romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
John Lewis Newcastle (formerly Bainbridge) in Newcastle upon Tyne, is the world's oldest Department Store. It is still known to many of its customers as Bainbridge, despite the name change to 'John Lewis'. The Newcastle institution dates back to 1838 when Emerson Muschamp Bainbridge, aged 21, went into partnership with William Alder Dunn and opened a draper's and fashion in Market Street, Newcastle. In terms of retailing history, one of the most significant facts about the Newcastle Bainbridge shop, is that as early as 1849 weekly takings were recorded by department, making it the earliest of all department stores. This ledger survives and is kept in the John Lewis archives. John Lewis bought the Bainbridge store in 1952.

Q1: What is the former name of John Lewis Newcastle?
A1: Bainbridge
Q2: What is the world's oldest department store?
A2: John Lewis Newcastle
Q3: Who partnered with William Alder Dunn to open the first store?
A3: Emerson Muschamp Bainbridge
Q4: What was the location of the first store?
A4: Market Street, Newcastle
Q5: When did John Lewis purchase and take over the Bainbridge store?
A5: 1952
Also, Kendals in Manchester can lay claim to being one of the oldest department stores in the UK. Beginning as a small shop owned by S. and J. Watts in 1796, its sold a variety of goods. Kendal Milne and Faulkner purchased the business in 1835. Expanding the space, rather than use it as a typical warehouse simply to showcase textiles, it became a vast bazaar. Serving Manchester's upmarket clientele for over 200 years, it was taken over by House of Fraser and recently rebranded as House of Fraser Manchester – although most Mancunians still refer to it as Kendals. The Kendal Milne signage still remains over the main entrance to the art deco building in the city's Deansgate.

Q1: Who purchased a small shop in 1835, which would eventually become Kendals?
A1: Kendal Milne and Faulkner
Q2: Where was the store located?
A2: Manchester
Q3: How long did the store operate for?
A3: over 200 years
Q4: Who eventually purchased and assumed operation of the store?
A4: House of Fraser
All major cities have their distinctive local department stores, which anchored the downtown shopping district until the arrival of the malls in the 1960s. Washington, for example, after 1887 had Woodward & Lothrop and Garfinckel's starting in 1905. Garfield's went bankrupt in 1990, as did Woodward & Lothrop in 1994. Baltimore had four major department stores: Hutzler's was the prestige leader, followed by Hecht's, Hochschild's and Stewart's. They all operated branches in the suburbs, but all closed in the late twentieth century. By 2015, most locally owned department stores around the country had been consolidated into larger chains, or had closed down entirely.

Q1: When did Garfinckel's begin operating in Washington?
A1: 1905
Q2: In what year did Garfield's go bankrupt?
A2: 1990
Q3: How many major department stores did Baltimore have at the time?
A3: four
Q4: By what year had most local stores been assimilated into larger chain operations?
A4: 2015
Chain department stores grew rapidly after 1920, and provided competition for the downtown upscale department stores, as well as local department stores in small cities. J. C. Penney had four stores in 1908, 312 in 1920, and 1452 in 1930. Sears, Roebuck & Company, a giant mail-order house, opened its first eight retail stores in 1925, and operated 338 by 1930, and 595 by 1940. The chains reached a middle-class audience, that was more interested in value than in upscale fashions. Sears was a pioneer in creating department stores that catered to men as well as women, especially with lines of hardware and building materials. It deemphasized the latest fashions in favor of practicality and durability, and allowed customers to select goods without the aid of a clerk. Its stores were oriented to motorists – set apart from existing business districts amid residential areas occupied by their target audience; had ample, free, off-street parking; and communicated a clear corporate identity. In the 1930s, the company designed fully air-conditioned, "windowless" stores whose layout was driven wholly by merchandising concerns.

