romikgosai/squad_modified_2 huggingface dataset:
The tourism industry began in the early 19th century when foreigners visited the Alps, traveled to the bases of the mountains to enjoy the scenery, and stayed at the spa-resorts. Large hotels were built during the Belle Époque; cog-railways, built early in the 20th century, brought tourists to ever higher elevations, with the Jungfraubahn terminating at the Jungfraujoch, well above the eternal snow-line, after going through a tunnel in Eiger. During this period winter sports were slowly introduced: in 1882 the first figure skating championship was held in St. Moritz, and downhill skiing became a popular sport with English visitors early in the 20th century, as the first ski-lift was installed in 1908 above Grindelwald.

Q1: When did the tourism industry begin?
A1: the early 19th century
Q2: When were large hotels built in the Alps?
A2: during the Belle Époque
Q3: When were cog-railways built in the Alps?
A3: early in the 20th century
Q4: When was the first figure skating championship held?
A4: 1882
Q5: Where was the first figure skating championship held?
A5: St. Moritz
In the first half of the 20th century the Olympic Winter Games were held three times in Alpine venues: the 1924 Winter Olympics in Chamonix, France; the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz, Switzerland; and the 1936 Winter Olympics in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany. During World War II the winter games were canceled but after that time the Winter Games have been held in St. Moritz (1948), Cortina d'Ampezzo (1956), Innsbruck, Austria (1964 and 1976), Grenoble, France, (1968), Albertville, France, (1992), and Torino (2006). In 1930 the Lauberhorn Rennen (Lauberhorn Race), was run for the first time on the Lauberhorn above Wengen; the equally demanding Hahnenkamm was first run in the same year in Kitzbühl, Austria. Both races continue to be held each January on successive weekends. The Lauberhorn is the more strenuous downhill race at 4.5 km (2.8 mi) and poses danger to racers who reach 130 km/h (81 mph) within seconds of leaving the start gate.

Q1: Where were the Winter Olympics held in 1924?
A1: Chamonix, France
Q2: Where were the Winter Olympics held in 1928?
A2: St. Moritz, Switzerland
Q3: Where were the Winter Olympics held in 1936?
A3: Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany
Q4: When was the Lauberhorn Rennen ran for the first time on the Lauberhorn above Wengen?
A4: 1930
Q5: When were the Winter Olympics held in Albertville, France?
A5: (1992)
During the post-World War I period ski-lifts were built in Swiss and Austrian towns to accommodate winter visitors, but summer tourism continued to be important; by the mid-20th century the popularity of downhill skiing increased greatly as it became more accessible and in the 1970s several new villages were built in France devoted almost exclusively to skiing, such as Les Menuires. Until this point Austria and Switzerland had been the traditional and more popular destinations for winter sports, but by the end of the 20th century and into the early 21st century, France, Italy and the Tyrol began to see increases in winter visitors. From 1980 to the present, ski-lifts have been modernized and snow-making machines installed at many resorts, leading to concerns regarding the loss of traditional Alpine culture and questions regarding sustainable development as the winter ski industry continues to develop quickly and the number of summer tourists decline.

Q1: When were ski-lifts built in Swiss and Austrian towns?
A1: post-World War I
Q2: When were several new villages built in France almost exclusively for skiing?
A2: the 1970s
Q3: Where is Les Menuires located?
A3: France
The region is serviced by 4,200 km (2,600 mi) of roads used by 6 million vehicles. Train travel is well established in the Alps, with, for instance 120 km (75 mi) of track for every 1,000 km2 (390 sq mi) in a country such as Switzerland. Most of Europe's highest railways are located there. Moreover, plans are underway to build a 57 km (35 mi)-long sub-alpine tunnel connecting the older Lötschberg and Gotthard tunnels built in the 19th century.

Q1: How much area is devoted to roads in the Alpine region?
A1: 4,200 km (2,600 mi)
Q2: How many vehicles use the roads?
A2: 6 million
Q3: Where are most of Europe's highest railways located?
A3: Switzerland
Q4: How long is the tunnel connecting Lotschberg and Gotthard planned to be?
A4: 57 km
Some high mountain villages, such as Avoriaz (in France), Wengen, and Zermatt (in Switzerland) are accessible only by cable car or cog-rail trains, and are car free. Other villages in the Alps are considering becoming car free zones or limiting the number of cars for reasons of sustainability of the fragile Alpine terrain.

