romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
After DNA replication is complete, the cell must physically separate the two copies of the genome and divide into two distinct membrane-bound cells.:18.2 In prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) this usually occurs via a relatively simple process called binary fission, in which each circular genome attaches to the cell membrane and is separated into the daughter cells as the membrane invaginates to split the cytoplasm into two membrane-bound portions. Binary fission is extremely fast compared to the rates of cell division in eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cell division is a more complex process known as the cell cycle; DNA replication occurs during a phase of this cycle known as S phase, whereas the process of segregating chromosomes and splitting the cytoplasm occurs during M phase.:18.1

Q1: What is one thing the cell must do once DNA replication is compete?
A1: physically separate the two copies of the genome
Q2: What is another thing the cell must do once DNA replication is complete?
A2: divide into two distinct membrane-bound cells
Q3: In binary fission, what shape is each genome?
A3: circular
Q4: In binary fission. when does each genome separate into daughter cells?
A4: as the membrane invaginates to split the cytoplasm
Q5: Compared to the rates of cell division in eukaryotes, with what speed does binary fission occur?
A5: extremely fast
The duplication and transmission of genetic material from one generation of cells to the next is the basis for molecular inheritance, and the link between the classical and molecular pictures of genes. Organisms inherit the characteristics of their parents because the cells of the offspring contain copies of the genes in their parents' cells. In asexually reproducing organisms, the offspring will be a genetic copy or clone of the parent organism. In sexually reproducing organisms, a specialized form of cell division called meiosis produces cells called gametes or germ cells that are haploid, or contain only one copy of each gene.:20.2 The gametes produced by females are called eggs or ova, and those produced by males are called sperm. Two gametes fuse to form a diploid fertilized egg, a single cell that has two sets of genes, with one copy of each gene from the mother and one from the father.:20

Q1: The duplication and transmission of genetic material from one generation of cells to the next is the basis for what?
A1: molecular inheritance
Q2: Why do organisms inherit the characteristics of their parents?
A2: cells of the offspring contain copies of the genes in their parents' cells
Q3: In what type of organism will the offspring be a genetic copy or clone of the parent organism?
A3: In asexually reproducing organisms
Q4: In what type of organism will a specialized form of cell division called meiosis produce cells called gametes?
A4: In sexually reproducing organisms
Q5: What are the gametes produced by females called?
A5: eggs or ova
During the process of meiotic cell division, an event called genetic recombination or crossing-over can sometimes occur, in which a length of DNA on one chromatid is swapped with a length of DNA on the corresponding sister chromatid. This has no effect if the alleles on the chromatids are the same, but results in reassortment of otherwise linked alleles if they are different.:5.5 The Mendelian principle of independent assortment asserts that each of a parent's two genes for each trait will sort independently into gametes; which allele an organism inherits for one trait is unrelated to which allele it inherits for another trait. This is in fact only true for genes that do not reside on the same chromosome, or are located very far from one another on the same chromosome. The closer two genes lie on the same chromosome, the more closely they will be associated in gametes and the more often they will appear together; genes that are very close are essentially never separated because it is extremely unlikely that a crossover point will occur between them. This is known as genetic linkage.

Q1: When can an event called genetic recombination or crossing-over sometimes occur?
A1: During the process of meiotic cell division
Q2: If the alleles on the chromatids are the same, what effect arises from genetic recombination?
A2: no effect
Q3: If the alleles on the chromatids are different, what effect arises from genetic recombination?
A3: reassortment of otherwise linked alleles
Q4: Each of a parent's two genes for each trait will sort independently into gametes according to what Mendelian principle?
A4: independent assortment
Q5: In genetic linkage, what sort of point is extremely unlikely to occur?
A5: a crossover point
DNA replication is for the most part extremely accurate, however errors (mutations) do occur.:7.6 The error rate in eukaryotic cells can be as low as 10−8 per nucleotide per replication, whereas for some RNA viruses it can be as high as 10−3. This means that each generation, each human genome accumulates 1–2 new mutations. Small mutations can be caused by DNA replication and the aftermath of DNA damage and include point mutations in which a single base is altered and frameshift mutations in which a single base is inserted or deleted. Either of these mutations can change the gene by missense (change a codon to encode a different amino acid) or nonsense (a premature stop codon). Larger mutations can be caused by errors in recombination to cause chromosomal abnormalities including the duplication, deletion, rearrangement or inversion of large sections of a chromosome. Additionally, the DNA repair mechanisms that normally revert mutations can introduce errors when repairing the physical damage to the molecule is more important than restoring an exact copy, for example when repairing double-strand breaks.:5.4

