romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
Up until the middle of the 1980s it was assumed that infants could not encode, retain, and retrieve information. A growing body of research now indicates that infants as young as 6-months can recall information after a 24-hour delay. Furthermore, research has revealed that as infants grow older they can store information for longer periods of time; 6-month-olds can recall information after a 24-hour period, 9-month-olds after up to five weeks, and 20-month-olds after as long as twelve months. In addition, studies have shown that with age, infants can store information faster. Whereas 14-month-olds can recall a three-step sequence after being exposed to it once, 6-month-olds need approximately six exposures in order to be able to remember it.

Q1: In 1960 did people believe an infant was able to remember things?
A1: Up until the middle of the 1980s it was assumed that infants could not encode, retain, and retrieve information.
Q2: What is the minimum age researchers think a child begins to have memory?
A2: . A growing body of research now indicates that infants as young as 6-months can recall information
Q3: Does a persons memory capacity increase with age?
A3: Furthermore, research has revealed that as infants grow older they can store information for longer periods of time
Q4: Who has a better memory retention a 6 month old or a 9 month old?
A4: 9-month-olds
Brain areas involved in the neuroanatomy of memory such as the hippocampus, the amygdala, the striatum, or the mammillary bodies are thought to be involved in specific types of memory. For example, the hippocampus is believed to be involved in spatial learning and declarative learning, while the amygdala is thought to be involved in emotional memory. Damage to certain areas in patients and animal models and subsequent memory deficits is a primary source of information. However, rather than implicating a specific area, it could be that damage to adjacent areas, or to a pathway traveling through the area is actually responsible for the observed deficit. Further, it is not sufficient to describe memory, and its counterpart, learning, as solely dependent on specific brain regions. Learning and memory are attributed to changes in neuronal synapses, thought to be mediated by long-term potentiation and long-term depression.

Q1: What role does the amygdala play in memory?
A1: thought to be involved in emotional memory
Q2: Can you pin point certain areas of the brain to certain memories.
A2: it is not sufficient to describe memory, and its counterpart, learning, as solely dependent on specific brain regions
Q3: What changes can be linked to learning and memory?
A3: neuronal synapses,
Q4: What is the hippocampus's relationship to memory?
A4: believed to be involved in spatial learning and declarative learning
The more long term the exposure to stress is, the more impact it may have. However, short term exposure to stress also causes impairment in memory by interfering with the function of the hippocampus. Research shows that subjects placed in a stressful situation for a short amount of time still have blood glucocorticoid levels that have increased drastically when measured after the exposure is completed. When subjects are asked to complete a learning task after short term exposure they have often difficulties. Prenatal stress also hinders the ability to learn and memorize by disrupting the development of the hippocampus and can lead to unestablished long term potentiation in the offspring of severely stressed parents. Although the stress is applied prenatally, the offspring show increased levels of glucocorticoids when they are subjected to stress later on in life.

Q1: Does it matter how long someone is exposed to stress to have an impact on their memory?
A1: the more impact it may have. However, short term exposure to stress also causes impairment in memory by interfering with the function of the hippocampus
Q2: Whar does research show happens to blood glucorticoid levels during stressful events?
A2: levels that have increased drastically
Q3: Can a unborn child face issues with stress than can affect their future abilities?
A3: prenatally, the offspring show increased levels of glucocorticoids when they are subjected to stress later on in life.
Q4: Do the people studied in different research perform as well after stress as they did before becoming in contact with stressful situations?
A4: When subjects are asked to complete a learning task after short term exposure they have often difficulties
Stressful life experiences may be a cause of memory loss as a person ages. Glucocorticoids that are released during stress damage neurons that are located in the hippocampal region of the brain. Therefore, the more stressful situations that someone encounters, the more susceptible they are to memory loss later on. The CA1 neurons found in the hippocampus are destroyed due to glucocorticoids decreasing the release of glucose and the reuptake of glutamate. This high level of extracellular glutamate allow calcium to enter NMDA receptors which in return kills neurons. Stressful life experiences can also cause repression of memories where a person moves an unbearable memory to the unconscious mind. This directly relates to traumatic events in one's past such as kidnappings, being prisoners of war or sexual abuse as a child.

