romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
In general, translators have sought to preserve the context itself by reproducing the original order of sememes, and hence word order — when necessary, reinterpreting the actual grammatical structure, for example, by shifting from active to passive voice, or vice versa. The grammatical differences between "fixed-word-order" languages (e.g. English, French, German) and "free-word-order" languages (e.g., Greek, Latin, Polish, Russian) have been no impediment in this regard. The particular syntax (sentence-structure) characteristics of a text's source language are adjusted to the syntactic requirements of the target language.

Q1: What have translators tried to preserve?
A1: context itself
Q2: How do translators preserve context?
A2: reproducing the original order of sememes
Q3: What is it sometimes necessary to reinterpret when translating?
A3: grammatical structure
Q4: What is the active voice sometimes shifted to when needed?
A4: passive
Q5: What are the syntax characteristics of a text's source language adjusted to for a target language?
A5: syntactic requirements
Generally, the greater the contact and exchange that have existed between two languages, or between those languages and a third one, the greater is the ratio of metaphrase to paraphrase that may be used in translating among them. However, due to shifts in ecological niches of words, a common etymology is sometimes misleading as a guide to current meaning in one or the other language. For example, the English actual should not be confused with the cognate French actuel ("present", "current"), the Polish aktualny ("present", "current," "topical," "timely," "feasible"), the Swedish aktuell ("topical", "presently of importance"), the Russian актуальный ("urgent", "topical") or the Dutch actueel.

Q1: A greater ratio of metaphrase to paraphrase can be used translating when there as been greater what between languages?
A1: contact and exchange
Q2: What is a common etymology sometimes misleading as?
A2: guide to current meaning
Q3: What does the French "actuel" mean in English?
A3: present
Q4: How would you convey that something is "presently of importance" in Swedish?
A4: aktuell
Q5: To indicate something is feasible in Polish, what word could be used?
A5: aktualny
The translator's role as a bridge for "carrying across" values between cultures has been discussed at least since Terence, the 2nd-century-BCE Roman adapter of Greek comedies. The translator's role is, however, by no means a passive, mechanical one, and so has also been compared to that of an artist. The main ground seems to be the concept of parallel creation found in critics such as Cicero. Dryden observed that "Translation is a type of drawing after life..." Comparison of the translator with a musician or actor goes back at least to Samuel Johnson’s remark about Alexander Pope playing Homer on a flageolet, while Homer himself used a bassoon.

Q1: How long has a translator's part in bridging values between cultures been discussed?
A1: at least since Terence
Q2: What did Terence adapt from the Greek's?
A2: comedies
Q3: A translator's role is less like a robot and more like a what?
A3: artist
Q4: Where was the concept of parallel creation found?
A4: Cicero
Q5: Who remarked about Alexander Pope playing Homer on a flageolet?
A5: Samuel Johnson
Though earlier approaches to translation are less commonly used today, they retain importance when dealing with their products, as when historians view ancient or medieval records to piece together events which took place in non-Western or pre-Western environments. Also, though heavily influenced by Western traditions and practiced by translators taught in Western-style educational systems, Chinese and related translation traditions retain some theories and philosophies unique to the Chinese tradition.

Q1: When it comes to translation, what is less commonly used today?
A1: earlier approaches
Q2: When do earlier approaches to translation still have relevance for historians?
A2: when historians view ancient or medieval records
Q3: What do historians try to piece together from pre-Western environments?
A3: events
Q4: What do Chinese and related translations retain unique to their tradition?
A4: theories and philosophies
Translation of material into Arabic expanded after the creation of Arabic script in the 5th century, and gained great importance with the rise of Islam and Islamic empires. Arab translation initially focused primarily on politics, rendering Persian, Greek, even Chinese and Indic diplomatic materials into Arabic. It later focused on translating classical Greek and Persian works, as well as some Chinese and Indian texts, into Arabic for scholarly study at major Islamic learning centers, such as the Al-Karaouine (Fes, Morocco), Al-Azhar (Cairo, Egypt), and the Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad. In terms of theory, Arabic translation drew heavily on earlier Near Eastern traditions as well as more contemporary Greek and Persian traditions.

