romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
Thermal mass is any material that can be used to store heat—heat from the Sun in the case of solar energy. Common thermal mass materials include stone, cement and water. Historically they have been used in arid climates or warm temperate regions to keep buildings cool by absorbing solar energy during the day and radiating stored heat to the cooler atmosphere at night. However, they can be used in cold temperate areas to maintain warmth as well. The size and placement of thermal mass depend on several factors such as climate, daylighting and shading conditions. When properly incorporated, thermal mass maintains space temperatures in a comfortable range and reduces the need for auxiliary heating and cooling equipment.

Q1: Materials that can be used to store heat are known as what kind of mass?
A1: Thermal
Q2: What is thermal mass?
A2: any material that can be used to store heat
Q3: What are typical thermal mass material?
A3: stone, cement and water
Q4: How is thermal mass used to keep buildings cool?
A4: by absorbing solar energy during the day and radiating stored heat to the cooler atmosphere at night
Q5: What is a something that determines the size of thermal mass?
A5: climates
Q6: What does thermal mass reduce the need for?
A6: auxiliary heating and cooling equipment
A solar chimney (or thermal chimney, in this context) is a passive solar ventilation system composed of a vertical shaft connecting the interior and exterior of a building. As the chimney warms, the air inside is heated causing an updraft that pulls air through the building. Performance can be improved by using glazing and thermal mass materials in a way that mimics greenhouses.

Q1: What kind of system is a solar chimney?
A1: passive solar ventilation
Q2: What is a solar chimney?
A2: a passive solar ventilation system
Q3: What is a solar chimney made of?
A3: a vertical shaft connecting the interior and exterior of a building
Q4: How can the performance of a solar chimney be improved?
A4: by using glazing and thermal mass materials in a way that mimics greenhouses
Deciduous trees and plants have been promoted as a means of controlling solar heating and cooling. When planted on the southern side of a building in the northern hemisphere or the northern side in the southern hemisphere, their leaves provide shade during the summer, while the bare limbs allow light to pass during the winter. Since bare, leafless trees shade 1/3 to 1/2 of incident solar radiation, there is a balance between the benefits of summer shading and the corresponding loss of winter heating. In climates with significant heating loads, deciduous trees should not be planted on the Equator facing side of a building because they will interfere with winter solar availability. They can, however, be used on the east and west sides to provide a degree of summer shading without appreciably affecting winter solar gain.

Q1: The placement of deciduous trees on the Equator facing side of a building can have a negative effect on solar availability in which season?
A1: winter
Q2: What is something that is used to control solar heating and cooling?
A2: trees and plants
Q3: How much solar radiation is blocked by leafless trees?
A3: 1/3 to 1/2
Q4: Why should trees not be planted on the side of a building facing the equator?
A4: they will interfere with winter solar availability
Q5: What side of a building should trees be planted without greatly affecting solar gain in the winter?
A5: east and west
Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying and pasteurization. They can be grouped into three broad categories: box cookers, panel cookers and reflector cookers. The simplest solar cooker is the box cooker first built by Horace de Saussure in 1767. A basic box cooker consists of an insulated container with a transparent lid. It can be used effectively with partially overcast skies and will typically reach temperatures of 90–150 °C (194–302 °F). Panel cookers use a reflective panel to direct sunlight onto an insulated container and reach temperatures comparable to box cookers. Reflector cookers use various concentrating geometries (dish, trough, Fresnel mirrors) to focus light on a cooking container. These cookers reach temperatures of 315 °C (599 °F) and above but require direct light to function properly and must be repositioned to track the Sun.