Q1: What neurons are damaged during stressful events?
A1: The CA1 neurons found in the hippocampus
Q2: What can make someone more prone to memory loss as they age?
A2: the more stressful situations that someone encounters,
Q3: What will a person often do with extremely stressful memories?
A3: repression of memories where a person moves an unbearable memory to the unconscious mind
Q4: What is the cause of neuron loss due to stress?
A4: high level of extracellular glutamate allow calcium to enter NMDA receptors
Sleep does not affect acquisition or recall while one is awake. Therefore, sleep has the greatest effect on memory consolidation. During sleep, the neural connections in the brain are strengthened. This enhances the brain’s abilities to stabilize and retain memories. There have been several studies which show that sleep improves the retention of memory, as memories are enhanced through active consolidation. System consolidation takes place during slow-wave sleep (SWS). This process implicates that memories are reactivated during sleep, but that the process doesn’t enhance every memory. It also implicates that qualitative changes are made to the memories when they are transferred to long-term store during sleep. When you are sleeping, the hippocampus replays the events of the day for the neocortex. The neocortex then reviews and processes memories, which moves them into long-term memory. When you do not get enough sleep it makes it more difficult to learn as these neural connections are not as strong, resulting in a lower retention rate of memories. Sleep deprivation makes it harder to focus, resulting in inefficient learning. Furthermore, some studies have shown that sleep deprivation can lead to false memories as the memories are not properly transferred to long-term memory. Therefore, it is important to get the proper amount of sleep so that memory can function at the highest level. One of the primary functions of sleep is thought to be the improvement of the consolidation of information, as several studies have demonstrated that memory depends on getting sufficient sleep between training and test. Additionally, data obtained from neuroimaging studies have shown activation patterns in the sleeping brain that mirror those recorded during the learning of tasks from the previous day, suggesting that new memories may be solidified through such rehearsal.

Q1: Does sleep hurt a persons memory?
A1: There have been several studies which show that sleep improves the retention of memory,
Q2: What does SWS stand for?
A2: slow-wave sleep
Q3: What take place during SWS?
A3: System consolidation
Q4: What is the role of the neocortex whe it relates to memory?
A4: reviews and processes memories, which moves them into long-term memory
Q5: In studies what is a relationship between sleeping and learning?
A5: activation patterns in the sleeping brain that mirror those recorded during the learning of tasks from the previous day
A UCLA research study published in the June 2006 issue of the American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry found that people can improve cognitive function and brain efficiency through simple lifestyle changes such as incorporating memory exercises, healthy eating, physical fitness and stress reduction into their daily lives. This study examined 17 subjects, (average age 53) with normal memory performance. Eight subjects were asked to follow a "brain healthy" diet, relaxation, physical, and mental exercise (brain teasers and verbal memory training techniques). After 14 days, they showed greater word fluency (not memory) compared to their baseline performance. No long term follow up was conducted, it is therefore unclear if this intervention has lasting effects on memory.

Q1: Can one increase their brain efficency?
A1: people can improve cognitive function and brain efficiency
Q2: What can a person do to increase their brain efficiency?
A2: simple lifestyle changes such as incorporating memory exercises, healthy eating, physical fitness and stress reduction
Q3: In a study performed with 17 subjects, what relationship did healthy changes and brain efficiency have?
A3: After 14 days, they showed greater word fluency (not memory) compared to their baseline performance.
Q4: Do lifestyle changes definitely have an affect on long term memory?
A4: it is therefore unclear if this intervention has lasting effects on memory.
Much of the current knowledge of memory has come from studying memory disorders, particularly amnesia. Loss of memory is known as amnesia. Amnesia can result from extensive damage to: (a) the regions of the medial temporal lobe, such as the hippocampus, dentate gyrus, subiculum, amygdala, the parahippocampal, entorhinal, and perirhinal cortices or the (b) midline diencephalic region, specifically the dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus and the mammillary bodies of the hypothalamus. There are many sorts of amnesia, and by studying their different forms, it has become possible to observe apparent defects in individual sub-systems of the brain's memory systems, and thus hypothesize their function in the normally working brain. Other neurological disorders such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease can also affect memory and cognition. Hyperthymesia, or hyperthymesic syndrome, is a disorder that affects an individual's autobiographical memory, essentially meaning that they cannot forget small details that otherwise would not be stored. Korsakoff's syndrome, also known as Korsakoff's psychosis, amnesic-confabulatory syndrome, is an organic brain disease that adversely affects memory by widespread loss or shrinkage of neurons within the prefrontal cortex.