Q1: How many stores was J. C. Penny operating in 1930?
A1: 1452
Q2: What demographic were most stores focusing on?
A2: middle-class audience
Q3: What store was one of the first to offer shopping choices for both men and women at the same time?
A3: Sears
Q4: How many stores was Sears operating in 1940?
A4: 595
After World War II Hudson's realized that the limited parking space at its downtown skyscraper would increasingly be a problem for its customers. The solution in 1954 was to open the Northland Center in nearby Southfield, just beyond the city limits. It was the largest suburban shopping center in the world, and quickly became the main shopping destination for northern and western Detroit, and for much of the suburbs. By 1961 the downtown skyscraper accounted for only half of Hudson's sales; it closed in 1986. The Northland Center Hudson's, rebranded Macy's in 2006 following acquisition by Federated Department Stores, was closed along with the remaining stores in the center in March 2015 due to the mall's high storefront vacancy, decaying infrastructure, and financial mismanagement.

Q1: In what year did Hudson's address the issue of parking within cities?
A1: 1954
Q2: What was the store called in Southfield?
A2: Northland Center
Q3: In what year did the Hudson's skyscraper close?
A3: 1986
Q4: What company purchased the Northland Center in 2006?
A4: Federated Department Stores
Q5: What was the Northfield Center renamed after it's purchase by another company?
A5: Macy's
George Dayton had founded his Dayton's Dry Goods store in Minneapolis in 1902 and the AMC cooperative in 1912. His descendants built Southdale Center in 1956, opened the Target discount store chain in 1962 and the B. Dalton Bookseller chain in 1966. Dayton's grew to 19 stores under the Dayton's name plus five other regional names acquired by Dayton-Hudson. The Dayton-Hudson Corporation closed the flagship J. L. Hudson Department Store in downtown Detroit in 1983, but expanded its other retail operations. It acquired Mervyn's in 1978, Marshall Field's in 1990, and renamed itself the Target Corporation in 2000. In 2002, Dayton's and Hudson's were consolidated into the Marshall Field's name. In 2005, May Department Stores acquired all of the Marshall Field's stores and shortly thereafter, Macy's acquired May.

Q1: Who opened Dayton's Dry Goods?
A1: George Dayton
Q2: In what year was Dayton's Dry Goods established?
A2: 1902
Q3: When was the Southdale Center opened?
A3: 1956
Q4: What store did the Dayton-Hudson Corporation purchase in 1978?
A4: Mervyn's
In 1849, Horne's began operations and soon became a leading Pittsburgh department store. In 1879, it opened a seven-story landmark which was the first department store in the city's downtown. In 1972, Associated Dry Goods acquired Horne's, and ADG expanded operations of Horne's to several stores in suburban malls throughout the Pittsburgh region as well as in Erie, Pennsylvania and Northeast Ohio. In December 1986, Horne's was acquired by a local investor group following ADG's acquisition by May Department Stores. By 1994, Federated Department Stores acquired the remaining ten Horne's stores and merged them with its Lazarus division, completely ceasing all operations of any store under the Horne's name.

Q1: In what year did Horne began doing business?
A1: 1849
Q2: In what city did Horne begin their operations?
A2: Pittsburgh
Q3: What company purchased Horne's in 1972?
A3: Associated Dry Goods
Q4: How many Horne's stores did Federated Department Stores buy in 1994?
A4: ten
The German equivalent was used with the founding of the North German Confederation whose constitution granted legislative power over the protection of intellectual property (Schutz des geistigen Eigentums) to the confederation. When the administrative secretariats established by the Paris Convention (1883) and the Berne Convention (1886) merged in 1893, they located in Berne, and also adopted the term intellectual property in their new combined title, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property.

Q1: Which constitution gave legislative power to protect intellectual property?
A1: the North German Confederation
Q2: When was the Paris Convention?
A2: 1883
Q3: When was the Berne Convention?
A3: 1886
Q4: When did the Paris and Berne administrative secretariats merge?
A4: 1893
Q5: What name did the merged secretariats adopt?
A5: United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property
The term can be found used in an October 1845 Massachusetts Circuit Court ruling in the patent case Davoll et al. v. Brown., in which Justice Charles L. Woodbury wrote that "only in this way can we protect intellectual property, the labors of the mind, productions and interests are as much a man's own...as the wheat he cultivates, or the flocks he rears." The statement that "discoveries are...property" goes back earlier. Section 1 of the French law of 1791 stated, "All new discoveries are the property of the author; to assure the inventor the property and temporary enjoyment of his discovery, there shall be delivered to him a patent for five, ten or fifteen years." In Europe, French author A. Nion mentioned propriété intellectuelle in his Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs, published in 1846.