Q1: Where is the village of Avoriaz located?
A1: France
Q2: Where are the villages of Wengen and Zermatt located?
A2: Switzerland
Q3: Why are villages considering becoming car free zones?
A3: reasons of sustainability
The lower regions and larger towns of the Alps are well-served by motorways and main roads, but higher mountain passes and byroads, which are amongst the highest in Europe, can be treacherous even in summer due to steep slopes. Many passes are closed in winter. A multitude of airports around the Alps (and some within), as well as long-distance rail links from all neighbouring countries, afford large numbers of travellers easy access from abroad.

Q1: When are many passes in the Alps closed?
A1: winter
Q2: The lower regions and larger towns of the Alps are well-served by what?
A2: motorways
Q3: What can be treacherous even in summer due to steep slopes?
A3: mountain passes
A gene is a locus (or region) of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein product, and is the molecular unit of heredity.:Glossary The transmission of genes to an organism's offspring is the basis of the inheritance of phenotypic traits. Most biological traits are under the influence of polygenes (many different genes) as well as the gene–environment interactions. Some genetic traits are instantly visible, such as eye colour or number of limbs, and some are not, such as blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life.

Q1: What is a gene?
A1: a locus (or region) of DNA that encodes a functional RNA or protein product
Q2: What is the basis of inheritance of phenotypic traits?
A2: The transmission of genes to an organism's offspring
Q3: What influence are most biological traits under?
A3: polygenes (many different genes)
Q4: What is one instantly visible genetic trait?
A4: eye colour or number of limbs
Q5: What is one invisible genetic trait?
A5: blood type, risk for specific diseases, or the thousands of basic biochemical processes that comprise life
Genes can acquire mutations in their sequence, leading to different variants, known as alleles, in the population. These alleles encode slightly different versions of a protein, which cause different phenotype traits. Colloquial usage of the term "having a gene" (e.g., "good genes," "hair colour gene") typically refers to having a different allele of the gene. Genes evolve due to natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles.

Q1: What do mutations in a gene sequence lead to?
A1: different variants, known as alleles
Q2: What do alleles do?
A2: encode slightly different versions of a protein
Q3: What do alleles cause?
A3: different phenotype traits
Q4: What does "having a gene" or a "good gene" typically refer to?
A4: having a different allele of the gene
Q5: What causes genes to evolve?
A5: natural selection or survival of the fittest of the alleles
The concept of a gene continues to be refined as new phenomena are discovered. For example, regulatory regions of a gene can be far removed from its coding regions, and coding regions can be split into several exons. Some viruses store their genome in RNA instead of DNA and some gene products are functional non-coding RNAs. Therefore, a broad, modern working definition of a gene is any discrete locus of heritable, genomic sequence which affect an organism's traits by being expressed as a functional product or by regulation of gene expression.

Q1: What can regulatory regions of a gene be far removed from?
A1: its coding regions
Q2: What can coding regions be split into?
A2: several exons
Q3: What do some viruses store their genome in instead of DNA?
A3: RNA
Q4: What are some gene products?
A4: functional non-coding RNAs
Q5: What is a broad, modern working definition of a gene?
A5: any discrete locus of heritable, genomic sequence which affect an organism's traits by being expressed as a functional product
The existence of discrete inheritable units was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822–1884). From 1857 to 1864, he studied inheritance patterns in 8000 common edible pea plants, tracking distinct traits from parent to offspring. He described these mathematically as 2n combinations where n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas. Although he did not use the term gene, he explained his results in terms of discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics. This description prefigured the distinction between genotype (the genetic material of an organism) and phenotype (the visible traits of that organism). Mendel was also the first to demonstrate independent assortment, the distinction between dominant and recessive traits, the distinction between a heterozygote and homozygote, and the phenomenon of discontinuous inheritance.

Q1: Who first suggested the existence of discrete inheritable units?
A1: Gregor Mendel (1822–1884)
Q2: If a distinct trait in edible pea plants is mathematically described as a 2n combination, what does n represent?
A2: n is the number of differing characteristics in the original peas
Q3: What is one thing that Gregor Mendel was the first to demonstrate?
A3: independent assortment
Q4: What is another thing that Gregor Mendel was the first to demonstrate?
A4: the distinction between dominant and recessive traits
Q5: What did Gregor Mendel explain his results in terms of?
A5: discrete inherited units that give rise to observable physical characteristics
Prior to Mendel's work, the dominant theory of heredity was one of blending inheritance, which suggested that each parent contributed fluids to the fertilisation process and that the traits of the parents blended and mixed to produce the offspring. Charles Darwin developed a theory of inheritance he termed pangenesis, which used the term gemmule to describe hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction. Although Mendel's work was largely unrecognized after its first publication in 1866, it was 'rediscovered' in 1900 by three European scientists, Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak, who claimed to have reached similar conclusions in their own research.