Q1: What is a term to describe memory loss?
A1: amnesia.
Q2: What diseases can have a major imact on memory?
A2: Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease
Q3: What is Korsakoff's syndrome?
A3: an organic brain disease that adversely affects memory by widespread loss or shrinkage of neurons within the prefrontal cortex.
Q4: Is amnesia only seen in one form?
A4: There are many sorts of amnesia,
Q5: What happens to a person whose autobiographic memory is damaged?
A5: that they cannot forget small details that otherwise would not be stored
Physical exercise, particularly continuous aerobic exercises such as running, cycling and swimming, has many cognitive benefits and effects on the brain. Influences on the brain include increases in neurotransmitter levels, improved oxygen and nutrient delivery, and increased neurogenesis in the hippocampus. The effects of exercise on memory have important implications for improving children's academic performance, maintaining mental abilities in old age, and the prevention and potential cure of neurological diseases.

Q1: Does excersice have any role on cognitive brain function?
A1: has many cognitive benefits and effects on the brain.
Q2: Is a child who excercies likely to perform better in school?
A2: The effects of exercise on memory have important implications for improving children's academic performance
Q3: What positive things can happen to your brain when you excersise?
A3: increases in neurotransmitter levels, improved oxygen and nutrient delivery, and increased neurogenesis in the hippocampus
Q4: What type of excercise has shown the best benefit for the brain?
A4: aerobic exercises
However, memory performance can be enhanced when material is linked to the learning context, even when learning occurs under stress. A separate study by cognitive psychologists Schwabe and Wolf shows that when retention testing is done in a context similar to or congruent with the original learning task (i.e., in the same room), memory impairment and the detrimental effects of stress on learning can be attenuated. Seventy-two healthy female and male university students, randomly assigned to the SECPT stress test or to a control group, were asked to remember the locations of 15 pairs of picture cards – a computerized version of the card game "Concentration" or "Memory". The room in which the experiment took place was infused with the scent of vanilla, as odour is a strong cue for memory. Retention testing took place the following day, either in the same room with the vanilla scent again present, or in a different room without the fragrance. The memory performance of subjects who experienced stress during the object-location task decreased significantly when they were tested in an unfamiliar room without the vanilla scent (an incongruent context); however, the memory performance of stressed subjects showed no impairment when they were tested in the original room with the vanilla scent (a congruent context). All participants in the experiment, both stressed and unstressed, performed faster when the learning and retrieval contexts were similar.

Q1: What can impact memory performance in a positive way?
A1: when material is linked to the learning context,
Q2: In their study what was the relationship that both groups shared?
A2: both stressed and unstressed, performed faster when the learning and retrieval contexts were similar.
Q3: What can the scent of vanilla be used for?
A3: strong cue for memory.
Q4: What did a study performed by Schwabe and wolf show?
A4: memory impairment and the detrimental effects of stress on learning can be attenuated.
Q5: In Schwabe and wolfs study what where particpants asked to memorize?
A5: were asked to remember the locations of 15 pairs of picture cards –
Interestingly, research has revealed that asking individuals to repeatedly imagine actions that they have never performed or events that they have never experienced could result in false memories. For instance, Goff and Roediger (1998) asked participants to imagine that they performed an act (e.g., break a toothpick) and then later asked them whether they had done such a thing. Findings revealed that those participants who repeatedly imagined performing such an act were more likely to think that they had actually performed that act during the first session of the experiment. Similarly, Garry and her colleagues (1996) asked college students to report how certain they were that they experienced a number of events as children (e.g., broke a window with their hand) and then two weeks later asked them to imagine four of those events. The researchers found that one-fourth of the students asked to imagine the four events reported that they had actually experienced such events as children. That is, when asked to imagine the events they were more confident that they experienced the events.

