romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
Although an alloy is technically an impure metal, when referring to alloys, the term "impurities" usually denotes those elements which are not desired. These impurities are often found in the base metals or the solutes, but they may also be introduced during the alloying process. For instance, sulfur is a common impurity in steel. Sulfur combines readily with iron to form iron sulfide, which is very brittle, creating weak spots in the steel. Lithium, sodium and calcium are common impurities in aluminium alloys, which can have adverse effects on the structural integrity of castings. Conversely, otherwise pure-metals that simply contain unwanted impurities are often called "impure metals" and are not usually referred to as alloys. Oxygen, present in the air, readily combines with most metals to form metal oxides; especially at higher temperatures encountered during alloying. Great care is often taken during the alloying process to remove excess impurities, using fluxes, chemical additives, or other methods of extractive metallurgy.

Q1: What is a characteristic of iron sulfide?
A1: very brittle
Q2: What makes pure metals impure metals?
A2: unwanted impurities
Q3: Using fluxes and chemical additives during the alloying process does what?
A3: remove excess impurities
Q4: What are the three common impurities in aluminum alloys?
A4: Lithium, sodium and calcium
The term "alloy" is sometimes used in everyday speech as a synonym for a particular alloy. For example, automobile wheels made of an aluminium alloy are commonly referred to as simply "alloy wheels", although in point of fact steels and most other metals in practical use are also alloys. Steel is such a common alloy that many items made from it, like wheels, barrels, or girders, are simply referred to by the name of the item, assuming it is made of steel. When made from other materials, they are typically specified as such, (i.e.: "bronze wheel," "plastic barrel," or "wood girder").

Q1: What is the name of a common alloy?
A1: Steel
Q2: What is something on a car that sometimes is made of alloy?
A2: automobile wheels
Q3: Steel and other very practical metals are also named what?
A3: alloys
Alloying a metal is done by combining it with one or more other metals or non-metals that often enhance its properties. For example, steel is stronger than iron, its primary element. The electrical and thermal conductivity of alloys is usually lower than that of the pure metals. The physical properties, such as density, reactivity, Young's modulus of an alloy may not differ greatly from those of its elements, but engineering properties such as tensile strength and shear strength may be substantially different from those of the constituent materials. This is sometimes a result of the sizes of the atoms in the alloy, because larger atoms exert a compressive force on neighboring atoms, and smaller atoms exert a tensile force on their neighbors, helping the alloy resist deformation. Sometimes alloys may exhibit marked differences in behavior even when small amounts of one element are present. For example, impurities in semiconducting ferromagnetic alloys lead to different properties, as first predicted by White, Hogan, Suhl, Tian Abrie and Nakamura. Some alloys are made by melting and mixing two or more metals. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, was the first alloy discovered, during the prehistoric period now known as the bronze age; it was harder than pure copper and originally used to make tools and weapons, but was later superseded by metals and alloys with better properties. In later times bronze has been used for ornaments, bells, statues, and bearings. Brass is an alloy made from copper and zinc.

Q1: What can be done to a metal to enhance its properties?
A1: combining it with one or more other metals or non-metals
Q2: Pure metals have a higher electrical and thermal conductivity than what?
A2: alloys
Q3: When copper and tin is mixed, what is made?
A3: Bronze
Q4: When was the bronze age?
A4: prehistoric period
Q5: Copper and zinc combine to make what?
A5: Brass
Alloys are often made to alter the mechanical properties of the base metal, to induce hardness, toughness, ductility, or other desired properties. Most metals and alloys can be work hardened by creating defects in their crystal structure. These defects are created during plastic deformation, such as hammering or bending, and are permanent unless the metal is recrystallized. However, some alloys can also have their properties altered by heat treatment. Nearly all metals can be softened by annealing, which recrystallizes the alloy and repairs the defects, but not as many can be hardened by controlled heating and cooling. Many alloys of aluminium, copper, magnesium, titanium, and nickel can be strengthened to some degree by some method of heat treatment, but few respond to this to the same degree that steel does.