Q1: When was the patent case Davoll et al. v. Brown ruled on?
A1: October 1845
Q2: Which court ruled on the patent case Davoll et al. v. Brown?
A2: Massachusetts Circuit Court
Q3: Who wrote that "only in this way can we protect intellectual property"?
A3: Justice Charles L. Woodbury
Q4: What year did the "discoveries are property" concept appear in French law?
A4: 1791
Q5: When did French author A. Nion mention intellectual property?
A5: 1846
The concept's origins can potentially be traced back further. Jewish law includes several considerations whose effects are similar to those of modern intellectual property laws, though the notion of intellectual creations as property does not seem to exist – notably the principle of Hasagat Ge'vul (unfair encroachment) was used to justify limited-term publisher (but not author) copyright in the 16th century. In 500 BCE, the government of the Greek state of Sybaris offered one year's patent "to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury".

Q1: Jewish law includes which principle used to justify copyright?
A1: Hasagat Ge'vul (unfair encroachment)
Q2: When did Jewish law recognize copyright?
A2: in the 16th century
Q3: How long was a patent valid in Sybaris?
A3: one year
Q4: When did Sybaris offer patents?
A4: 500 BCE
A patent is a form of right granted by the government to an inventor, giving the owner the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, offering to sell, and importing an invention for a limited period of time, in exchange for the public disclosure of the invention. An invention is a solution to a specific technological problem, which may be a product or a process and generally has to fulfil three main requirements: it has to be new, not obvious and there needs to be an industrial applicability.:17

Q1: Who grants a patent?
A1: the government
Q2: Who is a patent granted to?
A2: an inventor
Q3: How many requirements does an invention need to fulfill for a patent?
A3: three
Q4: An invention is a solution to what type of problem?
A4: technological
Q5: What is a patent offered in exchange for?
A5: public disclosure of the invention
The stated objective of most intellectual property law (with the exception of trademarks) is to "Promote progress." By exchanging limited exclusive rights for disclosure of inventions and creative works, society and the patentee/copyright owner mutually benefit, and an incentive is created for inventors and authors to create and disclose their work. Some commentators have noted that the objective of intellectual property legislators and those who support its implementation appears to be "absolute protection". "If some intellectual property is desirable because it encourages innovation, they reason, more is better. The thinking is that creators will not have sufficient incentive to invent unless they are legally entitled to capture the full social value of their inventions". This absolute protection or full value view treats intellectual property as another type of "real" property, typically adopting its law and rhetoric. Other recent developments in intellectual property law, such as the America Invents Act, stress international harmonization. Recently there has also been much debate over the desirability of using intellectual property rights to protect cultural heritage, including intangible ones, as well as over risks of commodification derived from this possibility. The issue still remains open in legal scholarship.

Q1: What is the stated objective of most intellectual property law?
A1: Promote progress.
Q2: What do patents create an incentive for inventors to do?
A2: create and disclose their work
Q3: Which view treats intellectual property as another type of "real" property?
A3: absolute protection or full value
Q4: Which recent law stresses international harmonization?
A4: America Invents Act
In 2013 the United States Patent & Trademark Office approximated that the worth of intellectual property to the U.S. economy is more than US$5 trillion and creates employment for an estimated 18 million American people. The value of intellectual property is considered similarly high in other developed nations, such as those in the European Union. In the UK, IP has become a recognised asset class for use in pension-led funding and other types of business finance. However, in 2013, the UK Intellectual Property Office stated: "There are millions of intangible business assets whose value is either not being leveraged at all, or only being leveraged inadvertently".