Q1: Horace de Saussure built the first box cooker in what year?
A1: 1767
Q2: Reflector cookers can reach temperatures in Celsius of up to what?
A2: 315
Q3: What are solar cookers used for?
A3: cooking, drying and pasteurization
Q4: What are the 3 main categories of solar cookers?
A4: box cookers, panel cookers and reflector cookers
Q5: Who created the box cooker?
A5: Horace de Saussure
Q6: What is the typical temperature range for a box cooker?
A6: 90–150 °C (194–302 °F)
Q7: What do reflector cookers require to function?
A7: direct light
Solar concentrating technologies such as parabolic dish, trough and Scheffler reflectors can provide process heat for commercial and industrial applications. The first commercial system was the Solar Total Energy Project (STEP) in Shenandoah, Georgia, USA where a field of 114 parabolic dishes provided 50% of the process heating, air conditioning and electrical requirements for a clothing factory. This grid-connected cogeneration system provided 400 kW of electricity plus thermal energy in the form of 401 kW steam and 468 kW chilled water, and had a one-hour peak load thermal storage. Evaporation ponds are shallow pools that concentrate dissolved solids through evaporation. The use of evaporation ponds to obtain salt from sea water is one of the oldest applications of solar energy. Modern uses include concentrating brine solutions used in leach mining and removing dissolved solids from waste streams. Clothes lines, clotheshorses, and clothes racks dry clothes through evaporation by wind and sunlight without consuming electricity or gas. In some states of the United States legislation protects the "right to dry" clothes. Unglazed transpired collectors (UTC) are perforated sun-facing walls used for preheating ventilation air. UTCs can raise the incoming air temperature up to 22 °C (40 °F) and deliver outlet temperatures of 45–60 °C (113–140 °F). The short payback period of transpired collectors (3 to 12 years) makes them a more cost-effective alternative than glazed collection systems. As of 2003, over 80 systems with a combined collector area of 35,000 square metres (380,000 sq ft) had been installed worldwide, including an 860 m2 (9,300 sq ft) collector in Costa Rica used for drying coffee beans and a 1,300 m2 (14,000 sq ft) collector in Coimbatore, India, used for drying marigolds.

Q1: The Solar Total Energy Project had a field of how many parabolic dishes?
A1: 114
Q2: Are transpired collectors more or less cost-effective than glazed collection systems?
A2: more
Q3: What are some examples of solar concentrating technologies?
A3: parabolic dish, trough and Scheffler reflectors
Q4: What was the first commercial solar concentrating system?
A4: Solar Total Energy Project (STEP) in Shenandoah, Georgia, USA
Q5: What is one of the oldest uses of solar energy?
A5: use of evaporation ponds to obtain salt from sea water
Q6: What are some items used to dry clothes without the use of electricity?
A6: Clothes lines, clotheshorses, and clothes racks
Q7: What are Unglazed transpired collectors?
A7: perforated sun-facing walls used for preheating ventilation air
Solar distillation can be used to make saline or brackish water potable. The first recorded instance of this was by 16th-century Arab alchemists. A large-scale solar distillation project was first constructed in 1872 in the Chilean mining town of Las Salinas. The plant, which had solar collection area of 4,700 m2 (51,000 sq ft), could produce up to 22,700 L (5,000 imp gal; 6,000 US gal) per day and operate for 40 years. Individual still designs include single-slope, double-slope (or greenhouse type), vertical, conical, inverted absorber, multi-wick, and multiple effect. These stills can operate in passive, active, or hybrid modes. Double-slope stills are the most economical for decentralized domestic purposes, while active multiple effect units are more suitable for large-scale applications.

Q1: In what year was a large scale solar distillation project constructed in Las Salinas?
A1: 1872
Q2: What is used to make saline or brackish water drinkable?
A2: Solar distillation
Q3: By who was the first record of solar distillation done by?
A3: 16th-century Arab alchemists
Q4: When was the first large solar distillation plant created?
A4: 1872
Q5: How much water was produced by the plant?
A5: 22,700 L (5,000 imp gal; 6,000 US gal) per day
Q6: What is an example of a solar distillation design?
A6: single-slope
Solar water disinfection (SODIS) involves exposing water-filled plastic polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles to sunlight for several hours. Exposure times vary depending on weather and climate from a minimum of six hours to two days during fully overcast conditions. It is recommended by the World Health Organization as a viable method for household water treatment and safe storage. Over two million people in developing countries use this method for their daily drinking water.