Q1: What kind of treatment can be made to alter it's properties?
A1: heat treatment
Q2: Softening metals can be achieved by?
A2: annealing
Q3: Aluminium, copper, magnesium, titanium, and nickel can be strengthened by?
A3: heat treatment
Q4: Annealling softens metals by achieving what?
A4: recrystallizes the alloy and repairs the defects
At a certain temperature, (usually between 1,500 °F (820 °C) and 1,600 °F (870 °C), depending on carbon content), the base metal of steel undergoes a change in the arrangement of the atoms in its crystal matrix, called allotropy. This allows the small carbon atoms to enter the interstices of the iron crystal, diffusing into the iron matrix. When this happens, the carbon atoms are said to be in solution, or mixed with the iron, forming a single, homogeneous, crystalline phase called austenite. If the steel is cooled slowly, the iron will gradually change into its low temperature allotrope. When this happens the carbon atoms will no longer be soluble with the iron, and will be forced to precipitate out of solution, nucleating into the spaces between the crystals. The steel then becomes heterogeneous, being formed of two phases; the carbon (carbide) phase cementite, and ferrite. This type of heat treatment produces steel that is rather soft and bendable. However, if the steel is cooled quickly the carbon atoms will not have time to precipitate. When rapidly cooled, a diffusionless (martensite) transformation occurs, in which the carbon atoms become trapped in solution. This causes the iron crystals to deform intrinsically when the crystal structure tries to change to its low temperature state, making it very hard and brittle.

Q1: What is the name of steel when it is being formed of two phases?
A1: heterogeneous
Q2: What are the two phases when steel becomes heterogenous?
A2: carbon (carbide) phase cementite, and ferrite
Q3: What are the characteristics of steel if it is cooled to quickly?
A3: very hard and brittle
Q4: Soft and bendable steel is caused by what?
A4: If the steel is cooled slowly
Q5: Allotrophy happens between what temperatures?
A5: 1,500 °F (820 °C) and 1,600 °F (870 °C)
Conversely, most heat-treatable alloys are precipitation hardening alloys, which produce the opposite effects that steel does. When heated to form a solution and then cooled quickly, these alloys become much softer than normal, during the diffusionless transformation, and then harden as they age. The solutes in these alloys will precipitate over time, forming intermetallic phases, which are difficult to discern from the base metal. Unlike steel, in which the solid solution separates to form different crystal phases, precipitation hardening alloys separate to form different phases within the same crystal. These intermetallic alloys appear homogeneous in crystal structure, but tend to behave heterogeneous, becoming hard and somewhat brittle.

Q1: Precipitation hardening alloys produce the opposite effects of?
A1: steel
Q2: Precipitation hardening alloys are sometimes also?
A2: heat-treatable alloys
Q3: What makes alloys more softer than normal?
A3: When heated to form a solution and then cooled quickly
When a molten metal is mixed with another substance, there are two mechanisms that can cause an alloy to form, called atom exchange and the interstitial mechanism. The relative size of each element in the mix plays a primary role in determining which mechanism will occur. When the atoms are relatively similar in size, the atom exchange method usually happens, where some of the atoms composing the metallic crystals are substituted with atoms of the other constituent. This is called a substitutional alloy. Examples of substitutional alloys include bronze and brass, in which some of the copper atoms are substituted with either tin or zinc atoms. With the interstitial mechanism, one atom is usually much smaller than the other, so cannot successfully replace an atom in the crystals of the base metal. The smaller atoms become trapped in the spaces between the atoms in the crystal matrix, called the interstices. This is referred to as an interstitial alloy. Steel is an example of an interstitial alloy, because the very small carbon atoms fit into interstices of the iron matrix. Stainless steel is an example of a combination of interstitial and substitutional alloys, because the carbon atoms fit into the interstices, but some of the iron atoms are replaced with nickel and chromium atoms.

Q1: Bronze and brass are examples of what?
A1: substitutional alloys
Q2: Tin or zinc atoms in place of copper atoms create?
A2: substitutional alloys
Q3: What is the name of one interstitial alloy?
A3: Steel
Q4: Stainless steel is an example of what two alloys?
A4: interstitial and substitutional
The use of alloys by humans started with the use of meteoric iron, a naturally occurring alloy of nickel and iron. It is the main constituent of iron meteorites which occasionally fall down on Earth from outer space. As no metallurgic processes were used to separate iron from nickel, the alloy was used as it was. Meteoric iron could be forged from a red heat to make objects such as tools, weapons, and nails. In many cultures it was shaped by cold hammering into knives and arrowheads. They were often used as anvils. Meteoric iron was very rare and valuable, and difficult for ancient people to work.

