romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
In 1974, the unmanned AstroFlight Sunrise plane made the first solar flight. On 29 April 1979, the Solar Riser made the first flight in a solar-powered, fully controlled, man carrying flying machine, reaching an altitude of 40 feet (12 m). In 1980, the Gossamer Penguin made the first piloted flights powered solely by photovoltaics. This was quickly followed by the Solar Challenger which crossed the English Channel in July 1981. In 1990 Eric Scott Raymond in 21 hops flew from California to North Carolina using solar power. Developments then turned back to unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) with the Pathfinder (1997) and subsequent designs, culminating in the Helios which set the altitude record for a non-rocket-propelled aircraft at 29,524 metres (96,864 ft) in 2001. The Zephyr, developed by BAE Systems, is the latest in a line of record-breaking solar aircraft, making a 54-hour flight in 2007, and month-long flights were envisioned by 2010. As of 2015, Solar Impulse, an electric aircraft, is currently circumnavigating the globe. It is a single-seat plane powered by solar cells and capable of taking off under its own power. The designed allows the aircraft to remain airborne for 36 hours.

Q1: What altitude did the Solar Riser reach in feet?
A1: 40
Q2: What is the name of the aircraft circling the globe in 2015 via solar power?
A2: Solar Impulse
Q3: When was the first unmanned flight by a solar powered plane made?
A3: 1974
Q4: When was the first solar powered manned flight made?
A4: 29 April 1979
Q5: When did the Solar Challenger cross the English Channel?
A5: July 1981
Q6: Where did Eric Scott Raymond fly using a solar powered plane in 1990?
A6: California to North Carolina
Q7: How long is the solar powered plane Solar Impulse able to remain in the air?
A7: 36 hours
Solar chemical processes use solar energy to drive chemical reactions. These processes offset energy that would otherwise come from a fossil fuel source and can also convert solar energy into storable and transportable fuels. Solar induced chemical reactions can be divided into thermochemical or photochemical. A variety of fuels can be produced by artificial photosynthesis. The multielectron catalytic chemistry involved in making carbon-based fuels (such as methanol) from reduction of carbon dioxide is challenging; a feasible alternative is hydrogen production from protons, though use of water as the source of electrons (as plants do) requires mastering the multielectron oxidation of two water molecules to molecular oxygen. Some have envisaged working solar fuel plants in coastal metropolitan areas by 2050 –  the splitting of sea water providing hydrogen to be run through adjacent fuel-cell electric power plants and the pure water by-product going directly into the municipal water system. Another vision involves all human structures covering the earth's surface (i.e., roads, vehicles and buildings) doing photosynthesis more efficiently than plants.

Q1: What is a possible alternative to making carbon-based fuels from reduction of carbon dioxide?
A1: hydrogen production from protons
Q2: What process converts solar energy into storable and transportable fuels?
A2: Solar chemical processes
Q3: What solar process can be used to produce different fuels?
A3: artificial photosynthesis
Hydrogen production technologies been a significant area of solar chemical research since the 1970s. Aside from electrolysis driven by photovoltaic or photochemical cells, several thermochemical processes have also been explored. One such route uses concentrators to split water into oxygen and hydrogen at high temperatures (2,300–2,600 °C or 4,200–4,700 °F). Another approach uses the heat from solar concentrators to drive the steam reformation of natural gas thereby increasing the overall hydrogen yield compared to conventional reforming methods. Thermochemical cycles characterized by the decomposition and regeneration of reactants present another avenue for hydrogen production. The Solzinc process under development at the Weizmann Institute uses a 1 MW solar furnace to decompose zinc oxide (ZnO) at temperatures above 1,200 °C (2,200 °F). This initial reaction produces pure zinc, which can subsequently be reacted with water to produce hydrogen.

Q1: What is the name of the process under development at the Weizmann Institute?
A1: The Solzinc process
Q2: The Solznic process produces what?
A2: pure zinc
Q3: What has been a main area of solar chemical research since the 1970s?
A3: Hydrogen production technologies
Q4: What is one of the thermochemical processes that has been explored besides electrolysis?
A4: uses concentrators to split water into oxygen and hydrogen at high temperatures
Q5: What is the name of the process being developed by the Weizmann Institute?
A5: Solzinc process
Thermal mass systems can store solar energy in the form of heat at domestically useful temperatures for daily or interseasonal durations. Thermal storage systems generally use readily available materials with high specific heat capacities such as water, earth and stone. Well-designed systems can lower peak demand, shift time-of-use to off-peak hours and reduce overall heating and cooling requirements.