Q1: When did translation of material into Arabic begin to increase?
A1: 5th century
Q2: What allowed the expansion of Arabic translations during the 5th century?
A2: creation of Arabic script
Q3: What material was initial Arab translations primarily focused on?
A3: politics
Q4: What cultures' classical works were later translated into Arabic?
A4: Greek and Persian
Q5: What type of translation drew heavily on earlier Near Eastern traditions?
A5: Arabic
Arabic translation efforts and techniques are important to Western translation traditions due to centuries of close contacts and exchanges. Especially after the Renaissance, Europeans began more intensive study of Arabic and Persian translations of classical works as well as scientific and philosophical works of Arab and oriental origins. Arabic and, to a lesser degree, Persian became important sources of material and perhaps of techniques for revitalized Western traditions, which in time would overtake the Islamic and oriental traditions.

Q1: Why are Arabic translation efforts important to Western translation traditions?
A1: centuries of close contacts and exchanges
Q2: When did Europeans begin more intense studying of Arabic translations of classical works?
A2: after the Renaissance
Q3: What did Arabic, and to a less extent Persian, become to Europeans?
A3: important sources of material
Q4: What helped revitalize Western translation traditions from Arabic?
A4: techniques
Q5: What would Western traditions eventually do?
A5: overtake the Islamic and oriental traditions
The movement to translate English and European texts transformed the Arabic and Ottoman Turkish languages, and new words, simplified syntax, and directness came to be valued over the previous convolutions. Educated Arabs and Turks in the new professions and the modernized civil service expressed skepticism, writes Christopher de Bellaigue, "with a freedom that is rarely witnessed today.... No longer was legitimate knowledge defined by texts in the religious schools, interpreted for the most part with stultifying literalness. It had come to include virtually any intellectual production anywhere in the world." One of the neologisms that, in a way, came to characterize the infusion of new ideas via translation was "darwiniya", or "Darwinism".

Q1: What transformed Arabic languages?
A1: movement to translate English and European texts
Q2: What came to be valued over previous convolutions?
A2: new words, simplified syntax, and directness
Q3: Who expressed skepticism regarding the transformation of Arabic?
A3: Educated Arabs and Turks
Q4: What was legitimate knowledge no longer defined by?
A4: texts in the religious schools
Q5: What was a neologism expressing the introduction of new ideas via translation?
A5: Darwinism
After World War I, when Britain and France divided up the Middle East's countries, apart from Turkey, between them, pursuant to the Sykes-Picot agreement—in violation of solemn wartime promises of postwar Arab autonomy—there came an immediate reaction: the Muslim Brotherhood emerged in Egypt, the House of Saud took over the Hijaz, and regimes led by army officers came to power in Iran and Turkey. "[B]oth illiberal currents of the modern Middle East," writes de Bellaigne, "Islamism and militarism, received a major impetus from Western empire-builders." As often happens in countries undergoing social crisis, the aspirations of the Muslim world's translators and modernizers, such as Muhammad Abduh, largely had to yield to retrograde currents.

Q1: What two countries divvied up the Middle East's countries after WWI?
A1: Britain and France
Q2: What was the dividing up of the Middle Eastern countries in violation of?
A2: solemn wartime promises of postwar Arab autonomy
Q3: A reaction to Britain and France's actions was the emergence of what group in Egypt?
A3: Muslim Brotherhood
Q4: de Bellaigne attributed the growth of Islamism and militarism to what Western catalyst?
A4: empire-builders
Q5: What did the aspirations of the Muslim world's translators find themselves yielding to?
A5: retrograde currents
Many non-transparent-translation theories draw on concepts from German Romanticism, the most obvious influence being the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher. In his seminal lecture "On the Different Methods of Translation" (1813) he distinguished between translation methods that move "the writer toward [the reader]", i.e., transparency, and those that move the "reader toward [the author]", i.e., an extreme fidelity to the foreignness of the source text. Schleiermacher favored the latter approach; he was motivated, however, not so much by a desire to embrace the foreign, as by a nationalist desire to oppose France's cultural domination and to promote German literature.