Q1: Solar water disinfection is recommended by which organization?
A1: the World Health Organization
Q2: How long should the plastic bottles filled with water be exposed to sunlight during Solar water disinfection?
A2: a minimum of six hours to two days during fully overcast conditions
Q3: What does the World Health Organization say about Solar water disinfection?
A3: a viable method for household water treatment and safe storage
Q4: How many people use Solar water disinfection to disinfect their drinking water?
A4: Over two million people in developing countries
Solar energy may be used in a water stabilisation pond to treat waste water without chemicals or electricity. A further environmental advantage is that algae grow in such ponds and consume carbon dioxide in photosynthesis, although algae may produce toxic chemicals that make the water unusable.

Q1: What is a possible negative effect of algae in water stabilization ponds?
A1: toxic chemicals
Q2: For what reason would solar energy be used in a water stabilisation pond?
A2: to treat waste water without chemicals or electricity
Q3: What is a reason why the water from a water stabilisation pond may be unusable?
A3: algae may produce toxic chemicals
Solar power is anticipated to become the world's largest source of electricity by 2050, with solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar power contributing 16 and 11 percent to the global overall consumption, respectively.

Q1: By what year is solar power expected to become the world's greatest source of electricity?
A1: 2050
Q2: When is solar power is foreseen to become the largest source of electricity?
A2: 2050
Commercial CSP plants were first developed in the 1980s. Since 1985 the eventually 354 MW SEGS CSP installation, in the Mojave Desert of California, is the largest solar power plant in the world. Other large CSP plants include the 150 MW Solnova Solar Power Station and the 100 MW Andasol solar power station, both in Spain. The 250 MW Agua Caliente Solar Project, in the United States, and the 221 MW Charanka Solar Park in India, are the world’s largest photovoltaic plants. Solar projects exceeding 1 GW are being developed, but most of the deployed photovoltaics are in small rooftop arrays of less than 5 kW, which are grid connected using net metering and/or a feed-in tariff. In 2013 solar generated less than 1% of the worlds total grid electricity.

Q1: The largest solar power plant in the world is located in what desert?
A1: the Mojave Desert
Q2: Less than 1% of the world's total grid electricity was generated by solar energy in what year?
A2: 2013
Q3: What is the largest solar power plant in the world?
A3: 354 MW SEGS CSP
Q4: Where is the largest solar power plant in the world located?
A4: Mojave Desert of California
Q5: What are the largest photovoltaic solar power plants?
A5: The 250 MW Agua Caliente Solar Project, in the United States, and the 221 MW Charanka Solar Park in India
In the last two decades, photovoltaics (PV), also known as solar PV, has evolved from a pure niche market of small scale applications towards becoming a mainstream electricity source. A solar cell is a device that converts light directly into electricity using the photoelectric effect. The first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s. In 1931 a German engineer, Dr Bruno Lange, developed a photo cell using silver selenide in place of copper oxide. Although the prototype selenium cells converted less than 1% of incident light into electricity, both Ernst Werner von Siemens and James Clerk Maxwell recognized the importance of this discovery. Following the work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s, researchers Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created the crystalline silicon solar cell in 1954. These early solar cells cost 286 USD/watt and reached efficiencies of 4.5–6%. By 2012 available efficiencies exceed 20% and the maximum efficiency of research photovoltaics is over 40%.