Q1: What was the dominant theory of heredity prior to Mendel's work?
A1: one of blending inheritance
Q2: Who developed the theory of inheritance known as pangenesis?
A2: Charles Darwin
Q3: What does the term gemmule describe?
A3: hypothetical particles that would mix during reproduction
Q4: What year was Mendel's work first published?
A4: 1866
Q5: Who are the three scientists that claimed to have reached conclusions similar to Mendel's?
A5: Hugo de Vries, Carl Correns, and Erich von Tschermak
The word gene is derived (via pangene) from the Ancient Greek word γένος (génos) meaning "race, offspring". Gene was coined in 1909 by Danish botanist Wilhelm Johannsen to describe the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity, while the related word genetics was first used by William Bateson in 1905.

Q1: What ancient Greek word is the word 'gene' derived from?
A1: γένος (génos)
Q2: What does the ancient Greek word 'génos' mean?
A2: "race, offspring"
Q3: What Danish botanist coined the word 'gene'?
A3: Wilhelm Johannsen
Q4: What was the word 'gene' used to describe in 1909?
A4: the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity
Q5: Who first used the word 'genetics' in 1905?
A5: William Bateson
Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s. The structure of DNA was studied by Rosalind Franklin using X-ray crystallography, which led James D. Watson and Francis Crick to publish a model of the double-stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication. Collectively, this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA, which is transcribed from DNA. This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses. The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics.

Q1: What was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s?
A1: Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Q2: Who studied the structure of DNA using x-ray crystallography?
A2: Rosalind Franklin
Q3: What two scientists published a model of the double stranded DNA molecule?
A3: James D. Watson and Francis Crick
Q4: What is one exception to the central dogma of molecular biology?
A4: reverse transcription in retroviruses
Q5: What is the modern study of genetics at the level of DNA known as?
A5: molecular genetics
In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. The subsequent development of chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool. An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project.

Q1: When was the first sequence of a gene determined?
A1: In 1972
Q2: What was the first gene to be sequenced?
A2: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein
Q3: Who developed chain termination DNA sequencing in 1977?
A3: Frederick Sanger
Q4: What did the devlopment of the chain termination DNA sequencing method do for the sequencing process?
A4: improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool.
Q5: What project used an automated version of the Sanger method in its early stages?
A5: the Human Genome Project
The theories developed in the 1930s and 1940s to integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern evolutionary synthesis, a term introduced by Julian Huxley. Evolutionary biologists subsequently refined this concept, such as George C. Williams' gene-centric view of evolution. He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency.":24 In this view, the molecular gene transcribes as a unit, and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit. Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution were popularized by Richard Dawkins.

Q1: In what time span were the theories to integrate molecular genetic with Darwinian evolution developed?
A1: the 1930s and 1940s
Q2: What are the theories that integrate molecular genetics with Darwinian evolution called?
A2: the modern evolutionary synthesis
Q3: Who proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection?
A3: George C. Williams
Q4: What is the definition of the concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection?
A4: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency."
Q5: Who popularized ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution?
A5: Richard Dawkins
The vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits, each composed of: a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and one of the four bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine.:2.1

Q1: What do the vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in?
A1: long strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
Q2: What does DNA consist of?
A2: a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits
Q3: What type of sugar composes part of the DNA molecule?
A3: a five-carbon sugar (2'-deoxyribose)
Q4: What are the four bases used in nucleotide subunits?
A4: adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine
Q5: Besides the sugar and the four bases, what else does DNA consist of?
A5: a phosphate group
Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate-sugar backbone spiralling around the outside, and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine. The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds. The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary, with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand, and so on.:4.1

Q1: What is the backbone of a DNA double helix made of?
A1: phosphate-sugar
Q2: What base pairs with thymine?
A2: adenine
Q3: What base does guanine pair with?
A3: cytosine
Q4: What causes the specificity of base pairing?
A4: adenine and thymine align form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds
Q5: Due to the cause of the specificity of base pairing, what must be true of the two strands in a double helix?
A5: The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary
Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases, DNA strands have directionality. One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose; this is known as the 3' end of the molecule. The other end contains an exposed phosphate group; this is the 5' end. The two strands of a double-helix run in opposite directions. Nucleic acid synthesis, including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5'→3' direction, because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile.:27.2