Q1: Where do many non-transparent translation theories delve for concepts?
A1: German Romanticism
Q2: What nationality was Friedrich Schleiermacher?
A2: German
Q3: When did Schleiermacher publish his lecture "On the Different Methods of Translation"?
A3: 1813
Q4: Moving the writer toward the reader would be an example of what type of translation method?
A4: transparency
Q5: What method of translation did Schleiermacher favor?
A5: extreme fidelity to the foreignness of the source text
Comparison of a back-translation with the original text is sometimes used as a check on the accuracy of the original translation, much as the accuracy of a mathematical operation is sometimes checked by reversing the operation. But the results of such reverse-translation operations, while useful as approximate checks, are not always precisely reliable. Back-translation must in general be less accurate than back-calculation because linguistic symbols (words) are often ambiguous, whereas mathematical symbols are intentionally unequivocal.

Q1: What is sometimes used to check the accuracy of a translation?
A1: Comparison of a back-translation with the original text
Q2: How are mathematical operations checked?
A2: by reversing the operation
Q3: What operations are results from not always completely reliable?
A3: reverse-translation operations
Q4: What symbol set has a defining property of ambiguity?
A4: linguistic
Q5: What symbol set has the property of being intentionally unequivocal?
A5: mathematical
Mark Twain provided humorously telling evidence for the frequent unreliability of back-translation when he issued his own back-translation of a French translation of his short story, "The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County". He published his back-translation in a 1903 volume together with his English-language original, the French translation, and a "Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story". The latter included a synopsized adaptation of his story that Twain stated had appeared, unattributed to Twain, in a Professor Sidgwick’s Greek Prose Composition (p. 116) under the title, "The Athenian and the Frog"; the adaptation had for a time been taken for an independent ancient Greek precursor to Twain's "Jumping Frog" story.

Q1: Who provided a humorous example of the unreliability of back-translation?
A1: Mark Twain
Q2: When was Twain's back-translation published?
A2: 1903
Q3: For what language did Twain create a back-translation?
A3: French
Q4: What include a synopsized adaptation of Twain's story?
A4: "Private History of the 'Jumping Frog' Story"
Q5: What had been thought for a while to be an independent ancient Greek precursor to Twain's story?
A5: "The Athenian and the Frog"
When a historic document survives only in translation, the original having been lost, researchers sometimes undertake back-translation in an effort to reconstruct the original text. An example involves the novel The Saragossa Manuscript by the Polish aristocrat Jan Potocki (1761–1815), who wrote the novel in French and anonymously published fragments in 1804 and 1813–14. Portions of the original French-language manuscript were subsequently lost; however, the missing fragments survived in a Polish translation that was made by Edmund Chojecki in 1847 from a complete French copy, now lost. French-language versions of the complete Saragossa Manuscript have since been produced, based on extant French-language fragments and on French-language versions that have been back-translated from Chojecki’s Polish version.

Q1: What do researchers use back-translation to try to reconstruct when a document survives only in translation?
A1: the original text
Q2: Who was Jan Potocki?
A2: Polish aristocrat
Q3: What language was The Saragossa Manuscript originally written in?
A3: French
Q4: When had Edmund Chojecki translated portions of the Saragossa Manuscript into Polish from French?
A4: 1847
Q5: What fragments were the complete Saragossa Manuscripts now produced based on?
A5: French-language
Translation has served as a school of writing for many authors. Translators, including monks who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia, and the early modern European translators of the Bible, in the course of their work have shaped the very languages into which they have translated. They have acted as bridges for conveying knowledge between cultures; and along with ideas, they have imported from the source languages, into their own languages, loanwords and calques of grammatical structures, idioms and vocabulary.

