romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
The effects of some types of mold on infection had been noticed many times over the course of history (see: History of penicillin). In 1928, Alexander Fleming noticed the same effect in a Petri dish, where a number of disease-causing bacteria were killed by a fungus of the genus Penicillium. Fleming postulated that the effect is mediated by an antibacterial compound he named penicillin, and that its antibacterial properties could be exploited for chemotherapy. He initially characterized some of its biological properties, and attempted to use a crude preparation to treat some infections, but he was unable to pursue its further development without the aid of trained chemists.

Q1: What type of organism has been reported to have worked on infections?
A1: mold
Q2: Who noticed in a lab the antibacterial characteristics of mold?
A2: Alexander Fleming
Q3: What mold did Fleming notice had antibacterial properties?
A3: penicillin
Q4: What did Fleming initially think a good use would be for it?
A4: chemotherapy
The first sulfonamide and first commercially available antibacterial, Prontosil, was developed by a research team led by Gerhard Domagk in 1932 at the Bayer Laboratories of the IG Farben conglomerate in Germany. Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine for his efforts. Prontosil had a relatively broad effect against Gram-positive cocci, but not against enterobacteria. Research was stimulated apace by its success. The discovery and development of this sulfonamide drug opened the era of antibacterials.

Q1: What was the first available antibiotic?
A1: Prontosil
Q2: What company developed Prontosil?
A2: IG Farben
Q3: Who led the team that came up with Prontosil?
A3: Gerhard Domagk
Q4: What prize did Domagk get for his work?
A4: 1939 Nobel Prize for Medicine
In 1939, coinciding with the start of World War II, Rene Dubos reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, tyrothricin, a compound of 20% gramicidin and 80% tyrocidine, from B. brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics universally and was very effective in treating wounds and ulcers during World War II. Gramicidin, however, could not be used systemically because of toxicity. Tyrocidine also proved too toxic for systemic usage. Research results obtained during that period were not shared between the Axis and the Allied powers during the war.

Q1: What was the first antibiotic developed from nature?
A1: tyrothricin
Q2: When was tyrothricin created?
A2: 1939
Q3: What also happened in 1939 besides tyrothricin?
A3: start of World War II,
Q4: Who discovered tyrothricin?
A4: Rene Dubos
Q5: What was tyrothricin used for during the war?
A5: wounds and ulcers
Florey and Chain succeeded in purifying the first penicillin, penicillin G, in 1942, but it did not become widely available outside the Allied military before 1945. Later, Norman Heatley developed the back extraction technique for efficiently purifying penicillin in bulk. The chemical structure of penicillin was determined by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin in 1945. Purified penicillin displayed potent antibacterial activity against a wide range of bacteria and had low toxicity in humans. Furthermore, its activity was not inhibited by biological constituents such as pus, unlike the synthetic sulfonamides. The discovery of such a powerful antibiotic was unprecedented, and the development of penicillin led to renewed interest in the search for antibiotic compounds with similar efficacy and safety. For their successful development of penicillin, which Fleming had accidentally discovered but could not develop himself, as a therapeutic drug, Ernst Chain and Howard Florey shared the 1945 Nobel Prize in Medicine with Fleming. Florey credited Dubos with pioneering the approach of deliberately and systematically searching for antibacterial compounds, which had led to the discovery of gramicidin and had revived Florey's research in penicillin.

Q1: When was penicillin G first purified?
A1: 1942
Q2: When did penicillin G become available outside of military use?
A2: 1945
Q3: Who came up with a way to quickly produce penicillin?
A3: Norman Heatley
Q4: When was the chemical make-up of penicillin discovered?
A4: 1945
Q5: Who discovered the chemical structure of penicillin?
A5: Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin
Vaccines rely on immune modulation or augmentation. Vaccination either excites or reinforces the immune competence of a host to ward off infection, leading to the activation of macrophages, the production of antibodies, inflammation, and other classic immune reactions. Antibacterial vaccines have been responsible for a drastic reduction in global bacterial diseases. Vaccines made from attenuated whole cells or lysates have been replaced largely by less reactogenic, cell-free vaccines consisting of purified components, including capsular polysaccharides and their conjugates, to protein carriers, as well as inactivated toxins (toxoids) and proteins.