Q1: What is it called when errors occur in DNA replication?
A1: mutations
Q2: What is the lowest error rate that occurs in eukaryotic cells?
A2: 10−8 per nucleotide per replication
Q3: What is the highest error rate that can occur for some RNA viruses?
A3: 10−3
Q4: What can small mutations be caused by?
A4: DNA replication
Q5: What can larger mutations be caused by?
A5: errors in recombination
When multiple different alleles for a gene are present in a species's population it is called polymorphic. Most different alleles are functionally equivalent, however some alleles can give rise to different phenotypic traits. A gene's most common allele is called the wild type, and rare alleles are called mutants. The genetic variation in relative frequencies of different alleles in a population is due to both natural selection and genetic drift. The wild-type allele is not necessarily the ancestor of less common alleles, nor is it necessarily fitter.

Q1: What is it called when multiple different alleles for a gene are present in a species's population?
A1: polymorphic
Q2: What can some alleles give rise to?
A2: different phenotypic traits
Q3: What is a gene's most common allele known as?
A3: the wild type
Q4: What are rare alleles called?
A4: mutants
Q5: What is one cause of the genetic variation in relative frequencies of different alleles in a population?
A5: genetic drift
Most mutations within genes are neutral, having no effect on the organism's phenotype (silent mutations). Some mutations do not change the amino acid sequence because multiple codons encode the same amino acid (synonymous mutations). Other mutations can be neutral if they lead to amino acid sequence changes, but the protein still functions similarly with the new amino acid (e.g. conservative mutations). Many mutations, however, are deleterious or even lethal, and are removed from populations by natural selection. Genetic disorders are the result of deleterious mutations and can be due to spontaneous mutation in the affected individual, or can be inherited. Finally, a small fraction of mutations are beneficial, improving the organism's fitness and are extremely important for evolution, since their directional selection leads to adaptive evolution.:7.6

Q1: What are mutations that have no effect on an organism's phenotype called?
A1: silent mutations
Q2: What are mutations that do not change the amino acid sequence called?
A2: synonymous mutations
Q3: What are mutations that lead to amino acid sequence changes but leave the protein functioning similarly called?
A3: conservative mutations
Q4: What is a result of deleterious mutations?
A4: Genetic disorders
Q5: What does the directional selection of beneficial mutations lead to?
A5: adaptive evolution
Genes with a most recent common ancestor, and thus a shared evolutionary ancestry, are known as homologs. These genes appear either from gene duplication within an organism's genome, where they are known as paralogous genes, or are the result of divergence of the genes after a speciation event, where they are known as orthologous genes,:7.6 and often perform the same or similar functions in related organisms. It is often assumed that the functions of orthologous genes are more similar than those of paralogous genes, although the difference is minimal.

Q1: What are genes with a most recent common ancestor called?
A1: homologs
Q2: What is one reason for homologs to appear?
A2: gene duplication within an organism's genome
Q3: What are genes that occur from duplication within an organism's genome called?
A3: paralogous genes
Q4: What are genes that result from divergence of the genes after a speciation event called?
A4: orthologous genes
The relationship between genes can be measured by comparing the sequence alignment of their DNA.:7.6 The degree of sequence similarity between homologous genes is called conserved sequence. Most changes to a gene's sequence do not affect its function and so genes accumulate mutations over time by neutral molecular evolution. Additionally, any selection on a gene will cause its sequence to diverge at a different rate. Genes under stabilizing selection are constrained and so change more slowly whereas genes under directional selection change sequence more rapidly. The sequence differences between genes can be used for phylogenetic analyses to study how those genes have evolved and how the organisms they come from are related.