Q1: What has served as a school of writing for many authors?
A1: Translation
Q2: Who spread Buddhist texts in East Asia?
A2: monks
Q3: What did translators shape in the course of their work?
A3: languages
Q4: What have translators acted as by conveying knowledge between cultures?
A4: bridges
Q5: Where were idioms and vocabulary imported from?
A5: source languages
Interpreters have sometimes played crucial roles in history. A prime example is La Malinche, also known as Malintzin, Malinalli and Doña Marina, an early-16th-century Nahua woman from the Mexican Gulf Coast. As a child she had been sold or given to Maya slave-traders from Xicalango, and thus had become bilingual. Subsequently given along with other women to the invading Spaniards, she became instrumental in the Spanish conquest of Mexico, acting as interpreter, adviser, intermediary and lover to Hernán Cortés.

Q1: What roles have interpreters occasionally played in history?
A1: crucial
Q2: Where were the slave-traders La Malinche was sold or given to from?
A2: Xicalango
Q3: What region did La Malinche hail from?
A3: Mexican Gulf Coast
Q4: What was La Malinche essential to?
A4: Spanish conquest of Mexico
Q5: In addition to being an interpreter and adviser, what function did La Malinche serve for Hernán Cortés?
A5: lover
Web-based human translation is generally favored by companies and individuals that wish to secure more accurate translations. In view of the frequent inaccuracy of machine translations, human translation remains the most reliable, most accurate form of translation available. With the recent emergence of translation crowdsourcing, translation-memory techniques, and internet applications, translation agencies have been able to provide on-demand human-translation services to businesses, individuals, and enterprises.

Q1: What type of translation is favored by those wanting more accurate translations?
A1: Web-based human translation
Q2: What reputation does machine translations have?
A2: frequent inaccuracy
Q3: What type of translation is still the most accurate and reliable?
A3: human
Q4: Because of crowdsourcing, what type of translation are agencies able to provide?
A4: on-demand human-translation services
Q5: Who purchases the services of translation agencies?
A5: businesses, individuals, and enterprises
Relying exclusively on unedited machine translation, however, ignores the fact that communication in human language is context-embedded and that it takes a person to comprehend the context of the original text with a reasonable degree of probability. It is certainly true that even purely human-generated translations are prone to error; therefore, to ensure that a machine-generated translation will be useful to a human being and that publishable-quality translation is achieved, such translations must be reviewed and edited by a human.

Q1: Unedited machine translation will miss what crucial aspect of human language?
A1: context-embedded
Q2: What does it take a person to be able to do?
A2: comprehend the context of the original text
Q3: What can even translations completely done by a human still be prone to?
A3: error
Q4: How must machine translations be transformed by a human?
A4: reviewed and edited
In Asia, the spread of Buddhism led to large-scale ongoing translation efforts spanning well over a thousand years. The Tangut Empire was especially efficient in such efforts; exploiting the then newly invented block printing, and with the full support of the government (contemporary sources describe the Emperor and his mother personally contributing to the translation effort, alongside sages of various nationalities), the Tanguts took mere decades to translate volumes that had taken the Chinese centuries to render.[citation needed]

Q1: Where did Buddhism spread?
A1: Asia
Q2: Buddhism's spread led to what large-scale effort?
A2: translation
Q3: How long did the translation effort take?
A3: well over a thousand years
Q4: What Empire was especially good at translation?
A4: The Tangut Empire
Q5: What were the Tanguts able to do in only decades that took the Chinese centuries?
A5: translate volumes
The Arabs undertook large-scale efforts at translation. Having conquered the Greek world, they made Arabic versions of its philosophical and scientific works. During the Middle Ages, translations of some of these Arabic versions were made into Latin, chiefly at Córdoba in Spain. King Alfonso X el Sabio (Alphonse the Wise) of Castille in the 13th century promoted this effort by founding a Schola Traductorum (School of Translation) in Toledo. There Arabic texts, Hebrew texts, and Latin texts were translated into the other tongues by Muslim, Jewish and Christian scholars, who also argued the merits of their respective religions. Latin translations of Greek and original Arab works of scholarship and science helped advance European Scholasticism, and thus European science and culture.