Q1: What can cause a person to have fake memories?
A1: repeatedly imagine actions that they have never performed or events that they have never experienced
Q2: Who performed a study that showed the similarirty of imaginging doing something and then later remembering actually doing that task?
A2: Goff and Roediger
Q3: What did a similar study done by Garry find?
A3: researchers found that one-fourth of the students asked to imagine the four events reported that they had actually experienced such events as children
Although people often think that memory operates like recording equipment, it is not the case. The molecular mechanisms underlying the induction and maintenance of memory are very dynamic and comprise distinct phases covering a time window from seconds to even a lifetime. In fact, research has revealed that our memories are constructed. People can construct their memories when they encode them and/or when they recall them. To illustrate, consider a classic study conducted by Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer (1974) in which people were instructed to watch a film of a traffic accident and then asked about what they saw. The researchers found that the people who were asked, "How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?" gave higher estimates than those who were asked, "How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?" Furthermore, when asked a week later whether they have seen broken glass in the film, those who had been asked the question with smashed were twice more likely to report that they have seen broken glass than those who had been asked the question with hit. There was no broken glass depicted in the film. Thus, the wording of the questions distorted viewers’ memories of the event. Importantly, the wording of the question led people to construct different memories of the event – those who were asked the question with smashed recalled a more serious car accident than they had actually seen. The findings of this experiment were replicated around the world, and researchers consistently demonstrated that when people were provided with misleading information they tended to misremember, a phenomenon known as the misinformation effect.

Q1: What has research shown about our memories?
A1: our memories are constructed
Q2: How does a person build their memories?
A2: when they encode them and/or when they recall them.
Q3: What did a study done by Elizabeth Loftus and John palmer show?
A3: that when people were provided with misleading information they tended to misremember, a phenomenon known as the misinformation effect.
Q4: In their study what did people say they say when they really hadn't due to having the word "smashed" inserted into the question?
A4: broken glass
Memorization is a method of learning that allows an individual to recall information verbatim. Rote learning is the method most often used. Methods of memorizing things have been the subject of much discussion over the years with some writers, such as Cosmos Rossellius using visual alphabets. The spacing effect shows that an individual is more likely to remember a list of items when rehearsal is spaced over an extended period of time. In contrast to this is cramming: an intensive memorization in a short period of time. Also relevant is the Zeigarnik effect which states that people remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones. The so-called Method of loci uses spatial memory to memorize non-spatial information.

Q1: What is the most widely used way in learing?
A1: Rote learning
Q2: What is the Zeigarnik effect?
A2: states that people remember uncompleted or interrupted tasks better than completed ones.
Q3: What does memorization mean?
A3: a method of learning that allows an individual to recall information verbatim
Q4: What learning tool did Cosmos rosselliius write about?
A4: using visual alphabets.
Q5: What is the spacing effect?
A5: shows that an individual is more likely to remember a list of items when rehearsal is spaced over an extended period of time
In 1790, the first federal population census was taken in the United States. Enumerators were instructed to classify free residents as white or "other." Only the heads of households were identified by name in the federal census until 1850. Native Americans were included among "Other;" in later censuses, they were included as "Free people of color" if they were not living on Indian reservations. Slaves were counted separately from free persons in all the censuses until the Civil War and end of slavery. In later censuses, people of African descent were classified by appearance as mulatto (which recognized visible European ancestry in addition to African) or black.

Q1: When was the first federal population census taken in the US?
A1: 1790
Q2: What were the two categories for race in the census?
A2: white or "other."
Q3: Who all was identified by name in the house holds?
A3: Only the heads of households
Q4: What were Indians categorized as after they were included as others?
A4: "Free people of color"
Q5: When was the first US federal population census taken?
A5: In 1790, the first federal population census was taken in the United States
Q6: How were enumerators instructed to classify residents?
A6: . Enumerators were instructed to classify free residents as white or "other."
Q7: Was every resident listed by name?
A7: Only the heads of households were identified by name in the federal census until 1850.
Q8: when did any changes to counting procedures  happen?
A8: until the Civil War and end of slavery.
Q9: Were all residents counted together or separately?
A9: Slaves were counted separately from free persons
Q10: When did the US begin to take census?
A10: 1790
Q11: At what point were all members of the household named on a census?
A11: 1850
Q12: What does mulatto mean?
A12: visible European ancestry in addition to African
Q13: Who were considered "free people of color"?
A13: Native Americans
Q14: Where would a Native American live to not be counted in the census?
A14: Indian reservations