Q1: In what form do thermal mass systems store solar energy?
A1: heat
Q2: What is the system called that can store solar energy in the form of heat?
A2: Thermal mass systems
Q3: What are some of the materials used in thermal storage systems?
A3: water, earth and stone
Q4: What is something that can be accomplished by a thermal mass system?
A4: reduce overall heating and cooling requirements
Phase change materials such as paraffin wax and Glauber's salt are another thermal storage media. These materials are inexpensive, readily available, and can deliver domestically useful temperatures (approximately 64 °C or 147 °F). The "Dover House" (in Dover, Massachusetts) was the first to use a Glauber's salt heating system, in 1948. Solar energy can also be stored at high temperatures using molten salts. Salts are an effective storage medium because they are low-cost, have a high specific heat capacity and can deliver heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems. The Solar Two used this method of energy storage, allowing it to store 1.44 terajoules (400,000 kWh) in its 68 cubic metres storage tank with an annual storage efficiency of about 99%.

Q1: Paraffin wax is an example of what kind of storage media?
A1: thermal
Q2: The first Glauber's salt heating system was first used where?
A2: The "Dover House"
Q3: What are some examples of phase change materials?
A3: paraffin wax and Glauber's salt
Q4: What are the approximate temperatures that can be delivered by phase change materials?
A4: 64 °C or 147 °F
Q5: What was the name of the heating system that first used Glauber's salt?
A5: Dover House
Q6: Why are salts good  for thermal storage?
A6: they are low-cost, have a high specific heat capacity and can deliver heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems
Q7: How much energy was the Solar Two able to store using salts?
A7: 1.44 terajoules (400,000 kWh)
Off-grid PV systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess electricity. With grid-tied systems, excess electricity can be sent to the transmission grid, while standard grid electricity can be used to meet shortfalls. Net metering programs give household systems a credit for any electricity they deliver to the grid. This is handled by 'rolling back' the meter whenever the home produces more electricity than it consumes. If the net electricity use is below zero, the utility then rolls over the kilowatt hour credit to the next month. Other approaches involve the use of two meters, to measure electricity consumed vs. electricity produced. This is less common due to the increased installation cost of the second meter. Most standard meters accurately measure in both directions, making a second meter unnecessary.

Q1: Where do off-grid PV systems store excess electricity?
A1: rechargeable batteries
Q2: What do off-grid PV systems use to store excess electricity?
A2: rechargeable batteries
Q3: What are the programs that gives credit to households for delivering electricity to the grid called?
A3: Net metering programs
Q4: How is the credit to households accomplished?
A4: by 'rolling back' the meter whenever the home produces more electricity than it consumes
Q5: Why is a second meter usually unnecessary to monitor electricity use?
A5: Most standard meters accurately measure in both directions
Pumped-storage hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumped when energy is available from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one. The energy is recovered when demand is high by releasing the water, with the pump becoming a hydroelectric power generator.

Q1: When water is released due to high demand, the pump become swhat?
A1: a hydroelectric power generator
Q2: Pumped-storage hydroelectricity stores energy in what form?
A2: water pumped when energy is available from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one
Q3: How is the energy stored by pumped-storage hydroelectricity recovered?
A3: by releasing the water, with the pump becoming a hydroelectric power generator
The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world and brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies. Deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the US and the Sunshine Program in Japan. Other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the US (SERI, now NREL), Japan (NEDO), and Germany (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE).