Q1: What do vaccines need to work?
A1: immune modulation or augmentation
Q2: What type of vaccines have saved millions of lives?
A2: Antibacterial vaccines
Q3: What types of vaccines have been phased out?
A3: Vaccines made from attenuated whole cells or lysates
Phage therapy is another option that is being looked into for treating resistant strains of bacteria. The way that researchers are doing this is by infecting pathogenic bacteria with their own viruses, more specifically, bacteriophages. Bacteriophages, also known simply as phages, are precisely bacterial viruses that infect bacteria by disrupting pathogenic bacterium lytic cycles. By disrupting the lytic cycles of bacterium, phages destroy their metabolism, which eventually results in the cell's death. Phages will insert their DNA into the bacterium, allowing their DNA to be transcribed. Once their DNA is transcribed the cell will proceed to make new phages and as soon as they are ready to be released, the cell will lyse. One of the worries about using phages to fight pathogens is that the phages will infect "good" bacteria, or the bacteria that are important in the everyday function of human beings. However, studies have proven that phages are very specific when they target bacteria, which makes researchers confident that bacteriophage therapy is the definite route to defeating antibiotic resistant bacteria.

Q1: What has been talked about to treat resistant bacteria?
A1: Phage therapy
Q2: How have researchers been doing this?
A2: infecting pathogenic bacteria
Q3: What is a worry of using phages?
A3: phages will infect "good" bacteria
In April 2013, the Infectious Disease Society of America (IDSA) reported that the weak antibiotic pipeline does not match bacteria's increasing ability to develop resistance. Since 2009, only 2 new antibiotics were approved in the United States. The number of new antibiotics approved for marketing per year declines continuously. The report identified seven antibiotics against the Gram-negative bacilli (GNB) currently in phase 2 or phase 3 clinical trials. However, these drugs do not address the entire spectrum of resistance of GNB. Some of these antibiotics are combination of existent treatments:

Q1: How many antibiotics have been created in the last 7 years?
A1: 2
Q2: How many are in the pipelin to fight GNB?
A2: seven
Q3: What year did the Infectious Disease Society of America say that production of new antibiotics does not keep up with resistance?
A3: 2013
Possible improvements include clarification of clinical trial regulations by FDA. Furthermore, appropriate economic incentives could persuade pharmaceutical companies to invest in this endeavor. Antibiotic Development to Advance Patient Treatment (ADAPT) Act aims to fast track the drug development to combat the growing threat of 'superbugs'. Under this Act, FDA can approve antibiotics and antifungals treating life-threatening infections based on smaller clinical trials. The CDC will monitor the use of antibiotics and the emerging resistance, and publish the data. The FDA antibiotics labeling process, 'Susceptibility Test Interpretive Criteria for Microbial Organisms' or 'breakpoints', will provide accurate data to healthcare professionals. According to Allan Coukell, senior director for health programs at The Pew Charitable Trusts, "By allowing drug developers to rely on smaller datasets, and clarifying FDA's authority to tolerate a higher level of uncertainty for these drugs when making a risk/benefit calculation, ADAPT would make the clinical trials more feasible."

Q1: Who regulates antibiotic approval?
A1: FDA
Q2: What could help to spur pharmaceuticals to make new antibiotics?
A2: economic incentives
Q3: What are resistant bacteria called in the media?
A3: superbugs
Q4: Who is a director at the Pew Charitable Trusts?
A4: Allan Coukell,
Frédéric François Chopin (/ˈʃoʊpæn/; French pronunciation: ​[fʁe.de.ʁik fʁɑ̃.swa ʃɔ.pɛ̃]; 22 February or 1 March 1810 – 17 October 1849), born Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin,[n 1] was a Polish and French (by citizenship and birth of father) composer and a virtuoso pianist of the Romantic era, who wrote primarily for the solo piano. He gained and has maintained renown worldwide as one of the leading musicians of his era, whose "poetic genius was based on a professional technique that was without equal in his generation." Chopin was born in what was then the Duchy of Warsaw, and grew up in Warsaw, which after 1815 became part of Congress Poland. A child prodigy, he completed his musical education and composed his earlier works in Warsaw before leaving Poland at the age of 20, less than a month before the outbreak of the November 1830 Uprising.