Q1: What was one of the first alloys used by humans?
A1: meteoric iron
Q2: What is meteoric iron composed of?
A2: nickel and iron
Q3: What can forged meteoric iron make?
A3: tools, weapons, and nails
Q4: Where does meteoric iron come from?
A4: iron meteorites
Q5: How does meteoric iron come to earth?
A5: occasionally fall down on Earth from outer space
Iron is usually found as iron ore on Earth, except for one deposit of native iron in Greenland, which was used by the Inuit people. Native copper, however, was found worldwide, along with silver, gold and platinum, which were also used to make tools, jewelry, and other objects since Neolithic times. Copper was the hardest of these metals, and the most widely distributed. It became one of the most important metals to the ancients. Eventually, humans learned to smelt metals such as copper and tin from ore, and, around 2500 BC, began alloying the two metals to form bronze, which is much harder than its ingredients. Tin was rare, however, being found mostly in Great Britain. In the Middle East, people began alloying copper with zinc to form brass. Ancient civilizations took into account the mixture and the various properties it produced, such as hardness, toughness and melting point, under various conditions of temperature and work hardening, developing much of the information contained in modern alloy phase diagrams. Arrowheads from the Chinese Qin dynasty (around 200 BC) were often constructed with a hard bronze-head, but a softer bronze-tang, combining the alloys to prevent both dulling and breaking during use.

Q1: Where is the only iron deposit on earth?
A1: Greenland
Q2: Around what time did bronze start being formed?
A2: 2500 BC
Q3: What does copper and zinc form to make?
A3: brass
Q4: Where is tin mostly found?
A4: Great Britain
Q5: Which metal important to the ancients is the hardest one?
A5: Copper
Mercury has been smelted from cinnabar for thousands of years. Mercury dissolves many metals, such as gold, silver, and tin, to form amalgams (an alloy in a soft paste, or liquid form at ambient temperature). Amalgams have been used since 200 BC in China for plating objects with precious metals, called gilding, such as armor and mirrors. The ancient Romans often used mercury-tin amalgams for gilding their armor. The amalgam was applied as a paste and then heated until the mercury vaporized, leaving the gold, silver, or tin behind. Mercury was often used in mining, to extract precious metals like gold and silver from their ores.

Q1: What does mercury make most metals do?
A1: dissolves
Q2: Since when have Amalgams been used?
A2: 200 BC
Q3: What did ancient Romans use to gild their armor?
A3: mercury-tin amalgams
Q4: Gold and silver were extracted from their ores by using?
A4: Mercury
Many ancient civilizations alloyed metals for purely aesthetic purposes. In ancient Egypt and Mycenae, gold was often alloyed with copper to produce red-gold, or iron to produce a bright burgundy-gold. Gold was often found alloyed with silver or other metals to produce various types of colored gold. These metals were also used to strengthen each other, for more practical purposes. Copper was often added to silver to make sterling silver, increasing its strength for use in dishes, silverware, and other practical items. Quite often, precious metals were alloyed with less valuable substances as a means to deceive buyers. Around 250 BC, Archimedes was commissioned by the king to find a way to check the purity of the gold in a crown, leading to the famous bath-house shouting of "Eureka!" upon the discovery of Archimedes' principle.

Q1: Ancient civilizations often alloyed metals for what reason?
A1: purely aesthetic purposes
Q2: Red gold is made by combining gold with?
A2: copper
Q3:  Around what time was the Archimedes' principle discovered?
A3: 250 BC
Q4: Who shouted "Eureka!" while checking the purity of a crown?
A4: Archimedes
Q5: Buyers were often deceived when precious metals were mixed with?
A5: less valuable substances
The term pewter covers a variety of alloys consisting primarily of tin. As a pure metal, tin was much too soft to be used for any practical purpose. However, in the Bronze age, tin was a rare metal and, in many parts of Europe and the Mediterranean, was often valued higher than gold. To make jewelry, forks and spoons, or other objects from tin, it was usually alloyed with other metals to increase its strength and hardness. These metals were typically lead, antimony, bismuth or copper. These solutes sometimes were added individually in varying amounts, or added together, making a wide variety of things, ranging from practical items, like dishes, surgical tools, candlesticks or funnels, to decorative items such as ear rings and hair clips.