Q1: The oil embargo in what year was a contributing factor to the reorganization of energy policies?
A1: 1973
Q2: What brought attention to solar technologies in the 1970s?
A2: The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis
Q3: What are the names of some of the incentive programs used to promote solar technology?
A3: the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the US and the Sunshine Program in Japan
Q4: What is the name of the solar energy research facility in the US?
A4: SERI, now NREL
Q5: What is the name of the solar energy research facility in Japan?
A5: NEDO
Q6: What is the name of the solar energy research facility in Germany?
A6: Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE
Commercial solar water heaters began appearing in the United States in the 1890s. These systems saw increasing use until the 1920s but were gradually replaced by cheaper and more reliable heating fuels. As with photovoltaics, solar water heating attracted renewed attention as a result of the oil crises in the 1970s but interest subsided in the 1980s due to falling petroleum prices. Development in the solar water heating sector progressed steadily throughout the 1990s and growth rates have averaged 20% per year since 1999. Although generally underestimated, solar water heating and cooling is by far the most widely deployed solar technology with an estimated capacity of 154 GW as of 2007.

Q1: The solar water heaters introduced in the US in the 1890s saw growth until what time period?
A1: the 1920s
Q2: Since 1999, what average rate has the solar water heating sector progressed at?
A2: 20% per year
Q3: When did the use of solar water heaters in the US first begin?
A3: in the 1890s
Q4: Why did interest in solar water heating decrease in the 1980s?
A4: falling petroleum prices
Q5: Growth of solar water heating development has averaged how much per year since 1999
A5: 20%
Q6: What was the estimated capacity of solar water heating and cooling in 2007?
A6: 154 GW
The International Energy Agency has said that solar energy can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces:

Q1: Which organization believes that solar energy can solve some of our most pressing issues?
A1: The International Energy Agency
Q2: Who said that solar energy can help solve some of the most urgent problems in the world?
A2: The International Energy Agency
The International Organization for Standardization has established a number of standards relating to solar energy equipment. For example, ISO 9050 relates to glass in building while ISO 10217 relates to the materials used in solar water heaters.

Q1: ISO 9050 relates to standards for what?
A1: glass in building
Q2: ISO 10217 relates to standards for what?
A2: materials used in solar water heaters
Q3: What is the name of the standard related to glass in building?
A3: ISO 9050
Q4: What is the name of the standard related to the materials used in solar water heaters?
A4: ISO 10217
It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar power. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems, concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.

Q1: What are the technologies used to capture solar energy characterized as?
A1: passive solar or active solar
Q2: What are some active solar techniques used to harness solar energy?
A2: photovoltaic systems, concentrated solar power and solar water heating
Q3: What is an example of a passive solar technique?
A3: orienting a building to the Sun
The large magnitude of solar energy available makes it a highly appealing source of electricity. The United Nations Development Programme in its 2000 World Energy Assessment found that the annual potential of solar energy was 1,575–49,837 exajoules (EJ). This is several times larger than the total world energy consumption, which was 559.8 EJ in 2012.

Q1: What was the total worldwide energy consumption in 2012?
A1: 559.8 EJ
Q2: What is solar energy's yearly potential?
A2: 1,575–49,837 exajoules (EJ)
Q3: What makes solar energy an appealing source of electricity>
A3: The large magnitude of solar energy available
Q4: Who estimated the annual potential of solar energy in 2000?
A4: The United Nations Development Programme
In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will increase countries’ energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating global warming, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared".

Q1: How will solar energy increase energy security?
A1: through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource
Q2: What costs will solar energy lower?
A2: the costs of mitigating global warming
Q3: What should the cost of incentives for producing solar energy be considered?
A3: learning investments
Q4: What effect will solar energy have on the price of fossil fuels?
A4: keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise
The potential solar energy that could be used by humans differs from the amount of solar energy present near the surface of the planet because factors such as geography, time variation, cloud cover, and the land available to humans limits the amount of solar energy that we can acquire.

Q1: Why does the amount of usable solar energy differ from the amount near the planets surface?
A1: geography, time variation, cloud cover, and the land available to humans
Geography effects solar energy potential because areas that are closer to the equator have a greater amount of solar radiation. However, the use of photovoltaics that can follow the position of the sun can significantly increase the solar energy potential in areas that are farther from the equator. Time variation effects the potential of solar energy because during the nighttime there is little solar radiation on the surface of the Earth for solar panels to absorb. This limits the amount of energy that solar panels can absorb in one day. Cloud cover can effect the potential of solar panels because clouds block incoming light from the sun and reduce the light available for solar cells.