Q1: What was Frédéric's nationalities?
A1: Polish and French
Q2: In what era was Frédéric active in?
A2: Romantic era
Q3: For what instrument did Frédéric write primarily for?
A3: solo piano
Q4: In what area was Frédéric born in?
A4: Duchy of Warsaw
Q5: At what age did Frédéric depart from Poland?
A5: 20
Q6: What year was Chopin born?
A6: 1810
Q7: What era was Chopin active during?
A7: Romantic era
Q8: Where did Chopin grow up?
A8: Warsaw
Q9: What instrument did he mostly compose for?
A9: solo piano
Q10: At what age did Chopin  leave Poland?
A10: 20
Q11: When did Chopin die?
A11: 17 October 1849
Q12: What was Chopin's full name?
A12: Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin
Q13: The majority of Chopin's compositions were for what instrument?
A13: solo piano
Q14: Chopin was active during what era?
A14: Romantic era
Q15: In what year was Chopin born?
A15: 1810
Q16: In what city was Chopin born and raised?
A16: Warsaw
Q17: How old was Chopin when he left Poland?
A17: 20
Q18: In what era of music did Chopin compose?
A18: Romantic
Q19: What year did Chopin die?
A19: 1849
At the age of 21 he settled in Paris. Thereafter, during the last 18 years of his life, he gave only some 30 public performances, preferring the more intimate atmosphere of the salon. He supported himself by selling his compositions and teaching piano, for which he was in high demand. Chopin formed a friendship with Franz Liszt and was admired by many of his musical contemporaries, including Robert Schumann. In 1835 he obtained French citizenship. After a failed engagement to Maria Wodzińska, from 1837 to 1847 he maintained an often troubled relationship with the French writer George Sand. A brief and unhappy visit to Majorca with Sand in 1838–39 was one of his most productive periods of composition. In his last years, he was financially supported by his admirer Jane Stirling, who also arranged for him to visit Scotland in 1848. Through most of his life, Chopin suffered from poor health. He died in Paris in 1849, probably of tuberculosis.

Q1: At what age did Frédéric move to Paris?
A1: 21
Q2: How many public performances was Frédéric estimated to have given during the remainder of his life?
A2: 30
Q3: In what year did Frédéric obtain citizenship in France?
A3: 1835
Q4: In what area had Frédéric's most productive period of composition taken place?
A4: Majorca
Q5: What was Frédéric's most likely cause of death?
A5: tuberculosis
Q6: Where did he end up living when he was 21?
A6: Paris
Q7: How many public shows did he perform during the last years of his life?
A7: 30
Q8: What other composer did Chopin develop a friendship with?
A8: Franz Liszt
Q9: What year did he gain citizenship in France?
A9: 1835
Q10: What is the name of the woman he had a relationship with from 1837-847?
A10: Maria Wodzińska
Q11: At what age did Chopin move to Paris?
A11: 21
Q12: During the last 18 years he lived about how many times did Chopin perform in public?
A12: 30
Q13: What year did Chopin become a citizen of France?
A13: 1835
Q14: In the last years of his life who was the person that supported him financially?
A14: Jane Stirling
Q15: In what year did Chopin become a French citizen?
A15: 1835
Q16: Who gave Chopin money in the last years of his life?
A16: Jane Stirling
Q17: What was the likely cause of death for Chopin?
A17: tuberculosis
All of Chopin's compositions include the piano. Most are for solo piano, though he also wrote two piano concertos, a few chamber pieces, and some songs to Polish lyrics. His keyboard style is highly individual and often technically demanding; his own performances were noted for their nuance and sensitivity. Chopin invented the concept of instrumental ballade. His major piano works also include mazurkas, waltzes, nocturnes, polonaises, études, impromptus, scherzos, preludes and sonatas, some published only after his death. Influences on his compositional style include Polish folk music, the classical tradition of J. S. Bach, Mozart and Schubert, the music of all of whom he admired, as well as the Paris salons where he was a frequent guest. His innovations in style, musical form, and harmony, and his association of music with nationalism, were influential throughout and after the late Romantic period.