Q1: How much was the worth of intellectual property to the U.S. economy in 2013?
A1: more than US$5 trillion
Q2: How many Americans did intellectual property create employment for in 2013?
A2: 18 million
Q3: Where has IP become a recognised asset class?
A3: the UK
Q4: How many intangible assets are not being leveraged in the UK?
A4: millions
Patent infringement typically is caused by using or selling a patented invention without permission from the patent holder. The scope of the patented invention or the extent of protection is defined in the claims of the granted patent. There is safe harbor in many jurisdictions to use a patented invention for research. This safe harbor does not exist in the US unless the research is done for purely philosophical purposes, or in order to gather data in order to prepare an application for regulatory approval of a drug. In general, patent infringement cases are handled under civil law (e.g., in the United States) but several jurisdictions incorporate infringement in criminal law also (for example, Argentina, China, France, Japan, Russia, South Korea).

Q1: What is caused by using or selling a patented invention without permission?
A1: Patent infringement
Q2: Where does the safe harbor to use a patented invention for research generally not exist?
A2: in the US
Q3: What type of law handles patent infringement cases in the US?
A3: civil
Q4: What type of law handles patent infringement cases in China?
A4: criminal
Q5: What type of law handles patent infringement cases in Russia?
A5: criminal
Copyright infringement is reproducing, distributing, displaying or performing a work, or to make derivative works, without permission from the copyright holder, which is typically a publisher or other business representing or assigned by the work's creator. It is often called "piracy". While copyright is created the instance a work is fixed, generally the copyright holder can only get money damages if the owner registers the copyright.[citation needed] Enforcement of copyright is generally the responsibility of the copyright holder. The ACTA trade agreement, signed in May 2011 by the United States, Japan, Switzerland, and the EU, and which has not entered into force, requires that its parties add criminal penalties, including incarceration and fines, for copyright and trademark infringement, and obligated the parties to active police for infringement. There are limitations and exceptions to copyright, allowing limited use of copyrighted works, which does not constitute infringement. Examples of such doctrines are the fair use and fair dealing doctrine.

Q1: When was the ACTA trade agreement signed?
A1: May 2011
Q2: Which countries signed ACTA?
A2: United States, Japan, Switzerland, and the EU
Q3: Which doctrines allow limited use of copyrighted works?
A3: fair use and fair dealing
Q4: What is the common term for copyright infringement?
A4: piracy
Trademark infringement occurs when one party uses a trademark that is identical or confusingly similar to a trademark owned by another party, in relation to products or services which are identical or similar to the products or services of the other party. In many countries, a trademark receives protection without registration, but registering a trademark provides legal advantages for enforcement. Infringement can be addressed by civil litigation and, in several jurisdictions, under criminal law.

Q1: What occurs when someone uses a trademark that is identical or confusingly similar to a trademark owned by someone else?
A1: Trademark infringement
Q2: What does registering a trademark provide?
A2: legal advantages for enforcement
Q3: Where is a trademark protected without registration?
A3: In many countries
Q4: How is trademark infringement addressed in most jurisdictions?
A4: civil litigation
Q5: How is trademark infringement addressed in a few jurisdictions?
A5: criminal law
Trade secret misappropriation is different from violations of other intellectual property laws, since by definition trade secrets are secret, while patents and registered copyrights and trademarks are publicly available. In the United States, trade secrets are protected under state law, and states have nearly universally adopted the Uniform Trade Secrets Act. The United States also has federal law in the form of the Economic Espionage Act of 1996 (18 U.S.C. §§ 1831–1839), which makes the theft or misappropriation of a trade secret a federal crime. This law contains two provisions criminalizing two sorts of activity. The first, 18 U.S.C. § 1831(a), criminalizes the theft of trade secrets to benefit foreign powers. The second, 18 U.S.C. § 1832, criminalizes their theft for commercial or economic purposes. (The statutory penalties are different for the two offenses.) In Commonwealth common law jurisdictions, confidentiality and trade secrets are regarded as an equitable right rather than a property right but penalties for theft are roughly the same as the United States.[citation needed]