Q1: What causes the directionality of DNA strands?
A1: the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases
Q2: What is known as the 3' end?
A2: an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose
Q3: What is known as the 5' end?
A3: an exposed phosphate group
Q4: What type of synthesis occurs in the 5'→3' direction?
A4: Nucleic acid synthesis
Q5: Why does DNA replication and transcription occur in the 5'→3' direction?
A5: because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3' hydroxyl as a nucleophile
The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins by transcribing the gene into RNA, a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA, but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose. RNA also contains the base uracil in place of thymine. RNA molecules are less stable than DNA and are typically single-stranded. Genes that encode proteins are composed of a series of three-nucleotide sequences called codons, which serve as the "words" in the genetic "language". The genetic code specifies the correspondence during protein translation between codons and amino acids. The genetic code is nearly the same for all known organisms.:4.1

Q1: How does the expression of genes encoded in DNA begin?
A1: by transcribing the gene into RNA
Q2: What is RNA?
A2: a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA
Q3: What base does RNA have in place of thymine?
A3: the base uracil
Q4: What are codons?
A4: a series of three-nucleotide sequences
Q5: What specifies the correspondence between codons and amino acids during protein translation?
A5: The genetic code
The total complement of genes in an organism or cell is known as its genome, which may be stored on one or more chromosomes. A chromosome consists of a single, very long DNA helix on which thousands of genes are encoded.:4.2 The region of the chromosome at which a particular gene is located is called its locus. Each locus contains one allele of a gene; however, members of a population may have different alleles at the locus, each with a slightly different gene sequence.

Q1: What is the total complement of genes in an organism or cell known as?
A1: its genome
Q2: What does a chromosome consist of?
A2: a single, very long DNA helix
Q3: What is encoded on a chromosome?
A3: thousands of genes
Q4: What is the region of the chromosome at which a particular gene is located called?
A4: its locus
Q5: What does each locus contain?
A5: one allele of a gene
The majority of eukaryotic genes are stored on a set of large, linear chromosomes. The chromosomes are packed within the nucleus in complex with storage proteins called histones to form a unit called a nucleosome. DNA packaged and condensed in this way is called chromatin.:4.2 The manner in which DNA is stored on the histones, as well as chemical modifications of the histone itself, regulate whether a particular region of DNA is accessible for gene expression. In addition to genes, eukaryotic chromosomes contain sequences involved in ensuring that the DNA is copied without degradation of end regions and sorted into daughter cells during cell division: replication origins, telomeres and the centromere.:4.2 Replication origins are the sequence regions where DNA replication is initiated to make two copies of the chromosome. Telomeres are long stretches of repetitive sequence that cap the ends of the linear chromosomes and prevent degradation of coding and regulatory regions during DNA replication. The length of the telomeres decreases each time the genome is replicated and has been implicated in the aging process. The centromere is required for binding spindle fibres to separate sister chromatids into daughter cells during cell division.:18.2

Q1: Where are the majority of eukaryotic genes stored?
A1: on a set of large, linear chromosomes
Q2: Chromosomes that are packed within the nucleus in complex with histones are called what?
A2: a nucleosome
Q3: What does the manner of DNA storage on the histone and the chemical modifications of the histone itself regulate?
A3: whether a particular region of DNA is accessible for gene expression
Q4: What are replication origins?
A4: regions where DNA replication is initiated to make two copies of the chromosome
Q5: Long stretches of repetitive sequence that cap the ends of the linear chromosomes are called what?
A5: Telomeres
Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) typically store their genomes on a single large, circular chromosome. Similarly, some eukaryotic organelles contain a remnant circular chromosome with a small number of genes.:14.4 Prokaryotes sometimes supplement their chromosome with additional small circles of DNA called plasmids, which usually encode only a few genes and are transferable between individuals. For example, the genes for antibiotic resistance are usually encoded on bacterial plasmids and can be passed between individual cells, even those of different species, via horizontal gene transfer.

Q1: What are prokaryotes?
A1: bacteria and archaea
Q2: How do prokaryotes store their genomes?
A2: on a single large, circular chromosome
Q3: What type of chromosome do some eukaryotic organelles contain?
A3: a remnant circular chromosome with a small number of genes
Q4: Small circles of DNA that encode only a few genes and are transferable between individuals are called what?
A4: plasmids
Q5: What allows genes for antibiotic resistance to be passed between individual cells?
A5: horizontal gene transfer