romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
Barbara Harff and Ted Gurr defined genocide as "the promotion and execution of policies by a state or its agents which result in the deaths of a substantial portion of a group ...[when] the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or nationality." Harff and Gurr also differentiate between genocides and politicides by the characteristics by which members of a group are identified by the state. In genocides, the victimized groups are defined primarily in terms of their communal characteristics, i.e., ethnicity, religion or nationality. In politicides the victim groups are defined primarily in terms of their hierarchical position or political opposition to the regime and dominant groups. Daniel D. Polsby and Don B. Kates, Jr. state that "... we follow Harff's distinction between genocides and 'pogroms,' which she describes as 'short-lived outbursts by mobs, which, although often condoned by authorities, rarely persist.' If the violence persists for long enough, however, Harff argues, the distinction between condonation and complicity collapses."

Q1: Harff and Gurr's definition of genocide included the promotion and execution of what, by a state or its agents?
A1: policies
Q2: Harff and Gurr further defined what in terms of ethnicity, religion or nationality?
A2: victimized groups
Q3: What was important to Harff and Gurr to distinguish from genocides?
A3: politicides
Q4: Along with ethnicity and and religion, what other characteristic defined a member of a victimized group?
A4: nationality
Q5: What did Harff define as "short-lived outbursts by mobs...?"
A5: pogroms
According to R. J. Rummel, genocide has 3 different meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by government of people due to their national, ethnic, racial, or religious group membership. The legal meaning of genocide refers to the international treaty, the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. This also includes non-killings that in the end eliminate the group, such as preventing births or forcibly transferring children out of the group to another group. A generalized meaning of genocide is similar to the ordinary meaning but also includes government killings of political opponents or otherwise intentional murder. It is to avoid confusion regarding what meaning is intended that Rummel created the term democide for the third meaning.

Q1: In the writings of Rummel, what is the first and ordinary meaning of genocide?
A1: murder by government
Q2: Rummel postulates that murder of people of government is due to national, ethnic, racial and which other membership?
A2: religious group
Q3: The legal meaning of genocide is contained in which international treaty?
A3: Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
Q4: Included in the CPPCG is non-killings that ultimately achieve what end?
A4: eliminate the group
Q5: In the interpretation of non-killings, the CPPCG cites the forceful relocation of children along with what other factor?
A5: preventing births
Highlighting the potential for state and non-state actors to commit genocide in the 21st century, for example, in failed states or as non-state actors acquire weapons of mass destruction, Adrian Gallagher defined genocide as 'When a source of collective power (usually a state) intentionally uses its power base to implement a process of destruction in order to destroy a group (as defined by the perpetrator), in whole or in substantial part, dependent upon relative group size'. The definition upholds the centrality of intent, the multidimensional understanding of destroy, broadens the definition of group identity beyond that of the 1948 definition yet argues that a substantial part of a group has to be destroyed before it can be classified as genocide (dependent on relative group size).

Q1: In terms of failed states and non-state actors, the possession of weapons of mass destruction was an issue examined by which writer?
A1: Adrian Gallagher
Q2: In Gallagher's definition of genocide, a source of what is malicious in it implementation of the destruction of a group?
A2: collective power
Q3: Gallagher's definition upholds the centrality of what?
A3: intent
Q4: The centrality of intent broadens what definition, beyond the 1948 one?
A4: group identity
Q5: In order for a genocide classification to happen, a major part of a group has to be what?
A5: destroyed
All signatories to the CPPCG are required to prevent and punish acts of genocide, both in peace and wartime, though some barriers make this enforcement difficult. In particular, some of the signatories—namely, Bahrain, Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, the United States, Vietnam, Yemen, and former Yugoslavia—signed with the proviso that no claim of genocide could be brought against them at the International Court of Justice without their consent. Despite official protests from other signatories (notably Cyprus and Norway) on the ethics and legal standing of these reservations, the immunity from prosecution they grant has been invoked from time to time, as when the United States refused to allow a charge of genocide brought against it by former Yugoslavia following the 1999 Kosovo War.

Q1: Signatories to the CPPC are required to prevent and punish what?
A1: acts of genocide
Q2: During which times can a perpetrator of genocide be charged?
A2: both in peace and wartime
Q3: In enforcing a charge of genocide, what loophole do many of the signatories possess?
A3: no claim of genocide could be brought against them
Q4: What major western power is exempt from charges or claims of genocide against itself?
A4: the United States
Q5: Along with Cyprus, what other major signatory official protested the the immunity of others from prosecution of genocide?
A5: Norway
Because the universal acceptance of international laws which in 1948 defined and forbade genocide with the promulgation of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (CPPCG), those criminals who were prosecuted after the war in international courts for taking part in the Holocaust were found guilty of crimes against humanity and other more specific crimes like murder. Nevertheless, the Holocaust is universally recognized to have been a genocide and the term, that had been coined the year before by Raphael Lemkin, appeared in the indictment of the 24 Nazi leaders, Count 3, which stated that all the defendants had "conducted deliberate and systematic genocide—namely, the extermination of racial and national groups..."