Q1: What does comparing the sequence alignment of genes' DNA measure?
A1: The relationship between genes
Q2: What is the degree of sequence similarity between homologous genes called?
A2: conserved sequence
Q3: How do genes typically accumulate mutations over time?
A3: by neutral molecular evolution
Q4: Under what type of selection are genes constrained so they change more slowly?
A4: stabilizing
Q5: What type of analyses can the sequence differences between genes be used for?
A5: phylogenetic
The most common source of new genes in eukaryotic lineages is gene duplication, which creates copy number variation of an existing gene in the genome. The resulting genes (paralogs) may then diverge in sequence and in function. Sets of genes formed in this way comprise a gene family. Gene duplications and losses within a family are common and represent a major source of evolutionary biodiversity. Sometimes, gene duplication may result in a nonfunctional copy of a gene, or a functional copy may be subject to mutations that result in loss of function; such nonfunctional genes are called pseudogenes.:7.6

Q1: What is the most common source of new genes in eukaryotic lineages?
A1: gene duplication
Q2: What creates copy number variation of an existing gene in the genome?
A2: gene duplication
Q3: What are the genes that result from eukaryotic gene duplication called?
A3: paralogs
Q4: What type of copy can gene duplication sometimes result in?
A4: nonfunctional
Q5: What are functional copies of a gene which have a loss of function due to mutation called?
A5: pseudogenes
De novo or "orphan" genes, whose sequence shows no similarity to existing genes, are extremely rare. Estimates of the number of de novo genes in the human genome range from 18 to 60. Such genes are typically shorter and simpler in structure than most eukaryotic genes, with few if any introns. Two primary sources of orphan protein-coding genes are gene duplication followed by extremely rapid sequence change, such that the original relationship is undetectable by sequence comparisons, and formation through mutation of "cryptic" transcription start sites that introduce a new open reading frame in a region of the genome that did not previously code for a protein.

Q1: What is a gene whose sequence shows no similarity to existing genes called?
A1: De novo or "orphan" genes
Q2: What is the estimate of the number of orphan genes in the human genome?
A2: 18 to 60
Q3: How do the lengths of orphan genes compare to most eukaryotic genes?
A3: typically shorter
Q4: How does the structure of orphan genes compare to most eukaryotic genes?
A4: simpler in structure
Q5: What is one primary source of orphan protein-coding genes?
A5: gene duplication followed by extremely rapid sequence change
Horizontal gene transfer refers to the transfer of genetic material through a mechanism other than reproduction. This mechanism is a common source of new genes in prokaryotes, sometimes thought to contribute more to genetic variation than gene duplication. It is a common means of spreading antibiotic resistance, virulence, and adaptive metabolic functions. Although horizontal gene transfer is rare in eukaryotes, likely examples have been identified of protist and alga genomes containing genes of bacterial origin.

Q1: What is the  transfer of genetic material through a mechanism other than reproduction known as?
A1: Horizontal gene transfer
Q2: In what type of organism is horizontal gene transfer a common source of new genes?
A2: prokaryotes
Q3: What is one trait that horizontal gene transfer is a common means of spreading?
A3: antibiotic resistance
Q4: In what type of organism is horizontal gene transfer rare?
A4: eukaryotes
Q5: What is one example of horizontal gene transfer in eukaryotes?
A5: alga genomes containing genes of bacterial origin
The genome size, and the number of genes it encodes varies widely between organisms. The smallest genomes occur in viruses (which can have as few as 2 protein-coding genes), and viroids (which act as a single non-coding RNA gene). Conversely, plants can have extremely large genomes, with rice containing >46,000 protein-coding genes. The total number of protein-coding genes (the Earth's proteome) is estimated to be 5 million sequences.