Q1: What instrument did every composition by Frédéric include?
A1: piano
Q2: What concept was Frédéric credited with creating?
A2: instrumental ballade
Q3: Whose music did Frédéric admire the most and thus provide influence on his work?
A3: J. S. Bach, Mozart and Schubert
Q4: What features marked Frédéric's performance style and made them unique?
A4: nuance and sensitivity
Q5: What establishments did Frédéric frequently visit in Paris that influenced his career?
A5: Paris salons
Q6: Which instrument do every one of his compositions include?
A6: piano
Q7: What concept did Chopin create?
A7: instrumental ballade
Q8: What are two things Chopin's performances were known for?
A8: nuance and sensitivity
Q9: What three composers influenced Chopin's work?
A9: J. S. Bach, Mozart and Schubert
Q10: Chopin wrote some music to lyrics, what language were the lyrics?
A10: Polish
Q11: What instrument is involved in all of Chopin's work?
A11: piano
Q12: Chopin composed several songs to lyrics of what language?
A12: Polish
Q13: Chopin's performances were known for what?
A13: nuance and sensitivity
Q14: What three composers did Chopin take inspiration from?
A14: J. S. Bach, Mozart and Schubert
Q15: What instrument was all of Chopin's compositions written for?
A15: piano
Q16: What language were some songs written in that Chopin wrote music for?
A16: Polish
Q17: Of what venue was Chopin an often invited guest?
A17: Paris salons
In his native Poland, in France, where he composed most of his works, and beyond, Chopin's music, his status as one of music's earliest superstars, his association (if only indirect) with political insurrection, his love life and his early death have made him, in the public consciousness, a leading symbol of the Romantic era. His works remain popular, and he has been the subject of numerous films and biographies of varying degrees of historical accuracy.

Q1: What was the degree of Frédéric's association with political insurrection?
A1: indirect
Q2: What parts of Frédéric's personal life influenced his legacy as a leading symbol of the era?
A2: his love life and his early death
Q3: In which era was Frédéric leave a legacy of as a leading symbol?
A3: Romantic era
Q4: In what forms of media has Frédéric been the subject of?
A4: films and biographies
Q5: Where did Chopin create the majority of his compositions?
A5: France
Q6: Chopin is a native of what country?
A6: Poland
Q7: He had a non-direct association with what?
A7: political insurrection
Q8: Chopin is closely associated with what era?
A8: Romantic era
Q9: Where did Chopin create most of his works?
A9: France
Q10: Chopin was indirectly related to what?
A10: political insurrection
Q11: Chopin is considered a prominent symbol of what?
A11: Romantic era
Fryderyk Chopin was born in Żelazowa Wola, 46 kilometres (29 miles) west of Warsaw, in what was then the Duchy of Warsaw, a Polish state established by Napoleon. The parish baptismal record gives his birthday as 22 February 1810, and cites his given names in the Latin form Fridericus Franciscus (in Polish, he was Fryderyk Franciszek). However, the composer and his family used the birthdate 1 March,[n 2] which is now generally accepted as the correct date.

Q1: In what village was Frédéric born in?
A1: Żelazowa Wola
Q2: On what date was Frédéric born on?
A2: 22 February 1810
Q3: Despite the birthdate given by parish baptismal, what date is given by the composer and his family instead?
A3: 1 March
Q4: What was the latin form of Frédéric's full name?
A4: Fridericus Franciscus
Q5: How many miles was the village Frédéric born in located to the west of Warsaw?
A5: 29
Q6: Where was Chopin born?
A6: Żelazowa Wola
Q7: Who was responsible for the creation of the Duchy of Warsaw?
A7: Napoleon
Q8: When was his birthday recorded as being?
A8: 22 February 1810
Q9: What birth date is now considered as his actual birthday?
A9: 1 March
Q10: Chopin's given names in Latin are what?
A10: Fridericus Franciscus
Q11: The Duchy of Warsaw was created by whom?
A11: Napoleon
Q12: Chopin's birth is recorded as when?
A12: 22 February 1810
Q13: What birth date is now considered correct for Chopin?
A13: 1 March
Q14: What is the Latin form of Chopin's name?
A14: Fridericus Franciscus
Q15: Chopin was actually born outside of Warsaw at what location?
A15: Żelazowa Wola
Q16: What famous French leader had established the Polish state at this time?
A16: Napoleon
Fryderyk's father, Nicolas Chopin, was a Frenchman from Lorraine who had emigrated to Poland in 1787 at the age of sixteen. Nicolas tutored children of the Polish aristocracy, and in 1806 married Justyna Krzyżanowska, a poor relative of the Skarbeks, one of the families for whom he worked. Fryderyk was baptized on Easter Sunday, 23 April 1810, in the same church where his parents had married, in Brochów. His eighteen-year-old godfather, for whom he was named, was Fryderyk Skarbek, a pupil of Nicolas Chopin. Fryderyk was the couple's second child and only son; he had an elder sister, Ludwika (1807–55), and two younger sisters, Izabela (1811–81) and Emilia (1812–27). Nicolas was devoted to his adopted homeland, and insisted on the use of the Polish language in the household.