Q1: Pewter is mostly made up of?
A1: tin
Q2: Why was tin was rarely used for everyday use?
A2: too soft
Q3: During the bronze age, which metal was valued higher than gold in Europe and the Mediterranean?
A3: tin
Q4: What was done to tin to make it stronger?
A4: alloyed with other metals
Q5: What metals were alloyed with tin to make it stronger?
A5: lead, antimony, bismuth or copper
The first known smelting of iron began in Anatolia, around 1800 BC. Called the bloomery process, it produced very soft but ductile wrought iron. By 800 BC, iron-making technology had spread to Europe, arriving in Japan around 700 AD. Pig iron, a very hard but brittle alloy of iron and carbon, was being produced in China as early as 1200 BC, but did not arrive in Europe until the Middle Ages. Pig iron has a lower melting point than iron, and was used for making cast-iron. However, these metals found little practical use until the introduction of crucible steel around 300 BC. These steels were of poor quality, and the introduction of pattern welding, around the 1st century AD, sought to balance the extreme properties of the alloys by laminating them, to create a tougher metal. Around 700 AD, the Japanese began folding bloomery-steel and cast-iron in alternating layers to increase the strength of their swords, using clay fluxes to remove slag and impurities. This method of Japanese swordsmithing produced one of the purest steel-alloys of the early Middle Ages.

Q1: Where did smelting of iron begin?
A1: Anatolia
Q2: When did the smelting of iron first begin?
A2: around 1800 BC
Q3: When did iron making technology begin in Japan?
A3: around 700 AD
Q4: Pig iron is composed of iron and what else?
A4: carbon
Q5: What makes Pig iron different from regular iron?
A5: lower melting point
While the use of iron started to become more widespread around 1200 BC, mainly because of interruptions in the trade routes for tin, the metal is much softer than bronze. However, very small amounts of steel, (an alloy of iron and around 1% carbon), was always a byproduct of the bloomery process. The ability to modify the hardness of steel by heat treatment had been known since 1100 BC, and the rare material was valued for the manufacture of tools and weapons. Because the ancients could not produce temperatures high enough to melt iron fully, the production of steel in decent quantities did not occur until the introduction of blister steel during the Middle Ages. This method introduced carbon by heating wrought iron in charcoal for long periods of time, but the penetration of carbon was not very deep, so the alloy was not homogeneous. In 1740, Benjamin Huntsman began melting blister steel in a crucible to even out the carbon content, creating the first process for the mass production of tool steel. Huntsman's process was used for manufacturing tool steel until the early 1900s.

Q1: Heat treatment of steel has been know since what time?
A1: 1100 BC
Q2: When did iron start to become melted by people?
A2: Middle Ages
Q3: Who created the first process for the mass production of tool steel?
A3: Benjamin Huntsman
Q4: When did Benjamin Huntsman begin to melt blister steel in a crucible
A4: 1740
With the introduction of the blast furnace to Europe in the Middle Ages, pig iron was able to be produced in much higher volumes than wrought iron. Because pig iron could be melted, people began to develop processes of reducing the carbon in the liquid pig iron to create steel. Puddling was introduced during the 1700s, where molten pig iron was stirred while exposed to the air, to remove the carbon by oxidation. In 1858, Sir Henry Bessemer developed a process of steel-making by blowing hot air through liquid pig iron to reduce the carbon content. The Bessemer process was able to produce the first large scale manufacture of steel. Once the Bessemer process began to gain widespread use, other alloys of steel began to follow. Mangalloy, an alloy of steel and manganese exhibiting extreme hardness and toughness, was one of the first alloy steels, and was created by Robert Hadfield in 1882.