Q1: In 1948 the worldwide acceptance of international laws that defined and forbade genocide was promulgated by which treaty?
A1: Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide
Q2: Perpetrators who were tried after World War II were in general found guilty of crimes against what?
A2: humanity
Q3: An example of a more specific genocidal crime of which one could be accused was what?
A3: crimes like murder
Q4: After WWII criminals were largely prosecuted under CPPCG for their involvement in what massive genocidal effort?
A4: the Holocaust
Q5: Who is notable for coining the term "Holocaust?"
A5: Raphael Lemkin
On 12 July 2007, European Court of Human Rights when dismissing the appeal by Nikola Jorgić against his conviction for genocide by a German court (Jorgic v. Germany) noted that the German courts wider interpretation of genocide has since been rejected by international courts considering similar cases. The ECHR also noted that in the 21st century "Amongst scholars, the majority have taken the view that ethnic cleansing, in the way in which it was carried out by the Serb forces in Bosnia and Herzegovina in order to expel Muslims and Croats from their homes, did not constitute genocide. However, there are also a considerable number of scholars who have suggested that these acts did amount to genocide, and the ICTY has found in the Momcilo Krajisnik case that the actus reu, of genocide was met in Prijedor "With regard to the charge of genocide, the Chamber found that in spite of evidence of acts perpetrated in the municipalities which constituted the actus reus of genocide".

Q1: Which court dismissed Nikola Jorgic's appeal against his conviction for genocide by a German court?
A1: European Court of Human Rights
Q2: In Jorgic v. Germany, what about the German courts was later rejected by international courts hearing similar cases?
A2: wider interpretation of genocide
Q3: The ECHR noted that among certain academics, what act carried out by the Serbs agains Bosnian Muslims and Croats did not constitute genocide?
A3: ethnic cleansing
Q4: The ethnic cleansing perpetrated by the Serbs against Bosnia-Herzegovina was conducted with what ultimate goal in mind?
A4: expel Muslims and Croats from their homes
Q5: Conversely the scholars who did view the Serbs' acts as constituting genocide, were backed up by what Tribunal?
A5: the ICTY
About 30 people have been indicted for participating in genocide or complicity in genocide during the early 1990s in Bosnia. To date, after several plea bargains and some convictions that were successfully challenged on appeal two men, Vujadin Popović and Ljubiša Beara, have been found guilty of committing genocide, Zdravko Tolimir has been found guilty of committing genocide and conspiracy to commit genocide, and two others, Radislav Krstić and Drago Nikolić, have been found guilty of aiding and abetting genocide. Three others have been found guilty of participating in genocides in Bosnia by German courts, one of whom Nikola Jorgić lost an appeal against his conviction in the European Court of Human Rights. A further eight men, former members of the Bosnian Serb security forces were found guilty of genocide by the State Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina (See List of Bosnian genocide prosecutions).

Q1: In the 1990s, how many people were indicted for war crimes that were officially defined as genocide?
A1: About 30
Q2: Convicted perpetrators Popovic and Beara were found guilty of genocide despite what evasive action?
A2: several plea bargains
Q3: Tolimir was found guilty of both genocide and what other charge?
A3: conspiracy to commit genocide
Q4: Another charge beyond the act of genocide and for which Krstic and Nikolic were found guilty was what?
A4: aiding and abetting genocide
Q5: Three others were charged with participating in genocides in Bosnia by which country's courts?
A5: German courts
Slobodan Milošević, as the former President of Serbia and of Yugoslavia, was the most senior political figure to stand trial at the ICTY. He died on 11 March 2006 during his trial where he was accused of genocide or complicity in genocide in territories within Bosnia and Herzegovina, so no verdict was returned. In 1995, the ICTY issued a warrant for the arrest of Bosnian Serbs Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić on several charges including genocide. On 21 July 2008, Karadžić was arrested in Belgrade, and he is currently in The Hague on trial accused of genocide among other crimes. Ratko Mladić was arrested on 26 May 2011 by Serbian special police in Lazarevo, Serbia. Karadzic was convicted of ten of the eleven charges laid against him and sentenced to 40 years in prison on March 24 2016.

