of Hungary?
A3: 1458–1490
Q4: Who did Matthias defeat to conquer Bohemia?
A4: Hussite Protestants
Q5: Who opposed the Hungarian army at the Battle of Mohács?
A5: the forces of the Ottoman Empire