Q1: What did the blast furnace help do to pig iron in the middle ages?
A1: produced in much higher volumes than wrought iron
Q2: By reducing carbon in liquid pig iron, what was created?
A2: steel
Q3: When did puddling start occurring?
A3: 1700s
Q4: When was the Bessemer process developed?
A4: 1858
Q5: Steel and manganese combines form to make what?
A5: Mangalloy
In 1906, precipitation hardening alloys were discovered by Alfred Wilm. Precipitation hardening alloys, such as certain alloys of aluminium, titanium, and copper, are heat-treatable alloys that soften when quenched (cooled quickly), and then harden over time. After quenching a ternary alloy of aluminium, copper, and magnesium, Wilm discovered that the alloy increased in hardness when left to age at room temperature. Although an explanation for the phenomenon was not provided until 1919, duralumin was one of the first "age hardening" alloys to be used, and was soon followed by many others. Because they often exhibit a combination of high strength and low weight, these alloys became widely used in many forms of industry, including the construction of modern aircraft.

Q1: Who discovered precipitation hardening alloys?
A1: Alfred Wilm
Q2: When were precipitation hardening alloys discovered?
A2: 1906
Q3: What happens to precipitation hardening alloys after they quenched?
A3: harden over time
Q4: One of the first "age hardening" alloys used were called?
A4: duralumin
Q5: What was used in the construction of modern aircraft?
A5: duralumin
Norfolk Island (i/ˈnɔːrfək ˈaɪlənd/; Norfuk: Norf'k Ailen) is a small island in the Pacific Ocean located between Australia, New Zealand and New Caledonia, 1,412 kilometres (877 mi) directly east of mainland Australia's Evans Head, and about 900 kilometres (560 mi) from Lord Howe Island. The island is part of the Commonwealth of Australia. Together with two neighbouring islands, it forms one of Australia's external territories. It has 1,796 inhabitants living on a total area of about 35 km2 (14 sq mi). Its capital is Kingston.

Q1: In what ocean is Norfolk Island found?
A1: Pacific Ocean
Q2: How far away is the nearest land mass to Norfolk Island?
A2: about 900 kilometres (560 mi)
Q3: What is the capital city of Norfolk Island?
A3: Kingston
Q4: How many people live on Norfolk Island?
A4: 1,796
Q5: How far away is Evans Head from Norfolk Island?
A5: 1,412 kilometres (877 mi)
Norfolk Island was colonised by East Polynesians but was long unpeopled when it was settled by Great Britain as part of its settlement of Australia from 1788. The island served as a convict penal settlement from 6 March 1788 until 5 May 1855, except for an 11-year hiatus between 15 February 1814 and 6 June 1825, when it lay abandoned. On 8 June 1856, permanent civilian residence on the island began when it was settled from Pitcairn Island. In 1913, the UK handed Norfolk over to Australia to administer as an external territory.

Q1: Who was Norfolk Island colonised by?
A1: East Polynesians
Q2: What purpose did Norfolk Island serve for the majority of the time from 1788 until 1855?
A2: a convict penal settlement
Q3: What date did civilians begin to permanently reside in Norfolk Island?
A3: 8 June 1856
Q4: Where did the first permanent civilians of Norfolk Island settle from in 1856?
A4: Pitcairn Island
Q5: In what year did the UK hand Norfolk Island over to Australia to administrate?
A5: 1913
Sir John Call argued the advantages of Norfolk Island in that it was uninhabited and that New Zealand flax grew there. In 1786 the British government included Norfolk Island as an auxiliary settlement, as proposed by John Call, in its plan for colonisation of New South Wales. The decision to settle Norfolk Island was taken due to Empress Catherine II of Russia's decision to restrict sales of hemp. Practically all the hemp and flax required by the Royal Navy for cordage and sailcloth was imported from Russia.

Q1: In what year did the British government include Norfolk Island as a auxiliary settlement?
A1: 1786
Q2: Who proposed the idea to include Norfolk Island as a British auxiliary settlement in 1786?
A2: John Call
Q3: In including Norfolk Island as an auxiliary settlement, what Australian state did the British government plan to colonise?
A3: New South Wales
Q4: What woman influenced the decision by the British to settle Norfolk Island?
A4: Empress Catherine II of Russia
Q5: Where was the majority of the hemp and flax used by the Royal Navy imported from?
A5: Russia