Q1: What event occurred in March 2006 that essentially ended Milosevic's trial?
A1: He died
Q2: Where was Karadzic when he was finally arrested?
A2: Belgrade
Q3: With Milosevic dead, who did the ICTY next charge with crimes of genocide in 1995?
A3: Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić
Q4: Had Milosevic not died, what charges might he have been convicted of?
A4: genocide or complicity in genocide
Q5: Which former president was by far the most senior politician to be accused of genocidal crimes by the ICTY?
A5: Slobodan Milošević
The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) is a court under the auspices of the United Nations for the prosecution of offenses committed in Rwanda during the genocide which occurred there during April 1994, commencing on 6 April. The ICTR was created on 8 November 1994 by the Security Council of the United Nations in order to judge those people responsible for the acts of genocide and other serious violations of the international law performed in the territory of Rwanda, or by Rwandan citizens in nearby states, between 1 January and 31 December 1994.

Q1: What court was established under the aegis of the United Nations to prosecute genocidal crimes in Rwanda?
A1: International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)
Q2: The prosecutorial efforts of the ICTR focused on genocidal acts that took place during which time period?
A2: April 1994
Q3: the ICTR was created in November 1995 by which branch of the UN?
A3: the Security Council of the United Nations
Q4: The ICTR was established for the purpose of convicting those responsible for acts of genocide and what other charges?
A4: serious violations of the international law
Q5: The charges of genocide brought up by the ICTR were against what group of people?
A5: Rwandan citizens
There has been much debate over categorizing the situation in Darfur as genocide. The ongoing conflict in Darfur, Sudan, which started in 2003, was declared a "genocide" by United States Secretary of State Colin Powell on 9 September 2004 in testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. Since that time however, no other permanent member of the UN Security Council followed suit. In fact, in January 2005, an International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur, authorized by UN Security Council Resolution 1564 of 2004, issued a report to the Secretary-General stating that "the Government of the Sudan has not pursued a policy of genocide." Nevertheless, the Commission cautioned that "The conclusion that no genocidal policy has been pursued and implemented in Darfur by the Government authorities, directly or through the militias under their control, should not be taken in any way as detracting from the gravity of the crimes perpetrated in that region. International offences such as the crimes against humanity and war crimes that have been committed in Darfur may be no less serious and heinous than genocide."

Q1: What has been widely debated as a possible act of genocide in Sudan?
A1: situation in Darfur
Q2: In 2003 what well known U.S. Secretary of State declared the situation in Darfur as an act of genocide?
A2: Colin Powell
Q3: In front of which committee did Powell testify?
A3: the Senate Foreign Relations Committee
Q4: What did UN Security Council Resolution 1564 authorize in 2004?
A4: an International Commission of Inquiry on Darfur
Q5: Despite some concessions, what act did the Commission ultimately state that Sudan had not pursued?
A5: genocidal policy
In March 2005, the Security Council formally referred the situation in Darfur to the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, taking into account the Commission report but without mentioning any specific crimes. Two permanent members of the Security Council, the United States and China, abstained from the vote on the referral resolution. As of his fourth report to the Security Council, the Prosecutor has found "reasonable grounds to believe that the individuals identified [in the UN Security Council Resolution 1593] have committed crimes against humanity and war crimes," but did not find sufficient evidence to prosecute for genocide.

Q1: To whom did the Security Council officially refer the situation in Darfur?
A1: Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court
Q2: What was taken into account, without mentioning specific crimes?
A2: the Commission report
Q3: China and what other permanent member of the Security Council abstained from the vote on the referral resolution?
A3: the United States
Q4: In which number report to the Council did the Prosecutor concede that crimes had been committed but evidence for prosecution was insufficient?
A4: his fourth report
Other authors have focused on the structural conditions leading up to genocide and the psychological and social processes that create an evolution toward genocide. Ervin Staub showed that economic deterioration and political confusion and disorganization were starting points of increasing discrimination and violence in many instances of genocides and mass killing. They lead to scapegoating a group and ideologies that identified that group as an enemy. A history of devaluation of the group that becomes the victim, past violence against the group that becomes the perpetrator leading to psychological wounds, authoritarian cultures and political systems, and the passivity of internal and external witnesses (bystanders) all contribute to the probability that the violence develops into genocide. Intense conflict between groups that is unresolved, becomes intractable and violent can also lead to genocide. The conditions that lead to genocide provide guidance to early prevention, such as humanizing a devalued group, creating ideologies that embrace all groups, and activating bystander responses. There is substantial research to indicate how this can be done, but information is only slowly transformed into action.