Q1: What is one characteristic that varies widely between organisms?
A1: genome size
Q2: In which type of organism do the smallest genomes occur?
A2: viruses
Q3: What is the smallest number of protein coding genes that a virus can have?
A3: 2
Q4: Which organism acts as a single non coding RNA gene?
A4: viroids
Q5: What is the estimate for the total number of protein coding genes on Earth?
A5: 5 million
Although the number of base-pairs of DNA in the human genome has been known since the 1960s, the estimated number of genes has changed over time as definitions of genes, and methods of detecting them have been refined. Initial theoretical predictions of the number of human genes were as high as 2,000,000. Early experimental measures indicated there to be 50,000–100,000 transcribed genes (expressed sequence tags). Subsequently, the sequencing in the Human Genome Project indicated that many of these transcripts were alternative variants of the same genes, and the total number of protein-coding genes was revised down to ~20,000 with 13 genes encoded on the mitochondrial genome. Of the human genome, only 1–2% consists of protein-coding genes, with the remainder being 'noncoding' DNA such as introns, retrotransposons, and noncoding RNAs.

Q1: Since when has the number of base pairs of DNA in the human genome been known?
A1: the 1960s
Q2: What was the highest initial theoretical prediction of the number of human genes?
A2: 2,000,000
Q3: What sort of variants did the Human Genome Project indicate that many of the measured transcripts were?
A3: alternative variants
Q4: After the Human Genome Project, how many genes were encoded on the mitochondrial genome?
A4: 13
Q5: What percentage of the human genome consists of protein coding genes?
A5: 1–2%
Essential genes are the set of genes thought to be critical for an organism's survival. This definition assumes the abundant availability of all relevant nutrients and the absence of environmental stress. Only a small portion of an organism's genes are essential. In bacteria, an estimated 250–400 genes are essential for Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis, which is less than 10% of their genes. Half of these genes are orthologs in both organisms and are largely involved in protein synthesis. In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae the number of essential genes is slightly higher, at 1000 genes (~20% of their genes). Although the number is more difficult to measure in higher eukaryotes, mice and humans are estimated to have around 2000 essential genes (~10% of their genes).

Q1: What are the set of genes which are thought to be crucial for the survival of an organism?
A1: Essential genes
Q2: What does the definition of essential genes assume an absence of?
A2: environmental stress
Q3: How many genes are essential for Escherichia coli?
A3: 250–400
Q4: What fraction of Escherichia coli's essential genes are orthologs?
A4: Half
Q5: How many essential genes does Saccharomyces cerevisiae have?
A5: 1000 genes
Housekeeping genes are critical for carrying out basic cell functions and so are expressed at a relatively constant level (constitutively). Since their expression is constant, housekeeping genes are used as experimental controls when analysing gene expression. Not all essential genes are housekeeping genes since some essential genes are developmentally regulated or expressed at certain times during the organism's life cycle.

Q1: What type of genes are necessary for performing basic cell functions?
A1: Housekeeping genes
Q2: At what relative level are housekeeping genes expressed at?
A2: constant
Q3: When investigating gene expression, what type of genes are used as a control for experiments?
A3: housekeeping genes
Q4: How are some essential genes regulated?
A4: developmentally
Q5: When are some essential genes expressed?
A5: at certain times during the organism's life cycle
Gene nomenclature has been established by the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC) for each known human gene in the form of an approved gene name and symbol (short-form abbreviation), which can be accessed through a database maintained by HGNC. Symbols are chosen to be unique, and each gene has only one symbol (although approved symbols sometimes change). Symbols are preferably kept consistent with other members of a gene family and with homologs in other species, particularly the mouse due to its role as a common model organism.

Q1: What committee has established gene nomenclature for every known human gene?
A1: HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC)
Q2: How can the gene nomenclature be accessed?
A2: through a database maintained by HGNC
Q3: How many symbols does each gene have?
A3: only one
Q4: With what is it preferred that symbols are kept consistent with?
A4: homologs in other species
Q5: What type of model does the mouse play a role for?
A5: common model
Genetic engineering is the modification of an organism's genome through biotechnology. Since the 1970s, a variety of techniques have been developed to specifically add, remove and edit genes in an organism. Recently developed genome engineering techniques use engineered nuclease enzymes to create targeted DNA repair in a chromosome to either disrupt or edit a gene when the break is repaired. The related term synthetic biology is sometimes used to refer to extensive genetic engineering of an organism.