Q1: Which type of intellectual property is secret?
A1: trade secrets
Q2: What law do most US states use to protect trade secrets?
A2: Uniform Trade Secrets Act
Q3: What US federal law protects trade secrets?
A3: Economic Espionage Act
Q4: Commonwealth common law regards trade secrets as what kind of right?
A4: an equitable right
Q5: US law regards trade secrets as what kind of right?
A5: a property right
Criticism of the term intellectual property ranges from discussing its vagueness and abstract overreach to direct contention to the semantic validity of using words like property and rights in fashions that contradict practice and law. Many detractors think this term specially serves the doctrinal agenda of parties opposing reform in the public interest or otherwise abusing related legislations; and that it disallows intelligent discussion about specific and often unrelated aspects of copyright, patents, trademarks, etc.

Q1: Which term is criticized as vague?
A1: intellectual property
Q2: What does the term 'intellectual property' disallow intelligent discussion about?
A2: specific and often unrelated aspects of copyright, patents, trademarks, etc.
Q3: Critics criticize what type of validity of the term 'intellectual property'?
A3: semantic
Q4: Which term is criticized as having abstract overreach?
A4: intellectual property
Free Software Foundation founder Richard Stallman argues that, although the term intellectual property is in wide use, it should be rejected altogether, because it "systematically distorts and confuses these issues, and its use was and is promoted by those who gain from this confusion". He claims that the term "operates as a catch-all to lump together disparate laws [which] originated separately, evolved differently, cover different activities, have different rules, and raise different public policy issues" and that it creates a "bias" by confusing these monopolies with ownership of limited physical things, likening them to "property rights". Stallman advocates referring to copyrights, patents and trademarks in the singular and warns against abstracting disparate laws into a collective term.

Q1: Who founded the Free Software Foundation?
A1: Richard Stallman
Q2: Who said the term 'intellectual property' should be rejected altogether?
A2: Richard Stallman
Q3: Who said the term 'intellectual property' "operates as a catch-all"?
A3: Richard Stallman
Q4: How does Stallman advocate referring to copyrights, patents, and trademarks?
A4: in the singular
On the assumption that intellectual property rights are actual rights Stallman argues that this claim does not live to the historical intentions behind these laws, which in the case of copyright served as a censorship system, and later on, a regulatory model for the printing press that may have benefited authors incidentally, but never interfered with the freedom of average readers. Still referring to copyright, he cites legal literature such as the United States Constitution and case law to demonstrate that it is meant to be an optional and experimental bargain that temporarily trades property rights and free speech for public, not private, benefit in the form of increased artistic production and knowledge. He mentions that "if copyright were a natural right nothing could justify terminating this right after a certain period of time".

Q1: Stallman thinks what type of IP historically served as a censorship system?
A1: copyright
Q2: What does Stallman think copyright served as a regulatory model for?
A2: the printing press
Q3: What does Stallman think was meant to be optional and experimental?
A3: copyright
Q4: What does Stallman think copyright was supposed to trade temporarily for public benefit?
A4: property rights and free speech
Q5: Who pointed out that "if copyright were a natural right nothing could justify terminating this right after a certain period of time"?
A5: Stallman
Law professor, writer and political activist Lawrence Lessig, along with many other copyleft and free software activists, has criticized the implied analogy with physical property (like land or an automobile). They argue such an analogy fails because physical property is generally rivalrous while intellectual works are non-rivalrous (that is, if one makes a copy of a work, the enjoyment of the copy does not prevent enjoyment of the original). Other arguments along these lines claim that unlike the situation with tangible property, there is no natural scarcity of a particular idea or information: once it exists at all, it can be re-used and duplicated indefinitely without such re-use diminishing the original. Stephan Kinsella has objected to intellectual property on the grounds that the word "property" implies scarcity, which may not be applicable to ideas.

Q1: Who is one advocate of copyleft?
A1: Lawrence Lessig
Q2: Who has objected to the idea of IP because "property" implies scarcity?
A2: Stephan Kinsella
Q3: Having no natural scarcity makes IP different from what kind of property?
A3: tangible
Q4: How much can IP be duplicated without diminishing the original?
A4: indefinitely