Q1: In the 1880s, who constructed the first solar cell?
A1: Charles Fritts
Q2: In what year was the crystalline silicon solar cell constructed?
A2: 1954
Q3: What has happened to photovoltaic in the past 20 years?
A3: evolved from a pure niche market of small scale applications towards becoming a mainstream electricity source
Q4: What is a solar cell?
A4: a device that converts light directly into electricity
Q5: Who created the first solar cell?
A5: Charles Fritts
Q6: Who created the first solar cell using silver selenide in place of copper oxide?
A6: Dr Bruno Lange
Q7: Who created the crystalline silicon solar cell?
A7: Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The concentrated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant. A wide range of concentrating technologies exists; the most developed are the parabolic trough, the concentrating linear fresnel reflector, the Stirling dish and the solar power tower. Various techniques are used to track the Sun and focus light. In all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energy storage.

Q1: In all the different CSP systems, concentrated sunlight is used to heat what?
A1: a working fluid
Q2: What do Concentrating Solar Power systems use?
A2: lenses or mirrors and tracking systems
Q3: What is the heat generated from a Concentrating Solar Power system used for?
A3: a heat source for a conventional power plant
Q4: What is one of the most developed Concentrating Solar Power technologies?
A4: the Stirling dish
Q5: What do Concentrating Solar Power technologies have in common?
A5: a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight
The common features of passive solar architecture are orientation relative to the Sun, compact proportion (a low surface area to volume ratio), selective shading (overhangs) and thermal mass. When these features are tailored to the local climate and environment they can produce well-lit spaces that stay in a comfortable temperature range. Socrates' Megaron House is a classic example of passive solar design. The most recent approaches to solar design use computer modeling tying together solar lighting, heating and ventilation systems in an integrated solar design package. Active solar equipment such as pumps, fans and switchable windows can complement passive design and improve system performance.

Q1: Socrate's what is a classic example of passive solar design?
A1: Megaron House
Q2: What is a common feature of passive solar architecture?
A2: orientation relative to the Sun
Q3: What is produced when the features of passive solar architecture are customized to the environment?
A3: well-lit spaces that stay in a comfortable temperature range
Q4: What is an example of passive solar design?
A4: Socrates' Megaron House
Q5: What kind of equipment can improve system performance?
A5: pumps, fans and switchable windows
Urban heat islands (UHI) are metropolitan areas with higher temperatures than that of the surrounding environment. The higher temperatures are a result of increased absorption of the Solar light by urban materials such as asphalt and concrete, which have lower albedos and higher heat capacities than those in the natural environment. A straightforward method of counteracting the UHI effect is to paint buildings and roads white and plant trees. Using these methods, a hypothetical "cool communities" program in Los Angeles has projected that urban temperatures could be reduced by approximately 3 °C at an estimated cost of US$1 billion, giving estimated total annual benefits of US$530 million from reduced air-conditioning costs and healthcare savings.

Q1: UHI is an abbreviation of what?
A1: Urban heat islands
Q2: A program in Los Angeles believes that with $1 billion, city temperatures could be reduced by approximately how many degrees in Celsius?
A2: 3
Q3: What are the metropolitan areas with higher temperatures than the surrounding areas called?
A3: Urban heat islands
Q4: What materials absorb sunlight and create higher temperatures than natural materials?
A4: asphalt and concrete
Q5: What is a way to reduce the high temperatures created in urban heat islands?
A5: paint buildings and roads white and plant trees
Agriculture and horticulture seek to optimize the capture of solar energy in order to optimize the productivity of plants. Techniques such as timed planting cycles, tailored row orientation, staggered heights between rows and the mixing of plant varieties can improve crop yields. While sunlight is generally considered a plentiful resource, the exceptions highlight the importance of solar energy to agriculture. During the short growing seasons of the Little Ice Age, French and English farmers employed fruit walls to maximize the collection of solar energy. These walls acted as thermal masses and accelerated ripening by keeping plants warm. Early fruit walls were built perpendicular to the ground and facing south, but over time, sloping walls were developed to make better use of sunlight. In 1699, Nicolas Fatio de Duillier even suggested using a tracking mechanism which could pivot to follow the Sun. Applications of solar energy in agriculture aside from growing crops include pumping water, drying crops, brooding chicks and drying chicken manure. More recently the technology has been embraced by vinters, who use the energy generated by solar panels to power grape presses.