Q1: What is known as the modification of an organism's genome through biotechnology?
A1: Genetic engineering
Q2: When did techniques begin to be developed to add, remove and edit genes?
A2: the 1970s
Q3: What sort of enzymes do recently developed genome engineering techniques use?
A3: engineered nuclease enzymes
Q4: What sort of DNA repair is created by modern genetic engineering techniques?
A4: targeted
Q5: What term refers to extensive genetic engineering of an organism?
A5: synthetic biology
Genetic engineering is now a routine research tool with model organisms. For example, genes are easily added to bacteria and lineages of knockout mice with a specific gene's function disrupted are used to investigate that gene's function. Many organisms have been genetically modified for applications in agriculture, industrial biotechnology, and medicine.

Q1: What has become a common research tool with model organisms?
A1: Genetic engineering
Q2: What do scientists explore by adding genes to mice with a certain gene's function disrupted?
A2: that gene's function
Q3: What is an application for which organisms have been modified for?
A3: agriculture
Q4: What is another for which  organisms have been modified for?
A4: industrial biotechnology
Q5: What is yet another application for which  organisms have been modified for?
A5: medicine
For multicellular organisms, typically the embryo is engineered which grows into the adult genetically modified organism. However, the genomes of cells in an adult organism can be edited using gene therapy techniques to treat genetic diseases.

Q1: For what sort of organisms is the embryo normally engineered?
A1: multicellular organisms
Q2: What techniques can be used to alter the genomes of an adult organism to treat genetic disease?
A2: gene therapy techniques
Q3: What part of the organism is usually created which becomes a developed genetically altered organism?
A3: the embryo
Q4: What can be changed in an adult organism using gene therapy techniques?
A4: the genomes of cells
Q5: What can be treated using genetic engineering?
A5: genetic diseases
Guinea-Bissau (i/ˈɡɪni bɪˈsaʊ/, GI-nee-bi-SOW), officially the Republic of Guinea-Bissau (Portuguese: República da Guiné-Bissau, pronounced: [ʁeˈpublikɐ dɐ ɡiˈnɛ biˈsaw]), is a country in West Africa. It covers 36,125 square kilometres (13,948 sq mi) with an estimated population of 1,704,000.

Q1: What is the official name for Guinea-Bissau?
A1: the Republic of Guinea-Bissau
Q2: Where is Guinea-Bissau located?
A2: West Africa
Q3: How many square miles is Guinea-Bissau?
A3: 13,948 sq mi
Q4: What is the estimated population of Guinea-Bissau?
A4: 1,704,000
Q5: How many kilometers does Guinea-Bissau cover?
A5: 36,125
Guinea-Bissau was once part of the kingdom of Gabu, as well as part of the Mali Empire. Parts of this kingdom persisted until the 18th century, while a few others were under some rule by the Portuguese Empire since the 16th century. In the 19th century, it was colonized as Portuguese Guinea. Upon independence, declared in 1973 and recognised in 1974, the name of its capital, Bissau, was added to the country's name to prevent confusion with Guinea (formerly French Guinea). Guinea-Bissau has a history of political instability since independence, and no elected president has successfully served a full five-year term.

Q1: What kingdom was Guinea-Bissau once part of?
A1: Gabu
Q2: What empire was Guinea-Bissau once part of?
A2: Mali Empire
Q3: What year was Guinea-Bissau declared independent?
A3: 1973
Q4: What country did Guinea-Bissau seek to differentiate itself from?
A4: Guinea (formerly French Guinea)
Q5: Guinea-Bissau has a history of what since independence?
A5: political instability
Only 14% of the population speaks Portuguese, established as the official language in the colonial period. Almost half the population (44%) speaks Crioulo, a Portuguese-based creole language, and the remainder speak a variety of native African languages. The main religions are African traditional religions and Islam; there is a Christian (mostly Roman Catholic) minority. The country's per-capita gross domestic product is one of the lowest in the world.

Q1: What percentage of the population speaks Portuguese?
A1: 14%
Q2: What percentage of the population speaks Crioulo?
A2: 44%
Q3: What are the two main religions?
A3: African traditional religions and Islam
Q4: What is their gross domestic product status?
A4: one of the lowest in the world
Q5: What is the minority religion?
A5: Christian (mostly Roman Catholic)