Q1: Why does geography have an effect of the amount of solar energy available?
A1: areas that are closer to the equator have a greater amount of solar radiation
Q2: What is the process called that can increase solar energy in areas further away from the earth's equator?
A2: photovoltaics
Q3: Why does time have an effect of the amount of available solar energy?
A3: during the nighttime there is little solar radiation on the surface of the Earth for solar panels to absorb
Q4: What effect does cloud coverage have on the amount of solar energy available?
A4: clouds block incoming light from the sun and reduce the light available for solar cells
In addition, land availability has a large effect on the available solar energy because solar panels can only be set up on land that is unowned and suitable for solar panels. Roofs have been found to be a suitable place for solar cells, as many people have discovered that they can collect energy directly from their homes this way. Other areas that are suitable for solar cells are lands that are unowned by businesses where solar plants can be established.

Q1: Why does land availability have an effect on solar energy?
A1: solar panels can only be set up on land that is unowned and suitable for solar panels
Q2: Why are roofs a good place for solar panels?
A2: many people have discovered that they can collect energy directly from their homes this way
In 2000, the United Nations Development Programme, UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, and World Energy Council published an estimate of the potential solar energy that could be used by humans each year that took into account factors such as insolation, cloud cover, and the land that is usable by humans. The estimate found that solar energy has a global potential of 1,575–49,837 EJ per year (see table below).

Q1: What factors were taken into account in the estimate published in 2000 on solar energy?
A1: insolation, cloud cover, and the land that is usable by humans
Q2: What was the total potential of solar energy found in the estimate?
A2: 1,575–49,837 EJ per year
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). CSP systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. PV converts light into electric current using the photoelectric effect.

Q1: What is solar power?
A1: conversion of sunlight into electricity
Q2: How is sunlight converted into electricity?
A2: either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP)
Q3: What does a concentrated solar power system use?
A3: lenses or mirrors and tracking systems
Q4: What is the purpose of a concentrated solar power system?
A4: focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam
Q5: What method does the photovoltaics system use to turn light into electricity?
A5: photoelectric effect
Sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning of architectural history. Advanced solar architecture and urban planning methods were first employed by the Greeks and Chinese, who oriented their buildings toward the south to provide light and warmth.

Q1: What has influenced the design since the beginning of architectural history?
A1: Sunlight
Q2: Who first utilized solar architecture?
A2: Greeks and Chinese
Q3: In which direction were the buildings built by the Greeks and Chinese facing?
A3: toward the south
A solar balloon is a black balloon that is filled with ordinary air. As sunlight shines on the balloon, the air inside is heated and expands causing an upward buoyancy force, much like an artificially heated hot air balloon. Some solar balloons are large enough for human flight, but usage is generally limited to the toy market as the surface-area to payload-weight ratio is relatively high.

Q1: What is a solar balloon?
A1: a black balloon that is filled with ordinary air
Q2: What happens when sunlight shines on a solar balloon?
A2: the air inside is heated and expands causing an upward buoyancy force
Q3: What is the use of solar balloons typically limited to?
A3: the toy market
Q4: Why is the use of solar balloons typically limited to the toy market?
A4: the surface-area to payload-weight ratio is relatively high
Beginning with the surge in coal use which accompanied the Industrial Revolution, energy consumption has steadily transitioned from wood and biomass to fossil fuels. The early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that coal would soon become scarce. However, development of solar technologies stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability, economy, and utility of coal and petroleum.

Q1: Why was solar technology developed in the 1860s?
A1: driven by an expectation that coal would soon become scarce
Q2: What slowed the development of solar technologies in the early 20th century?
A2: increasing availability, economy, and utility of coal and petroleum
In 2011, a report by the International Energy Agency found that solar energy technologies such as photovoltaics, solar hot water and concentrated solar power could provide a third of the world’s energy by 2060 if politicians commit to limiting climate change. The energy from the sun could play a key role in de-carbonizing the global economy alongside improvements in energy efficiency and imposing costs on greenhouse gas emitters. "The strength of solar is the incredible variety and flexibility of applications, from small scale to big scale".

Q1: According to a report in 2011, by what year could solar energy provide a third of the world's energy?
A1: 2060
Q2: What could the sun's energy do to help limit climate change?
A2: could play a key role in de-carbonizing the global economy alongside improvements in energy efficiency and imposing costs on greenhouse gas emitters