Q1: During the Little Ice Age, what did English and French farmers use to increase collection of solar energy?
A1: fruit walls
Q2: Vinters have adopted solar technology to do what?
A2: power grape presses
Q3: Why do agriculture and horticulture seek to make the most use of the solar energy captured?
A3: to optimize the productivity of plants
Q4: What are some techniques used to improve crop production?
A4: timed planting cycles, tailored row orientation, staggered heights between rows and the mixing of plant varieties
Q5: What did French and English farmers do during the Little Ice Age to gain more solar energy?
A5: employed fruit walls
Q6: What was the purpose of the fruit walls built by French and English farmers?
A6: acted as thermal masses and accelerated ripening by keeping plants warm
Greenhouses convert solar light to heat, enabling year-round production and the growth (in enclosed environments) of specialty crops and other plants not naturally suited to the local climate. Primitive greenhouses were first used during Roman times to produce cucumbers year-round for the Roman emperor Tiberius. The first modern greenhouses were built in Europe in the 16th century to keep exotic plants brought back from explorations abroad. Greenhouses remain an important part of horticulture today, and plastic transparent materials have also been used to similar effect in polytunnels and row covers.

Q1: When were the first greenhouses used?
A1: Roman times
Q2: In what century were the first modern greenhouses constructed?
A2: the 16th
Q3: What do greenhouses do with solar energy?
A3: convert solar light to heat
Q4: What is one purpose of a greenhouse?
A4: enabling year-round production and the growth (in enclosed environments) of specialty crops
Q5: What was one of the first uses of a greenhouse?
A5: produce cucumbers year-round for the Roman emperor Tiberius
Q6: Where were the first modern greenhouses built?
A6: Europe
Development of a solar-powered car has been an engineering goal since the 1980s. The World Solar Challenge is a biannual solar-powered car race, where teams from universities and enterprises compete over 3,021 kilometres (1,877 mi) across central Australia from Darwin to Adelaide. In 1987, when it was founded, the winner's average speed was 67 kilometres per hour (42 mph) and by 2007 the winner's average speed had improved to 90.87 kilometres per hour (56.46 mph). The North American Solar Challenge and the planned South African Solar Challenge are comparable competitions that reflect an international interest in the engineering and development of solar powered vehicles.

Q1: What is the name of the solar powered car race held every two years?
A1: The World Solar Challenge
Q2: What was the winner of the World Solar Challenge's average speed in 2007 in km/h?
A2: 90.87
Q3: What is The World Solar Challenge?
A3: a biannual solar-powered car race
Q4: When was The World Solar Challenge started?
A4: 1987
Q5: What was the average speed of a winning solar powered car in 1987?
A5: 67 kilometres per hour (42 mph)
Q6: What was the average speed of a winning solar powered car by 2007?
A6: 90.87 kilometres per hour (56.46 mph)
Q7: What are some other similar car races that use solar powered vehicles?
A7: The North American Solar Challenge and the planned South African Solar Challenge
In 1975, the first practical solar boat was constructed in England. By 1995, passenger boats incorporating PV panels began appearing and are now used extensively. In 1996, Kenichi Horie made the first solar powered crossing of the Pacific Ocean, and the sun21 catamaran made the first solar powered crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in the winter of 2006–2007. There were plans to circumnavigate the globe in 2010.

Q1: The first practical solar boat was constructed in what year?
A1: 1975
Q2: When was the first solar powered boat made?
A2: 1975
Q3: Who first crossed the Pacific ocean using a solar powered boat?
A3: Kenichi Horie
Q4: What was the name of the first solar powered boat that crossed the Atlantic ocean?
A4: the sun21 catamaran