Q1: Who did Frédéric's father marry in 1806?
A1: Justyna Krzyżanowska
Q2: On what date was Frédéric baptised?
A2: 23 April 1810
Q3: What language did Frédéric's father, Nicolas, insist on using in the household?
A3: Polish
Q4: What was the given name of Chopin's father?
A4: Nicolas
Q5: Where was Chopin's father from?
A5: Lorraine
Q6: Chopin's father married who?
A6: Justyna Krzyżanowska
Q7: What is the name of Chopin's godfather?
A7: Fryderyk Skarbek
Q8: What is the name of Chopin's eldest sister?
A8: Ludwika
Q9: What was Chopin's father's first name?
A9: Nicolas
Q10: From where id Chopin's father emigrate from?
A10: Lorraine
Q11: What is Chopin's older sister's name?
A11: Ludwika
In October 1810, six months after Fryderyk's birth, the family moved to Warsaw, where his father acquired a post teaching French at the Warsaw Lyceum, then housed in the Saxon Palace. Fryderyk lived with his family in the Palace grounds. The father played the flute and violin; the mother played the piano and gave lessons to boys in the boarding house that the Chopins kept. Chopin was of slight build, and even in early childhood was prone to illnesses.

Q1: During what month did Frédéric move to Warsaw with his family?
A1: October
Q2: What language did Frédéric's father teach after they had moved to Warsaw?
A2: French
Q3: Where did Frédéric live with his family while they were in Warsaw?
A3: the Palace grounds
Q4: What two instruments did Frédéric's father play during this time?
A4: flute and violin
Q5: What was Frédéric prone to during early childhood as a result of his slight build?
A5: illnesses
Q6: When did Chopin's family move to Warsaw?
A6: October 1810
Q7: Where did Chopin's father get a teaching position?
A7: Warsaw Lyceum
Q8: What instruments did Chopin's father play?
A8: flute and violin
Q9: What instrument did Chopin's mother teach?
A9: piano
Q10: How old was Chopin when his family moved to Warsaw?
A10: six months
Q11: What language did Chopin's father teach?
A11: French
Q12: What two instruments did Chopin's father play?
A12: flute and violin
Q13: What instrument did Chopin's mother teach at the boarding house?
A13: piano
Q14: Where did Chopin live with his family in Warsaw?
A14: Saxon Palace.
Fryderyk may have had some piano instruction from his mother, but his first professional music tutor, from 1816 to 1821, was the Czech pianist Wojciech Żywny. His elder sister Ludwika also took lessons from Żywny, and occasionally played duets with her brother. It quickly became apparent that he was a child prodigy. By the age of seven Fryderyk had begun giving public concerts, and in 1817 he composed two polonaises, in G minor and B-flat major. His next work, a polonaise in A-flat major of 1821, dedicated to Żywny, is his earliest surviving musical manuscript.

Q1: Who was Frédéric's first professional teacher in music?
A1: Wojciech Żywny
Q2: Which sister did Frédéric play duets with sometimes while being tutored at this time?
A2: Ludwika
Q3: At what age did Frédéric start giving public concerts?
A3: 7
Q4: What did Frédéric compose during the year of 1817?
A4: two polonaises
Q5: What is the earliest surviving musical notation composed by Frédéric?
A5: a polonaise in A-flat major of 1821
Q6: Who was Chopin's initial piano teacher?
A6: Wojciech Żywny
Q7: Which of his sisters did Chopin sometimes duet with?
A7: Ludwika
Q8: At what age did Chopin start playing publicly?
A8: 7
Q9: What year did Chopin compose his first work?
A9: 1817
Q10: During what years did Chopin receive instruction from  Żywny?
A10: 1816 to 1821
Q11: What is the name of Chopin's first music teacher that was not an amateur musician?
A11: Wojciech Żywny
Q12: Which of Chopin's sisters would play music with him?
A12: Ludwika
Q13: How old was Chopin when he began to perform for the public?
A13: 7
Q14: Who was Chopin's earliest piece of music, that there is a record of, dedicated to?
A14: Wojciech Żywny