Q1: Who attempted a large-scale effort at translation?
A1: Arabs
Q2: What did the Arabs create Arabic versions of?
A2: philosophical and scientific works
Q3: When were some of the Arabic translations of earlier sentences translated into Latin?
A3: Middle Ages
Q4: What is Schola Traductorum in English?
A4: School of Translation
Q5: Latin translations indirectly advanced whose science and culture?
A5: European
The first great English translation was the Wycliffe Bible (ca. 1382), which showed the weaknesses of an underdeveloped English prose. Only at the end of the 15th century did the great age of English prose translation begin with Thomas Malory's Le Morte Darthur—an adaptation of Arthurian romances so free that it can, in fact, hardly be called a true translation. The first great Tudor translations are, accordingly, the Tyndale New Testament (1525), which influenced the Authorized Version (1611), and Lord Berners' version of Jean Froissart's Chronicles (1523–25).

Q1: What was the first great English translation?
A1: Wycliffe Bible
Q2: When was the Wycliffe Bible translated?
A2: 1382
Q3: When did the age of great English prose translation begin?
A3: end of the 15th century
Q4: What adaptation of Arthurian romances took so many liberties with the source material that it could hardly be called a translation?
A4: Le Morte Darthur
Q5: The Tyndale New Testament was one of the first great translations from what style?
A5: Tudor
Meanwhile, in Renaissance Italy, a new period in the history of translation had opened in Florence with the arrival, at the court of Cosimo de' Medici, of the Byzantine scholar Georgius Gemistus Pletho shortly before the fall of Constantinople to the Turks (1453). A Latin translation of Plato's works was undertaken by Marsilio Ficino. This and Erasmus' Latin edition of the New Testament led to a new attitude to translation. For the first time, readers demanded rigor of rendering, as philosophical and religious beliefs depended on the exact words of Plato, Aristotle and Jesus.

Q1: Whose court did Pletho arrive in and begin a new period of translation in Renaissance Italy?
A1: Cosimo de' Medici
Q2: What title did Georgius Gemistus Pletho carry?
A2: Byzantine scholar
Q3: When did Constantinople fall to the Turks?
A3: 1453
Q4: Who undertook translating Plato's works to Latin?
A4: Marsilio Ficino
Q5: What did religious beliefs depend upon when it came to Plato, Aristotle and Jesus?
A5: the exact words
Throughout the 18th century, the watchword of translators was ease of reading. Whatever they did not understand in a text, or thought might bore readers, they omitted. They cheerfully assumed that their own style of expression was the best, and that texts should be made to conform to it in translation. For scholarship they cared no more than had their predecessors, and they did not shrink from making translations from translations in third languages, or from languages that they hardly knew, or—as in the case of James Macpherson's "translations" of Ossian—from texts that were actually of the "translator's" own composition.

Q1: What was the guiding ideal of translators throughout the 18th century?
A1: ease of reading
Q2: If a translator didn't understand something in a text or thought it too boring to present to readers, what did they do with it?
A2: omitted
Q3: What did translators of this time assume was better than the actual text they were translating?
A3: their own style of expression
Q4: How much did the translators care about scholarship?
A4: no more than had their predecessors
Q5: What did James Macpherson "translate" from?
A5: own composition
The 19th century brought new standards of accuracy and style. In regard to accuracy, observes J.M. Cohen, the policy became "the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text", except for any bawdy passages and the addition of copious explanatory footnotes. In regard to style, the Victorians' aim, achieved through far-reaching metaphrase (literality) or pseudo-metaphrase, was to constantly remind readers that they were reading a foreign classic. An exception was the outstanding translation in this period, Edward FitzGerald's Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam (1859), which achieved its Oriental flavor largely by using Persian names and discreet Biblical echoes and actually drew little of its material from the Persian original.

Q1: What new standards of translation came with the 19th century?
A1: accuracy and style
Q2: Who observed that the policy became "the text, the whole text, and nothing but the text"?
A2: J.M. Cohen
Q3: What sort of passages were still left out of the supposed "whole" text?
A3: bawdy
Q4: What did the Victorians aim to remind the reader of their translations?
A4: that they were reading a foreign classic
Q5: How did the translation of Rubaiyat achieve an Oriental flavor?
A5: by using Persian names and discreet Biblical echoes