Q1: In the build-up to genocide, what have other authors focused on?
A1: structural conditions
Q2: What processes are thought to create an evolution toward genocide?
A2: psychological and social
Q3: Who revealed the starting points of this evolution to be economic deterioration and political confusion?
A3: Ervin Staub
Q4: A history of what is just one factor that contributes to the probability of violence developing into genocide?
A4: devaluation of the group
Q5: What is one preventive effort in circumventing conditions that lead to genocide?
A5: humanizing a devalued group
The emergence of resistance of bacteria to antibiotics is a common phenomenon. Emergence of resistance often reflects evolutionary processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may select for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug. For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the Luria–Delbrück experiment. Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains.

Q1: What is a modern common occurence with antibiotics?
A1: resistance of bacteria
Q2: What is resistance to antibiotics a cause of?
A2: evolution
Q3: When was the Luria-Delbruck experiment?
A3: 1943
Q4: Which two antibiotics that have high efficacy are much less useful now?
A4: penicillin and erythromycin
Q5: What does emergence of resistance reflect?
A5: evolutionary processes
Q6: What is the purpose of antibiotic treatment?
A6: survive high doses of antibiotics
Q7: When was antibacterial-resistance demonstrated?
A7: 1943
Q8: Who made the demonstration in 1943?
A8: Luria–Delbrück
The successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial. A bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells. These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection. Since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration, in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial. To predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its pharmacokinetic profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy.

Q1: What does the potency of antibacterials depend upon?
A1: concentration
Q2: What does this eliminate?
A2: bacterial infection
Q3: What does the bactericidal activitty of antibacterials depend on what?
A3: bacterial growth phase
Q4: What besides ongoing metabolic activity is required in bactericidal activity?
A4: division of bacterial cells
Q5: What does the activity of antibacterials depends on?
A5: concentration
Q6: What does a successful treatment using antibiotics entail?
A6: host defense mechanisms, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial
Q7: How do you predict the clinical result?
A7: several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy
Antibacterial antibiotics are commonly classified based on their mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes. Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillins and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane (polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycins, lipiarmycins, quinolones, and sulfonamides) have bactericidal activities. Those that target protein synthesis (macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic (with the exception of bactericidal aminoglycosides). Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibacterial antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria, whereas broad-spectrum antibiotics affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year hiatus in discovering new classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibacterial antibiotics have been brought into clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic lipopeptides (such as daptomycin), glycylcyclines (such as tigecycline), oxazolidinones (such as linezolid), and lipiarmycins (such as fidaxomicin).

Q1: What do anitibiotics mostly target?
A1: bacterial functions or growth processes
Q2: Which two types of antibiotics target the cell wall?
A2: penicillins and cephalosporins
Q3: Which type of antibiotic goes after the cell membrane?
A3: polymyxins
Q4: What 3 types go after protein synthesis?
A4: (macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines
Q5: Besides sprectrum of activity and chemical structure, how can antibacterial antibiotics classified?
A5: mechanism of action
Q6: What is another name used for bacterial cell wall?
A6: penicillins and cephalosporins
Q7: whats another word for cell membrane?
A7: polymyxins
Q8: How many new classes of antibacterial antibiotics was introduced in the late 2000's/
A8: four
Q9: What three ways are antibiotics classified?
A9: mechanism of action, chemical structure, or spectrum of activity
With advances in medicinal chemistry, most modern antibacterials are semisynthetic modifications of various natural compounds. These include, for example, the beta-lactam antibiotics, which include the penicillins (produced by fungi in the genus Penicillium), the cephalosporins, and the carbapenems. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the aminoglycosides, whereas other antibacterials—for example, the sulfonamides, the quinolones, and the oxazolidinones—are produced solely by chemical synthesis. Many antibacterial compounds are relatively small molecules with a molecular weight of less than 2000 atomic mass units.[citation needed]

Q1: What are antibiotics in chemical terms?
A1: semisynthetic modifications
Q2: What type of antibiotics include penicilin?
A2: beta-lactam antibiotics
Q3: What are the type of antibiotics which are taken from still living things?
A3: aminoglycosides
Q4: How are the slufonamides,quinolones, and oxazolidinones created?
A4: synthesis
Q5: Besides semisytetic modifications, what advances in medicinal chemistry regarding antibacterials?
A5: various natural compounds
Q6: What is the molecular weight loss of antibacterial compounds?
A6: 2000 atomic mass units
Q7: What is included in the beta-lactam antibiotics?
A7: penicillins
Q8: What is penicillins produced by?
A8: fungi